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= Clickjacking =
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia{{Missing information|the etymology of the subject's name|date=July 2018}}

'''Clickjacking''' (classified as a '''User Interface redress attack''', '''UI redress attack''', '''UI redressing''') is a [[Malware|malicious technique]] of tricking a [[User (computing)|user]] into clicking on something different from what the user perceives , thus potentially revealing [[Confidentiality|confidential]] information or allowing others to take control of their computer while clicking on seemingly innocuous objects, including [[Web page|web pages]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;979405561|title=At Adobe's request, hackers nix 'clickjacking' talk|author=Robert McMillan|date=17 September 2008|publisher=PC World|accessdate=2008-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://infotech.indiatimes.com/quickiearticleshow/3543527.cms|title=Beware, clickjackers on the prowl|author=Megha Dhawan|date=29 September 2008|accessdate=2008-10-08|publisher=India Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/10/07/clickjacking_surveillance_zombie/|title=Net game turns PC into undercover surveillance zombie|author=Dan Goodin|date=7 October 2008|work=The Register|accessdate=2008-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/nf/20081008/bs_nf/62355|title=Web Surfers Face Dangerous New Threat: 'Clickjacking'|author=Fredrick Lane|date=8 October 2008|publisher=newsfactor.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013003436/http://news.yahoo.com/s/nf/20081008/bs_nf/62355|archivedate=13 October 2008|url-status=dead|accessdate=2008-10-08}}</ref>

In Web browsers'','' clickjacking is a [[browser security]] issue that is a [[Vulnerability (computing)|vulnerability]] across a variety of [[Web browsers|browsers]] and [[Platform (computing)|platforms]]. Clickjacking can also take place outside of web browsers, including applications.''<ref name=":0" />''  

A clickjack takes the form of embedded [[Source code|code]] or a script that can execute without the user's knowledge, such as clicking on a [[Button (computing)|button]] that appears to perform another function.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/151677/clickjacking_vulnerability_to_be_revealed_next_month.html|title=Business Center: Clickjacking Vulnerability to Be Revealed Next Month|author=Sumner Lemon|date=30 September 2008|accessdate=2008-10-08}}</ref>  

Clickjacking is an instance of the [[confused deputy problem]], a term used to describe when a computer is innocently fooled into misusing its authority.<ref>[http://waterken.sourceforge.net/clickjacking/ The Confused Deputy rides again!], Tyler Close, October 2008</ref>  

== History ==
In 2002, it had been noted that it was possible to load a transparent layer over a [[web page]] and have the user's input affect the transparent layer without the user noticing. However, this was mainly ignored as a major issue until 2008.''<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://media.blackhat.com/ad-12/Niemietz/bh-ad-12-androidmarcus_niemietz-WP.pdf|title=UI Redressing Attacks on Android Devices|last=Niemietz|first=Marcus|date=2012|website=Black Hat|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>''

In 2008, Jeremiah Grossman and Robert Hansen had discovered that [[Adobe Flash Player]] was able to be clickjacked, allowing an [[Security hacker|attacker]] to gain access of the computer without the user's knowledge.''<ref name=":0" />''

The term "clickjacking" was coined by Jeremiah Grossman and Robert Hansen, <ref>[http://www.securityfocus.com/news/11535/ You don't know (click)jack] Robert Lemos, October 2008</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sectheory.com/clickjacking.htm|title=Facebook Help Number 1-888-996-3777|last=JAstine|first=Berry|accessdate=7 June 2016}}</ref> a [[portmanteau]] of the words "click" and "hijacking." ''<ref name=":0" />''

As more attacks of a similar nature were discovered, the focus of the term "UI redressing" was changed to describe the category of these attacks, rather than just clickjacking itself.<ref name=":0" />

== Description ==
Clickjacking takes advantage of vulnerabilities that are present in applications and web pages to allow the attacker to manipulate the user's computer.

For example, a clickjacked page tricks a user into performing undesired actions by clicking on a concealed link. On a clickjacked page, the attackers load another page over it in a transparent layer. The unsuspecting users think that they are clicking visible buttons, while they are actually performing actions on the invisible page. The hidden page may be an authentic page; therefore, the attackers can trick users into performing actions which the users never intended. There is no way of tracing such actions to the attackers later, as the users would have been genuinely authenticated on the hidden page.

Clickjacking is not limited to this type though, and are present in other forms.

