User:Hzb pangus/sandbox

Spelling patterns

See also: Help:IPA for English

Spelling-to-sound correspondences

Vowels

General American Letter Lax Tense Heavy Tense-R a /æ/ man mán /ɑ/ mar /ɛ/ már e /ɛ/ met /i/ mét /ɜ/ her /ɪ/ hér i /ɪ/ win wín /ɜ/ fir fír o /ɑ/ mop móp /ɔ/ for, fór u /ʌ/ hug /ju/ húj /ɜ/ kur /jʊ/ kúr u /ʊ/ pûx /u/ rúd /ʊ/ sûr, xúr

Combinations of vowel letters

Spelling		Major value (IPA)	Examples of major value	Minor values (IPA)	Examples of minor value	Exceptions
a	before multiple consonants final vowel in word followed by 2 or more unstressed syllables next syllable contains /ɨ/	/æ/	hacet, baner, mare akrobat, kat nasional, kamera, realite arid, granit, palas	/eɪ/	ák, bás, cámber násionhûd	/i/ karaóke /ɑː/ fâðer /ɒ/ yot
	before -nge, -ste before single consonant before cons + (-le or r+vowel) before heterosyllabic vowel	/eɪ/	aránj, wást grás, fámos, víolát tábl, hátred, Ápril káos, áorta	/ɛ/ /æ/ /ɨ/	mene, ene manor, hav cokolat, oranj	/ɑː/ gâla, sonâta
	before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms)	/ɑː/	bar, kart bard, maring			/ɛə/ skárs
	before r + vowel	/ɛə/	unkáring, wáre, vários, glár	/æ/	Paris	/ɑː/ ar
	word-final	/ə/	lemma, banana			/i/ bolóne
	in word-final -ary	/ɛ/	ordinere, nesesere
	after /w/ except before /k/, /ɡ/, /ŋ/	/ɒ/	woc, worior, kwontite	/æ/	kwango
	after /w/ before final r or r + cons.	/ɔː/	worning, dworf, wor
	unstressed	/ə/	anuðer, about, wûman	Ø	artistikalle
	unstressed, in -age	/ɨ/	damaj, bondaj
aa, ah		/ɑː/	bâ, blâ			/eɪ/ kwálúd
ae (æ)	usually	/iː/	ensíklópédia, pédiatrisian	/ɛ/	esþetik	/eɪ/ regai /aɪ/ meistro
	before r	/ɛə/	árial, ároplán
ai, ay	stressed	/eɪ/	bait, kókain, dai	/ɛ/ /aɪ/	sed, agen, sez samûrei, keiak, ei	/æ/ plad /iː/ ke
	before r	/ɛə/	kairn, milionair, daire
	unstressed	/ɨ/	bargan, mountan	/ə/	Britan
ao		/eɪ/	jail	/aʊ/	Touizm	/oʊ/ fáro
au, aw		/ɔː/	taut, auþor, laun,	/ɒ/ /ɑː/	sosaj, bekoz, lorel ânt, drâft, lâf	/eɪ/ gáj /oʊ/ móv
e	before single consonant before cons + (-le or r+vowel) final, only vowel in word final, Greek loans before heterosyllabic vowel	/iː/	reséding, détail, jén métr, sékret be, xe simile, katastrofe néon	/eɪ/ /ɛ/ Ø	úkulále, kafai, cráp metal, lemon, heron lívlehûd, fátfûl
	before multiple consonants final vowel in word followed by 2 or more unstressed syllables next syllable contains /ɪ/	/ɛ/	beter, fec, mere get, wauterxed legase, elegant, delikat krevis, perix, epiknes	/iː/	léþal akséz (plural of aksis) légalle évil	/ɪ/ prite
	before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms)	/ɜː/	herd, kerb, referal	/ɑː/	klark, sarjant
