Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Interlaken

2009-03-18T22:39:56Z

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{{Infobox Ort in der Schweiz|
NAME_ORT = Interlaken|
GEMEINDEART = Gemeinde|
BILDPFAD_KARTE = Karte Gemeinde Interlaken 2007.png|
BILDPFAD_WAPPEN = Interlaken-coat of arms.svg|
BILD = Interlaken aer.jpg |
BESCHREIBUNG = aus 4000 m Höhe|
KANTON = Bern|
BEZIRK = [[Interlaken (Bezirk)|Interlaken]]|
BFS = 0581|
PLZ = 3800|
UN/LOCODE = CH INT|
BREITENGRAD = 46.683331|
LÄNGENGRAD = 7.86666|
HÖHE = 568|
FLÄCHE = 4.4|
EINWOHNER = 5286|
STAND_EINWOHNER = 31. Dezember 2007|
WEBSITE = www.interlaken-gemeinde.ch|
}}

'''Interlaken''' ist eine [[politische Gemeinde]] und Hauptort des gleichnamigen [[Interlaken (Bezirk)|Amtsbezirks]] des [[Kanton (Schweiz)|Kantons]] [[Kanton Bern|Bern]] in der [[Schweiz]].

==Ortsname==
Die Gemeinde hiess bis 1891 ''Aarmühle'' und wurde dann auf ihren heutigen Namen umbenannt. Sie liegt auf dem [[Bödeli]] zwischen dem [[Thunersee]] und [[Brienzersee]], woher auch ihr Name abgeleitet wurde (lateinisch ''inter'' - zwischen und ''lacus'' - See).

== Geographie ==
Interlaken liegt im Berner Oberland zwischen [[Thunersee]] und [[Brienzersee]], auf einer "[[Bödeli]]" genannten Schwemmebene. Die beiden Seen werden durch die [[Aare]] verbunden, welche durch Interlaken fliesst. Die Gemeinden Interlaken, [[Unterseen]] und [[Matten_bei_Interlaken|Matten]] bilden zusammen ein geschlossenes Siedlungsgebiet mit ca. 15'000 Einwohner.

Interlaken gehört zur Kirchgemeinde [[Gsteig bei Interlaken]]. Zu den Nachbargemeinden Interlakens zählen Matten, Unterseen, [[Ringgenberg BE|Ringgenberg]] und [[Bönigen]].

Das Dorf liegt verkehrsgünstig an den Verbindungen [[Bern]] - Grimselpass - [[Kanton Wallis|Wallis]], Bern - Sustenpass - [[Kanton Uri|Uri]], Bern - Brünigpass - [[Luzern|Stadt Luzern]] und [[Montreux]] - Interlaken - Brünig - Luzern. Von Interlaken aus zweigen die Täler von [[Lauterbrunnen]] und [[Grindelwald]] ab, wodurch Interlaken das Zentrum des östlichen [[Berner Oberland]]es ist.

== Geschichte ==
Um 1130 wurde durch den Freiherrn Seliger von Oberhofen auf einem "Matten" genannten Ort zwischen Thunersee und Brienzersee ein Bethaus aus Holz erbaut, aus dem das [[Kloster Interlaken]] gegründet durch den [[Augustiner (Orden)|Augustinerorden]] hervorging. Ca. 30 Mönche und Laienpriester lebten hier nach den Regeln des heiligen Augustinus. 1133 kam das Kloster unter die Schirmherrschaft von Kaiser [[Lothar III. (HRR)|Lothar III.]] 1224 wurde das Kloster von der jungen Stadt Bern unter ihren Schutz genommen. Neben dem Männerkloster gab es bis 1484 ein Frauenkloster, das in diesem Jahr wegen sittlichen Zerfalls geschlossen wurde. 1528 kam Interlaken an den Kanton Bern.

Um 1800 wurde die eindrückliche Bergwelt von Interlaken von Reisenden entdeckt und beschrieben, darunter [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], [[Lord Byron]] und [[Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy]]. In der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts entwickelte sich Interlaken zum Fremdenort und nahm einen neuen Aufschwung durch den Bau der Berner Oberland-Bahnen nach Lauterbrunnen und Grindelwald 1890 und der [[Jungfraubahn]] 1912.

Bedeutsam für die touristische Entwicklung waren die [[Unspunnenfest|Unspunnenfeste]] sowie die Tellspiele, die zwar gemeinhin mit Interlaken in Verbindung gebracht werden, jedoch auf Boden der Nachbargemeinden [[Wilderswil]] und [[Matten bei Interlaken]] stattfinden.

== Bevölkerung ==
{| class="wikitable float-left" style="text-align:center"
|- class="hintergrundfarbe5"
!colspan="0" | Bevölkerungsentwicklung
|-
|class="hintergrundfarbe5" align="left" | '''Jahr''' ||1764||1850||1880||1900||1930||1950 ||1960||1970||1980||1990||2000
|-
|class="hintergrundfarbe5" align="left" | '''Einwohner''' || 397||1054||2085||2962||3771||4368 ||4738||4735||4852||5176||5199
|}

== Politik ==
*[[Legislative]] ist der Grosse Gemeinderat mit 30 Mitgliedern, es gibt daher keine Gemeindeversammlung mehr.
*[[Exekutive]] ist der Gemeinderat mit 7 Mitgliedern, präsidiert vom Gemeindepräsidenten
*Alle Behördenmitglieder sind nebenamtlich tätig.

== Eisenbahn ==
Interlaken ist der Startpunkt der [[Brünigbahn]] und der [[Berner Oberland-Bahnen]]. Am Bahnhof '''Interlaken-Ost''' enden auch einzelne Züge der [[ICE#Nord-Süd-Verbindungen|ICE-Linie]] [[Berlin Ostbf]] - [[Bahnhof Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe|Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe]] - [[Basel SBB]].

== Sehenswürdigkeiten ==
[[Bild:Logo_Interlaken.jpg|thumb|right|Logo von Interlaken]]
* [[Eiger]], [[Mönch (Berg)|Mönch]] und [[Jungfrau (Berg)|Jungfrau]], die zum [[Welterbe|UNESCO-Weltnaturerbe]] [[Jungfrau-Aletsch-Bietschhorn]] gehören
* [[Thunersee]] und [[Brienzersee]]
* [[Lauterbrunnental]] mit Staubbach und Trümmelbachfällen
* [[Tellspiele]]
* [[Casino Interlaken]]
* die [[Schynige Platte]] (mit der [[Schynige Platte-Bahn]]) bietet eine schöne Aussicht auf Interlaken
* ebenso die [[Harder Kulm]] mit der [[Harderbahn]]
* Die [[SBB Historic]] betreibt den'' [[Bahn-Treff Interlaken|Bahn-Treff]]'', zu 100 Jahre Bahngeschichte, ein originaler TEE-Führerstand, zwölf Modellbahnanlagen berühmter und spektakulärer Schweizer Strecken
* Zinnfigurenausstellung (im Schlossareal)
* [[Greenfield Festival]]
* Musikfestwochen
* [[Touristik-Museum der Jungfrau-Region]]
* [[Unspunnenfest]]
* [[Wilhelm Tell]]spiele

== Wirtschaft ==
Interlaken ist eines der grossen Tourismuszentren des Berner Oberlands und verfügt über eine Infrastruktur von 60 Hotels mit ca. 4100 Betten, 6 Jugendherbergen mit ca. 450 Betten, 8 Campingplätzen mit 1045 Standplätzen und Ferienwohnungen mit ca. 1000 Betten. Das bekannteste Hotel ist das [[Victoria-Jungfrau Grand Hotel & Spa]], das schon mehrmals zum besten Hotel der Schweiz gekürt wurde. Interlaken hat sich in den letzten Jahren zu einem Mekka für Rucksacktouristen entwickelt. Mit seinem vielseitigen Angebot an Abenteueraktivitäten in einer schönen Natur ist Interlaken einzigartig in Europa.

==Partnergemeinden==
Die Partnerstädte Interlakens sind ''[[Zeuthen]]'' (Deutschland), ''City of [[Scottsdale]]'' (USA), ''[[Třeboň]]'' (Tschechien) und ''[[Ōtsu]]'' (Japan).

== Persönlichkeiten ==
*[[Daniel Hofer]], Schweizer Harfenist
*[[Polo Hofer]], Schweizer Rockmusiker
*[[Hanery Amman]], Schweizer Rockmusiker
*[[Plüsch (Band)]], Schweizer Pop/Rock Band
*[[Markus Imboden]], Schweizer Regisseur und Drehbuchautor
*[[Hans Schaffner]], Schweizer Politiker und Bundesrat
*[[Adrian Frutiger]], Typograf
*[[Erich von Däniken]], Schweizer Schriftsteller

== Sport-Events ==
Alle Jahre startet Anfang September in Interlaken der [[Jungfrau-Marathon]], mit ca. 4000 Teilnehmern der wohl bekannteste [[Bergmarathon]] der Welt. Er führt über Wilderswil, Zweilütschinen, Lauterbrunnen, Wengen und die Wengernalp bis hinauf zur Kleinen Scheidegg.

== Galerie ==
<gallery>
Bild:Interlaken, Zwitserland.jpg|Blick von den Bergen auf Unterseen, Interlaken und Matten
Bild:WasserwehrInterlaken.jpg|Wasserwehr Interlaken
Bild:Interlaken01.JPG|Interlaken, Kursaal
Bild:View of Interlaken 1821.jpg|Blick auf Interlaken, 1821
</gallery>

== Literatur ==
* Rudolf Gallati: ''Aarmuehle Interlaken 1838-1988. Eine Ortsgeschichte.'' Schlaefli Interlaken 1991

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references/>

== Weblinks ==
{{Commons|Category:Interlaken|Interlaken}}
* [http://www.interlaken.ch Tourismus Organisation Interlaken (TOI)]
* {{HLS|336}}
* {{HLS|8307|Aarmühle}}

{{Navigationsleiste Bezirk Interlaken}}

[[Kategorie:Ort im Kanton Bern]]
[[Kategorie:Schweizer Gemeinde]]

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[[sr:Интерлакен]]
[[sv:Interlaken (kommun)]]
[[vec:Interlaken]]
[[vo:Interlaken (Jveizän)]]
[[zh:煙特勒根]]

Benutzer:Xn4

2009-03-12T01:16:14Z

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Flaggentrappe

2009-02-14T22:30:06Z

Xn4: /* Gallery */ + File:Florican, 1781.jpg

{{Taxobox
| name = Lesser Florican
| image = Eupodotis indica.jpg
| status = EN | status_system = IUCN3.1
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Gruiformes]]
| familia = [[Otidae]]
| genus = '''''Sypheotides'''''
| genus_authority = [[Rene Primevere Lesson|Lesson]], 1830
| species = '''''S. indica'''''
| binomial = ''Sypheotides indica''
| binomial_authority = ([[John Frederick Miller|Miller]], 1782)
}}

The '''Lesser Florican''' (''Sypheotides indica'') is a large bird in the [[bustard]] family, the only member of the genus ''Sypheotides''. It breeds in [[Pakistan]], and is a rare summer visitor in [[Nepal]]. It has a very small, declining population, primarily a result of loss and degradation of its grassland habitat.

In their breeding display, the male jumps into the air above the grass level.

== Gallery ==

<gallery>
File:Florican, 1781.jpg
image:Likh_Whistler.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
*[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=2783&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet]

[[Category:Otididae]]
[[Category:Genera of birds]]
[[Category:Birds of Pakistan]]

{{Gruiformes-stub}}

[[es:Sypheotides indica]]
[[it:Sypheotides indica]]

Thomas Bray (Theologe)

2009-02-13T00:25:43Z

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{{Anglican Portal}}
The Reverend Dr '''Thomas Bray''' ([[1658]] - [[15 February]] [[1730]]) was an [[England|English]] clergyman born in Marton, [[Shropshire]] in 1656. He was educated at [[Oswestry School]] and [[Oxford University]], where he earned a B.A. degree with [[All Souls College]] and a M.A. with [[Hart Hall]].

After leaving the university he was appointed vicar of [[Over Whitacre]], and rector of [[Sheldon, West Midlands|Sheldon]] in [[Warwickshire]], where he wrote his famous ''Catechetical Lectures''. [[Henry Compton]], [[Bishop of London]], appointed him in 1696 as his commissary to organize the [[Church of England]] in [[Maryland]], and he was in that colony in 1699-1700. He took a great interest in colonial missions, especially among the [[American Indians in the United States|American Indians]], and it is to his exertions that the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (founded 1701), now known as [[USPG]], owes its existence.

He also projected a successful scheme for establishing parish libraries in England and [[United States|America]], out of which grew the [[Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge]] (founded 1699). Bray envisioned a library for each parish in America, funded by booksellers and stocked with books donated by authors. These libraries were meant to encourage the spread of the Anglican church in Britain's colonies, and as such were primarily composed of theological works. It was a major endeavour, as at the time the only other public libraries in the American colonies were at a small number of universities. <ref>Steiner, Bernard. [http://www.dinsdoc.com/steiner-1.htm "Rev. Thomas Bray and his American Libraries".] ''The American Historical Review'' October 1896, pp 59-75.</ref>

From 1706 until his death in February 1730 he was rector of St Botolph's, [[Aldgate]], London, being unceasingly engaged in philanthropic and literary pursuits.

==Further reading==
* David R. MacDonald ''The Transit of the Anglican Mind to the Maryland Colony: Thomas Bray & the Bray Libraries of Christ Church Durham Nanjemoy, Maryland 1696-1701'' ISBN 978-1-929569-31-1 [http://www.cloverdalebooks.com/CloverdaleBooks/Transit.html]

==References==
* [http://anglicanhistory.org/england/tbray/memorial1701.html A Memorial Representing the Present State of Religion, on the Continent of North-America, by Thomas Bray]
<references/>

{{1911}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bray, Thomas}}
[[Category:1658 births]]
[[Category:1730 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Shropshire]]
[[Category:Old Oswestrians]]
[[Category:Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford]]
[[Category:People from Maryland]]
[[Category:English Anglican priests]]
[[Category:Alumni of Hart Hall, Oxford]]

[[cy:Thomas Bray]]

Thomas Gresham

2009-02-08T10:34:50Z

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[[Bild:Thomas Gresham, 1544.jpg|thumb|right|250px|<center>Thomas Gresham, 1544</center>]]
Sir '''Thomas Gresham''' (* [[1519]] in [[London]]; † [[21. November]] [[1579]] ebenda) war Mitbesitzer des größten [[England|englischen]] Handelshauses seiner Epoche und seit 1551 [[Finanzagent]] der englischen Regierung und königlicher Berater.
== Leben ==
Er wurde als Sohn des vermögenden [[Kaufmann]]s Sir Richard Gresham geboren, der schon über wesentliche öffentliche Ämter, wie den Vorstand der "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Mercers Mercers' Company]" (Gesellschaft der Tuchhändler) und den Gouverneurstitel der Londoner [[Gilde]] der [[Merchant Adventurer]]s verfügte. Der aus [[Norfolk]] stammende Richard Gresham war aufgrund seiner Verdienste durch [[Heinrich VIII. (England)|Heinrich VIII.]] geadelt worden. Nach dem Studium an der [[Universität Cambridge]] und dem Tod seines Vaters 1548 wurde Thomas der Mitinhaber des bestimmenden Handelshauses des [[Elisabethanisches Zeitalter|elisabethanischen Zeitalters]].

Aufgrund dieser Erfahrungen wählte ihn die englische Regierung zum Finanzagenten. In dieser Funktion verhandelte er in erster Linie in [[Amsterdam]] und [[Antwerpen]] mit deutschen Großinvestoren aus [[Augsburg]] ([[Fugger]] und Schetz) und [[Nürnberg]] ([[Lazarus Tucher]]) um [[Anleihe]]n. Da diese [[Kredit]]zahlungen wider Erwarten pünktlich beglichen wurden, festigte seine Finanzpolitik die internationale Kreditwürdigkeit [[England]]s. Bereits 1559 wurde er [[Adel|geadelt]].
[[Image:Anthonis Mor 004.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Thomas Gresham]]
Daher stieg Gresham zum Berater des Königs [[Eduard VI. (England)|Eduard VI.]] und schließlich auch der Königin [[Elisabeth I. (England)|Elisabeth I.]] auf. Doch nicht nur sein Handelsgeschick machte ihn bei Hofe unentbehrlich. Auch sein persönlicher Charme, die Freundschaft zum königlichen Berater [[William Cecil]] und sein Talent beim Einbringen persönlicher Geschenke an die Monarchen und deren Umfeld festigten seine Position.

Gresham gründete 1565 die [[Royal Exchange (London)|Royal Exchange]], die sechs Jahre später den Handelsbetrieb aufnahm.

Er formulierte das erst 300 Jahre nach ihm so benannte [[Greshamsches Gesetz|Greshamsche Gesetz]], welches die Verdrängung des guten Geldes durch das schlechte beim Vorhandensein verschieden bewerteter Münzmetalle mit gesetzlich bestimmter Wechselrelation feststellte.

Gresham trat auch als [[Mäzen]] der Künste und der Wissenschaften sowie als Förderer sozialer Einrichtungen in Erscheinung. Bereits als 45-jähriger verfügte er in seinem [[Testament]] die Einrichtung des nach ihm benannten [[Gresham College|College]].

Aufgrund einiger Indizienquellen betrachten ihn manche Historiker als einen der Mitbegründer des englischen Geheimdienstes, des [[Secret Service]], da er sich zum einem für die Übermittlung seiner Botschaften eines [[Code]]s bediente und zum anderen verdeckt in den [[Niederlande]]n große Menge von [[Pulver]] und [[Munition]] erwarb, die er im Briefverkehr als [[Samt]] und [[Seide]] "tarnte".

Vorzeitig gealtert durch die aufreibenden Verhandlungen und den frühen Verlust des einzigen Sohns zog er sich 1574 nach der Lähmung eines Beins aus den Regierungsgeschäften zurück.

== Literatur ==

*Martin Leschke: ''[http://www.wiwi.uni-muenster.de/ecochron/ec-top.htm?bp_greshamsches_gesetz1.htm Das Greshamsche Gesetz in der Politik]''. In: Wirtschaftswissenschaftliches Studium (WiSt), 25. Jg., Heft 4 (April 1996), S.194.
*R. A. de Roover: ''Gresham on Foreign Exchange'', Cambridge/Mass. 1949
*F. R. Salter: ''Sir Thomas Gresham'', Boston 1925.

[[Kategorie:Ökonom (16. Jahrhundert)|Gresham, Thomas]]
[[Kategorie:Unternehmer (Handel)|Gresham, Thomas]]
[[Kategorie:Brite|Gresham, Thomas]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1519|Gresham, Thomas]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1579|Gresham, Thomas]]
[[Kategorie:Mann|Gresham, Thomas]]

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|GEBURTSDATUM=[[1519]]
|GEBURTSORT=[[London]]
|STERBEDATUM=[[21. November]] [[1579]]
|STERBEORT=[[London]]
}}

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Alexander Fermor-Hesketh, 3. Baron Hesketh

2009-02-08T09:46:05Z

Xn4: wl & + cat

{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Thomas Alexander Fermor-Hesketh
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = [[28 October]], [[1950]]
| birth_place = [[UK]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality =
| residence = [[England]], [[U.K.]]
| occupation =
| salary =
| networth =
| spouse = Claire Georgina Watson
| website =
| footnotes =
| children = Flora Mary Fermor-Hesketh, Sophia Christian Fermor-Hesketh, Frederick Hatton Fermor-Hesketh
}}
'''Thomas Alexander Fermor-Hesketh, 3rd Baron Hesketh''', [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] (born [[28 October]], [[1950]]), is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] politician. For most of his life, he has preferred to be addressed by his middle name. In 2006, he sold the family seat [[Easton Neston]], at [[Towcester]], [[Northamptonshire]], attributed to the English [[baroque]] architect, [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]], with the estate.