==Types of Clickjacking ==

=== Clickjacking Categories ===

*Classic clickjacking: clickjacking that works mostly through a [[web browser]]<ref name=":0" />
*Likejacking: clickjacking that utilizes [[Facebook|Facebook's]] social media capabilities<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2010/05/31/viral-clickjacking-like-worm-hits-facebook-users/|title=Viral clickjacking 'Like' worm hits Facebook users|date=2010-05-31|work=Naked Security|access-date=2018-10-23|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2010/05/31/facebook-likejacking-worm/|title=Facebook Worm – "Likejacking"|date=2010-05-31|work=Naked Security|access-date=2018-10-23|language=en-US}}</ref>
*Nested clickjacking: clickjacking tailored to affect [[Google+]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/woot12/woot12-final16.pdf|title=On the fragility and limitations of current Browser-provided Clickjacking protection schemes|last=Lekies|first=Sebastian|date=2012|website=USENIX|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>
*Cursorjacking: clickjacking that manipulates the cursor's appearance and location<ref name=":0" />
*Browserless clickjacking: clickjacking that does not use a browser<ref name=":0" />
*Cookiejacking: clickjacking that acquires cookies from browsers<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/site/tentacoloviola/cookiejacking|title=Cookiejacking|last=Valotta|first=Rosario|date=2011|website=tentacoloViola - sites.google.com|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2018-10-23}}</ref>
*Filejacking: clickjacking that is capable of setting up the affected device as a file server<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://blog.kotowicz.net/2011/04/how-to-make-file-server-from-your.html|title=Filejacking: How to make a file server from your browser (with HTML5 of course)|website=blog.kotowicz.net|access-date=2018-10-23}}</ref>
*Password manager attack: clickjacking that utilizes a vulnerability in the autofill capability of browsers<ref name=":1" />

=== Classic Clickjacking===
Classic clickjacking refers to when an [[Security hacker|attacker]] uses hidden layers on [[Web page|web pages]] to manipulate the actions a user's cursor does, resulting in the user being mislead about what truly is being clicked on.

A user might receive an email with a link to a video about a news item, but another webpage, say a product page on [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], can be "hidden" on top or underneath the "PLAY" button of the news video. The user tries to "play" the video but actually "buys" the product from Amazon. The hacker can only send a single click, so they rely on the fact that the visitor is both logged into [[Amazon (company)|Amazon.com]] and has 1-click ordering enabled.

While technical implementation of these attacks may be challenging due to cross-browser incompatibilities, a number of tools such as [[BeEF]] or [[Metasploit Project]] offer almost fully automated exploitation of clients on vulnerable websites. Clickjacking may be facilitated by - or may facilitate - other web attacks, such as [[Cross-site scripting|XSS]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/12987/|title=The Clickjacking meets XSS: a state of art|date=2008-12-26|publisher=Exploit DB|accessdate=2015-03-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.kotowicz.net/2011/03/exploiting-unexploitable-xss-with.html|title=Exploiting the unexploitable XSS with clickjacking|author=Krzysztof Kotowicz|accessdate=2015-03-31}}</ref>

=== Likejacking ===
Likejacking is a [[Security hacker|malicious technique]] of tricking users of a website into "[[Facebook like button|liking]]" a [[Facebook]] page that they did not intentionally mean to "like".<ref name="Sophos 9783">{{cite web|url=http://www.sophos.com/blogs/sophoslabs/?p=9783|title=Facebook Work - "Likejacking"|last=Cohen|first=Richard|date=31 May 2010|publisher=[[Sophos]]|accessdate=2010-06-05}}</ref> The term "likejacking" came from a comment posted by Corey Ballou in the article ''How to "Like" Anything on the Web (Safely)'',<ref name="corey ballou">{{cite web|url=http://www.jqueryin.com/2010/06/02/likejacking-term-catches-on/|title="Likejacking" Term Catches On|last=Ballou|first=Corey|date=2 June 2010|publisher=jqueryin.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605073625/http://www.jqueryin.com/2010/06/02/likejacking-term-catches-on/|archivedate=5 June 2010|url-status=dead|accessdate=2010-06-08}}</ref> which is one of the first documented postings explaining the possibility of malicious activity regarding Facebook's "like" button.<ref name="readwriteweb likejacking">{{cite web|url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/likejacking_takes_off_on_facebook.php|title="Likejacking" Takes Off on Facebook|last=Perez|first=Sarah|date=2 June 2010|publisher=ReadWriteWeb|accessdate=2010-06-05}}</ref>

