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Comparative politics

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Great Hall of the People, People's Republic of China
United States Capitol, United States of America
Parliament of Australia, Australia
Jatiyo Sangsad, Bangladesh
National Diet of Japan
Parliament of Malaysia, Malaysia
National Assembly, Nigeria
Parliament of South Africa, South Africa
Parliament of Canada, Canada
Bundestag, Germany
National Congress of Argentina, Argentina
National Congress of Brazil, Brazil
Select parliaments of the world, from top left to right: 1. National People's Congress, People's Republic of China; 2. United States Congress, United States of America; 3. Parliament of Australia, Australia; 4. Jatiya Sangsad, Bangladesh; 5. National Diet, Japan; 6. Parliament of Malaysia, Malaysia; 7. National Assembly, Nigeria; 8. Parliament of South Africa, South Africa; 9. Parliament of Canada, Canada; 10. Bundestag, Germany; 11. National Congress of Argentina, Argentina; 12. National Congress of Brazil, Brazil.
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Comparative politics is a field in political science characterized either by the use of the comparative method or other empirical methods to explore politics both within and between countries. Substantively, this can include questions relating to political institutions, political behavior, conflict, and the causes and consequences of economic development. When applied to specific fields of study, comparative politics may be referred to by other names, such as comparative government (the comparative study of forms of government).

Definitions

Comparative politics is the systematic study and comparison of the diverse political systems in the world. It is comparative in searching to explain why different political systems have similarities or differences and how developmental changes came to be between them. It is systematic in that it looks for trends, patterns, and regularities among these political systems.[1] The research field takes into account political systems throughout the globe, focusing on themes such as democratization, globalization, and integration.[1] New theories and approaches have been used in political science in the last 40 years thanks to comparative politics. Some of these focus on political culture, dependency theory, developmentalism, corporatism, indigenous theories of change, comparative political economy, state-society relations, and new institutionalism.[1] Some examples of comparative politics are studying the differences between presidential and parliamentary systems, democracies and dictatorships, parliamentary systems in different countries, multi-party systems such as Canada and two-party systems such as the United States. Comparative politics must be conducted at a specific point in time, usually the present. A researcher cannot compare systems from different periods of time; it must be static.[1]

While historically the discipline explored broad questions in political science through between-country comparisons, contemporary comparative political science primarily uses subnational comparisons.[2] More recently, there has been a significant increase in the interest of subnational comparisons and the benefit it has on comparative politics. We would know far less about major credible issues within political science if it weren't for subnational research. Subnational research contributes important methodological, theoretical, and substantive ideas to the study of politics.[3] Important developments often obscured by a national-level focus are easier to decipher through subnational research. An example could be regions inside countries where the presence of state institutions have been reduced in effect or value.[3]

The name comparative politics refers to the discipline's historical association with the comparative method, described in detail below. Arend Lijphart argues that comparative politics does not have a substantive focus in itself, but rather a methodological one: it focuses on "the how but does not specify the what of the analysis."[4] Peter Mair and Richard Rose advance a slightly different definition, arguing that comparative politics is defined by a combination of a substantive focus on the study of countries' political systems and a method of identifying and explaining similarities and differences between these countries using common concepts.[5][6]

Sometimes, especially in the United States, the term "comparative politics" is used to refer to "the politics of foreign countries." This usage of the term is disputed.[7][8]

Comparative politics is significant because it helps people understand the nature and working of political frameworks around the world. There are many types of political systems worldwide according to the authentic, social, ethnic, racial, and social history. Indeed, even comparative constructions of political association shift starting with one country then onto the next. For instance, India and the United States are majority-rule nations; nonetheless, the U.S. has a liberal vote-based presidential system contrasted with the parliamentary system used in India. Even the political decision measure is more diverse in the United States when found in light of the Indian popular government. The United States has a president as their leader, while India has a prime minister. Relative legislative issues encourage us to comprehend these central contracts and how the two nations are altogether different regardless of being majority rule. This field of study is critical for the fields of international relations and conflict resolution. Near politics encourages international relations to clarify worldwide legislative issues and the present winning conditions worldwide. Although both are subfields of political science, comparative politics examines the causes of international strategy and the effect of worldwide approaches and frameworks on homegrown political conduct and working.

History of the field

Harry H. Eckstein traces the history of the field of comparative politics back to Aristotle, and sees a string of thinkers from Machiavelli and Montesquieu, to Gaetano Mosca and Max Weber, Vilfredo Pareto and Robert Michels, on to James Bryce - with his Modern Democracies (1921) - and Carl Joachim Friedrich - with his Constitutional Government and Democracy (1937) - contributing to its history.[9]

Two traditions reaching back to Aristotle and Plato

Philippe C. Schmitter argues that the "family tree" of comparative politics has two main traditions: one, invented by Aristotle, that he calls "sociological constitutionalism"; a second, that he traced back to Plato, that he calls "legal constitutionalism"".[10]

Schmitter places various scholars under each tradition:

Periodization as a field of political science

Gerardo L. Munck offers the following periodization for the evolution of modern comparative politics, as a field of political science - understood as an academic discipline - in the United States:[13]

  • 1. The Constitution of Political Science as a Discipline, 1880–1920
  • 2. The Behavioral Revolution, 1921–66
  • 3. The Post-Behavioral Period, 1967–88
  • 4. The Second Scientific Revolution 1989–2005

Contemporary patterns, 2000-present

Since the turn of the century, several trends in the field can be detected.[14]

  • End of the pretense of rational choice theory to hegemonize the field
  • Lack of a unifying metatheory
  • Greater attention to causal inference, and increased use of experimental methods.
  • Continued use of observation methods, including qualitative methods.
  • New concern with a "hegemony of methods" as theorizing is not given as much attention.

