Insect repellent
An insect repellent is a substance applied to skin, clothing, or other surfaces which discourages insects (and arthropods in general) from landing or climbing on that surface. There are also insect repellent products available based on sound production, particularly ultrasound (inaudibly high frequency sounds). These electronic devices have been shown to have no effect as a mosquito repellent by studies done by the EPA and many universities.[1]
Insect repellents help prevent and control the outbreak of insect-borne diseases such as malaria, Lyme disease, Dengue fever, bubonic plague, and West Nile fever. Pest animals commonly serving as vectors for disease include the insects flea, fly, and mosquito; and the arachnid tick.
Common insect repellents include:
- DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide)
- Essential oil of the lemon eucalyptus (Corymbia citriodora) and its active compound p-menthane-3,8-diol (PMD)
- Icaridin, also known as picaridin, Bayrepel, and KBR 3023
- Nepetalactone, also known as "catnip oil"
- Citronella oil
- Permethrin
- Neem oil
- Bog Myrtle
Usually insect repellents work by masking human scent, or by using a scent which insects naturally avoid.[citation needed] Permethrin is different in that it is actually a contact insecticide.
Repellent effectiveness
Synthetic repellents tend to be more effective and/or longer lasting than 'natural' repellents.[2][3] However, some plant-based repellents may provide effective relief as well.[2][3][4] Essential oil repellents can be short-lived in their effectiveness, since essential oils can evaporate completely.
A test of various insect repellents by an independent consumer organization found that repellents containing DEET or picaridin are more effective than repellents with 'natural' active ingredients. All the synthetics gave almost 100% repellency for the first 2 hours, where the natural repellent products were most effective for the first 30–60 minutes, and required reapplication to be effective over several hours.[5]
For protection against mosquitos, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control issued a statement in May 2008 recommending equally DEET, picaridin, oil of lemon eucalyptus and IR3535 for skin.[6] Permethrin is recommended for clothing, gear, or bed nets.[2] In an earlier report, the CDC found oil of lemon eucalyptus to be more effective than other plant-based treatments, with a similar effectiveness to low concentrations of DEET.[6] However, a 2006 published study found in both cage and field studies that a product containing 40% oil of lemon eucalyptus was just as effective as products containing high concentrations of DEET.[7] Research has also found that neem oil is mosquito repellent for up to 12 hours.[4] Citronella oil's mosquito repellency has also been verified by research,[8] including effectiveness in repelling Aedes aegypti,[9][10] but requires reapplication after 30–60 minutes.
Repellent safety



Regarding safety with insect repellent use on children and pregnant women:
- Children may be at greater risk for adverse reactions to repellents, in part, because their exposure may be greater.
- Keep repellents out of the reach of children.
- Do not allow children to apply repellents to themselves.
- Use only small amounts of repellent on children.
- Do not apply repellents to the hands of young children because this may result in accidental eye contact or ingestion.
- Try to reduce the use of repellents by dressing children in long sleeves and long pants tucked into boots or socks whenever possible. Use netting over strollers, playpens, etc.
- As with chemical exposures in general, pregnant women should take care to avoid exposures to repellents when practical, as the fetus may be vulnerable.
Regardless of which repellent product used, it is recommended that the label is read before use and directions carefully followed.[11] Usage instructions for repellents vary from country to country. Some insect repellents are not recommended for use on younger children.[6]
In the DEET Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported 14 to 46 cases of potential DEET associated seizures, including 4 deaths. The EPA states: "... it does appear that some cases are likely related to DEET toxicity," but observed that with 30% of the US population using DEET, the likely seizure rate is only about one per 100 million users.[12]
The Pesticide Information Project of Cooperative Extension Offices of Cornell University states that, "Everglades National Park employees having extensive DEET exposure were more likely to have insomnia, mood disturbances and impaired cognitive function than were lesser exposed co-workers".[13]
The EPA states that citronella oil shows little or no toxicity and has been used as a topical insect repellent for 60 years. However, the EPA also states that citronella may irritate skin and cause dermatitis in certain individuals.[14] Canadian regulatory authorities concern with citronella based repellents is primarily based on data-gaps in toxicology, not on incidents.[15][16]
Within countries of the European Union, Implementation of Regulation 98/8/EC, commonly referred to as the Biocidal Products Directive, has severely limited the number and type of insect repellents available to European Consumers. Only a small number of active ingredients have been supported by manufacturers in submitting dossiers to the EU Authorities. In general, only formulations containing Deet, Picaridin (also known as Saltidin or Bayrepel) and Citridiol are available. Most "natural" insect repellents such as Citronella, Neem Oil, Herbal Extracts are no longer permitted for sale as insect repellents in the EU (Although this does not preclude them from being sold for "other" purposes, as long as the label does not indicate they are a biocide (insect repellent)
- 1 attractiant is co2
Insect repellents from natural sources
There are many preparations from naturally occurring sources that are repellent to certain insects. Some of these act as insecticides while others are only repellent.
