Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Air Equator

2014-12-11T15:58:32Z

Ziansh: Added airlines of the maldives template

{{Infobox Airline
|airline=Air Equator
|logo=aireq.jpg
|logo_size=150
|IATA=-
|ICAO=EQU
|callsign=Air Equator
|parent=A.Faiz/A.Murthy (60%)
Ziaf Enterprises Maldives (40%)
|founded=2003
|ceased=2005
|headquarters=[[Hithadhoo (Addu)|Hithadhoo]], [[Maldives]]
|hubs=[[Gan International Airport]]
|focus_cities=[[Malé International Airport|Malé]]
|frequent_flyer=
|lounge=
|alliance=
|fleet_size=1
|destinations=4
|website=
|key_people=
}}

'''Air Equator''' was an [[airline]] based in [[Gan Island|Gan]], [[Maldives]]. It operated services linking the southernmost island of Gan to other main islands in the Maldives. Its main base was [[Gan International Airport]].

The airline ceased operations in August 2005.

== History ==

The airline was established in 2003 and received its air operator's certificate on 10 October 2004 from the Maldives Civil Aviation Department. It started operations on 15 October 2004 with flights from Gan to the capital [[Malé]]. It is owned by A Faiz/A Murthy (60%) and Ziaf Enterprises Maldives (40%). Subsequently majority shares were purchased by SPA Aviation of Sri Lanka. The Airline operations were affected during the Asian Tsunami in December 2004 and flew some relief material to affected islands. The Airline was chartered by the media and press accompanying the Turkish Prime Minister when he visited the Maldives for surveying the damage done by the Tsunami. The airline discontinued all flights in May 2005 and finally ceased operations in August 2005 after disagreement between SPA Aviation and A. Faiz on financial and administrative control. Capt. Anup Murthy was the GM/CEO of the company and the Maldives CAD approved Accountable Manager for the company from inception. SPA Aviation had plans for reviving the Airline but could not do so as their source of funding did not materialize, till press time early 2006.

== Destinations ==

Air Equator operated services to the following domestic scheduled destinations (at January 2005):
*[[Gan International Airport|Gan]] ''(ceased operations)''
*[[Hanimaadhoo Airport|Hanimaadhoo]] ''(ceased operations)''
*[[Kaadedhdhoo Domestic Airport|Kaadedhdhoo]] ''(ceased operations)''
*[[Malé International Airport|Malé]]. ''(ceased operations)''

== Fleet ==
The Air Equator fleet consisted of 1 [[Fairchild F-27]] aircraft (at January 2005).

==References==
*[http://www.airlinehistory.co.uk/RestofWorld/Maldives/Airlines.asp]

{{Airlines of the Maldives}}
[[Category:Defunct airlines of the Maldives]]
[[Category:Airlines established in 2003]]
[[Category:Airlines disestablished in 2005]]
[[Category:Airlines of the Maldives]]

Sonderberichterstatter der Vereinten Nationen

2011-06-25T07:36:53Z

Ziansh: /* Current Thematic and Country mandates */ added newly appointed Iran.

{{About|United Nations Special Rapporteurs|a general list of special rapporteurs|Special Rapporteur}}
'''Special Rapporteur''' is a title given to individuals working on behalf of the [[United Nations]] within the scope of "Special Procedures" mechanisms who bear a specific mandate from the United Nations Human Rights Council.

The role's title is [[French language|French]], and its correct spelling would be Rapporteur Spécial in its singular form and Rapporteurs Spéciaux in its plural form, but this does not appear in use by the United Nations' English language publications. The mandate by the United Nations has been to "examine, monitor, advise and publicly report" on [[human rights]] problems through "activities undertaken by special procedures, including responding to individual complaints, conducting studies, providing advice on technical cooperation at the country level, and engaging in general promotional activities."<ref>[http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/chr/special/index.htm#code]</ref> However, the Coordination Committee of Special Procedures ''Internal Advisory Procedure to Review Practices and Working Methods'' (25 June 2008) manual simply calles these individuals mandate-holders. Other applications of the role include "Special Representative of the Secretary-General" or "Independent Expert", or a [[working group]] usually composed of five members, one from each region of the planet.

==Appointment authority==
Appointed by the [[UN Secretary General]], these mandate-holders act independently of governments. The earliest such appointment was the 1980 Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances responding to Commission on Human Rights resolution 20 (XXXVI). The first Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions reporting to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1982/35 begun work in 1982.

They do not receive any financial compensation for their work, but they receive personnel and logistical support from the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]].

To mark [[Human Rights Day]] in 2006, the 37 Special Rapporteurs, Special Representatives and Independent Experts issued a joint statement<ref>[http://www.ohchr.org/english/events/day2006/docs/spec_proc_statement.doc OHCHR.org]</ref> on the importance of human rights in the fight against poverty.

==Role description==
Special Rapporteurs often conduct fact-finding missions to countries to investigate allegations of human rights violations. They can only visit countries that have agreed to invite them.

Aside from fact-finding missions, Rapporteurs regularly assess and verify complaints from alleged victims of human rights [[violations]]. Once a complaint is verified as legitimate, an urgent letter or appeal is sent to the [[government]] that has allegedly committed the violation.

==Role application==
Thematic Special Rapporteurs are typically appointed to serve for 3 years, after which their mandate can be extended for another 3 years. Country Special Rapporteurs are appointed to serve for 1 year, and their term is renewed every year.

==Controversies==
In June 2006, the United Nations Human Rights Council, which replaced the UN Commission on Human Rights, extended the mandates of all Special Rapporteurs by one year to enable it to conduct a review of the mandates and seek ways of strengthening their roles. However, Special Rapporteurs for countries which did not approve a Special Rapporteurs (Cuba, Belarus, Burma and North Korea) have been under question and the mandates of the Special Rapporteurs for Cuba and Belarus have not been renewed.

Other controversies between the Special Rapporteurs and the Council include the introduction of a code of conduct which initially disallowed the Special Rapporteurs from addressing the media. However a compromise has been reached and a code of conduct now exists for the Special Rapporteurs.<ref>[http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/chr/special/index.htm#code OHCHR.org]</ref>

==Current Thematic and Country mandates==

Currently, there are 36 Special Rapporteurs, Special Representatives and Independent Experts who serve under the following country and thematic mandates:

'''Countries and Territories'''

* Burundi - [[Fatsah Ouguergouz]], Independent Expert on Human Rights (2010– )
* Cambodia - [[Surya Prasad Subedi]], Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Human Rights (2009– )
* Haiti - [[Michel Forst]], Independent Expert on human rights (2008– )
* Myanmar - [[Tomas Ojea Quintana]], Special Rapporteur on human rights (2010– )
* North Korea - [[Marzuki Darusman]], Special Rapporteur on human rights (2010– )
* Palestinian Territories - [[Richard Falk]], Special Rapporteur on human rights (1993–xxxx),{{Fact|date=January 2009}} (March 26, 2008– )<ref name="UN_Falkappointed">{{cite web| last =| first =| authorlink =| coauthors =| title =Human Rights Council elects Advisory Committee Members and approves a number of Special Procedures mandate holders| work =| publisher =[[United Nations]] | date =2008-03-26| url =http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.nsf/2ee9468747556b2d85256cf60060d2a6/0da4ba56ade85249852574190058d462!OpenDocument |format =| doi =| accessdate =2009-01-01 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5dViuhEdA |archivedate=2009-01-01 }}</ref>
* Somalia - [[Shamsul Bari]], Independent Expert on human rights (2008– )
* Sudan - [[Mohamed Chande Othman]], Special Rapporteur on human rights (2005– )
* Iran - [[Ahmed Shaheed]], Special Rapporteur on Human Rights (2011- )<ref>http://minivannews.com/politics/dr-shaheed-appointed-un-special-rapporteur-on-iran-21542</ref><ref>http://www.tehrantimes.com/Index_view.asp?code=242731</ref>
'''Themes'''