	before r + vowel	/ɪə/	sérios, séréz, hér	/ɛə/ /ɛ/	ðárfór, wárwûlf vere	/ɜː/ wer
	word-final	Ø	mát, disiplin, starv plág	/iː/	recipe
	unstressed	/ɨ/	hacet, target, póet	/ə/	táken, désense, móment
	usd, before heterosyllabic vowel	/i/	creáte, área, áþéist, hideos
ea	usually	/iː/	béc, éting, pléz	/ɛ/	bred, helþe, klenz	/eɪ/ braik, grait, staik
	before r + cons.	/ɜː/	erþ, lern, erle	/ɑː/	harte, harþ	/ɪə/ bérd
	before final r or r + vowel (and in derived terms)	/ɪə/	klér, héring, yérle	/ɛə/	bair, pair, swair
eau		/oʊ/	búro, plato, tablo	/juː/	beute	/ɒ/ búrokrase
ee	usually	/iː/	bee, feed			/eɪ/ matinai, fionsai
	before r	/ɪə/	ceering, beer, eere
ei, ey	usually	/eɪ/	vail, rain, óbai	/iː/ /aɪ/	séz, ke, gézer heit, heist, gneis	/ɛ/ hefer, lezúr /aɪ/ ei
	after c	/iː/	desév, séling, konsét
	before r	/ɛə/	air, ðair	/ɪə/	wérd, wér, ére
	unstressed	/ɨ/	foren, kounterfet
	unstressed, word-final	/i/	munke, kurtse, jerze
eo		/ɛ/	lepard, jeparde	/iː/	pépl	/oʊ/ yóman /ɪə/ leotard
eu(e), ew(e), ieu, iew	usually	/juː/	feudal, keu, deu, eu, leu, veu			/oʊ/ so, sho /ɛf/ leftenant
	after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/	/uː/	reumatizm, jeuel, bleu
	before r	/jʊə/	amateur, neural, Neure
	both of the above	/ʊə/	Jeure, pleurise
i	before single consonant before cons + (-le or r+vowel) before -nd, -ld, -gh, -gn word-final before heterosyllabic vowel	/aɪ/	xín, síted, gíd títl, ídl, víbrant wíld, kínd, síd, ensín alumni, alibi, rádii víal, kwíet, príor, píos	/ɪ/	pivot, giv, enjin wind (one meaning)	/iː/ maxén, ske
	before multiple consonants final vowel in word followed by 2 or more unstressed syllables next syllable contains /ɪ/ before cons. + e/i + vowel	/ɪ/	hic, fidl, miror bit sinema, liberte, militere finix, spirit, minut hideos, pozision, Sirius	/aɪ/	pínt, nínþ sílentle hwítix	/æ/ merang /iːɪ/ ske(ing)
	before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms)	/ɜː/	bird, fir, stirer			/ɪə/ menhér
	before r + vowel	/aɪə/	hír, fíring, enkwíre
	unstressed	/ɨ/	livid, tipikal	/ə/	pensil, cuzin	Ø bizenes
	usd, before heterosyllabic vowel	/i/	familiar, álien, rádii, idiot
ie	finally	/aɪ/	di, ti
	medially	/iː/	féld, séréz, séj	/aɪ/	flíz, tríz	/ɪ/ siv /ɛ/ frend
	before r	/ɪə/	pér, férce, bulkéer
o	before multiple consonants final vowel in word followed by 2 or more unstressed syllables next syllable contains /ɪ/	/ɒ/ or /ɑː/	dot, doktor, torent opera, koloníz, kóoperát topik, solid, promis	/ʌ/ /oʊ/ /uː/	wun, munke, frunt grós, kóm, brókenle toom, woom	/ʊ/ wûlf
	before single consonant before cons + (-le or r+vowel) word-final before heterosyllabic vowel (inc. unstressed)	/oʊ/	ómen, gróv, tótal nóbl, kóbra banjo, go bóa, póet, stóik kóoperát	/ɒ/ /uː/ /ʌ/ /ə/	moral, proper, xon too, hwoo, moov, looz kum, luv, dun purpos, Europ	/ʊ/ wûman /ɪ/ wimen