- Achillea alpina (mosquitos)
- alpha-terpinene (mosquitos)[17]
- Basil[18] (NB: a dose similar to the one as a food ingredient should be used for the time being.)
- Callicarpa americana (Beautyberry)[19]
- Camphor (moths)[20]
- Carvacrol (mosquitos)[17]
- Castor oil (Ricinus communis) (mosquitos)[21]
- Catnip oil (Nepeta species) (nepetalactone against mosquitos)[22]
- Cedar oil (mosquitos, moths)[21]
- Celery extract (Apium graveolens) (mosquitos)[17] In clinical testing an extract of celery was demonstrated to be at least equally effective to 25% DEET[23], although the commercial availability of such an extract is not known.
- Cinnamon[24] (leaf oil kills mosquito larvae)[25]
- Citronella oil (repels mosquitos)[21]
- Clove oil (mosquitos)[21] (NB: a dose similar to the one as a food ingredient should be used for the time being.)
- Eucalyptus oil (70%+ eucalyptol), (cineol is a synonym), mosquitos, flies, dust mites[26])
- Fennel oil (Foeniculum vulgare) (mosquitos)[17]
- Garlic (Allium sativum) (rice weevil, wheat flour beetle)[27] (NB: a dose similar to the one as a food ingredient should be used for the time being)
- Geranium oil (also known as Pelargonium graveolens) [28], [21]
- Lavender (repels insects) [29][30]
- Lemon eucalyptus (Corymbia citriodora) essential oil and its active ingredient p-menthane-3,8-diol (PMD)
- Lemongrass[31] (NB: a dose similar to the one as a food ingredient should be used for the time being.)
- Lemongrass oil (Cymbopogon species) (mosquitos)[21]
- Marigolds (Tagetes species)
- Marjoram (Spider mites Tetranychus urticae and Eutetranychus orientalis)[32]
- Neem oil (Azadirachta indica) (Repels or kills mosquitos, their larvae and a plethora of other insects including those in agriculture)
- Oleic acid, repels bees and ants by simulating the "Smell of death" produced by their decomposing corpses. It is a 400 millions years old natural mechanisms helping to sanitise the hives or to escape predators[33]
- Peppermint (Mentha x piperita) (mosquitos)[34]
- Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) (mosquitos,[26] fleas[35]), but very toxic to pets.[35]
- Pyrethrum (from Chrysanthemum species, particularly C. cinerariifolium and C. coccineum)
- Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) [32] (mosquitos)[21]
- Spanish Flag Lantana camara (against Tea Mosquito Bug, Helopeltis theivora) [36]
- Solanum villosum berry juice (against Stegomyia aegypti mosquitos)[37]
- Tea tree[38]
- Thyme (Thymus species)(mosquitos)[17]
Inactive substances
Essential oils such as geranium oil have no effect.[2][39]
Other commercial products offered for household mosquito "control" include small electrical mats, mosquito repellent vapor, DEET-impregnated wrist bands, and mosquito coils containing a form of the chemical allethrin. Mosquito-repellent candles containing citronella oil are sold widely in the U.S. All of these have been used with mixed reports of success and failure.
Less effective methods
Some old studies suggested that the ingestion of large doses of thiamin could be effective as a oral insect repellent against mosquito bites. However, there is now conclusive evidence that thiamin has no efficacy against mosquito bites. [40][41][42][43] Some claim that plants like wormwood or sagewort, lemon balm, lemon grass, lemon thyme and the mosquito plant (Pelargonium) will act against mosquitoes. However, scientists have determined that these plants are “effective” for a limited time only when the leaves are crushed and applied directly to the skin.[44]
There are several, widespread, unproven theories about mosquito control such as the assertion that vitamin B, in particular B1 (thiamine), garlic, ultrasonic devices, incense, can be used to repel or control mosquitoes.[45][46] Moreover, some manufacturers of "mosquito repelling" ultrasonic devices have been found to be fraudulent,[47] and their devices were deemed "useless" in tests by the UK Consumer magazine Which?[48], and according to a review of scientific studies [49]
See also
- List of organic fumigants
- Insecticide
- Mosquito control
- Mosquito net
- Pest control
- Category:Insecticide brands
- RID Insect Repellent
- Slug tape
References
- Iowa State University Study: Nepetalactone 10 times more effective than DEET
- EU Biocidal Products Directive 98/8/EC
Notes
- ^ "Mosquito repellents that emit high-pitched sounds don't prevent bites" (Press release). EurekaAlert. April 17, 2007.