According to an article in ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]'', a solution to likejacking was developed at one of Facebook's [[Hackathon|hackathons]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spectrum.ieee.org/at-work/innovation/facebook-philosophy-move-fast-and-break-things/2|title=Facebook Philosophy: Move Fast and Break Things|last=Kushner|first=David|date=June 2011|publisher=spectrum.ieee.org|accessdate=2011-07-15}}</ref> A "Like" [[bookmarklet]] is available that avoids the possibility of likejacking present in the [[Facebook like button]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://readwrite.com/2010/04/22/how_to_like_anything_on_the_web_safely/|title=How to "Like" Anything on the Web (Safely)|last=Perez|first=Sarah|date=23 April 2010|work=ReadWriteWeb|accessdate=24 August 2011|archive-url=|archive-date=}}</ref>

=== Nested Clickjacking ===
Nested clickjacking, compared to classical clickjacking, works by embedding a malicious web frame between two frames of the original, harmless [[web page]]: that from the framed page and that which is displayed on the top window. This works due to a vulnerability in the HTTP header <code>X-Frame-Options</code>, in which, when this element has the value <code>SAMEORIGIN</code>, the [[web browser]] only checks the two aforementioned layers. The fact that additional frames can be added in between these two while remaining undetected means that [[Security hacker|attackers]] can use this for their benefit.

In the past, with [[Google+]] and the faulty version of <code>X-Frame-Options</code>, [[Security hacker|attackers]] were able to insert frames of their choice by using the vulnerability present in [[Google Images|Google's Image Search engine]]. In between the image display frames, which were present in [[Google+]] as well, these attacker-controlled frames were able to load and not be restricted, allowing for the [[Security hacker|attackers]] to mislead whoever came upon the image display page.<ref name=":2" />

=== Cursorjacking ===
Cursorjacking is a UI redressing technique to change the cursor from the location the user perceives, discovered in 2010 by Eddy Bordi, a researcher at Vulnerability.fr,<ref name="podlipensky">{{cite web|url=http://podlipensky.com/2012/08/cursor-spoofing-cursorjacking/|title=Cursor Spoofing and Cursorjacking|last1=Podlipensky|first1=Paul|website=Podlipensky.com|publisher=Paul Podlipensky|accessdate=22 November 2017|ref=podlipensky}}</ref> Marcus Niemietz demonstrated this with a custom cursor icon, and in 2012 Mario Heiderich by hiding the cursor.<ref name="Kotowicz">{{cite web|url=http://blog.kotowicz.net/2012/01/cursorjacking-again.html|title=Cursorjacking Again|author=Krzysztof Kotowicz|date=18 January 2012|accessdate=2012-01-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aspectsecurity.com/news/application-security/cursor-jacking-attack-could-result-in-application-security-breaches-3/|title=Cursor-jacking attack could result in application security breaches|author=Aspect Security|date=|accessdate=2012-01-31}}</ref>

Jordi Chancel, a researcher at Alternativ-Testing.fr, discovered a cursorjacking vulnerability using Flash, HTML and JavaScript code in Mozilla Firefox on Mac OS X systems (fixed in Firefox 30.0) which can lead to arbitrary code execution and webcam spying.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/security/announce/2014/mfsa2014-50.html|title=Mozilla Foundation Security Advisory 2014-50|publisher=Mozilla|accessdate=17 August 2014}}</ref>

A second CursorJacking vulnerability was again discovered by Jordi Chancel in Mozilla Firefox on Mac OS X systems (fixed in Firefox 37.0) using once again Flash, HTML and JavaScript code which can lead also to the spying of the webcam and the execution of a malicious addon allowing the execution of a malware on the computer of the trapped user.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/security/advisories/mfsa2015-35/|title=Mozilla Foundation Security Advisory 2015-35|publisher=Mozilla|accessdate=25 October 2015}}</ref>

=== Browserless Clickjacking ===
In browserless clickjacking, [[Security hacker|attackers]] utilize vulnerabilities in programs to replicate classical clickjacking in them, without being required to use the presence of a web browser.

