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Supercomputing in China

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With the advent of supercomputers over the last few decades, China has emerged as a global leader in supercomputering, achieving significant milestones in both the quantity and performance of its high-performance computing (HPC) systems. From the early 2000s, China rapidly ascended the TOP500 rankings, with notable achievements such as the Tianhe-1A securing the top position in 2010[1] and the Sunway TaihuLight leading in 2016[2].

By 2018, China had the highest number of supercomputers listed on the TOP500, reflecting its commitment to advancing computational capabilities across various sectors, including scientific research, industrial applications, and national defense.[3] However, this progress has been met with challenges, notably from U.S. sanctions aimed at curbing China's access to advanced computing technologies.[4] Since 2019, after the U.S. began levying sanctions on several Chinese companies involved with supercomputing, public information on the state of supercomputing in China had become less available.[5]

China's supercomputing infrastructure is supported by a network of national centers located in cities like Shanghai, Tianjin, Shenzhen, Changsha, Jinan, Guangzhou, Wuxi, etc. These centers not only bolster the nation's scientific and technological endeavors but may also play a pivotal role in its strategic objectives, including military modernization and the pursuit of technological sovereignty.[6]

History

The origins of these centers go back to the 1980s,[7] when the State Planning Commission, the State Science and Technology Commission and the World Bank jointly launched a project to develop networking and supercomputer facilities in China. In addition to network facilities, the project included three supercomputer centers.[8] The progress of supercomputing in China has been rapid; the country's most powerful supercomputer placed 43rd in November 2002 (DeepComp 1800[9]), 11th by November 2003 (DeepComp 6800[10]), 10th by June 2004 (Dawning 4000A[11]), and by November 2010 (Tianhe-1A[12]) held top spot. China would go on to fall behind Japan in June 2011 until June 2013 when the country's most powerful supercomputer once again clocked in as the world record.[13]

According to the MIT Technology Review, the Loongson processor would power the Dawning supercomputers by 2012, producing a line of totally Chinese-made supercomputers that reach petaflop speeds.[14]

Prior to the Sunway TaihuLight, Chinese supercomputers have used "off the shelf" processors, e.g. Tianhe-I uses thousands of Intel and Nvidia chips, and uses the Linux operating system which is open-source software. However, to avoid possible future technology embargo restrictions, the Chinese are developing their own processors such as the Loongson, a MIPS type processor.[15][13]

In November 2015, China increased its number of supercomputers on the TOP500 list to 109, up 196% from 37 just six months earlier. This expansion reflected growing investment in domestic innovation, with observers noting that “the Chinese government and companies want to become the creators and not just producer of products that are being designed elsewhere".[16]

In 2016, China’s Sunway TaihuLight supercomputer became the world’s fastest, achieving a peak performance of 93 petaflops per second. It was nearly three times faster than the next most powerful machine, Tianhe-2, and used over 10 million processor cores designed and manufactured in China. That year also marked the first time China surpassed the United States in total installed supercomputing capacity.[17] China led in the number of systems on the TOP500 list, with 167 supercomputers compared to 165 from the United States.[18]

In 2018, China extended its lead in the number of supercomputers on the TOP500 list, with 206 systems compared to 124 from the United States. While the United States regained the top spot for the fastest individual machine, the list showed that China remained the most prolific producer of supercomputers.[19]

In April 2021, seven Chinese supercomputing entities were added to the Entity List of the United States Department of Commerce's Bureau of Industry and Security.[20] The U.S. government cited their involvement in supporting China’s military modernization and weapons development programs. Placement on the list subjects these entities to additional license requirements for exports, re-exports, and in-country transfers of items subject to U.S. export regulations.[21]

In 2023, China’s National Supercomputing Center in Guangzhou launched the Tianhe Xinyi supercomputer, claiming it to be about five times more powerful than Tianhe-2A. Specific performance metrics were not disclosed.[22]

The scope of these restrictions widened in March 2025, when over 50 additional China-based firms were added to the Entity List. The U.S. government said the companies had sought advanced technologies in supercomputing, artificial intelligence, and quantum computing for military applications.[23] The Commerce Department stated that 27 entities had acquired U.S.-origin items to support China’s military modernization, while seven were involved in advancing China’s quantum technology capabilities. The agency said the expanded restrictions were part of broader efforts to limit Beijing’s access to sensitive technologies, including exascale computing and high-performance AI chips.[24]

