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Insect repellent

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A mosquito coil

An insect repellent is a substance applied to skin, clothing, or other surfaces which discourages insects (and arthropods in general) from landing or climbing on that surface. There are also insect repellent products available based on sound production, particularly ultrasound (inaudibly high frequency sounds). These electronic devices have been shown to have no effect as a mosquito repellent by studies done by the EPA and many universities.[1]

Insect repellents help prevent and control the outbreak of insect-borne diseases such as malaria, Lyme disease, dengue fever, bubonic plague, and West Nile fever. Pest animals commonly serving as vectors for disease include the insects flea, fly, and mosquito; and the arachnid tick.

Common insect repellents

Repellent effectiveness

File:Kokoda insect repellent.jpg
A popular post-WWII Australian brand of insect repellent.

Synthetic repellents tend to be more effective and/or longer lasting than "natural" repellents.[9][10] In comparative studies, IR3535 was as effective or better than DEET in protection against mosquitoes.[11] However, some plant-based repellents may provide effective relief as well.[9][10][12] Essential oil repellents can be short-lived in their effectiveness, since essential oils can evaporate completely.

A test of various insect repellents by an independent consumer organization found that repellents containing DEET or picaridin are more effective than repellents with "natural" active ingredients. All the synthetics gave almost 100% repellency for the first 2 hours, where the natural repellent products were most effective for the first 30 to 60 minutes, and required reapplication to be effective over several hours.[13]

For protection against mosquitos, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) issued a statement in May 2008 recommending equally DEET, picaridin, oil of lemon eucalyptus and IR3535 for skin.[14] Permethrin is recommended for clothing, gear, or bed nets.[9] In an earlier report, the CDC found oil of lemon eucalyptus to be more effective than other plant-based treatments, with a similar effectiveness to low concentrations of DEET.[15] However, a 2006 published study found in both cage and field studies that a product containing 40% oil of lemon eucalyptus was just as effective as products containing high concentrations of DEET.[16] Research has also found that neem oil is mosquito repellent for up to 12 hours.[12] Citronella oil's mosquito repellency has also been verified by research,[17] including effectiveness in repelling Aedes aegypti,[18][19] but requires reapplication after 30 to 60 minutes.

Repellent safety

DEET
Icaridin
p-Menthane-3,8-diol (PMD)

Regarding safety with insect repellent use on children and pregnant women:

  • Children may be at greater risk for adverse reactions to repellents, in part, because their exposure may be greater.
  • Keep repellents out of the reach of children.
  • Do not allow children to apply repellents to themselves.
  • Use only small amounts of repellent on children.
  • Do not apply repellents to the hands of young children because this may result in accidental eye contact or ingestion.
  • Try to reduce the use of repellents by dressing children in long sleeves and long pants tucked into boots or socks whenever possible. Use netting over strollers, playpens, etc.
  • As with chemical exposures in general, pregnant women should take care to avoid exposures to repellents when practical, as the fetus may be vulnerable.

Regardless of which repellent product used, it is recommended to read the label before use and carefully follow directions.[20] Usage instructions for repellents vary from country to country. Some insect repellents are not recommended for use on younger children.[14]

In the DEET Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported 14 to 46 cases of potential DEET associated seizures, including 4 deaths. The EPA states: "... it does appear that some cases are likely related to DEET toxicity," but observed that with 30% of the US population using DEET, the likely seizure rate is only about one per 100 million users.[21]

The Pesticide Information Project of Cooperative Extension Offices of Cornell University states that, "Everglades National Park employees having extensive DEET exposure were more likely to have insomnia, mood disturbances and impaired cognitive function than were lesser exposed co-workers".[22]

The EPA states that citronella oil shows little or no toxicity and has been used as a topical insect repellent for 60 years. However, the EPA also states that citronella may irritate skin and cause dermatitis in certain individuals.[5] Canadian regulatory authorities concern with citronella based repellents is primarily based on data-gaps in toxicology, not on incidents.[23][24]

Within countries of the European Union, implementation of Regulation 98/8/EC,[25] commonly referred to as the Biocidal Products Directive, has severely limited the number and type of insect repellents available to European consumers. Only a small number of active ingredients have been supported by manufacturers in submitting dossiers to the EU Authorities.

In general, only formulations containing DEET, icaridin (sold under the trade name Saltidin and formerly known as Bayrepel or KBR3023), IR3535 (3-[N-Butyl-N-acetyl]-aminopropionic acid, ethyl ester) and Citriodiol (p-menthane-3,8-diol) are available. Most "natural" insect repellents such as citronella, neem oil, and herbal extracts are no longer permitted for sale as insect repellents in the EU; this does not preclude them from being sold for other purposes, as long as the label does not indicate they are a biocide (insect repellent).

