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[[Image:Fire near Old Faithful Complex 2.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Fires approach the Old Faithful Complex on September 7, 1988]] |
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The '''Yellowstone Fire of 1988''' was the largest [[wildfire]] in the recorded history of [[Yellowstone National Park]]. The fires were a result of a combination of events including a terrible drought, a series of strong but dry [[Weather fronts|storm fronts]], over reliance on past fire behavior to be an indicator of future fire events and a lack of understanding of [[fire ecology]] in the [[Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem]]. Though initially small and believed to be easy to contain, increasing winds and drought allowed the fires to quickly spread out of control in a matter of a few days. The fires burned for several months and by the time the winter snows finally extinguished the flames, 793,880 [[Acre|acres]] (321,271 [[Hectare|ha]]) or roughly 36 percent of the park had been impacted.<ref name="Young">{{cite web |last=Young|first=Linda |url = http://www.nifc.gov/preved/comm_guide/wildfire/fire_26c.html |title = Flames of Controversy: Interpreting the Yellowstone Fires of 1988 | work = Wildland Fire Education and Outreach Case Studies |format = |publisher = National Interagency Fire Command| accessdate = 2007-07-27}}</ref> |
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Prior to the late 1960's, all fire was generally believed to be detrimental for parks and forests, and management policies were directed towards [[Wildland fire suppression|suppressing]] all fires as quickly as possible. In the decades before the Yellowstone fires, land management agencies had been highly successful in reducing the acreage lost annually to wildfires. The Yellowstone fires were unprecedented in the history of the [[National Park Service]], and many questioned existing fire management policies. [[Media]] reports of mismanagement and of the fire completely destroying most of the park were oftentimes based on sensationalism and due to the difficulty the National Park Service had in fully assessing the day to day situation and accurately disseminating precise details to the media. |
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Tens of thousands of firefighters fought the fires, assisted by dozens of [[helicopter]]s and [[airplanes]] which were used for water and [[fire retardant]] drops. At the peak of the effort, over 9,000 firefighters were assigned to the park. With fires raging throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and other areas in the [[United States]], the relatively low staffing levels of the [[National Park Service]] and other land management agencies was inadequate to meet the demands of the situation. Over 4,000 [[Military of the United States|U.S. Military]] personnel were soon assisting in fire suppression efforts. No firefighters died while fighting the fires in Yellowstone, though two related deaths outside the park did occur. The losses to structures was minimized by concentrating fire fighting efforts near major visitor areas and much of the park remained open to the public during the fire. The fire fighting effort cost [[United States Dollar|$]]120 million and property damage was $3 million. |
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The fires burned in a mosaic pattern; leaping from one area to another while some areas were completely untouched. Though a number of large [[firestorm]]s swept through some regions, burning everything in their paths, more than half of the burned areas experienced ground fires, which did less dmaage to hardier tree species. However, tens of millions of trees and countless plants were killed by the wildfires, and some regions were left looking blackened and dead. Almost 20 years after the fires, many of the hardest hit regions still have numerous snags and an immature forest which clearly delineate where the fires had burned. Not long after the fires ended, plant and trees species quickly reestablished themselves and natural plant regeneration has been highly successful. Few large mammals were killed by the fires though there has been a reduction in the number of [[moose]] which has yet to rebound. Aside from temporary declines in air quality during the fires, no adverse long term health effects have been recorded in the ecosystem. The knowledge gained from the fire has been invaluable in updating fire management policies and for reaching a better understanding of the role of fire in the environment. |
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== Fire management policy developement == |
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===Catastrophes influence policies=== |
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Some researchers as well as timber companies and private citizens who had lived in forestlands understood that fire was often beneficial to the environment. [[Native American]]s would often burn woodlands to reduce overgrowth and increase grasslands for large prey animals such as [[bison]] and [[elk]].<ref name="indians">{{cite web|last=MacCleery|first=Doug| title =The Role of American Indians in Shaping The North American Landscape| work =| publisher =Forest History Society| url =http://www.foresthistory.org/Research/usfscoll/people/Native%20Americans/AmIndian.html| accessdate = 2007-07-28}}</ref> Fire was known to be a natural part of the ecosystem in the eastern United States where wildfires remained relatively small and rarely posed great risk to life and property. As [[caucasian|white]] settlements moved further west, attitudes regarding fire quickly reversed. Range fires on the [[Great Plains]] moved rapidly and were a threat to livestock and agriculture as well as people. As settlements became established in the northern plains and [[Rocky Mountains]] regions, the first large scale forest fires were encountered. A number of catastrophic fire events over the years greatly influenced fire management policies and directives. |
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The worst loss of life in United States history due to a wildfire occurred in 1871 when the [[Peshtigo Fire]] swept through [[Wisconsin]], killing more than 1,500 people.<ref name="Peshtigo">{{cite web| title =Firestorms of 1871| work =Disasters| publisher =Boise State University| url =http://www.boisestate.edu/history/ncasner/hy210/peshtigo.htm| accessdate = 2007-07-27}}</ref> The [[Great Fire of 1889]] in [[California]] and especially the [[Great Fire of 1910]] in [[Montana]] and [[Idaho]], which destroyed a number of communities and killed 86 people, contributed to the philosophy that fire was a dangerous entity that needed to be dealt with.<ref name="Aplet">{{cite journal| last =Aplet| first =Gregory H.| title =Evolution of Wilderness Fire Policy| journal =International Journal of Wilderness| volume =12| issue =1| pages =9-13| date =April 2006| url =http://www.wilderness.net/library/documents/IJWApr06_Aplet.pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-27}}</ref> The Great Fire of 1910 had burned 3 million acres (1.2 million ha) and prompted various land management agencies in the United States to develop fire management plans to organize and establish parameters for combating fires. [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. Government]] land agencies including the National Park Service generally followed the policies established by the [[United States Forest Service|U.S. Forest Service]] regarding fire management, as that agency oversees the majority of the nation's forestlands. |
