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Rust
Rust logo; a capital letter R set into a sprocket
Paradigms
DeveloperThe Rust Team
First appearedJanuary 19, 2012; 13 years ago (2012-01-19)
Stable release
1.88.0[1] Edit this on Wikidata / June 26, 2025; 6 days ago (June 26, 2025)
Typing discipline
Implementation languageOCaml (2006–2011)
Rust (2012–present)
PlatformCross-platform[note 1]
OSCross-platform[note 2]
LicenseMIT, Apache 2.0[note 3]
Filename extensions.rs, .rlib
Websiterust-lang.org
Influenced by
Influenced

Rust is a general-purpose programming language emphasizing performance, type safety, and concurrency. It enforces memory safety, meaning that all references point to valid memory. It does so without a conventional garbage collector; instead, memory safety errors and data races are prevented by the "borrow checker", which tracks the object lifetime of references at compile time.

Rust does not enforce a programming paradigm, but was influenced by ideas from functional programming, including immutability, higher-order functions, algebraic data types, and pattern matching. It also supports object-oriented programming via structs, enums, traits, and methods.

Software developer Graydon Hoare created Rust as a personal project while working at Mozilla Research in 2006. Mozilla officially sponsored the project in 2009. The first stable release of Rust, Rust 1.0, was published in May 2015. Following a large layoff of Mozilla employees in August 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, multiple other companies joined Mozilla in sponsoring Rust through the creation of the Rust Foundation in February 2021. In December 2022, Rust became the first language other than C and assembly to be supported in the development of the Linux kernel.

Rust has been noted for its adoption in many software projects, especially web services and system software. Rust has been studied in programming language theory research.

History

2006–2009: Early years

Mozilla Foundation headquarters, 650 Castro Street in Mountain View, California, June 2009

Rust began as a personal project by Mozilla employee Graydon Hoare in 2006.[13] Hoare started the project due to his frustration with a broken elevator in his apartment building.[13] Hoare has stated that Rust was named for the group of fungi that are "over-engineered for survival".[13] During the time period between 2006 and 2009, Rust was not publicized to others at Mozilla and was written in Hoare's free time;[14]: 7:50  Hoare began speaking about the language around 2009 after a small group at Mozilla became interested in the project.[15] Hoare emphasized prioritizing good ideas from old languages over new development, citing languages including CLU (1974), BETA (1975), Mesa (1977), NIL (1981), Erlang (1987), Newsqueak (1988), Napier (1988), Hermes (1990), Sather (1990), Alef (1992), and Limbo (1996) as influences, stating "many older languages [are] better than new ones", and describing the language as "technology from the past come to save the future from itself."[14]: 8:17 [15] Early Rust developer Manish Goregaokar similarly described Rust as being based on "mostly decades-old research."[13]

During the early years, the Rust compiler was written in about 38,000 lines of OCaml.[14]: 15:34 [16] Early Rust contained features such as explicit object-oriented programming via an obj keyword (later removed),[14]: 10:08  and a typestates system that would allow variables of a type to be tracked along with state changes (such as going from uninitialized to initialized).[14]: 13:12 

2009-2012: Mozilla sponsorship

Mozilla officially sponsored the Rust project in 2009.[13] Brendan Eich and other executives, intrigued by the possibility of using Rust for a safe web browser engine, placed engineers on the project including Patrick Walton, Niko Matsakis, Felix Klock, and Manish Goregaokar.[13] A conference room taken by the project developers was dubbed "the nerd cave," with a sign placed outside the door.[13]

During this time period, work had shifted from the initial OCaml compiler to a self-hosting compiler, i.e., written in Rust, based on LLVM.[17][note 4] The Rust ownership system was also in place by 2010.[13] The Rust logo was developed in 2011 based on a bicycle chainring.[19]

The first public release, Rust 0.1 was released on January 20, 2012[20] for Windows, Linux, and MacOS.[21] The early 2010s saw increasing involvement from open source volunteers outside of Mozilla and outside of the United States. At Mozilla, executives would eventually employ over a dozen engineers to work on Rust full time over the next decade.[13]