* Adequate Housing - [[Raquel Rolnik]] (2008– )
* Contemporary Forms of Slavery [[Gulnara Shahinian]] (2007– )
* Cultural Rights [[Farida Shaheed]] (2009-)
* Education - [[Kishore Singh]] (2008– )
* Effects of Economic Reform Policies and Foreign Debt on Human Rights - [[Cephas Lumina]] (2008– )
* Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary executions - [[Christof Heyns]] (2008– )
* Right to Food - [[Olivier De Schutter]] (2008– )
* Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association - [[Maina Kiai]] (2011– )
* Freedom of Opinion and Expression - [[Frank William La Rue]] (2008– )
* Freedom of Religion or Belief - [[Heiner Bielefeldt]] (2010– )
* Human Rights Defenders - [[Margaret Sekaggya]] (2008– )
* Independence of Judges and Lawyers - [[Gabriela Carina Knaul de Albuquerque e Silva]] (2008– )
* Minority Issues - [[Gay McDougall]] (2008– )
* Physical and Mental Health - [[Anand Grover]] (2007– )
* Protecting Human Rights while Countering Terrorism - [[Martin Scheinin]] (2005– )
* Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance - [[Githu Muigai]] (2008– )
* Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography - [[Najat M’jid Maala]] (2008– )
* Torture - [[Juan E. Méndez]] (2008– )
* Trafficking in Persons - [[Joy Ngozi Ezeilo]] (2008– )
* [[Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women its Causes and Consequences|Violence against Women]] - [[Rashida Manjoo]] (2009– )
* Human Rights and Access to Safe Drinking water and Sanitation - [[Catarina de Albuquerque]] (2008- )
* Human Rights and International Solidarity - [[Rudi Muhammad Rizki]] (2005– )
* Human Rights and the Illicit Movement of Toxic Waste - [[Calin Georgescu]] (2008– )
* Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and other Business Enterprises - [[John Ruggie]] (2005– )
* Human Rights of Indigenous People - [[James Anaya]] (2008– )
* Human Rights of Internally Displaced Persons - [[Chaloka Beyani]] (2010– )
* Human Rights of Migrants - [[François Crépeau]] (2011– )

==See also==
* [[Human Rights Committee]]
* [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]
* [[Special Rapporteur]]
* [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]]
* [[United Nations Human Rights Council]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/chr/special/ Official Website]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/documentary_archive/5295942.stm BBC News Special on Special Rapporteurs]

[[Category:United Nations Special Rapporteurs|*]]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[Category:Human rights]]

[[de:Liste von UN-Sonderberichterstattern]]
[[fa:گزارشگر ویژه]]

Punjabis

2010-12-22T21:16:16Z

Ziansh: Large-scale editing to make more understandable in English

{{clean|date=December 2010}}
{{ethnic group|
|group= Punjabis
|image= [[Image:Iqbal 140x190.jpg|75px]][[Image:Bhagat Singh 1929 140x190.jpg|75px]][[Image:Liaquat Ali Khan 140x190.jpg|75px]] [[File:Wasim Akram 140x190.jpg|75px]][[Image:Aitzaz ahsan.jpg|65px]][[Image:jawad.jpg|75px]] [[File:Ruby dhalla small.jpg|75px]][[Image:Manmohansingh04052007 140x190.jpg|73px]][[Image:Amir Khan 2007 140x190.jpg|75px]] [[File:Khali cropped 140x190.jpg|75px]][[Image:Abdus salam.gif|73px]][[Image:Kalpana Chawla, NASA photo portrait in orange suit 140x190.jpg|75px]] '''[[List of Punjabis]]:''' 1st row: [[Muhammad Iqbal]], [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] 2nd row: [[Wasim Akram]], [[Aitzaz Ahsan]], [[Ahmad Jawad Asghar]] 3rd row: [[Ruby Dhalla]], [[Manmohan Singh]], [[Amir Khan (boxer)|Amir Khan]] 4th row: [[Great Khali]], [[Abdus Salam]], [[Kalpana Chawla]]. 
|pop= 120 million (estimated)
|region1={{flag|Pakistan}}
|pop1=76,335,300
|ref1= <ref>[http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_mother_tongue.pdf Pakistan 1998 census - Population by mother tongue]</ref>
|region2={{flag|India}}
|pop2=29,109,672
|ref2=<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ Indian Census]</ref>
|region3={{flag|United Kingdom}}
|pop3=2,300,000
|ref3=<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=74ZVFb37zuIC&pg=PA20 |title=Desh Pardesh |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |year=1994 |pages=19–20 |author=Roger Ballard, Marcus Banks |isbn=9781850650911}}</ref>
|region4={{flag|Canada}}
|pop4=800,000
|ref4=<ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?TPL=RETR&ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=92333&PTYPE=88971,97154&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=801&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= 2006 Census: Ethnic Origin]</ref>
|region5={{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|pop5=720,000
|region6={{flag|United States}}
|pop6=640,000
|region7={{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|pop7=620,000
|region8={{flag|Hong Kong}}
|pop8=260,000
|region9={{flag|Malaysia}}
|pop9=185,000
|region10={{flag|South Africa}}
|pop10=140,000
|region11={{flag|Russia}}
|pop11=120,000
|langs= [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Hindi]], [[Urdu]]
|rels= • [[Image:Allah-green.svg|18px]] [[Islam]] 70% • [[Image:Khanda1.svg|15px]] [[Sikhism]] 18% • [[Image:Om.svg|15px]] [[Hinduism]] 10% • [[Image:Dharma Wheel.svg|18px]] [[Buddhism]] • [[Image:Christian cross.svg|10px]] [[Christianity]] • [[Image:Jain hand.svg|13px]] [[Jainism]]
|related=• [[Indo-Aryans]] • [[Rajput]]s • [[Gujjars|Gujjar]] •[[Jatt]]s •[[Aheer]]s. [[Hindko]]wans • [[Seraikis]] • [[Indo-Scythian]]s
}}
The '''Punjabi people''' ({{lang-pa|{{Nastaliq|پنجابی}}}} ([[Shahmukhi]]), ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ([[Gurmukhi]]), [[Hindi]]: पंजाबी ([[Devanagari]])), also '''Panjabi people''', are an [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] ethnic group from [[South Asia]]. They originate from the [[Punjab region]], which has been host to some of the oldest civilizations in the world including one of the world's first and oldest civilizations, [[Indus Valley Civilization|the Indus Valley Civilization]]. The Punjabi identity was primarily [[cultural]] and [[natural language|linguistic]], with Punjabis being those who considered the [[Punjabi Language]] their [[first language]]. <ref>http://www.krysstal.com/langfams_indoeuro.html</ref> However, in recent times, the definition has been broadened to include emigrants of Punjabi descent who maintain Punjabi cultural traditions, even when they no longer speak the language.

Punjabis are primarily found in the Punjab region of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], which forms the present Indian state of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] and Pakistan province of [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]]. In the times that followed after gaining independence from [[British Empire|Britain]], the Punjab region was divided between the two nations. In Pakistan, Punjabis are the largest ethnic group comprising of roughly 60% of the total population of the country. Majority reside predominantly in the province of Punjab and [[Pakistan-administered Kashmir]]. In India, Punjabis represent about 3% of the population. The majority of [[Punjabi Language|Punjabi]]-speaking people in India can be found across the greater Punjab region which comprises of the states of Punjab, [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Delhi]] and the [[Union Territory]] of [[Chandigarh]]. Moreover, large communities of Punjabis are also found in the [[Jammu]] region of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] and the states of [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttarakhand]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].

Punjabi is the dominant language spoken in Pakistan, and 11th most spoken language in India and 3rd most spoken language in South Asia. According to the [[Ethnologue]] 2005 estimate,<ref name="ReferenceA">Ethnologue. 15th edition (2005).</ref> there are 88 million native speakers of the Punjabi language, which makes it approximately the 11th most widely spoken language in the world. According to the 2008 Census of Pakistan,<ref>According to [http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_mother_tongue.pdf statpak.gov.pk] 44.15% of the Pakistani people speak Punjabi natively. This calculates an approximate number of 76,335,300 Punjabi speakers in Pakistan.</ref> there are approximately 76,335,300 native speakers of Punjabi in Pakistan, and according to the [[Demographics of India#Linguistic demographic2001|Census of India]], there are over 29,102,477 Punjabi speakers in India.<ref>[[Census of India]], 2001</ref> Punjabi is also spoken as a [[minority language]] in several other countries where [[Punjabis]] have emigrated in large numbers, such as the [[United Kingdom]] (where it is the second most commonly used language<ref>[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmhansrd/vo000307/halltext/00307h02.htm "Punjabi Community".] The United Kingdom Parliament.</ref>) and [[Canada]], in which Punjabi has now become the fourth most spoken language after English, [[French language|French]] and [[Chinese language|Chinese]], due to the rapid growth of immigrants from Pakistan and India.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Punjabi_is_Canadas_4th_most_top_language/articleshow/2782138.cms Punjabi is 4th most spoken language in Canada - The Times of India]</ref> There are also sizable communities in [[United States]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Persian Gulf]] countries, [[Hong Kong]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].