==Early Life==
Alexander succeeded to the titles of 3rd [[Baron Hesketh]], of Hesketh, in the County Palatine of Lancaster and also to the title of 10th Baronet Hesketh, of Rufford, co. Lancasteron on 10-06-1955 when his father, Major Sir Frederick Hesketh, died at the age of thirty nine. Alexander was then aged four.<ref name="Good Lord">{{cite web|url=http://www.nextautos.com/issue-16/the-good-lord|title=The Good Lord: A Profile of Alexander Hesketh |accessdate=2008-10-26}}</ref> He was educated at [[Ampleforth College]], [[Yorkshire]], [[England]].<ref name="Peerage" /> He went on to work for [[Dean Witter Inc]] in [[San Francisco]], before returning to manage his family’s businesses.<ref name="CPF">{{cite web|url=http://www.theconservativefoundation.co.uk/popup_hesketh.htm|title=Lord Hesketh|accessdate=2008-10-26}}</ref>

==Family==
He married Hon. Claire Georgina Watson, daughter of Joseph Rupert Eric Robert Watson, 3rd Baron Manton and Mary Elizabeth Hallinan, on 21-05-1977 and has three children, Hon. Flora Mary Fermor-Hesketh (born 1981), Hon. Sophia Christian Fermor-Hesketh (born 1984) and the Hon. Frederick Hatton Fermor-Hesketh (born 13-10-1988).<ref name="Peerage">{{cite web|url=http://thepeerage.com/p5670.htm#i56699|title=The Peerage|accessdate=2008-10-26}}</ref>

==Political career==
Alexander automatically became a member of the [[House of Lords]] but took no active part in politics until he met Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] after the [[Irish Republican Army]]’s bomb attack on her in [[Brighton]] 12th October 1984. Thatcher visited Easton Neston and in conversation, Alexander explained that he did not occupy his seat in the House of Lords. He later explained ''Mrs. Thatcher asked me if I served on a regular basis in the House, and when I told her no, she said, 'You must. It's your duty, and I expect you to be there.''<ref name="Good Lord" /> From that point Hesketh worked under Thatcher, who he described as ''the most outstanding person I ever worked with''<ref name="Observer">{{cite web|url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,642465,00.html|title=Lord Hesketh|date=03-02-2002|work=The Observer|accessdate=2008-10-26}}</ref> and held the office of Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, Department for Environment between 1989 and 1990 and was Minister of State in the [[Department of Trade and Industry]] between 1990 and 1991. On [[22 May]] of that year, he became ''[[Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms]]'' (Government Chief Whip in the [[House of Lords]]), under the next Prime Minister [[John Major]] a position he kept until the [[16 September]], [[1993]].<ref name="Peerage" /> During his period in office as Chief Whip he helped secure the '''Council Tax Bill (1992)''' and the '''Maastricht Bill (1993)'''. In 2003 he became Treasurer of the Conservative Party. He is chairman of The Conservative Party Foundation.<ref name="CPF" />

==Business==
Known for his love of [[motor racing]], he founded [[Hesketh Racing]] in 1972, best known for competing in [[Formula One]] from 1973 to 1978. The team was famous for its flamboyant and patriotic approach to the sport and for refusing [[sponsor (commercial)|sponsorship]]. Between 1973 and 1975 the team had some success with the English driver [[James Hunt]], including winning the 1975 [[Dutch Grand Prix]]. He later was president of the [[British Racing Drivers' Club]] from 1993 to 2000.

Lord Hesketh formed '''[[Hesketh Motorcycles|Hesketh Motorcycles plc]]'''. In 1982 a modern purpose built factory was set up to manufacture the [[Hesketh V1000]] motorcycles in [[Daventry]]. However, there were numerous problems. The bikes were heavy, made worse by a high riding style; and unreliable, with numerous manufacturing problems adding to an overheating rear cylinder due to lack of air flow. The resultant bad press combined on top of an under-developed bike, lack of cash and a collapsing market meant that after the production of 139 bikes, the company went into receivership. The [[Triumph Motorcycles]] co-operative looked at buying the rights to the machine, as they lacked a new model beyond the aged [[Triumph Bonneville]]. A V1000 machine even appeared with a Triumph badge on its tank, but Triumph also lacked funding to buy and develop the machine. In 1983, Lord Hesketh formed a new company called '''Hesleydon Ltd''' to manufacture a revamped V1000 with a full fairing, called the Vampire. However, although the company had produced a motorcycle with export potential in mind, the Vampire retained too many of the V1000's faults and only 40 were produced before the company closed again in 1984.

In 1994 he helped set up British Mediterranean Airways, later known as [[BMED]]. He also became chairman of the new airline. A role in which he continued until early 2007 when BMED was purchased for £30 Million by UK Airline [[BMI (airline)|BMI]]

==Honours==
In 1997, he was invested as a [[Knight Commander of the British Empire]].<ref name="Peerage" />

==Succession==
 
{{start box}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord-in-Waiting]] | before=[[Roger Bootle-Wilbraham, 7th Baron Skelmersdale|The Lord Skelmersdale]] | after=[[Oliver Eden, 8th Baron Henley|The Lord Henley]] | years=1986–1988}}
{{succession box | before=<nowiki></nowiki>'''''Minister for Industry and Enterprise'' '''[[Douglas Hogg, 3rd Viscount Hailsham|Douglas Hogg]] | title=[[Minister for Industry]] | years=1990–1991| after=<nowiki></nowiki>'''''Office abolished, then recreated 1992'' '''[[Tim Sainsbury]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Captain of the Gentlemen-at-Arms]] | before=[[Bertram Stanley Mitford Bowyer, 2nd Baron Denham|The Lord Denham]] | after=[[Nicholas Lowther, 2nd Viscount Ullswater|The Viscount Ullswater]] | years=1991–1993}}
{{s-reg|uk}}
{{succession box | title=[[Baron Hesketh]] | years=1955–Present | before=[[Frederick Fermor-Hesketh, 2nd Baron Hesketh|Frederick Fermor-Hesketh]] | after=Current Incumbent}}
{{s-sports}}
{{succession box|title=[[British Racing Drivers' Club|BRDC President]] |before=[[Innes Ireland]]||after=[[Ken Tyrrell]]|years=1993-2000}}
{{end box}}
 
{{Hesketh Racing}}

==See also==
* [[Hesketh Motorcycles]]

==External Links==
* [http://www.fotolibra.com/gallery/52272/lord-alexander-hesketh/ Photo of Lord Hesketh]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hesketh, Alexander, 3rd Baron Hesketh}}
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Old Amplefordians]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Conservative Baronesses and Lords-in-Waiting]]
[[Category:British motorcycle pioneers]]

{{UK-politician-stub}}
{{UK-baron-stub}}

Hesketh Motorcycles

2009-02-08T09:40:47Z

Xn4: -> Alexander, 3rd Lord Hesketh

[[Image:Hesketh.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Hesketh V1000 model]]
'''Hesketh Motorcycles''' was an [[Great Britain|British]] motorcycle manufacturer, based in [[Daventry]] and [[Easton Neston]].

The company was formed by [[Alexander Fermor-Hesketh, 3rd Baron Hesketh|Alexander, 3rd Lord Hesketh]], in 1980, then after his two ventures went bust from 1984 onwards, the marque has been maintained and improved by '''Broom Engineering''', now based at [[Turweston Aerodrome]] near [[Silverstone Circuit]].

== Background ==
The project was inspired by Lord Hesketh, who planned to revive the failing British motorcycle industry and at the time had a background of [[Hesketh Racing|F1 racing]] being the last private team to win a [[F1 Grand Prix]], with [[James Hunt]] at the wheel. Lord Hesketh wanted to use the skills and facilities built up in that pursuit to greater effect and production of a quality motorcycle was born.

The Hesketh motorcycle was developed on the Easton Neston estate, with the prototype running in the spring of 1980 using a special Weslake engine. The [[Hesketh V1000|V-twin V1000]] (based loosely on the marketing panache of the [[Vincent Motorcycle]]), offered all sorts of advances; for example, it was the first [[United Kingdom|British]] bike with four valves per cylinder and twin camshafts (although commonplace in Japanese machines).

== Hesketh Motorcycles ==
[[Image:Hesketh Vampire Super Tourer.jpg|thumb|right|200px|One of the few '''Hesketh Vampire Super Tourers''' built.]]
After two years of development, the project was announced to the press and partners were sought for the manufacturing. However, none were forthcoming and so Lord Hesketh formed '''Hesketh Motorcycles plc'''. In 1982 a modern purpose built factory was set up to manufacture the [[Hesketh V1000]] motorcycles in [[Daventry]].

However, there were numerous problems. The bikes were heavy, made worse by a high riding style; and unreliable, with numerous manufacturing problems adding to an overheating rear cylinder due to lack of air flow. The resultant bad press combined on top of an under-developed bike, lack of cash and a collapsing market meant that after the production of 139 bikes, the company went into receivership.

The [[Triumph Motorcycles]] co-operative looked at buying the rights to the machine, as they lacked a new model beyond the aged [[Triumph Bonneville]]. A V1000 machine even appeared with a Triumph badge on its tank, but Triumph also lacked funding to buy and develop the machine.

In 1983, Lord Hesketh formed a new company called '''Hesleydon Ltd''' to manufacture a revamped V1000 with a full fairing, called the Vampire. However, although the company had produced a motorcycle with export potential in mind, the Vampire retained too many of the V1000's faults and only 40 were produced before the company closed again in 1984.

== Broom Engineering ==
Mick Broom was part of the original development team of the Hesketh marque, and was based with the development team in the [[laundry|old laundry]] at [[Easton Neston]]. When the original Hesketh Motorcycles plc company went into receivership, Broom was part of a team funded by Lord Hesketh that supported the owners of the original machines, offering maintenance and modifications to the bikes sold. This funded team eventually became '''Hesleydon Ltd''', who obtained the necessary certification to sell overseas and went on to develop the Vampire after requests for a touring version of the V1000.

Combined with the general down turn in motorcycle market, the high cost of the parts and the inability to raise finance to implement volume production assembly methods, Lord Hesketh sold Hesleydon to Broom to form '''Broom Development Engineering'''.

Based in the same outbuildings where the development of the V1000 had begun, Broom and his team began improvement of the V1000 into a reliable "gentleman's" long distance tourer. This included the resolution of the overheating problems through both increased oil flow, as well as a radiator to cool the rearward cylinder. Broom has produced up to 12 motorcycles per annum, as well as developing the Vulcan and Vortan machine.

=== Silverstone ===
In 2006, having been forced to leave [[Easton Neston]] after it sales by [[Lord Hesketh]] to [[Leon Max]], and Max's intention to turn the stable block into a call centre for his [[Max Store]] clothing brand, Broom Engineering relocated to [[Turweston Aerodrome]] near [[Silverstone Circuit]]. However, just before the move, and at the point where most items were in packing crates, a [[robbery]] occurred with total value of £40,000 — including irreplaceable records, tools, and bikes.

Eventually, production of the V1000 and its development models will cease. This could be due to a lack of engine castings, the advance of environmental and noise legislation, or simply the cost of the machine which is now effectively a hand-built custom. However, Broom continues to support maintenance and improvement of the machine.

== Models ==
* '''[[Hesketh V1000]]''' - V-twin 1000cc gentleman's tourer. The original machine came with a [[nickel]] alloy based frame. 139 produced
* '''[[Hesketh_V1000#Broom_Engineering|V1000 EN10]]''' - as V1000, but with oil cooling improvements developed by Broom engineering, mostly including oil radiator to cool rearward cylinder. Most of the original machines have now had these obvious improvement modifications. Around 60+ machines produced by Broom. The latest version comes with spoked wheels, to allow fitment of radial tyres
*'''Vulcan''' - a V1000 EN10 with a series of modifications including a bored out 1200cc engine
*'''Vampire''' - touring based version of the V1000, with fairing and optional panniers. Around 50 machines so far delivered between Hesleydon and Broom
*'''Vortan''' - bored out 1100cc, sports version of the V1000 with highly modified chassis. Only one produced so far

== External links ==
*[http://www.broom.engineering.btinternet.co.uk/heskethframes.htm Hesketh Motorcycles] at Broom Engineering
*[http://www.broom.engineering.btinternet.co.uk/ Broom Engineering]
*[http://www.owners.heskethmotorcycles.co.uk/home_frameset.htm Hesketh Owners Club]
*[http://www.ianchadwick.com/motorcycles/britbikes/brit_h.html IanChadwick.com history of Hesketh]
*[http://motors-bay.com/others-motorcycles/21-hesketh-v-1000.html Hesketh V1000]

{{British motorcycle manufacturers}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hesketh}}
[[Category:British brands]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1981]]
[[Category:Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers of the United Kingdom]]

Brunnenburg

2009-02-05T10:02:36Z

Xn4: + Bild:Ruins of the Brunnenburg.jpg

{{Infobox Burg
|Name =
|Bild = Brunnenburg01.jpg
|Bildbeschreibung = Die Brunnenburg unterhalb von Schloss Tirol
|Alternativname =
|Entstehungszeit = um 1250
|Typologie n. geo. Lage = Hangburg
|Erhaltungszustand = Erhalten oder wesentliche Teile erhalten
|Ständische Stellung =
|Abmessungen oder Fläche =
|Mauerwerksmerkmale =
|Heutiger Ortsname = [[Meran]] und [[Dorf Tirol]]
|Breitengrad = 46/41/32/N
|Längengrad = 11/8/54/E
|Region-ISO = IT-32
|Höhenordinate =
|Höhe-Bezug =
}}
Die '''Brunnenburg''' ist eine [[Hochmittelalter|hochmittelalterliche]] [[Hangburg]] zwischen [[Meran]] und [[Dorf Tirol]] in der Provinz Bozen, Region [[Trentino-Südtirol]] ([[Südtirol]]).

== Geschichte ==

Die Burg aus dem 13. Jahrhundert wurde vermutlich um 1250 erbaut. Um 1900 wurde die Burgruine von einem deutschen Industriellen in einem bizarren Stil wiederaufgebaut. Nach dem zweiten Weltkrieg
erwarb sie Mary und Boris de Rachewiltz.

[[Mary de Rachewiltz]] ist die Tochter des amerikanischen Dichters [[Ezra Pound]] und der Violistin [[Olga Rudge]]. Pound verweilte im Jahr 1958 auf der Brunnenburg und schrieb dort die letzten sechs seiner 116 „Cantos“ für sein Hauptwerk, ''The Cantos'', bevor er nach Amerika zurückkehrte.

== Anlage ==
[[Bild:Ruins of the Brunnenburg.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Die Brunnenburg, um. 1845]]
Die historisch nicht angemessene Form erinnert an die Königsschlösser von [[Ludwig II. (Bayern)|Ludwig II.]] in Bayern und an den rheinischen Burgenstil und wird dem Charakter der ursprünglichen Wehranlage nicht gerecht.

Heute ist die Burg nicht nur Familiensitz der Familie de Rachewiltz, sondern beherbergt auch „Das Ezra Pound Literaturzentrum“ (The Ezra Pound Centre for Literature). Es wird von Studenten aus aller Welt besucht, um die Arbeiten des Dichters zu studieren.

Die Brunnenburg beherbergt zudem ein Bergbauernmuseum, ein Museum über bäuerliche Kultur in Südtirol.

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Liste der Burgen und Schlösser in Italien]]

== Literatur ==
* Coelestin Stampfer: ''Schlösser und Burgen in Meran und Umgebung''. Wagner, Innsbruck 1894, S. 10–13 ([http://www.sureproxy.com/nph-index.cgi/011110A/http/books.google.com/books/pdf/Schl__sser_und_Burgen_in_Meran_und_Umgeb.pdf=3fid=3dnFp4rBBnfhwC&hl=3dde&output=3dpdf&sig=3dACfU3U1m5BtXnavZPGSMdY3qIscCZK07XA PDF]; 3,6 MB).

{{Vorlage:Navigationsleiste Burgen und Schlösser Südtirols}}

[[Kategorie:Burg in Südtirol]]
[[Kategorie:Meran]]

[[en:Schloss Brunnenburg]]
[[ro:Brunnenburg]]
[[it:Castel Fontana]]

Via Tiburtina

2009-02-05T09:32:00Z

Xn4: + Bild:Ponte Lucano.jpg

[[Bild:Ponte Lucano.jpg|thumb|250px|''Ponte Lucano'', um 1840]]

Die '''Via Tiburtina''' („Tiburtinische Straße“, später auch: ''Via Tiburtina Valeria'') war eine [[Römerstraße|Konsularstraße]] des [[Römisches Reich|römischen Reichs]].

Sie wurde unter [[Consulat|Konsul]] Markus [[Valerier|Valerius]] Maximus um [[286 v. Chr.]] errichtet und verband [[Rom]] mit Tibur (heute [[Tivoli (Italien)|Tivoli]]).

Die Straße führte zunächst zu den Tempeln in Tibur und wurde später von den römischen Aristokraten benutzt, die ihre Villen in Tibur errichtet hatten.

Später wurde die Straße ins Gebiet der [[Aequer]] und der [[Marser (Italien)|Marser]] verlängert, um diese Gebiete besser kontrollieren zu können. Sie wurde danach ''Via Tiburtina Valeria'' genannt und führte in weniger als 200 km über den [[Apennin]] zur [[Adriatisches Meer|Adria]].

Heute reicht sie bis [[Pescara]] in den [[Abruzzen]].

== Siehe auch ==
*[[Liste römischer Brücken]]

[[Kategorie:Straße im Römischen Reich|Tiburtina]]
[[Kategorie:Staatsstraße (Italien)|Tiburtina]]

[[en:Via Tiburtina]]
[[fr:Voie Tiburtine]]
[[it:Via Tiburtina Valeria]]
[[ja:ティブルティーナ街道]]
[[la:Via Tiburtina]]
[[nl:Via Tiburtina]]
[[no:Via Tiburtina]]

Benutzer:Xn4

2009-01-29T09:07:44Z

Xn4: + {{Benutzer SUL|en}} usw.

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Gresham’s School

2009-01-27T05:44:25Z

Xn4: /* Häuser */ + File:Old School House, Holt, 1838.jpg

[[Bild:Grasshopper-crest.GIF|thumb|left|Die Gresham's Heuschrecke]]
{{Infobox Schule
|Schulname = Gresham’s School
|Schultyp = [[Schulsystem im Vereinigten Königreich|Public School]]
|Schulleiter = Antony R. Clark
|Gründungsjahr = [[1555]]
|Schülerzahl = etwa 760
|Lehrerzahl = etwa 90
|Anschrift = Cromer Road
|Ort = Holt, [[Norfolk]]
|Breitengrad =
|Längengrad =
|Region-ISO =
|Land = [[England]]
|Website = [http://www.greshams.com/ www.greshams.com]
}}

Die '''Gresham’s School''' ist eine traditionsreiche, elitäre [[Privatschule]] ''(Public School)'' für 730 Jungen und Mädchen im Alter von 8 bis 18 Jahren in der Grafschaft [[Norfolk]] im Osten [[England]]s. Die Schule wird durch Schulgebühren und [[Spende]]n finanziert. Die Schulgebühren gehören mit rund 21.000 GBP zu den höchsten Englands.