2012–2015: Evolution

The years from 2012 to 2015 were marked by substantial changes to the Rust type system, especially, removal of the typestate system, consolidation of other language features, and the removal of the garbage collector.[14]: 18:36 [13] Memory management through the ownership system was gradually consolidated and expanded to prevent memory-related bugs. By 2013, the garbage collector feature was rarely used, and was removed by the team in favor of the ownership system.[13] Other changes during this time included the removal of pure functions, which were declared by an explicit pure annotation, in March 2013.[22] Specialized syntax support for channels and various pointer types were removed to simplify the language.[14]: 22:32 

Rust's expansion and consolidation was influenced by developers coming from C++ (e.g., low-level performance of features), scripting languages (e.g., Cargo and package management), and functional programming (e.g., type systems development).[14]: 30:50 

Graydon Hoare stepped down from Rust in 2013.[13] This allowed it to evolve organically under a more federated governance structure, with a "core team" of initially six people,[14]: 21:45  around 30-40 developers total across various other teams,[14]: 22:22  and a Request for Comments (RFC) process for new language features added in March 2014.[14]: 33:47  The core team would grow to nine people by 2016[14]: 21:45  with over 1600 proposed RFCs.[14]: 34:08 

According to Andrew Binstock writing for Dr. Dobb's Journal in January 2014, while Rust was "widely viewed as a remarkably elegant language", adoption slowed because it radically changed from version to version.[23] Rust development at this time was focused on finalizing the language features and moving towards 1.0 so it could begin promising backward compatibility.[14]: 41:26 

Six years after Mozilla sponsored its development, the first stable release, Rust 1.0, was published on May 15, 2015.[13] A year after the release, the Rust compiler had accumulated over 1,400 contributors and there were over 5,000 third-party libraries published on the Rust package management website Crates.io.[14]: 43:15 

2015–2020: Servo and early adoption

Early homepage of Mozilla's Servo browser engine

The development of the Servo browser engine continued in parallel with Rust, jointly funded by Mozilla and Samsung.[24] The teams behind the two projects worked in close collaboration; new features in Rust were tested out by the Servo team, and new features in Servo were used to give feedback back to the Rust team.[14]: 5:41  The first version of Servo was released in 2016.[13] The Firefox web browser shipped with Rust code as of 2016 (version 45),[14]: 53:30 [25] but components of Servo did not appear in Firefox until September 2017 (version 57) as part of the Gecko and Quantum projects.[26]

Improvements were made to the Rust toolchain ecosystem during the years following 1.0 including Rustfmt, integrated development environment integration,[14]: 44:56  a regular compiler testing and release cycle,[14]: 46:48  a community code of conduct, and community discussion organized through an IRC chat.[14]: 50:36 

The earliest adoption outside of Mozilla was by individual projects at Samsung, Facebook (now Meta Platforms), Dropbox, and others including Tilde, Inc. (the company behind ember.js).[14]: 55:44 [13] Amazon Web Services followed in 2020.[13] Engineers cited performance, lack of a garbage collector, safety, and pleasantness of working in the language as reasons for the adoption, while acknowledging that it was a risky bet as Rust was new technology. Amazon developers cited the fact that Rust uses half as much electricity as similar code written in Java, behind only C,[13] as found by a study at the University of Minho, NOVA University Lisbon, and the University of Coimbra.[27][note 5]

Since 2020: Mozilla layoffs and Rust Foundation

In August 2020, Mozilla laid off 250 of its 1,000 employees worldwide, as part of a corporate restructuring caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.[28][29] The team behind Servo was disbanded. The event raised concerns about the future of Rust, due to the overlap between the two projects.[30] In the following week, the Rust Core Team acknowledged the severe impact of the layoffs and announced that plans for a Rust foundation were underway. The first goal of the foundation would be to take ownership of all trademarks and domain names, and take financial responsibility for their costs.[31]

On February 8, 2021, the formation of the Rust Foundation was announced by five founding companies: Amazon Web Services, Google, Huawei, Microsoft, and Mozilla.[32][33] The foundation, led by Shane Miller for its first two years, offered $20,000 grants and other support for programmers working on major Rust features.[13] In a blog post published on April 6, 2021, Google announced support for Rust within the Android Open Source Project as an alternative to C/C++.[34]