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[[Image:Yellowstone fire 1953.jpg|thumb|right|Firefighter hiking to distant fire, 1953]] |
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Prior to the middle of the 20th Century, most forest managers believed that fires should be suppressed at all times.<ref name="NRDC">{{cite web| title =Wildfires in Western Forests| work =| publisher = Natural Resources Defense Council| date =May 2003| url =http://www.nrdc.org/land/forests/pfires.asp| format =| accessdate = 2007-07-27}}</ref> By 1935, the [[U.S. Forest Service]]'s fire management policy stipulated that all wildfires were to be suppressed by 10 A.M. the morning after they were first spotted.<ref name="policy">{{cite web| title =Evolution of Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy| work =Review and Update of the 1995 Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy January 2001| publisher = National Park Service, U.S. Forest Service| date =January 2001| url =http://www.nifc.gov/fire_policy/docs/chp1.pdf| format =pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-27}}</ref> In an effort to fight forest fires in an organized manner, fire fighting crews were established throughout public lands, and generally staffed by young men during fire seasons. By 1940, firefighters known as [[smokejumper]]s would parachute out of airplanes to extinguish flames in remote locations. Over 8,000 [[fire lookout tower]]s were built in the United States by the beginning of [[World War II]], and though many have been torn down due to increased use of airplanes for fire spotting, three are still used each year in Yellowstone.<ref name="lookouts">{{cite web| title =Fire Lookouts of Sequoia National Forest| work =| publisher = U.S. Forest Service| date =May 14, 2006| url =http://www.fs.fed.us/r5/sequoia/lookouts/lookouts.html| format =| accessdate = 2007-07-27}}</ref><ref name="lookouts2">{{cite web| title =Fire Lookouts| work =| publisher = National Park Service| date =June 11, 2007| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/parkmgmt/lookouts.htm| format =| accessdate = 2007-07-28}}</ref> Firefighting efforts were highly successful, with acreage burned by wildfires reduced from an annual average of 30 million acres (12 million ha) during the 1930's, to between 2 and 5 million acres (810,000 and 2 million ha) by the 1960's.<ref name="NRDC"/> The need for lumber during World War II was high and fires that destroyed timberland were deemed unacceptable. In 1944, the U.S. Forest Service developed an ad campaign to help educate the public that all fires were detrimental. Using a cartoon [[American Black Bear|black bear]] named [[Smokey Bear]], this iconic firefighting bear can still be seen on posters with the catch phrase, "Only you can prevent forest fires".<ref name="Smokey">{{cite web| title =The Story of Smokey Bear| work =| publisher = U.S. Forest Service| date =July 13, 2005| url =http://www.fs.fed.us/r1/centennial/smokey.shtml| format =| accessdate = 2007-07-27}}</ref><ref name="Young"/> Early posters of Smoky Bear mislead the public into believing that western wildfires were predominately human caused. In Yellowstone, human caused fires average between 6 to 10 annually while another 35 wildfires are ignited by lightning.<ref name="lookouts2"/> |
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===Fire ecology as a science=== |
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As early as 1924, environmentalist [[Aldo Leopold]] argued that wildfires were beneficial to ecosystems, and were necessary for natural [[plant propagation]] of numerous tree and plant species. For the next 40 years, more foresters and ecologists concurred about the beneficial nature of wildfire to ecosystems. In 1963, a group of ecologists consulted by the [[National Park Service]] recommended that wildfires should be allowed to periodically burn to restore the environmental balance in parks. The passing of the [[Wilderness Act]] in 1964, helped to address the role of fire as a natural part of ecosystems.<ref name="Aplet"/> By 1968, the National Park Service adjusted its fire management policies to reflect changing attitudes regarding the positive role of natural fire. The service determined that fires that started naturally (by [[lightning]]), would be permitted to burn if they posed little risk to human life and property. The service also decreed that under prescribed conditions, [[controlled burn]]s would be deliberately set to restore balance to ecosystems.<ref name="policy"/> Increased knowledge of [[fire ecology]] came after many forests had aged to maturity and built up huge reserves of dead and down wood, which would likely have been reduced had some natural fires been allowed to burn. |
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Known as ''prescribed natural fire'', the park service implemented this change in fire management policy by 1972, allowing natural fires in Yellowstone to burn under controlled situations so long as they didn't threaten lives or property. Park employees also greatly reduced the quantity of dead and down timber that was within close proximity to structures and tourists areas under the directives of what later became the Hazard Fuels Reduction Plan. This was done to ensure fires would have less opportunity to threaten lives and destroy the many historical structures and visitor facilities found throughout the park. As of 2007, the baseline distance for hazard fuels reduction was 400 feet from structures and other prioritized locations.<ref name="hazard">{{cite web| title =Yellowstone National Park Structure Protection and Firefighter Safety Hazard Fuels Management Guidelines| work =Yellowstone National Park Fire Management Plan| publisher = National Park Service| date =2005| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/parkmgmt/upload/hazard.pdf|format=pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-27}}</ref> Between 1972 and 1987, a total of 235 natural fires burned a relatively small 33,759 acres (13,661 ha) in the park under the directives of the prescribed natural fire policy. Of these, only 15 of the fires had spread to more than 100 acres (40 ha). The five years prior to 1988 were also a lot wetter than normal and this may have reduced the acreage of the fires during that period.<ref name="wildfire">{{cite web| title =Wildland Fire in Yellowstone| work =Wildland Fire| publisher = National Park Service| date =June 11, 2007| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/wildlandfire.htm| accessdate = 2007-07-27}}</ref> |
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===Yellowstone forests overdue for a large fire=== |
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[[Image:Lodgepole pine forest 1965.jpg|thumb|right|Typical lodgepole pine forest of Yellowstone as seen in 1965. Well more than twenty years before the fires, many forests in the park had gone decades since they had experienced a large fire, resulting in an accumulation of dead trees]] |