Also in March 2025, researchers at the University of Science and Technology of China announced a breakthrough with the Zuchongzhi-3 quantum computer, claiming it to be a quadrillion times faster than the most powerful classical supercomputer. According to the team, the system completed a random circuit sampling task that would take the classical supercomputer Frontier approximately 5.9 billion years to simulate. The researchers attributed this performance to improvements in chip fabrication and wiring configuration.[25]

Supercomputing Centers

File:Supercomputer-Global-Times-e1742981478636.jpg
The latest listings are intended to restrict China's ability to develop high-performance computers. China is believed to have the greatest number of supercomputers. Time reported in late 2017 that it had 202 of the world's 500 fastest machines

SCCAS

The Supercomputing Center of the China Academy of Sciences (SCCAS) is a support service unit affiliated to the Computer Network Information Center (CNIC) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences with the origin going back to the 1980s.[7] The Supercomputing Center of the China Academy of Sciences (SCCAS) provides academic support functions to the National Centers. SCCAS, which is located in Beijing, is the Northern main node and operation center for China National Grid (CNGrid).[26]

Yinhe-1 was independently designed and manufactured as the first leading China's supercomputer in 1983 with a performance level of 100 MFLOPS.[27]

Shanghai

Shanghai Supercomputer Center (SSC) is a high-performance computing facility located in the Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park in Pudong, Shanghai, China. Established in December 2000, it was the country’s first public high-performance computing service platform open for general use.[28] Funded by the Shanghai Municipal Government, the SSC provides advanced supercomputing resources for scientific research and industrial applications.[28] Over the years, SSC has housed several notable supercomputers, including the “Shenwei-I” and the “Magic Cube” systems—the latter was the fastest supercomputer in Asia in 2009. The facility plays a key role in China’s computational science infrastructure, serving universities, research institutes, and enterprises nationwide.

History and Establishment

The Shanghai Supercomputer Center was officially founded on December 28, 2000, as an initiative to bolster China’s scientific computing capabilities.[29] From the outset, its mission was to offer high-performance computing services to a broad community of users, helping to bridge a crucial gap in the country’s research infrastructure. Located in Shanghai’s Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park, the center was established with funding from the Shanghai Municipal Government. Upon opening, SSC deployed its first supercomputer, the Shenwei-I, a massively parallel system with a performance peak of 384 gigaflops (billion floating-point operations per second).[29] Early applications included climate modeling and pharmaceutical research, demonstrating the practical value of shared supercomputing resources for China’s scientific community.[30]

By late 2003, growing demand for HPC services led to a comprehensive upgrade, undertaken as part of Shanghai’s broader “Information Port” initiative.[31] This expansion culminated in the installation of the Dawning 4000A supercomputer—capable of 10 trillion computations per second—at SSC in November 2004.[32] In June 2004, it became the first Chinese supercomputer to enter the world’s top ten on the TOP500 list, ranking No. 10.[33] Ongoing government support and rapid technological advancements spurred further enhancements in the late 2000s. On June 15, 2009, SSC launched its next-generation system, nicknamed the “Magic Cube” (Dawning 5000A), reaching a maximum performance of 180.6 teraflops.[34] This milestone marked the first Chinese supercomputer to surpass 100 trillion calculations per second, positioning it as the fastest supercomputer in Asia at the time.[35] By the end of its first decade, SSC had solidified its role as a key public HPC hub—accelerating scientific innovation and laying the groundwork for future supercomputing initiatives in China.

Infrastructure and Capabilities

The Shanghai Supercomputer Center has continually enhanced its infrastructure to support advanced scientific research and industrial innovation. At the core of its capabilities is the Magic Cube III supercomputer, with a peak performance of 3.3 petaflops, ranking it among China’s most powerful computing systems. [36] SSC offers computational support across diverse fields—including artificial intelligence, environmental modeling, and drug discovery—enabling researchers to address complex global challenges. The center’s infrastructure also features a robust suite of scientific simulation software, boosting its effectiveness in areas such as climate forecasting and public health analytics.[36]

SSC’s AI platform supports the full lifecycle of artificial intelligence development, from data preprocessing to model training and deployment. This infrastructure fosters breakthroughs in domains such as autonomous technologies and machine learning. To meet increasing demands for high-performance computing, SSC continues to upgrade its systems and expand its partnerships with domestic and international research institutions. These developments not only reinforce SSC’s central role in global scientific collaboration but also contribute to China’s broader push for technological self-reliance, particularly in the fields of big data analytics, supercomputing, and AI.[37]