Die Schule zählt akademisch zu den renommiertesten Schulen. Sie wurde 1555 von Sir John Gresham, dem damaligen [[Lord Mayor]] von [[London]], als Wohltätigkeitsschule gegründet und diente dem Zweck, vierzig armen Schülern eine kostenlose Schulausbildung zu ermöglichen. Diese Stipendiaten gibt es nach wie vor, als ''Holt Scholars''.
[[Bild:EnglandNorfolk.png|thumb|right|200px|Grafschaft Norfolk]]
== Ausbildung ==
Die stark humanistisch orientierte Ausbildung umfasst Fächer wie Sprachen (unter anderem Latein, Altgriechisch, Französisch, Russisch, Spanisch, Deutsch, Japanisch), Klassische Studien, Geschichte, Wissenschaft (Physik, Chemie, Biologie, Mathematik), Design Technologie, Literatur, Kunst/Kunstgeschichte, Drama/Theaterwissenschaft, Wirtschaft/Handel, Musik und Religiöse Studien.

== Klassensystem ==
Die Schule benutzt die traditionelle englische Zählweise für Schuljahre. Es gibt die Klassen 3 bis 5 und die Sixth-Form, welche sich aus der untere Sixth-Form ''(Lower Sixth)'' und der obere Sixth-Form ''(Upper Sixth)'' zusammensetzt. Dies entspricht den Klassen 6 bis 12 in Deutschland.

== Häuser ==
[[File:Old School House, Holt, 1838.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gresham's School, 1838]]
Die Schule ist meistens eine ''boarding school'' ([[Internat]]), und die Schüler leben (wie an englischen Privatschulen üblich) in sieben Häusern ''(Boarding Houses)''. Diese ''Häuser'' werden unter anderem für Sportwettkämpfe gebraucht, die zwischen den Häusern ausgetragen werden.

Heute umfasst die Schule folgende Häusern:
* Howson’s (1903)
* Woodlands (1905)
* Farfield (1911)
* Tallis (1961)
* Oakeley (1971)
* Edinburgh (1984)
* Britten (1992)

== Bekannte Schüler ==
*[[Donald Maclean]] - Geheimagent
*[[John Reith|John Reith, Baron Reith]] - Gründervater und erste Generaldirektor der [[BBC]]
*[[W. H. Auden]] - Dichter, Schriftsteller
*[[Lennox Berkeley|Sir Lennox Berkeley]] - Komponist
*[[Tom Bourdillon]] - [[Bergsteiger]]
*[[Peter Brook]] - Theaterregisseur
*[[Benjamin Britten|Benjamin Britten, Baron Britten]] - Komponist
*[[Erskine Hamilton Childers|Erskine Childers]] - Präsident von Irland
*[[Norman Cohn]] - [[Historiker]]
*[[Henry Daniell]] - Schauspieler
*[[Stephen Frears]] - Filmregisseur
*[[Stephen Fry]] - Schauspieler und Regisseur
*[[Sienna Guillory]] - Filmschauspielerin und Model
*[[George Evelyn Hutchinson]] - [[Limnologie|Limnologe]] und [[Ökologie|Ökologe]]
*[[David Lack]] - Biologe und Ornithologe
*[[Ben Nicholson]] - Maler und Objektkünstler
*[[Christopher Cockerell|Sir Christopher Cockerell]] - Ingenieur und Erfinder des Hovercrafts
*[[James Dyson|Sir James Dyson]] - Erfinder und Unternehmer
*[[Alan Lloyd Hodgkin|Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin]] - Biochemiker mit dem Nobelpreis geehrt
*[[Ralph Firman]] - Rennfahrer
*[[Sebastian Shaw]] - Filmschauspieler
*[[Stephen Spender|Sir Stephen Spender]] - [[Dichter]]
*[[Pat Symonds]] - Chefingenieur bei [[Renault F1]]
*[[Percy Wyn-Harris|Sir Percy Wyn-Harris]] - Bergsteiger, [[Gouverneur]] in der [[Vereinigtes Königreich|britischen]] Kolonie [[Gambia]]

== Weblinks ==
*[http://www.greshams.com/ Website der Gresham’s School]

[[Kategorie:Internat|Gresham’s]]
[[Kategorie:Schule in England|Gresham’s]]
[[Kategorie:Privatschule]]
[[Kategorie:Norfolk]]

[[af:Gresham's Skool]]
[[cs:Gresham's School]]
[[cy:Ysgol Gresham]]
[[da:Gresham's School]]
[[en:Gresham's School]]
[[eo:Lernejo Gresham]]
[[es:Escuela Gresham]]
[[fi:Gresham's School]]
[[fr:Gresham's School]]
[[hu:Gresham's School]]
[[it:Gresham's School]]
[[la:Schola Greshamensis]]
[[nl:Gresham's School]]
[[no:Gresham's School]]
[[pl:Gresham's School]]
[[pt:Escola Gresham]]
[[sv:Gresham's School]]

Gresham Castle

2009-01-25T03:34:02Z

Xn4: dab Gresham to Gresham, Norfolk

{{Geobox|Castle
| name = Gresham Castle
| category =Fortified manor house
| image =Curtain walls, East Elevation, Gresham Castle 18th October 2008 (1).JPG
| image_caption =The overgrown curtain walls of Gresham Castle
| flag =
| symbol =
| country = [[England]]
| state = [[Norfolk]]
| region = [[East of England]]
| district = [[North Norfolk]]
| municipality = [[Gresham]]
| location =
| elevation =
| prominence =
| lat_d =
| lat_m =
| lat_s =
| lat_NS =
| long_d =
| long_m =
| long_s =
| long_EW =
| length =
| length_orientation =
| width =
| width_orientation =
| height =
| depth =
| volume =
| area =
| author =
| style =
| material =
| established =Fortified in 1318
| date =
| owner =
| public =
| visitation = Restricted by moat and badly overgrown
| visitation_date = All year round
| access =

| free = | free_type =

| map =Norfolk outline map with UK.png
| map_caption = Gresham castle within Norfolk
| map_background =
| map_locator =
| map_locator_x =66
| map_locator_y = 10

| website =

| footnotes =
}}
'''Gresham Castle''' is located south of the village of [[Gresham, Norfolk|Gresham]] in the north of the English county of [[Norfolk]].<ref>''OS Explorer Map 252 - Norfolk Coast East''. ISBN 978 0 319 23815 8.</ref> The medieval castle was actually a fortified [[manor house]].

Permission by license to [[crenellate]] his manor house was gained by Sir Edmund Bacon in 1318. Gresham was one of a group of late castles to be fortified or built along the east coast that include [[Baconsthorpe Castle|Baconsthorpe]], [[Caister Castle|Caister]], [[Claxton Castle|Claxton]] and [[Mettingham|Mettingham Castle]] in [[Suffolk]].
==Description==
The castle is situated in a green field site close to the village. It is rectangular in shape with a bulbous protrusion at the north-west corner. A [[moat]] surrounding the site is twelve to fifteen feet wide at points and still contains water which can restrict access to the site. The waters of the moat were once supplied from [[Gur Beck]] which now has been re-directed and runs approximately 50 meters adjacent to the remains of the castle. The central platform is approximately 2378 square meters (2844 square yards) in area, with round towers 35 feet in diameter.<ref name="srok">Anthony Emery ''Great Medieval Houses of England and Wales, 1300 – 1500'', Cambridge University Press, page 110, ISBN 9780521581325</ref> It is very overgrown with trees, bushes and brambles, making an overview of the castle very difficult. The tower that stood at the south-east angle is forward of the platform line. The [[revetment]]s of the two corner towers on the west elevation can be seen, of which one is much larger than the other. Between them part of the curtain wall still stands to about six feet. The footprint of the site indicates that there were towers on the east side as well, with the one at the north west angle being the size of a [[keep]]. Large timbers, presumed to be what remained of a [[drawbridge]], an entrance to a passage, and the keel of a boat were discovered when the surrounding moat was cleaned out in 1846.<ref name="srok"/>
==History==
In 1427 the castle and manor of Gresham was purchased by the lawyer [[Paston Letters#The early Pastons|William Paston]] to add to his already large property holdings in Norfolk. Paston purchased the castle and manor from [[Thomas Chaucer]] of [[Ewelme]] and Sir William Moleyns, who each owned half of the property. However, the legality of the purchase was challenged by the Wiltshire peer, [[Baron Hungerford|Robert Hungerford, Lord Moleyns, 2nd Baron Hungerford]].<ref name="srok"/> Consequently when William Paston died he left a large and valuable inheritance including Gresham Castle to his son [[Paston Letters#Family tree|John Paston]].<ref name="srok2">Norman Davis, ''Paston Letters and Papers of the Fifteenth Century,'' Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-722421-0 </ref> Lord Moleyns' longstanding claim to half of the property was encouraged by John Paston’s bitter rival [[Baconsthorpe Castle#History|John Haydon]] of nearby [[Baconsthorpe Castle]]. On the 17th of February of 1448<ref name="srok2"/> forces led by Lord Moleyns took direct action and entered the fortified manor house and began to collect rent from the tenants of the manor. After these actions, John Paston petitioned the king<ref name="srok2"/>, and after his appeals Paston reclaimed his property on the 6th October. On the 28th January<ref name="srok2"/>, Moleyns with a force of a one thousand men made up of some locals and retainers from [[Wiltshire]], occupied the castle once more this time forcible evicting John Paston’s wife [[Paston Letters#Family tree|Margaret]] and twelve of her servants. A lieutenant of Moleyns by the name of Partridge was left to barricade the castle against any attempt by Paston to reclaim his property. In the Paston letters Margaret explains to her husband john 
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| style="text-align: left;" |
<blockquote>...Partridge and his fellowship arn sore afeared that ye would entren again upon them, and they have made great ordinance within the house, as it is told me. They have made bars to bar the doors cross-ways, and they han made wickets on every quarter of the house to shoot out at, both with bows and with hand guns.<ref> The Paston Letters. Edited by Norman Davis, Oxford University Press, Margaret Paston to John Paston I 28th September 1443 ISBN 0-19-281615-2</ref></blockquote>
|}
One year later John Paston reclaimed the castle and manor, this time with no resistance. He found that the castle was in a very poor state and unfit for habitation. In 1466 John Paston passed away leaving his estate which included Gresham to his eldest son, also called John.<ref name="srok"/> In 1471 Sir John Gresham<ref name="srok"/> contemplated the rebuilding of Gresham Castle and sent his brother, also, strangely, called John, to survey the site and draw up plans for a rebuilding. In the event no rebuilding was carried out and the site was abandoned
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Gresham Castle Norfolk, 18th October 2008 (5).JPG|The overgrown site of Gresham Castle
</gallery>
==Reference==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gresham Castle}}

[[Category:Castles in Norfolk]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Ruins in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Grade II listed buildings in Norfolk]]
[[Category:North Norfolk]]
[[Category:History of Norfolk]]
[[Category:Houses in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Military history of Norfolk]]

Regius Professor of Civil Law (Oxford)

2009-01-23T20:16:18Z

Xn4: /* Foundation */ rm doubtful info from OU news release

[[Image:Alberico Gentili.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Alberico Gentili|Albericus Gentilis]], appointed Regius Professor of Civil Law at Oxford in 1587]]
The '''Regius Chair of Civil Law''', founded in the 1540s, is one of the oldest of the [[professor]]ships at the [[University of Oxford]].

==Foundation==
The Regius chair of Civil Law at Oxford was founded by [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]], who established five such [[Regius Professor]]ships in the University, the others being the chairs of [[Regius Professor of Divinity|Divinity]], [[Regius Professor of Medicine (Oxford)|Physic]], [[Regius Professor of Hebrew|Hebrew]] and [[Regius Professor of Greek (Oxford)|Greek]].<ref name=news>[http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/po/051201.shtml New Regius Professor of Civil Law Appointed] - [[University of Oxford]] news release dated 1 December 2005 online at ox.ac.uk (accessed 23 February 2008)</ref> The [[stipend]] attached to the position was then forty [[pound sterling|pounds]] a year.<ref name=HUO/> Henry VIII put an end to the teaching of [[Canon law]] at both [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]].<ref name=LPC>[http://www.pmb.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/courses.cgi?subjectid=24 Law at Pembroke College] online at pmb.ox.ac.uk (accessed 23 February 2008)</ref> Under statutes of 1549, the Regius Professor of Civil Law was to lecture four times a week between the hours of eight and nine in the morning on the [[Pandects]], on the [[Corpus_Juris_Civilis#Codex_Justinianus|Code]], or on the ecclesiastical laws of [[England]]. The requirement to give four lectures a week was repeated in the statutes of 1564 and of 1576. The professor was also to moderate at disputations in law.<ref name=HUO/>

The exact date of the chair's foundation is uncertain. Some sources say that [[John Story]], the first professor, was appointed in about 1541.<ref name=HUO/> No foundation document survives,<ref name=HUO/> but in 1544 Robert Weston was recorded as acting as Story's deputy.<ref>Reg. Cong. 1535-63, fo. 100</ref>

The holder of the Regius Professorship is still chosen by [[The Crown]] and is still appointed to teach [[Roman law]], its principles and history, and some other branches of the law.<ref name=news/>

==First Professor==
{{main|John Story}}
As noted above, it is uncertain when the first Regius Professor, the [[Beatification|Blessed]] [[John Story]], was first appointed. ''The History of the University of Oxford'' says that it was by a signed bill, c. 1541, adding that, together with Robert Weston, Story was reappointed for life by [[letters patent]] dated 26 February 1546.<ref>Aston, ''op. cit.'' p. 358</ref> Payments to Story as professor of Civil Law are found in the accounts of the Treasurer of the [[Court of Augmentations]] for the periods [[Michaelmas]] 1546 to Michaelmas 1550, part of 1553, and 1556–1557, and for fees and annuities in issues of the [[Exchequer]] for 1553-1557.<ref name=pro>[[Public Record Office]]: PRO E 323/3, rot. 91, 4, rot 38/39, 5, rot 35/37, 6, rot. 22/24, E 405/499, 507, fo. 75v, 510</ref>

Story had a tempestuous career. Elected to parliament in 1547, in 1548 he opposed the anti-Roman Catholic laws of [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]], was imprisoned, and on release fled to the [[Seventeen Provinces]]. The reign of the Roman Catholic [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary]] from July 1553 to November 1558 brought Story back into public life. He became a [[member of parliament]] again, and after Mary's death opposed the [[Act of Supremacy 1559|Act of Supremacy]] of 1559. He was again imprisoned, escaped, was recaptured, and fled again to the Low Countries, where he became a subject of [[Philip II of Spain]]. He was [[kidnap]]ped by agents of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]], where he was [[torture]]d, and finally in 1571 was [[hanged, drawn and quartered]].<ref name=saints>[http://saints.sqpn.com/saintjau.htm JOHN STOREY] online at saints.sqpn.com (accessed 23 February 2008)</ref>

Story was [[beatification|beatified]] by [[Pope Leo XIII]] in 1886.<ref name=saints/>

==Period of Decline==
Although prestigious, the Regius Chair has not always been effective for teaching purposes. In 1846, a [[Select Committee (Westminster System)|Select Committee]] of the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] began to inquire into the state of legal education in the United Kingdom, and its report later the same year showed the emptiness of the title of Regius Professor of Civil Law at Oxford at that time. Dr Joseph Phillimore, who had held the Chair since 1809 and who continued to hold it until his death in 1855 at the age of eighty, admitted in a series of evasive replies to the Select Committee that his subject had not been taught at Oxford for almost a hundred years. Dr Philip Bliss, Registrar of the University, revealed that the University had no examinations in any "legal science". Although the degree of [[Bachelor of Civil Law]] was still awarded, the "disputations" which led to such an award were an empty formality.<ref name=HUO395>Aston, T. H. (ed.), ''The History of the University of Oxford, Volume VII, Part 2'' (Oxford, 1984) [http://books.google.com/books?id=OfjghCa3CnMC&pg=RA2-PA395&lpg=RA2-PA395&dq=%22joseph+phillimore%22+%22regius+professor%22&source=web&ots=EEf8LMJQig&sig=lBDwr5BFlVI8upjOZdTJkUosBF4 p. 395] online at books.google.com (accessed 23 February 2008)</ref>

One of Phillimore's eighteenth century predecessors, [[Robert Vansittart (jurist)|Robert Vansittart]], a noted [[antiquarian]] and [[Rake (character)|rake]], was appointed Regius Professor in 1767 and held the chair until his death in 1789. He published antiquarian works, was a close acquaintance of [[Samuel Johnson]], [[William Hogarth]] and [[Paul Whitehead]], and was a participant in the debauchery of the [[Hellfire Club]].<ref name=van>Carlyle, E. I., & Brown, Robert, ''Vansittart, Robert (1728–1789)'' in ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', Oxford University Press, 2004</ref> Vansittart's successor, [[Thomas Francis Wenman]] (1745–1796), Regius Professor from 1789 until his death, is described in the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'' as "one of the few students of natural history at Oxford" and was drowned in the [[River Cherwell]] on 8 April, 1796, while collecting [[botany|botanical]] specimens.<ref name=dnbwenman>[[Sidney Lee|Lee, Sidney]] (ed.) ''Wenman, Thomas Francis (1745–1796)'' in ''Dictionary of National Biography'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=8bT6Tq8qj1oC&pg=PA256&lpg=PA256&dq=%22Wenman&source=web&ots=XNOp7lvWff&sig=sBqIkBIGzASZMmxbKwc1o_7Syng p. 256] online at books.google.com (accessed 23 February 2008)</ref>

==Modern Period==
{{main|Travers Twiss|James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce|David Daube|Tony Honoré|Peter Birks|Boudewijn Sirks}}
After the death of Phillimore in 1855, the situation improved somewhat. Although the next professor, [[Travers Twiss|Sir Travers Twiss]], held degrees in [[Mathematics]] and [[Literae Humaniores]], he came to the post directly from three years as professor of [[international law]] at [[King's College London|King's College]], [[University of London|London]], where the teaching of law was taken more seriously than at Oxford. His international reputation led to [[Leopold II of Belgium|Leopold II, king of the Belgians]] asking him to draft the constitution of the [[Congo Free State]].<ref>''Twiss, Sir Travers'' in [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]</ref>

Twiss was succeeded in 1870 by [[James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce]], a distinguished [[historian]] and [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] politician who for a period combined the Regius chair of civil law with holding office as [[Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]] and who resigned the chair only in 1893, a year after joining [[William Gladstone]]'s [[Cabinet]].<ref>''Bryce, James, 1st Viscount'' in Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition</ref>

In 1955, the distinguished [[German people|German]] academic lawyer [[David Daube]] (1909–1999), a native of [[Freiburg|Freiburg im Breisgau]], became the first foreign-born Regius Professor of Civil Law at Oxford since the 17th century. He was later a professor-in-residence at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].<ref>''Daube, David'', in [[Who's Who (UK)|Who Was Who 1996–2000]] (London, A. & C. Black, 2001, ISBN 0-7136-5439-2)</ref>

Daube was succeeded in 1971 by [[Tony Honoré]] (born 1921), a [[jurist]] known for his work on [[ownership]], [[causation (law)|causation]] and [[Roman law]], who remained in post until 1988. Although born in [[London]], he was brought up in [[South Africa]], fought in the [[Second World War]] and was severely wounded at the [[First Battle of El Alamein]]. His contributions to legal philosophy include sixteen books and more than a hundred articles.