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Yellowstone's forest are dominated by the [[lodgepole pine]] which is an tree that is eventually replaced by other tree species after 80 to 100 years during the normal process of forest progression.<ref name="lodgepole">{{cite web| last=Lotan| first=James E.|title =Lodgepole Pine| work =Pinus contorta| publisher =U.S. Forest Service|date=| url =http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/pinus/contorta.htm| accessdate = 2007-07-28}}</ref> In Yellowstone, a very short growing season due to high altitude allows the lodgepole pine to reach ages approaching three hundred years before other trees such as [[Engelmann spruce]] and [[subalpine fir]] become established.<ref name="lodgepole"/> The lodgepole pines found throughout the [[Yellowstone Plateau]] highcountry grow in uninterrupted dense stands averaging similar ages in various groupings. Though trees normally found in more mature forests do occur, they are not found in large stands as in other forests in the Rocky Mountains. By the 1980's much of the lodgepole pine forests in Yellowstone were between 200 and 250 years old and approaching the end of their lifecycle.<ref name="Franke2">{{cite web| last=Franke|first=Mary Ann|title =The Summer of 1988| work =Yellowstone in the Afterglow| publisher =National Park Service| format= pdf|date =2000| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/chapter2.pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-17}}</ref> |
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Research indicates that only 2 or 3 large fires occur on the Yellowstone Plateau every 1,000 years.<ref name="Franke1">{{cite web| last=Franke|first=Mary Ann|title =The Role of Fire in Yellowstone| work =Yellowstone in the Afterglow| publisher =National Park Service| format= pdf|date =2000| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/chapter1.pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-28}}</ref><ref name="Romme">{{cite journal| last =Romme| first =W.H.| coauthors= D.G. Despain|title =Historical perspective on the Yellowstone Fires of 1988| journal =Bioscience| volume =39| issue =10| pages =696-699| date =November 1989| url =http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0006-3568(198911)39%3A10%3C695%3AHPOTYF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H| accessdate = 2007-08-01}}</ref> The previous major Yellowstone fire was in the early to mid 1700's, well before the arrival of white explorers.<ref name="Franke2"/> Formal fire recordkeeping in Yellowstone began in 1931 when the Heart Lake Fire burned 18,000 acres (7,284 ha). Despite its small extent, it was the largest fire in the period from when the park was created until 1988.<ref name="Franke1"/> |
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The [[mountain pine beetle]] had killed a number of trees in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, which increased the fuel load and likely contributed to the fires.<ref name="Lynch">{{cite journal| last =Lynch| first =Heather| coauthors =Roy A. Renkin Robert L. Crabtree and Paul R. Moorcroft| title =The Influence of Previous Mountain Pine Beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) Activity on the 1988 Yellowstone Fires| journal =Ecosystems| volume =2006| issue =9| pages =1318-1327| date = January 19, 2007| url =http://www.esm.harvard.edu/files/publications/lynch_etal_06/view| doi =10.1007/s10021-006-0173-3| accessdate = 2007-07-28 }}</ref> Over the years, large quantities of dead and down trees had littered the forest floor, preserved for decades by a slow decomposition rate created by the long winters which reduce the time [[microorganism]]s have to decompose the fallen timber. |
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The winter season of 1987-1988 was drier than usual, with the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem receiving only 31% of the normal snowpack.<ref name="Franke2"/> However, April and May 1988 were very wet and the abundant moisture greatly aided grass and [[understory|undergrowth]] development. By June, the rainfall stopped and little was recorded in the entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem for the next four months. By July, the worst drought in the history of Yellowstone National Park began. Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer soon turned to dry tinder. [[Relative humidity]] levels fell further desiccating the forest. Fuel moisture content in dead and fallen timber was recorded as low as 5%. By mid-August, humidity levels were averaging below 20% and were recorded as low as 6% on one occasion.<ref name="Franke2"/> To compound the lack of rainfall, the majority of Yellowstone's soils are [[Rhyolite|rhyolitic]] volcanic rocks and soils which have poor moisture retention.<ref name="Franke1"/> |
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Accumulated fuel, old forests, dead and dying trees, abundant grasses and other understory plants, and unabated and exceptionally dry conditions, spelled trouble for Yellowstone. However, foresters and fire ecologists predicted a normal fire season for the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and anticipated normal rainfall for July.<ref name="Franke2"/> Past history provided little evidence to suggest that 1988 would be any different than the previous 100 plus years the park had existed. But, as major fires started to break out throughout the Rocky Mountain region, the media began to take notice. Twenty small fires started in Yellowstone by July and of those, eleven went out on their own. The remainder were closely monitored in accordance with the prescribed natural fire policies. By July 15th fires throughout the entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem had burned 8,500 acres (3,440 ha) and though this was not out of the ordinary, media focus on fires raging throughout the American west influenced the decision by the park officials to initiate fire suppression efforts on July 15th. Within a week after suppression efforts commenced, the fires had spread to include almost 100,000 acres (40,470 ha) just on the parkland alone.<ref name="wildfire"/> |
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== Major fires == |
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[[Image:Firefighting at Norris 8.20.1988.jpg|right|thumb|Firefighting at Norris on August 20, 1988. Later dubbed "Black Saturday" due to the huge amount of acreage that was burned as well as the dense smoke that turned daytime to night in some places]] |
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Almost 250 different fires started in Yellowstone and the surrounding National Forests between June and August, and of these, 7 fires were responsible for 95% of the total acreage that burned.<ref name="Schullery2">{{cite journal| last =Schullery| first =Paul| title =The Fires and Fire Policy| journal =Bioscience| volume =39| issue =10| pages =686-694| date =November 1989| url =http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0006-3568(198911)39%3A10%3C686%3ATFAFP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M| doi =10.2307/1310999| accessdate = 2007-08-01}}</ref> By the end of July, even though the National Park Service and other agencies had fully mobilized available personnel, the fires continued to expand. Smaller fires burned into each other, propelled by dry storms which brought howling winds and dry lightning strikes but no rain. On August 20, the single worst day of the fires and later dubbed "Black Saturday", more than 150,000 acres (60,702 ha) were consumed during one of numerous [[firestorm]]s. Ash from the firestorms throughout the park drifted as far away as [[Billings, Montana]], 60 miles (96 km) to the northeast.<ref name="Franke2"/> The wind driven flames jumped roads and all firelines, and burning embers started new fires a mile (1.6 km) or more ahead of the main fires. Ground fires raced the [[fuel ladder]] to the forest canopy and became crown fires with flames over 200 feet (60 m) high. On that single day, more Yellowstone acreage burned than had in all the other fires combined since the establishment of the park.<ref name="Lewis"/> Throughout the summer, fires made huge advances of 5 to 10 miles (8-16 km) a day, and there were even occasions when more than 2 miles (3.2 km) in one hour were recorded.<ref name="disaster">{{cite web| last=|first=|coauthors=|title =Yellowstone and the Politics of Disaster| work =A Test of Adversity and Strength: Wildland Fire in the National Park System| publisher =National Park Service| format=pdf|date =| url =http://www.nps.gov/fire/download/fir_wil_history_ch7.pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-30}}</ref> |