Punjabis are ethno-linguistically and culturally related to the other Indo-Aryan peoples of South Asia. There are an estimated 120 million Punjabis around the world.

==History==
{{Off-topic|date=June 2010}}
{{Main|History of Punjab}}

===Prehistory===
The exact point at which the Punjabis formed a distinct ethnic group remains speculative. The region having been the site of the ancient [[Indus Valley Civilization]] centred at [[Harappa]] became a centre of early civilization from around 3300 BC. Numerous settlers including the [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo Aryans]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Scythians]], [[Greeks]], various [[Central Asia]]ns, [[Arab]]s, [[Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghans]], and the [[British Empire|British]] have all invaded and ruled the region, giving the Punjab a unique culture as the gateway to [[South Asia]] but this has not had a genetic impact on the region as the host population has always been far larger than the migrating or invading populations.Historically attested events, such as invasions by Huns, Greeks, Kushans, Moghuls, Muslims, and modern Europeans, have had negligible genetic impact. Despite centuries of Greek rule in Northwest India, for example, no trace of either the M170 or the M35 genetic markers associated with Greeks and Macedonians have been found.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/>

==Ancient History==
[[Image:Map of Vedic India.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of early Iron Age Vedic India after Witzel (1989). Realms or tribes are labelled black, Foreign tribes mentioned in early Vedic texts purple, Vedic [[shakha]]s in green. Rivers are labelled blue. The [[Thar desert]] is marked orange.]]

The original [[Punjab region]] is now divided into several units: [[West Punjab]] (now in Pakistan) including the Gandhara region, the Indian states of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]], [[Haryana]] and [[Himachal Pradesh]] and the Indian Union territory of [[Chandigarh]]. The regions of [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Jammu]] have also been historically associated with the Punjab.

The Punjab is the '[[Sapta Sindhu]]' region mentioned in the [[Rig Veda]], the seven rivers are:

# [[Saraswati]] (thought to be the present day [[Ghaggar]]),
# Satadru/Shutadri ([[Sutlej]]),
# Vipasa ([[Beas River|Beas]]),
# Asikani, Chandrabhaga ([[Chenab]]),
# Iravati ([[Ravi River|Ravi]]),
# Vitasta/Vet ([[Jhelum River|Jhelum]]) and
# Sindhu ([[Indus River|Indus]]).

The modern name of the Vipasa,'Beas' is thought to be a corruption of [[Veda Vyasa]], the author of the [[Mahabharata]].

The region came to be known as ''Punjab'' only in the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] period.It was one of the cradles of [[Indian subcontinent|Indian]] civilization and [[Hinduism]].

Among the classic books that wholly or partly composed in this region are the following.
* [[Rigveda]]
* Grammar of [[Sakatayana]]
* [[Ashtadhyayi]] of [[Pāṇini]]
* [[Nirukta]] of Yaska
* [[Charaka Samhita]]
* Mahabharata along with the [[Bhagavad Gita]]
* [[Brihatkatha]] of Gunadya
* The [[Bakhshali Manuscript]]

The world's oldest university [[Takshashila]] flourished here, even before the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]'s birth.

The descendants of the Rishis, form the [[Brahmins]] of [[Hindu]] society. The Brahmins of this region are called 'Saraswata' after the legendary Saraswati river region, once known for the ashramas of the rishis.

===Classic cities of the Punjab region===
* [[Peshawar]](Purushapur), North West Frontier Province: Capital of [[Kanishka]], the [[Kushan]] ruler and the site of the tallest stupa in Jambudvipa.
* [[Pushkalavati]] (Charsadda), North West Frontier Province: Founded by a son of [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]], brother of [[Sri Rama]], according to the [[Ramayana]]
* [[Takshashila]] (Taxila), Punjab(Pakistan): Also founded by a son of Bharata.
* [[Multan]](Mulasthan),Punjab(Pakistan): Founded by first wave of invading Aryans and named Mul-Asthan (Base-Station)in Sanskrit also Pilgrimage site of the legendary Sun temple.
* [[Rawalpindi]], Punjab(Pakistan): A city in Northern Punjab named after the Rawal [[Jogis]]
* [[Sialkot]], Punjab(Pakistan): city founded by Sul ([[Shalya]]), emperor of Madradesa and brother of [[Madri]], second wife of emperor [[Pandu]] and mother to [[Nakul]] and [[Sahadeva]]
* [[Kasur]], Punjab(Pakistan): city founded by [[Kusha]], son of Sri Rama according to the [[Bichitra Natak]] written by [[Guru Gobind Singh]].
* [[Lahore]],Punjab(Pakistan): city founded by [[Lava]]([[Loh]]), son of Sri Rama according to the Bichitra Natak.
* [[Jhang]], Punjab(Pakistan): city where lovely [[Chenab]] and [[Jhelum]] rivers meet founded in era of [[Sri Rama]] then remodeled by [[Sial]] chief. Famous Punjabi love stories of [[Heer Ranjha]] and [[Mirza Sahiba]] belong to the soil of this particular city. That is why city is also referred to as "Land of Love" and "City of [[Bhangra]]"
* [[Amritsar]], Punjab(India): It is believed that the hermitage of Sage [[Valmiki]], author of the Ramayana was located in the vicinity of the area that forms the modern city of Amritsar today. Valmiki is said to have composed the great epic at this very spot. Also, [[Sita]] gave birth to the twins, Lava and Kusha in this hermitage.
* [[Jalandhar]], Punjab(India): A historic city mentioned in the Puranas.
* [[Kurukshetra]],Haryana: The site of the [[Mahabharata]] war.
* [[Karnal]], Haryana: city founded by [[Karna]].
* [[Katasraj temple]], Punjab(Pakistan): Classic temple complex in the [[Chakwal]] district, site of the 'enchanted pool' episode in the Mahabharata, where [[Yudhishtira]] is tested by his father Lord [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]]/[[Dharma]].

The historic [[Vedic religion]] had a great impact on the regions religions followed by modern [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] which influenced the entire region including modern day Afghanistan,Usbekistan,Tajikistan and the Balochistan region in Iran and Pakistan.Islam reached the region following [[Muhammad bin Qasim|the arrival of Arabs]] in 711 AD and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes in the 11th century during this period of Islamic invasions some Hindu's clans converted to Islam.