	before r	/ɔə/	ford, bóring, mór	/ɔ/	for, morning
	after w, before r	/ɜː/	wurd, wurk, wurst			/ɔə/ worn
	unstressed	/ə/	elokwent, wonton, auþor
oa	usually	/oʊ/	bót, kól, lód			/ɔː/ braud
	before r	/ɔə/	bór, kórs
oe (œ)	usually	/iː/	améba, sélakanþ, féniks
	finally	/oʊ/	to, fo	/uː/	xoo, kanoo	/ʌ/ duz
	unstressed	/ɪ/	edéma
oeu		/uː/	maneuvr
oi, oy	usually	/ɔɪ/	koin, boi
	before r	/wɑː/	rezervwar, memwar, repertwar	/ɔɪə/	loir	/waɪə/ kweir
oo	usually	/uː/	hoop, booz	/ʊ/	wûl, fût, sût	/oʊ/ bróc
	before k, d	/ʊ/	lûk, wûd	/uː/	food, brood, spook	/ʌ/ blud, flud
	before r	/ɔə/	dor, mooring	/ʊə/	poor
ou	stressed	/aʊ/	out, aloud, bou	/uː/ /ʌ/ /oʊ/	soop, yoo, þroo tuc, trubl, kuntre sól, do, bólder	/ʊ/ koorier, xûd /ɒ/ kof
	before r	/ɔː/	toorist, kontoor, pór	/aʊə/ /ɜː/	our, our, devour jurne, kurteos, skurj	/ʊ/ koorier /ʌ/ kuraj
	unstressed	/ə/	kamoflâzj, lábor, nervos
ow	stressed	/aʊ/	kou, sou, alou	/oʊ/	kno, xo	/ɒ/ aknolej
	before r	/aʊə/	doure
	unstressed	/oʊ/	yelo, rainbo, naro
u	before multiple consonants final vowel in word	/ʌ/	buter, dump, kurent	/ʊ/	pût, fûl, pûding
	before single consonant before cons + (-le or r+vowel) before heterosyllabic vowel (inc. unstressed) word-final	/juː/	lúminos, mút, túba búgl, rúbrik dúel, fatúos, drúid, Janúare	/ʊ/	xûgar	/ɪ/ bize
	above after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/	/uː/	rúl, xút, Jún, flu trúant, flúent, menstruát
	before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms)	/ɜː/	kurdl, bur, fure
	before r + vowel	/jʊə/	lure, púrite, kúring	/jə/	failúr	/ɛ/ bere
	above after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/	/ʊə/	rúral, júre, plúral
	after g, before e, i	Ø	ges, disgíz, tung	/juː/ /w/	argu, águ linguistiks, seguai
	unstressed	/ə/	supli			/ɨ/ minut, letus
ue, ui	usually	/juː/	ku, hu, núsans			/weɪ/ swád /wiː/ swét /ɪ/ bild, biskit
	above after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/	/uː/	blu, tisu, frút, jús
uy		/aɪ/	buy, guyed
y	before multiple consonants followed by 2 or more unstressed syllables next syllable contains /ɪ/	/ɪ/	myth, cryptic cylinder, typical, pyramid cynic	/aɪ/	hyphen, psyche cyclically
	before single consonant before cons + (-le or r+vowel) word-final, stressed	/aɪ/	typing, style, paralyze cycle, cypress sky, supply, bye
	before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms)	/ɜː/	myrtle, myrrh
	before r + vowel	/aɪə/	lyre, tyrant, gyrate
	unstressed	/ə/	sibyl, martyr
	unstressed, word-final	/i/	city, happy