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One large group of fires was known as the Snake River Complex. These fires were in the southern section of the park, in the headwaters region of the [[Yellowstone River|Yellowstone]] and [[Snake River]]s. The largest fire in the group was the Shoshone fire which was started by lightning on June 23. The prescribed natural burn policy was still in effect for this fire so fire suppression was not initially commenced. The fire smoldered with little movement for several weeks, then rapidly started expanding towards the northeast on July 20.<ref name="Rothermel">{{cite web| last=Rothermel|first=Richard|coauthors= Roberta Hartford and Carolyn Chase|title =Fire Growth Maps for the 1988 Greater Yellowstone Area Fires| work =| publisher =U.S. Forest Service| format=|date =January 1994| url =http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr304.html| accessdate = 2007-07-30}}</ref>[[Image:Ground fire at Grant Village 2.jpg|thumb|left|Ground fires in Grant Village quickly climbed trees into the canopy and became crown fires]] The Red fire started near Lewis Lake on July 1 and like the Shoshone fire, advanced little for several weeks and then also moved northeast by July 19 and combined with the Shoshone fire in August. As these two fires advanced towards the Grant Village area, evacuations were ordered so fire fighting crews could concentrate on structure protection. In the midst of a large lodgepole pine forest, the Grant Village complex was the first major tourist area impacted that season. A number of small structures and the some of the campground complex was destroyed. After the Red and Shoshone fires combined, they were referred to as the Shoshone fire, since it was much larger. The Mink fire started in [[Bridger-Teton National Forest]] from lightning on July 11, and burned north following the Yellowstone River valley, after firefighters forced the fire away from private lands. The Mink fire eventually burned sections inside the park after July 23, but was deemed to be a low risk since it was in a very remote section of the park.<ref name="Rothermel"/> The third large fire was the Huck fire, which started after a tree fell on a power line during the powerful winds on August 20th. The fire burned primarily in the [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway]], crossing Yellowstone's southern border on August 30.<ref name="Schullery">{{cite journal| last =Schullery| first =Paul| title =Yellowstone fires: a preliminary report| journal =Northwest Science| volume =63| issue =1| pages =44-54| date =1989| accessdate =2007-07-29}}</ref><ref name="Franke2"/> The Shoshone, Mink and Huck fires were eventually incorporated into the Snake River Complex. Combined, they burned more than 140,000 acres (56,660 ha) before they were extinguished by wet weather in the fall. One of the most impressive events of this fire complex occurred on August 23 when firestorms swept across the Lewis River Canyon, propelled by winds of 60 mph (96 kph) and gusting to 80 mph (128 kph).<ref name="Lewis">{{cite web| last=|first=|title =Lodgepole Pine Forests & Fire| work =Grant Village Area Natural Highlights| publisher =National Park Service| format= |date =July 11, 2006| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/ngrant.htm| accessdate = 2007-07-28}}</ref>[[Image:Yellowstone fires 1988 bc.gif|right|frame]][[Image:Firelegend.png|right|thumb|255px|Progression of various fires in the Greater Yellowstone region, July to October, 1988]] |
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The Mist fire started on July 9 in the eastern section of the park in the [[Absaroka Mountains]]. Two days later, the Clover fire started in the same region and both fires combined and were renamed as the Clover Mist fire on July 20. Situated in rugged terrain, this fire was very difficult to fight and on August 20, the fire made rapid advances towards the small town of [[Cooke City-Silver Gate, Montana|Cooke City, Montana]] and continued to threaten the town for several more weeks.<ref name="Rothermel"/> The Clover Mist fire eventually consumed more than 140,000 acres (56,660 ha).<ref name="Schullery"/> The Storm Creek fire started on June 14 well north of the park in the [[Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness]], and for almost two months seemed to pose little threat to Yellowstone. Then, on August 20th, the fire moved rapidly to the south also threatening the town of Cooke City, this time from the north. An effort to bulldoze a wide fire break and set backfires to try and starve the fires of combustibles almost became a disaster when an unexpected change in wind direction brought the fires to within a hundred yards of parts of the town, forcing evacuations on September 6th. The other major fire located in the northern section of the park was the Hellroaring fire. Started in [[Gallatin National Forest]] on August 15 from embers from an unattended campfire, the fire initially moved north, but then turned around a few days later and moved south, threatening the area near Tower Junction.<ref name="Rothermel"/> |
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In the northwest, the Fan fire started on June 25 and was originally considered a threat to the town of [[Gardiner, Montana]], just outside the park's north entrance. Firefighting efforts on this fire were the most successful of all that were undertaken in 1988. Though the fire wasn't contained for a couple of months, by mid August it was no longer considered a threat to lives and property.<ref name="Rothermel"/> |
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The largest fire in the park was the North Fork fire, both in terms of damage to structures and acreage burned. The fire started on July 22 when a man cutting timber dropped his cigarette in [[Caribou-Targhee National Forest]] just outside the park's western border.<ref name="cdc">{{cite web| last=Reh|first=Christopher|coauthors=Scott Deitchman|title =Health Hazard Evaluation Report No. 88-320| work =HETA 88-320-2176| publisher =National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health| format=pdf |date =February 1992| url =http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/1988-0320-2176.pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-29}}</ref> The North Fork fire was the only major fire that was fought from the beginning since it started after the prescribed fire policy was stopped on July 15th.<ref name="disaster"/>[[Image:Firestorm Mirror Plateu.jpg|left|thumb|The Clover Mist fire raced north across the Mirror plateau during a firestorm]] The fire spread towards the northeast and by the end of the first week of August was threatening Madison Junction and nearby campground facilities. The fire then raced towards [[Norris Geyser Basin|Norris]] Junction on August 20th. Firefighters there used water and [[Fire fighting foam|foam]] to keep the structures including a historic museum from being consumed by the blaze. The fire then raced along the Yellowstone Plateau towards facilities at [[Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone|Canyon]] on August 25th, where land management agencies and the U.S. military put forth enormous efforts to protect structures. The eastern flank of the fire calmed down for several days, then down sloping winds off the Yellowstone Plateau forced flames along the west side of the fire towards the town of [[West Yellowstone, Montana]].<ref name="Rothermel"/> There, private citizens assisted assigned personnel in soaking hundreds of acres of forestland to protect both the town and an electrical power substation. The fire burned a substantial section of forest along the [[Madison River]] valley. |
