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Muscle Memory

Muscle memory, also known as motor memory is comprised of several mental processes that consolidate over time, making certain tasks automatically remembered in the long-term[1]. The nervous system forms multiple long-term motor memories through experience, for example, by learning how to ride a bike, or type on a keyboard[2]. Motor memory is shown through savings from performing a task many times; this is different from declarative memory which is shown through recalling a single item[3]. Most motor skills are acquired through practice, though it has been found that observations of movements can also lead to performance gains [4]

Origin

Movement and Motor Learning

Movement is a critical part of our life, and it is a major component of our evolutionary development; without it, we could not survive[5]. It has been suggested that our developed cognitive capacities evolved so we could make movements essential to our survival. For example, cognitive abilities evolved so we could use tools, build shelter, and hunt for animals.

The origins of research for the acquisition of motor skills stem from philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle and Galen. Friedrich Bessel is a philosopher who is especially noteworthy, as he was among the first to empirically observe motor learning. Bessel tried to observe the difference in his colleagues with the method in which they recorded the transit time of stars [6]. After the break of tradition of the pre-1900’s view of introspection, psychologists emphasized research and more scientific methods in observing behaviours[7]. Thereafter, numerous studies studying the role of motor learning was conducted. Such studies included the research of handwriting, and methods of practicing to maximize motor learning[8].

Retention

Most importantly; however,the retention of motor skills, referred to as motor memory, also began to be of great interest in the early 1900’s. Most motor skills are known to be acquired through practice; however, mere observation of the skill has lead to learning as well[9]. By no means do we start off our life with a blank slate in regards to motor memory; although we do learn most of our motor memory repertoire during our lifetime[10]. Movements such as facial expressions, which are thought to be learnt, can actually be observed in children who are blind, thus there is some evidence for motor memory to be genetically pre-wired[11]. In the early stages of empirical research of motor memory Edward Thorndike, a leading pioneer in the study of motor memory, was among the first to acknowledge learning can occur without conscious awareness[12]. One of the earliest and most notable studies regarding the retention of motor skills by Hill, Rejall, and Thorndike showed savings in relearning typing skills after a 25 year period of no practice[13]. Findings related to the retention of learned motor skills have been continuously replicated in studies, suggesting that through subsequent practice, motor learning is stored in memory, which is why performing skills such as riding a bike or driving a car are effortlessly and ‘unconsciously’ picked up even if someone had not performed these skills in a long period of time[14].

Physiology

Motor Behavior

When first learning a motor task, movement is often slow, stiff and easily disrupted without attention. With practice, execution of motor task becomes smoother, there is a decrease in limb stiffness, and muscle activity necessary to the task is preformed without conscious effort.[15]
 


Motor Memory Encoding

An image of the temporal lobe highlighted in red
Temporal Lobe highlighted in red

The neuroanatomy of memory is widespread throughout the brain; however the pathways important to motor memory is separate from the medial temporal lobe pathways associated with declarative memory[16]. As with declarative memory, motor memory is theorized to have two stages; a short term memory encoding stage that is fragile and susceptible to damage, as well as a long term memory consolidation stage which is more stable.[17] . 

 The memory encoding stage is often referred to as motor learning, and requires an increase in brain activity in motor areas as well as an increase in attention. Brain areas active during motor learning include the motor and somatosensory cortices; however these areas of activation decrease once the motor skill is learned. The prefrontal and frontal cortices are also active during this stage due to the need for increased attention on the task being learned.[18].



An image of the cerebellum highlighted in red
Cerebellum highlighted in red

The main area involved in motor learning is the cerebellum. Some models of cerebellar-dependent motor learning, particularly the Marr-Albus model, propose a single plasticity mechanism involving the cerebellar long term depression( LTD) of the parallel fiber synapses onto Purkinje cells. These modification in synapse activity would mediate motor input with motor outputs critical to inducing motor learning. However, conflicting evidence suggests that a single plasticity mechanism is not sufficient and a multiple plasticity mechanism is needed to account for the storage of motor memories over time. Studies of cerebellar-dependent motor tasks shows that cerebral cortical plasticity is crucial for motor learning.

Motor Memory Consolidation

The exact mechanism and placement of motor memory consolidation within the brain is controversial; however most theories assume that there is a general redistribution of information across the brain from encoding to consolidation and that motor memory formation continues to develop after practice has stopped.

The basal ganglia also play an important role in memory and learning; particularly in reference to stimulus-response associations and the formation of habits. The basal ganglia-cerebellar connections are thought to increase with time when learning a motor task. [19]

Muscle Memory and Athletic Training

When participating in any sport, new motor skills and movement combinations are frequently being used and repeated. Studying mice while they are learning a new complex reaching task, has found that “motor learning lead to rapid formation of dendritic spines (spinogenesis) in the motor cortex contralateral to the reaching forelimb”. [20] However, motor cortex reorganization itself does not occur at a uniform rate across training periods. It has been suggested that the synaptogenesis and motor map reorganization merely represent the consolidation, and not the acquisition itself, of a specific motor task. [21] Furthermore, the degree of plasticity in various locations (namely motor cortex versus spinal cord) is dependent on the behavioural demands and nature of the task (i.e. skilled reaching versus strength training). [22] Specifically, in strength training, alterations within the spinal cord including enhanced motor neuron excitability and synaptogenesis occur. [23] Evidence has shown that increases in strength occur well before muscle hypertrophy, while at the same time, decreases in strength due to detraining or ceasing to repeat the exercise over an extended period of time precede muscle atrophy, thereby suggesting that the physiological adaptations a muscle undergoes do not necessarily dictate bodybuilding results. [24]

A navy man performs strength training exercises.
Strength training.

