User:Hzb pangus/sandbox
Spelling patterns
Spelling-to-sound correspondences
Vowels
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Combinations of vowel letters
| Spelling | Major value (IPA) |
Examples of major value | Minor values (IPA) |
Examples of minor value | Exceptions[clarification needed] | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| a |
|
/æ/ | hacet, baner, mare akrobat, kat nasional, kamera, realite arid, granit, palas |
/eɪ/ | ák, bás, cámber násionhûd |
/i/ karaóke /ɑː/ fâðer /ɒ/ yot |
|
/eɪ/ | aránj, wást grás, fámos, víolát tábel, hátred, Ápril káos, áorta |
/ɛ/ /æ/ /ɨ/ |
mene, ene manor, hav cokolat, oranj |
/ɑː/ gâla, sonâta | |
| before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms) |
/ɑː/ | bar, kart bard, maring |
/ɛə/ skárs | |||
| before r + vowel | /ɛə/ | unkáring, wáre, vários, glár | /æ/ | Paris | /ɑː/ ar | |
| word-final | /ə/ | lemma, banana | /i/ bolóne | |||
| in word-final -ary | /ɛ/ | ordinere, nesesere | ||||
| after /w/ except before /k/, /ɡ/, /ŋ/ | /ɒ/ | woc, worior, kwontite | /æ/ | kwango | ||
| after /w/ before final r or r + cons. | /ɔː/ | worning, dworf, wor | ||||
| unstressed | /ə/ | anuðer, about, wûman | Ø | artistikalle | ||
| unstressed, in -age | /ɨ/ | damaj, bondaj | ||||
| aa, ah | /ɑː/ | bâ, blâ | /eɪ/ kwálúd | |||
| ae (æ) | usually | /iː/ | encyclopaedia (encyclopædia), paediatrician (pædiatrician) | /ɛ/ | aesthetic (æsthetic) | /eɪ/ reggae /aɪ/ maestro |
| before r | /ɛə/ | aerial (ærial), aeroplane (æroplane) | ||||
| ai, ay | stressed | /eɪ/ | bait, cocaine, day | /ɛ/ /aɪ/ |
said, again, says samurai, kayak, aye |
/æ/ plaid /iː/ quay |
| before r | /ɛə/ | cairn, millionaire, dairy | ||||
| unstressed | /ɨ/ | bargain, mountain | /ə/ | Britain | ||
| ao | /eɪ/ | gaol | /aʊ/ | Taoism | /oʊ/ pharaoh | |
| au, aw | /ɔː/ | taut, author, lawn, | /ɒ/ /ɑː/ |
sausage, because, laurel aunt, draught, laugh |
/eɪ/ gauge /oʊ/ mauve | |
| e |
|
/iː/ | receding, detail, gene metre, secret be, she simile, catastrophe neon |
/eɪ/ /ɛ/ Ø |
ukulele, cafe, crepe metal, lemon, heron livelihood, fateful |
|
|
/ɛ/ | better, fetch, merry get, watershed legacy, elegant, delicate crevice, perish, epicness |
/iː/ | lethal axes (plural of axis) legally evil |
/ɪ/ pretty | |
| before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms) |
/ɜː/ | herd, kerb, referral | /ɑː/ | clerk, sergeant | ||
| before r + vowel | /ɪə/ | serious, series, here | /ɛə/ /ɛ/ |
therefore, werewolf very |
/ɜː/ were | |
| word-final | Ø | mate, discipline, starve plague |
/iː/ | recipe | ||
| unstressed | /ɨ/ | hatchet, target, poet | /ə/ | taken, decency, moment | ||
| usd, before heterosyllabic vowel | /i/ | create, area, atheist, hideous | ||||
| ea | usually | /iː/ | beach, eating, please | /ɛ/ | bread, healthy, cleanse | /eɪ/ break, great, steak |
| before r + cons. | /ɜː/ | earth, learn, early | /ɑː/ | hearty, hearth | /ɪə/ beard | |