This method of clickjacking is mainly prevalent among mobile devices, usually on [[Android devices]], especially due to the way in which [[Pop-up notification|toast notifications]] work. Because [[Pop-up notification|toast notifications]] have a small delay in between the moment the notification is requested and the moment the notification actually displays on-screen, [[Security hacker|attackers]] are capable of using that gap to create a dummy button that lies hidden underneath the notification and can still be clicked on.<ref name=":0" />

=== Cookiejacking ===
Cookiejacking is a form of clickjacking in which cookies are stolen from [[Web browser|web browsers]]. This is done by tricking the user into dragging an object which seemingly appears harmless, but is in fact making the user select the entire content of the cookie being targeted. From there, the attacker can acquire the cookie and all of the data that is within it.<ref name=":3" />

=== Filejacking ===
In filejacking, attackers use the web browser's capability to navigate through the computer and access computer files in order to acquire personal data. It does so by tricking the user into establishing an active file server (through the file and folder selection window that browsers use). With this, attackers can now access and take files from their victims' computers.<ref name=":4" />

=== Password manager attack ===
A 2014 paper from researcher at the [[Carnegie Mellon University]] found that while browsers refuse to autofill if the protocol on the current login page is different from the protocol at the time the password was saved, some [[Password manager|password managers]] would insecurely fill in passwords for the http version of https-saved passwords. Most managers did not protect against [[Framing (World Wide Web)|iFrame]]- and [[URL redirection|redirection]]-based [[Attack (computing)|attacks]] and exposed additional passwords where [[password synchronization]] had been used between multiple devices.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/usenixsecurity14/sec14-paper-silver.pdf|title=Password Managers: Attacks and Defenses|accessdate=26 July 2015}}</ref>

== Prevention ==

=== Client-side ===

==== NoScript ====
Protection against clickjacking (including likejacking) can be added to [[Mozilla Firefox]] desktop and mobile<ref>{{cite web|url=http://noscript.net/nsa/|title=NoScript Anywhere|author=Giorgio Maone|date=24 June 2011|publisher=hackademix.net|accessdate=2011-06-30}}</ref> versions by installing the [[NoScript]] add-on: its ClearClick feature, released on 8 October 2008, prevents users from clicking on invisible or "redressed" page elements of embedded documents or applets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hackademix.net/2008/10/08/hello-clearclick-goodbye-clickjacking/|title=Hello ClearClick, Goodbye Clickjacking|author=Giorgio Maone|date=8 October 2008|publisher=hackademix.net|accessdate=2008-10-27}}</ref> According to Google's "Browser Security Handbook" from year 2008, NoScript's ClearClick is "the only freely available product that offers a reasonable degree of protection" against Clickjacking.<ref name="Zalevski">{{cite web|url=http://code.google.com/p/browsersec/wiki/Part2#Arbitrary_page_mashups_(UI_redressing)|title=Browser Security Handbook, Part 2, UI Redressing|author=Michal Zalevski|date=10 December 2008|publisher=Google Inc.|accessdate=2008-10-27}}</ref> Protection from the newer cursorjacking attack was added to NoScript 2.2.8 RC1.<ref name="Kotowicz" />

==== GuardedID ====
GuardedID (a commercial product) includes client-side clickjack protection for users of Internet Explorer and Firefox<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ha.ckers.org/blog/20090204/clickjacking-and-guardedid/|title=Clickjacking and GuardedID ha.ckers.org web application security lab|author=Robert Hansen|date=4 February 2009|accessdate=2011-11-30}}</ref> without interfering with the operation of legitimate iFrames. GuardedID clickjack protection forces all frames to become visible.

==== Gazelle ====
[[Gazelle (web browser)|Gazelle]] is a [[Microsoft Research]] project secure web browser based on IE, that uses an [[Operating System|OS]]-like security model, and has its own limited defenses against clickjacking.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/helenw/papers/gazelleSecurity09.pdf|title=The Multi-Principal OS Construction of the Gazelle Web Browser|last1=Wang|first1=Helen J.|authorlink=Helen J. Wang|last2=Grier|first2=Chris|date=August 2009|publisher=18th Usenix Security Symposium, Montreal, Canada|accessdate=2010-01-26|last3=Moschchuk|first3=Alexander|last4=King|first4=Samuel T.|last5=Choudhury|first5=Piali|last6=Venter|first6=Herman}}</ref> In Gazelle, a window of different origin may only draw dynamic content over another window's screen space if the content it draws is opaque.

