Primate reintroduction
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Primate Reintroduction
Primate reintroduction is a form of Species Reintroduction and is the process by which captive or previously free-ranging primates are either translocated or rehabilitated and released into the wild[1][2]. The goals of primate reintroduction efforts are typically to reestablish or reinforce wild populations, improve the welfare of reintroduced individuals, and/or restore ecosystems (i.e. seed distribution)[1][3][4]. Primate reintroduction is associated with primate rehabilitation which is a form of wildlife rehabilitation that provides care and treatment for individual primates that have been injured, orphaned or abandoned in preparation for reintroduction back into the wild. Rehabilitation and reintroduction together are a strategy to combat the widespread decline of primate biodiversity worldwide and keep primate species and their habitats safe from extinction[4]. The rehabilitated primates are most frequently formerly captive monkeys confiscated or rescued from the illegal pet and bushmeat trades[4].
Causes for primate biodiversity decline
It is commonly accepted by scientists that we are living through the sixth mass extinction (Holocene extinction) with species decline occurring at the highest rate since the last mass extinction, primarily due to anthropogenic forces[5]. As of 2017 approximately 60% of all primate species are considered threatened and over 75% of populations are in decline[6].
Climate Change
Primate habitat is increasingly threatened by the wide ranging impacts of climate change, with significant land cover change and catastrophic weather events causing habitat loss, fragmentation and impacting food supply[6]. It is predicted that primate habitats will experience climate warming that is 10% higher than the global mean and will be increasingly vulnerable to significant precipitation shifts and extreme weather events[7]. Further predictions show that over the coming decades climate change will impact primate species both directly as temperature increases and indirectly through the effects on other drivers of endangerment and extinction (i.e. habitat fragmentation, loss of symbiotic species, spread of infectious diseases, etc.)[8].
Habitat Fragmentation and Degredation
Like many species, primates are particularly sensitive to changes in their habitat, the degradation, fragmentation and loss of which can have devastating consequences on population and species decline[9]. The forests inhabited by primates are being threatened by intensive agriculture, cattle ranching, logging, gas drilling, road construction and mining worldwide[8][6]. Over the course of 20 years, from 1990 to 2010 there was over two million km2 of forest loss throughout verified primate habitat and agriculture expanded by over 1.5 million km2 throughout primate ranges[6].
Disease
Monkeys and apes often have and share diseases with humans, causing increasing concern as the boundaries between humans and wildlife are lowered[8]. Global disease outbreaks such as swine flu and ebola caused devastation in primate and human communities alike, which are exacerbated by the environmental changes increasing the proximity between humans and wildlife[8]. Habitat fragmentation, especially for agriculture, also increases the risk of disease transmission between the released primates, humans and their livestock.[10]
Causes for orphaned and/or abandoned captive primates
Trafficking and Trade
There are both legal and illegal routes in the primate trade, for a range of uses such as consumption, pets, zoos and entertainment, biomedical research, traditional medicine and as prized objects in folklore[6]. The documented trafficking of primates impacts hundreds of thousands of individuals annually and is incredibly lucrative for the people involved in the trade, with the undocumented illegal trade estimated to impact an even greater number of individuals[11]. The illegal trade of primates is both legal and organized, as well as illegal and opportunistic, much of which is influenced by the local politics of the areas from which the primates are being removed from the wild[11].
Hunting
Both commercial hunting and subsistence bushmeat hunting contribute to the decline of primate populations and to the growing issue of injured and orphaned individual primates[6]. The bushmeat trade provides both food for people living locally within primate habitat and is also transported globally as part of an illegal international market[8].