| before final r or r + vowel (and in derived terms) |
/ɪə/ | clear, hearing, yearly | /ɛə/ | bear, pear, swear | ||
| eau | /oʊ/ | bureau, plateau, tableau | /juː/ | beauty | /ɒ/ bureaucracy | |
| ee | usually | /iː/ | bee, feed | /eɪ/ matinee, fiancee | ||
| before r | /ɪə/ | cheering, beer, eerie | ||||
| ei, ey | usually | /eɪ/ | veil, reign, obey | /iː/ /aɪ/ |
seize, key, geyser height, heist, gneiss |
/ɛ/ heifer, leisure /aɪ/ eye |
| after c | /iː/ | deceive, ceiling, conceit | ||||
| before r | /ɛə/ | heir, their | /ɪə/ | weird, weir, eyrie | ||
| unstressed | /ɨ/ | foreign, counterfeit | ||||
| unstressed, word-final | /i/ | monkey, curtsey, jersey | ||||
| eo | /ɛ/ | leopard, jeopardy | /iː/ | people | /oʊ/ yeoman /ɪə/ leotard | |
| eu(e), ew(e), ieu, iew |
usually | /juː/ | feudal, queue, dew, ewe, lieu, view |
/oʊ/ sew, shew /ɛf/ lieutenant | ||
| after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/ | /uː/ | rheumatism, jewel, blew | ||||
| before r | /jʊə/ | amateur, neural, Newry | ||||
| both of the above | /ʊə/ | Jewry, pleurisy | ||||
| i |
|
/aɪ/ | shine, cited, guide title, idle, vibrant wild, kind, sighed, ensign alumni, alibi, radii vial, quiet, prior, pious |
/ɪ/ | pivot, give, engine wind (one meaning) |
/iː/ machine, ski |
|
/ɪ/ | hitch, fiddle, mirror bit cinema, liberty, military finish, spirit, minute hideous, position, Sirius |
/aɪ/ | pint, ninth silently whitish |
/æ/ meringue /iːɪ/ ski(ing) | |
| before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms) |
/ɜː/ | bird, fir, stirrer | /ɪə/ menhir | |||
| before r + vowel | /aɪə/ | hire, firing, enquiry | ||||
| unstressed | /ɨ/ | livid, typical | /ə/ | pencil, cousin | Ø business | |
| usd, before heterosyllabic vowel | /i/ | familiar, alien, radii, idiot | ||||
| ie | finally | /aɪ/ | die, tie | |||
| medially | /iː/ | field, series, siege | /aɪ/ | flies, tries | /ɪ/ sieve /ɛ/ friend | |
| before r | /ɪə/ | pier, fierce, bulkier | ||||
| o |
|
/ɒ/ or /ɑː/ | dot, doctor, torrent opera, colonise, cooperate topic, solid, promise |
/ʌ/ /oʊ/ /uː/ |
won, monkey, front gross, comb, brokenly tomb, womb |
/ʊ/ wolf |
|
/oʊ/ | omen, grove, total noble, cobra banjo, go boa, poet, stoic cooperate |
/ɒ/ /uː/ /ʌ/ /ə/ |
moral, proper, shone to, who, move, lose come, love, done purpose, Europe |
/ʊ/ woman /ɪ/ women | |
| before r | /ɔə/ | ford, boring, more | /ɔ/ | for, morning | ||
| after w, before r | /ɜː/ | word, work, worst | /ɔə/ worn | |||
| unstressed | /ə/ | eloquent, wanton, author | ||||
| oa | usually | /oʊ/ | boat, coal, load | /ɔː/ broad | ||
| before r | /ɔə/ | boar, coarse | ||||
| oe (œ) | usually | /iː/ | amoeba (amœba), coelacanth (cœlacanth), phoenix (phœnix) | |||
| finally | /oʊ/ | toe, foe | /uː/ | shoe, canoe | /ʌ/ does | |
| unstressed | /ɪ/ | oedema (œdema) | ||||
| oeu | /uː/ | manoeuvre (manœuvre) | ||||