In 1988, [[Peter Birks]] was appointed, holding office until his death in 2004. He was a specialist on the law of [[Restitution]].<ref name=birks>[http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/In_Memoriam_Peter_Birks.shtml In Memoriam Peter Birks (1941–2004)] online at ouclf.iuscomp.org (accessed 23 February 2008)</ref>

After a vacancy of more than a year, [[Boudewijn Sirks|Professor Boudewijn Sirks]] was appointed in December 2005 and took up the post in 2006, his previous career having been in teaching [[philosophy]] and law at the universities of [[University of Leiden|Leiden]], [[University of Amsterdam|Amsterdam]], [[University of Utrecht|Utrecht]], and [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]].<ref name=news/>

==List of Regius Professors of Civil Law==
[[Image:Bryce.jpg|thumb|250px|[[James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce]], Regius Professor from 1870 to 1893]]
*c. 1541-1557: [[John Story]] (for much of that time jointly with Robert Weston and William Aubrey)<ref name=LPC/><ref name=pro/><ref name=saints/><ref name=dnbwa>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/887 |title=Aubrey, William (c.1529–1595) |last=Watkin |first=Thomas Glyn |work=[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]] (online edition, subscription required) |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=January 2008| accessdate=2008-02-24}}</ref>
*1546-1553: Robert Weston (jointly with John Story)<ref name=dnbwa/>
*1553-1559: [[William Aubrey]] (for some of that period jointly with John Story)<ref name=dnbwa/>
*1559-1566: John Griffith<ref name=HUO>Aston, T. H. (ed.), ''The History of the University of Oxford, Volume III: The Collegiate University'', pp. 358-360</ref>
*1566-1577: [[Robert Lougher]]<ref name=HUO/>
*1577-1586: [[Griffith Lloyd]]<ref name=HUO/>
*1586-1587: William Mowse (d. 1588)<ref>Cooper, Charles Henry, ''Memorials of Cambridge'' (Cambridge, William Metcalfe, 1860) vol. 1, p. 125</ref>
*1587-1608: [[Alberico Gentili|Albericus Gentilis]]<ref>Aston, ''op. cit.'', pp. 360-361</ref><ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/213/1903.html English Universities, Schools and Scholarship in the Sixteenth Century : Civil law at the universities] at bartleby.com (accessed 22 February 2008)</ref>
*1620-1661: [[Richard Zouch]]<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078463/Richard-Zouche Richard Zouche] at britannica.com (accessed 22 February 2008)</ref>
*1767-1789: [[Robert Vansittart (jurist)|Robert Vansittart]]<ref name=van/><ref>[http://www.berkshirehistory.com/bios/rvansittart.html Robert Vansittart] at berkshirehistory.com (accessed 22 February 2008)</ref>
*1789-1796: [[Thomas Francis Wenman]]<ref name=dnbwenman/>
*1796–1809: [[French Laurence]]<ref name=dnblaurence>[[Sidney Lee|Lee, Sidney]] (ed.) ''Laurence, French (1757–1809)'' in ''Dictionary of National Biography'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=KiYJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA205&lpg=PA205 p. 205] online at books.google.com (accessed 26 February 2008)</ref>
*1809-1855: [[Joseph Phillimore]] (1775–1855)<ref name=HUO395/>
*1855-1870: [[Travers Twiss|Sir Travers Twiss]]<ref name=twiss>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Travers_Twiss Sir Travers Twiss] at 1911encyclopedia.org (accessed 23 February 2008)</ref>
*1870-1893: [[James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce]]<ref>[http://www.archiveshub.ac.uk/news/0212bry.html Papers of James, Viscount Bryce, 1826-1958] at archiveshub.ac.uk (accessed 23 February 2008)</ref>
*1893-1919: Henry Goudy<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henry_Goudy Henry Goudy] at 1911encyclopedia.org (accessed 22 February 2008)</ref>
*1919-1948: Francis de Zulueta<ref>[http://www.britac.ac.uk/fellowship/directory/archive.asp?fellowsID=2052 British Academy Fellows Archive : Record for: de ZULUETA, Professor F] at britac.ac.uk (accessed 23 February 2008)</ref>

*1955-1970: [[David Daube]]<ref>[http://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/daube/independent.html Obituary of David Daube] at law.berkeley.edu (accessed 22 February 2008)</ref>
*1971-1988: [[Tony Honoré]]<ref>[http://www.britac.ac.uk/fellowship/directory/archive.asp?fellowsID=266 British Academy Fellows Archive : Record for HONORÉ, Professor A M, QC] at britac.ac.uk (accessed 22 February 2008)</ref>
*1989-2004: [[Peter Birks]]<ref name=birks/>
*July 2004 - February 2006: vacant
*2006 to date: [[Boudewijn Sirks]]<ref name=news/>

==See also==
*[[List of Professorships at the University of Oxford]]
*[[Regius Professor of Civil Law (Cambridge)]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=mgmK4ngry9QC&pg=PA358&lpg=PA358&dq=%22Regius+Professor+of+Civil+Law%22&source=web&ots=Q0FtR2Jp-G&sig=fu_FX9FWc-5y9JZJRH1j4WDI-dM#PPA358,M1 The History of the University of Oxford, Volume III: The Collegiate University] pp. 358-361
----
{{University of Oxford}}

[[Category:Oxford Professorships|Civil Law]]
[[Category:1540s establishments]]
[[Category:Regius Professorships|Civil Law]]

Cherhill White Horse

2009-01-18T05:50:00Z

Xn4: /* Location */ wl

[[Image:Cherhill White Horse.jpg|thumb|200px|The horse in 1892, by the [[William Plenderleath|Rev. W. C. Plenderleath]]]]

The '''Cherhill White Horse''' is a [[hill figure]] on [[Cherhill]] [[Downland|Down]], in the county of [[Wiltshire]], [[England]]. Dating from the late 18th century, it is the third oldest of several such [[leucippotomy|white horses]] to be seen around [[Great Britain]], with only the [[Uffington White Horse]] and the [[Westbury White Horse]] being older.<ref>Marples, Morris, White Horses & Other Hill Figures (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)</ref> The figure is also sometimes called the '''Oldbury White Horse'''.

'Cherhill' is pronounced as if spelt '''Cherrill'''.

==Location==
Facing towards the north-east, the Cherhill White Horse lies on a steep slope of Cherhill down, a little below the earthwork known as [[Oldbury Castle]], and can be seen from the [[A4 road (England)|A4 road]] and the nearby village of [[Cherhill]].<ref name=wwh>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/cherhill.html The Cherhill or Oldbury white horse] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref> A good viewpoint is a [[lay-by]] alongside the westbound carriageway of the A4 where it passes below the horse. From near here, a [[Rights of way in England and Wales#Footpaths|footpath]] climbs the hill towards the horse itself.<ref name=hows>[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cherhill.htm Cherhill White Horse] at hows.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

Near the Horse is an [[obelisk]] called the Lansdowne Monument, visible in some photographs of the White Horse.<ref name=wwh/> This is a 38-metre stone structure, erected in 1845 by the [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|3rd Marquess of Lansdowne]] to commemorate his ancestor [[William Petty|Sir William Petty]].<ref>[http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/220145 The Lansdowne Monument near to Cherhill, Wiltshire, Great Britain] at geograph.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==Inspiration==
The Cherhill horse may have been inspired by the first such Wiltshire horse, [[Westbury White Horse|that at Westbury]], which had just been remodelled.<ref name=wwh/> The origins of the Westbury horse are more obscure. Unlike the [[Uffington White Horse]] in [[Berkshire]], which has been shown to date from the [[Bronze Age]], the earliest evidence of the existence of the Westbury horse is in a paper published by the Rev. Francis Wise in 1742.<ref>Wise, Francis, ''Further Observations on the White Horse and other Antiquities in Berkshire'' (1742)</ref> A bold theory for the origin of the first Wiltshire horse is that it commemorates [[Alfred the Great]]'s victory over the Danes at the [[Battle of Edington|Battle of Ethandun, 878]]. Another is that it was carved in the early 18th century as a show of loyalty to the new royal house, the [[House of Hanover]], the white horse being an heraldic symbol of the [[Electorate of Hanover]]. One writer on the subject has commented "...the hillside white horse can be a slippery creature, and the origins of some are impossible to establish with any certainty."<ref name=wwhhome>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Home page: An introduction to the white horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Cherhillwhitehorse.jpg|thumb|320px|The Horse as seen from Cherhill]]
The figure at Cherhill was first cut in 1780 by a Dr Christopher Alsop, of [[Calne]], and was created by stripping away the turf to expose the [[chalk]] hillside beneath. Its original size was {{convert|165|ft|m}} by {{convert|220|ft|m}}.<ref name=hows/><ref name=bowcott/> Dr Alsop, who was Guild Steward of the Borough of Calne, has been called "the mad doctor", and is reported to have directed the making of the horse from a distance, shouting through a [[megaphone]] from below Labour-in-Vain Hill.<ref name=weird>[http://www.weirdwiltshire.co.uk/whitehorses/cherhill.html Cherhill - 1780] at weirdwiltshire.co.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref><ref name=bowcott/> His design may have been influenced by the work of his friend [[George Stubbs]], notable for his paintings of horses.<ref name=wwh/>

Since 1780, the horse has been 'scoured' several times. In 1935, it was dressed with a mixture of concrete and chalk, and it was cleaned up in 1994.<ref name=hows/> A major restoration was carried out in 2002 by the Cherhill White Horse Restoration Group, when the horse was resurfaced with one hundred and sixty [[tonne]]s of new chalk, the outline was re-cut, and shuttering was added to hold the chalk in place.<ref name=wwh/> This work was supported by a grant of [[pound sterling|£]]18,000 from the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott>Bowcott, Owen, ''[http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/post/7671/cherhill_down_and_oldbury.html Cherhill White Horse Restoration: Historic horse turns a whiter shade of pale]'' dated September 9, 2002, in ''[[The Guardian]]'', at themodernantiquarian.com, accessed 19 July 2008</ref> The present surface is thus made of compacted chalk, and the edges of the figure are well defined.<ref name=hows/>

In the 19th century, the horse had a glittering glass eye, formed from bottles pressed neck-first into the ground. The bottles had been added by a Farmer Angell and his wife, but by the late 19th century they were gone, perhaps taken as souvenirs. During the 1970s, a local youth centre project added a new eye made of glass bottles, but these also disappeared.<ref name=wwh/><ref name=weird/> The eye now consists of stone and concrete and stands proud of the chalk surface.<ref name=hows/>

In 1922, Oldfield Howey noted that "At the time of writing (1922) this horse is sadly in need of scouring, as due to the [[Great War]] all such things have had to be neglected, but we understand that a local lady has come to its rescue and asked permission to restore it. Formerly the [[Lord of the Manor]] was its groom!"<ref>Howey, M. Oldfield, ''Horse in Magic and Myth'' (1923, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2003), page 70</ref>

In the week of the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] in 1937, the horse was floodlit and the letters '''GE''' (for the king and his queen, [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Elizabeth]]) were picked out in red lights above it, with the power coming from a generator at the foot of the hill. The red letters were lit up for five seconds, followed by the floodlights for ten seconds, in a repeating pattern.<ref name=bowcott/>

Thirteen such white horses are known to have existed in Wiltshire. Of these, eight can still be seen, while the others have grown over.<ref name=wwhhome/> The Cherhill White Horse is maintained and saved from this fate by Cherhill [[parish council]].<ref name=hows/>

The hill above the horse now belongs to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott/><ref>[http://www.northwiltslink.co.uk/html/wiltshire_s_white_horses.html Wiltshire's White Horses] at northwiltslink.co.uk</ref>

==Bibliography==
* [[William Plenderleath|Plenderleath, Rev. W. C.]], ''On the White Horses of Wiltshire and Its Neighbourhood'' (''Wilts Archaeological Magazine'', vol. 14 for the year 1872, pp. 12-30)
*Plenderleath, Rev. W. C., ''White Horses of the West of England'' (London: Alfred Russell Smith, & Calne: Alfred Heath, 1885; 2nd edition, London, Allen & Storr, 1892)
*Marples, Morris, ''White Horses & Other Hill Figures'' (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)
*Bergamar, Kate, ''Discovering Hill Figures'' (London: Shire Publications, 1968, 4th revised edition 1997, ISBN 0-7478-0345-5)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Chalk figures in England]]
* [[Leucippotomy]]
* [[Uffington White Horse]]

==External pictures==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/content/images/2007/04/25/tim_norris_cherhill_white_h_313x470.jpg Cherhill White Horse] at bbc.co.uk
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/hist/cherhill.jpg Postcard of the Cherhill White Horse, c. 1910] at hows.org.uk
*[http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2073/1506611767_2d2d0f5d05.jpg?v=0 Cherhill White Horse, close up] at flickr.com
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cher07.jpg Cherhill White Horse, very close up] at hows.org.uk

==External links==
*[http://maps.yahoo.com/broadband/#mvt=m&lat=51.42525&lon=-1.929903&mag=6&zoom=13&q1=51.42525%2C-1.929903 Cherhill White Horse location map] from maps.yahoo.com
*[http://www.pagemost.com/Oldbury-Castle---Cherhill-White-Horse-Wiltshire Interactive map of Oldbury Castle and Cherhill White Horse, Wiltshire], from pagemost.com
*[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Wiltshire White Horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk
*[http://www.wiltshire-web.co.uk/history/horse.htm Horse history] at wiltshire-web.co.uk (the Wiltshire Web)

{{coord|51.42525|N|1.929903|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Geography of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Geoglyphs]]
[[Category:History of Wiltshire]]

[[ie:Blanc Cavalle de Cherhill]]

Die Büchse der Pandora (Buch)

2008-12-05T20:11:04Z

Xn4: wl Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News

{{otheruses3|Partners in Crime}}
{{infobox Book | 
| name = Partners in Crime
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Partners in Crime US First Edition Jacket 1929.jpg]]
| image_caption = Dust-jacket illustration of the US (true first) edition. See ''[[Partners in Crime (short story collection)#Publication history|Publication history]]'' (below) for UK first edition jacket image.
| author = [[Agatha Christie]]
| cover_artist = Not known
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Detective fiction]] [[Short stories]]
| publisher = [[Dodd, Mead and Company]]
| pub_date = [[1929 in literature|1929]]
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages = 277 pp (first edition, hardcover)
| isbn = NA
| preceded_by = [[The Seven Dials Mystery]]
| followed_by = [[The Mysterious Mr. Quin]]
}}
'''''Partners in Crime''''' is a [[short story]] collection written by [[Agatha Christie]] and first published by [[Dodd, Mead and Company]] in the US in [[1929 in literature|1929]]<ref>John Cooper and B.A. Pyke. ''Detective Fiction - the collector's guide'': Second Edition (Pages 82 and 87) Scholar Press. 1994. ISBN 0-85967-991-8</ref><ref name="US">[http://home.insightbb.com/~jsmarcum/agatha20.htm American Tribute to Agatha Christie]</ref> and in the UK by [[William Collins (publisher)|William Collins & Sons]] on September 16 of the same year<ref>''The Observer'' September 15, 1929 (Page 8)</ref>. The US edition retailed at [[$]]2.00<ref name="US" /> and the UK edition at seven [[shillings]] and [[British sixpence coin|sixpence]] (7/6)<ref>''The English Catalogue of Books''. Vol XII (A-L: January 1926 – December 1930). Kraus Reprint Corporation, Millwood, New York, 1979 (page 316)</ref>.

All of the stories in the collection had previously been published in magazines (see ''[[Partners in Crime (short story collection)#First publication of stories|First publication of stories]]'' below) and feature her [[detective]]s [[Tommy and Tuppence]] Beresford, first introduced in ''[[The Secret Adversary]]'' (1922).

==Plot introduction==

The Beresford's old friend, Mr. Carter (who works for an unnamed government intelligence agency) arrives bearing a proposition for the adventurous duo. They are to take over 'The International Detective Agency', a recently cleaned out spy stronghold, and pose as the owners so as to intercept any enemy messages coming through. But until such a message arrives, Tommy and Tuppence are to do with the detective agency as they please - an opportunity that delights the young couple. They employ the hapless but well-meaning Albert, a young man also introduced in ''The Secret Adversary'', as their assistant at the agency.

Eager and willing, the two set out to tackle several cases. In each case mimicking the style of a famous fictional detective of the period, including [[Sherlock Holmes]] and Christie's own [[Hercule Poirot]].

At the end of the book, Tuppence reveals that she is pregnant, and as a result will play a diminished role in the spy business.

===The stories and their detective parodies===

* ''A Fairy in the Flat / A Pot of Tea'' - Introduces the setup of Tommy & Tuppence at The International Detective Agency. Reminiscent of [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200921.txt ''Malcolm Sage, detective''] (1921) by [[Herbert George Jenkins]].
* ''The Affair of the Pink Pearl'' - This first case is in the vein of the detective [[Dr Thorndyke]] by [[R. Austin Freeman]].
* ''The Adventure of the Sinister Stranger'' - An espionage story, following in the footsteps of [[Valentine Williams]] and the detective brothers Francis and Desmond Okewood. One of the Williams' books in particular - [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15302 ''The Man with the Clubfoot''] (1918) is named by Tuppence in the story.
* ''Finessing the King / The Gentleman Dressed in Newspaper'' - This two part story is a spoof of the nowadays almost forgotten [[Isabel Ostrander]], with parallels to the story ''The Clue in the Air'' (1917) and the detectives Tommy McCarty (an ex-policeman) and Dennis Riordan (a fireman).
* ''The Case of the Missing Lady'' - This story references [[Conan Doyle]]'s [[Sherlock Holmes]] story ''[[The Disappearance of Lady Frances Carfax]]'' (1911).
* ''Blindman's Bluff'' - Matches [[Clinton H. Stagg]]'s stories around the blind detective Thornley Colton.
* ''The Man in the Mist'' - In the style of [[G. K. Chesterton]]'s [[Father Brown]] stories.
* ''The Crackler'' - A spoof on [[Edgar Wallace]]'s style of plotting.
* ''The Sunningdale Mystery'' - The tale is in the style of [[Baroness Orczy]]'s ''[[The Old Man in the Corner]]'' (1909) with Tuppence playing the role of journalist Polly Burton and Tommy tying knots in a piece of string in the same way as Orczy's character, Bill Owen.
* ''The House of Lurking Death'' - Recreates the style of [[A. E. W. Mason]] and his French detective M. Hanaud.
* ''The Unbreakable Alibi'' - Modelled after [[Freeman Wills Crofts]], known for his detective stories centred around alibis and the [[Scotland Yard]] detective Inspector Joseph French.
* ''The Clergyman's Daughter / The Red House'' - A two part story, this is a parody on detective Roger Sherringham by [[Anthony Berkeley]], with plot elements reminding of ''The Violet Farm'' by [[H. C. Bailey]] (although the latter was not published until 1928).
* ''The Ambassador's Boots'' - Following the stype of [[H. C. Bailey]] with Dr. Reginald Fortune and Superintendent Bell as the parodied detectives.
* ''The Man Who Was No. 16'' - This story parodies Christie's own ''[[The Big Four (novel)|The Big Four]]'', featuring [[Hercule Poirot]].