[[Image:Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Mature Harappan]] "Priest King" statue, [[Mohenjo-daro]], wearing Sindhi [[Ajrak]], late Mature Harappan period, National Museum, Karachi, Pakistan]]The tribes present in the NWFP of Pakistan and Afghanistan are most probably descended from Huna, Kushans etc. They could be the modern day [[Hazaras]], [[Pashtuns]], [[Tajiks]], [[Uzbeks]] and [[Nuristani]] and many more. The other theory is that, after the Islamic invasion of Sindh, all the tribes there broke off and came down lower into India and established their kingdoms; hence the name ''Rajput'' (son of a king). The Huna were defeated in 528 AD by [[Yasodharman]] and in 532 a coalition of Hindu kings drove the Huna out of Northern India.<ref>http://www.worldhistorymaps.info/History/CentralAsia.html</ref> Genetic analysis of Rajput clans found a close connection with the Punjabi [[Khatri]]/[[Arora]] clans, indicating that the Rajputs are not outsiders as most tend to believe.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6242530</ref>

Following the independence of Pakistan and the subsequent [[Partition of India|partition]] of [[British India]], a process of population exchange took place in 1947 as [[Muslim]]s left [[East Punjab]] and headed to the newly created [[Pakistan]], and [[Hindu]]s and [[Sikh]]s left [[West Punjab]]<ref>.[http://www.cet.edu/earthinfo/sasia/SAhis.html South Asia: British India Partitioned]</ref> for the newly created state of India. As a result of these population exchanges, both parts are now relatively homogeneous, where religion is concerned.
[[Image:Taxila Pakistan juillet 2004.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Taxila Pakistan is a [[World Heritage Site]]]]

The main site of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in Punjab was the city of [[Harrapa]]. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today Pakistan and eventually evolved into [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] civilization. The arrival of the Indo-Aryans led to the flourishing of the [[Vedic Civilization]] along the length of the [[Indus River]]. This civilization shaped subsequent cultures in [[South Asia]] and [[Afghanistan]]. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was partially damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used stone from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artifacts have nevertheless been found. Punjab was part of the great ancient empires including the [[Gandhara]] [[Mahajanapadas]], [[Mauryas]], [[Kushans]] and [[Hindu Shahi]]. Agriculture flourished and trading cities (such as Multan and Lahore) grew in wealth.

===Genetics in the Region===
{{Main|Genetics and Archaeogenetics of South Asia}}
The studies published in this active field of ongoing research have yet to present a unanimous picture.

On the one hand, certain reports emphasize the finding that tribal and caste populations in South Asia derive largely from a common genetic heritage of Pleistocene southern and western Asians, with only limited gene flow from external regions since the start of the Holocene.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003">{{Harvcoltxt|Kivisild et al.|2003}}</ref><ref>"There is general agreement that Indian caste and tribal populations share a common late Pleistocene maternal ancestry in India." {{Harvcoltxt|Sahoo et al.|2006}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sharma et al.|2005}}</ref> India-specific mtDNA haplogroups, in particular, show coalescence times of 40-60 kya,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Chaubey et al.|2007}}</ref> while J2 from West Asia is identified as the only non-native Y-DNA haplogroup present in significant proportions.<ref>"It is not necessary, based on the current evidence, to look beyond South Asia for the origins of the paternal heritage of the majority of Indians at the time of the onset of settled agriculture. The perennial concept of people, language, and agriculture arriving to India together through the northwest corridor does not hold up to close scrutiny. Recent claims for a linkage of haplogroups J2, L, R1a, and R2 with a contemporaneous origin for the majority of the Indian castes' paternal lineages from outside the subcontinent are rejected, although our findings do support a local origin of haplogroups F* and H. Of the others, only J2 indicates an unambiguous recent external contribution, from West Asia rather than Central Asia." {{Harvcoltxt|Sahoo et al.|2006}}</ref> The Y-DNA Haplogroup R1a1a (M17), which was thought to be a marker of Indo-European speaking peoples,<ref>"The Aryans came from outside India. We actually have genetic evidence for that. Very clear genetic evidence from a marker that arose on the southern steppes of Russia and the Ukraine around 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. And it subsequently spread to the east and south through Central Asia reaching India.... [M17] shows that there was a massive genetic influx into India from the steppes within the past 10,000 years... Taken with the archaeological data, we can say that the old hypothesis of an invasion of people – not merely their language – from the steppe appears to be true." {{Harvcoltxt|Wells|2002}}</ref> has been found quite prevalent in South Asia, including tribal groups, suggesting a native origin with a time depth greater than any supposed Indo-Aryan migration.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sengupta et al.|2006}}</ref>

On the other hand, certain reports stratify the population, finding relatively closer affinity to Western Eurasians than to Asians among upper castes compared to lower and in men compared to women.<ref>"For maternally inherited mtDNA, each caste is most similar to Asians. However, 20%-30% of Indian mtDNA haplotypes belong to West Eurasian haplogroups, and the frequency of these haplotypes is proportional to caste rank, the highest frequency of West Eurasian haplotypes being found in the upper castes. In contrast, for paternally inherited Y-chromosome variation each caste is more similar to Europeans than to Asians. Moreover, the affinity to Europeans is proportionate to caste rank, the upper castes being most similar to Europeans, particularly East Europeans. [...] Analysis of these data demonstrated that the upper castes have a higher affinity to Europeans than to Asians, and the upper castes are significantly more similar to Europeans than are the lower castes. Collectively, all five datasets show a trend toward upper castes being more similar to Europeans, whereas lower castes are more similar to Asians." {{Harvcoltxt|Bamshad et al.|2003}}</ref> Evidence has also been found that the deep ancestry of the entire Indian population is a hybrid of two distinct founder groups: the "Ancestral North Indian" (ANI) genetically closer to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans; and the "Ancestral South Indian" (ASI) is as distinct from ANI and East Asians as they are from each other; whose relative proportions vary with the former type more prevalent in high-caste and Indo-Aryan speaking groups.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Reich et al.|2009}}</ref>

Language change resulting from the migration of numerically small superstrate groups would be difficult to trace genetically. Historically attested events, such as invasions by Huns, Greeks, Kushans, Moghuls, Muslims, and modern Europeans, have had negligible genetic impact. Despite centuries of Greek rule in Northwest India, for example, no trace of either the M170 or the M35
genetic markers associated with Greeks and Macedonians have been found.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/>
[[File:R1a1a distribution.png|thumb|right|300px|Frequency distribution of R1a1a, also known as R-M17 and R-M198, adapted from {{Harvcoltxt|Underhill et al|2009}}.]]
{{See|List of R1a frequency by population}}
{{further|[[Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic groups]]}}
R1a has been found in high frequency at both the eastern and western ends of its core range, for example in some parts of [[India]] and [[Tajikistan]] on the one hand, and [[Poland]] on the other. Throughout all of these regions, R1a is dominated by the R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198) sub-clade. In South Asia R1a1a has been observed often with high frequency <ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005">{{Harvcoltxt|Sengupta et al.|2005}}</ref><ref name="Sahoo et al. 2006">{{Harvcoltxt|Sahoo et al.|2006}}</ref> in a number of demographic groups. Hindus in Nepal/India as a whole show it at 69%.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fornarino et al.|2009}}</ref>

Among the caste groups of India high percentage of this haplogroup is observed in [[Bengali Brahmins|West Bengal Brahmins]](72%) <ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005"/> to the east, [[Konkanastha| Konkanastha Brahmins]](48%) <ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005"/> to the west, [[Khatri]]s(67%)<ref name="Underhill et al. 2009">{{Harvcoltxt|Underhill et al.|2009}}</ref> in north and Iyenger(31%) Brahmins <ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005"/> of south. It has also been found in several [[South Indian]] [[Dravidian]]-speaking [[Adivasi]]s including the [[Chenchu]](26%),<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/> the [[Valmikis]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and the [[Kallar]] of [[Tamil Nadu]] suggesting that M17 is widespread in tribal southern Indians.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/>

Besides these, studies show high percentages in regionally diverse groups such as [[Manipuri people|Manipuris]] (50%)<ref name="Underhill et al. 2009"/> to the extreme North East and in Punjab (47%)<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/> to the extreme North West.

In [[Pakistan]] it is found at 71% among the Mohanna and 46% among the [[Balti]]s.<ref name="Underhill et al. 2009"/> While 13% of [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] in [[Sri Lanka]] were found to be R1a1a(M17) positive.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/>
[[Indo-Aryans]] are believed to have arrived in the region between 2000 and 1250 BC and eventually disseminated their languages throughout [[South Asia]]. An early [[Vedic civilization]] is believed to have emerged in the region and helped shape many aspects of the early culture.