| oi, oy | usually | /ɔɪ/ | coin, boy | |||
| before r | /wɑː/ | reservoir, memoir, repertoire | /ɔɪə/ | loir | /waɪə/ choir | |
| oo | usually | /uː/ | hoop, booze | /ʊ/ | wool, foot, soot | /oʊ/ brooch |
| before k, d | /ʊ/ | look, wood | /uː/ | food, brood, spook | /ʌ/ blood, flood | |
| before r | /ɔə/ | door, mooring | /ʊə/ | poor | ||
| ou | stressed | /aʊ/ | out, aloud, bough | /uː/ /ʌ/ /oʊ/ |
soup, you, through touch, trouble, country soul, dough, boulder |
/ʊ/ courier, should /ɒ/ cough |
| before r | /ɔː/ | tourist, contour, pour | /aʊə/ /ɜː/ |
hour, our, devour journey, courteous, scourge |
/ʊ/ courier /ʌ/ courage | |
| unstressed | /ə/ | camouflage, labour, nervous | ||||
| ow | stressed | /aʊ/ | cow, sow, allow | /oʊ/ | know, show | /ɒ/ acknowledge |
| before r | /aʊə/ | dowry | ||||
| unstressed | /oʊ/ | yellow, rainbow, narrow | ||||
| u |
|
/ʌ/ | butter, dump, current | /ʊ/ | put, full, pudding | |
|
/juː/ | luminous, mute, tuba bugle, rubric duel, fatuous, druid, January |
/ʊ/ | sugar | /ɪ/ busy | |
| above after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/ | /uː/ | rule, chute, June, flu truant, fluent, menstruate |
||||
| before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms) |
/ɜː/ | curdle, burr, furry | ||||
| before r + vowel | /jʊə/ | lure, purity, curing | /jə/ | failure | /ɛ/ bury | |
| above after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/ | /ʊə/ | rural, jury, plural | ||||
| after g, before e, i | Ø | guess, disguise, tongue | /juː/ /w/ |
argue, ague linguistics, segue |
||
| unstressed | /ə/ | supply | /ɨ/ minute, lettuce | |||
| ue, ui | usually | /juː/ | cue, hue, nuisance | /weɪ/ suede /wiː/ suite /ɪ/ build, biscuit | ||
| above after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/ | /uː/ | blue, tissue, fruit, juice | ||||
| uy | /aɪ/ | buy, guyed | ||||
| y |
|
/ɪ/ | myth, cryptic cylinder, typical, pyramid cynic |
/aɪ/ | hyphen, psyche cyclically |
|
|
/aɪ/ | typing, style, paralyze cycle, cypress sky, supply, bye |
||||
| before final r or r + cons. (and in derived terms) |
/ɜː/ | myrtle, myrrh | ||||
| before r + vowel | /aɪə/ | lyre, tyrant, gyrate | ||||
| unstressed | /ə/ | sibyl, martyr | ||||
| unstressed, word-final | /i/ | city, happy | ||||
Consonants
Notes:
- In the tables, the hyphen has two different meanings. A hyphen after the letter indicates that it must be at the beginning of a syllable, e.g. j- in jumper and ajar. A hyphen before the letter indicates that it cannot be at the beginning of a word, e.g. -ck in sick and ticket.
- More specific rules take precedence over more general ones, e.g. "c- before e, i or y" takes precedence over "c".
- Where the letter combination is described as "word-final", inflectional suffixes may be added without changing the pronunciation, e.g. catalogues.
- The dialect used is RP.
- Isolated foreign borrowings are excluded.
