Transmitter

A transmitter (sometimes abbreviated XMTR) is an electronic device which with the aid of an antenna propagates an electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other telecommunications.

A transmitter usually has a power supply, an oscillator, a modulator, and amplifiers for audio (AF), intermediate frequency (IF) and radio frequency (RF). Sometimes a device, for example, a cell phone contains both a transmitter and a radio receiver or transceiver. The modulator is the device which piggybacks (or modulates) the signal information onto the carrier frequency, which is then broadcast.

More generally and in communications and information processing, a "transmitter" is any object (source) which sends information to an observer (receiver). For example, in industrial process control a "transmitter" is any device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal to be received, usually sent via wires, by some display or control device located a distance away. Some "transmitters" use 4-20 mA current loop or digital methods for transmission of measurements. Some such transmitters even send process signals as 3-15 psi varying pneumatic pressure. When used in this more general sence, vocal cords may also be considered an example of a "transmitter".

History

In the early days of radio engineering, radio frequency energy was generated using arcs or mechanical alternators (of which a rare example survives at the SAQ transmitter in Grimeton, Sweden). In the 1920s electronic transmitters, based on vacuum tubes, began to be used.

Electromagnetic concepts

In principle any conductor (wire) carrying an alternating current will radiate a radio signal. Thus a basic transmitter is just an oscillator connected directly to a wire antenna.

Since transmitters require excellent frequency stability, there are usually several amplifier stages between oscillator and antenna. The intermediate amplifier stages prevent changes in the antenna circuit from affecting the frequency of the oscillator. Often the transmitter frequency is not the frequency produced by the oscillator, but one of its harmonics. This is generated from the oscillator's output by a non-linear device (e.g. a diode or an overdriven amplifier), then filtered with combinations of inductors and capacitors, and then amplified.

Special standard frequency transmitters use frequency synthesis referenced to a very stable atomic clock. Since this procedure, which gives the most precise carrier frequencies, is very complex, it is not used in most transmitters. Typically a quartz crystal is used as a frequency reference, which provides adquate stability for nearly all purposes. Historically mechanically-tuned variable-frequency oscillators were used, and are still found in classic amateur radio and antique equipment.

During the generation and amplification, harmonics are created. These usually have to be filtered out by resonant circuits before reaching the antenna.

Vacuum tubes are still occasionally used as amplifier elements in high-power stages, for more than a few kilowatts of radio-frequency power. At high transmitting powers these tubes are water-cooled. For microwave transmitters, special semiconductor components or vacuum tubes, such as the klystron or cavity magnetron, are needed, because signals of these frequencies and power levels cannot be processed with normal semiconductors. The information to be transmitted is then added by modulation of the frequency, amplitude or phase of the carrier.

Cooling of final stages

Low-power transmitters do not require special cooling equipment. For medium-power transmitters, up to a few hundred watts, air cooling with fans is used. At power levels over a few kilowatts, the output stage is water-cooled. Since the cooling water directly touches the high-voltage anodes of the tubes, only distilled, deionised water can be used in the cooling circuit. This high-purity water is in turn cooled by a heat exchanger, where the second cicuit can use water of ordinary quality because it is not in contact with energized parts. Very-high-power tubes of small physical size may use evaporative cooling by water in contact with the anode. The production of steam allows a high heat flow in a small space.

Protection equipment

The high voltage used in high power transmitters (up to 20 kV) require extensive protection equipment. Also, transmitters are exposed to damage from lightning. Transmitters may be damaged if operated without an antenna, so protection circuits must detect the loss of the antenna and switch off the transmitter immediately. Tube-based transmitters must have power applied in the proper sequence, with the filament voltage applied before the anode voltage, otherwise the tubes can be damaged. The output stage must be monitored for standing waves, which indicate that generated power is not being radiated but instead is being reflected back into the transmitter.

Lightning protection is required between the transmitter and antenna. This consists of spark gaps and gas-filled surge arresters to limit the voltage that appears on the transmitter terminals. The control instrument that measures the voltage standing-wave ratio switches the transmitter off briefly if a higher voltage standing-wave ratio is detected after a lightning strike, as the reflections are probably due to lightning damage. If this does not succeed after several attempts, the antenna is likely damaged and the transmitter will remain switched off. In some transmitting plants UV detectors are fitted in critical places, to switch off the transmitter if an arc is detected. With water-cooled output stages the electrical conductivity of the water must be supervised carefully. If it exceeds a certain value, suitable countermeasures (replacement with highly pure water or switching off the transmitter) must be taken. Further, the operating voltages, modulation factor, frequency and other transmitter parameters are monitored for protection and diagnostic purposes. The parameters may be displayed locally or at a remote control room.