Insect repellents from natural sources

There are many preparations from naturally occurring sources that have been used as a repellent to certain insects. Some of these act as insecticides while others are only repellent.

Inactive substances – carriers

In 2002, the New England Journal of Medicine[49] published an article that found products containing essential oils such as catnip[50] or geranium oil, when combined with a suitable carrier oil such as soybean, have been found to be effective as natural repellents. This was based on testing done by Johns Hopkins[51] and Cornell Universities.[52] Other commercial products offered for household mosquito "control" include small electrical mats, mosquito repellent vapor, DEET-impregnated wrist bands, and mosquito coils containing a form of the chemical allethrin. Mosquito-repellent candles containing citronella oil are sold widely in the U.S. These have been used with mixed reports of success and failure.[53]

Less effective methods

Some old studies suggested that the ingestion of large doses of thiamin could be effective as an oral insect repellent against mosquito bites. However, there is now conclusive evidence that thiamin has no efficacy against mosquito bites.[54][55][56][57] Some claim that plants like wormwood or sagewort, lemon balm, lemon grass, lemon thyme and the mosquito plant (Pelargonium) will act against mosquitoes. However, scientists have determined that these plants are “effective” for a limited time only when the leaves are crushed and applied directly to the skin.[58]

There are several, widespread, unproven theories about mosquito control, such as the assertion that vitamin B, in particular B1 (thiamine), garlic, ultrasonic devices or incense can be used to repel or control mosquitoes.[55][59] Moreover, some manufacturers of "mosquito repelling" ultrasonic devices have been found to be fraudulent,[60] and their devices were deemed "useless" in tests by the UK Consumer magazine Which?,[61] and according to a review of scientific studies.[62]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Mosquito repellents that emit high-pitched sounds don't prevent bites" (Press release). Eurekalert!. April 17, 2007.
  2. ^ Happy people: A year in the Taiga
  3. ^ Making birch bark tar
  4. ^ Birch bark used as mosquito repellent
  5. ^ a b "Citronella (Oil of Citronella) (021901) Fact Sheet". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 16 February 2011. Retrieved 1 July 2011.
  6. ^ Insect Repellents - Patent 6660288
  7. ^ Detailed patent information
  8. ^ Brown, Maryland Extension Service leaflet 10
  9. ^ a b c M. S. Fradin and J. F. Day (2002). "Comparative Efficacy of Insect Repellents against Mosquito Bites". N Engl J Med. 347 (1): 13–18. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa011699. PMID 12097535.
  10. ^ a b Collins, D.A. (1993). "Assessment of the efficacy of Quwenling as a Mosquito repellent". Phytotherapy Research. 7 (1): 17–20. doi:10.1002/ptr.2650070106. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ Cilek JE, Petersen JL, Hallmon CE. (2004). "Comparative efficacy of IR3535 and deet as repellents against adult Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus". J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 20 (3): 299–304. PMID 15532931.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ a b Mishra AK, Singh N, Sharma VP, 1995 "Use of neem oil as a mosquito repellent in tribal villages of mandla district, madhya pradesh", Indian J Malariol, Sep;32(3):99-103 Pubmed
  13. ^ "Test: Mosquito Repellents, The Verdict" Choice, The Australian Consumers Association
  14. ^ a b "Updated Information regarding Insect Repellents". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 8 May 2008.
  15. ^ "Insect Repellent Use and Safety". West Nile Virus. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 12 January 2007.
  16. ^ Carroll SP, Loye J, 2006, Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 22(3):507-514, 510
  17. ^ Jeong-Kyu KIM, Chang-Soo KANG, Jong-Kwon LEE, Young-Ran KIM, Hye-Yun HAN, Hwa Kyung YUN, Evaluation of Repellency Effect of Two Natural Aroma Mosquito Repellent Compounds, Citronella and Citronellal, Entomological Research 35 (2), 117–120, 2005
  18. ^ Ibrahim Jantan, and Zaridah Mohd. Zaki, Development of environment-friendly insect repellents from the leaf oils of selected Malaysian plants, ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC), May 1998.
  19. ^ Trongtokit Y, Rongsriyan Y, Komalamisra N, Apiwathnasom L, Comparative repellency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites, Phytother Res. 2005 Apr;19(4):303-9 [1]
  20. ^ "Health Advisory: Tick and Insect Repellents", Information factsheet, Department of Health, New York State
  21. ^ "Reregistration Eligibility Decision: DEET." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. September 1998. pp39-40
  22. ^ Deet