| Spelling | Major value (IPA) | Examples of major value | Other values | Examples of other values | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| b, bb | usually | /b/ | bit, rabbit, obtain | Ø | bdellium, debtor, subtle | |
| finally after m (and in derived terms) |
Ø | climb, comb, numbing | ||||
| c | before e, i, y, ae, or oe | /s/ | cellar, city, cyst, face, prince, nicer caesium, coelacanth |
/tʃ/ /ʃ/ /k/ /ts/ |
cello, vermicelli special, liquorice Celts, chicer letovicite | |
| initially before n, t | Ø | cnidarian, ctenoid | ||||
| elsewhere | /k/ | cat, cross | Ø | victual, indict | ||
| cc | before e, i or y | /ks/ | accept, eccentric, occidental | /k/ /tʃ/ /s/ |
soccer, recce, siccing bocce, breccia, cappuccino flaccid | |
| elsewhere | /k/ | account, accrue, occur, yucca | ||||
| ch | usually | /tʃ/ | chase, chin, attached, chore | /k/ /h/ Ø |
ached chutzpah yacht | |
| Greek-derived words | /k/ | chasm, chimera, chord | ||||
| French-derived words | /ʃ/ | chaise, machine, cached, parachute | ||||
| ck | /k/ | tack, ticket | ||||
| d, dd, dh | /d/ | dive, ladder, jodhpurs | /dʒ/ Ø |
graduate, gradual (both also /dj/ in RP) Wednesday, handsome | ||
| -dg- before e, i, or y | /dʒ/ | lodger, pidgin, edgy | ||||
| f, -ff | /f/ | fine, off | /v/ | of | ||
| g | before e, i, y, ae, or oe | /dʒ/ | gentle, magic, gyrate, page, algae (GA) |
/ɡ/ /ʒ/ |
get, eager, algae (RP) collage, gigue | |
| in -gm, gn- or -gn | Ø | diaphragm, gnome, signing, reign | /ɡ/ | signify, repugnant | ||
| elsewhere | /ɡ/ | go, great, guest | /dʒ/ | margarine | ||
| gg | /ɡ/ | stagger, flagging | /dʒ/ | suggest, exaggerate | ||
| gh | initially | /ɡ/ | ghost, ghastly | |||
| elsewhere | Ø | dough, high, right, daughter | /f/ /x/ or /k/ /ɡ/, /k/, or /x/ /p/ |
laugh, enough lough ugh! hiccough | ||
| h | usually | /h/ | he, alcohol | Ø | vehicle, honest, hono(u)r, piranha | |
| after ex | Ø | exhibit, exhaust | /h/ | exhale | ||
| j- | /dʒ/ | jump, ajar | /j/ /ʒ/ /h/ Ø |
Hallelujah Jean jalapeno, fajita Marijuana | ||
| k, -kk, kh | usually | /k/ | key, bake, trekking, sheikh | |||
| initially before n | Ø | knee, knock | ||||
| l, ll | /l/ | line, valve, valley | Ø /j/ |
halve, balk, salmon, tortilla ? | ||
| m, mm | usually | /m/ | mine, hammer | |||
| initially before n | Ø | mnemonic | ||||
| n, nn | usually | /n/ | nice, funny | |||
| before /k/ or /ɡ/ | /ŋ/ | link, bangle, anchor | ||||
| finally after m (and in derived terms) |
Ø | hymn, autumn | ||||
| ng | finally and in terms derived from ng-final words |
/ŋ/ | long, kingly, singer, clingy | |||
| medially otherwise | /ŋɡ/ /ndʒ/ |
anger, finger danger, ginger, dingy | ||||
| p, pp | usually | /p/ | pill, happy, soup, corpse, script | Ø | coup, receipt | |
| initially before n, s, t | Ø | pneumonia, psyche, ptomaine | /p/ | psst | ||
| ph, pph | /f/ | photograph, sapphire | /v/ | Stephen | ||
| q (not before u) | /k/ | Iraq, Iqaluit | ||||
| r, rr, rh, rrh | usually | /r/ | ray, parrot, rhyme, diarrhoea | Ø | iron | |
|
Ø in non-rhotic dialects such as RP |
cart, burr, fir, care, walker, tear, hurt | ||||
