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For the humorous entertainers, see Comedian. For the periodical containing comics, see Comic book. For the Canadian television series, see Comics!
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Comics is an artistic medium in which images incorporate text or other visual forms of information in order to express a narrative or idea. Comics frequently takes the form of juxtaposed sequences of panels of images. Textual devices such as speech balloons, captions, and sound effects (onomatopoeia) are often used to indicate dialogue and other information. Elements such as the size and placement of panels control the pacing of the narrative. Cartooning and similar forms of illustration are the most common means of image-making in comics, while fumetti is a form which uses photographs. Common forms of comics include comic books, comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, graphic novels and webcomics.

The history of comics has followed divergent paths in different cultures. American comics emerged as a mass medium in the early 20th century with the advent of newspaper comic strips; magazine-style comic books followed in the 1930s. By the mid-20th century, comics became popular in periodical and book form, especially in the US, western Europe (particularly France and Belgium), and Japan. Since the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, comics albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly common. Comics have had a lowbrow reputation for much of its history, but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater acceptance with the public and within academia.

The English term comics derives from the humorous (or "comic") work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips, though usage of the term has become standard for non-humorous works as well. It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as [manga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) for Japanese comics, or [bandes dessinées] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) for French-language comics. There is no consensus among theorists and historians on a definition of comics, with some emphasizing the combination of images and text, some sequentiality, and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the existence of recurring characters.

Origins and traditions

Main articles: History of comics and Comics by country
Early comics in the Japanese, European, and American traditions
Hokusai's Manga (early 19th century)
Rodolphe Töpffer's Histoire de Monsieur Cryptogame (1830)
Two-panel comic strip, captioned "The Yellow Kid's R-R-Revenge; Or, How the Painter's Son Got Fresh." In the first panel, the Yellow Kid chases another boy into a paint shop. In panel two, the Yellow Kid comes out of the shop, covered with different colours of paint, and says, "Hulla gee! You ought to see de odder kid say I didnt do a ting to him."
R. F. Outcault's Yellow Kid (1898)

The European, American and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths.[1] Europeans have seen their tradition as beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer's comic strips of 1830s,[2] while Americans have seen the origin of their tradition in Richard F. Outcault's 1890s newspaper strip The Yellow Kid, though many Americans have come to recognize Töpffer's precedence.[3] Japanese comics had a long prehistory of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era. [Manga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), the Japanese term for comics and cartooning, was first popularized by the artist Hokusai in the early 19th century.[citation needed] It is in the post-war era that modern Japanese comics began to flourish, when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work.[4] Towards the close of the 20th century, these three traditions have converged in a trend towards book-length comics: the comics album in Europe, the Template:Transl[a] in Japan, and the graphic novel in the English-speaking countries.[1]

Outside of these direct genealogies, comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux cave paintings in France (some of which appear to be chronological sequences of images), Egyptian hieroglyphs, Trajan's Column in Rome,[5] the 11th-century Norman Bayeux Tapestry,[6] the 1370 [bois Protat] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) woodcut, the 15th-century [Ars moriendi] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and block books, Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel,[5] and William Hogarth's 17th-century sequential engravings,[7] among others.[5][b]

A extremely long embroidered cloth depicting events leading to the Norman conquest of England.
Theorists debate whether the Bayeux Tapestry is a precursor to comics.

American comics

Main articles: History of American comics and American comic book
Five-panel comic strip.
Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff (1907–1982) was the first successful daily comic strip (1907).

American comics first became a mass medium with the spread of newspaper comic strips following the success of Outcault's The Yellow Kid.[9] Typically the strips were full-page and in colour, and soon after the spread of their popularity cartoonists experimented with sequentiality, movement, and speech balloons.[citation needed] Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the 1907 success of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff. Initially humour strips predominated, but in the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama were also popular.[10] Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s, at first reprinting newspaper comic strips; by the end of the decade, original content began to dominate.[11] The 1938 success of Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden Age of comic books, in which the superhero genre was most prominent.[12]

Superheroes have been a staple of American comic books (Wonderworld Comics #3, 1939; cover: The Flame by Will Eisner).

