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Christian ethics

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Christian ethics is a branch of Christian theology that recommends concepts of right and wrong behavior from a Christian perspective.

While it does deal with the life and teaches of Jesus, Judaism and pagan ethics also inform Christian ethics.[1] "Comprehensive Christian ethical writings use four distinguishable sources: (1) the Bible and the Christian tradition, (2) philosophical principles and methods, (3) science and other sources of knowledge about the world, and (4) human experience broadly conceived."[2] Although informed by numerous sources, the Christian Bible figures prominently in Christian ethics. According to Long, "Christian ethics finds its source in diverse means, but it primarily emerges from the biblical narrative" and various accounts in the Old Testament[3], of which Christians hold different views. According to The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics, "The Bible is the universal and fundamental source of specifically Christian ethics."[4]

Christian ethics developed in the first centuries of the Christian Era in the early centers of Christianity. Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire erupted periodically, beginning with the Crucifixion of Jesus in Roman Judaea (c.30-33 AD) to the time Nero blamed Christians for setting Rome ablaze (64 AD) until Galerius (311 AD) and the Peace of the Church (313 AD). Consequently, Early Christian ethics included discussions of how believers should relate to Roman authority and to the empire. In the 13th century Thomas Aquinas and others derived the Four Cardinal Virtues from Plato (justice, courage, temperance, prudence) and added to them the Theological Virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity (cf. 1 Corinthians 13), together known as the Seven Virtues. Other schema include the Seven Deadly Sins.

Christian ethics have been criticized for a variety of reasons, including Jesus' teachings, even during his earthly ministry, and in the analysis and interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount.

Early Church

See also: Expounding of the Law, Law of Christ, and Jesus § Teachings and preachings

The New Testament generally asserts that all morality flows from the Great Commandment, to love God with all one's heart, mind, strength, and soul, and to love one's neighbor as oneself. In this, Jesus was reaffirming the teaching of the Torah. (Deut 6:4–9 and Lev 19:18) Christ united these commands together and proposed himself as a model of the love required in John 13:12, known also as The New Commandment.

Paul teaches (Epistle to the Romans 2:14ff) that God has written his moral law in the hearts of all men, even of those outside the influence of Christian revelation. This law manifests itself in the conscience of every man and is the norm according to which the whole human race will be judged on the day of reckoning. Paul writes that in consequence of people's perverse inclinations, this law has become, to a great extent, obscured and distorted.

Under the Emperor Constantine I (312-337), Christianity became a legal religion. The Edict of Milan made the empire safe for Christian practice and belief. Consequently, issues of Christian doctrine, ethics and church practice were debated openly at the First seven Ecumenical Councils. By the time of Theodosius I (379-395), Christianity had become the State church of the Roman Empire. With Christianity now in power, ethical concerns broadened and included discussions of the proper role of the state.

The Church Fathers had little occasion to treat moral questions from a purely philosophical standpoint and independently of divine revelation, but in the explanation of Christian doctrine their discussions naturally led to philosophical investigations. Ecclesiastical writers, such as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine of Hippo all wrote on ethics from a distinctly Christian point of view. They made use of philosophical and ethical principles laid down by their Greek philosopher forbears (see also: Hellenistic Judaism).

This is particularly true of Augustine, who proceeded to develop thoroughly along philosophical lines and to establish firmly most of the truths of Christian morality. The eternal law (lex aeterna), the original type and source of all temporal laws, the natural law, conscience, the ultimate end of man, the cardinal virtues, sin, marriage, etc. were treated by him in the clearest and most penetrating manner. Broadly speaking, Augustine adapted the philosophy of Plato to Christian principles. His synthesis is called Augustinianism (alternatively, Augustinism). He presents hardly a single portion of ethics to us but what he does present is enriched with his keen philosophical commentaries. Late ecclesiastical writers followed in his footsteps.