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On July 7th, a dry front pushed flames along the southern section of the North Fork fire towards the large visitor complex adjacent to the [[Old Faithful Geyser]] basin.<ref name="Rothermel"/> All non emergency personnel were ordered to be evacuated, however political issues influenced National Park Service management directives and the complex had not been completely closed to incoming tourists, with some visitors still arriving at Old Faithful not long before the main firestorm hit by mid afternoon. An all out aerial bombardment with air tankers dropping fire retardant failed.<ref name="disaster"/> Firefighters concentrated on structure protection, especially those of historical significance such as the [[Old Faithful Inn]], using fire engines and portable water pumping systems to keep the roofs and other surfaces of the structures wet. 1,200 firefighters including 120 military personnel dug fire lines and cleared away brush near structures. Winds crested up to 80 mph (128 kph) as the the fire approached from the west.<ref name="Barker1">{{cite web| last=Barker|first=Rocky|coauthors=|title =Under Fire| work =| publisher =Forest Magazine| format=|date =Spring 2006| url =http://www.fseee.org/forestmag/0802bark.shtml| accessdate = 2007-08-01}}</ref>[[Image:Crown fire Old Faithful.jpg|right|thumb|A firestorm from the North Fork fire approaches the Old Faithful complex on September 7, 1988]] The fires spread to forested sections near to, but generally away from major structures, but 19 small structures were destroyed and there was also extensive damage to an old dormitory. The fire was so intense that vehicles left near the fire had their wheels melted, windshields shattered and paint scorched.<ref name="disaster"/> Though most of the Old faithful complex had been spared, the park service decided that the for the first time, the entire park would be closed to non emergency personnel on Setember 8th. The night of the 9th and the morning of the 10th of September, the North Fork fire jumped a fireline along its northeastern flank and approached [[Fort Yellowstone|Mammoth Hot Springs]] where a large concentration of historical structures as well as the Park Headquarters is located. Rain and snow arrived in time to slow the fires before they threatened the complex. By the time the North Fork fire finally died down, it was responsible for 60% of the burned area within the park; more than 400,000 acres (162,000 ha).<ref name="Schullery"/> |
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Colder weather, bringing with it rain and snow on September 11th calmed the fires down substantially throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Though the fires continued to burn well into the middle of November, they never again posed an immediate risk to life or property. Many fire crews were sent home, but additional manpower continued to arrive at Yellowstone to commence rehabilitation of areas that had been altered by the firefighting efforts. Hundreds of miles of firelines, helicopter landing zones and fire camps needed to be restored to a more natural state, and thousands of hazardous dead trees needed to be cut down to protect roads and buildings. Finally, on November 18th, all fires in Yellowstone were officially decclared out.<ref name="Franke2"/> |
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== Manpower and equipment == |
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[[Image:Firefighters in Yellowstone 1988.jpg|thumb|right|Firefighters on the fireline near Mammoth Hot Springs, September 10, 1988]] |
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1988 was a big year for wildfires in the western United States, with more than 72,000 fires, of which almost 300 were major, reported during the year.<ref name="disaster"/> Regular firefighting employees and equipment were stretched to the limit and consequently over 6,000 U.S. Military personnel ended up assiting in fire fighting efforts, with more than 600 assigned to Yellowstone. At the height of the fires, over 9 thousand firefighters and support personnel were assigned to Yellowstone at one time and by the time the fires finally went out, more than 25,000 had been involved in the fire suppression efforts. Fire crews would routinely work 2 to 3 weeks at a time, be sent home and then return for one of two more tours of duty. The normal workday was as long as 14 hours.<ref name="Franke2"/> Assignments included digging fireline, watering down buildings, clearing undergrowth near structures and installing water pumping operations. Hundreds of firefighters were assigned to engine crews as a large percentage of the firefighting efforts were to protect structures. No firefighters inside the the park died as a result of the fires, but one firefighter and an aircraft pilot died in operations outside the park.<ref name="wildfire"/> A number of firefighters were treated for various injuries, the more common compaints were fatigue, headaches and smoke inhalation. A few firefighters were exposed to noxious fumes from sulfur emissions from a geothermal area.<ref name="Franke3">{{cite web| last=Franke|first=Mary Ann|title =Damage to Park Facilities| work =Yellowstone in the Afterglow| publisher =National Park Service| format= pdf|date =2000| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/chapter3.pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-17}}</ref> |
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Firefighters created 655 miles (1,054 km) of fireline by hand and 137 miles (220 km) with mechanized equipment such as [[bulldozer]]s.<ref name="Romme"/> Most of the bulldozer work was done on the North Fork fire as some of the other fires were too remote and/or steep for the safe operation of heavy equipment. Bulldozers and other heavy equipment were prohibited from many areas of the park due to the impact they have on surface features as well as the thin, unstable ground that is near [[Geothermal areas of Yellowstone|geothermal features]] which could collapse under heavy weight.<ref name="Franke3"/> |
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[[Aerial firefighting]] efforts using 120 helicopters and aircraft to combat the inferno was significant. Aircraft logged over 18,000 hours of flight time and dropped 1.4 million [[gallon|gallons]] (5.3 million [[litre|liters]]) of [[fire retardant]] as well as 10 million gallons (38 million liters) of water on the fires.<ref name="Schullery2"/> |
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More than 100 [[fire engine]]s were assigned to the fire.<ref name="Young"/> Structural fire engines were used in building complexes where a number are stationed permanently as in an urban setting. Others were specialized [[wildland fire engine]]s which are smaller and have more capability for movement over rough terrain and were deployed throughout the park. |