The popularity of superhero comic books declined following World War II,[13] while comic book sales continued to increase as genres such as romance, westerns, crime, horror, and humour proliferated.[14] Following a sales peak in the early 1950s, the content of comic books (particularly crime and horror) was subjected to scrutiny from parent groups and government agencies, which culminated in Senate hearings which led to the establishment of the Comics Code Authority self-censorship body. The Code has been blamed for stunting the growth of American comics and maintaining its low status in American society for much of the remainder of the century. Superheroes reestablished themselves as the primary comic book genre by the early 1960s.[citation needed] Underground comix challenged the Code and readers with adult, countercultural content in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[15] The underground gave birth to the alternative comics movement in the 1980s and its mature, often experimental content in non-superhero genres.[16]

Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture; cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society. In the latter half of the 20th century, popular culture won greater acceptance, and the lines between "high" and "low" culture began to blur. Comics, however, continued to be stigmatized, as the medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates.[17]

The graphic novel—book-length comics—began to gain attention when Will Eisner popularized the term with his book A Contract with God (1978).[18] The term became widely-known with the public after the commercial success of Maus, Watchmen, and The Dark Knight Returns in the mid-1980s.[19] The 21st century has seen comic strips and comic books decline in sales along with the print industry in general,[citation needed] while graphic novels have become established in mainstream bookstores[20] and libraries,[21] and webcomics became common.[citation needed]

European comics

Main articles: European comics and Franco-Belgian comics
Two middle-aged men in suits, each smiling and reading comics albums.
Belgian cartoonist Morris (right) and French writer René Goscinny, reading albums of each other's best known works: Asterix and Lucky Luke

The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer produced comic strips beginning in the 1830s,[5] as well as theories behind the form.[22] Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from the 19th century.[23] Franco-Belgian comics began to dominate, first following the success of Zig et Puce in 1925, which popularized the use of speech balloons in European comics.[24] The Adventures of Tintin, with its signature clear line style,[25] began in 1929, and became an icon of Franco-Belgian comics,[26] first serialized in newspaper comics supplements.[27]

Following the success of [Le Journal de Mickey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (1934–44),[28] dedicated comics magazines[29] and full-colour comics albums became the primary outlet for comics in the mid-20th century.[30] Similar to the US, at the time comics were seen as infantile and a threat to culture and literacy, with commentators saying that "none bear up to the slightest serious analysis",[c] and that they were "the sabotage of all art and all literature".[32][d]

In the 1960s, the term bandes dessinées ("drawn strips") began to be widely used in French to describe the medium.[33] Cartoonists began creating comics for mature audiences,[34] and the term "Ninth Art"[e] was coined, as comics began to attract public and academic attention as an artform.[35] Creators such as René Goscinny and Jean Giraud (a.k.a. "Mœbius") published their work in magazines such as Pilote (1959–59) and Métal Hurlant (1974–87).[citation needed] Towards the end of the 20th century, magazine serialization became less common as comics magazines became fewer, and many comics began to be published directly as comics albums. Smaller publishers such as L'Association[36] publishing longer works[37] in non-traditional formats[38] by auteur-istic creators also became common. Since the 1990s, mergers resulted in fewer large publishers, while smaller publishers proliferated. Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print market.[39]

Japanese comics

Main article: History of manga
Rakuten Kitazawa's created the first modern Japanese comic strip. (Tagosaku to Mokube no Tōkyō Kenbutsu,[f] 1902)

Japanese comics and cartooning ([manga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)),[g] have a history that has been seen as far back as the anthropomorphic characters in the 13th-century [Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), 17th-century [toba-e] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and [kibyōshi] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) picture books,[42] and woodblock prints such as ukiyo-e which were popular between the 17th and 20th centuries. The [kibyōshi] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) contained examples of sequential images, movement lines,[43] and sound effects.[44]

Illustrated magazines for Western expatriots introduced Western-style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century. New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular, and at the end of the 1890s, American-style newspaper comics supplements began to appear,[45] as well as some American comic strips.[42] 1900 saw the debut of the [Jiji Manga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in the [Jiji Shinpō] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern sense,[41] and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip.[46] By the 1930s, comic strips were serialized in large-circulation monthly girls' and boys' magazine, and collected into hardback volumes.[47]