IUCN Guidelines for Primate Reintroductions
In 2002 the Reintroduction Specialist Group of The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (SSC) produced their Guidelines for Nonhuman Primate Reintroductions (GNPR) which is considered to be a best practice model for any primate rehabilitation and reintroduction efforts.[1]
Genetic Factors of Reintroduction
One of the goals of the GNPR is to supplement wild stock of primates to increase the genetic variety and must be managed with great caution so as not to cause unnatural irregularities.[1] This is especially important in cases where wild primates in the release site have small populations in fragmented ecosystems where there is little genetic mixing between populations.[4] Genetic aberration is one of the greatest risks of reintroduction with certain species because without proper genetic testing there is the possibility of mixing distinct subspecies .[4] The GNPR recommends that genetic testing occurs during the quarantine period of rehabilitation, prior to forming release groups.[1]
Medical factors of reintroduction
Prior to reintroduction, individuals must go through a thorough quarantine and disease screening process under the care of a veterinarian.[1] Quarantine lengths may vary, but the IUCN recommends an ideal quarantine period of 90 days during which the individual primate be kept in an area of isolation to conduct initial exams, allow them to adapt to their new environment and screen for any potential diseases.[1] This process is critical not only for the safety of the individuals, but for the health and safety of the social group they will be placed into and for wild animals in the area of the release site.[1]
Social factors of reintroduction
Primates should not be reintroduced as individuals, but in socially appropriate groups mimicking wild social groups as best as possible.[1] The formation of groups should occur after quarantine in rehabilitation which is considered to be the process of resocialization.[4] This is a particularly important step in the rehabilitation process because primates are social learners in that they pass on knowledge and skills about locating and processing foods, detecting and avoiding predators, locating sleeping sites to their conspecifics.[12]
Dietary factors of reintroduction
Locomotive factors of reintroduction
Survival factors of reintroduction
Ecological factors of reintroduction
Welfare implications
Conservation Implications
Risks and Challenges
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Baker, Lynne, R. (2002). "Guidelines for Nonhuman Primate Re-introductions" (PDF). Retrieved March 22, 2023.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kleiman, Devra G. (1989). "Reintroduction of Captive Mammals for Conservation". BioScience. 39 (3): 152–161. doi:10.2307/1311025. ISSN 0006-3568.
- ^ Beck, B. B.; Rapaport, L. G.; Price, M. R. Stanley; Wilson, A. C. (1994), Olney, P. J. S.; Mace, G. M.; Feistner, A. T. C. (eds.), "Reintroduction of captive-born animals", Creative Conservation: Interactive management of wild and captive animals, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 265–286, doi:10.1007/978-94-011-0721-1_13, ISBN 978-94-011-0721-1, retrieved 2023-03-22
- ^ a b c d e f Guy, Amanda J.; Curnoe, Darren; Banks, Peter B. (2014-01-01). "Welfare based primate rehabilitation as a potential conservation strategy: does it measure up?". Primates. 55 (1): 139–147. doi:10.1007/s10329-013-0386-y. ISSN 1610-7365.
- ^ Cowie, Robert H.; Bouchet, Philippe; Fontaine, Benoît (2022-04). "The Sixth Mass Extinction: fact, fiction or speculation?". Biological Reviews. 97 (2): 640–663. doi:10.1111/brv.12816. ISSN 1464-7931. PMC 9786292. PMID 35014169.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ a b c d e f Estrada, Alejandro; Garber, Paul A.; Rylands, Anthony B.; Roos, Christian; Fernandez-Duque, Eduardo; Di Fiore, Anthony; Nekaris, K. Anne-Isola; Nijman, Vincent; Heymann, Eckhard W.; Lambert, Joanna E.; Rovero, Francesco; Barelli, Claudia; Setchell, Joanna M.; Gillespie, Thomas R.; Mittermeier, Russell A. (2017-01-06). "Impending extinction crisis of the world's primates: Why primates matter". Science Advances. 3 (1): e1600946. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1600946. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 5242557. PMID 28116351.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ Graham, Tanya L.; Matthews, H. Damon; Turner, Sarah E. (2016-04-01). "A Global-Scale Evaluation of Primate Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Change". International Journal of Primatology. 37 (2): 158–174. doi:10.1007/s10764-016-9890-4. ISSN 1573-8604.
- ^ a b c d e "Primate Conservation: Is the Cup Half Empty or Half Full? | Learn Science at Scitable". www.nature.com. Retrieved 2023-03-22.
- ^ Arroyo-Rodríguez, Víctor; Fahrig, Lenore (2014-10). "Why is a landscape perspective important in studies of primates?". American Journal of Primatology. 76 (10): 901–909. doi:10.1002/ajp.22282. ISSN 1098-2345. PMID 24715680.
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6. William, J. (2017). Primate conservation: Global evidence for the effects of interventions. University of Cambridge.
{{cite book}}: line feed character in|first=at position 11 (help); line feed character in|last=at position 10 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Norconk, Marilyn A.; Atsalis, Sylvia; Tully, Gregg; Santillán, Ana Maria; Waters, Siân; Knott, Cheryl D.; Ross, Stephen R.; Shanee, Sam; Stiles, Daniel (2020-01). "Reducing the primate pet trade: Actions for primatologists". American Journal of Primatology. 82 (1). doi:10.1002/ajp.23079. ISSN 0275-2565. PMC 9286354. PMID 31876316.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ Custance, D. M.; Whiten, A.; Fredman, T. (2002-06-01). "Social Learning and Primate Reintroduction". International Journal of Primatology. 23 (3): 479–499. doi:10.1023/A:1014961415219. ISSN 1573-8604.