Building

A transmitter site will have a control building to shelter the transmitter components and control devices. This is usally a purely functional building, which may contain apparatus for both radio and television transmitters. To reduce transmission line loss the transmitter building is usually immediately adjacent to the antenna for VHF and UHF sites, but for lower frequencies it may be desirable to have a distance of a few score or several hundred metres between the building and the antenna. Some transmitting towers have enclosures built into the tower to house radio relay link transmitters or other, relatively low-power transmitters.

Legal and Regulatory Aspects

Since radio waves go over borders, international agreements control radio transmissions. In European countries like Germany often the national Post Office is the regulating authority. In the United States broadcast and industrial transmitters are regulated by the FCC. In Canada technical aspects of broadcast and radio transmitters are controlled by Industry Canada, but broadcast content is regulated separately by the CRTC.

Planning

As in any costly undertaking, the planning of a high power transmitter site requires great care. This begins with the location. A minimum distance, which depends on the transmitter frequency, transmitter power, and the design of the transmitting antennas, is required to protect people from the radio frequency energy. Transmitters for long and medium wave require good grounding and soil of high electrical conductivity. Locations at the sea or in river valleys are ideal, but the flood danger must be considered. Transmitters for UHF are best on high mountains to improve the range (see radio propagation). The antenna pattern must be considered because it is costly to change the pattern of a long-wave or medium-wave antenna.

Transmitting antennas for long and medium wave are usually implemented as a mast radiator. Similar antennas with smaller dimensions are used also for short wave transmitters, if these send in the round spray enterprise. For arranging radiation at free standing steel towers fastened planar arrays are used. Radio towers for UHF and TV transmitter can be implemented in principle as grounded constructions. Towers may be steel lattice masts or reinforced concrete towers with antennas mounted at the top. Some transmitting towers for UHF have high-altitude operating rooms and/or facilities such as restaurants and observation platforms, which are accessible by elevator. Such towers are usually called TV tower. For microwaves one uses frequently parabolic antennas. These can be set up for applications of radio relay links on transmitting towers for UKW to special platforms. For the program passing on of television satellites and the funkkontakt to space vehicles large parabolic antennas with diameters of 3 to 100 meters of diameters are necessary. These plants, which can be used if necessary also as radio telescope, are established on free standing constructions, whereby there are also numerous special designs, like the radio telescope in Arecibo.

Transmitters in Culture

Some cities in Europe, like Muehlacker, Ismaning, Langenberg, Kalundborg, Hoerby and Allouis became famous as site of powerful transmitters. Some transmitting towers like the radio tower Berlin or the TV tower Stuttgart became landmarks of cities. Many transmitting plants have very high radio towers, which are masterpieces of engineering.

Records

Tallest radio mast
- 1974-1991:Konstantynow for 2000kilowatt longwave transmitter, 646.38 metres
- 1963-1974 and since 1991, KVLY Tower

Highest power
- Longwave, transmitter Taldom, 2500 kW
- Medium wave, transmitter Bolshakovo, 2500 kW

Highest transmission sites (Europe)
- UKW Pic du Aigu bei Chamonix
- MW Pic Blanc in Andorra

Broadcasting

In broadcasting, the part which contains the oscillator, modulator, and sometimes audio processor, is called the exciter. Confusingly, the high-power amplifier which the exciter then feeds into is often called the "transmitter" by broadcast engineers. The final output is given as transmitter power output (TPO), although this is not what most stations are rated by.

Effective radiated power (ERP) is used when calculating station coverage, even for most non-broadcast stations. It is the TPO, minus any attenuation or radiated loss in the line to the antenna, multiplied by the gain (magnification) which the antenna provides toward the horizon. This is important, because the electric utility bill for the transmitter would be enormous otherwise, as would the cost of a transmitter. For most large stations in the VHF- and UHF-range, the transmitter power is no more than 20% of the ERP. For VLF, LF, MF and SW the ERP is not determined separately. In most cases the transmission power found in lists of transmitters is the value for the output of the transmitter. This is only correct for omnidirectional aerials with a length of a quarter wavelength or shorter. For other aerial types there are gain factors, which can reach values until 50 for shortwave directional beams in the direction of maximum beam intensity. Since some authors take account of gain factors of aerials of transmitters for frequencies below 30 MHz and others not, there are often discrepancies of the values of transmitted powers.