The modern era of comics in Japan began after World War II, propelled by the success of the serialized comics of the prolific Osamu Tezuka,[48] and the comic strip Sazae-san.[49] Genres and audiences diversified over the following decades,[50] with comics aimed at [shōnen] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("boys") and [shōjo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("girls") audiences making up the most significant markets.[citation needed] Comics are usually first serialized in magazines which are often hundreds of pages thick and may over a dozen stories;[51] they are later compiled in tankōbon-format books.[52] At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, nearly a quarter of all printed material in Japan was comics;[53] digital forms, on cellular phones or dedicated devices, became a major form of consumption, in the early 21st century[citation needed] and translations became extremely popular in foreign markets—in some cases equalling or surpassing the sales of domestic comics.[54]

Forms and formats

Comic strips are generally short, multi-panel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers. In American comic strips, daily strips have normally occupied a single tier, while Sunday strips have been given multiple tiers. In the early 20th century, daily strips were typically in black-and-white, while Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page.[citation needed]

Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in different cultures. Comic books, primarily an American format, are thin periodicals[55] in which the contents are usually multi-page comics,[citation needed] usually in colour.[56] European and Japanese comics are frequently serialized in magazines—monthly or weekly in Europe,[41] and usually black-and-white and weekly in Japan.[57] Japanese comics magazine typically run to hundreds of pages.[58]

A comparison of book formats for comics around the world. The left group is from Japan, and shows the [tankōbon] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and the smaller [bunkobon] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) formats. Those in the middle group of Franco-Belgian comics are in the standard A4-size comic album format. The left group of graphic novels is from English-speaking countries, where there is no standard format.

Book-length comics take different forms in different cultures. European comics albums are most commonly printed in A4-size[59] colour volumes.[30] In English-speaking countries, bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels, and are available in various formats. Despite incorporating the term "novel"—a term normally associated with fiction—"graphic novel" also refers to non-fiction and collections of short works.[60] Japanese comics are collected in volumes called tankōbon following magazine serialization.[61]

Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single panel, often incorporating a caption or speech balloon. Definitions of comics which emphasize sequence usually exclude gag, editorial, and other single-panel cartoons; they can be included in definitions that emphasize the combination of word and image.[62] Gag cartoons first began to proliferate in broadsheets published in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the term "cartoon"[h] was first used to describe them in 1843 in the British humour magazine Punch.[63]

Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet. They are able to reach large audiences, and new readers usually can access archived installments.[64] Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas—meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of a page.[65]

Some consider storyboards and wordless novels to be comics.[citation needed] Film studios, especially in animation, often use sequences of images as guides for film sequences. These storyboards are not intended as an end product, and are rarely seen by the public.[66] Wordless novels are books which use sequences of captionless images to deliver a narrative, normally one image to a page.[citation needed]

Comics studies

Main article: Comics studies

"Comics ... are sometimes four-legged and sometimes two-legged and sometimes fly and sometimes don't ... to employ a metaphor as mixed a the medium itself, defining comics entails cutting a Gordian-knotted enigma wrapped in a mystery ..."

Similar to the problems of defining literature and film,[67] no consensus has been reached on a definition of the comics medium,[68] and attempted definitions and descriptions have fallen prey to numerous exceptions.[69] Theorists such as Töpffer,[70] R. C. Harvey, Will Eisner,[71] David Carrier,[72] Alain Rey,[68] and Lawrence Grove emphasize the combination of text and images,[73] though there are prominent examples of pantomime comics throughout its history.[69] Other critics, such as Thierry Groensteen[73] and Scott McCloud, have emphasized the primacy of sequences of images.[74]

European comics studies began with Töpffer's theories of his own work in the 1840s, which emphasized panel transitions and the visual–verbal combination. No further progress was made until the 1970s.[75]

The first historical overview of Japanese comics was Seiki Hosokibara's [Nihon Manga-Shi] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)[i] in 1924.[76] Early post-war Japanese criticism was mostly of a left-wing political nature until the 1986 publication for Tomofusa Kure's Modern Manga: The Complete Picture,[j] which de-emphasized politics in favour of formal aspects, such as structure and a "grammar" of comics. The field of [manga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) studies increased rapidly, with numerous books on the subject appearing in the 1990s.[77] Formal theories of [manga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) have focused on developing a "manga expression thoery",[k] with emphasis on spatial relationships in the structure of images on the page, distinguishing the medium from film or literature, in which the flow of time is the basic organizing element.[78]

An elderly man wearing glasses with a microphone in front of him on the left side.
A middle-aged man seated behind a table, facing the camera.
Will Eisner (left) and Scott McCloud have proposed influential and controversial definitions of comics.

Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with The Comics (1947).[79] Will Eisner's Comics and Sequential Art (1985) and Scott McCloud's Understanding Comics (1993) were early attempts in English to formalize the study of comics. David Carrier's The Aesthetics of Comics (2000) was the first full-length treatment of comics from a philosophical perspective.[80]

Prominent attempted definitions of comics include Eisner's, McCloud's, and Harvey's. Eisner described what he called "sequential art" as "the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea";[81] Scott McCloud defined comics "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer",[82] a strictly formal definition which detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings.[83] R. C. Harvey defined comics as "pictorial narratives or expositions in which words (often lettered into the picture area within speech balloons) usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and vice versa".[84]

Each definition has had its detractors. R. C. Harvey and others[citation needed] saw McCloud's definition as excluding single-panel cartoons, and de-emphasizing the importance of verbal elements.[85] Aaron Meskin saw it as McCloud's artificial attempt to legitimize the place of comics in art history.[71]

Vocabulary and idioms

Main article: Glossary of comics terminology

Panels are individual images containing a segment of action,[86] often surrounded by a border.[87] Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation.[88] The reader puts the pieces together by using background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into events, in a process called "closure".[89] The size, shape, an placement of panels affect the timing and pacing of the narrative.[90] The contents of a panel may by asynchronous, with events depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time.[91]

A comics panel. In the top left, a caption with a yellow background reads, "Suddenly the street is filled with angry people!" In the main panel, anthropomorphic characters crowd a sidewalk. A monkey, standing to the left on the road beside the curb, says, "Gosh! Where'd all these people come from?" An overweight male on the sidewalk in the middle facing right says to a police officer, "Hey! My watch disappeared from my parlor!" An female near the bottom right, says to a male in the bottom right corner, "My necklace! It's gone from the table!!"
A caption (the yellow box) gives the narrator a voice. The characters' dialogue appears in speech balloons. The tail of the balloon indicates the speaker.

Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech balloons, captions, and sound effects. The speech balloons indicate dialogue (or thought, in the case of thought balloons), and the tails of the balloons point at their respective speakers.[92] Captions can give voice to a narrator, convey characters' dialogue or thoughts,[93] or indicate place or time.[94] Speech balloons themselves are strongly associated with comics, such that the addition of one to an image is sufficient to turn the image into comics.[95] Sound effects mimic non-vocal sounds textually using onomatopoeia sound-words.[96]

Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics, traditionally using ink (especially India ink) with dip pens or ink brushes;[97] mixed media and digital technology have become common. Cartooning techniques such as caricature,[citation needed] motion lines,[98] and abstract symbols are often employed.[99]

Comics are often made by a single creator, but the labour of making them is also frequently divided between a number of specialists. There may be a separate writer and artist, or there may be separate artists for the characters and backgrounds (as is common in Japan). Particularly in American comic books,[citation needed] the art may be divided between a penciller, who lays out the artwork in pencil;[100] an inker, who finishes the artwork in ink;[101] a colourist;[102] and a letterer, who adds the captions and speech balloons.[103]

Etymology

The English term comics derives from the humorous (or "comic") work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips; usage of the term has become standard for non-humorous works as well. The term "comic book" has a similarly confusing history: they are most often not humorous; nor are they books, but rather periodicals.[104] It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as [manga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) for Japanese comics, or [bandes dessinées] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) for French-language Franco-Belgian comics.[citation needed]

Many cultures have taken their words for comics from English, including Russian (Template:Lang-ru, Template:Transl)[105] and German (Template:Lang-de).[106] Similarly, the Chinese term [manhua] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)[107] and the Korean [manhwa] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)[citation needed] derive from the Chinese characters 漫画 with which the Japanese term manga is written.[citation needed]