==Plot summaries==
===A Fairy in the Flat / A Pot of Tea===

Prudence ("Tuppence") Beresford who has been married to Tommy for six years is bored with life, although not with her husband. She flippantly discusses what exciting things she would wish to happen to her, mainly adventures involving German spies or spying trips to [[Soviet Union|Bolshevik Russia]]. Their conversation is interrupted by the arrival of Mr. Carter (See ''[[The Secret Adversary]]'') who asks them to take over The International Detective Agency whose manager, Theodore Blunt, is now in prison. They are to undertake any of the cases that the agency receives whilst all the time watching for letters on blue paper sent to Mr. Blunt with a [[Soviet Union|Russian]] stamp on them from a supposed [[ham]] merchant anxious to trace his [[refugee]] wife. They will have a "16" written under the stamp and they are also to be alert for any reference to said number. 
A few days later, the two have installed themselves in the office. Tommy's alias is Mr. Blunt while Tuppence is his confidential secretary, Miss Robinson. The porter from their flat, Albert (Mrs. Vandemeyer's lift boy from ''The Secret Adversary'') is their office boy. After a week of divorce cases, which Tuppence finds distasteful, they receive a visit from Lawrence St. Vincent. He is the nephew of and heir to the Earl of Cheriton. He has fallen for a young girl called Janet who works in a hat shop in Brooks Street but she has disappeared from the shop and has not been seen at her lodgings. St. Vincent heard several mentions of the detective agency from Janet and now wants them to find her. The Beresfords take on the case which Tuppence solves with ease. Janet is a friend of hers from her wartime nursing days who was working at the hatshop where Tuppence makes her purchases. She asked Janet to make the mentions of "Blunts" and then disappear. St. Vincent would ask them to take on the case (for which they get publicity) and they would "find" Janet, provoking St. Vincent into a proposal of marriage.

===The Affair of the Pink Pearl===

Tommy sorts out a pile of books in the office. They are a number of volumes of famous detective stories and he thinks it would be a good idea to base their techniques on the different styles of their fictional counterparts. He has also bought a good camera for taking photographs of footprints and "all that sort of thing". 
They receive a client. It is a young woman named Miss Kingston Bruce. She lives in [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]] with her parents and last night one of their guests lost a valuable pink pearl. They do not wish to call in the police yet and Blunts were recommended to them by Lawrence St. Vincent who was also one of the guests as they do not wish yet to bring in the police. 
The Beresfords travel to Wimbledon and meet Colonel Kingston Bruce. He proudly tells them that Lady Laura Barton, daughter of the late Earl of Carroway, is staying with them together with an American couple, Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton Betts, who wanted to meet a titled lady. During a [[Contract bridge|bridge]] game after dinner, the clasp of Mrs. Betts' pearl pendant necklace broke. She laid it down on a small table and forgot to take it upstairs. The next morning, the necklace was still there but the pearl itself had gone. Aside from the Kingston Bruce's, the Betts, Lady Laura and St. Vincent, the only other guest was a Mr. Rennie who is paying court to Miss Kingston Bruce. Her father doesn't like or trust the man as he is a [[socialism|socialist]]. No one has been allowed to leave the house since the pearl was discovered to be missing except for their daughter when she went to the Blunts. They are given approval to search the house as part of their investigations. 
Tommy tries to look impressive by using his new camera whilst Tuppence tactfully questions the servants. They overhear a scrap of conversation between Mrs. Kingston Bruce and her daughter about someone hiding a teaspoon in their muff and wonder who this can be. Later on, Tuppence ferrets out of Lady Laura's French maid, Elise, that her employer is something of a [[kleptomania]]c and five times in the past items have gone missing when she had been staying at friend's houses. They start searching Lady Laura's bedroom and bathroom, momentarily getting stuck in the latter room when Elise cannot open the door. Tommy takes pictures in the bedroom with Elise's assistance and then quietly tells Tuppence that he has an idea and has to go out to pursue it. In the meantime, she is not to let Lady Laura out of the house. 
Some time later Tommy returns with Inspector Marriot of Scotland Yard. They go straight back to the bathroom and cut the cake of soap in half. Inside it is the pearl. The reason Elise couldn't open the door was that she had soap on her hands after depositing the pearl there. Tommy's photographs included one of the maid and she handled one of the glass slides, thus leaving her fingerprints. The Yard have identified her from their records as a missing criminal and arrested her. Being the maid of a lady suspected of kleptomania was the best cover she could have.

===The Adventure of the Sinister Stranger===

Bored with little to do at the agency, Tuppence receives a package. It is an engraved silver cigarette case to General Francis Haviland who she drove in the [[World War I|First World War]] and who is getting married. Tommy's disparaging remarks about the General are interrupted by the arrival of the post and the first of the promised blue Russian letters. Their perusal of the letter is interrupted by the arrival of a large man with a [[club foot]] who states that he is Dr Charles Bower of [[Hampstead]]. Twice in the last week he has been summoned away to an urgent case but on each occasion the call has been a hoax. On arriving back home, he has found signs that his study has been carefully searched in his absence, probably for papers he has on his studies of [[alkaloid]]s, these papers being securely held in a secret drawer in his desk. He has received another summons to a patient who is now in [[Bournemouth]] but in checking on this summons he has found it to be another decoy. Another search of his study should therefore take place that night and Bower wants Blunts to be there when the third attempt is made. 
Bower leaves and his club foot reminds Tuppence of the brothers Oakwood. Tommy resolves to be Desmond while she is Francis. Their next visitor is Detective Inspector Dymchurch from Scotland Yard, a colleague of Marriot's, who knows of the need to keep a watch on the blue letters and is following Bower. The doctor's real purpose is to decoy the Berefords away from their office that night in order that it can be searched and the latest letter retrieved. Tommy and Dymchurch make another plan to return to the office that night and catch the agents in the act. They do so but it is a trap and Tommy is bound. Dymchurch is a foreign agent with several of his men with him. Bower (real spelling, Bauer) is also one of his gang. He threatens Tommy with [[torture]] to reveal the whereabouts of the blue letter. He tells them that Tuppence has it and writes a letter summoning her to the office but he signs this 'Francis' and shows them the General's wedding present as proof that this is his real name and not Theodore Blunt. Tuppence arrives but, alerted by the false name in the note, she has brought Inspector Marriot with her and several armed policemen. 'Dymchurch' and his co-conspirators are arrested.

===Finessing the King / The Gentleman Dressed in Newspaper===

Tuppence is bored and, reading the 'Daily Leader' newspaper, decides that she wants to go dancing. A reluctant Tommy tries to distract her attention by pointing out to her the interesting fact that dots in the [[masthead]] of the newspaper indicate the different days on which the paper was produced but his tenacious wife has spotted an advert in the [[Personal advertisement|personal column]] which reads, "I should go three hearts. 12 tricks. Ace of Spades. Necessary to finesse the King." She deduces that this refers to the Three Arts Ball which is to take place tomorrow night, "12 tricks" means twelve o'clock midnight and the "Ace of Spades" refers to a somewhat decadent nightclub-cum-eating place in [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]] where it is fashionable to go to after events like the Three Arts Ball. Wondering what is meant by "Necessary to finesse the King" and feeling that they need to hone their detective skills, she decides that she and Tommy will go the following night to investigate in both their ball costumes and in their detective roles of Tommy McCarty and Dennis Riordan. 
At the 'Ace of Spades', Tommy and Tuppence sit in one of the private booths and peer through the door at the various other costumed and masked patrons. The booth next door is soon taken by a woman dressed as [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland|Alice's]] Queen of Hearts and a man outfitted as the gentleman dressed in newspaper. After a while, they hear a cry from the woman followed by the man laughing and then see him leaving. After a few minutes, suspicious, Tuppence makes Tommy follow her into the booth and they find the woman stabbed through the heart. She whispers, "Bingo did it" before she dies... 
The next day, Inspector Marriot brings Sir Arthur Merivale, the husband of the dead woman, Lady Vere Merivale, round to the Beresford's flat. "Bingo" Hale is known to both of them and he is stunned that his best friend could have killed his wife. Hale had been staying with them and was arrested that morning for murder. Merivale is perplexed as to what the motive could have been and is incensed at the suggestion from Marriot that the two were lovers and that Vere was threatening Hale who was paying attention to a rich American woman. Tuppence shows Sir Arthur the advert from the "Daily Leader" and the way the two communicated with each other using this device. Before she died, Vere tore off a piece of Bingo's newspaper costume and the police intend to match this up with the discarded costume. 
Marriot returns to the Beresford's later on with photographs of the fragment and the section of the costume it came from – he has the last link to convict Hale but Tuppence senses that he is far from satisfied with the conclusion to the case. When he has gone, she spots that the dots in the masthead of the two pieces don't match. They invite Sir Arthur back round and confront him with the evidence. Tuppence puts it to him that he too was at the 'Ace of Spades' dressed in a near identical masked costume. Hale alleges that he was slipped a note asking him not to approach Vere and he complied. Sir Arthur took his place and killed his own wife. The man laughs at this suggestion and Tuppence recognises it as the same laugh she heard from the booth. Marriot is hidden in their flat listening in but Sir Arthur throws himself out of the window and falls to his death before he can be taken. Marriot tells them that the motive wasn't jealously but money. Vere Merivale was the one in the marriage with the money and if she'd left her husband he would have been destitute.

===The Case of the Missing Lady===

The International Detective Agency receives a visit from Gabriel Stavansson, the famous explorer, who has just returned from a two year expedition to the [[North Pole]]. The Beresford's impress him with their initial display of observational and deductive powers (whilst in reality using their common sense and a judicious read of the [[Daily Mirror]] earlier that day) and he entrusts his case to them. 
Before he went on his long expedition, he became engaged to the Honourable Mrs. Hermione Leigh Gordon, whose previous husband was killed in [[World War I|war]]. His return to England was sooner than expected and upon disembarking his first thought was to rush to London and see his fiancé who had been staying with her Aunt, Lady Susan Clonray, in [[Pont Street]]. Lady Susan was surprised to see him and proved evasive about her niece's whereabouts, saying that she was moving between friends in the north of the country. Stavansson and Lady Susan had never really got on well, partially due to his dislike of fat women (of which Lady Susan is one example) and partially due to his perception that she disapproved of the engagement. Nevertheless he insisted on the names and address of the various people that Hermione was supposed to be staying with and travelled north to see them – not one of them had had recent contact with his fiancé. Lady Susan seemed genuinely upset when told this news but a telegram arrived as she and Stavansson were talking again, purportedly from Hermione and addressed Maldon saying she was going to [[Monte Carlo]]. Stavansson travelled to Maldon but again was unable to find any trace of Hermione, hence his visit to Blunt's. 
Tommy and Tuppence travel to Maldon themselves and draw a similar blank on the whereabouts of the missing woman. It is then that Tuppence remembers that there are two Maldons – on in [[Surrey]] which they have been investigating and another small place of the same name in [[Sussex]]. They travel there and find out that there is an isolated private [[nursing home]] near the village. Investigating this as the most obvious place where they might find Hermione, they visit separately posing as a friend of Hermione and as a journalist but on both occasions are unable to gain access to the house. Getting increasingly suspicious of the doctor who runs the establishment, they investigate his background and find that he has a bad reputation. They go back to the house at night and Tommy climbs a ladder to a room from where they heard a woman moaning. Tommy recognises Hermione from a photograph given to them by Stavansson. She is strapped to a bed and being injected. He goes back later on when he thinks she will be alone to free her but comes back without her. He tells Tuppence that the case is solved – Hermione is at the nursing home of her own free-will. She put on a great deal of weight while Stavansson was at the North Pole and knowing his aversion to obese women is undergoing a radical cure with a new and expensive treatment. Feeling somewhat foolish, the two leave quickly, Tommy commenting on the fact that there is no need to place the case on their records as, "It has absolutely no distinctive features."

===Blindman's Bluff===

Tommy receives a phone call from Mr. Carter warning him and Tuppence that the people connected with the Russian letters on blue paper have become aware that they have taken Blunt's place and to expect developments any time soon. Tommy suggests Tuppence waits in the safety of their home but she refuses. To pass over the quiet time that the agency is currently experiencing, Tommy suggests in exercise in following the methods of the blind detective Thornley Colton. He dons a pair of black eyeshades and practises (badly) his awareness of his surroundings by use of his other senses. Tommy decides he and Tuppence will go for lunch at the Blitz hotel in order that he can practise further in the surroundings of the restaurant. 
At the Bltiz, they are soon joined by two men who have been observing the pair and say that the Blunt's have been pointed out to them, although one of them confesses that he didn't know that Theodore Blunt was blind. They were on the way to see them but were told they were out to lunch and by coincidence have stopped at the same place. One of the men introduces himself as the Duke of Blairgowrie and his friend is Captain Harker. The Duke's daughter has been kidnapped "under somewhat peculiar circumstances" which mean that he cannot call in the police and he wants the Blunts to accompany them to his house immediately. Tommy agrees but not before he has drunk a cup of coffee and given Tuppence instructions for a meal at the hotel tomorrow that he is having with the [[Prefect (France)|French Prefect of Police]]. That done, they leave with Tommy and the Duke taking a different car to that of Captain Harker and Tuppence. 
It is a trap and the "Duke" is in reality connected with the Russian letters. He prods a pistol at Tommy and takes him to a hideout where he is bound to a chair while the "Duke" gloats over him. He tells Tommy that the floor of the room they are in is metal and now electrified. Even though he is blind, he is going to make Tommy walk across the floor. If he steps on a contact point, he will die. He hands him his white cane and unties him and the "game" is about to commence. Tommy coolly takes out a cigarette and match but he has anticipated the trap and instead lights a [[magnesium]] wire he is carrying. The flare blinds the "Duke" who lowers his pistol and then he finds himself at the point of Tommy's cane – in reality, a [[swordstick]]. Tommy reveals that his dark shades were actually false and he has been able to see all the time. The "Duke" springs forward with rage and steps on a contact point, dying instantly. Tommy escapes the house and rings Tuppence from a call box. She is safe. Tommy's order at the hotel were codewords from Clinton Stagg's stories for Albert to fetch help. He tailed Tuppence and he and the police freed her from "Captain Harker".

===The Man in the Mist===

Tommy and Tuppence have had a setback in that they have failed to solve their latest case which involves a stolen pearl necklace. Instead, the local police inspector had managed to apprehend the culprit. Having withdrawn to lick their wounds with cocktails in a hotel, they meet an old acquaintance, Mervyn Estcourt – known as 'Bulger' – who is in the company of the famous actress Gilda Glen, a woman who is renowned for her beauty and rumoured for her lack of intelligence. Miss Glen seems puzzled by Tommy's Father Brown disguise and Tommy ambiguously confirms his detective credentials. Getting directions from Bulger as to the way back to the station they are told to walk down Morgan's Avenue. Miss Glen seems startled by this advice and Bulger laughs at her belief in a local tale that the road in question is haunted by the ghost of a policeman who was killed and yet still walks his spectral beat. Miss Glen leaves hurriedly at this point. Bulger tells them that she is engaged to marry Lord Leconbury who they have just seen meeting the actress outside the door to the hotel. Bulger himself leaves soon afterwards and it is then that Tommy receives a note from Miss Glen asking for his help and for him to call on her at The White House, Morgan's Avenue at 6.10pm. 
Their discussion as to what this could mean is interrupted when a shabbily-dressed and aggressive young man bursts into the hotel. Sitting near Tommy and Tuppence he tells them that his name is James Reilly, he is a pacifist poet and is enamoured of Gilda Glen who once cared for him but no longer after her engagement to Lord Leconbury. Still angry he leaves as suddenly as he arrived. 
Tommy and Tuppence make their way to Morgan's Avenue. There is a thick fog in the air and Tuppence is startled when a policeman looms up out of the mist just near to the White House. Recovering herself, they see Reilly enter the house and the Policeman confirms it is the residence of a Mrs. Honeycott and he saw someone who resembles Miss Glen enter there a few minutes before. 
About to enter the house, they hear a muffled cry and Reilly runs out of the house, leaving what looks like red paint on his hand on a gatepost as he does so. The two go into the house and meet Ellen, the maid who is indignant about the visit by Reilly and then they meet Mrs. Honeycott herself. Mistaking Tommy for a real priest she asks for his help with Gilda who she reveals is her sister. Some twenty years before, at the age of seventeen, she married a man against the wishes of her family and now wants a divorce to marry Lord Leconbury. Her husband is refusing to grant her this wish although the marriage took place so long ago that Mrs. Honeycott can't remember the name of the man. She confirms that it wasn't Reilly who she saw rush upstairs and as quickly down again. Nervous as to what might have happened, Tommy asks to be shown upstairs where they find Gilda's body, her head smashed in on one side by some unknown blunt instrument. Tuppence fetches the policeman from outside and it is confirmed by questioning that Mrs. Honeycott heard her sister entering the house at eight minutes past six as she was re-setting the main clock. This confirms with the time that the policeman himself saw the actress enter, just before Tommy and Tuppence walked up Morgan's Avenue. 
The next day, Reilly has been arrested and Tommy and Tuppence meet with the accused man's solicitor, Mr. Marvell. Reilly insists that the woman was already dead when he entered her room but as there was no one else in the house at the time that would mean either Ellen or Mrs. Honeycott killed her. Tommy suddenly realises that no one inside the house actually saw Gilda enter – they only heard her – but prior to that the two women already in the house were in the kitchen where they couldn't see or hear anyone with a key entering. Just because they heard the door banging, it doesn't prove anything – it could just as easily have been someone leaving the house – like the policeman outside who loomed up out of the fog by the gate and who carries a truncheon which would serve as a blunt instrument to carry out the deed, especially if the policemen is Gilda's husband of twenty years ago.

===The Crackler===

Blunt's detective agency is doing well and Tommy considers the need for a larger office, in part to accommodate the shelf-space needed if they are to store the "classics" of Edgar Wallace if they are to copy his methods of detection. Inspector Marriot calls on the two sleuths with his latest mission for them; a large number of well-[[Counterfeit#Counterfeiting of money|forged one-pound notes]] are in circulation and he wants them to track down the source. The [[West End of London|West End]] seems to be the starting point for most of the notes that have been found (although some have come from across the [[English Channel|channel]]) and the police are especially interested in the activities of a Major Laidlaw who is involved in [[Horse racing|racing]] circles and he and his French wife always seem to have a lot of money. Although it could be a coincidence, a large number of the notes emanated from a [[gambling]] club used by the Laidlaws and this, together with the racing, could be an ideal way of distributing the forgeries. Another friend of the Laidlaws is Lawrence St. Vincent (from ''A Pot of Tea'' above) and Marriot thinks he could introduce the Beresfords into the set. 
Marriot leaves and Tommy and Tuppence make their plans to catch the head of the forgers, or 'The Crackler' as Tommy calls him, named after the sound that a rustled [[banknote]] makes. 
The two are soon ensconced within the Laidlaw's circle of friends. As well as the Laidlaw's themselves, Mrs. Laidlaw's French father, M. Heroulade, is an object of suspicion. They observe how notes are passed by the Laidlaws to lay their bets and in among the wad of notes, there always seem to be some forgeries. Marguerite Laidlaw is a striking woman and has a string of admirers. Among them is a visiting wealthy American called Hank Ryder who tells Tommy that she is in fear of her husband. He's also been a victim of the forged notes as he tried to pay some into his [[bank]] that he'd received from his winnings and they were rejected over the counter.
The next night Tommy is at the gambling club that Marriot mentioned and Mrs. Laidlaw passes him several notes to exchange for one of a higher denomination. Among them are several forgeries. His immediate suspicions are directed to M. Heroulade but his attention is caught when he leaves the club and finds Hank Ryder [[Drunkenness|drunk]] in the street outside. Within his slurred ramblings he tells Tommy how Mrs. Laidlaw took him on a [[Treasure hunt (game)#Adult games|treasure hunt]] which included a visit to [[Whitechapel]] where she "found" five hundred pounds. Tommy takes Ryder to the district and the exact house where they went to earlier. As the row of mean terraced dwellings look identical, Tommy chalks a small cross at the base of the back door before they enter. Ryder thinks he hears someone coming and goes back out to investigate. Tommy goes further into the house and finds the counterfeiting gang and The Crackler himself – Hank Ryder. He tells the captured Tommy that he has been suspicious of him from the start and that in case the chalk mark on the back door was a lead to Tommy's accomplices as to his whereabouts he has put similar marks on all the other doors. His satisfaction is cut short when Marriot and the police burst into the room and arrest the gang. Tommy tells Ryder that he was equally suspicious of him and so, when he was chalking the door, he also emptied a bottle of [[Valerian (herb)|valerian]] on the ground, thus attracting all the neighbourhood cats to the smell. This was his pre-arranged sign for Albert who, on his orders, followed them to Whitechapel.