===Influence===
Due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attack and influence from the east and the west.Invaded by the [[Mauryan Empire]], [[Persian Empire|Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[Kushans]], [[Scythians]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], and [[Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghans]]. Its legacy is a unique culture that combines [[Hindu]], [[Buddhist]],Greek, [[Iran|Persian]], [[Islamic]], [[Sikhs]] and lastly British elements were also adopted during colonial rule.The city of Taxila was founded by the son of Taksh, who was the son of Bharat and who, in turn, was the brother of Ram. It was reputed to house the oldest university in the world, [[Takshashila University]], one of the teachers was the great [[Vedic period|Vedic]] thinker and politician [[Chanakya]]. Taxila was a great centre of learning and intellectual discussion during the [[Maurya Empire]]. It is a UN [[World Heritage site]], and revered for its archaeological and religious history.A legend based on oral traditions holds that Lahore, known in ancient times as Lavapuri (City of Lava in Sanskrit), was founded by Prince Lava, the son of Rama, while Kasur was founded by his twin brother Prince Kusha. To this day, Lahore Fort has a vacant temple dedicated to Lava (also pronounced Loh, hence Loh-awar or "The Fort of Loh").

[[Image:PazyrikHorseman.JPG|thumb|upright|A Scythian ([[Saka]]) horseman from [[Pazyryk]] in Central Asia, c. 300 BC.]]
Unique to central and western regions of Punjab (which form Pakistan's Punjab province) was that this area was incorporated into various central Asian, Greek and Persian empires, the area witnessed invasions by [[Alexander the Great]], [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] and [[Tamerlane]], to name a few. These were periods of contact between this region of Pakistan, the Persian Empire, and for a time this extended all the way to [[Greece]]. In later centuries, when Persian was the language of the Mughal government by force, Mughal architecture, poetry, art and music was an integral part of the region's culture. The official language of Punjab remained [[Persian language|Persian]] until the arrival of the British in the mid 19th century, where it was finally abolished and the administrative language was changed over to Urdu written in the [[Perso-Arabic script]] which was only adopted by the Muslims as Hindu's retained their [[Devanagari]] script and the Sikhs [[Gurmukhi]] both are members of the [[Brahmi]] script and native to India.<ref>http://www.panthic.org/news/135/ARTICLE/2701/2006-08-30.html</ref><ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cCo2Ray4B7kC&pg=PT1&lpg=PT1&dq=Language+and+literacy+in+social+practice+By+Janet+Maybin,+Open+University&source=bl&ots=93PVqCKhrd&sig=gF0z6avAMBHHQcH2mdfckm_L_a4&hl=en&ei=Gg1_SpPgC4msjAezr-nwAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=urdu%2Fperso&f=false Language and literacy in social practice] By Janet Maybin, Open University, page 102</ref>

===Punjabi Hindus===
Punjabi Hindus are a group of people that follow the Hindu religion and have their roots in the erstwhile joint Punjab of greater Panjab (West Punjab/East Punjab).

Today they are distributed in most parts of the northern India and in some parts of western India like Mumbai. In India, most of the Punjabi Hindus are concentrated in Indian states of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi. There has also been continuous migration of Punjabi Hindus to western world countries like USA, Canada and UK.

The oldest Hindu texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads and Mahabharata were composed in Punjab or nearby region and therefore indirectly influenced the entire South Asian region through time.In fact, Punjabi Hindus can trace their roots from the time of the Vedas. Many would later convert into Sikhism to fight the Mughals. Hindu Punjabi's used to send their oldest son to become a Sikh this was mostly seen in the [[Khatri]] and [[Arora]] communities and is still practiced today. In fact, Punjabi Hindus can trace their roots from the time of the Vedas. Many modern day cities in Indian Punjab and Pakistan Punjab are still named from that period like Lahore etc.

Punjabi Hindus have their unique culture which resembles in some ways very closely to the culture of Sikhs and also differs in lot of other ways as they created their own identity over time. The Punjabi Hindus usually have a very liberal lifestyle and are famous for their lavish wedding parties. Like other Hindus, they are also divided into castes. The most common castes are Khatri (Kshatriya in Hindi), Brahman, Baniya, Rajput etc. Punjabi Hindus go to Hindu temples for worship. In addition to that, they also believe in Sikh Gurus and visit the Gurudwaras.

===Arrival of Islam===
[[Image:BullehShah.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Bulleh Shah]] the Sufi Muslim Scholar, Poet]]
The Punjabis were mainly [[Hindus]] with [[Buddhist]] and [[Zoroastrian]] minorities when the [[Umayyad]] [[Muslim]] [[Arab]] army led by [[Muhammad bin Qasim]] conquered the Punjab and Sindh in 711. Bin Qasim recorded that he so was overwhelmed by the gold in the [[Aditya]] Temple in the thriving trading city of Multan (known as ''Mulasthana'' then), that he recovered the expenses for his entire invasion.

During the reign of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], non-Muslims were ordered to pay the [[jaziya]] tax under Islamic law.<ref name=Esposito>[[John Esposito|John Louis Esposito]], ''Islam the Straight Path'', Oxford University Press, Jan 15, 1998, p. 34.</ref><ref>Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20</ref><ref>Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (1991). The Holy Quran. Medina: King Fahd Holy Qur-an Printing Complex, pg. 507</ref> The province became an important centre and Lahore was made into a second capital of the Turk [[Ghaznavid Empire]] based out of [[Ghazni]].

===Mughals===
[[File:Badshahi Mosque July 1 2005 pic32 by Ali Imran (1).jpg|thumb|upright|Badshahi Masjid - The largest mosque of the Mughal Empire built by emperor [[Aurangzeb]].]]
The [[Mughals]] controlled the region from 1524 until 1739 and would also lavish the province with building projects such as the [[Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)|Shalimar Gardens]] and the [[Badshahi Mosque]], both situated in Lahore. Muslim soldiers, traders, architects, theologians and Sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to the Islamic [[Sultanate]] in [[South Asia]] and some may have settled in the Punjab. Following the decline of the Mughals, the [[Afsharid dynasty|Shah of Iran]] and founder of the Afsharid dynasty in [[Persia]], [[Nader Shah]] crossed the [[Indus]] and sacked the province in 1739. Later, the [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] conqueror [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], incidentally born in Punjab, in the city of [[Multan]] made the Punjab a part of his [[Durrani Empire]] lasting until 1762.

===Afghans===
The founder of Afghanistan, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], an ethnic [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] (''[[Pathan]]''), was born on the outskirts of [[Multan]], southern Punjab where many of his descendants live to this day. After cementing his authority over various [[Pashtun tribes|Afghan tribes]], he went about to establish the first united Afghan Kingdom (''[[Durrani Empire|Greater Afghanistan]]'') that during its greatest extent included modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and northeastern Iran. The Punjab was a cultural reservoir for the Afghans, and many where attracted to its lush fertile lands, a process that continues to this very day. It has been said that with the loss of the breadbasket regions of the Punjab and Sindh, Afghanistan has never been able to achieve a stable state ever since. Many ethnic Afghan or Pashtun tribes continue to live in Pakistan's Punjab province such as the [[Khugyani]]s known as [[Khakwani]]s, [[Alizai]]s, [[Tareen]]s, [[Durrani]]s, [[Mullazai]]s, [[Niazi]]s, [[Khattak]]s, [[Lodhi]]s, [[Kakar]]s, [[Kakazai]]s, and [[Barakzai]]s to name a few.

===Sikhs===
[[File:Ranjitsingh.gif|right||thumb|upright|Portrait of Maharaja Ranjit Singh]]

At the beginning of the fifteenth century, the religion of [[Sikhism]] was born, and during the Mughal period its [[Misl]]s gradually emerged as a formidable military force until assimilated under the expanding [[Sikh Empire]]. After fighting [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], the Sikhs wrested control of the Punjab from his descendants and ruled in a [[Confederation|confederacy]], which later became the Sikh Empire of the Punjab under [[Ranjit Singh|Maharaja Ranjit Singh]]. A denizen of the city of [[Gujranwala]], the capital of Ranjit Singh's empire was Lahore.<ref>[http://www.heritage.gov.pk/html_Pages/sikh.htm Sikh Period - Government of Pakistan]</ref> The Sikhs made architectural contributions to the city and the [[Lahore Fort]]. The Sikh empire was the first local power to rule the region since [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammed Ghori's]] defeat of [[Prithviraj III|Prithvi Raj Chauhan]] in 1192. According to some accounts, Ranjit Singh was not sympathetic to the Muslim inhabitants of the city, he is said to have turned the [[Badshahi Mosque]], one of the most famous examples of [[Mughal architecture]] and one of the [[List of largest mosques|largest Mosques]] in the world, into a gun powder magazine for military stores.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA524&lpg=PA524&dq=ranjit+singh+badshahi+mosque&source=bl&ots=RE8Bsi6lm-&sig=aKOus6JEP-tnK_2HseFhN9RGkRI&hl=en&ei=OSNsSsLmDqaNjAeKrMi2Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2 International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania] By Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Paul E Schellinger, Sharon La Boda</ref>

===British===
[[File:Raja Lal Singh, of First Anglo-Sikh War, 1846.jpg|left|thumb|[[Raja Lal Singh]], who led Sikh forces against the British during the First Anglo-Sikh War, 1846]]
The Maharaja's death in the summer of 1839 brought political chaos and the subsequent battles of succession and the bloody infighting between the factions at court weakened the state. Relationships with neighbouring British territories then broke down, starting the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]]; this led to a British official being resident in Lahore and the annexation of territory south of the Satluj to [[British India]].