The French term for comics, [bandes dessinées] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("drawn strip") emphasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as defining factors, seeming to imply the exclusion of even photographic comics,[108] while the Japanese term manga is used to indicate all forms of comics and cartooning.[citation needed]

See also

See also lists

Notes

Template:Contains Japanese text

  1. ^ tankōbon (単行本, translation close to "independently appearing book")
  2. ^ David Kunzle has compiled extensive collections of these and other proto-comics in his The Early Comic Strip (1973) and The History of the Comic Strip (1990).[8]
  3. ^ Template:Lang-fr — Jacqueline & Raoul Dubois in [La Presse enfantine française] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (Midol, 1957)[31]
  4. ^ Template:Lang-fr — Jean de Trignon in [Histoires de la littérature enfantine de ma Mère l'Oye au Roi Babar] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (Hachette, 1950)[31]
  5. ^ Template:Lang-fr
  6. ^ Tagosaku and Mokube Sightseeing in Tokyo ([田吾作と杢兵衛の東京見物] Error: {{nihongo}}: text has italic markup (help), Hepburn: Tagosaku to Mokube no Tokyo Kenbutsu)
  7. ^ "Manga" (Japanese: 漫画) can be translated many ways, among them "whimsical pictures", "disreputable pictures"[40] "derisory pictures", and "sketches made for or out of a sudden inspiration".[41]
  8. ^ "cartoon": from the Italian [cartone] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), meaning "card", which referred to the cardboard on which the cartoons were typically drawn.[63]
  9. ^ Hosokibara, Seiki (1924). 日本漫画史. Yuzankaku. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ Kure, Tomofusa (1986). 現代漫画の全体像. Joho Center Publishing. ISBN 4575710903. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)[77]
  11. ^ "Manga expression theory" (Japanese: 漫画表現論, Hepburn: manga hyōgenron)[78]