===The Sunningdale Mystery ===

Tommy takes Tuppence to lunch at an ABC shop where he decides to mimic the tastes and habits of "The Old Man in the Corner" with Tuppence playing the part of Polly Burton. To test his abilities as this detective he has brought along a cutting from a newspaper on the recent case of what is known as the [[Sunningdale]] Mystery. 
The facts are that two men, Captain Anthony Sessle and Mr. Hollaby, business partners and both members of Sunningdale Golf Club, played a full round of [[golf]] on the [[Golf course|course]] on a Wednesday and decided to play a few more holes before it went dark. As they approached the tee on the seventh hole, Hollaby saw Sessle talking to a mysterious woman in a brown coat. These two went off talking down a side path and after a moment Sessle reappeared. Something had upset him for his game fell apart and two holes later Sessle gave up and walked off alone, ostensibly to his bungalow home. The existence of the woman in brown, Sessle's temporary departure with her and his subsequent poor game were all witnessed by two other members who were on the previous hole and awaiting their turn. 
The next morning, Sessle was found dead on the seventh tee, stabbed with a [[hatpin]] through the heart. The police found forensic evidence on the man which led them to trace a young girl called Doris Evans. She was arrested and told a story of meeting Sessle at a cinema. He invited her to his bungalow on a day when, as she subsequently found out, his wife and servants would be away. On the day in question, the man met her as he arrived home from the golf course. He behaved strangely and then, suggesting a stroll, he took her to the golf course. On the aforementioned seventh tee he suddenly became deranged and produced a [[revolver]], wildly suggesting a suicide pact. Doris escaped his grasp and ran off. One further fact which has come to light is that Sessle and Hollaby's [[Life insurance|assurance]] business is in [[liquidation]] and the funds [[Embezzlement|embezzled]]. 
Over their table, Tuppence counters that Doris would not have murdered the man as very few women nowadays use hatpins and that suggests that a man, not conversant with present [[fashions]], committed the crime and tried to frame a woman. Tommy soon remembers that near to the seventh hole on the course is a small hut and the two talk about the possibility that the woman in brown could have been a man in disguise. This leads them to wonder who it could have been and, linked to a theory of Tuppence's that the embezzler of the company was not Sessle but Hollaby and his son, they speculate if the woman was Hollaby Junior, who is also connected with the assurance firm. They reconstruct the crime: Hollaby's son lures Sessle away in full view of the other two players on the course. He stabs him with a hatpin and hides the body in a hut, changing clothes with the dead man. The two witnesses on the course see at a distance the deterioration in his game and "Sessle" then goes to his bungalow where he meets Doris Evans as arranged and goes through a series of actions which lead to the innocent girl being arrested. 
The Beresfords wonder how to convince the police of the plausibility of their theory but they have failed to spot Inspector Marriot at the next table. He has overheard the conversation and, already suspicious of the Hollaby's, promises to set enquiries in motion.

===The House of Lurking Death===

The Beresfords receive a professional visit from a smartly-dressed young woman who introduces herself as Lois Hargreaves of Thurnly Grange, a house in the country. One week before, her household received a box of chocolates anonymously through the post. Not liking chocolates, she was the only one in the house who didn't sample the unexpected gift and consequently, she was the only one who wasn't taken ill afterwards. It has since been proven that the cause was [[arsenic]] poisoning and that this is the third occurrence in the area of such a gift and its after-effects. What perturbs Miss Hargreaves is that the paper in which the chocolates were wrapped was re-used from a previous parcel sent to the Grange, evidenced by a small doodle of three intertwined fish that she drew on it in a moment of abstraction after it had been used to wrap a parcel of silk stockings sent from London. The poisoner is therefore someone in her own home. 
Miss Hargreaves is a rich heiress. She inherited her fortune from her aunt, a Lady Radclyffe, who post-deceased her husband, a self-made man. Lois lived with her aunt in her widowhood but she always made it clear to her niece that she intended to leave the bulk of her estate to Dennis Radclyffe, her late husband's nephew. However, when she had a violent quarrel with the young man she changed her [[Will (law)|will]] in favour of Lois who, in turn, has made a will leaving her money to Dennis. He lives at the Grange with her, as does Miss Logan, an old lady who is a distant cousin of Dennis and a former companion to Lady Radclyffe. The final member of the house, servants aside, is Mary Chilcott, an old schoolfriend of Lois. The servants are a cook and kitchenmaid, a parlourmaid called Esther and an elderly maid called Hannah. 
The next day, by agreement with Lois, Tommy and Tuppence plan to travel down to the Grange but before they go they receive a shock – Lois is dead, killed by some unknown poison which also affected Dennis and Miss Logan who are both seriously ill. The cause is supposed to be [[Common fig|fig]] paste in some sandwiches eaten by the three but not by Mary Chilcott who is unaffected. They meet Dr. Burton who is looking after the patients and who tells them that Dennis has now died as well but that he has not yet identified the poison used this time, however it was not arsenic. Investigating the matter, they discover that Dennis was out when the sandwiches were eaten for tea and it is supposed that he ate one on his return to the house. Tommy, however, finds that he was seen to drink a [[cocktail]] by one of the maids and manages to get hold of the glass before it is washed. 
In speaking with everyone in the house, they meet Hannah, who appears to have undergone a religious mania, quoting [[scripture]] and bringing [[fire and brimstone]] on all concerned. She has in her possession a strange item – an old book by a man called Edward Logan on medicines and poisons which appears to have belonged to Miss Logan's father, a pioneer of [[Medication|serum therapeutics]]. They confirm this from the ill old lady, noting how she has a mass of small pinpricks on her arm. 
They call at Dr. Burtons and find out that the poison has been identified as [[Ricin]] and, from the entry in Edward Logan's old book, deduce that Miss Logan is the murderer. The pinpricks on her arm are from injections of small amounts of the poison she has been giving herself to build up immunity. As Dennis' next of kin she would inherit once he and Lois were dead. The near-mad Hannah, having previously suspected Miss Logan when she saw her reading the book and smiling to herself, hears this accusation and bursts into Miss Logan's room and attacks her, starting a fire in the process. Tommy stifles the flames but the shock of this event causes Miss Logan to die of a heart attack. Dr. Burton confirms that the cocktail glass also contained traces of Ricin.

===The Unbreakable Alibi===

Tommy and Tuppence's latest client is a personable, rich but slightly dense young man called Mr. Montgomery Jones. He has met an [[Australia]]n girl called Una Drake who he has fallen violently in love with. Talking of their mutual love of detective stories, she has made a bet with him that he cannot break an alibi she has set up for herself. She has agreed that if he wins he can ask her for anything he likes and it is his intention to ask her for her hand in marriage. Knowing full well that he is not known for his intelligence, Montgomery Jones asks the Beresfords to take on the task for him. 
The alibi is that on the previous Tuesday Miss Drake dined at a [[Soho]] restaurant, saw a West End show and then had supper with a Mr. le Marchant at the [[Savoy Hotel]]. At the same time, she also stayed the night at the Castle Hotel in [[Torquay]] and returned to London the next morning. Armed with a photograph of Miss Drake and the knowledge of the methods of Inspector French, Tommy and Tuppence interview Mr. le Marchant who confirms that he was with the young lady for part of the evening in question. He also states that Miss Drake made an oblique comment to being in Devonshire at the same time, which he considers strange since a friend of his was at the Castle Hotel and did indeed think that he saw her there. The two then investigate the Soho restaurant (where a positive identification of the girl is not forthcoming) and then travel to Torquay where they find plenty of evidence that Miss Drake was in the hotel throughout the night and also travelled to the resort at a time compatible with her also being in London. Their final questioning is back in London of some people who saw her at the Savoy and also of her flatmate and charwoman who both attest that she spent the night in her own bed. 
Working all evening on trying to puzzle out the problem, the Beresfords confess that they are stumped. Sleeping on the problem, the next morning Tuppence awakes to a flash on inspiration and sends off a cable to test her idea. Later that day she returns to their office with the solution – Una has a twin sister who, the cable to Australia has confirmed – arrived in England the day before the events in question. The fun-loving sisters thought the stunt would be an amusing joke to play on Montgomery Jones.

===The Clergyman's Daughter / The Red House===

It is just before Christmas when a young lady called Monica Deane calls at the Blunt's agency. She and her impoverished, invalid, widowed mother inherited a house from a well-off sister of her father's some time back. They also expected to inherit some money to go with the house but to their surprise there was little forthcoming. They didn't want to sell the house as it provided plenty of room for them compared to their small flat and they had plans to open it to paying guests to supplement their income. All went well for a time until they started to have strange occurrences with pictures falling off walls and crockery being smashed when no one was in the room – a [[poltergeist]], which scared all their guests and their income away. A Dr O'Neill from a Society for Physical Research has visited them and has offered to buy the house from them to continue his investigations. Monica however is certain that he is also younger man in disguise who previously made them an offer for the house. The only other resident in the house now is Crockett, an elderly maid of Monica's aunt who has a younger nephew of whom she is very proud. 
Tommy and Tuppence travel to the "Red House" and begin their investigations, harbouring suspicions that the old lady has hidden money in the building which would account for the remainder of her fortune being missing. Tommy makes a visit to the local bank and manages to the find out from the manager that the aunt did indeed withdraw all of her money some time before she died. Under the guise of potential buyers, they explore the house and Monica gives them various papers of her aunt's. Before they can investigate these further, they hear a crash and find a jug and basin broken in a room overhead. They quickly interview Crockett and notice that she is out of breath. Mentioning to her that they intend to buy the house, Monica receives a message soon afterwards from "Dr O'Neill" that his own offer has increased – it is obvious that the old maid is the one creating "disturbances" and that the "Doctor" is her nephew trying to get the house in order that he can investigate himself the location of the missing fortune. 
Tommy and Tuppence look over the papers and realise that one of them contains a puzzle [[anagram]]. They work it out and the solution is "potatoes". Another of the papers, on the theme of recipes, refers to the trick of burying new potatoes in a tin to keep them fresh for the winter and they realise that this is their lead. They question the gardener to see if the old lady ever used this technique and find out that she did. They dig in the spot and find several tins of potatoes and, in one of the tins, a bag containing two hundred pounds in gold [[Sovereign (British coin)|sovereigns]], twenty thousand pounds in banknotes and a string of expensive pearls. Monica Deane and her mother will have their fortune and she and the Beresfords will be each able to celebrate a happy Christmas.

===The Ambassador's Boots===

The Blunt's agency is visited by Randolph Wilmott, the [[United States]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Great Britain]]. He arrived back from a trip to his home country a week ago. Soon after his return, his [[valet]] informed him that his kit bag, which carried his initials, had been mistakenly taken by another passenger on board the liner with the same initials – [[United States Senate|Senator]] Ralph Westerham, also from the US – but quickly returned by that man's valet. The puzzle is that Mr. Wilmott met Mr. Westerham yesterday and the Senator denied such a mistake having taken place, especially as he did not have such an article amongst his luggage on board the voyage across the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Mr. Wilmott knows the matter is a trivial one but his curiosity has been piqued and he wishes the agency to investigate. 
At Mr. Wilmott's invitation, the Beresfords visit the [[Diplomatic mission|US Embassy]] and speak to Richards, his valet, who confirms the basics of the tale told by the Ambassador. Just before the other valet called for the bag, he had started to unpack and glimpsed the contents of it. It contained boots and toilet things, a tin of [[bath salts]] being glimpsed. Tommy wonders if the Ambassador's bag could have been tampered with on the voyage and Richards recalls the incident of a young lady called Eileen O'Hara being taken ill just outside the Ambassador's cabin on the liner and he having to fetch a doctor for her, leaving the cabin alone. When he returned with the medical man, the patient seemed fine. 
Tommy decides that their next line of action is to advertise for Miss O'Hara to come forward, even though they risk putting her on her guard if she isn't innocent of any action relating to the kit bag. Two days later, Albert shows into Tommy's office a Miss Cicely March who is answering the advertisement but before she can relate what she knows they are interrupted by a big, dark Spanish-looking man who holds them up at gunpoint. He has followed Miss March, having recognised her from being a passenger on the liner and he suspects that she is about to meddle in their plans. Before he can carry out any of his threats, he is accosted by Albert, disarmed and Tommy throws him out, deciding not to involve the police. 
Alone with Miss March, she tells Tommy a tale of having also seen the incident of Miss O'Hara on the liner but she was also witness to the supposedly ill woman, when she thought she was alone and unobserved, going into Mr. Wilmott's cabin and putting something into the lining of a boot through a slit which she cut. Worried about what she had done to the boot, Miss March later went into the empty cabin and extrapolated the object from the lining. It was a slip of paper with verses of the bible on it which yesterday, through an accident, she got wet and which revealed hidden writing on it of what looks like the plans of a harbour. The paper is back at her place of work – a beauty parlour in [[Bond Street]] where she is the US agent for preparations sold there. Tommy leaves a note for Tuppence and he and Miss March go there. Preparing to take a taxi, Tommy spots that the cab has just refused a fare further down the road and, suspicious that they are being watched, insists on walking to Bond Street. Once there, they pass through the front shop past a woman customer and two waiting men and go into a back office where instantly Tommy is set upon. Rescue is immediate however as the woman in the front of the shop is Tuppence and the two men are policemen, alerted by Tommy's note. He noticed a look of disappointment on Miss March's face when their assailant at the agency was overcome and realised that she was in the enemy's camp. He had also worked out that it wasn't the Ambassador's bag that was important but that a bag of some nature was in the Ambassador's possession for an hour or two thereby bypassing customs for reasons of diplomatic immunity. He delayed their arrival at the parlour thus giving Tuppence time to get herself and the police there. They search the premises and find tins of bath salts which are found to contain [[cocaine]].

===The Man Who Was No. 16===

Mr. Carter congratulates the Beresfords on their successes at the agency but he gives them a warning that [[Moscow]] has become suspicious of the failure to hear from their agents and that they have despatched a man to investigate. The agent is known to them, having caused them problems in the past, but he is master of disguise and linguistics. He is also the deviser of the "No. 16" code and they expect him to turn up at Blunts although he has never met the real Theodore Blunt and doesn't know that Tommy has been impersonating him. The Beresfords are given other known codes to watch out for and are asked to cooperate as much as they can with "No. 16" to help Carter get to him. 
The two go back to the agency where they find that too many leaves have been torn from a calendar and that it shows the date as Sunday the sixteenth, six days hence. Albert tells them that could only have been done by a client who waited for some time for them that morning – a hospital nurse. 
After a short while, another client is shown in - a fair, bearded man who goes by the name of Prince Vladiroffsky who starts to use the codes communicated to them by Mr. Carter. Upon being questioned, the Beresfords tell him that treachery is afoot. "No. 16" assumes that Tuppence is an agent known as "Marise" and suggests that she lunch with him at the Blitz hotel and that they then meet Tommy later on at Headquarters. They leave and Tommy communicates with Mr. Carter whose men have been listening into the conversation in the office. Going to the Blitz, the "Prince" and Tuppence dine, served by waiters some of whom are policemen in disguise. They then go up in the lifts to the "Prince"'s suite but when they fail to appear some time later, the lift boy tells Tommy and Mr. Carter that he took them to a different floor instead. They have been spotted going into the room of a Mrs. Van Snyder of Detroit and, breaking into this room, they find the room's occupant bound and gagged. "No. 16" took Tuppence through into an adjoining room booked by an invalid French man and his nurse (more agents of No. 16) and made his escape that way with Tuppence as a hostage, drugged and disguised as the invalid. 
Tommy is distraught at the thought of what might be happening to Tuppence. Albert tries to cheer him up, reminding him of Tuppence's resourcefulness. In talking to Albert, Tommy is struck by an idea and races back to the Blitz where he and one of Carter's men go back to Mrs. Van Snyder's room. They find the lady still there, recovering on the bed. Under the [[bolster]] on the bed, Tommy finds Tuppence – he realised that there wasn't enough time to bind and gag Mrs. Van Snyder, drug Tuppence and disguise her as a Frenchman. Therefore she must still have been in the room and, remembering the bolster as a hiding place from childhood games, saw that as the only place she could be. He also unmasks "No. 16" – Mrs. Van Snyder in disguise.
Tuppence quickly recovers and the two decide to give up the agency, for no other reason that, as a delighted Tommy is informed, Tuppence is expecting a baby.

==Literary significance and reception==

The review of the book in the ''[[Times Literary Supplement]]'''s issue of October 17, 1929 seemed to recognise the tongue-in-cheek nature of the work when it stated, "Mrs. Christie has given an amusing twist to the episodes by suggesting that the two partners in "Blunt's Brilliant Detectives" assume on each occasion the method, the manner of speech, and the outlook favoured by some well-known detective of fiction. Holmes, Thorndyke, Father Brown and even Poirot are amiably parodied, and once or twice the solution as well as the dialogue is deliberately facetious". The review pedantically ended by saying that, "the author is incorrect in the explanation she gives of the printer's marks on newspapers, the distinction of dates which she makes really being one of editions".<ref>''The Times Literary Supplement'' October 17, 1929 (Page 824)</ref>

The review in ''[[The New York Times Book Review]]'' of September 22, 1929 began: "To describe adequately such a book as this is no easy matter. It is a group of short detective stories within a detective novel, for there is a rather sketchy, but none the less absorbing plot which holds the separate tales together. The entire book and the separate stories may be taken as hilarious burlesque or parodies of current detective fiction, or they may be taken as serious attempts on the part of the author to write stories in the manner of some of the masters of the art. Taken either way they are distinctly worth wile." The review concluded, "The result is the merriest collection of detective stories it has been our good fortune to encounter."<ref>''The New York Times Book Review'' September 22, 1929 (Page 38)</ref>

''[[The Scotsman]]'' of September 16, 1929 said, "Detective fiction, like mathematics, tends to develop a language of its own which to the uninitiated can be a little troublesome. It is not so much a matter of 'blue-nosed automatics' and other jargon of the craft of detective fiction; the trouble is that many of the writers seem to have little command of English and cannot make their characters speak naturally. Agatha Christie is a notable exception. In this volume of stories she has conceived the ingenious idea of setting her two amateur detectives...to work out their problems after the fashion of various heroes of detective fiction. This enables her to parody the methods of various writers...in a way that is most enjoyable, for her literary skill is equal to the task. At the same time the stories are genuinely detective stories. They are well wrought and ingenious. The writer has the saving grace of humour and she does not let her detectives win too easily. By having two detectives who are usually alternately successful she has always a foil, less obtuse than 'my dear Watson'".<ref>''The Scotsman'' September 16, 1929 (Page 2)</ref>

The ''[[Daily Express]]'' issue of October 10, 1929 gave the book a review of a couple of lines which concluded that the stories were "not quite up to her level, although they are entertaining enough".