Substantive areas of research

By some definitions, comparative politics can be traced back to Greek philosophy, as Plato's Republic and Aristotle's The Politics.

As a modern sub-discipline, comparative politics is constituted by research across a range of substantive areas, including the study of:

While many researchers, research regimes, and research institutions are identified according to the above categories or foci, it is not uncommon to claim geographic or country specialization as the differentiating category.

Methodology

While the name of the subfield suggests one methodological approach (the comparative method), political scientists in comparative politics use the same diversity of social scientific methods as scientists elsewhere in the field, including experiments,[15] comparative historical analysis,[16] case studies,[17] survey methodology, and ethnography.[18] Researchers choose a methodological approach in comparative politics driven by two concerns: ontological orientation[19] and the type of question or phenomenon of interest.[20]

(Mill's) comparative method

Main article: Mill's Methods
  • Most Similar Systems Design/Mill's Method of Difference: This method consists in comparing very similar cases which only differ in the dependent variable, on the assumption that this would make it easier to find those independent variables which explain the presence/absence of the dependent variable.[21]
  • Most Different Systems Design/Mill's Method of Similarity: This method consists in comparing very different cases, all of which however have in common the same dependent variable, so that any other circumstance which is present in all the cases can be regarded as the independent variable.[21]

Subnational comparative analysis

Since the turn of the century, many students of comparative politics have compared units within a country. Relatedly, there has been a growing discussion of what Richard O. Snyder calls the "subnational comparative method."[22]

Notable works[23]

18th and 19th century

The Spirit of the Laws (1748)[24]
Democracy in America, 2 Volumes (1835/1840)[25]
The Old Regime and the French Revolution (1856)[26]

1900s-1920s

Modern Democracies, 2 Volumes (1921), the first comparative study of democratization and democracy.[27]
The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze, ed. Felix Gilbert (1975), a collection of essays that are classics in the study of comparative public administration.
Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (1915), a study that argues that large-scale social organizations are dominated by leaders and are largely incompatible with democracy and that introducing the concept of the iron law of oligarchy. It is seen as a classic of elite theory.[28]
Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties, 2 Volumes (1902), a study on the consequences of democratic suffrage, especial on the party system in Britain and the United States.[29]
Economy and Society, 2 Volumes (1921), a treatise widely considered as a foundational text for the social sciences that introduced a classification of political forms based upon “systems of rule” and “rulership” and that presented analyses of charisma, tradition, legal authority, and bureaucracy.[30]

1930s-1940s

The Theory and Practice of Modern Government, 2 Volumes (1932), a work seen as representative of a tradition of scholarship that is focused on governmental institutions and processes.[31]
Constitutional Government and Democracy (1937), a work seen as representative of a tradition of scholarship that is focused on governmental institutions and processes.[32]
Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (1936), a book on power and the manipulation by ruling elites and counter-elites.
The Ruling Class (1939), a key work in elite theory.[33]
The Great Transformation (1944), a work on the development of "market society" that introduced the concept of a double movement: (1) the "movement of laissez faire," that is, "the efforts by a variety of groups to expand the scope and influence of self-regulating markets," and (2) the "movement of protection," that is, the initiatives by a range of social actors "to insulate the fabric of social life from the destructive impact of market pressures."[34]

1950s

"Comparative Political Systems" (1956), an article that proposes a fourfold classification of political systems: (1) "the Anglo-American (including some members of the Commonwealth)"; (2) "the Continental European (exclusive of the Scandinavian and Low Countries, which combine some of the features of the Continental European and the Anglo-American)"; (3) "the pre-industrial, or partially industrial, political systems outside the European-American area"; and (4) "the totalitarian political systems".[35]
Politics, Economics, and Welfare (1953), a work that challenges discussions about politics and economics in terms of grand and simple alternatives and a proposal to move beyond the idea of all-embracing ideological solutions to complex economic problems.
Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State (1951/1954), a book that introduced what is known as Duverger's law, which identifies a correlation between a first-past-the-post election system and the formation of a two-party system.
The Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science (1953), a book that adapted systems theory to political science and a key work in the behavioral revolution in political science.
The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (1957), a book that presents a general theory of civil–military relations.[36]
Power and Society: A Framework for Political Inquiry (1950), a book that formulates basic theoretical concepts and hypotheses of political science, and provides a framework for inquiry into the political process.
The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (1958), a key work on modernization theory.
"Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy" (1959), a key work on modernization theory and an article that included the Lipset hypothesis that economic development leads to democracy.[37]
"Citizenship and Social Class" (1950), a work on the development of citizenship that argued that the attainment of civil rights leads to gains in political rights and that gains in political rights subsequently lead to gains in social rights.[38]