Some parts of Pakistani [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] also served as the centre of resistance in the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].

===Independence and its aftermath===
In 1947 the Punjab province of [[British Raj|British India]] was divided along religious lines into [[West Punjab]] and [[East Punjab]]. The western Punjabis voted to join the new country of [[Pakistan]] while the easterners joined India. This led to massive rioting as both sides committed atrocities against fleeing refugees.

The undivided Punjab, of which Punjab (Pakistan) forms a major region today, was home to a large minority population of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus unto 1947 apart from the Muslim majority.<ref>The Punjab in 1920s – A Case study of Muslims, Zarina Salamat, Royal Book Company, [[Karachi]], 1997. table 45, pp. 136. ISBN 969-407-230-1</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
===Indian Punjabis===
[[File:Punjabi sardar.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Indian Punjabi farmer.]]

The population of [[Punjab (India)|Indian Punjab]] is divided into two major religious groups, the Sikhs and Hindus. It is further sub-divided into various [[tribal|tribal group]]s, [[social groups|social groups (caste)]] and economic groups. Major sub-groups in [[India]] include the [[Arora]]s, Kalals/[[Ahluwalia]]s, [[Punjabi Banias|Bania]], [[Bhatia]]s, [[Punjabi Brahmins|Brahmin]] , [[Chamar]], [[Chhimba]], [[Chura]], [[Jatt Sikh]]s, GUJJAR both Sikh and Hindu, [[Kamboj Sikh]]s, [[Khatri]], [[Labana]]s, [[Lohar]], [[Mahtam]], [[Mazhabi]], [[Nai (caste)|Nai]]s, [[Punjabi Rajput|Rajput]], [[Ramgarhia]], [[Ramdasia]], [[Saini]]s, [[Sood]]s and [[Tarkhan]]s etc. The largest subgroups are Jatts with around 20% of the population, Chamars with around 12% of the population and Churas with around 10% of the population.

Like Punjabi Muslim society, these various [[caste]]s are associated with particular occupations or crafts. Communities such as the Jatt Sikh, Kamboj Sikh and Saini Sikh are essentially farmers, while the Arora, [[Punjabi Bania|Bania]], Bhatia and Khatri are associated to trade. Other groups are associated with particular crafts, include Lohar who were historically ironsmiths, while Tarkhans were carpenters and the Nai were barbers.<ref>The Punjabis : The People, Their History, Culture and Enterprise</ref>

Indian Punjab is also home to small groups of Muslims and Christian. Most of the [[East Punjab]]'s Muslims ''(in today's states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Chandigarh)'' left for West Punjab in 1947. However, a small community still exists today, mainly in [[Malerkotla]] which was spared during partition, the only Muslim princely state among the seven that formed the erstwhile [[Patiala]] and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU). The other six ''(mostly Sikh)'' states were: Patiala, [[Nabha]], [[Jind]], [[Faridkot, India|Faridkot]], [[Kapurthala]] and [[Kalsia]].

Punjabis in India have mainly [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] and [[Indo-Scythian]] origin. The Punjab region within India maintains a strong influence on the perceived culture of India towards the rest of the world. Numerous Bollywood film productions use the Punjabi language within its songs and dialogues as well as traditional dances and instruments such as the [[bhangra]] and the [[tabla]]. Prime Ministers of India including [[Gulzarilal Nanda]] and [[Inder Kumar Gujral]] in the past, and [[Dr. Manmohan Singh]] at present, are Punjabis, as are numerous players in the Indian cricket team (both past and present including [[Bishen Singh Bedi]], [[Kapil Dev]], [[Mohinder Amarnath]], [[Navjot Sidhu]], [[Harbhajan Singh]], [[Yuvraj Singh]], [[Yograj Singh]]).

===Pakistani Punjabis===
Punjabis make up almost 45% of the population of Pakistan. The Punjabis found in Pakistan belong to groups known as biradaris, which descend from a common male ancestor. In addition, Punjabi society is divided into two divisions, the zamindar groups or qoums, traditionally associated with farming and the moeens, who are traditionally artisans. Zamindars are further divided into qoups that claim pre-Islamic ancestry such as the [[Punjabi Rajput|Rajput]],[[Aheer]]s, [[Haral]]s, [[Ghosi (tribe)]], [[Muslim Jat of Punjab|Jat]], [[Punjabi Shaikh|Shaikh]]s or (Muslim [[Khatri]]), [[Kamboh]]s, [[Gujjar]]s, [[Dogar]]s and [[Labana|Rahmani]] (Muslim Labana). Zamindar groups claiming [[Central Asian]] or [[Middle East]]ern ancestry include the [[Gakhar]]s, [[Khattar]], [[Awan Pakistan|Awan]], [[Mughal (tribe)|Mughal]] and [[Arain]], comprising the main tribes in the north of the province, while [[Khagga]], [[Bodla]], [[Jhandir]], [[Daudpota]], [[Gardezi]], [[Syed]] and [[Quraishi]] are found in the south, all of whom claim [[Arab]] ancestry. Immigrants from neighbouring regions, such as the [[Kashmiri Muslims|Kashmiri]], [[Punjabi Pathan|Pashtun]] and [[Punjabi Baloch|Baluch]] ,also form important element in the Punjabi population. Pashtun tribes like the [[Niazi]]s and the [[Khakwani]]s, are integrated into Punjabi village life. Especially the members of the Niazi tribe, who see themselves as Punjabis first. They have big communities in [[Mianwali]], [[Bakkar]], [[Lahore]], [[Faisalabad]], [[Sahiwal]] and [[Toba Tek Singh]]. Major Moeen groups include the [[Lohar]], [[Khateek]], [[Rawal]], [[Chhimba Darzi]], [[Muslim Teli|Teli]], [[Malik (Julaha)|Julaha]], [[Mallaah]], [[Mirasi]] and [[Muslim Shaikh]]s, who are associated with a particular crafts or occupation.<ref>Muslim peoples : a world ethnographic survey / Richard V. Weekes, editor-in-chief Greenwood Press 1978</ref>

Punjabis have traditionally and historically been farmers and soldiers, which has transferred into modern times with their dominance of agriculture and military fields in Pakistan. In addition, Punjabis in Pakistan have been quite prominent politically, having had many elected Members of Parliament. As the most ardent supporters of a Pakistani state, the Punjabis in Pakistan have shown a strong predilection towards the adoption of the [[Urdu]] language but nearly all speak Punjabi, and still identify themselves as ethnic Punjabis for the most part. Religious homogeneity remains elusive as a predominant Islamic [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]-[[Shi'a Islam|Shia]] population and a [[Christianity|Christian]] minority have not completely wiped out diversity since the partition of [[British India]]. A variety of related sub-groups exist in Pakistan and are often considered by many Pakistani Punjabis to be simply regional Punjabis including the [[Seraikis]] (who overlap and are often considered transitional with the [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]]) and Punjabi Pathans (which publications like ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' consider a transitional group between Punjabis and [[Pashtun people|Pathans]].