  23. ^ Re-evaluation of Citronella Oil and Related Active Compounds for Use as Personal Insect Repellents (PDF). Pest Management Regulatory Agency (Canada). 17 September 2004. ISBN 978-0-662-38012-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-11. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  24. ^ "So Then: Who’s Afraid of Citronella Oil? Update!" Cropwatch Newsletter Vol 2,Issue 1, No. 1
  25. ^ "Directive 98/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 February 1998 concerning the placing of biocidal products on the market". Official Journal of the European Communities. 16 February 1998. Retrieved 1 July 2011.
  26. ^ a b c d e "Natural Mosquito Repellents - Which Natural Mosquito Repellents Work Best?". altmedicine.about.com. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
  27. ^ Taverne, Janice (2001). "Malaria on the Web and the mosquito-repellent properties of basil". Trends in Parasitology. 17 (6): 299–300. doi:10.1016/S1471-4922(01)01978-X. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  28. ^ "A Granddad's Advice May Help Thwart Mosquitoes". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
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  32. ^ Field evaluation of G10, a celery (Apium graveolen... [Parasitol Res. 2009] - PubMed result
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  35. ^ a b "Natural Insect and Rodent Repellents - Quick & Simple". www.quickandsimple.com. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
  36. ^ Rahman, G. K. M. M. (1998). "Identification of the active components of garlic causing repellent effect against the rice weevil and the wheat flour beetle". Nihon Oyo Doubutsu Konchu Gakkai Taikai Koen Youshi. 42: 211. Retrieved 22 November 2007. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ Botha, B. M. (2000). "An appropriate method for extracting the insect repellent citronellol from an indigenous plant (Pelargonium graveolens L'Her) for potential use by resource-limited animal owners". Retrieved 30 May 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ Jaenson, Thomas G. T.; et al. (2006). "Repellency of Oils of Lemon Eucalyptus, Geranium, and Lavender and the Mosquito Repellent MyggA Natural to Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) in the Laboratory and Field". Journal of Medical Entomology. 43 (4): 731–736. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[731:ROOOLE]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0022-2585. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  39. ^ Cook, Samantha M.; et al. (2007). "Responses of Phradis parasitoids to volatiles of lavender, Lavendula angustifolia —a possible repellent for their host, Meligethes aeneus". BioControl. 52 (5). Springer: 591–598. doi:10.1007/s10526-006-9057-x. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  40. ^ Oyedele, A.O.; et al. (2002). "Formulation of an effective mosquito-repellent topical product from Lemongrass oil". Phytomedicine. 9 (3): 259–262. doi:10.1078/0944-7113-00120. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  41. ^ a b Momen, F. M.; et al. (2001). "Repellent and Oviposition-Deterring Activity of Rosemary and Sweet Marjoram on the Spider Mites Tetranychus urticae and Eutetranychus orientalis (Acari: Tetranychidae)". Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica. 36 (1–2). Akadémiai Kiadó: 155–164. doi:10.1556/APhyt.36.2001.1-2.18. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  42. ^ Walker, Matt (2009-09-09). "Ancient 'smell of death' revealed". BBC - Earth News. Retrieved 2009-09-13.
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  46. ^ U.S. patent 5,738,863
  47. ^ "Common Weed, Ayurvedic Nightshade, Deadly For Dengue Mosquito". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
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  49. ^ http://www.homs.com/NEJM.pdf
  50. ^ "Catnip Drives Cats Wild, But Drives Mosquitoes Away". Iowa State University. 27 August 2001. Retrieved 1 July 2011.
  51. ^ http://www.homs.com/Johns%20Hopkins%20Report.pdf
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  53. ^ Lindsay, L.R. (1996). "Evaluation of the efficacy of 3% citronella candles and 5% citronella incense for protection against field populations of Aedes mosquitoes". Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association. 12 (2): 293–294. PMID 8827606. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  54. ^ BMJ Clinical Evidence
  55. ^ a b Ives A.R.; Paskewitz, S.M. (2005). "Testing vitamin B as a home remedy against mosquitoes". J. Am. Mosq. Control. Assoc. 21 (2): 213–217. doi:10.2987/8756-971X(2005)21[213:TVBAAH]2.0.CO;2. PMID 16033124. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  62. ^ Enayati AA, Hemingway J, Garner P., “Electronic mosquito repellents for preventing mosquito bites and malaria infection”, Cochrane Database Syst Rev., 2007 18; CD005434
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