On November 22, 2021, the Moderation Team, which was responsible for enforcing the community code of conduct, announced their resignation "in protest of the Core Team placing themselves unaccountable to anyone but themselves".[35] In May 2022, the Rust Core Team, other lead programmers, and certain members of the Rust Foundation board implemented governance reforms in response to the incident.[36]

The Rust Foundation posted a draft for a new trademark policy on April 6, 2023, including rules for how the Rust logo and name can be used, which resulted in negative reactions from Rust users and contributors.[37]

On February 26, 2024, the U.S. White House released a 19-page press report urging software development to move to memory-safe programming languages; specifically, moving away from C and C++ and encouraging languages like C#, Go, Java, Ruby, Swift, and Rust.[38][39] The report was widely interpreted as increasing interest in Rust.[40][41] The report was released through the Office of the National Cyber Director.[38][42]

Syntax and features

Main article: Rust syntax

Rust's syntax is similar to that of C and C++,[43][44] although many of its features were influenced by functional programming languages such as OCaml.[45] Hoare has described Rust as targeted at frustrated C++ developers and emphasized features such as safety, control of memory layout, and concurrency.[15] Safety in Rust includes the guarantees of memory safety, type safety, and lack of data races.

Hello World program

Below is a "Hello, World!" program in Rust. The fn keyword denotes a function, and the println! macro (see § Macros) prints the message to standard output.[46] Statements in Rust are separated by semicolons. 

fn main() {
    println!("Hello, World!");
}

Ecosystem

Compiling a Rust program with Cargo

The Rust ecosystem includes its compiler, its standard library, and additional components for software development. Component installation is typically managed by rustup, a Rust toolchain installer developed by the Rust project.[47]

Compiler

The Rust compiler, rustc, translates Rust code into low-level LLVM IR. LLVM is then invoked as a subcomponent to apply optimizations and translate the resulting IR into object code. A linker is then used to combine the objects into a single executable image or binary file.[48]

Other than LLVM, the compiler also supports using alternative backends such as GCC and Cranelift for code generation.[49] The intention of those alternative backends is to increase platform coverage of Rust or to improve compilation times.[50][51]

Standard library

The Rust standard library defines and implements many widely used custom data types, including core data structures such as Vec, Option, and HashMap, as well as smart pointer types. Rust also provides a way to exclude most of the standard library using the attribute #![no_std]; this enables applications, such as embedded devices, which want to remove dependency code or provide their own core data structures. Internally, the standard library is divided into three parts, core, alloc, and std, where std and alloc are excluded by #![no_std].[52]

Screenshot of crates.io in June 2022

Cargo

Cargo is Rust's build system and package manager. It downloads, compiles, distributes, and uploads packages—called crates—that are maintained in an official registry. It also acts as a front-end for Clippy and other Rust components.[53]

By default, Cargo sources its dependencies from the user-contributed registry crates.io, but Git repositories, crates in the local filesystem, and other external sources can also be specified as dependencies.[54]

Rustfmt

Rustfmt is a code formatter for Rust. It formats whitespace and indentation to produce code in accordance with a common style, unless otherwise specified. It can be invoked as a standalone program, or from a Rust project through Cargo.[55]

Clippy

Example output of Clippy on a hello world Rust program

Clippy is Rust's built-in linting tool to improve the correctness, performance, and readability of Rust code. As of 2024, it has more than 700 rules.[56][57]

Versioning system

Following Rust 1.0, new features are developed in nightly versions which are released daily. During each six-week release cycle, changes to nightly versions are released to beta, while changes from the previous beta version are released to a new stable version.[58]

Every two or three years, a new "edition" is produced. Editions are released to allow making limited breaking changes, such as promoting await to a keyword to support async/await features. Crates targeting different editions can interoperate with each other, so a crate can upgrade to a new edition even if its callers or its dependencies still target older editions. Migration to a new edition can be assisted with automated tooling.[59]

IDE support

rust-analyzer is a collection of utilities that provides Integrated development environments (IDEs) and text editors with information about a Rust project through the Language Server Protocol. This enables features including autocompletion, and the display of compilation errors while editing.[60]