[[Robert Barnard]]: "Tommy and Tuppence in a series of short stories which parody detective writers and their methods. Many of these are long forgotten, but the parodies are not sharp enough for this to matter very much. ''The House of Lurking Death'' anticipates the solution of [[Dorothy L. Sayers]]'s ''[[Strong Poison]]''."<ref>Barnard, Robert. ''A Talent to Deceive – an appreciation of Agatha Christie'' - Revised edition (Page 202). Fontana Books, 1990. ISBN 0006374743</ref>

==References or Allusions==
===References to other works===

* The reference regarding the ''Gentleman dressed in Newspaper'' character as being from the [[Lewis Carroll]] ''Alice'' books is mistaken in that the character who appears in chapter three of ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'' is described as being dressed in white paper only. However [[John Tenniel]]'s illustration in the book of the character reminded many contemporary readers of [[Benjamin Disraeli]] and there has been speculation if this was a comment upon his constant presence in newspaper columns<ref>''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass'' Ed. Hugh Haughton. [[Penguin Books]]. 1998. (Page 336)</ref>.[[William Empson]] in his 1935 book ''Some Versions of Pastoral'' referred to "Disraeli dressed in Newspapers".

*In ''The House of Lurking Death'', Hannah quotes a series of religious and personal threats. Direct quotes from the [[Bible]] and their sources are:
:• From ''[[Psalm]] 18'': " I will follow upon mine enemies and overtake them, neither will I turn again till I have destroyed them"
:• From the ''[[Gospel of John]], 3:8'' " The wind bloweth where it listeth"
:• From ''Psalm 1'': " The ungodly shall perish"
:• From ''Psalm 37'': " But the wicked shall perish"
"The fire of the Lord shall consume them" is not a direct quote but resembles numerous lines throughout the Bible.

*Tommy's final line to Tuppence at the end of ''The House of Lurking Death'' ("'It is a great advantage to be intelligent and not to look it") is a quote from [[A. E. W. Mason]]'s story ''At the Villa Rose'' (In the Christie story, Tommy assumes the roles of Mason's detective, M. Hanaud).

*In ''The Ambassador's Boots'', Tommy refers to a mention by Sherlock Holmes of a case not yet documented by Watson which hinged on the depth which the parsley had sunk into butter on a hot day. This alludes to the story ''[[The Adventure of the Six Napoleons]]'' by Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], first published in 1904. At the time that ''The Ambassador's Boots'' was written and first published, Conan Doyle was still writing Sherlock Holmes stories (the last was published in 1927) and therefore Tommy's wish that "Watson will disinter it from his notebook" was a real possibility at that time.

*The reference to [[Bee]]-keeping and [[Squash (plant)|Vegetable Marrow]]-growing in ''The Man Who Was No. 16'' are humorous allusions to the retirement plans of Sherlock Holmes and Hercule Poirot.

===References to actual history, geography and current science===

*In ''A Fairy in the Flat'', Tommy and Tuppence look at a blemish on a photograph, the shape of which resembles a fairy and Tuppence suggests writing to [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle|Conan Doyle]] about it. This is a reference to the [[Cottingley Fairies]]. This was a media ''[[cause célèbre]]'' of the early 1920’s and surrounded five photographs taken by two girls, Elsie Wright and Frances Griffiths, in [[Cottingley]], [[West Yorkshire]] which supposedly showed fairies at the bottom of their garden. Conan Doyle believed the photographs were real and wrote a famous article about the incident which appeared in the November 1920 issue of the ''[[Strand Magazine]]''.

*In ''The Case of the Missing Lady'', Tommy refers to a concert at the [[Queen's Hall]] that he and Tuppence should attend. This hall, built in 1893 was destroyed in an air raid in [[World War II]]. It is most famous for being the first home of the [[The Proms|the Henry Wood Promenade Concerts]].

*In ''Blindman's Buff'' and ''The Man Who Was No. 16'', the Blitz Hotel is a play on words on London's [[Ritz Hotel]]. Christie uses the same location (and the same name for it) in the 1925 novel ''[[The Secret of Chimneys]]''.

*In ''The House of Lurking Death'', Lois Hargreaves admits to a habit of doodling a design of three intertwined fish. This design was used on the set of the collected works of Christie begun by William Collins in 1967 (but never completed) and this was approved by Christie in the spring of 1966 in discussions with the publishers. Although stated by some that the doodle was also a habit shared by Christie, it was apparently spotted by her in the [[bazaars]] of [[Baalbek]] when she visited there in the 1930s.<ref>Morgan, Janet. ''Agatha Christie, A Biography''. (Page 341) Collins, 1984 ISBN 0-00-216330-6</ref>. The same design was used in the title sequence of the television series' ''Agatha Christie's Partners in Crime'' (see below) and ''[[Why Didn't They Ask Evans#Film, TV or theatrical adaptations|Why Didn't They Ask Evans?]]'' (1980).

==Film, TV or theatrical adaptations==
===The Case of the Missing Lady (1950)===

This single story from ''Partners in Crime'' was presented as the twelfth episode in the twenty-six episode anthology series ''Nash Airflyte Theatre'' on Thursday, [[December 7]], [[1950]] (possibly under the title of ''The Disappearance Of Mrs. Gordan''). The 30-minute live transmission on [[CBS]] was at 10.30pm from [[New York City]]. There are differing accounts of who starred in the adaptation. Peter Haining states that the stars were [[Barbara Bel Geddes]] as Tuppence and [[Lee Bowman]] as Tommy<ref>Haining, Peter. ''Agatha Christie - Murder in Four Acts''. (Pages 151-152) Virgin Publications. ISBN 1-85227-273-2</ref> but other sources state that the stars were [[Cloris Leachman]] and [[Ronald Reagan]]<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0657460/ "Nash Airflyte Theatre" The Case of the Missing Lady (1950)]</ref><ref>[http://www.tv.com/nash-airflyte-theatre/the-disappearance-of-mrs.-gordan/episode/505210/summary.html?tag=ep_list;title;11 Nash Airflyte Theatre: The Disappearance Of Mrs. Gordan - TV.com]</ref>. The adaptation was written and directed by [[Marc Daniels]].

===1953 radio adaptation===

''Partners in Crime'' was adapted as a 13-part [[radio serial]] broadcast on the [[BBC]]'s London, Midland and Scottish [[Home Service]] from Monday, April 13 to Monday, July 13, 1953. The half-hour episodes starred [[Richard Attenborough]] as Tommy and [[Sheila Sim]] as Tuppence, taking advantage of the actor's then-current starring roles in ''[[The Mousetrap]]''. [[Oscar Quitak]] appeared in all episodes as Albert. Aside from a 1948 adaptation of ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Niggers]]'', this was the first adaptation of a Christie book for radio in the UK.

{{main|Partners in Crime (1953 radio series)}}

===1983 television adaptation===

A television adaptation in ten episodes was made by [[London Weekend Television]] with [[James Warwick]] as Tommy and [[Francesca Annis]] as Tuppence and [[Reece Dinsdale]] as Albert. It was first broadcast in the UK between October 16, 1983 and January 14, 1984.

{{main|Agatha Christie's Partners in Crime}}

==Publication history==

[[Image:Partners in Crime First Edition Cover 1929.jpg|right|thumb|Dustjacket illustration of the UK First Edition (Book was first published in the US)]]
* 1929, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), 1929, Hardcover, 277 pp
* 1929, William Collins and Sons (London), September 16, 1929, Hardcover, 256 pp
* c.1929, [[Lawrence E. Spivak]] (New York), Abridged edition, 126 pp
* 1943, Dodd Mead and Company, (As part of the ''Triple Threat'' along with ''[[Poirot Investigates]]'' and ''[[The Mysterious Mr. Quin]]''), Hardcover
* 1958, Fontana Books (Imprint of [[HarperCollins]]), Paperback, 189 pp
* 1962, [[Pan Books]], Paperback (Great Pan G526), 203 pp
* 1963, [[Dell Books]] (New York), Paperback, 224 pp
* 1986, Ulverscroft [[Large-print]] Edition, Hardcover, ISBN 0-70-891540-X

Chapters from the book appeared in ''Agatha Christie's Crime Reader'', published by Cleveland Publishing in 1944 along with other selections from ''Poirot Investigates'' and ''The Mysterious Mr. Quin''.

===First publication of stories===

All of the stories in ''Partners in Crime'' first appeared in magazines between [[1923 in literature|1923]] and [[1928 in literature|1928]], principally ''[[The Sketch]]'' magazine. For publication in book form, Christie rearranged the story order and changed the framing device of several of the chapters to make the flow of the book easier. The original order and publication details of the stories are as follows:
[[Image:T&T1923.jpg|left|thumb|Illustration by Arthur Ferrier of Tommy and Tuppence from the December 1923 issue of ''The Grand Magazine'' and the first-known image of the characters]]
* ''The First Wish'': First published in issue 226 of ''The Grand'' magazine in December 1923. This formed the basis for chapters 20 and 21 of the book - ''The Clergyman's Daughter / The Red House''. The story was illustrated by Arthur Ferrier.
* ''Publicity'': First published in issue 1652 of ''The Sketch'' on September 24, 1924. This formed the basis for chapters 1 and 2 of the book - ''A Fairy in the Flat / A Pot of Tea''. This was the first in a sequence of twelve consecutive stories Christie wrote for ''The Sketch'' which appeared under the subtitle of ''Tommy and Tuppence''.
* ''The Affair of the Pink Pearl'': First published in issue 1653 of ''The Sketch'' on October 1, 1924. This formed the basis for chapters 3 and 4 of the book which uses the same chapter title.
* ''Finessing the King'': First published in issue 1654 of ''The Sketch'' on October 8, 1924. This formed the basis for chapters 7 and 8 of the book - ''Finessing the King / The Gentleman Dressed in Newspaper''.
* ''The Case of the Missing Lady'': First published in issue 1655 of ''The Sketch'' on October 15, 1924. This formed the basis for chapter 9 of the book which uses the same chapter title.
* ''The Case of the Sinister Stranger'': First published in issue 1656 of ''The Sketch'' on October 22, 1924. This formed the basis for chapters 5 and 6 of the book which use the slightly amended title of ''The Adventure of the Sinister Stranger''.
* ''The Sunninghall Mystery'': First published in issue 1657 of ''The Sketch'' on October 29, 1924. This formed the basis for chapters 15 and 16 of the book which use the slightly amended title of ''The Sunningdale Mystery''.
* ''The House of Lurking Death'': First published in issue 1658 of ''The Sketch'' on November 5, 1924. This formed the basis for chapters 17 and 18 of the book which use the same chapter title.
* ''The Matter of the Ambassador's Boots'': First published in issue 1659 of ''The Sketch'' on November 12, 1924. This formed the basis for chapter 22 of the book which uses the shortened title of ''The Ambassador's Boots''.
* ''The Affair of the Forged Notes'': First published in issue 1660 of ''The Sketch'' on November 19, 1924. This formed the basis for chapters 13 and 14 of the book using the different title of ''The Crackler''.
* ''Blind Man's Bluff'': First published in issue 1661 of ''The Sketch'' on November 26, 1924. This formed the basis for chapter 10 of the book which uses the same chapter title.
* ''The Man in the Mist'': First published in issue 1662 of ''The Sketch'' on December 3, 1924. This formed the basis for chapters 11 and 12 of the book which uses the same chapter title.
* ''The Man who was Number Sixteen'': First published in issue 1663 of ''The Sketch'' on December 10, 1924. This formed the basis for chapter 23 of the book which uses the same chapter title and was also the final story Christie ever wrote for ''The Sketch''.
After a gap of four years a final story, ''The Unbreakable Alibi'', appeared in ''Holly Leaves'', the annual [[Christmas]] special of the ''[[Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News]]'' in December, 1928. This formed the basis for chapter 19 of the book.

===Book dedication===

As with most of Christie's short story collections, this book carried no dedication.

===Dustjacket blurb===
The [[blurb]] of the first UK edition (which is carried on both the back of the [[dustjacket]] and opposite the title page) reads: 
"This delightfully witty book will come as a pleasant surprise to all admirers of these ingenious detective thrillers for which Agatha Christie is famous. It tells the story of the amazing adventures of two amateur detectives – Tommy, a remarkable young man of thirty-two, and his equally remarkable wife, Tuppence – who follow the methods of famous detective heroes, such as Sherlock Holmes, Inspector French, Roger Sherringham, Bulldog Drummond, Father Brown and even Monsieur Poirot himself. Problem after problem comes before them for solution, and the account of their endeavours to live up to their slogan, ‘Blunt’s Brilliant Detectives! Any case solved in twenty-four hours!’ makes delicious reading.".

The blurb was incorrect in that "[[H. C. McNeile|Sapper's]]" [[Bulldog Drummond]] stories were not parodied although the character and the situations that he encountered were briefly mentioned in ''The Adventure of the Sinister Stranger''.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://us.agathachristie.com/site/find_a_story/stories/Partners_in_Crime.php ''Partners in Crime''] at the official Agatha Christie website
*{{imdb title|id=0657460|title=The Case of the Missing Lady (1950)}}
*{{imdb title|id=0080336|title=Partners in Crime (1983)}}

{{Agatha Christie}}

[[Category:1929 books]]
[[Category:Short story collections by Agatha Christie]]

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Longford Castle

2008-12-05T02:43:45Z

Xn4: + William Pleydell-Bouverie, 9th Earl of Radnor

[[Image:Longford Castle front.jpg|thumb|Longford Castle]]
[[Image:Longford Castle.jpg|thumb|Longford Castle from the air]]
[[Image:Longford Castle rear.jpg|thumb|Rear of Longford Castle]]
'''Longford Castle''' located south of Salisbury, [[Wiltshire]], [[England]].

The manor, at the time written [[Langford]], was in 1573 obtained by [[Thomas Gorges, of Langford]].
In c 1576 he married [[Helena Snakenborg]], the dowager Marchioness of Northampton, queen's favoritesse. Helena persuaded Thomas Gorges to rebuild his property more appealing. The mansion had been damaged by fire when he acquired it and a replacement was completed at great expense by 1591, under the final supervision of [[John Thorpe]]. Longford was the model for the 'Castle of Amphialeus' in Sir [[Philip Sidney]]'s Arcadia.

The main building had several floors and its form was triangular, a round tower in each corner. There was a chapel, kitchen department, several boudoirs and sitting rooms, as well as bedrooms.
Fresh cold water was pumped to various floors, and there were sort of water closets, operating with rainwater. Park and fruit garden and kitchen garden were attached.

The family lived at the place already several years before its final completions in 1591.

Longford Castle is shown in from the air at the end of the movie, ''The Princess Diaries'' as the castle in Genovia.

Longford Castle is the seat of [[William Pleydell-Bouverie, 9th Earl of Radnor|William Pleydell-Bouverie]], [[Earl of Radnor|9th Earl of Radnor]], and is not open to the public.

[[Category:Castles in Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Wiltshire]]

{{Wiltshire-struct-stub}}

William Aubrey

2008-11-28T03:50:53Z

Xn4: Category:Old Breconians

'''William Aubrey''' (c.1529 – [[25 June]] [[1595]]) was [[Regius Professor of Civil Law (Oxford)|Regius Professor of Civil Law]] at the [[University of Oxford]] from 1553 to 1559, and was one of the founding [[Fellow#Oxford.2C_Cambridge.2C_and_Trinity|Fellows]] of [[Jesus College, Oxford]]. He was also a [[Member of Parliament|MP]].

==Early life and Oxford University==
Aubrey was born in Brecknockshire. After being educated at what later became [[Christ College, Brecon]], Aubrey went to Oxford University, becoming a Fellow of [[All Souls College, Oxford]] in 1547. He obtained a [[Bachelor of Civil Law|BCL]] degree in 1549 and was appointed Principal of [[New Inn Hall, Oxford]] in 1550. In 1553, he succeeded [[Robert Weston]] as Regius Professor of Civil Law. He held the position until 1559, when he was succeeded by John Griffith.<ref name=Aubrey>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/887 |title=Aubrey, William (c.1529–1595) |last=Watkin |first=Thomas Glyn |work=[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]] (online edition, subscription required) |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=January 2008| accessdate=2008-02-24}}</ref> In 1571, he was named in the founding charter as one of the original eight fellows of Jesus College, Oxford.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jesus.ox.ac.uk/history/founders.php|title=Jesus College, Oxford – The Founders | date=[[14 November]] [[2000]]|publisher=Jesus College, Oxford |accessdate=2008-02-24}}</ref> He obtained the degree of [[Doctor of Civil Law|DCL]] in 1554 and the following year he was made a [[Master (judiciary)|Master]] in [[Court of Chancery|Chancery]].<ref name=Aubrey/>

==Legal and political work==
In 1562, Aubrey was a member of the commission set up by [[Archbishop Parker|Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury]] that declared unlawful the marriage of [[Lady Catherine Grey]] to [[Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Henry Herbert]] (son of the [[William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke (1551 creation)|1st Earl of Pembroke]]. He was one of the signatories of the opinion that [[John Lesley]] ([[Bishop of Ross]] and an ambassador for [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]]) could be tried in England for intriguing against [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]].<ref name=Aubrey/>

He was [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for various constituencies: [[Carmarthen (UK Parliament constituency)|Carmarthen Boroughs]] (1554), [[Brecon (UK Parliament constituency)|Brecon]] (1558), [[Hindon (UK Parliament constituency)|Hindon]] (1559), [[Arundel (UK Parliament constituency)|Arundel]] (1563), and [[Taunton (UK Parliament constituency)|Taunton]] (1592). He was a member of the [[Council of Wales and the Marches]] from 1586. He was also auditor and [[vicar-general]] of the [[Province of Canterbury]] under [[Archbishop Grindal]], retaining his position as vicar-general under [[Archbishop Whitgift]].<ref name=Aubrey/>

==Death==
Aubrey died in London in 1595 and was buried in [[Old St Paul's Cathedral]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aubrey, William}}
[[Category:1520s births]]
[[Category:1595 deaths]]
[[Category:Old Breconians]]
[[Category:People from Brecknockshire]]
[[Category:Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Fellows of Jesus College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Welsh politicians]]
[[Category:Welsh lawyers]]
[[Category:Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament]]

Kinky Boots – Man(n) trägt Stiefel

2008-11-25T00:31:25Z

Xn4: Category:Films directed by Julian Jarrold

{{Infobox Film
| name = Kinky Boots
| image = Kinky boots.jpg
| caption = Theatrical poster for ''Kinky Boots''.
| director = [[Julian Jarrold]]
| writer = Geoff Deane Tim Firth
| starring = ||[[Joel Edgerton]], [[Chiwetel Ejiofor]]
| editing =
| producer =
| distributor = [[Miramax Films]]
| released = {{flagicon|UK}} [[7 October]] [[2005]]
| runtime = 107 min.
| language = [[English language|English]]
| budget =
| imdb_id = 0434124
}}
'''''Kinky Boots''''' is a [[2005 in film|2005]] [[Golden Globe Award]]-nominated [[United Kingdom|British]] [[comedy film]] about a traditional [[Northampton]] [[shoemaker]], based in [[Earls Barton]], who turns to producing [[fetishism|fetish]] footwear in order to save the ailing family business and the jobs of his workers. The film is based on the story of Divine<ref>Divine is a trademark of W.J. Brookes Ltd, a real factory of boots and shoes[http://www.shop.edirectory.co.uk/divine/pages/editorial.asp?artid=296&cid=926]</ref>, which was featured in an episode of the [[BBC]] [[Television documentary|documentary]] series ''[[Trouble at the Top]]''.