Consonants

See also: Digraph (orthography)

Notes:

• In the tables, the hyphen has two different meanings. A hyphen after the letter indicates that it must be at the beginning of a syllable, e.g. j- in jumper and ajar. A hyphen before the letter indicates that it cannot be at the beginning of a word, e.g. -ck in sick and ticket.
• More specific rules take precedence over more general ones, e.g. "c- before e, i or y" takes precedence over "c".
• Where the letter combination is described as "word-final", inflectional suffixes may be added without changing the pronunciation, e.g. catalogues.
• The dialect used is RP.
• Isolated foreign borrowings are excluded.

Spelling		Major value (IPA)	Examples of major value	Other values	Examples of other values
b, bb	usually	/b/	bit, rabbit, obtain	Ø	bdellium, debtor, subtle
	finally after m (and in derived terms)	Ø	climb, comb, numbing
c	before e, i, y, ae, or oe	/s/	cellar, city, cyst, face, prince, nicer caesium, coelacanth	/tʃ/ /ʃ/ /k/ /ts/	cello, vermicelli special, liquorice Celts, chicer letovicite
	initially before n, t	Ø	cnidarian, ctenoid
	elsewhere	/k/	cat, cross	Ø	victual, indict
cc	before e, i or y	/ks/	accept, eccentric, occidental	/k/ /tʃ/ /s/	soccer, recce, siccing bocce, breccia, cappuccino flaccid
	elsewhere	/k/	account, accrue, occur, yucca
ch	usually	/tʃ/	chase, chin, attached, chore	/k/ /h/ Ø	ached chutzpah yacht
	Greek-derived words	/k/	chasm, chimera, chord
	French-derived words	/ʃ/	chaise, machine, cached, parachute
ck		/k/	tack, ticket
d, dd, dh		/d/	dive, ladder, jodhpurs	/dʒ/ Ø	graduate, gradual (both also /dj/ in RP) Wednesday, handsome
-dg- before e, i, or y		/dʒ/	lodger, pidgin, edgy
f, -ff		/f/	fine, off	/v/	of
g	before e, i, y, ae, or oe	/dʒ/	gentle, magic, gyrate, page, algae (GA)	/ɡ/ /ʒ/	get, eager, algae (RP) collage, gigue
	in -gm, gn- or -gn	Ø	diaphragm, gnome, signing, reign	/ɡ/	signify, repugnant
	elsewhere	/ɡ/	go, great, guest	/dʒ/	margarine
gg		/ɡ/	stagger, flagging	/dʒ/	suggest, exaggerate
gh	initially	/ɡ/	ghost, ghastly
	elsewhere	Ø	dough, high, right, daughter	/f/ /x/ or /k/ /ɡ/, /k/, or /x/ /p/	laugh, enough lough ugh! hiccough
h	usually	/h/	he, alcohol	Ø	vehicle, honest, hono(u)r, piranha
	after ex	Ø	exhibit, exhaust	/h/	exhale
j-		/dʒ/	jump, ajar	/j/ /ʒ/ /h/ Ø	Hallelujah Jean jalapeno, fajita Marijuana
k, -kk, kh	usually	/k/	key, bake, trekking, sheikh
	initially before n	Ø	knee, knock