| See below for combinations of vowel letters and the letter r | ||||||
| s, ss | usually | /s/ | song, ask, message, misled | /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ Ø |
scissors, dessert, dissolve, Islam sugar, tissue, aggression vision islet, aisle, debris | |
| -s- between vowel sounds (see also "se" below) |
/z/ | rose, prison | /s/ | basis | ||
| word-final -s morpheme after a voiceless sound |
/s/ | pets, shops | ||||
| word-final -s morpheme after a lenis sound |
/z/ | beds, magazines | ||||
| sc- before e, i or y | /s/ | scene, scepter, scissors, scythe | /sk/ /ʃ/ |
sceptic, scirrhus fascism | ||
| sch- | /sk/ | school, scheme, schizo | /ʃ/ /s/ |
schedule (in RP, otherwise: /sk/), schist schism (in RP, otherwise: /sk/) | ||
| sh | /ʃ/ | shin, fashion | ||||
| t, -tt | usually | /t/ | ten, bitter, cation, chaste, wallet |
/ʃ/ /tʃ/ /d/ Ø |
ratio, Martian question, bastion kindergarten castle, chasten, ballet | |
| in unstressed -sten, -stle, -ften | Ø | listen, rustle, soften | /t/ | tungsten, existent | ||
| -tch | /tʃ/ | batch, kitchen | ||||
| th | /θ/ /ð/ |
thin, both, the, bothers |
/t/ /tθ/ /th/ Ø |
thyme eighth outhouse, potherb asthma | ||
| v, -vv | /v/ | vine, savvy | ||||
| w | /w/ | sward, swerve, wale | Ø /uː/ /v/ |
two, sword, answer, gunwale cwm Weltanschauung | ||
| wh- | usually | /w/ or /hw/ in Hiberno-Eng. and Southern Am. Eng. | wheel | |||
| before o | /h/ or /hw/ in Hiberno-Eng. and Southern Am. Eng. | who, whole | /w/ | whopping, whorl | ||
| wr- | /r/ or /wr/ in Scottish Eng. | wrong, wrist | ||||
| x | initially | /z/ | xylophone | |||
| elsewhere | /ks/ | extent, excuse, axe | /ɡz/ /ɡʒ/ /kʃ/ Ø |
exit (in some pronunciations) luxury (in some pronunciations) anxious faux-pas | ||
| -xc before e or i | /ks/ | excellent, excited | ||||
| y- | /j/ | yes, young | ||||
| z, -zz | /z/ | zoo, pizzazz | /ts/ Ø |
schizophrenic, pizza rendezvous | ||
| Spelling | Major value (IPA) |
Examples of major value | Minor values (IPA) |
Examples of minor value | Exceptions |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ayer, ayor | /ɛə(r)/ | layer, mayor | |||
| ower | /aʊər/ | dowry, tower, flowery |
Combinations of other consonant and vowel letters
| Spelling | Major value (IPA) |
Examples of major value | Minor values (IPA) |
Examples of minor value | Exceptions |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ah | /ɑː/ | blah | |||
| al | /æl/ | pal, talcum, algae, alp | /ɔːl/ | bald, falcon | |
| alf | /ɑːf/ (RP) /æf/ (GA) |
calf, half | /æl/ | alfalfa, malfeasance | /ɔlf/ palfrey |
| alk | /ɔːk/ | walk, chalking, talkative | /ælk/ | alkaline, grimalkin | /ɔlk/ balkanise |
| all | /ɔːl/ /æl/ |
call, fallout, smaller shall, callus, fallow |
/ɒl/ /(ə)l/ |
wallet, swallow allow, dialled |
/ɛl/ (GA) marshmallow, pall-mall |
| alm | /ɑːm/ (all three examples have alt. pronunc.) | calm (also: /ɑːlm/), almond (also: /ælm/), palmistry (also: /ɑːlm/) | /ælm/ /ɔːlm/ |
dalmatian, salmonella almanac (also: /ælm/), almost |
/æm/ salmon /(ə)lm/ signalman |
| alt | /ɒlt/ (RP) /ɔːlt/ (GA) |
alter, malt, salty, basalt | /ælt/ /ɔːlt/ |
alto, shalt, saltation altar, asphalt |