1960s

(ed.) The Politics of the Developing Areas (1960), a key work using structural functionalism to study the Third World.
Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach (1966), a book that provides a framework for inquiry into the political process. It is an elaboration of the structural functional framework presented in Almond (ed.), The Politics of the Developing Areas (1960).
The Civic Culture (1963), the first major cross-national survey of attitudes to explore the role of political culture in maintaining the stability of democratic regimes.
Nation-Building & Citizenship: Studies of Our Changing Social Order (1964), a book on the historical origins of modern states, bureaucratization, and the nature of public authority.
"Social Mobilization and Political Development" (1961), an article that uses the concept of social mobilization to describe "an overall process of change, which happens to substantial parts of the population in countries which are moving from traditional to modern ways of life."[39]
The Nerves of Government: Models of Political Communication and Control (1966), a work that applies concepts of the theory of information, communication, and control to problems of political and social science.
A Framework for Political Analysis (1965), a book that adapted systems theory to political science and a key work in the behavioral revolution in political science.
A Systems Analysis of Political Life (1965), a book that adapted systems theory to political science and a key work in the behavioral revolution in political science.
The Political System of Empires (1963), an empirically pioneering work on the major bureaucratic structures of empires from ancient to modern times.
Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (1962), a work on European economic history that argues that state intervention could compensate for the inadequate supplies of capital, labor, entrepreneurship and technological capacity in latecomers to economic development.
Political Order in Changing Societies (1968), a book that challenged the prevalent modernization theory and drew attention to the problem of political order.
"The Transformation of Western European Party Systems" (1966), a chapter that introduced the concept of the catch-all party.[40]
The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands (1968), a book that challenges the influential pluralist theory and argues that the main factor in having a viable democracy in a strongly divided society is the spirit of accommodation among the elites of different groups.
Political Man: The Social Basis of Politics (1960), a book on the social conditions and operation of democracy, and a key work on modernization theory.[41]
"Cleavage Structures, Party Systems, and Voter Alignments" (1967), a study that introduced the critical juncture theory.
Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (1966), a book that compares revolutions in countries like England, Russia and Japan (among others). His thesis is that mass-led revolutions dispossess the landed elite and result in Communism, and that revolutions by the elite result in Fascism. It is thus only revolutions by the bourgeoisie that result in democratic governance. For the outlier case of India, practices of the Mogul Empire, British Imperial rule and the Caste System are cited.

1970s

Lineages of the Absolutist State (1974), a book that presents a Marxist theory of the state.
Dependency and Development in Latin America (1971/1979), a study that was part of dependency theory and emphasized the important of placing countries in the context of the global economy.
Why Men Rebel (1970), a book that explains protest and rebellion in general in terms of three factors: popular discontent (relative deprivation), people’s justifications or beliefs about the justifiability and utility of political action, and the balance between discontented people’s capacity to act and the government’s capacity to repress or channel their anger.
Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (1971), a work that makes a case for the concept of polyarchy and provides a comprehensive discussion of explanations of democratization.
Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1536-1966 (1975), a book that provides a social structural analysis of nationalism that challenged then-popular cultural explanations of nationalism.
Modern Social Politics in Britain and Sweden: From Relief to Income Maintenance (1974), a book on social policy that explains the welfare state in terms of economic growth, population stability and humanitarian reaction against the tradition of poor relief.
The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics (1977), a work that detected a major intergenerational shift in the values of the populations of advanced industrial societies.
"'Effective' Number of Parties: A Measure with Application to West Europe" (1979), an article that introduced a measure of the effective number of parties.
Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (1977), a study that demonstrates that democracy can be achieved and maintained in countries with deep religious, ideological, linguistic, cultural, or ethnic cleavages if elites opt for a set of institutions that are distinctive of consociational democracy.
Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes (1975/2000), an encyclopedic classification of types of political regime that develops the fundamental distinction between totalitarian and authoritarian systems and also presents a discussion of sultanistic regimes.
(eds.) The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes (1978), a four volume that includes Linz's theoretical volume The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes. Crisis, Breakdown, and Reequilibriation.[42] It emphasizes political choice and contingent events and challenged Marxist theories that emphasized economic causes.
Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics (1973), a work that challenged modernization theory and Lipset's thesis that economic development leads to democracy.
Citizens, Elections, and Parties: Approaches to the Comparative Study of the Processes of Development (1970), a study that elaborated critical juncture theory.
"Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model" (1970), a work that challenges structural and determinist theories of democratization.[43]
"Still the Century of Corporatism?" (1974), an article that reintroduces the concept of corporatism to political science and distinguished between two types of corporatism: societal or liberal corporatism, and the state or authoritarian corporatism. This work challenges pluralist theory.
In States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (1979), a key work that places the focus on the state and makes a case for treating the state as autonomous relative to classes in society.
Parties and Party Systems (1976), a comprehensive approach to the classification of party systems.
(ed.) The Formation of National States in Western Europe (1975), a collection of essays on the formation of national states in western Europe that challenges models of political change associated with modernization theory. In this work, Tilly introduced the claim that "war made the state, and the state made war."[44]