l, ll		/l/	line, valve, valley	Ø /j/	halve, balk, salmon, tortilla ?
m, mm	usually	/m/	mine, hammer
	initially before n	Ø	mnemonic
n, nn	usually	/n/	nice, funny
	before /k/ or /ɡ/	/ŋ/	link, bangle, anchor
	finally after m (and in derived terms)	Ø	hymn, autumn
ng	finally and in terms derived from ng-final words	/ŋ/	long, kingly, singer, clingy
	medially otherwise	/ŋɡ/ /ndʒ/	anger, finger danger, ginger, dingy
p, pp	usually	/p/	pill, happy, soup, corpse, script	Ø	coup, receipt
	initially before n, s, t	Ø	pneumonia, psyche, ptomaine	/p/	psst
ph, pph		/f/	photograph, sapphire	/v/	Stephen
q (not before u)		/k/	Iraq, Iqaluit
r, rr, rh, rrh	usually	/r/	ray, parrot, rhyme, diarrhoea	Ø	iron
	before consonant finally before final e	Ø in non-rhotic dialects such as RP	cart, burr, fir, care, walker, tear, hurt
See below for combinations of vowel letters and the letter r
s, ss	usually	/s/	song, ask, message, misled	/z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ Ø	scissors, dessert, dissolve, Islam sugar, tissue, aggression vision islet, aisle, debris
	-s- between vowel sounds (see also "se" below)	/z/	rose, prison	/s/	basis
	word-final -s morpheme after a voiceless sound	/s/	pets, shops
	word-final -s morpheme after a lenis sound	/z/	beds, magazines
sc- before e, i or y		/s/	scene, scepter, scissors, scythe	/sk/ /ʃ/	sceptic, scirrhus fascism
sch-		/sk/	school, scheme, schizo	/ʃ/ /s/	schedule (in RP, otherwise: /sk/), schist schism (in RP, otherwise: /sk/)
sh		/ʃ/	shin, fashion
t, -tt	usually	/t/	ten, bitter, cation, chaste, wallet	/ʃ/ /tʃ/ /d/ Ø	ratio, Martian question, bastion kindergarten castle, chasten, ballet
	in unstressed -sten, -stle, -ften	Ø	listen, rustle, soften	/t/	tungsten, existent
-tch		/tʃ/	batch, kitchen
th		/θ/ /ð/	thin, both, the, bothers	/t/ /tθ/ /th/ Ø	thyme eighth outhouse, potherb asthma
v, -vv		/v/	vine, savvy
w		/w/	sward, swerve, wale	Ø /uː/ /v/	two, sword, answer, gunwale cwm Weltanschauung
wh-	usually	/w/ or /hw/ in Hiberno-Eng. and Southern Am. Eng.	wheel
	before o	/h/ or /hw/ in Hiberno-Eng. and Southern Am. Eng.	who, whole	/w/	whopping, whorl
wr-		/r/ or /wr/ in Scottish Eng.	wrong, wrist
x	initially	/z/	xylophone
	elsewhere	/ks/	extent, excuse, axe	/ɡz/ /ɡʒ/ /kʃ/ Ø	exit (in some pronunciations) luxury (in some pronunciations) anxious faux-pas
-xc before e or i		/ks/	excellent, excited
y-		/j/	yes, young
z, -zz		/z/	zoo, pizzazz	/ts/ Ø	schizophrenic, pizza rendezvous