Performance

Since it performs no garbage collection, Rust is often faster than other memory-safe languages.[61][62][63] Most of Rust's memory safety guarantees impose no runtime overhead,[64] with the exception of array indexing which is checked at runtime by default.[65] Performance impact of array indexing bounds checks varies, but can be significant in some cases.[65]

Rust provides two "modes": safe and unsafe. Safe mode is the "normal" one, in which most Rust is written. In unsafe mode, the developer is responsible for the code's memory safety, which is used by developers for cases where the compiler is too restrictive.[66]

Many of Rust's features are so-called zero-cost abstractions, meaning they are optimized away at compile time and incur no runtime penalty.[67] The ownership and borrowing system permits zero-copy implementations for some performance-sensitive tasks, such as parsing.[68] Static dispatch is used by default to eliminate method calls, except for methods called on dynamic trait objects.[69] The compiler also uses inline expansion to eliminate function calls and statically-dispatched method invocations.[70]

Since Rust uses LLVM, all performance improvements in LLVM apply to Rust also.[71] Unlike C and C++, Rust allows for reordering struct and enum elements[72] to reduce the sizes of structures in memory, for better memory alignment, and to improve cache access efficiency.[73]

Adoption

See also: Category:Rust (programming language) software
Firefox has components written in Rust as part of the underlying Gecko browser engine.

Rust is used in software across different domains. Components from the Servo browser engine (funded by Mozilla and Samsung) were incorporated in the Gecko browser engine underlying Firefox.[74] In January 2023, Google (Alphabet) announced support for using third party Rust libraries in Chromium.[75][76]

Rust is used in several backend software projects of large web services. OpenDNS, a DNS resolution service owned by Cisco, uses Rust internally.[77][78] Amazon Web Services uses Rust in "performance-sensitive components" of its several services. In 2019, AWS open-sourced Firecracker, a virtualization solution primarily written in Rust.[79] Microsoft Azure IoT Edge, a platform used to run Azure services on IoT devices, has components implemented in Rust.[80] Microsoft also uses Rust to run containerized modules with WebAssembly and Kubernetes.[81] Cloudflare, a company providing content delivery network services, used Rust to build a new web proxy named Pingora for increased performance and efficiency.[82] The npm package manager used Rust for its production authentication service in 2019.[83][84][85]

The Rust for Linux project has been supported in the Linux kernel since 2022.

In operating systems, the Rust for Linux project, launched in 2020, merged initial support into the Linux kernel version 6.1 in late 2022.[86][87][88] The project is active with a team of 6–7 developers, and has added more Rust code with kernel releases from 2022 to 2024,[89] aiming to demonstrate the minimum viability of the project and resolve key compatibility blockers.[86][90] The first drivers written in Rust were merged into the kernel for version 6.8.[86] The Android developers used Rust in 2021 to rewrite existing components.[91][92] Microsoft has rewritten parts of Windows in Rust.[93] The r9 project aims to re-implement Plan 9 from Bell Labs in Rust.[94] Rust has been used in the development of new operating systems such as Redox, a "Unix-like" operating system and microkernel,[95] Theseus, an experimental operating system with modular state management,[96][97] and most of Fuchsia.[98] Rust is also used for command-line tools and operating system components, including stratisd, a file system manager[99][100] and COSMIC, a desktop environment by System76.[101]

In web development, Deno, a secure runtime for JavaScript and TypeScript, is built on top of V8 using Rust and Tokio.[102] Other notable adoptions in this space include Ruffle, an open-source SWF emulator,[103] and Polkadot, an open source blockchain and cryptocurrency platform.[104]

Discord, an instant messaging software company, rewrote parts of its system in Rust for increased performance in 2020. In the same year, Dropbox announced that its file synchronization had been rewritten in Rust. Facebook (Meta) used Rust to redesign its system that manages source code for internal projects.[13]

In the 2024 Stack Overflow Developer Survey, 12.6% of respondents had recently done extensive development in Rust.[105] The survey named Rust the "most admired programming language" every year from 2016 to 2024 (inclusive), based on the number of existing developers interested in continuing to work in the same language.[106][note 6] In 2024, Rust was the 6th "most wanted technology", with 28.7% of developers not currently working in Rust expressing an interest in doing so.[105]

In academic research

Rust has been studied in academic research, both for properties of the language itself as well as the utility the language provides for writing software used for research. Its features around safety[107][66] and performance[108] have been examined.