1980s

Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983), a book on the causes of nationalism that introduced the popular concept of imagined communities.
Markets and States in Tropical Africa: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policy (1981), a book that argues that African countries fail to produce enough food to feed their populations because African governments follow policies that are adverse to most farmers' interests.
(eds.) Bringing the State Back In (1985), edited volume that focuses on the state; it introduced key concepts such as state autonomy and state capacity. It popularized state-centered analyses.
Nations and Nationalism (1983), a book on nationalism that argues that nationalism is a product of industrialization.
The Nation-State and Violence (1985), a book on the nature of the modern nation-state and its association with the means of waging war.
Ethnic Groups in Conflict (1985), a work that elaborates a theory of ethnic conflict, relating ethnic affiliations to kinship and intergroup relations to the fear of domination.
MITI and the Japanese Miracle (1982), the work that introduced the concept of the developmental state.
Small States in World Markets: Industrial Policy in Europe (1985), a study on the successes of economically vulnerable nations of Western Europe that shows that they have managed to stay economically competitive while at the same time preserving their political institutions. Katzenstein maintains that democratic corporatism is an effective way of coping with a rapidly changing world, a more effective way than the United States and several other large industrial countries have yet managed to discover.
"Political Opportunity Structures and Political Protest" (1986), an article on protest movements that challenge public policies in advanced industrial democracies.
  • Walter Korpi
The Democratic Class Struggle (1983), a work that focuses on power resources of workers and that argues that in modern welfare states, institutionalized political conflict tends to replace less institutionalized and unorganized social conflict.
Of Rule and Revenue (1988), a work that elaborates a theory of predatory rule to explain variation in the revenue production policies of states.
Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian & Consensus Government in Twenty-one Countries (1984), a comprehensive study of democracies around the world that develops the distinction between majoritarian democracy and consensus democracy.
The Sources of Social Power: Volume 1, A History of Power from the Beginning to AD 1760 (1986), a book that traces the interrelation among four sources of power in human societies – ideological, economic, military, and political – throughout human history.
Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (1988), a study that proposes a model of state-society relations that highlights the state’s struggle with other social organizations and explains the differing abilities of states to predominate in those struggles.
"Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England" (1989), an article on the relationship between institutions and the behavior of the government that emphasizes that new institutions in England following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 allowed the government to commit credibly to upholding property rights.
Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (1986), a book that proposes a strategic choice approach to transitions to democracy and highlighted how they were driven by the decisions of different actors in response to a core set of dilemmas. The analysis centered on the interaction among four actors: the hard-liners and soft-liners who belonged to the incumbent authoritarian regime, and the moderate and radical oppositions against the regime.
Contradictions of the Welfare State (1984), a book on the breakdown of the post-war settlement in Europe and the crisis of welfare capitalist states.
  • Angelo Panebianco
Political Parties: Organization and Power (1988), a book that places the focus on parties as organization.
Capitalism and Social Democracy (1985), a work on the choices faced by socialist movements as they developed within capitalist societies that argues that workers have good reasons to struggle for the improvement of capitalism.
Commerce and Coalitions: How Trade Affects Domestic Political Alignments (1989), a work that extends findings of economic theories of international trade and discusses why countries differ in their patterns of political cleavage and coalition.
Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (1985), a book focuses on the constant and circumspect struggle waged by peasants materially and ideologically against their oppressors, and that shows that techniques of evasion and resistance may represent the most significant and effective means of class struggle in the long run.
The Ethnic Origins of Nations (1986), a book that argues that nations are not particularly new phenomena, and that they have a long history in what he calls the "ethnie".
"War Making and State Making as Organized Crime" (1985), a chapter on state formation in Europe that links war and war-making with the appearance of the nation-state in Europe, and develops the argument that "war makes states."