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120 million dollars was spent fighting the fires and structure loss was estimated at 3 million dollars. Later analysis has shown that aside from concentrated fire suppression efforts near major tourist facilities, most firefighting work proved to be insufficient to stop what was likely an unstoppable force.<ref name="disaster"/><ref name="Franke1"/> |
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== Impacts on the park == |
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===Vegetation and wildlife=== |
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[[Image:Burn area in Yellowstone National Park.JPG|right|thumb|In this 2006 image, dead snags still stand almost 20 years after the fires, but lodgepole pines are thriving in the understory]] |
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The fires in Yellowstone burned in a mosaic pattern, with some areas greatly impacted and others only marginally affected. Inside fire perimeters, large expanses of forest were completely untouched.<ref name="Knight">{{cite journal| last =Knight| first =Dennis H.| authorlink =| coauthors =Linda L. Wallace| title =The Yellowstone Fires: Issues in Landscape Ecology| journal =Bioscience| volume =39| issue =10| pages =700-706| date =November 1989| url =http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0006-3568(198911)39%3A10%3C700%3ATYFIIL%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C| doi =10.2307/1311001| id =| accessdate =2007-08-04}}</ref> Three major types of burning occurred in Yellowstone in 1988. From an asthetic viewpoint, the most destructive fires were the canopy crown fires that in many places oblierated entire forests. Regions that experienced crown fires however had the highest rates of regeneration of lodgepole pine after 5 years.<ref name="Turner">{{cite journal| last =Turner| first =Monica| authorlink =| coauthors =William W. Hargrove, Robert H. Gardner, William H. Romme| title =Effects of Fire on Landscape Heterogeneity in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming | journal =Journal of Vegetation Science| volume =5| issue =5| pages =731-742| date =November 1994| url =http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1100-9233(199411)5%3A5%3C731%3AEOFOLH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E| doi =10.2307/3235886| id =| accessdate =2007-08-01}}</ref> Mixed fires burned both the canopy and vegetation on the ground or they would burn one or the other as they spread through the forest. Ground fires slowly spread along the ground, consuming smaller plants and dead plant material. Crown fires accounted for about 41 percent of all the area that burned.<ref name="Franke4">{{cite web| last =Franke| first =May Ann| title =Changes in the Landscape| work =Yellowstone in the Afterglow| publisher =National Park Service| date =2000| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/chapter4.pdf| format =pdf| accessdate = 2007-08-03}}</ref> |
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The recovery rate from ground fires was almost immediate, with plants such as [[fireweed]] appearing in a matter of days after a fire had passed. While surrounding national forest did do some replantings and even dispersed grass seed by airplane after the fires abated, the regeneration in Yellowstone was generally so complete that no replanting was even attempted.<ref name="Franke4"/> Though some small plants did not immediately reassume their pre fire habitats, most did, and the vast majority of plants regrew from existing sprouts which survived the heat from the fires. A profusion of wildflowers in burned areas, especially between 2 and 5 years after the fires, was readily observable.<ref name="Romme2">{{cite journal| last =Romme| first =William H.| authorlink =| coauthors =Laura Bohland, Cynthia Persichetty, Tanya Caruso| title =Germination Ecology of Some Common Forest Herbs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, U.S.A. | journal =Arctic and Alpine Research| volume =27| issue =4| pages =407-412| date =November 1995| url =http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-0851(199511)27:4%3C407:GEOSCF%3E2.0.CO;2-J| doi =10.2307/1552034| id =| accessdate =2007-08-08}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Flowers Yellowstone 1989.jpg|left|thumb|The year after the fires, and for a number of years afterwards, wildflowers were abundant in burned areas]] |
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Much of the most severely burned forest was within 160 to 650 [[Foot (unit of length)|feet]] (50 to 200 [[metres|m]]) of areas that were less impacted, allowing plant propagation and seed dispersal to have little distance to travel to reestablish themselves, even in severely burned areas. In reality though, most regeneration of the plants and trees came from immediate sources, either above or below ground, and seed dispersal from less impacted areas apparently had little effect on more severely burned areas. Lodgepole pines generally do not disperse their seeds more than 200 feet (60 m).<ref name="Franke4"/> In areas that did experience complete burnouts, the average depth of charred soil was only about half an [[inch]] (14 [[millimetres|mm]]) in depth, so few roots, even of grasses, were killed by the fire, and this allowed rapid regeneration throughout the ecosystem.<ref name="Turner2">{{cite journal| last =Turner| first =Monica| coauthors =William H Romme and Daniel B Tinker| title =Surprises and lessons from the 1988 Yellowstone fires| journal =Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment| volume =1| issue =7| pages =351-358| date =2003| url =http://tiee.ecoed.net/vol/v3/issues/frontier_sets/yellowstone/pdf/Frontiers%5BTurner%5D.pdf| format =pdf| accessdate = 2007-08-03}}</ref> |
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The predominate tree in Yellowstone, the lodgepole pine, did not survive the fires, except in areas where the heat and flames were very mild. The lodgepole pine is [[serotinous]] and often produce [[pine cone]]s that remain closed and will not disperse seeds unless subjected to fire. Research of test plots established after the fires indicated that the best seed dispersal occurred in areas which had experienced severe ground fires, and that seed dispersal was lower in areas which had crown fires or only minor surface burns.<ref name="Turner2"/> However, the rate of lodepole regeneration was not uniform, with some areas experiencing extremely high densities of young lodgepole saplings while other areas had less density than before the fires. Nevertheless, stands of dead lodgepole killed by the fires may persist to rise above new growth for decades, providing increased habitat for birds and other wildlife.<ref name="Franke4"/> |
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[[Aspen]] became more widespread after the fires, with the tree species occupying areas that had been dominated by [[conifer]]s. It had long been believed that Aspen regenerated by sprouting from existing roots rather than by seed dispersal. However, Aspen sprouts appeared two years after the fires as far as 9 miles (15 km) from the nearest known Aspen trees. Aspen is a preferred grazing food for elk and many of the newer Aspen are consequently small, except in areas that are harder for elk to get to.<ref name="Turner2"/> The resurgence of Aspen after the fires was a contrast to pre-fire events, as Aspen had been becoming more scarse in the park. This might be a temporary event as conifers continue to grow and eventually crowd out other tree species.<ref name="Franke4"/> |
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[[Image:Elk in burned area.jpg|thumb|right|A bull elk surveys an area that recently burned]] |
