Formability
Metallic materials have the ability of undergoing plastic deformation without damage. Thus these materials can be shaped into desired geometries of semifinished (e. g. by rolling, extrusion) or finished products (e. g. by forging, rollforming, stamping, hotstamping, packaging, hydroforming). A major industry is processing parts by stamping sheets. Parts like washing machine panels or structural as well as outer automotive panels of complex shape may be produced. Another major industry is processing rollformed profiles which can be used in the building (e. g. window- or doorframes, columns) or automotive sector (e. g. reinforcing profiles in doors). The advantage of the (plastic) forming capability of metallic materials can thus be utilized in many ways, as is indicated above. Plastic deformation occurs in the way that the shape of bodies can be changed without any volume change. This mechanism can be explained by a rearrangement of atomic structure with the shear stress being the driving force for such dislocation movements (see also plasticity (physics)). The plastic deformation capacity of metallic materials however has its limits. There are several modes of failure that can occur and this is where the formability as material property comes in.
Fracture strain
A very general parameter that indicates the formability and the ductility of a material is the fracture strain from a uniaxial tensile test (see also fracture toughness). The strain taken from this test is defined by the elongation with respect to a reference length (e. g. 80 mm for the standardized uniaxial test of flat specimens according to EN 10002 [1] ). It has to be noted that up to the uniform elongation the deformation is homogeneous, subsequently localized straining takes place until fracture occurs. The fracture strain is not a physical strain since within the reference strain there is an inhomogeneous distribution of the deformation within the reference length. Nevertheless the fracture strain is a rough indicator of the formability of a material. Typical values of the fracture strain are 7% for ultra high strength material and well over 50% for mild strength steel.
Forming limits for sheet forming
One main failure mode is caused by tearing the material. This is typical for sheet forming applications. [2] [3] [4] At a certain forming stage a neck may be appear. This is an indication of localized plastic deformation. Whereas in the early stable deformation stage a more or less homogeneous deformation takes place in and around the subsequent neck location, almost all deformation concentrates in the neck zone in this quasistable and instable deformation phase which leads to failure of the material by tearing. Forming limit curves display extreme but still safe deformation a sheet material may undergo at any location in the stamping process. These limits depend on the deformation mode, the ratio of the surface strains. The major surface strain has a minimum value when plane strain deformation occurs, this means that the corresponding surface strain is zero. Forming limits are a specific material property. Typical plane strain values range from 10% for high strength and 50% and above for mild strength and very good formable sheet materials.
Deepdrawability
A classic form of sheetforming is deep drawing. This is done by drawing a sheet using a punch tool (acting in the inner region of the sheet) whereas the material from the side which is held by a blankholder can draw inside. It has been observed that materials with outstanding deepdrawability behave anisotropic (anisotropy). The plastic deformation in the surface is much more pronounced than in the thickness. The lankford coefficient ( r ) is a specific material property which displays the ratio of the width deformation versus the thickness deformation for the uniaxial tensile test. Materials with very good deepdrawability have a r value of 2 and above. One can understand this positive aspect of formability with respect to the forming limit curve (forming limit diagram) in the way that the deformation paths of the material are concentrated on the very left side of the diagram where the forming limits become very large.
Ductility
Another failure mode that may occur without undergoing the tearing mode is ductile fracture after plastic deformation (ductility). This may happen due to shear deformation (inplane or shear through the thickness) or due to bending. The failure mechanism may be understood by void nucleation and expansion on a microscopic level. Microcracks and subsequent macrocracks may appear when deformation of the material between the voids has exceeded its limit. Research has been very active in recent years in order to understand and model ductile fracture. The approach taken is to identify ductile forming limits using various small scale tests which exhibit different strain ratios or stress triaxialities. [5] [6] A good practical measure for this type of forming limit is a minimum radius for rollforming applications (e. g. half the sheet thickness for materials with good and 3 times the sheet thickness for materials with low formability).
Use of formability parameters
Knowledge of the material formability is very important for the layout and design of any industrial forming process. Here simulation with the finite element method along with the use of formability criterions like the forming limit curve (forming limit diagram) enhances and in some cases is indispensable for certain tool design processes (see also sheet metal forming analysis).
IDDRG
One major objective of the international deep drawing research group (IDDRG) [7] is the investigation, exchange and dissemination of knowledge and experience about the formability of sheet materials.
External links
Literature
- ^ DIN EN 10002-1 2001-12: “Metallische Werkstoffe – Zugversuch, Teil1: Prüfverfahren bei Raumtemperatur“.
- ^ Pearce, R.: “Sheet Metal Forming”, Adam Hilger, 1991, ISBN 0-7503-0101-5.
- ^ Koistinen, D. P.; Wang, N.-M. edts.: „Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming – Material Behavior and Deformation analysis“, Plenum Press, 1978, ISBN 0-306-40068-5.
- ^ Marciniak, Z.; Duncan, J.: “The Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming”, Edward Arnold, 1992, ISBN 0-340-56405-9.
- ^ Hooputra, H.; Gese, H.; Dell, H.; Werner, H.: "A comprehensive failure model for crashworthiness simulation of aluminium extrusions", IJ Crash 2004 Vol 9, No. 5, pp. 449-463.
- ^ Wierzbicki, T.; Bao, Y.; Lee, Y.-W.; Bai, Y.: “Calibration and Evaluation of Seven Fracture Models”, Int. J. Mech. Sci., Vol. 47, 719 – 743, 2005.
- ^ Col, A.: “How started IDDRG?” in ‘Tools and Technologies for the Processing of Ultra High Strength Steels´, iddrg conference proceedings, Kolleck, R. (edt.), Verlag der Technischen Universität Graz, 2010, ISBN 978-3-85125-108-1.