1990s

Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective (1997), the first comprehensive analysis of democratic transitions in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (1992), a book that argues that the difference between the territorial basis of the French citizenry and the German emphasis on blood descent was grounded in and in turn shaped by different understandings of nationhood and the paths to nation-statehood followed by the two countries.
Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (1991), a work that elaborated critical juncture theory.
Making Votes Count (1997), a book on strategic coordination in elections worldwide.
The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (1990), a key work on the welfare state that introduces the distinction between three types of welfare capitalism: Liberal regimes, conservative regimes, and social democratic regimes.
Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation (1995), a book that explains why state involvement in the economy works in some cases and produces disasters in others. It is a central work on the developmental state.
The History of Government from the Earliest Times, 3 volumes (1997), an encyclopedic overview of political institutions in world history ranging over 5,000 years, from the Sumerian city state to the modern European nation state. It focuses on five themes — state-building, military formats, belief systems, social stratification, and timespan — and examines representative and exceptional polities, and political elites of different types.
Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in Newly Industrializing Countries (1990), a book that compares the politics of industrialization in East Asian and Latin American countries.
  • Peter A. Hall
"Policy Paradigms, Social Learning, and the State: The Case of Economic Policymaking in Britain" (1993), an article that proposes a theory of paradigmatic policy change.[45]
  • Peter A. Hall and Rosemary CR Taylor
"Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms" (1996), an article that discusses the new institutionalism and distinguished three different analytical approaches - historical institutionalism, rational choice institutionalism, and sociological institutionalism - that developed in reaction to behavioural perspectives.
The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (1995), a book on the role economic crises play in political liberalization and democratization.
The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (1991), a book on the nature and causes of democratic transitions, and the prospects of new democracies.
Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (1990), a study that demonstrates that value shift in advanced societies is part of a much broader process of cultural change that transforms the political, economic, and social life in these societies.
Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies (1997), a book that argues that economic development, cultural change, and political change go together in coherent way.
The Paradox of Plenty: Oil Booms and Petro-States (1997), a work on the economic, political, and social factors that shape the nature of the oil-dependent states.
"Changing Models of Party Organization and Party Democracy: The Emergence of the Cartel Party" (1995), an article that challenged the assumption that the mass-party model is only one and introduced the concept of the cartel party, a new model of party. It launched cartel party theory.
Electoral Systems and Party Systems: A Study of Twenty-seven Democracies, 1945-1990 (1994), a comprehensive study of electoral systems.
Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries (1999), a comprehensive study of democracies around the world that develops the distinction between majoritarian democracy and consensus democracy, and updated Lijphart 1984 book Democracies.
"The Perils of Presidentialism" (1990), an article that argues that presidential democracies are not as stable as parliamentary democracies.
Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post Communist Europe (1996), a cross-regional study on democratization that introducing a novel focus on ‘‘stateness’’ problems stemming from nationalist conflicts and argues that the type of old non-democratic regime affects subsequent trajectories of democratization.
The Sources of Social Power: Volume 2, The Rise of Classes and Nation-States, 1760–1914 (1993) is a book that traces the interrelation among four sources of power in human societies – ideological, economic, military, and political – throughout human history. It focuses on power relations between the Industrial Revolution and the First World War, and focuses on France, Great Britain, Hapsburg Austria, Prussia/Germany and the United States.
Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Government (1999), a book on public support for democracy worldwide that theorizes the main political, economic, and cultural factors that explain support for democratic government.
"Delegative Democracy?" (1994), an article that introduced the concept of delegative democracy.[46]
"Horizontal Accountability in New Polyarchies" (1998), an article that introduced the concept of horizontal accountability.[47]
"Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development" (1993), an article that argues that "under anarchy, uncoordinated competitive theft by “roving bandits” destroys the incentive to invest and produce, leaving little for either the population or the bandits" and that "both can be better off if a bandit sets himself up as a dictator—a “stationary bandit” who monopolizes and rationalizes theft in the form of taxes."[48]
Dismantling the Welfare State? Reagan, Thatcher and the Politics of Retrenchment (1994), a book on the durability of welfare states and the politics of neo-conservatism.
"The New Politics of the Welfare State" (1996), an article on welfare state retrenchment that argues that "only an appreciation of how mature social programs create a new politics can allow us to make sense of the welfare state's remarkable resilience."[49]
Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (1991), a book on transitions to democracy and market-oriented economic reforms that presents a minimalist view of democracy and emphasizes the interdependence of political and economic transformations.
"Modernization: Theories and Facts", with F. Limongi (1997), a work that challenged modernization theory and Lipset's thesis that economic development leads to democracy.[50]
Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (1993), a major work assessing why some democratic governments work and other fail, based on the study of the Italian regional governments. It launching a strand of research on social capital and its consequences in various fields within political science. It is also seen as a work in critical juncture theory.
Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform (1999), a work on how high levels of corruption limit investment and growth and lead to ineffective government.
Capitalist Development and Democracy (1992), a work on advanced industrial countries, Latin America, and the Caribbean, that finds that the rise and persistence of democracy cannot be explained by an overall structural correspondence between capitalism and democracy or by the role of the bourgeoisie as the agent of democratic reform. Instead, the book argues that capitalist development is associated with democracy because it transforms the class structure, enlarging the working and middle classes, facilitating their self-organization, and thus making it more difficult for elites to exclude them. Simultaneously, economic development weakens the landed upper class, democracy's most consistent opponent.
Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (1998), a book on the reason why large-scale intervention by authoritarian states fail.
Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (1992), a book on institutional design in democratic politics.
Power in Movement: Collective Action, Social Movements and Politics (1994), a book that offers an overview of the history of the social movement, proposes a theory of collective action to explain its surges and declines, and analyzes the effects of social movements on personal lives, policy reforms, and political culture.
"Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics" (1999), an article that "proposes a way of thinking about institutional evolution and path dependency that provides an alternative to equilibrium and other approaches that separate the analysis of institutional stability from that of institutional change."[51]
Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992 (1990/1992), a foundational work in the literature on state formation that challenges the assumption of a unilinear path of state development.
"Decision Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism and Multipartyism" (1995), an article that compares political systems with respect to their capacity to produce policy change and elaborates the idea of veto players.[52]

2000s

Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (2006), a work on the impact of redistribute politics on democratization and the stability of democracy.
Democracy and Redistribution (2003), a book on the impact of redistribute politics on democratization and the stability of democracy.
The Logic of Political Survival (2003), a book that introduced the selectorate theory of politics and applies this theory.
"Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War" (2003), an article on the causes of civil wars that challenges the view that more ethnically or religiously diverse countries are more prone to civil violence.[53]
(eds.) Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage (2001), an edited volume that focuses on types of capitalism and distinguishes between liberal market economies (LME) (e.g. US, UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland) and coordinated market economies (CME) (e.g. Germany, Japan, Sweden, Austria).
"Informal Institutions and Comparative Politics: A Research Agenda" (2004), an article that develop a framework for studying informal institutions and integrating them into comparative institutional analysis.[54]
States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control (2000), the main work on state formation in Africa.
Development and Crisis of the Welfare State: Parties and Policies in Global Markets (2001), a book on the origins, character, effects, and prospects of welfare states in advanced industrial democracies in the post-World War II era that argues that prolonged government by different parties results in markedly different welfare states.
Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change Around the World (2003), a book on how modernization has changed cultural attitudes towards gender equality and the political consequences of this process.
Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence (2006), a work that proposes an updated version of modernization theory.
The Logic of Violence in Civil War (2006), a work on the causes and dynamics of violence in civil war that challenges the conventional view of violence in civil wars is irrational and that shows that violence only emerges in disputed territories and is driven by previous rancors and enmities among the population.
Dynamics of Contention (2001), a book on social movements that identifies causal mechanisms and processes that recur across a wide range of contentious politics.
"The Populist Zeitgeist" (2005), an article on populist parties.
Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe (2007), a book on the rise of far-right, populist political parties.
Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (2001), a book on the explosive growth of the Internet that shows that a global divide is evident between industrialized and developing societies.
Politics in Time: History, Institutions, and Social Analysis (2004), a book that argues that comparative politics should address temporality, explores the importance of the temporal dimensions of social life for our understanding of important political and social outcomes, and holds that ahistorical approaches are deficient.
Democracy and Development; Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990, with Michael E. Alvarez José Antonio Cheibub, and Fernando Limongi (2000), a book that provides a statistical analysis of the causes and consequences of democracy across the globe. It argues that Seymour Martin Lipset’s thesis about the impact of economic development on political regimes is partially correct - it explains the stability of democracy but not transitions to democracy. It also holds that democracies perform equally well, in economic terms, as authoritarian regimes.[55]
  • Michael Ross
"Does Oil Hinder Democracy?" (2001), an article that claims that oil wealth helps to explain the failure to democratize.[56]
The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia (2009), a book on state-making that explains why some people deliberately remain stateless.
Beyond Continuity: Institutional Change in Advanced Political Economies (2005), an edited volume that examines theories of institutional change and argues that the political economy of European countries has undergone incremental but cummulatively transformative processes.
How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan (2004), a work on the causes for variation in vocational training and skill formation amongst Germany, the United Kingdom, Japan, and the United States.
Contentious Politics (2006), a book on various forms of contentious politics – revolutions, social movements, religious and ethnic conflict, nationalism and civil rights, and transnational movements – that shows that the same set of analytical tools and procedures can be used to study, compare, and explain very different sorts of contention.
  • Daniel Treisman
"The Causes of Corruption: A Cross-National Study" (2000), an article that examines the determinants of corruption and argues that countries "with Protestant traditions, histories of British rule, more developed economies, and (probably) higher imports were less ‘corrupt’" and that "federal states were more ‘corrupt’."[57]
Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work (2002), a book that argues that political systems can be distinguished in terms of the extent to which political actors have veto power over policy choices.