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Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time, the fires killed very few park animals— surveys indicated that only about 345 elk (of an estimated 40,000–50,000), 36 [[mule deer]], 12 moose, 6 [[American black bear|black bears]], and 9 [[bison]] had perished.<ref name="wildfire"/><ref name="Singer">{{cite journal| last =Singer| first =Francis| coauthors =William Schreier, Jill Oppenheim, Edward O. Garton| title =Drought, Fires, and Large Mammals| journal =Bioscience|volume =39| issue =10| pages =716-722| date =November 1989| url =http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0006-3568(198911)39%3A10%3C716%3ADFALM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3| format =| accessdate = 2007-08-06}}</ref> Of 21 [[Grizzly|grizzlies]] that were radio-collared and had home ranges where the fires happened, only one was believed to have been lost. Grizzlies were observed in burned areas more often than unburned areas the following year, feeding on the proliferation of roots and foliage as well as ants which thrived due to all the dead wood.<ref name="grizzly">{{cite web| last =| first =| title =Wildfires and Grizzly Bears| work =Living with Grizzlies| publisher =U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service| date = June 2003| url =http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/mammals/grizzly/wildfire&bears.pdf| format =pdf| accessdate = 2007-08-03}}</ref> Moose have been declining in the northern sections of the park since the 1960s, but the decline became more obvious after the fires. Unlike elk, which are primarily grazers and tend to eat grasses, moose are more likely to be browsers, consuming primarily woody food sources, particularly [[willow]] and [[subalpine fir]], which were temporarily reduced by the fires. All [[ungulate]]s experienced a high initial mortality the winter after the fires, but this has been attributed to a severe winter more than the fires themselves. However, moose populations, unlike other ungulates, have not rebounded in consequent years. [[Rodent]]s likely experienced the highest mortality of all mammals due not only to heat and smoke they couldn't easily escape, but also because of the reduction in forest cover, allowing would be predators less difficulty in spotting them.<ref name="GYS">{{cite web| last =| first =| title =Fire Ecology| work =| publisher =Greater Yellowstone Science Learning Center| date = | url =http://www.greateryellowstonescience.org/topic/fire/fireoverview.html| format =| accessdate = 2007-08-08}}</ref> |
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Approximately 100 dead fish were reported in two streams after fire retardant was accidentally dropped on them. Aside from a temporary decrease in a few species of aquatic insects, no long term impacts have been observed on aquatic life in any of Yellowstone's rivers or lakes.<ref name="Franke6">{{cite web| last=Franke|first=Mary Ann|title =Watershed and Stream Dynamics| work =Yellowstone in the Afterglow| publisher =National Park Service| format= pdf|date =2000| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/chapter6.pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-17}}</ref> |
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===Air and water=== |
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[[Image:Fires yellowstone.jpg|thumb|right|Smoke plumes from the 1988 fires as seen from space]] |
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The smoke and airborne [[particulates]] from the fires posed a threat to local communities on several occasions. Smoke and particulates were especially high in [[Gardiner, Montana]] where monitoring stations maintained by the Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences and the park recorded 19 days where recommended allowable particulate concentrations were exceeded. This was also the case near fires and on 7 occasions at Mammoth, Montana, the location of the park headquarters. However, in no other surrounding communities were particulates found to be above acceptable levels.<ref name="Franke2"/> Smoke and haze made driving difficult and even dangerous in extreme situations. A number of fire fighters were treated at clinics for smoke and dust inhalation and a few for inadvertently inhaling fumes from a sulfur ignition near one of the geothermal areas.<ref name="Franke2"/> |
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In the aftermath of the fires, erosion was of a particular concern, especially as the park received heavy rainfall the following year. Helicopters dropped millions of gallons of water on the fires and in a few instances, water retrieval from small creeks actually dropped down the water supply temporarily. Stream flow was also impacted whenever a temporary impoundment was constructed for water pumping operations. The more than a million gallons of [[Ammonium phosphate]] based fire retardant also polluted some streams, but this too was a transient situation that had no long term ill effects on water quality.<ref name="Franke6"/> [[Fire fighting foam]] used on wildfires is a different type than is used for other situations such as at airports. They were very low in [[toxicity]] levels and are believed to have completely dispersed by the spring of 1989.<ref name="Franke3"/> |
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===Structure damage=== |
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[[Image:Firefighters spray foam.jpg|right|thumb|Firefighters sprayed [[Fire fighting foam|foam]] on structures in the Mammoth Hot Springs complex on September 10, 1988]] |
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The park service ensured that life and property took priority in their efforts to suppress the fires. Of the more than 1,000 structures located in the park, only 67 were destroyed. There were 400 structures located in the Old Faithful complex and only 19 of these were destroyed and 12 of those were concessionaire housing units and relatively inexpensive to replace.<ref name="Franke3"/> Major tourist locations in the park such as the one at Old Faithful were heavily staffed by fire fighting crews and equipment, especially if fires were expected to present an immediate danger. Fire fighters used a variety of methods to establish safe zones in and near to these complexes, yet every single complex was evacuated by non critical personnel at least once during the fires.<ref name="Franke2"/> |
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Surprisingly, of the 38 backcountry patrol cabins used by park rangers and park staff, the only one lost to the fires was the one located at Sportsman Lake, and it was rebuilt the following summer. However, fires did a lot of damage to numerous campgrounds, backcountry bridges used by hikers as well as 10 miles (16 km) of power lines and 300 utility poles. Some of the boardwalks used to keep tourists elevated above geothermal areas were also destroyed but were quickly replaced.<ref name="Franke3"/> |
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== Media controversies == |
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[[Image:News crew during 1988 Yellowstone fires.jpg|thumb|right|News crews were required to wear fire fighting clothing known as [[Nomex]] whenever they were in close proximity to fires]] |