Spelling	Major value (IPA)	Examples of major value	Minor values (IPA)	Examples of minor value	Exceptions
ayer, ayor	/ɛə(r)/	layer, mayor
ower	/aʊər/	dowry, tower, flowery

Combinations of other consonant and vowel letters

Spelling	Major value (IPA)	Examples of major value	Minor values (IPA)	Examples of minor value	Exceptions
ah	/ɑː/	blah
al	/æl/	pal, talcum, algae, alp	/ɔːl/	bald, falcon
alf	/ɑːf/ (RP) /æf/ (GA)	calf, half	/æl/	alfalfa, malfeasance	/ɔlf/ palfrey
alk	/ɔːk/	walk, chalking, talkative	/ælk/	alkaline, grimalkin	/ɔlk/ balkanise
all	/ɔːl/ /æl/	call, fallout, smaller shall, callus, fallow	/ɒl/ /(ə)l/	wallet, swallow allow, dialled	/ɛl/ (GA) marshmallow, pall-mall
alm	/ɑːm/ (all three examples have alt. pronunc.)	calm (also: /ɑːlm/), almond (also: /ælm/), palmistry (also: /ɑːlm/)	/ælm/ /ɔːlm/	dalmatian, salmonella almanac (also: /ælm/), almost	/æm/ salmon /(ə)lm/ signalman
alt	/ɒlt/ (RP) /ɔːlt/ (GA)	alter, malt, salty, basalt	/ælt/ /ɔːlt/	alto, shalt, saltation altar, asphalt	/ɑlt/ gestalt (GA) /(ə)lt/ royalty, penalty
aoh, oh	/oʊ/	pharaoh, oh
unstressed ci- before a vowel	/ʃ/	special, gracious	/si/	species
-cqu	/kw/	acquaint, acquire	/k/	lacquer, racquet
word-final -ed morpheme after /t/ or /d/*	/ɨd/	waited
word-final -ed morpheme after a voiceless sound*	/t/	topped, surfed	/ɛd/	biped, unfed
word-final -ed morpheme after a lenis sound*	/d/	climbed, failed, ordered	/ɛd/	imbed, misled, infrared
eh	/eɪ/	eh
word-final -es morpheme**	/ɨz/	washes, boxes
unstressed ex- before a vowel or h	/ɨɡz/	exist, examine, exhaust	/ɛks/	exhale
gu- before a	/ɡw/	bilingual, guano, language	/ɡ/	guard, guarantee
word-final -le after a consonant	/əl/	little, table
-(a)isle	/aɪəl/	aisle, isle, enisle, lisle
word-final -ngue	/ŋ/	tongue, harangue, meringue (dessert)	/ŋɡeɪ/	dengue (also /ŋɡi/), distingué, merengue (music/dance)
old	/oʊld/	blindfold, older, bold	/əld/	scaffold, kobold (also /ɒld/
olk	/oʊk/	yolk, folk
oll	/ɒl/	doll, follow, colletc., holler	/oʊl/	roll, stroller, polling, tollway
olm	/ɒlm/	olm, dolmen	/oʊlm/	enrolment, holmium	/oʊm/ holm (oak)
ong	/ɒŋ/ (RP) /ɔːŋ/ (GA)	wrong, strong, song	/ɒŋ/	Congress, congregation
qu-	/kw/	queen, quick	/k/	liquor, mosquito
quar- before consonant	/kwɔː(r)/	quarter, quart
word-final -que	/k/	mosque, bisque	/keɪ/	risqué	/kjuː/ barbeque
word-final -re after a consonant	/ər/	ogre
ro	/rɒ/	rod	/roʊ/	roll	/ə(r)/ iron
unstressed sci- before a vowel	/tʃ/	conscience (/ʃ/ in RP)	/si/	omniscient (RP only)
sci- (stressed)	/saɪ/	science
-scle	/səl/	corpuscle, muscle
-se (noun)	/s/	house, mouse
-se (verb)	/z/	house, raise	/s/	chase
unstressed -si before a vowel	/ʃ/	expansion	/ʒ/	division, illusion	/zi/ physiology, busier, caesium flimsiest /si/ tarsier
unstressed -ssi before a vowel	/ʃ/	mission	/si/	potassium, dossier
unstressed -sure	/ʒər/	leisure, treasure
unstressed -ti before a vowel	/ʃ/	nation, ambitious	/ʒ/	equation	/ti/ patio, /taɪ/ cation
unstressed -ture	/tʃər/	nature, picture
unstressed -zure	/ʒər/	seizure, azure

* There is no way to tell if it is the morpheme or an integral part of the word. Compare snaked and naked.

** Same as above; compare the two pronunciations of axes.

Small text indicates rare words. Loans words: SP for Spanish, FR for French.

Sound to spelling correspondences

The following table shows for each sound, the various spelling patterns used to denote it. The symbol "…" stands for an intervening consonant. The letter sequences are in order of frequency with the most common first. Some of these patterns are very rare or unique, such as au for the [æ] sound in laugh (some accents). In some cases, the spellings shown are found in only one known English word (such as "mh" for /m/, or "yrrh" for /ɜr/).