/ɑlt/ gestalt (GA) /(ə)lt/ royalty, penalty |
| aoh, oh | /oʊ/ | pharaoh, oh | |||
| unstressed ci- before a vowel | /ʃ/ | special, gracious | /si/ | species | |
| -cqu | /kw/ | acquaint, acquire | /k/ | lacquer, racquet | |
| word-final -ed morpheme after /t/ or /d/* |
/ɨd/ | waited | |||
| word-final -ed morpheme after a voiceless sound* |
/t/ | topped, surfed | /ɛd/ | biped, unfed | |
| word-final -ed morpheme after a lenis sound* |
/d/ | climbed, failed, ordered | /ɛd/ | imbed, misled, infrared | |
| eh | /eɪ/ | eh | |||
| word-final -es morpheme** | /ɨz/ | washes, boxes | |||
| unstressed ex- before a vowel or h | /ɨɡz/ | exist, examine, exhaust | /ɛks/ | exhale | |
| gu- before a | /ɡw/ | bilingual, guano, language | /ɡ/ | guard, guarantee | |
| word-final -le after a consonant | /əl/ | little, table | |||
| -(a)isle | /aɪəl/ | aisle, isle, enisle, lisle | |||
| word-final -ngue | /ŋ/ | tongue, harangue, meringue (dessert) | /ŋɡeɪ/ | dengue (also /ŋɡi/), distingué, merengue (music/dance) | |
| old | /oʊld/ | blindfold, older, bold | /əld/ | scaffold, kobold (also /ɒld/ | |
| olk | /oʊk/ | yolk, folk | |||
| oll | /ɒl/ | doll, follow, colletc., holler | /oʊl/ | roll, stroller, polling, tollway | |
| olm | /ɒlm/ | olm, dolmen | /oʊlm/ | enrolment, holmium | /oʊm/ holm (oak) |
| ong | /ɒŋ/ (RP) /ɔːŋ/ (GA) |
wrong, strong, song | /ɒŋ/ | Congress, congregation | |
| qu- | /kw/ | queen, quick | /k/ | liquor, mosquito | |
| quar- before consonant | /kwɔː(r)/ | quarter, quart | |||
| word-final -que | /k/ | mosque, bisque | /keɪ/ | risqué | /kjuː/ barbeque |
| word-final -re after a consonant | /ər/ | ogre | |||
| ro | /rɒ/ | rod | /roʊ/ | roll | /ə(r)/ iron |
| unstressed sci- before a vowel | /tʃ/ | conscience (/ʃ/ in RP) | /si/ | omniscient (RP only) | |
| sci- (stressed) | /saɪ/ | science | |||
| -scle | /səl/ | corpuscle, muscle | |||
| -se (noun) | /s/ | house, mouse | |||
| -se (verb) | /z/ | house, raise | /s/ | chase | |
| unstressed -si before a vowel | /ʃ/ | expansion | /ʒ/ | division, illusion | /zi/ physiology, busier, caesium flimsiest /si/ tarsier |
| unstressed -ssi before a vowel | /ʃ/ | mission | /si/ | potassium, dossier | |
| unstressed -sure | /ʒər/ | leisure, treasure | |||
| unstressed -ti before a vowel | /ʃ/ | nation, ambitious | /ʒ/ | equation | /ti/ patio, /taɪ/ cation |
| unstressed -ture | /tʃər/ | nature, picture | |||
| unstressed -zure | /ʒər/ | seizure, azure |
* There is no way to tell if it is the morpheme or an integral part of the word. Compare snaked and naked.
** Same as above; compare the two pronunciations of axes.
Small text indicates rare words. Loans words: SP for Spanish, FR for French.
Sound to spelling correspondences
The following table shows for each sound, the various spelling patterns used to denote it. The symbol "…" stands for an intervening consonant. The letter sequences are in order of frequency with the most common first. Some of these patterns are very rare or unique, such as au for the [æ] sound in laugh (some accents). In some cases, the spellings shown are found in only one known English word (such as "mh" for /m/, or "yrrh" for /ɜr/).