2010s

Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (2012), a work on why some nations are rich and others poor that rejects culture and geography as explanatory factors and argues for the importance of political and economic institutions that originates in the past. The book makes use of critical juncture theory.
The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution (2011), a book that offers an account of how political institutions developed since the beginning of time, and that argues that a modern political order has three components: a state, the rule of law, and an accountable government (i.e., democracy).
Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War (2010), a book that elaborates the concept of competitive authoritarian regimes and focuses on the impact of international factors on these regimes.
Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide (2011), a book that develops a theory of existential security and demonstrates that the publics of virtually all advanced industrial societies have been moving toward more secular orientations during the past half century, but also that the world as a whole now has more people with traditional religious views than ever before.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Wiarda, Howard (June 17, 2019). Wiarda, Howard J (ed.). New Directions in Comparative Politics. doi:10.4324/9780429494932. ISBN 978-0-429-49493-2.
  2. ^ Clark, William; Golder, Matt; Golder, Sona (2019). Foundations of Comparative Politics. Thousand Oaks,CA: CQ Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-5063-6073-7.
  3. ^ a b Giraudy, Agustina (2019). Giraudy, Agustina; Moncada, Eduardo; Snyder, Richard (eds.). Subnational Research in Comparative Politics. doi:10.1017/9781108678384. ISBN 978-1-108-67838-4.
  4. ^ Lijphart, Arend (1971). "Comparative politics and the comparative method". American Political Science Review. 65 (3): 682–693. doi:10.2307/1955513. JSTOR 1955513. S2CID 55713809.
  5. ^ Mair, Peter (1996). "Comparative politics: An introduction to comparative.overview". In Goodin, Robert E.; Klingemann, Hans-Dieter (eds.). A New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 309–335. ISBN 0-19-829471-9. Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2008-08-25.
  6. ^ Rose, Richard; MacKenzie, W. J. M. (1991). "Comparing forms of comparative analysis". Political Studies. 39 (3): 446–462. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.1991.tb01622.x. S2CID 145410195. Archived from the original on 2012-10-21.
  7. ^ Hopkin, J. [2002 (1995)] "Comparative Methods", in Marsh, D. and G. Stoker (ed.) Theory and Methods in Political Science, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 249–250
  8. ^ van Biezen, Ingrid; Caramani, Daniele (2006). "(Non)comparative politics in Britain". Politics. 26 (1): 29–37. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9256.2006.00248.x. S2CID 145654851. Archived from the original on 2013-01-05.
  9. ^ Harry Eckstein, "A Perspective on Comparative Politics, Past and Present," pp. 3–32, in David Apter and Harry Eckstein (eds.), Comparative Politics: A Reader (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963). [1]
  10. ^ Philippe C. Schmitter, “The Nature and Future of Comparative Politics.” European Political Science Review 1,1 (2009): 33–61, pp. 36-38. Schmitter's depiction of the "family tree" of comparative politics can be found here: https://www.eui.eu/Documents/DepartmentsCentres/SPS/Profiles/Schmitter/Thefamilytreeofcomppol.pdf
  11. ^ Philippe C. Schmitter, “The Nature and Future of Comparative Politics.” European Political Science Review 1,1 (2009): 33–61, p. 38.
  12. ^ Philippe C. Schmitter, “The Nature and Future of Comparative Politics.” European Political Science Review 1,1 (2009): 33–61, p. 38.
  13. ^ Gerardo L. Munck, "The Past and Present of Comparative Politics," pp. 32-59, in Munck and Richard Snyder, Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007). [2] Munck's periodization has been validated by Matthew Charles Wilson, "Trends in Political Science Research and the Progress of Comparative Politics," PS: Political Science & Politics 50(4)(2017): 979-984.
  14. ^ Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder “Comparative Politics at a Crossroad: Problems, Opportunities and Prospects from the North and South.” Política y Gobierno (Mexico) 26, 1 (2019): 139-58 [3]
  15. ^ Gerber, Alan; Green, Donald (2012). Field Experiments: Design, Analysis, and Interpretation. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 978-0-393-97995-4.
  16. ^ Mahoney, James; Thelen, Kathleen, eds. (2015). Advances in Comparative-Historical Analysis. Cambridge University Press.
  17. ^ Geddes, Barbara (2010). Paradigms and Sand Castles: Theory Building and Research Design in Comparative Politics. Ann Arbor,MI: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-09835-4.
  18. ^ Simmons, Erica; Rush Smith, Nicholas (2017). "Comparison with an Ethnographic Sensibility". PS:Political Science & Politics. 50 (1): 126–130. doi:10.1017/S1049096516002286. S2CID 157955394.
  19. ^ Hall, Peter (2003). "Aligning Ontology and Methodology in Comparative Politics". In Mahoney, James; Rueschemeyer, Dietrich (eds.). Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences. New York,NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81610-6.
  20. ^ King, Gary; Keohane, Robert; Verba, Sidney (1994). Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03470-2.
  21. ^ a b Anckar, Carsten. "On the Applicability of the Most Similar Systems Design and the Most Different Systems Design in Comparative Research." International Journal of Social Research Methodology 11.5 (2008): 389–401. Informaworld. Web. 20 June 2011.
  22. ^ Richard Snyder, “Scaling Down: The Subnational Comparative Method,” Studies in Comparative International Development, 36:1 (Spring 2001): 93-110; Agustina Giraudy, Eduardo Moncada, and Richard Snyder (eds.), Inside Countries: Subnational Research in Comparative Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019.