The Bible and Christian ethics

Much of Christian ethics derives from Biblical scripture. According to the Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics, "There is no 'Christian ethics' that would deny the authority of the Bible, for apart from scripture the Christian church has no enduring identity".[5] It further states that

Christian churches have always considered it a part of their calling to teach, reprove, correct, and train in righteousness, and they have always considered the Bible 'profitable' for that task. With virtually one voice the churches have declared that the Bible is an authority for moral discernment and judgment. And Christian ethicists—at least those who consider their work part of the common life of the Christian community—have shared this affirmation.[6]

The link between scripture and Christian ethics is further highlighted as follows: "Fundamentalism's identification of the human words of scripture with the word of God has justified an identification of biblical ethics with Christian ethics."[7] "The Prophets ground their appeals for right conduct in God's demand for righteousness."[8] On the other hand, "It is not ... true to say that for the OT writers righteousness is defined by what God does; i.e., an act is not made righteous by the fact that God does it.[9] Also noted as ethical guidelines adhered to by Old Testament figures is "maintenance of the family", "safeguarding of the family property", and "maintenance of the community".[10]

Many biblical accounts inform Christian ethics. This includes the Noahic Covenant; the commandments which "were often reduced to three by Christians: avoid fornication, bloodshed, and blasphemy or idolatry"[11], for example at the Council of Jerusalem. Augustine identified a movement in Scripture "toward the 'City of God', from which Christian ethics emerges", as illustrated in chapters 11 and 12 of the book of Genesis.[12] Although Christians today "do not feel compelled to observe all 613" of the commandments described in Exodus, the Ten Commandments figure prominently in Christian ethics.[13]

Various issues today are informed by biblical passages in the Old and New Testaments. For example, although scripture is mostly silent on abortion, various elements of scripture inform Christian ethical views on this topic, including Genesis 4:1; Job 31:15; Isaiah 44:24, 49:1, 5; and Jeremiah 1:5, among others.[14] The Old Testament provides advice on adultery in Exodus's seventh commandment, as well as the New Testament Gospel of Matthew.[15] Christian views on divorce are informed by verses in Deuteronomy, Matthew, Mark, and others.[16] Homosexuality is discussed in the Old and New Testament as well; for example, male homosexual acts merit the death penalty in Leviticus 18.[17] Constraints on sexual conduct are heavily discussed in the Bible's Old and New Testaments.[18] For example, The Old Testament "presents procreative marriage as the norm".[19]

There are various views on how to interpret Christian ethics in relation to Biblical scripture. For example, "Many Christian ethicists have claimed that Jesus Christ is the center of the biblical message in its entirety and the key to scripture".[20] Other Christian ethicists "prefer a more Trinitarian rendering of the message of scripture".[21] Some modern Christian ethicists "understand 'liberation' or deliverance from oppression to be the message of scripture"[22]

Scholasticism

See also: Thomism and Scholasticism

A sharper line of separation between philosophy and theology, and in particular between ethics and moral theology, is first met with in the works of the great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages, especially of Albertus Magnus (1193–1280), Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), Bonaventure (1221–1274), and Duns Scotus (1274–1308). Philosophy and, by means of it, theology reaped abundant fruit from the works of Aristotle, which had until then been a sealed treasure to Western civilization, and had first been elucidated by the detailed and profound commentaries of Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas and pressed into the service of Christian philosophy.

The same is particularly true as regards ethics. Thomas, in his commentaries on the political and ethical writings of Aristotle, in his Summa contra Gentiles and his Quaestiones disputatae, treated with his wonted clearness and penetration nearly the whole range of ethics in a purely philosophical manner, so that even to the present day his words are an inexhaustible source from which ethics draws its supply. On the foundations laid by him the Catholic philosophers and theologians of succeeding ages have continued to build. In his Summa Theologiae, Thomas locates ethics within the context of theology. The question of beatiudo, perfect happiness in the possession of God, is posited as the goal of human life. Thomas also argues that the human being by reflection on human nature's inclinations discovers a law, that is the natural law, which is "man's participation in the divine law."[1]

In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, thanks especially to the influence of the so-called Nominalists, a period of stagnation and decline set in, but the sixteenth century is marked by a revival. Ethical questions, also, though largely treated in connection with theology, are again made the subject of careful investigation. Examples include the theologians Francisco de Vitoria, Dominicus Soto, Luis de Molina, Francisco Suarez, Leonardus Lessius, Juan de Lugo, Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, and Alphonsus Liguori. Among topics they discussed was the ethics of action in case of doubt, leading to the doctrine of probabilism. Since the sixteenth century, special chairs of ethics (moral philosophy) have been erected in many Catholic universities. The larger, purely philosophical works on ethics, however, do not appear until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as an example of which we may instance the production of Ign. Schwarz, "Instituitiones juris universalis naturae et gentium" (1743).