| Consonants | ||
|---|---|---|
| IPA | Spelling | Examples |
| /p/ | p, pp, gh | pill, happy, hiccough |
| /b/ | b, bb | bit, rabbit |
| /t/ | t, tt, ed, pt, th, ct | ten, hitter, topped, pterodactyl, thyme, ctenoid |
| /d/ | d, dd, ed, dh, t (in some dialects), tt (in some dialects) | dive, ladder, failed, dharma, waiter, flatter |
| /ɡ/ | g, gg, gue, gh | go, stagger, catalogue, ghost |
| /k/ | c, k, ck, ch, cc, qu, cqu, cu, que, kk, kh, q, x (changing its/ks/ sound into its /k/ sound) | cat, key, tack, chord, account, liquor, acquis, biscuit, mosque, trekker, khan, burqa, excitement |
| /m/ | m, mm, mb, mn, mh, gm, chm | mine, hammer, climb, hymn, mho, diaphragm, drachm |
| /n/ | n, nn, kn, gn, pn, nh, cn, mn | nice, funny, knee, gnome, pneumonia, piranha, cnidarian, mnemonic |
| /ŋ/ | ng, n, ngue | sing, link, tongue |
| /r/ | r, rr, wr, rh, rrh | ray, parrot, wrong, rhyme, diarrh(o)ea |
| /f/ | f, ph, ff, gh, pph, u | fine, physical, off, laugh, sapphire, lieutenant (Br) |
| /v/ | v, vv, f, ph, w | vine, savvy, of, Stephen, weltanschauung |
| /θ/ | th, chth, phth, tth, fth (in some dialects) | thin, chthonic, phthisis, Matthew, twelfth |
| /ð/ | th, the | them, breathe |
| /s/ | s, c, ss, sc, st, ps, sch (in some dialects), cc, se, ce, z (in some dialects) | song, city, mess, scene, listen, psychology, schism, flaccid, horse, juice, citizen |
| /z/ | s, z, x, zz, ss, ze, c (in some dialects) | has, zoo, xylophone, fuzz, scissors, breeze, electricity |
| /ʃ/ | sh, ti, ci, ssi, si, ss, ch, s, sci, ce, sch, sc | shin, nation, special, mission, expansion, tissue, machine, sugar, conscience, ocean, schmooze, crescendo |
| /ʒ/ | si, s, g, z, j, ti, sh (in some dialects) | division, leisure, genre, seizure, jeté, equation, Pershing |
| /tʃ/ | ch, t, tch, ti, c, cc, tsch, cz | chin, nature, batch, bastion (some accents), cello, bocce, putsch, Czech |
| /dʒ/ | g, j, dg, dge, d, di, gi, ge, gg | magic, jump, judgment, bridge, graduate, soldier, Belgian, dungeon, exaggerate |
| /h/ | h, wh, j, ch, x | he, who, fajita, chutzpah, Quixote |
| /j/ | y, i, j, ll, e | yes, onion, hallelujah, tortilla, eoarchean |
| /l/ | l, ll, lh | line, hallo, Lhasa |
| /w/ | w, u, o, ou, wh (in most dialects) | we, persuade, choir, Ouija board, what |
| /hw/ | wh (in Hiberno-Eng. and Southern Am. Eng.) | wheel |
| /wr/ | wr (in Scottish Eng.) | wren |
| Vowels | ||
|---|---|---|
| IPA | Spelling | Examples |
| /iː/ | e, ea, ee, e…e, ae, ei, i…e, ie, eo, oe, ie...e, ay, ey, i, y, oi, ue, ey, a | be, beach, bee, cede, Caesar, deceit, machine, field, people, amoeba (variant of ameba), hygiene, quay (RP only; /eɪ/ in GA), key, ski, city, chamois, Portuguese, geyser (RP only; /aɪ/ in GA), karaoke |
| /ɪ/ | i, y, ui, e, ee, ie, o, u, a, ei, ee, ia, ea, i...e, ai, ii, oe | bit, myth, build, pretty, been (some accents), sieve, women, busy, damage, counterfeit, carriage, mileage, medicine, bargain, shiitake, oedema |
| /uː/ | oo, u, o, u…e, ou, ew, ue, o…e, ui, eu, oeu, oe, ough, wo, ioux, ieu, oup, w, u | tool, luminous, who, flute, soup, jewel, true, lose, fruit, maneuver, manoeuvre (Br. variant of prec.), canoe, through (form. variant of "thru"), two, Sioux, lieutenant (GA), coup, cwm, thru (inf.) |