However, neuromuscular efficacy is not altered within a 2 week time period following cessation of the muscle usage; instead it is merely the neuron`s ability to excite the muscle that declines in correlation with the muscle`s decrease in strength. [25]

Similar to strength training, endurance training does not have an influence on motor map reorganization. Within the motor cortex, endurance induces angiogenesis within as little as 3 weeks to increase blood flow to the involved regions. [26] In addition, neurotropic factors within the motor cortex are upregulated in response to endurance training to promote neural survival. [27]

Skilled motor tasks have been divided into two distinct phases; fast learning phase, in which an optimal plan for performance is established, and slow learning, in which longer term structural modifications are made on specific motor modules. [28] Limited training may be enough to induce neural processes that continue to evolve even after the training has stopped, which provides a potential basis for consolidation of the task.

In sport, the three components, strength, skilled movement and endurance, are frequently required in combination to a certain degree to ensure success in a given task. Whether strength or endurance related, all motor movements would require a skilled moving task of some form, whether it be maintaining proper form when paddling a canoe, or bench pressing a heavier weight. Endurance training assists the formation of these new neural representations within the motor cortex by up regulating neurotropic factors that could enhance the survival of the newer neural maps formed due to the skilled movement training. Strength training results are seen in the spinal cord well before any physiological muscular adaptation is established through muscle hypertrophy or atrophy.

Fine Motor Memory

Fine motor skills can also be discussed in terms of transitive movements, which are those done when using tools (which could be as simple as a tooth brush or pencil)[29]. Transitive movements have representations that become programmed to the premotor cortex, creating motor programs which result in the activation of the motor cortex and therefore the motor movements[30]. In a study testing the motor memory of patterned finger movements (a fine motor skill) it was found that retention of certain skills are susceptible to disruption if another task interferes with one’s motor memory[31]. However such susceptibility can be can be reduced with time. For example if finger a pattern is learned, then another is learned six hours later the original pattern will still be remembered, while learning such patterns back to back may cause forgetting of the initial one[32]. Furthermore, the heavy use of computers by recent generations has both positive and negative effects. It was found that one of the main positive effects is that it enhances fine motor skills of children [33]. Repeating behaviours (such as typing on a computer from a young age) can enhance such abilities. Therefore,by beginning computer use at an early age muscle memory may be activated earlier.

Music Memory

Bimanual synchronized finger movements play an essential role in piano playing.
Playing the piano requires complex actions

Fine motor skills are very important in playing musical instruments. It was found that muscle memory is relied on when playing the clarinet, specifically to help create special effects through certain tongue movements when blowing air into the instrument[34]. It is discussed that memorizing is done by muscles as a note is seen and recalled, its auditory pair is learned and is matched by fingers movements (a fine motor skill)[35]. When reproducing a motor action you must have previous experience with it to memorize set action. If there is no previous experience there will be no mental image of the motion, and therefore no actual movement[36].

Certain human behaviours, especially actions like the fingering in musical performances, are very complex and require many interconnected neural networks where information can be transmitted across multiple brain regions[37]. It has been found that there are often functional differences found in the brains of professional musicians compared to other individuals. This is thought to reflect the musician’s innate ability which may be fostered by an early exposure to musical training[38]. An example of this is bimanual synchronized finger movements which play an essential role in piano playing. It is suggested that bimanual coordination can only come from years of bimanual training, where such actions become adaptations of the motor areas[39].When comparing professional musicians to a control group in complex bimanual movements, professionals are found to use an extensive motor network much less than those non-professionals[40]. This is because professionals rely on a motor system that has increased efficiency, and therefore those who are less trained have a network which is more strongly activated[41]. It is implied that the untrained pianists have to invest more neuronal activity to have the same level of performance that is achieved by professional [42]. This, yet again, is said to be a consequence of many years of motor training and experience which helps form a fine motor memory skill of musical performance.

It is often reported that when a pianist hears a well-trained piece of music it can involuntarily trigger synonymous fingering[43]. This implies there is a coupling between the perception of music and the motor activity of those musically trained individuals[44]. Therefore, one’s muscle memory in the context of music can easily be triggered when one hears certain familiar pieces. Overall, long-term musical fine motor training allows for complex actions to be performed at a lower level of movement control, monitoring, selection, attention, and timing[45]. This leaves room for musicians to focus attention synchronously elsewhere, such as on the artistic aspect of the performance, without having to consciously control one’s fine motor actions[46].