Protestant ethics

See also: Abrogation of Old Covenant laws

With the rejection of the doctrine of papal infallibility and the Roman Magisterium as the absolute religious authority, each individual, at least in principle, became the arbiter in matters pertaining to faith and morals. The Reformers held fast to Sola Scriptura and many endeavored to construct an ethical system directly from the scriptures.

Lutheran Philipp Melanchthon, in his "Elementa philosophiae moralis", still clung to the Aristotelian philosophy strongly rejected by Martin Luther, as did Hugo Grotius in De jure belli et pacis. But Richard Cumberland and his follower Samuel Pufendorf assumed, with Descartes, that the ultimate ground for every distinction between good and evil lay in the free determination of God's will, an antinomian view which renders the philosophical treatment of ethics fundamentally impossible.

In the 20th century some Christian philosophers, notably Dietrich Bonhoeffer, questioned the value of ethical reasoning in moral philosophy. In this school of thought, ethics, with its focus on distinguishing right from wrong, tends to produce behavior that is simply not wrong, whereas the Christian life should instead be marked by the highest form of right. Rather than ethical reasoning, they stress the importance of meditation on, and relationship with, God.

Criticism

See also: Ethics in the Bible

Simon Blackburn gives criticism that "Bible can be read as giving us a carte blanche for harsh attitudes to children, the mentally handicapped, animals, the environment, the divorced, unbelievers, people with various sexual habits, and elderly women".[23] Blackburn criticizes what he terms morally suspect themes of the New Testament.[24] He notes some "moral quirks" of Jesus: that he could be "sectarian" (Matt 10:5–6), racist (Matt 15:26 and Mark 7:27), and placed no value on animal life (Luke 8: 27–33).

Elizabeth Anderson, a Professor of Philosophy and Women's Studies, states that "the Bible contains both good and evil teachings", and it is "morally inconsistent".[25] Anderson criticizes what she terms morally repugnant lessons of the New Testament. She claims that "Jesus tells us his mission is to make family members hate one another, so that they shall love him more than their kin (Matt 10:35-37)", that "Disciples must hate their parents, siblings, wives, and children (Luke 14:26)", and that Peter and Paul elevate men over their wives "who must obey their husbands as gods" (1 Corinthians 11:3, 14:34-5, Eph. 5:22-24, Col. 3:18, 1 Tim. 2: 11-2, 1 Pet. 3:1).[26] Anderson states that the Gospel of John implies that "infants and anyone who never had the opportunity to hear about Christ are damned [to hell], through no fault of their own".[27]

See also

References

  1. ^ Long, D. Stephen (2010). Christian Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-19-956886-4.
  2. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  3. ^ Long, D. Stephen (2010). Christian Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-19-956886-4.
  4. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  5. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 60. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  6. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  7. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  8. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 434. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  9. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 437. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  10. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. pp. 435–436. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  11. ^ Long, D. Stephen (2010). Christian Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-0-19-956886-4.
  12. ^ Long, D. Stephen (2010). Christian Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-0-19-956886-4.
  13. ^ Long, D. Stephen (2010). Christian Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-19-956886-4.
  14. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  15. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 10. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  16. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 161. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  17. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 272. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  18. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 580. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  19. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 580. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  20. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  21. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  22. ^ Childress, (ed) James F.; Macquarrie, (ed) John (1986). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-664-20940-8. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  23. ^ Blackburn, Simon (2001). Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-19-280442-6.
  24. ^ Blackburn, Simon (2001). Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-0-19-280442-6.
  25. ^ Elizabeth Anderson, "If God is Dead, Is Everything Permitted?" In Hitchens, Christopher (2007). The Portable Atheist: Essential Readings for the Nonbeliever. Philadelphia: Da Capo Press. p. 336. ISBN 978-0-306-81608-6.
  26. ^ Elizabeth Anderson, "If God is Dead, Is Everything Permitted?" In Hitchens, Christopher (2007). The Portable Atheist: Essential Readings for the Nonbeliever. Philadelphia: Da Capo Press. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-306-81608-6.
  27. ^ Elizabeth Anderson, "If God is Dead, Is Everything Permitted?" In Hitchens, Christopher (2007). The Portable Atheist: Essential Readings for the Nonbeliever. Philadelphia: Da Capo Press. p. 339. ISBN 978-0-306-81608-6.

Further reading

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