Consonants
IPA	Spelling	Examples
/p/	p, pp, gh	pill, happy, hiccough
/b/	b, bb	bit, rabbit
/t/	t, tt, ed, pt, th, ct	ten, hitter, topped, pterodactyl, thyme, ctenoid
/d/	d, dd, ed, dh, t (in some dialects), tt (in some dialects)	dive, ladder, failed, dharma, waiter, flatter
/ɡ/	g, gg, gue, gh	go, stagger, catalogue, ghost
/k/	c, k, ck, ch, cc, qu, cqu, cu, que, kk, kh, q, x (changing its/ks/ sound into its /k/ sound)	cat, key, tack, chord, account, liquor, acquis, biscuit, mosque, trekker, khan, burqa, excitement
/m/	m, mm, mb, mn, mh, gm, chm	mine, hammer, climb, hymn, mho, diaphragm, drachm
/n/	n, nn, kn, gn, pn, nh, cn, mn	nice, funny, knee, gnome, pneumonia, piranha, cnidarian, mnemonic
/ŋ/	ng, n, ngue	sing, link, tongue
/r/	r, rr, wr, rh, rrh	ray, parrot, wrong, rhyme, diarrh(o)ea
/f/	f, ph, ff, gh, pph, u	fine, physical, off, laugh, sapphire, lieutenant  (Br)
/v/	v, vv, f, ph, w	vine, savvy, of, Stephen, weltanschauung
/θ/	th, chth, phth, tth, fth (in some dialects)	thin, chthonic, phthisis, Matthew, twelfth
/ð/	th, the	them, breathe
/s/	s, c, ss, sc, st, ps, sch (in some dialects), cc, se, ce, z (in some dialects)	song, city, mess, scene, listen, psychology, schism, flaccid, horse, juice, citizen
/z/	s, z, x, zz, ss, ze, c (in some dialects)	has, zoo, xylophone, fuzz, scissors, breeze, electricity
/ʃ/	sh, ti, ci, ssi, si, ss, ch, s, sci, ce, sch, sc	shin, nation, special, mission, expansion, tissue, machine, sugar, conscience, ocean, schmooze, crescendo
/ʒ/	si, s, g, z, j, ti, sh (in some dialects)	division, leisure, genre, seizure, jeté, equation, Pershing
/tʃ/	ch, t, tch, ti, c, cc, tsch, cz	chin, nature, batch, bastion (some accents), cello, bocce, putsch, Czech
/dʒ/	g, j, dg, dge, d, di, gi, ge, gg	magic, jump, judgment, bridge, graduate, soldier, Belgian, dungeon, exaggerate
/h/	h, wh, j, ch, x	he, who, fajita, chutzpah, Quixote
/j/	y, i, j, ll, e	yes, onion, hallelujah, tortilla, eoarchean
/l/	l, ll, lh	line, hallo, Lhasa
/w/	w, u, o, ou, wh (in most dialects)	we, persuade, choir, Ouija board, what
/hw/	wh (in Hiberno-Eng. and Southern Am. Eng.)	wheel
/wr/	wr (in Scottish Eng.)	wren