=== Server-side ===

==== [[Framekiller]] ====
Web site owners can protect their users against UI redressing (frame based clickjacking) on the server side by including a [[framekiller]] JavaScript snippet in those pages they do not want to be included inside frames from different sources.<ref name="Zalevski" />

Such JavaScript-based protection, unfortunately, is not always reliable. This is especially true on Internet Explorer,<ref name="Zalevski" /> where this kind of countermeasure can be circumvented "by design" by including the targeted page inside an <IFRAME SECURITY=restricted> element.<ref name="hackademix2">{{cite web|url=http://hackademix.net/2009/01/27/ehy-ie8-i-can-has-some-clickjacking-protection/|title=Hey IE8, I Can Has Some Clickjacking Protection|author=Giorgio Maone|date=27 October 2008|publisher=hackademix.net|accessdate=2008-10-27}}</ref>

==== X-Frame-Options ====
Introduced in 2009 in [[Internet Explorer]] 8 was a new HTTP header <code>X-Frame-Options</code> which offered a partial protection against clickjacking<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2009/01/27/ie8-security-part-vii-clickjacking-defenses.aspx|title=IE8 Security Part VII: ClickJacking Defenses|author=Eric Lawrence|date=27 January 2009|accessdate=2010-12-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.msdn.com/b/ieinternals/archive/2010/03/30/combating-clickjacking-with-x-frame-options.aspx|title=Combating ClickJacking With X-Frame-Options|author=Eric Lawrence|date=30 March 2010|accessdate=2010-12-30}}</ref> and was shortly after adopted by other browsers ([[Safari (web browser)|Safari]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.zdnet.com/security/?p=3541|title=Apple Safari jumbo patch: 50+ vulnerabilities fixed|author=Ryan Naraine|date=8 June 2009|accessdate=2009-06-10}}</ref> [[Firefox]],<ref>https://developer.mozilla.org/en/The_X-FRAME-OPTIONS_response_header The X-Frame-Options response header&nbsp;— MDC</ref> [[Google Chrome|Chrome]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.chromium.org/2010/01/security-in-depth-new-security-features.html|title=Security in Depth: New Security Features|author=Adam Barth|date=26 January 2010|accessdate=2010-01-26}}</ref> and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opera.com/docs/specs/presto26/#network|title=Web specifications support in Opera Presto 2.6|date=12 October 2010|accessdate=2012-01-22}}</ref>). The header, when set by website owner, declares its preferred framing policy: values of <code>DENY</code>, <code>SAMEORIGIN</code>, or <code>ALLOW-FROM ''origin''</code> will prevent any framing, framing by external sites, or allow framing only by the specified site, respectively. In addition to that, some advertising sites return a non-standard <code>ALLOWALL</code> value with the intention to allow framing their content on any page (equivalent of not setting X-Frame-Options at all).

In 2013 the X-Frame-Options header has been officially published as RFC 7034,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7034.txt|title=HTTP Header Field X-Frame-Options|year=2013|publisher=IETF}}</ref> but is not an internet standard. The document is provided for informational purposes only.

A security header like X-Frame-Options will not protect users against clickjacking attacks that are not using a frame<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lcamtuf.blogspot.com/2011/12/x-frame-options-or-solving-wrong.html|title=lcamtuf's blog: X-Frame-Options, or solving the wrong problem}}</ref>.

==== Content Security Policy ====
The <code>frame-ancestors</code> directive of [[Content Security Policy]] (introduced in version 1.1) can [[Whitelist|allow]] or disallow embedding of content by potentially hostile pages using iframe, object, etc. This directive obsoletes the X-Frame-Options directive. If a page is served with both headers, the frame-ancestors policy should be preferred by the browser.<ref name="Content Security Policy Level 2">{{cite web|url=http://www.w3.org/TR/CSP11/#frame-ancestors-and-frame-options|title=Content Security Policy Level 2|date=2014-07-02|website=w3.org|accessdate=2015-01-29}}</ref>—although some popular browsers disobey this requirement.<ref name="Clickjacking Defense Cheat Sheet">{{cite web|url=https://www.owasp.org/index.php/Clickjacking_Defense_Cheat_Sheet|title=Clickjacking Defense Cheat Sheet|accessdate=2016-01-15}}</ref>

Example frame-ancestors policies:
 # Disallow embedding. All iframes etc. will be blank, or contain a browser specific error page.
 Content-Security-Policy: frame-ancestors 'none'
 
 # Allow embedding of [[Same-origin policy|own content]] only.
 Content-Security-Policy: frame-ancestors 'self'
 
 # Allow specific origins to embed this content
 Content-Security-Policy: frame-ancestors www.example.com www.wikipedia.org

== See also ==
{{Div col}}
* [[Browser security]]
* [[Cross-site scripting]]
* [[Security hacker]]
* [[Internet safety]]
* [[Internet security]]
* [[Phishing]]
* [[Social jacking]]
* [[Click fraud]]
{{div col end}}

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