Gross Motor Memory

Gross motor skills are concerned with the movement of large muscles, or major body movements, such as those involved in walking or kicking [47]. The extent to which one exhibits gross motor skills depends largely on their muscle tone and the strength [48]. In a study looking at people with Down Syndrome it was found that the pre-existing deficits, with regards to verbal-motor performance, has an impact on limiting the individuals transfer of gross motor skills following visual and verbal instruction to verbal instruction only [49]. The fact that the individuals could still exhibit two of the three original motor skills may have been a result of positive transfer in which previous exposure allows the individual to remember the motion, under the visual and verbal trial, and then later perform it under the verbal trial [50].

Learning in Childhood

It has been discovered that the way in which a child learns a gross motor skill can impact how long it takes to consolidate it and be able to reproduce the movement. In a study with preschoolers, looking at the role of self-instruction on acquiring complex gross motor chains using ballet positions [51]. It was found that the motor skills were better learned, and remembered, with the self –instruction procedure, over the no self-instruction procedure [52]. This suggests that the use of self-instruction will increase the speed with which a preschooler will learn and remember a gross motor skill. It was also found that once the preschoolers learned and mastered the motor chain movements, they ceased the use of self-instruction. This suggests that the memory for the movements became strong enough that there was no longer a need for self-instruction and the movements could be reproduced without it [53].

Impact of Alzheimer's Disease

It has been suggested that consistent practice of a gross motor skill can help a patient with Alzheimer’s Disease learn and remember that skill. It was thought that the damage to the hippocampus may result in the need for a specific type of learning requirement [54]. A study was created to test this assumption in which the patients were trained to throw a bean bag at a target[55]. It was found that the Alzheimer’s patients performed better on the task when learning occurred under constant training as opposed to variable. It was also found that gross motor memory in Alzheimer’s patients was the same as health adults when learning occurs under constant practice[56]. This suggests that the damage to the hippocampal system does not impair an Alzheimer’s patient from retaining new gross motor skills.

Muscle memory and injury/ disease/ age

Consolidation Deficit

A recent issue in motor memory is whether it consolidates in a manner that is consistent with declarative memory, which indicates it is a process that is fragile and learning can be disrupted by a lesion or susceptible to interference, but becomes more stable over time[57]. Motor memory, as opposed to declarative memory is demonstrated through savings over several trials of learning, whereas declarative memory is demonstrated through recall of a single item[58]. This would also help explain the case of Clive Wearing who was severely amnesic, but had retained muscle memory for playing the piano. Such a theory would reinforce that lesions would not result in forgetting of a well learnt motor skill[59].

Dysgraphia for the Alphabet

Case study: 54 year old lady with known history of epilepsy

This patient was diagnosed with a pure form of dysgraphia of letters, meaning she had no other speech or reading impairments. Her impairment was specific to letters in the alphabet. She was able to copy letters from the alphabet; however, was not able to write these letters. She had previously been rated average on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale's vocabulary subtest for writing ability comparative to her age before her diagnosis. Her writing impairment consisted of difficulty remembering motor movements associated with the letters she was supposed to write. She was able to copy the letters, and also form images that were similar to the letters. This suggests that dysgraphia for letters is a deficit related to motor memory. Somehow there is a specific portion of the brain related to writing letters, which is dissociated from copying and drawing letter like items[60].

Heroes (2006 - present)

heroes logo

Monica Dawson, a character from the hit show Heroes, has an incredible capability to replicate a movement after it has only been seen once. This is called adoptive muscle memory, which is also called muscle mimic[61]. This aspect of muscle memory is related to the more general theory of muscle memory, in that it is movement that is learnt and retained after observation, although not related to repeated practice. Monica realizes later in the show that she has the same capabilities of St. Joan; a super hero in the fictional comic book created for the purpose of Heroes which is called 9th Wonders! [62].



References

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  44. ^ Kim, D., Shin, M., Lee, K., Chu, K., Woo, S., Kim, Y., Song, E., Lee, Jun., Park, S., & Roh, J. (2004). Musical Training-Induced Functional Reorganization of the Adult Brain: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study on Amateur String Players. Human Brain Mapping, 23, 188-199
  45. ^ Haslinger, B., Erhard, P., Altenmüller, E., Hennenlotter, A., Schwaiger, M., von Einsiedel, H. G., Rummeny, E., Conrad, B., & Ceballos-Baumann, A. O. (2004). Reduced Recruitment of Motor Association Areas During Bimanual Coordination in Concert Pianists. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 206-215.
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  48. ^ “Gross motor Skills – What are Gross Motor Skills (http://learningdisabilities.about.com/od/gi/p/grossmotorskill.htm)”
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  60. ^ Kapur, N., & Lawton, N.F. (1983). Dysgraphia for Letters: a Form of Motor Memory Deficit? Journal of Neurological Psychiatry, 46(6), 573-575
  61. ^ (http://www.wikipedia.com) search word: Monica Dawson
  62. ^ (http://www.wikipedia.com) search word: Monica Dawson

Further Readings

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