- ^ a b c d M. S. Fradin and J. F. Day (2002). "Comparative Efficacy of Insect Repellents against Mosquito Bites". N Engl J Med. 347 (1): 13–18. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa011699. PMID 12097535.
- ^ a b Collins, D.A. (1993). "Assessment of the efficacy of Quwenling as a Mosquito repellent". Phytotherapy Research. 7 (1): 17–20. doi:10.1002/ptr.2650070106.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Mishra AK, Singh N, Sharma VP, 1995 "Use of neem oil as a mosquito repellent in tribal villages of mandla district, madhya pradesh", Indian J Malariol, Sep;32(3):99-103 Pubmed
- ^ "Test: Mosquito Repellents, The Verdict" Choice, The Australian Consumers Association
- ^ a b c "Updated Information regarding Insect Repellents". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 8 May 2008. Cite error: The named reference "CDC" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Carroll SP, Loye J, 2006, Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 22(3):507-514, 510
- ^ Jeong-Kyu KIM, Chang-Soo KANG, Jong-Kwon LEE, Young-Ran KIM, Hye-Yun HAN, Hwa Kyung YUN, Evaluation of Repellency Effect of Two Natural Aroma Mosquito Repellent Compounds, Citronella and Citronellal, Entomological Research 35 (2), 117–120, 2005
- ^ Ibrahim Jantan, and Zaridah Mohd. Zaki, Development of environment-friendly insect repellents from the leaf oils of selected Malaysian plants, ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC), May 1998.
- ^ Trongtokit Y, Rongsriyan Y, Komalamisra N, Apiwathnasom L, Comparative repellency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites, Phytother Res. 2005 Apr;19(4):303-9 [1]
- ^ "Health Advisory: Tick and Insect Repellents", Information factsheet, Department of Health, New York State
- ^ "Reregistration Eligibility Decision: DEET." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. September 1998. pp39-40
- ^ Deet
- ^ "U.S. EPA Citronella Factsheet". Retrieved July 20, 2007.
- ^ Re-evaluation of Citronella Oil and Related Active Compounds for Use as Personal Insect Repellents (PDF). Pest Management Regulatory Agency (Canada). 17 September 2004. ISBN 0-662-38012-6.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ "So Then: Who’s Afraid of Citronella Oil? Update!" Cropwatch Newsletter Vol 2,Issue 1, No. 1
- ^ a b c d e "Natural Mosquito Repellents - Which Natural Mosquito Repellents Work Best?". altmedicine.about.com. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ Taverne, Janice (2001). "Malaria on the Web and the mosquito-repellent properties of basil". Trends in Parasitology. 17 (6): 299–300. doi:10.1016/S1471-4922(01)01978-X.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ "A Granddad's Advice May Help Thwart Mosquitoes". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ "Camphor (white)". www.aromatherapy-oil.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Natural Mosquito Repellents". chemistry.about.com. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ "Catnip Repels Mosquitoes More Effectively Than DEET". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18853188?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=2&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed
- ^ Beck, Leslie. "Cinnamon — December 2006's Featured Food". Retrieved 2007-05-01.
- ^ "Cinnamon Oil Kills Mosquitoes". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ a b "Natural Insect and Rodent Repellents - Quick & Simple". www.quickandsimple.com. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
- ^ Rahman, G. K. M. M. (1998). "Identification of the active components of garlic causing repellent effect against the rice weevil and the wheat flour beetle". Nihon Oyo Doubutsu Konchu Gakkai Taikai Koen Youshi. 42: 211. Retrieved 22 November 2007.
{{cite journal}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ Botha, B. M. (2000). "An appropriate method for extracting the insect repellent citronellol from an indigenous plant (Pelargonium graveolens L'Her) for potential use by resource-limited animal owners". Retrieved 30 May 2009.