Vowels
IPA	Spelling	Examples
/iː/	e, ea, ee, e…e, ae, ei, i…e, ie, eo, oe, ie...e, ay, ey, i, y, oi, ue, ey, a	be, beach, bee, cede, Caesar, deceit, machine, field, people, amoeba (variant of ameba), hygiene, quay (RP only; /eɪ/ in GA), key, ski, city, chamois, Portuguese, geyser (RP only; /aɪ/ in GA), karaoke
/ɪ/	i, y, ui, e, ee, ie, o, u, a, ei, ee, ia, ea, i...e, ai, ii, oe	bit, myth, build, pretty, been (some accents), sieve, women, busy, damage, counterfeit, carriage, mileage, medicine, bargain, shiitake, oedema
/uː/	oo, u, o, u…e, ou, ew, ue, o…e, ui, eu, oeu, oe, ough, wo, ioux, ieu, oup, w, u	tool, luminous, who, flute, soup, jewel, true, lose, fruit, maneuver, manoeuvre (Br. variant of prec.), canoe, through (form. variant of "thru"), two, Sioux, lieutenant  (GA), coup, cwm, thru (inf.)
/ʊ/	oo, u, o, oo...e, or, ou, oul	look, full, wolf, gooseberry, worsted, courier, should
/eɪ/	a, a…e, aa, ae, ai, ai...e, aig, aigh, al, ao, au, ay, e (é), e...e, ea, eg, ei, ei...e, eig, eigh, ee (ée), eh, er, es, et, ey, ez, ie, oeh, ue, uet	bass, rate, quaalude, reggae, rain, cocaine, arraign, straight, Ralph  (dated Br.), gaol  (Australian var. of "jail"), gauge (var. of gage), pay, ukulele (café), crepe, steak, thegn, veil, beige, reign, eight, matinee (soirée), eh, dossier, demesne, ballet, obey, chez, lingerie  (US), boehmite (also: /oʊ/), dengue (usually: /i/), sobriquet (also: /ɛt/; var. of "soubriquet")
/ə/	a, e, o, u, ai, ou, eig, y, ah, ough, ae, oi	another, anthem, awesome, atrium, mountain, callous, foreign, beryl, Messiah, borough  (Br), Michael, porpoise
/oʊ/	o, o…e, oa, ow, ou, oe, oo, eau, oh, ew, au, aoh, ough, eo	so, bone, boat, know, soul, foe, brooch, beau, oh, sew, mauve, pharaoh, furlough, yeoman
/ɛ/	e, ea, a, ae, ai, ay, ea…e, ei, eo, ie, ieu, u, ue, oe	met, weather, many, aesthetic, said, says, cleanse, heifer, jeopardy, friend, lieutenant  (Br), bury, guess, foetid
/æ/	a, ai, al, au, i	hand, plaid, salmon, laugh (some accents), meringue
/ʌ/	u, o, o…e, oe, ou, oo, wo	sun, son, come, does, touch, flood, twopence
/ɔː/	a, au, aw, ough, augh, o, oa, oo, al, uo, u, ao	fall, author, jaw, bought, caught, cord, broad, door, walk, fluorine  (Br), sure  (some accents), extraordinary
/ɒ/	o, a, eau, ach, au, ou	lock, watch, bureaucracy, yacht, sausage, cough
/ɑː/	a, ah, aa, i	father, blah, baa, lingerie  (US)
/aɪ/	ae, ai, aie, aille, ais, ay, aye, ei, eigh, ey, eye, i, i…e, ia, ie, ic, ig, igh, is, oi, ui, uy, uye, y, y...e, ye	maestro, krait, shanghaied, canaille (RP), aisle, kayak, aye, heist, height, geyser (US), eye, mic, fine, diaper, tie, indict, sign, high, isle, choir, guide, buy, guyed, tryst, type, bye
/ɔɪ/	oi, oy, awy, uoy oy…e, eu	foil, toy, lawyer, buoy, gargoyle, Freudian
/aʊ/	ou, ow, ough, au, ao	out, now, bough, tau, Taoism
/ɑr/	aar, ar, are, arre, ear, er, our, uar, arrh	bazaar, car, are, bizarre, heart, sergeant, our  (some accents), guard, catarrh
/ɛər/	aar, aer, air, aire, ar, are, ayer, ayor, ear, eir, er, ere, err, erre, ey're, e'er	Aaron, aerial, hair, millionaire, ware, vary, prayer, mayor, bear, heir, stationery (some accents), where, err (variant), parterre, they're, e'er
/ɪər/	ear, eer, eir, eor, ere, ers, e're, ier, iere, ir	ear, beer, weir, theory  (US), here, revers, we're, pier, premiere, menhir
/ɜr/	er, or, ur, ir, yr, our, ear, err, eur, yrrh, ar, oeu, olo	fern, worst, turn, thirst, myrtle, journey, earth, err, amateur, myrrh, grammar, hors d'oeuvre, colonel
/juː/	u, u…e, eu, ue, iew, eau, ieu, ueue, ui, ewe, ew	music*, use, feud, cue, view, beautiful*, adieu*, queue, nuisance*, ewe, few, * in some dialects, see yod-dropping