Services and Applications

The SSC has a variety of services designed to meet the diverse and great computational needs of many sectors. In terms of the users, SSC serves a wide range of users, including academic researchers, industrial enterprises, and public utilities. About 70% of the users are scientific researchers from universities and research institutions, while the other 30% are industrial users from different sectors like automotive and aviation.[29] The center’s resources are used across various disciplines, including math, physics, chemistry, biology, aerospace, and more. This multidisciplinary approach allows for advancements in fundamental research and applications as well. In terms of specific services, the SSC has three main services. The first is Computer Power Leasing, which allows users to access the SSC’s high computing resources through a lease, and lets them run complex simulations, data analyses, etc. The second is Consulting Services, where the center offers expert consulting in computational modeling and simulation among other topics. Finally, the last service is Research and Development or R&D Services, where the SSC collaborates on R&D projects and provides technical support and help.[37] Overall, the SSC plays a key role in supporting a wide range of scientific and industrial research and endeavors by providing high performance computing resources.  

Future Goals and Significance

The article effectively outlines the future goals of the Shanghai Supercomputer Center, emphasizing its strategic role in advancing China’s high-performance computing capabilities. One of the primary objectives is the continued development of next-generation supercomputing systems, such as the Magic Cube III, which is designed to meet growing demands in fields like artificial intelligence, environmental modeling, and biomedicine.[37] The article highlights the Chinese government’s increasing financial investment in scientific research, including substantial funding allocated to supercomputing infrastructure, which reinforces the national priority placed on technological self-sufficiency and innovation.

Additionally, the SSC’s expanding role in international research collaboration is noted, reflecting China's ambition to be a global leader in scientific computation. The article frames SSC not merely as a domestic hub, but as a node in a broader global research network, supporting interdisciplinary projects and fostering data-intensive scientific discovery.

While these future-oriented developments are well integrated into the article, the section could benefit from greater specificity—such as naming particular research partnerships, projected technological milestones, or policy frameworks guiding these advancements.[36] Doing so would give readers a clearer understanding of how the SSC’s evolution fits into China’s long-term national science and technology agenda.

Tianjin

The National Supercomputing Center in Tianjin is one of the main centers and is the first state-level supercomputing center approved in May 2009, marking a pivotal milestone in China’s strategic drive for technological self-reliance.[38] The center houses the Tianhe-1 supercomputer unveiled by the National University of Defense Technology on October 29, 2009. As a major project under China’s 863 Program, the design of Tianhe-1 began in 2008. With a peak speed of 1,206 trillion operations per second and a measured Linpack performance of 563.1 trillion operations per second, Tianhe-1 ranked first on the TOP500 list.[39][40] This achievement made China the second country after the United States to develop a supercomputer capable of 10^16 operations per second. To put its speed in perspective, if Tianhe-1 were to compute continuously for one day, a typical microcomputer at that time would require 160 years to match its output. Furthermore, Tianhe-1’s storage capacity is equivalent to the combined holdings of four national libraries.[40]

The Tianjin Computer Institute had been active as far back as 1984 when it developed the 16-bit TQ-0671 microcomputer system.[41] These pioneering efforts laid the foundation for subsequent breakthroughs in China’s supercomputing capabilities. A commercial affiliate of the Tianjin center had previously made the PHPC100 personal supercomputer in 2008 which was about twice the size of a normal desktop computer, but had 40 times the speed. In 2010 a second generation model was released, further advancing regional computing capabilities..[42]

Shenzhen

The National Supercomputing Center in Shenzhen (NSCS) was approved by the Ministry of Science and Technology in May 2009 as one of China’s first national supercomputing centers in the central-southern region. It is the second national supercomputing center after the one based in Tianjin and houses the second fastest machine in China, and the third fastest in the world.[43]

Located in Xili Lake International Science & Education City, SSC Phase I occupies 43,400 square meters and is equipped with a world-class supercomputer system. In May 2010 the Nebulae computer in Shenzhen placed second on the Top 500 supercomputer list, after the Cray computer at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee.[44] To date, SSC has served over 30,000 user teams and completed more than 30 million computing tasks.