  23. ^ The selection of texts in based on a review of texts discussed in Robert R. Alford and Roger Friedland, Powers of Theory. Capitalism, the State, and Democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985; Carles Boix and Susan C. Stokes (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007; Donatella Campus and Gianfranco Pasquino (eds.), Masters of Political Science, Vol. 1. Colchester: ECPR Press, 2009; Donatella Campus Gianfranco Pasquino, and Martin Bull (eds.), Masters of Political Science, Vol. 2. Colchester: ECPR Press, 2011; Ronald H. Chilcote, Theories of Comparative Politics: The Search for a Paradigm Revisited, Second edition. Boulder: Westview Press, 1994; Hans Daalder (ed.), Comparative European Politics: The Story of a Profession. London: Pinter, 1997; Harry Eckstein, "A Perspective on Comparative Politics, Past and Present," pp. 3–32, in David Apter and Harry Eckstein (eds.), Comparative Politics: A Reader. New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963; Andrew C. Janos, Politics and Paradigms. Changing Theories of Change in Social Science. Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press, 1986; Todd Landman and Neil Robinson (eds.), The Sage Handbook of Comparative Politics. London: Sage Publications, 2009; Mark Irving Lichbach and Alan S. Zuckerman (eds.).. Comparative politics: rationality, culture, and structure, 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009; Gerardo L Munck, "The Past and Present of Comparative Politics," pp. 32-59, in Gerardo Munck and Richard Snyder, Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007; and Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder (eds.), Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007; Philippe C. Schmitter, “The Nature and Future of Comparative Politics.” European Political Science Review 1,1 (2009): 33–61, p. 37. The list was narrowed down to searching for the most cited texts of each decade using Google scholar.
  24. ^ "Complete Works, vol. 1 The Spirit of Laws | Online Library of Liberty". oll.libertyfund.org.
  25. ^ Tocqueville, Alexis de; Reeve, Henry; Spencer, John C. (John Canfield) (July 13, 1838). "Democracy in America". New York : G. Dearborn & Co. [etc.] – via Internet Archive.
  26. ^ Tocqueville, Alexis de; Furet, François; Mélonio, Françoise (July 13, 1998). "The Old Regime and the Revolution". Chicago : University of Chicago Press – via Internet Archive.
  27. ^ "Modern Democracies, 2 vols. | Online Library of Liberty". oll.libertyfund.org.
  28. ^ Michels, Robert; Paul, Eden; Paul, Cedar (July 13, 1915). "Political parties; a sociological study of the oligarchical tendencies of modern democracy". New York : Hearst's International Library Co. – via Internet Archive.
  29. ^ https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.223013 ; https://archive.org/details/democracyandorg00clargoog
  30. ^ "Max Weber Economy and Society" – via Internet Archive.
  31. ^ "The Theory and Practice of Modern Government" – via Internet Archive.
  32. ^ "Constitutional Government And Politics Nature And Development". Harper & Brothers Publishers. July 13, 1937 – via Internet Archive.
  33. ^ "The Ruling Class". July 13, 1939 – via Internet Archive.
  34. ^ Fred Block, "Polanyi’s Double Movement and the Reconstruction of Critical Theory," Revue Interventions économiques 38 | 2008.
  35. ^ Gabriel A. Almond, "Comparative Political Systems," The Journal of Politics 18,3(1956): 391-409, pp. 392-93.
  36. ^ "Samuel P. Huntington The Soldier And The State ：the Theory And Politics Of Civil Military Relations Belknap Press ( 1957)" – via Internet Archive.
  37. ^ Lipset, Seymour Martin (1959). "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy" (PDF). The American Political Science Review. 53 (1): 69–105. doi:10.2307/1951731. JSTOR 1951731.
  38. ^ T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," in T. H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1950.
  39. ^ Karl W. Deutsch, "Social Mobilization and Political Development." American Political Science Review, 55(3)(1961): 493-514, p. 493.
  40. ^ Otto Kirchheimer, "The Transformation of Western European Party Systems," pp.177–200, in J. LaPalombara and M. Weiner (eds.), Political Parties and Political Development. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1966a.
  41. ^ Lipset, Seymour Martin (July 13, 1960). "Political man: the social bases of politics". Garden City, N.Y.,: Doubleday – via Internet Archive.
  42. ^ Juan Linz, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes. Crisis, Breakdown, and Reequilibriation. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
  43. ^ https://moodle.swarthmore.edu/pluginfile.php/100501/mod_resource/content/0/Democracy/Rustow_Transitions_Toward_Dynamic_Model.pdf
  44. ^ Charles Tilly, “Reflections on the History of European State-Making,” pp. 3-83, in Tilly (ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975, p. 42.
  45. ^ Hall, Peter A. (1993). "Policy Paradigms, Social Learning, and the State: The Case of Economic Policymaking in Britain" (PDF). Comparative Politics. 25 (3): 275–296. doi:10.2307/422246. JSTOR 422246.
  46. ^ O'Donell, Guillermo A (July 13, 1994). "Delegative Democracy". Journal of Democracy. 5 (1): 55–69. doi:10.1353/jod.1994.0010. S2CID 8558740 – via Project MUSE.
  47. ^ https://www.democraziapura.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/1998-ODonnell.pdf
  48. ^ Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development". American Political Science Review 87(3) 1993): 567-76, p. 567.
  49. ^ Paul Pierson, "The New Politics of the Welfare State." World Politics 48(2)(1996): 143-179.
  50. ^ https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/wpot49&div=12&g_sent=1&casa_token=V_0di0nsuXgAAAAA:3zHrZJ9Wc2SxrU6BiCTogjkE4sZAma0XjtkLQnmMmGT8o0EpOoh0T2BHQf9Yjn14CioUO1wU&collection=journals
  51. ^ Kathleen Thelen, "Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics." Annual Review of Political Science 1999 2: 369-404, p. 369.
  52. ^ Tsebelis, George (1995). "Decision Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism and Multipartyism" (PDF). British Journal of Political Science. 25 (3): 289–325. doi:10.1017/S0007123400007225. JSTOR 194257.
  53. ^ Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2003). "Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War" (PDF). The American Political Science Review. 97 (1): 75–90. doi:10.1017/S0003055403000534. JSTOR 3118222. S2CID 8303905.
  54. ^ Gretchen Helmke and Steven Levitsky, "Informal Institutions and Comparative Politics: A Research Agenda." Perspectives on Politics 2,4 (2004): 725-40.
  55. ^ Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, "Adam Przeworski: Capitalism, Democracy, and Science,” pp. 456-503, in Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007, p 457.
  56. ^ Ross, Michael L. (2001). "Does Oil Hinder Democracy?" (PDF). World Politics. 53 (3): 325–361. doi:10.1353/wp.2001.0011. JSTOR 25054153. S2CID 18404.
  57. ^ Daniel Treisman, "The Causes of Corruption: A Cross-National Study." Journal of Public Economics 76,3 (2000): 399–457, 399.