References

  1. ^ a b Couch 2000.
  2. ^ Grove 2005, p. 43.
  3. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beerbohm 2003; Sabin 2005, p. 186; Rowland 1990, p. 13.
  4. ^ Couch 2000; Petersen 2010, p. 175.
  5. ^ a b c d Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv.
  6. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beaty 2012, p. 61; Grove 2010, pp. 16, 21, 59.
  7. ^ Grove 2010, p. 79.
  8. ^ Beaty 2012, p. 62.
  9. ^ Weiner 2003, p. 1.
  10. ^ Harvey 1994, p. 11.
  11. ^ Rhoades 2008, p. 2.
  12. ^ Rhoades 2008, p. x.
  13. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. 51.
  14. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. 49.
  15. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. 66.
  16. ^ Hatfield 2005, pp. 20, 26; Lopes 2009, p. 123; Rhoades 2008, p. 140.
  17. ^ Lopes 2009, pp. xx–xxi.
  18. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 222.
  19. ^ Kaplan 2008, p. 172; Sabin 1993, p. 246; Stringer 1996, p. 262; Ahrens & Meteling 2010, p. 1; Williams & Lyons 2010, p. 7.
  20. ^ Gabilliet 2010, pp. 210–211.
  21. ^ Lopes 2009, p. 151–152.
  22. ^ Harvey 2010.
  23. ^ Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.
  24. ^ Vessels 2010, p. 45; Miller 2007, p. 17.
  25. ^ Screech 2005, p. 27; Miller 2007, p. 18.
  26. ^ Theobald 2004, p. 82; Screech 2005, p. 48.
  27. ^ Miller 2007, p. 17.
  28. ^ Grove 2005, pp. 76–78.
  29. ^ Petersen 2010, pp. 214–215; Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.
  30. ^ a b Petersen 2010, pp. 214–215.
  31. ^ a b Grove 2005, p. 46.
  32. ^ Grove 2005, pp. 45–46.
  33. ^ Grove 2005, p. 51.
  34. ^ Miller 1998, p. 116; Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.
  35. ^ Miller 2007, p. 23.
  36. ^ Beaty 2007, p. 9.
  37. ^ Lefèvre 2010, pp. 189–190.
  38. ^ Grove 2005, p. 153.
  39. ^ Miller 2007, pp. 49–53.
  40. ^ Karp & Kress 2011, p. 19.
  41. ^ a b c Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 22.
  42. ^ a b Schodt 1996, p. 22.
  43. ^ Mansfield 2009, p. 253.
  44. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 42.
  45. ^ Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 21–22.
  46. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 128; Gravett 2004, p. 21.
  47. ^ Schodt 1996, p. 22; Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 23–24.
  48. ^ Gravett 2004, p. 24.
  49. ^ MacWilliams 2008, p. 3; Hashimoto & Traphagan 2008, p. 21; Sugimoto 2010, p. 255; Gravett 2004, p. 8.
  50. ^ Schodt 1996, p. 28.
  51. ^ Schodt 1996, p. 23; Gravett 2004, pp. 13–14.
  52. ^ Gravett 2004, p. 14.
  53. ^ Brenner 2007, p. 13; Lopes 2009, p. 152; Raz 1999, p. 162; Jenkins 2004, p. 121.
  54. ^ Lee 2010, p. 158.
  55. ^ Orr 2008, p. 11.
  56. ^ Orr 2008, p. 10.
  57. ^ Schodt 1996, p. 23; Orr 2008, p. 10.
  58. ^ Schodt 1996, p. 23.
  59. ^ Grove 2010, p. 24.
  60. ^ Goldsmith 2005, p. 16; Karp & Kress 2011, pp. 4–6.
  61. ^ Poitras 2001, p. 66–67.
  62. ^ a b Harvey 2001, p. 76.
  63. ^ a b Harvey 2001, p. 77.
  64. ^ Petersen 2010, pp. 234–236.
  65. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 234; McCloud 2000, p. 222.
  66. ^ Rhoades 2008, p. 38.
  67. ^ Groensteen 2012, pp. 128–129.
  68. ^ a b Groensteen 2012, p. 124.
  69. ^ a b Groensteen 2012, p. 126.
  70. ^ Thomas 2010, p. 158.
  71. ^ a b Beaty 2012, p. 65.
  72. ^ Groensteen 2012, pp. 126, 131.
  73. ^ a b Grove 2010, pp. 17–19.
  74. ^ Thomas 2010, pp. 157, 170.
  75. ^ Miller 2007, p. 101.
  76. ^ Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 23.
  77. ^ a b Kinsella 2000, pp. 96–97.
  78. ^ a b Kinsella 2000, p. 100.
  79. ^ Inge 1989, p. 214.
  80. ^ Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxix.
  81. ^ Yuan 2011; Eisner 1985, p. 5.
  82. ^ Kovacs & Marshall 2011, p. 10; Holbo 2012, p. 13; Harvey 2010, p. 1; Beaty 2012, p. 6; McCloud 1993, p. 9.
  83. ^ Beaty 2012, p. 67.
  84. ^ Chute 2010, p. 7; Harvey 2001, p. 76.
  85. ^ Harvey 2010, p. 1.
  86. ^ Lee 1978, p. 15.
  87. ^ Eisner 1985, pp. 28, 45.
  88. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 10.
  89. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 316.
  90. ^ Eisner 1985, p. 30.
  91. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 12–13.
  92. ^ Lee 1978, p. 15; Markstein 2010; Eisner 1985, p. 157; Dawson 2010, p. 112; Saraceni 2003, p. 9.
  93. ^ Lee 1978, p. 15; Lyga & Lyga 2004.
  94. ^ Saraceni 2003, p. 9; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 18.
  95. ^ Forceville, Veale & Feyaerts 2010, p. 56.
  96. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, pp. 156, 318.
  97. ^ Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978, p. 145; Rhoades 2008, p. 139.
  98. ^ Bramlett 2012, p. 25; Guigar 2010, p. 126; Cates 2010, p. 98.
  99. ^ Goldsmith 2005, p. 21; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 13–14.
  100. ^ Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161.
  101. ^ Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978, p. 145.
  102. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315.
  103. ^ Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 163.
  104. ^ Groensteen 2012, p. 131 (translator's note).
  105. ^ Alaniz 2010, p. 7.
  106. ^ Frahm 2003.
  107. ^ Wong 2002, p. 11.
  108. ^ Groensteen 2012, p. 130.

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