{{See also|Languages of Pakistan}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Rank || State || Punjabi speakers || Percentage
|-
| — || '''[[Pakistan]]''' || '''76,335,300''' || '''44.15'''
|-
| 1 || [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] || 70,671,704 || 75.23
|-
| 2 || [[Sindh]] || 3,592,261 || 6.99
|-
| 3 || [[Islamabad]] || 1,343,625 || 71.66
|-
| 4 || [[North-West Frontier Province|NWFP]] || 396,085 || 0.97
|-
| 5 || [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] || 318,745 || 2.52
|-
| 6 || [[Fata]] || 12,880 || 0.23
|}

==The Punjabi Diaspora==
{{Main|Punjabi diaspora}}
[[File:Punjabi Speaking World.png|thumb|right|380px|Punjabis around the world]]
The Punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers to many parts of the world. The [[United Kingdom]] has a significant number of Punjabis from both Pakistan and India as does [[Canada]] (specifically [[Vancouver]] and [[Toronto]]) and the United States, (specifically California's [[Great Central Valley]]). The [[Middle East]] has a large immigrant community of Punjabis, in places such as the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] and [[Kuwait]]. There are large communities in [[East Africa]] including the countries of [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]] and [[Tanzania]]. Punjabis have also emigrated to [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Southeast Asia]] including [[Malaysia]], [[Thailand]], [[Singapore]] and [[Hong Kong]].

===Punjabis per country===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Rank !! Country !! First language
|-
|1|| {{flag|Pakistan}} || 76,335,300
|-
|2|| {{flag|India}} || 29,109,672
|-
|3|| {{flag|United Kingdom}} || 2,300,000
|-
|4|| {{flag|Canada}} || 800,000
|-
|5|| {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} || 720,000
|-
|6|| {{flag|United States}} || 640,000
|-
|7|| {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} || 620,000
|-
|8|| {{flag|Hong Kong}} || 260,000
|-
|9|| {{flag|Malaysia}} || 185,000
|-
|10|| {{flag|South Africa}} || 140,000
|-
|11|| {{flag|Burma}} || 120,000
|-
|12|| {{flag|France}} || 90,000
|-
|13|| {{flag|Italy}} || 80,000
|-
|14|| {{flag|Thailand}} || 75,000
|-
|15|| {{flag|Japan}} || 75,000 {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
|-
|16|| {{flag|Mauritius}} || 70,000
|-
|17|| {{flag|Singapore}} || 70,000
|-
|18|| {{flag|Oman}} || 68,000
|-
|19|| {{flag|Libya}} || 65,000
|-
|20|| {{flag|Bahrain}} || 60,000
|-
|21|| {{flag|Kenya}} || 55,000
|-
|22|| {{flag|Australia}} || 50,000
|-
|23|| {{flag|Tanzania}} || 45,000
|-
|24|| {{flag|Kuwait}} || 40,000
|-
|25|| {{flag|Germany}} || 35,000
|}

==Diversity==
[[File:Computer Lab at GGI 3.JPG|thumb|Young men and women inside an internet cafe in India.]]
The Punjab region is diverse, due to its location near [[Central Asia]]. It has been prone to numerous [[Human migration|migrations]] and the resulting [[settler]]s have left imprints upon the local Punjabi population that remain present in the numerous sub-groups. The Punjabi people are a [[heterogeneous]] group and can be subdivided into a number of ethnic clan groups in Pakistan called ''[[qaums]]'' while they adhere to ''[[caste]]'' identities in [[India]], each having their own subtle differences.

In terms of ancestry, the majority of Punjabis share many similar genes with other [[northern India]]n populations, but also show a significant relationship with west Eurasian groups. In a 2004 Stanford study conducted with a wide sampling from India, including 112 Punjabis, and selected other countries, displayed the following:

:Results show that Indian tribal and caste populations derive largely from the same genetic heritage of [[Pleistocene]] southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the [[Holocene]].<ref>[http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2003_v72_p313-332.pdf The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations]</ref>

This study also found that roughly 42% of genetic markers in the Punjab were of [[West Asia]]n origin, the highest amongst the sampled group of [[South Asians]].{{Dubious|date=July 2009}}{{cite}} Another study also showed that there has been limited gene flow in and out of [[north India]], but the highest amount of genetic inflow from the west showed up in the Punjab region:

:Broadly, the average proportion of mtDNAs from West Eurasia among Indian caste populations is 17% (Table 2). In the northern States of India their share is greater, reaching over 30% in [[Kashmir]] and [[Gujarat]], nearly 43% in [[Indian Punjab]].<ref>http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=516768</ref><ref>[http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/5/26 Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in South and [[Southwest Asia]] were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans]</ref>

Some preliminary conclusions from these varying tests support a largely north Indian genetic base for most Punjabis accompanied by some of the highest degrees of west Asian admixture found in north India.

==Culture and society==
{{Main|Punjabi culture}}
[[File:Pakistani Ranger.jpg|thumb|upright|Pakistani Ranger at the [[Wagah]] border crossing, between India and Pakistan.]]
Punjabi Culture is the culture of the [[Punjab region]]. It is one of the oldest and richest cultures in world history, dating from ancient antiquity to the modern era. The Punjabi Culture is the culture of the Punjabi people who are now distributed throughout the world. The scope, history, sophistication and complexity of the culture are vast. Some of the main areas include, Punjabi Philosophy, poetry, spirituality, education, artistry, dance, music, cuisine, science, technology, military warfare, architecture, traditions, values and history.

===Religion===
Science, history and religion has played an important role in shaping Punjabi ethnic identity and it is not uncommon for Punjabis to generally treat their religious identity as synonymous with their ethnic identity or at least a combined identity that differentiates them from others. Punjabis belong largely to three major religions: [[Islam]] (70%), [[Sikhism]] (18%) and [[Hinduism]] (10%){{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} and also small numbers of [[Christianity]], [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhist]].

Muslim Punjabis are the largest group in the Punjab region and are largely concentrated in Pakistan, though a small Muslim Punjabi population exists in India. Sikhism and Hinduism are the major religions followed by Punjabis in India, with Jainism being the largest minority religion that is followed largely by [[Punjabi Banias]] and [[Bhabra]] people.

===Language===
{{Copy edit-section|date=June 2010}}
{{Main|Punjabi language}}

The main language of the Punjabi people is [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and its associated dialects which differ depending on the region of Punjab the individual speaker belongs to with notable differences in dialect found in Pakistani Punjabi (Lahnda dialect),However in Pakistani Punjab,many people speak Urdu but nearly all speak Punjabi,In Indian Punjab,all/or most people can speak Hindi,English is sometimes used,but not commonly. They may also speak [[Urdu]], [[Hindi]] and [[English language|English]]. There is significant Persian influence found in certain Punjabi dialects, although it is more pronounced in the Pakistani Punjab region, due to that regions proximity to the Iranic plateau. In recent years, the respective Punjabi languages have absorbed a considerable number of loan words from surrounding areas/provinces as well as from English and continue to evolve.

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Punjabi cuisine}}

Punjabi Cuisine has an immense range of dishes and has become world-leader in the field so much so that many entrepreneurs that have invested in the sector have built large personal fortunes due to popularity of Punjabi Cuisine throughout the world.

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Punjab}}
[[Image:Dhol players.jpg|thumb|[[Bhangra]] tournament concert]]
Bhangra is one of the many Punjabi musical art forms that is increasingly being listened to in the west and is becoming a mainstream favourite. Punjabi music is being used by western musicians, in many ways, such as mixing it with other compositions to produce award-winning music. In addition, Punjabi Classical music is increasingly becoming popular in the west due to the beauty of sounds of the Punjabi language and its composition.The most common instruments used in both India and Pakistan Punjab are the [[Tabla]] [[Harmonium]] and sometimes [[Sitar]].

===Punjabi Dances===
{{Main|Punjabi Dances}}

Punjabi Dances, due to the long history of the [[Punjabi culture]] and of the Punjabi people there is a large number of dances. These dances are normally performed at times of celebration the most prominent being at Punjabi weddings, where the elation is usually particularly intense. The overall style can range from very high energy to more reserved, however the common elements make it particularly attractive to the viewers whether they be of Punjabi heritage or not, the allure is considered universal. Punjabi dances are designed for either men or women.