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As the first and one of the most famous national parks in the world, news coverage was extensive and sometimes sensational by late July 1988. Due to difficulty of fully assessing the fires, federal officials sometimes had limited information to provide the media. The National Park Service was besieged by 3,000 media requests during the fires and the two park public information officers, even though assisted by a staff of over 40 employees, were not always able to grant all requests. 15 more park personnel were assigned the role of information officer and were detailed to act as liaisons with the media at major areas where fire fighting manpower was concentrated. By the time the fires were well under control in mid November, the park was still receiving 40 to 70 media requests daily.<ref name="Franke2"/> Media coverage of the fires brought the National Park Service more national attention than it had ever received and the fires have been called one of the most important events in the history of that agency.<ref name="Young"/> |
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Lack of understanding by the media regarding wildfire management often led to sensationalistic reporting and inaccuracies.<ref name="education">{{cite web| last=|first=|title =Background Information| work =Fire and Aviation Management| publisher =National Park Service| date =| url =http://www.nps.gov/fire/educational/edu_tea_les_reporting.cfm| accessdate = 2007-07-16}}</ref> Some news agencies gave the impression that the majority of the park was destroyed.<ref name="Smith">{{cite web| last=Smith|first=Conrad|title =Media Coverage of the 1988 Yellowstone Fires| work =Wildland Fire| publisher =National Interagency Fire Center| date =| url =http://www.nifc.gov/preved/comm_guide/wildfire/fire_25c.html| accessdate = 2007-07-16}}</ref> On August 30, a [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] news interview with Stanley Mott, apparently a tourist, incorrectly identified him as the Director of the National Park Service (William Mott). In another story, the [[New York Times]] stated that the Park Service policy was to allow natural fires to burn themselves out, whereas that of the U.S. Forest Service was to suppress all such fires, a mischaracterization of the policies of both agencies at the time.<ref name="Smith"/> Sources quoted by the [[Washington Post]], [[USA Today]] and the [[Chicago Tribune]] later stated that comments attributed to them were fabricated, and one source commented that a September 8, 1988 report by the Chicago Tribune had more errors than facts. On the same day, the Washington Post likened the smoke and the presence of military vehicles and helicopters overhead to [[Danang, Vietnam]] in 1968, giving the impression of catastrophe.<ref name="Petersen">{{cite news| last =Petersen| first =Cass| coauthors =T.R. Reid| title =Flames and Images of War Swirl Through Yellowstone; Fires Destroy Buildings Near Old Faithful | publisher =The Washington Post| date =[[September 11]], [[1988]]| url =http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1277583.html| accessdate = 2007-07-16}}</ref> The media occasionally had difficulty in disseminating the fact that the National Park Service and the U.S. Forest Service were completely different agencies. The fires were very active in late July and after the situation appeared to be under control in early August, the Director of the National Park Service declared on August 11th that the fires were under control.<ref name="disaster"/> After Black Saturday on August 20th and the firestorm that threatened the Old Faithful complex in early September, the media was again highly critical of the park service and their fire management policies. |
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== Knowledge gained == |
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As a result of research conducted after the fires, a new fire management plan was implemented in 1992. The plan observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires, increased the staffing levels of fire monitors and related occupations and allocated greater funding for fire management. By 2004, further amendments to the wildland fire management plan were added. According to the 2004 plan, natural wildfires would continue to be allowed to burn, so long as parameters regarding fire size, weather and potential danger weren't exceeded. Those wildfires that do exceed the standards as well as all human caused fires are to be suppressed.<ref name="plan">{{cite web| title =Fire Management Plan| work =2004 Update of the 1992 Wildland Fire Management Plan| publisher =National Park Service| date =June 11, 2007| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/parkmgmt/fireplan.htm| accessdate = 2007-08-08}}</ref> |
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In an effort to minimize the chances of out of control fires and threats to people and structures, park employees do more than just monitor the potential for fire. [[Controlled burn]]s are prescribed fires which are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood is consumed. Natural fires are sometimes considered prescribed fires if they are left to burn. In Yellowstone, unlike some other parks, there have been very few fires deliberately started. However, since 1980, over 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn naturally.<ref name="hazard"/> Controlled burns are not considered to be a realistic or appropriate manner in which to eliminate the future potential of wildfires in Yellowstone. [[Forester]]s and [[ecologist]]s have stated that even if large controlled burns had been done in Yellowstone prior to the fires, they would have not greatly reduced the amount of acreage that was consumed in 1988. Controlled burns would quickly be out of control if they were allowed to burn with the intensity that many tree and plant communities need for proper regeneration.<ref name="Franke1"/><ref name="Schullery3">{{cite journal| last =Schullery| first =P.| coauthors =D.G. Despain| title =Prescribed burning in Yellowstone National Park: a doubtful proposition| journal =Western Wildlands| volume =15| issue =2| pages =30-34| date =1989| url =| doi =| id =| accessdate = 2007-08-08}}</ref> |
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The most important lesson learned is that a number of ecosystems, including the one Yellowstone is a part of, are specially adapted to large and intense wildfires. While large destructive fires are unacceptable in regions where there is a lot of encroachment by communities, it is mandatory in a region such as the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, if the expectation is that it is to be maintained in a natural manner. |
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== References cited == |
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{{Commons|Yellowstone Fire of 1988|Yellowstone Fire of 1988}} |
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<references/> |
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== External links == |
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*{{cite web| last=Rothermel|first=Richard|coauthors= Roberta Hartford and Carolyn Chase|title =Fire Growth Maps for the 1988 Greater Yellowstone Area Fires| work =General Technical Report INT-304| publisher =U.S. Forest Service| format=|date =January 1994| url =http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr304.pdf| accessdate = 2007-07-31}} ''(This is a 12mb pdf file)'' |
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[[Category:Wildfires in the United States|Yellowstone]] |
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[[Category:1988 disasters]] |
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[[Category:Yellowstone]] |
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Version vom 18. August 2009, 23:59 Uhr
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