Further reading

  • Alford, Robert R., and Roger Friedland. 1985. Powers of Theory. Capitalism, the State, and Democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Almond, Gabriel A. 1968. “Politics, Comparative,” pp. 331-36, in David L. Sills (ed.), International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences Vol. 12. New York: Macmillan.
  • Baldez, Lisa. 2010. "The Gender Lacuna in Comparative Politics". Perspectives on Politics 8(1): 199-205.
  • Boix, Carles, and Susan C. Stokes (eds.). 2007. The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Campus, Donatella, and Gianfranco Pasquino (eds.). 2009. Masters of Political Science, Vol. 1. Colchester: ECPR Press.
  • Campus, Donatella, Gianfranco Pasquino, and Martin Bull (eds.). 2011. Masters of Political Science, Vol. 2. Colchester: ECPR Press.
  • Chilcote, Ronald H., 1994. Theories of Comparative Politics: The Search for a Paradigm Revisited, Second edition. Boulder: Westview Press.
  • Daalder, Hans (ed.). 1997. Comparative European Politics: The Story of a Profession. London: Pinter.
  • Dosek, Tomas. 2020. "Multilevel Research Designs: Case Selection, Levels of Analysis, and Scope Conditions". Studies in Comparative International Development 55:4" 460-80.
  • Eckstein, Harry. 1963. "A Perspective on Comparative Politics, Past and Present," pp. 3–32, in David Apter and Harry Eckstein (eds.), Comparative Politics: A Reader. New York: Free Press of Glencoe. [4]
  • Janos, Andrew C. 1986. Politics and Paradigms. Changing Theories of Change in Social Science. Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press.
  • Landman, Todd, and Neil Robinson (eds.). 2009. The Sage Handbook of Comparative Politics. London: Sage Publications.
  • Lichbach, Mark Irving, and Alan S. Zuckerman (eds.). 2009. Comparative politics: rationality, culture, and structure, 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mair, Peter. 1996. “Comparative Politics: An Overview,” pp. 309–35, in Robert E. Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds.), A New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Munck, Gerardo L. 2007. "The Past and Present of Comparative Politics," pp. 32-59, in Gerardo Munck and Richard Snyder, Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Munck, Gerardo L., and Richard Snyder (eds.). 2007. Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Pepinsky, Thomas B. 2019. "The Return of the Single-Country Study." Annual Review of Political Science Vol. 22: 187-203.
  • Schmitter, Philippe C. 2009. “The Nature and Future of Comparative Politics.” European Political Science Review 1,1: 33–61.
  • von Beyme, Klaus. 2008. “The Evolution of Comparative Politics,” pp. 27–43, in Daniel Caramani (ed.), Comparative Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Wilson, Matthew Charles. 2017. "Trends in Political Science Research and the Progress of Comparative Politics," PS: Political Science & Politics 50(4): 979-84.
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