Phase II is located in Guangming Science City. It covers 46,000 square meters of land and has a total construction area of 116,800 square meters, including essential research buildings, and is scheduled for completion by 2025.[45] This phase aims to expand computational capacity significantly while integrating sustainable design principles, reflecting the country’s commitment to both technological advancement and environmental responsibility. The center will house a 2E-level supercomputer and work alongside Phase I to provide large-scale scientific computing, industrial computation, big data processing, and intelligent supercomputing services.[46] In May 2023, its design received Guangming District’s Top Ten High Aesthetic Design Award for 2022. Built to meet "Green Three-Star" standards, the project features a photovoltaic curtain wall that produces nearly 300,000 kWh annually, reduces heat gain, lowers energy consumption, and emits no pollutants.[47]

The Shenzhen Supercomputing Pingshan Service Platform is the first regional platform established by the National Supercomputing Shenzhen Center, with strong support from the Pingshan District Innovation Bureau. By integrating advanced computing capabilities with local industrial strategies, it provides a model for boosting regional innovation and technological growth. It aims to serve the "9+2" industrial clusters in Pingshan District, promote the development of technology industries in the Pingshan High-tech Zone, and enhance the district’s innovation capacity.[48]

Changsha

Foundations for a new major branch of the National Supercomputing Center (国家超级计算中心 Guójiā Chāojíjìsuàn Zhōngxīn) were laid in Hunan University, Changsha on 28 November 2010 as the first National Supercomputing Center in Central China and the third National Supercomputing Center in China apart from the two centers which are located in Tianjin and Shenzhen.[49] The National Supercomputing Changsha Center is managed and operated by Hunan University.[50] It operates the Tianhe-1A Hunan Solution – NUDT YH MPP supercomputer which runs at 1342 teraflops.[51] It was the most powerful supercomputer in the world at that time from its operation in November 2010 to November 2011.[52][53]

Jinan

The National Supercomputing Center in Jinan (NSCCJN) is located in the capital of Shandong Province in East China. It is situated inside the Jinan Supercomputing Center Science and Technology Park, which opened in 2019.[54] The center itself was established in 2011 after receiving approval from China's Ministry of Science and Technology, and in that same year, its scientists designed the Sunway Bluelight, China's first petaflog computer with an independent CPU.[54] The CPU runs the ShenWei processor SW1600 at 975 MHz, running at 796 teraflops and using 137,200 cores in the processor.[55] The supercomputers are stored in the Shanhe supercomputing platform, a storage system for supercomputers developed in-house by Chinese engineers and researchers.

The NSCCJN built the first prototype of the Sunway E-class computer in 2018, after being able to fully localize core components for the first time. In March 2021, the center launched the subsequent generation of the Sunway Bluelight, the Sunway Bluelight II, with a computing power 14 times greater than its predecessor and over 14,000 additional cores in its CPU. Its cloud platform retrieves data from the nation's environmental monitoring system to forecast air quality and weather patterns. The platform is working with the Ministry of Ecology and Environment to predict China's carbon emission goals to reach the dual carbon goal faster, and is now being used by over 2,000 users that include corporations, universities and colleges, and governmental departments and agencies.[54]

Guangzhou

The National Supercomputer Center in Guangzhou operates the fourth most powerful supercomputer in the world (as of June 2018) Tianhe-2 (MilkyWay-2),[56] which runs at 33,000 teraflops. It also operates the Tianhe-1A Guangzhou Solution – NUDT YH MPP supercomputer that runs at 211 teraflops.[57]

In December 2023, China unveiled the domestically developed supercomputing system "Tianhe Xingyi" at the National Supercomputing Center in Guangzhou. The new system is reported to outperform the previous Tianhe-2 in several areas, including CPU computing power, networking, storage, and applications.[58]

Wuxi

The National Supercomputing Center in Wuxi houses the Sunway TaihuLight supercomputer, the 4th most powerful supercomputer in the world as of November 2020. It is in the Binhu District, along the shores of Lake Tai, hence the name.

Zhengzhou

In December 2020, the National Supercomputing Zhengzhou Center was passed the inspection for operation, becoming the seventh national supercomputing center in China.[59]

Kunshan

In 2020, the National Supercomputing Kunshan Center successfully passed the acceptance of experts, becoming the second supercomputing center in Jiangsu Province and the eighth supercomputing center in China.[60]

Chengdu

In September 2020, the Chengdu Supercomputing Center was officially completed and put into operation.[61]

See also

References

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