===Marriage===
{{Main|Punjabi wedding traditions}}

Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are traditionally conducted in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. While the actual religious marriage ceremony, among Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus, and Jains may be conducted in Arabic, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Pali/Prakrit or English by the Kazi, Pandit, Granthi or Priest, there are commonalities in ritual, song, dance, food, and dress. The Punjabi wedding has many rituals and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times. Punjabi receptions of all sorts are known to be very energetic; filled with loud Bhangra music, people dancing, and a wide variety of Punjabi food.

==Prominent Punjabis==
{{Main|List of Punjabis}}
{{Main|List of Punjabi poets}}
{{Main|List of Punjabi authors}}
{{Main|List of Punjabi singers}}
{{Main|List of Punjabi language poets}}

==See also==
*[[Punjab region]]
*[[Punjabi culture]]
*[[Punjabi language]]
*[[Punjabi cuisine]]
*[[Music of Punjab]]
*[[Punjabi dance]]
*[[Punjabi folklore]]
*[[Punjabi press]]
*[[History of the Punjab]]
*[[Punjabi Mexican American]] - A crosscultural merger of the first Punjabis with Mexican/Hispanic residents in California.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References and further reading==
* Gilmartin, David. ''Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan''. Univ of California Press (1988), ISBN 0-520-06249-3.
* Grewal, J.S. and Gordon Johnson. ''The Sikhs of the Punjab (The New Cambridge History of India)''. Cambridge University Press; Reprint edition (1998), ISBN 0-521-63764-3.
* [[Denzil Ibbetson]], ''Punjab Castes: Race, Castes and Tribes of the People of Punjab''. Cosmo Publications, ISBN 81-7020-458-5.
* Ibbetson, Denzil, (2002). ''Panjab castes''. Low Price Publications. ISBN 81-7536-290-1.
* Latif, Syed. ''History of the Panjab''. Kalyani (1997), ISBN 81-7096-245-5.
* Rose, H.A. Denzil Ibbetson, [[Edward Maclagan]] (reprint 1990). ''Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province''. Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-0505-5.
* Sekhon, Iqbal S. ''The Punjabis : The People, Their History, Culture and Enterprise''. Delhi, Cosmo, 2000, 3 Vols., ISBN 81-7755-051-9.
* Singh, Gurharpal. ''Ethnic Conflict in India : A Case-Study of Punjab''. Palgrave Macmillan (2000).
* Singh, Gurharpal (Editor) and Ian Talbot (Editor). ''Punjabi Identity: Continuity and Change''. South Asia Books (1996), ISBN 81-7304-117-2.
* Singh, Khushwant. ''A History of the Sikhs - Volume 1''.Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-562643-5
* Steel, Flora Annie. ''Tales of the Punjab : Told by the People (Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints)''. Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (2002), ISBN 0-19-579789-2.
* Tandon, Prakash and Maurice Zinkin. ''Punjabi Century 1857-1947'', University of California Press (1968), ISBN 0-520-01253-4.
* {{loc}} [http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/32.htm Pakistan], [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India]
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/5/26 DNA boundaries in South and Southwest Asia, BMC Genetics 2004, 5:26]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pan Ethnologue Eastern Panjabi]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pnb Ethnologue Western Panjabi]
* [http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ Indian Census]
* [http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_mother_tongue.pdf Pakistan Census]
* [http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2003_v72_p313-332.pdf The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72:313–332, 2003]
*{{Cite book|last=Talib|first=Gurbachan|authorlink=Gurbachan Singh Talib|title= [[Muslim League Attack on Sikhs and Hindus in the Punjab 1947]]|year=1950|publisher=[[Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee]]|location=India}}[http://www.bharatvani.org/books/mla/ Online 1] [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC03809888&id=9fQLAAAAIAAJ&q=Muslim+League+Attack+on+Sikhs+and+Hindus+in+the+Punjab+1947&dq=Muslim+League+Attack+on+Sikhs+and+Hindus+in+the+Punjab+1947&pgis=1 Online 2] [http://allaboutsikhs.com/books/gst/ Online 3] (A free copy of this book can be read from any 3 of the included "Online Sources" of this free “Online Book”)

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

* [http://www.jattworld.com Jattworld.com - The Punjabi Jatts]
* [http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/subject/peoplesandlanguages.html Peoples and Languages in Pre-Islamic Indus Valley]
* [http://asianbookcenter.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=25&products_id=524 Free Punjabi (Gurmukhi) Primer - Especially designed for those who know English]
{{Ethnic Groups of India}}
{{Ethnic groups, Social groups (Caste) and tribes the Punjab}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Punjabi People}}
[[Category:Punjabi people| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Punjabi tribes| ]]
[[Category:Punjabi culture]]
[[Category:Muslim communities]]

[[ar:بنجاب (عرق)]]
[[bn:পাঞ্জাবি জাতি]]
[[bg:Пенджабци]]
[[ko:펀자브인]]
[[hi:पंजाबी समुदाय]]
[[hr:Pandžapci]]
[[id:Punjabi]]
[[ka:პენჯაბელები]]
[[ja:パンジャーブ人]]
[[no:Punjabier]]
[[pa:ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਲੋਕ]]
[[pnb:پنجابی لوک]]
[[pl:Pendżabczycy]]
[[ru:Панджабцы]]
[[simple:Punjabi people]]
[[sr:Панџапци]]
[[sh:Pendžapci]]
[[ta:பஞ்சாபி மக்கள்]]
[[zh:旁遮普人]]

Air Equator

2009-02-28T09:31:41Z

Ziansh:

{{Infobox Airline
|airline=Air Equator
|logo=aireq.jpg
|logo_size=150
|IATA=-
|ICAO=EQU
|callsign=Air Equator
|parent=A.Faiz/A.Murthy (60%)
Ziaf Enterprises Maldives (40%)
|founded=2003
|ceased=2005
|headquarters=[[Hithadhoo]], [[Maldives]]
|hubs=[[Gan International Airport]]
|focus_cities=[[Malé International Airport|Malé]]
|frequent_flyer=
|lounge=
|alliance=
|fleet_size=1
|destinations=4
|website=
|key_people=
}}

'''Air Equator''' was an [[airline]] based in [[Gan Island|Gan]], [[Maldives]]. It operated services linking the southernmost island of Gan to other main islands in the Maldives. Its main base was [[Gan International Airport]].

The airline ceased operations in August [[2005]].

== History ==

The airline was established in [[2003]] and received its air operator's certificate on [[10 October]] [[2004]] from the Maldives Civil Aviation Department. It started operations on [[15 October]] [[2004]] with flights from Gan to the capital [[Malé]]. It is owned by A Faiz/A Murthy (60%) and Ziaf Enterprises Maldives (40%). Subsequently majority shares were purchased by SPA Aviation of Sri Lanka. The Airline operations were affected during the Asian Tsunami in December 2004 and flew some relief material to affected islands. The Airline was chartered by the media and press accompanying the Turkish Prime Minister when he visited the Maldives for surveying the damage done by the Tsunami. The airline discontinued all flights in May [[2005]] and finally ceased operations in August 2005 after disagreement between SPA Aviation and A. Faiz on financial and administrative control. Capt. Anup Murthy was the GM/CEO of the company and the Maldives CAD approved Accountable Manager for the company from inception. SPA Aviation had plans for reviving the Airline but could not do so as their source of funding did not materialize, till press time early 2006.

== Destinations ==

Air Equator operated services to the following domestic scheduled destinations (at January [[2005]]):
*[[Gan International Airport|Gan]] ''(ceased operations)''
*[[Hanimaadhoo Airport|Hanimaadhoo]] ''(ceased operations)''
*[[Kadedhdhoo Domestic Airport|Kaadedhdhoo]] ''(ceased operations)''
*[[Malé International Airport|Malé]]. ''(ceased operations)''

== Fleet ==
The Air Equator fleet consisted of 1 [[Fairchild]] [[F-27F]] aircraft (at January 2005).

==References==
*[http://www.airlinehistory.co.uk/RestofWorld/Maldives/Airlines.asp]

[[Category:Defunct airlines of the Maldives]]
[[Category:Airlines established in 2003]]
[[Category:Airlines disestablished in 2005]]