{{cite web}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ Jaenson, Thomas G. T.; Garboui, Samira; Pålsson, Katinka; et al. (2006). "Repellency of Oils of Lemon Eucalyptus, Geranium, and Lavender and the Mosquito Repellent MyggA Natural to Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) in the Laboratory and Field". Journal of Medical Entomology. 43 (4): 731–736. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[731:ROOOLE]2.0.CO;2.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ Cook, Samantha M.; Jönsson, Martin; Skellern, Matthew P.; Murray, Darren A.; Anderson, Peter; Powell, Wilf; et al. (2007). "Responses of Phradis parasitoids to volatiles of lavender, Lavendula angustifolia —a possible repellent for their host, Meligethes aeneus". BioControl. 52 (5). Springer: 591–598. doi:10.1007/s10526-006-9057-x.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ Oyedele, A.O.; et al. (2002). "Formulation of an effective mosquito-repellent topical product from Lemongrass oil". Phytomedicine. 9 (3): 259–262. doi:10.1078/0944-7113-00120.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ a b Momen, F. M.; Amer, S. A. A.; Refaat, A. M.; et al. (2001). "Repellent and Oviposition-Deterring Activity of Rosemary and Sweet Marjoram on the Spider Mites Tetranychus urticae and Eutetranychus orientalis (Acari: Tetranychidae)". Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica. 36 (1–2). Akadémiai Kiadó: 155–164. doi:10.1556/APhyt.36.2001.1-2.18.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ Walker, Matt (2009-09-09). "Ancient 'smell of death' revealed". BBC - Earth News. Retrieved 2009-09-13.
- ^ Ansari, M. A.; et al. (2000). "Larvicidal and mosquito repellent action of peppermint (Mentha piperita) oil". Bioresource Technology. 71 (3): 267–271. doi:10.1016/S0960-8524(99)00079-6.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ a b "Warnings". bitsandbrew.com. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
- ^ Deka, M. K.; et al. "Antifeedant and Repellent Effects of Pongam (Pongamia Pinnata) and Wild Sage (Lantana Camara) on Tea Mosquito Bug (Helopeltis Theivora)". Indian Journal of Agricultural Science. 68 (5): 274. Retrieved 22 November 2007.
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(help) - ^ "Common Weed, Ayurvedic Nightshade, Deadly For Dengue Mosquito". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ U.S. patent 5,738,863
- ^ Barnard, D.R. and R. Xue. 2004. Laboratory evaluation of mosquito repellents against Aedes albopictus, Culex nigripalpus, and Ochlerotatus triseriatus (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 41(4):726-730.
- ^ BMJ Clinical Evidence
- ^ Ives AR, Paskewitz SM (2005). "Testing vitamin B as a home remedy against mosquitoes". J. Am. Mosq. Control. Assoc. 21 (2): 213–217. doi:10.2987/8756-971X(2005)21[213:TVBAAH]2.0.CO;2. PMID 16033124.
- ^ Khan AA, Maibach HI, Strauss WG, Fenley WR. (2005). "Vitamin B1 is not a systemic mosquito repellent in man". Trans. St. Johns Hosp. Dermatol. Soc. 55 (1): 99–102. PMID 4389912.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Strauss WG, Maibach HI, Khan AA (1968). "Drugs and disease as mosquito repellents in man". Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 17 (3): 461–464. PMID 4385133.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ [2]
- ^ Insect bites and stings. DermNet NZ[dead link]
- ^ http://www.vnh.org/NHB/HW9421Mosquito2.html [dead link]
- ^ Lentek International-08/28/02
- ^ "The great mosquito sting". 6 Sept 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-09.
{{cite web}}
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(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Enayati AA, Hemingway J, Garner P., “Electronic mosquito repellents for preventing mosquito bites and malaria infection”, Cochrane Database Syst Rev., 2007 18; CD005434
External links
- Choosing and Using Insect Repellents - National Pesticide Information Center
- Alan Wood. "Insect Repellents". Compendium of Pesticide Common Names.
- Jeanie Lerche Davis (2003). "Best Insect Repellent for Mosquitoes: Bug Experts Rate Products to Keep West Nile Virus at Bay". WebMD.
- "CDC Adopts New Repellent Guidance" (Press release). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 28 April 2005.
- Department of Health, New York State. "Health Advisory: Tick and Insect Repellents".
- Plant parts with Insect-repellent Activity from the chemical Borneol (Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases)
- Understanding ingredients and differences between insect repellents
- Mosquito repellents; Florida U