In a journal article published to Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, astrophysicists Blanco-Cuaresma and Bolmont re-implemented programs responsible for simulating multi-planet systems in Rust, and found it to be a competitive programming language for its "speed and accuracy".[109] Likewise, an article published on Nature shared several stories of bioinformaticians using Rust for its performance and safety.[53] However, both articles have cited Rust's unique concepts, including its ownership system, being difficult to learn as one of the main drawbacks to adopting Rust.

Community

A bright orange crab icon
Some Rust users refer to themselves as Rustaceans (similar to the word crustacean) and have adopted an orange crab, Ferris, as their unofficial mascot.[110][111]

According to one MIT Technology Review article, the Rust community was seen as "unusually friendly" to newcomers and particularly attracted people from the queer community, partly due to its code of conduct which outlined a set of expectations for Rust community members to follow.[13] Inclusiveness of the community has been cited as an important factor for some Rust developers.[53] Demographic data on the community has been collected and published by the Rust official blog.[112]

Rust Foundation

Rust Foundation
FormationFebruary 8, 2021; 4 years ago (2021-02-08)
Founders
TypeNonprofit organization
Location
Shane Miller
Rebecca Rumbul
Websitefoundation.rust-lang.org

The Rust Foundation is a non-profit membership organization incorporated in United States, with the primary purposes of backing the technical project as a legal entity and helping to manage the trademark and infrastructure assets.[113][44]

It was established on February 8, 2021, with five founding corporate members (Amazon Web Services, Huawei, Google, Microsoft, and Mozilla).[114] The foundation's board is chaired by Shane Miller.[115] Starting in late 2021, its Executive Director and CEO is Rebecca Rumbul.[116] Prior to this, Ashley Williams was interim executive director.[44]

Governance teams

The Rust project is composed of teams that are responsible for different subareas of the development. The compiler team develops, manages, and optimizes compiler internals; and the language team designs new language features and helps implement them. The Rust project website lists 6 top-level teams as of July 2024.[117] Representatives among teams form the Leadership council, which oversees the Rust project as a whole.[118]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Including build tools, host tools, and standard library support for x86-64, ARM, MIPS, RISC-V, WebAssembly, i686, AArch64, PowerPC, and s390x.[2]
  2. ^ Including Windows, Linux, macOS, FreeBSD, NetBSD, and Illumos. Host build tools on Android, iOS, Haiku, Redox, and Fuchsia are not officially shipped; these operating systems are supported as targets.[2]
  3. ^ Third-party dependencies, e.g., LLVM or MSVC, are subject to their own licenses.[3][4]
  4. ^ The list of Rust compiler versions (referred to as a bootstrapping chain) has history going back to 2012.[18]
  5. ^ Energy compared to C was 3% more for Rust and 34% more for C++; time was 4% more and 56% more, respectively.
  6. ^ That is, among respondents who have done "extensive development work [with Rust] in over the past year" (12.6%), Rust had the largest percentage who also expressed interest to "work in [Rust] over the next year" (82.2%).[105]

References

Book sources

  • Gjengset, Jon (2021). Rust for Rustaceans (1st ed.). No Starch Press. ISBN 9781718501850. OCLC 1277511986.
  • Klabnik, Steve; Nichols, Carol (2019-08-12). The Rust Programming Language (Covers Rust 2018). No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-7185-0044-0.
  • Blandy, Jim; Orendorff, Jason; Tindall, Leonora F. S. (2021). Programming Rust: Fast, Safe Systems Development (2nd ed.). O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-4920-5254-8. OCLC 1289839504.
  • McNamara, Tim (2021). Rust in Action. Manning Publications. ISBN 978-1-6172-9455-6. OCLC 1153044639.
  • Klabnik, Steve; Nichols, Carol (2023). The Rust programming language (2nd ed.). No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-7185-0310-6. OCLC 1363816350.

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