| /ʊ/ | oo, u, o, oo...e, or, ou, oul | look, full, wolf, gooseberry, worsted, courier, should |
| /eɪ/ | a, a…e, aa, ae, ai, ai...e, aig, aigh, al, ao, au, ay, e (é), e...e, ea, eg, ei, ei...e, eig, eigh, ee (ée), eh, er, es, et, ey, ez, ie, oeh, ue, uet | bass, rate, quaalude, reggae, rain, cocaine, arraign, straight, Ralph (dated Br.), gaol (Australian var. of "jail"), gauge (var. of gage), pay, ukulele (café), crepe, steak, thegn, veil, beige, reign, eight, matinee (soirée), eh, dossier, demesne, ballet, obey, chez, lingerie (US), boehmite (also: /oʊ/), dengue (usually: /i/), sobriquet (also: /ɛt/; var. of "soubriquet") |
| /ə/ | a, e, o, u, ai, ou, eig, y, ah, ough, ae, oi | another, anthem, awesome, atrium, mountain, callous, foreign, beryl, Messiah, borough (Br), Michael, porpoise |
| /oʊ/ | o, o…e, oa, ow, ou, oe, oo, eau, oh, ew, au, aoh, ough, eo | so, bone, boat, know, soul, foe, brooch, beau, oh, sew, mauve, pharaoh, furlough, yeoman |
| /ɛ/ | e, ea, a, ae, ai, ay, ea…e, ei, eo, ie, ieu, u, ue, oe | met, weather, many, aesthetic, said, says, cleanse, heifer, jeopardy, friend, lieutenant (Br), bury, guess, foetid |
| /æ/ | a, ai, al, au, i | hand, plaid, salmon, laugh (some accents), meringue |
| /ʌ/ | u, o, o…e, oe, ou, oo, wo | sun, son, come, does, touch, flood, twopence |
| /ɔː/ | a, au, aw, ough, augh, o, oa, oo, al, uo, u, ao | fall, author, jaw, bought, caught, cord, broad, door, walk, fluorine (Br), sure (some accents), extraordinary |
| /ɒ/ | o, a, eau, ach, au, ou | lock, watch, bureaucracy, yacht, sausage, cough |
| /ɑː/ | a, ah, aa, i | father, blah, baa, lingerie (US) |
| /aɪ/ | ae, ai, aie, aille, ais, ay, aye, ei, eigh, ey, eye, i, i…e, ia, ie, ic, ig, igh, is, oi, ui, uy, uye, y, y...e, ye | maestro, krait, shanghaied, canaille (RP), aisle, kayak, aye, heist, height, geyser (US), eye, mic, fine, diaper, tie, indict, sign, high, isle, choir, guide, buy, guyed, tryst, type, bye |
| /ɔɪ/ | oi, oy, awy, uoy oy…e, eu | foil, toy, lawyer, buoy, gargoyle, Freudian |
| /aʊ/ | ou, ow, ough, au, ao | out, now, bough, tau, Taoism |
| /ɑr/ | aar, ar, are, arre, ear, er, our, uar, arrh | bazaar, car, are, bizarre, heart, sergeant, our (some accents), guard, catarrh |
| /ɛər/ | aar, aer, air, aire, ar, are, ayer, ayor, ear, eir, er, ere, err, erre, ey're, e'er | Aaron, aerial, hair, millionaire, ware, vary, prayer, mayor, bear, heir, stationery (some accents), where, err (variant), parterre, they're, e'er |
| /ɪər/ | ear, eer, eir, eor, ere, ers, e're, ier, iere, ir | ear, beer, weir, theory (US), here, revers, we're, pier, premiere, menhir |
| /ɜr/ | er, or, ur, ir, yr, our, ear, err, eur, yrrh, ar, oeu, olo | fern, worst, turn, thirst, myrtle, journey, earth, err, amateur, myrrh, grammar, hors d'oeuvre, colonel |
| /juː/ | u, u…e, eu, ue, iew, eau, ieu, ueue, ui, ewe, ew | music*, use, feud, cue, view, beautiful*, adieu*, queue, nuisance*, ewe, few, * in some dialects, see yod-dropping |