It features Charlie Price, who is trying to save the family business and travels to London to get ideas. In a fluke encounter he meets sassy [[drag queen]] performer Lola, the alter ego of Simon, and sees the possible market of shoes for male transvestites. With the styling eye of Lola, Charlie leads the traditional shoe factory to design and produce numerous shoes for the catwalk in [[Milan, Italy]].

A Broadway musical version of the film is currently in the works, with producers Daryl Roth and Hal Luftig and helming the project.<ref>{{cite news | last=Jones | first=Kenneth | title=Kinky Boots, the Musical, Walking Toward Broadway | publisher=Playbill | date=[[2008-07-08]] | url=http://www.playbill.com/news/article/119294.html | accessdate=2008-07-10}}</ref>

==Cast==
*[[Joel Edgerton]]
*[[Chiwetel Ejiofor]]
*[[Sarah-Jane Potts]]
*[[Linda Bassett]]
*[[Kellie Bright]]
*Dora Clouttick
*Josh Cole
*Gwenllian Davies
*[[Nick Frost]]
*Joe Grossi
*[[Mona Hammond]]
*Ewan Hooper
*Sebastian Hurst-Palmer
*[[Stephen Marcus]]
*[[Robert Pugh]]
*[[Jemima Rooper]]
*[[Joanna Scanlan]]
*Geoffrey Streatfield
*Christopher Fosh
*Henry Martens

==Notes and references ==
<references/>

==See also==
* [[Cross-dressing in film and television]]

==External links==
* [http://www.thefilmfactory.co.uk/kinkyboots/index_flash.html Official website]
* {{imdb title|id=0434124|title=Kinky Boots}}
* [http://www.edirectory.co.uk/divine/ Home Page of Divine], the shop on which the story is based -- NOTE: contains nudity.
* [http://video.movies.go.com/kinkyboots/ Kinky Boots Movie], Official DVD Website from Buena Vista Home Entertainment, Inc.
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/northamptonshire/content/articles/2005/10/04/kb_fact_fiction_feature.shtml], whats fake/real in movie from actual history.

[[Category:2005 films]]
[[Category:Comedy films]]
[[Category:Miramax films]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Julian Jarrold]]
[[Category:English-language films]]
[[Category:LGBT-related films]]

[[fr:Kinky Boots]]
[[it:Kinky Boots - Decisamente diversi]]
[[ja:キンキーブーツ]]
[[sv:Kinky Boots]]

Peter Hardy, Baron Hardy of Wath

2008-11-18T23:10:40Z

Xn4: cat

'''Peter Hardy, Baron Hardy of Wath''', [[Deputy Lieutenant|DL]] ([[16 July]] [[1931]] – [[16 December]] [[2003]]) was a British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] politician.

The son of a [[Wath-upon-Dearne]] miner, Hardy was educated at Wath upon Dearne Grammar School. He trained as a teacher at Westminster College, London, and Sheffield University, rising to be head of English at [[Mexborough]] County Secondary School. After a spell as a local councillor, during which he stood as a parliamentary candidate in several safe [[Conservative party (UK)|Conservative]] seats, he entered parliament in 1970 for the [[Rother Valley (UK Parliament constituency)|Rother Valley]] constituency. In 1983, when constituency boundaries were re-organised, he moved with a part of his old Rother Valley constituency to the re-formed [[Wentworth (UK Parliament constituency)|Wentworth]] constituency, for which he was [[Member of Parliament]] (MP) until retirement from the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] in 1997. On retirement he was made a [[life peer]] as '''Baron Hardy of Wath''', of Wath-upon-Dearne in the County of [[South Yorkshire]] and was an active member of the [[House of Lords]] until shortly before his death.

Never keen on the pursuit of high office, he was [[parliamentary private secretary]] to [[Tony Crosland]] and [[David Owen]]. To his constituents he was a popular and hard-working constituency MP. This was reflected in the fact that, despite being identified with the right wing of the Labour party, in 1981 he survived a [[National Union of Mineworkers]]-directed attempt to force the local party in his mining constituency to deselect him as its parliamentary candidate in favour of a more left-wing candidate.

His main interests were the lot of the classroom teacher, and wildlife, of which he had an encyclopaedic knowledge. He was a sponsor of much wildlife-related legislation in parliament, including the Badger Act (1973) and the Wild Creatures and Wild Plants Act (1975). During an all-night reading of the Felixstowe Docks Bill he regaled the Commons with impressions of the song birds whose habitats were supposedly threatened by the development.

Outside parliament, he served on the council of the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] and the [[NSPCC]].

==External links==
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/12/19/db1903.xml Obituary in the Daily Telegraph]

{{start box}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Rother Valley (UK Parliament constituency)|Rother Valley]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1970|1970]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]]
| before = [[David Griffiths (politician)|David Griffiths]]
| after = [[Kevin Barron]]
}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Wentworth (UK Parliament constituency)|Wentworth]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997]]
| before = ''(new constituency)''
| after = [[John Healey]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hardy, Peter}}

[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:2003 deaths]]
[[Category:Deputy Lieutenants in England]]
[[Category:Former pupils of Wath Comprehensive School]]
[[Category:Life peers|Hardy of Wath]]
[[Category:Labour MPs (UK)]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1983-1987]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1970-1974]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1974]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1974-1979]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1979-1983]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1987-1992]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1992-1997]]

Brian Rix, Baron Rix

2008-08-25T14:13:43Z

Xn4: Category:Bootham Old Scholars

'''Brian Norman Roger Rix, Baron Rix''', [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[January 27]], [[1924]]) is an [[England|English]] [[actor]] and charity worker.

Born in [[Cottingham, East Riding of Yorkshire|Cottingham]], [[East Riding of Yorkshire]], [[England]], the son of a [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]] shipowner, he became a professional actor, briefly, when he was 18. His wartime service began in the [[Royal Air Force]], but he soon after volunteered to become a [[Bevin Boys|Bevin Boy]], working instead as a coal miner. He holds [[amateur radio]] [[licence]] G2DQU.[http://www.qrz.com]

After the war, Rix returned to the stage and in 1947 formed his own theatre company. Rix was associated with the [[Trafalgar Studios|Whitehall Theatre]] from 1944 until 1969, although as an actor-manager he became increasingly well known on TV as well as stage. The theatre specialised in [[farce]]s, which were regularly televised. Rix was regularly seen on screen without his trousers on. He also made a handful of films that were well suited to his talents as a farceur such as ''[[The Night We Dropped a Clanger]]'' (1959), ''[[The Night We Got the Bird]]'' (1961), ''[[Don't Just Lie There, Say Something!]]'' (1973).

In 1980, he retired from acting, and became [[Secretary-General]] of the [[Mencap|National Society for Mentally Handicapped Children and Adults (Mencap)]] (it became “The Royal Society” the following year) and in 1987 became its Chairman. Since 2002 the Society has been officially called the “Royal Mencap Society”, with Rix now serving as its President.

He was created a [[Order of the British Empire|Commander of the British Empire]] (CBE) in 1977, and was [[Knight Bachelor|knighted]] in 1986 for his services to charity. On [[27 January]] [[1992]], his tireless work was further recognised when he was created a [[life peer]] becoming '''Baron Rix''' of Whitehall in the City of [[Westminster]] and of [[Hornsea]] in Yorkshire. After nine years as a Vice [[Lord Lieutenant]] of [[London]], Lord Rix was installed as the first [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] of the [[University of East London]] on [[16 July]] [[1997]].

In 1949 he married the actress [[Elspet Gray]]. They had four children, including the [[Television producer|producer]] and [[Children's literature|children's author]] [[Jamie Rix]] and actress [[Louisa Rix]]. Their daughter Shelley was born in 1951 with [[Down syndrome|Down's syndrome]], and he has always used his name to promote public awareness and understanding of mental handicap. She died in July 2005.

His 80th birthday in 2004 marked the start of a year of fundraising and publicity for Mencap.

Rix has been associated with many initiatives, including presenting "Let's Go" for the BBC, which was one of the first programmes made specifically for people with learning disabilities. He is the author of two biographies, ''My Farce From My Elbow'' (1974) and ''Farce About Face'' (1989), and two theatre histories, ''Tour de Farce'' and ''Life in the Farce Lane''. He also edited, compiled and contributed to ''Gullible's Travails'', an anthology, and travel stories by famous people for the Mencap Blue Sky Appeal.

Brian Rix is the younger brother of [[Emmerdale]] actress [[Sheila Mercier]].

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0729727|name=Brian Rix}}
*[http://www.arthurlloyd.co.uk/TrafalgarStudios.htm Whitehall Theatre History] Home of The Brian Rix Farces for many years.
*[http://www.rixcentre.org The Rix Centre - Learning Disability Charity ] Charity and research centre in honour of Lord Rix to research learning disability.

[[Category:1927 births|Rix, Brian]]
[[Category:Bootham Old Scholars|Rix]]
[[Category:Living people|Rix, Brian]]
[[Category:Life peers|Rix]]
[[Category:English actors|Rix, Brian]]
[[Category:People from Hull|Rix, Brian]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire|Rix, Brian]]
[[Category:Knights Bachelor|Rix, Brian]]
[[Category:Amateur radio people|Rix, Brian]]

Richard Allan, Baron Allan of Hallam

2008-08-25T13:41:38Z

Xn4: Category:Old Birkdalians

[[Image:Replace this image male.svg|right]]

'''Richard Beechcroft Allan''' (born [[11 February]] [[1966]], [[Sheffield]]) was the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Sheffield Hallam (UK Parliament constituency)|Sheffield Hallam]] from the general election of Thursday [[2 May]] [[1997]] until the dissolution of Parliament on [[11 April]] [[2005]].

==Early life==
He went to the independent [[Oundle School]] in north-east [[Northamptonshire]]. He studied at [[Pembroke College, Cambridge]], and gained a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] in Archaeology and Anthropology in 1988. From [[University of the West of England|Bristol Polytechnic]], he gained an [[Master of Science|MSc]] in Information Technology in 1990. He was a field archaeologist in Britain, France and the Netherlands from 1984-5, and in [[Ecuador]] from 1988-9. He was a computer manager at Avon FHSA from 1991-7.

==Parliamentary career==
In 1997, he unseated [[Irvine Patnick]] of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] achieving a majority of 8,221 with a swing of 15.3%. In 2001, he was re-elected with an increased majority of 9,347. During his tenure, Allan held various committee seats, including the Chair of the House of Commons Information Select Committee and a seat on the [[House of Commons Liaison Select Committee]]. Richard Allan was the founding chairman of the [[Parthenon 2004]] campaign for the return of the Parthenon Marbles.

Allan did not seek reelection at the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]]. He was succeeded by fellow Liberal Democrat [[Nicholas Clegg|Nick Clegg]] (majority 8682), for whom he acted as campaign manager. He is now Head of Government Affairs for [[Cisco Systems|Cisco Systems UK]], a visiting fellow of the [[Oxford Internet Institute]] and deputy chairman of the [[British Committee for the Reunification of the Parthenon Marbles]].

==Personal life==
He married Louise Netley on [[25 May]] [[1991]] in Bath. They have have since separated and has two daughters with his current partner<ref>[http://www.richardallan.org.uk/?p=468 The Patter of (Four) Tiny Feet]</ref>.

==External links==
* [http://www.richardallan.org.uk Post Political Times] Richard Allan's weblog
* [http://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford Internet Institute]
* [http://www.sheffieldlibdems.org.uk/ Sheffield Liberal Democrats]
* [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/person/0,9290,-56,00.html Guardian Politics Ask Aristotle - Richard Allan]
* [http://www.theyworkforyou.com/mp/richard_allan/sheffield%2C_hallam TheyWorkForYou.com - Richard Allan]
* [http://www.publicwhip.org.uk/mp.php?mpn=Richard_Allan&mpc=Sheffield%2C+Hallam The Public Whip - Richard Allan] voting record
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/mpdb/html/396.stm BBC News - Richard Allan] profile [[10 February]], [[2005]]

{{start box}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box | before = [[Irvine Patnick]] | title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Sheffield Hallam (UK Parliament constituency)|Sheffield Hallam]] | years = 1997–2005 | after = [[Nicholas Clegg|Nick Clegg]] }}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Allan, Richard}}
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:British bloggers]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Liberal Democrat MPs (UK)]]
[[Category:Politics of Sheffield]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1997-2001]]
[[Category:UK MPs 2001-2005]]
[[Category:Old Birkdalians]]
[[Category:Old Oundelians]]
[[Category:Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge]]

{{UK-MP-stub}}

[[sv:Richard Allan]]

Richard Austin (Dirigent)

2008-08-23T18:38:00Z

Xn4: wl conductor

'''Richard Austin''' [[Royal College of Music|FRCM]] (1903-1989), was the chief [[Conducting|conductor]] of the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra (now the [[Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra]]) from [[1934]] until [[1939]] and later a Professor of the [[Royal College of Music]].

==Early life==
The son of Frederic and Amy Austin, Austin was educated at [[Gresham's School]], [[Holt, Norfolk|Holt]], the [[Royal College of Music]], and in [[Munich]].<ref name=www>'AUSTIN, Richard', in ''Who Was Who'', A & C Black, 1920–2007; online edition by [[Oxford University Press]] (subscription required) December 2007: ''[http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whowaswho/U161620 AUSTIN, Richard]'', accessed 23 Aug 2008</ref>

==Career==
In 1929, he became Conductor with the [[Carl Rosa Opera Company]], then from 1934 to 1940 was Musical Director of the Bournemouth Corporation, that is, he was the chief conductor of the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra, which is now the [[Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra]].<ref name=www/> His predecessor there was [[Dan Godfrey|Sir Dan Godfrey]] and his successor was [[Montague Birch]].

During the [[Second World War]] he served as Music Advisor, Northern Command (1941–1945). Following the war, he became a Professor of the [[Royal College of Music]], from 1946 to 1976, and was also the college's Director of Opera from 1955 to 1976, when he retired.<ref name=www/>

Concurrently, Austin served as Music Director to the New Era Concert Society (1947–1957) and was a guest conductor at [[Sadler's Wells Theatre]], with other London and provincial orchestras in the UK, and overseas in the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Finland]], [[Yugoslavia]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Cuba]], [[Mexico]], [[South Africa]], the [[United States]], and also in [[South America]].<ref name=www/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Austin, Richard}}
{{conductor-stub}}
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Royal College of Music]]
[[Category:Conductors]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal College of Music]]
[[Category:Old Greshamians]]

Richard Austin (Dirigent)

2008-08-23T18:36:44Z

Xn4: /* Career */ wl Sadler's Wells Theatre

'''Richard Austin''' [[Royal College of Music|FRCM]] (1903-1989), was the chief conductor of the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra (now the [[Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra]]) from [[1934]] until [[1939]] and later a Professor of the [[Royal College of Music]].

==Early life==
The son of Frederic and Amy Austin, Austin was educated at [[Gresham's School]], [[Holt, Norfolk|Holt]], the [[Royal College of Music]], and in [[Munich]].<ref name=www>'AUSTIN, Richard', in ''Who Was Who'', A & C Black, 1920–2007; online edition by [[Oxford University Press]] (subscription required) December 2007: ''[http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whowaswho/U161620 AUSTIN, Richard]'', accessed 23 Aug 2008</ref>

==Career==
In 1929, he became Conductor with the [[Carl Rosa Opera Company]], then from 1934 to 1940 was Musical Director of the Bournemouth Corporation, that is, he was the chief conductor of the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra, which is now the [[Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra]].<ref name=www/> His predecessor there was [[Dan Godfrey|Sir Dan Godfrey]] and his successor was [[Montague Birch]].

During the [[Second World War]] he served as Music Advisor, Northern Command (1941–1945). Following the war, he became a Professor of the [[Royal College of Music]], from 1946 to 1976, and was also the college's Director of Opera from 1955 to 1976, when he retired.<ref name=www/>

Concurrently, Austin served as Music Director to the New Era Concert Society (1947–1957) and was a guest conductor at [[Sadler's Wells Theatre]], with other London and provincial orchestras in the UK, and overseas in the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Finland]], [[Yugoslavia]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Cuba]], [[Mexico]], [[South Africa]], the [[United States]], and also in [[South America]].<ref name=www/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Austin, Richard}}
{{conductor-stub}}
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Royal College of Music]]
[[Category:Conductors]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal College of Music]]
[[Category:Old Greshamians]]

Richard Austin (Dirigent)

2008-08-23T18:35:12Z

Xn4: expanded with ref to WWW, added cats

'''Richard Austin''' [[Royal College of Music|FRCM]] (1903-1989), was the chief conductor of the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra (now the [[Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra]]) from [[1934]] until [[1939]] and later a Professor of the [[Royal College of Music]].

==Early life==
The son of Frederic and Amy Austin, Austin was educated at [[Gresham's School]], [[Holt, Norfolk|Holt]], the [[Royal College of Music]], and in [[Munich]].<ref name=www>'AUSTIN, Richard', in ''Who Was Who'', A & C Black, 1920–2007; online edition by [[Oxford University Press]] (subscription required) December 2007: ''[http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whowaswho/U161620 AUSTIN, Richard]'', accessed 23 Aug 2008</ref>

==Career==
In 1929, he became Conductor with the [[Carl Rosa Opera Company]], then from 1934 to 1940 was Musical Director of the Bournemouth Corporation, that is, he was the chief conductor of the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra, which is now the [[Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra]].<ref name=www/> His predecessor there was [[Dan Godfrey|Sir Dan Godfrey]] and his successor was [[Montague Birch]].

During the [[Second World War]] he served as Music Advisor, Northern Command (1941–1945). Following the war, he became a Professor of the [[Royal College of Music]], from 1946 to 1976, and was also the college's Director of Opera from 1955 to 1976, when he retired.<ref name=www/>

Concurrently, Austin served as Music Director to the New Era Concert Society (1947–1957) and was a guest conductor at [[Sadler’s Wells]], with other London and provincial orchestras in the UK, and overseas in the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Finland]], [[Yugoslavia]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Cuba]], [[Mexico]], [[South Africa]], the [[United States]], and also in [[South America]].<ref name=www/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Austin, Richard}}
{{conductor-stub}}
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Royal College of Music]]
[[Category:Conductors]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal College of Music]]
[[Category:Old Greshamians]]

Nugent Castle

2008-08-17T01:17:32Z

Xn4: /* See also */ Sir Thomas Chapman, 7th Baronet

{{Infobox Irish Place|
name = Delvin|
gaeilge = Dealbhna or Dealbhna Mhór|
crest image = |
motto = |
map image = Ireland map County Westmeath Magnified.png|
pin coords = left: 104px; top: 55px |
north coord = 53.6106 |
west coord = 7.0925 |
irish grid = N601626 |
area = |
elevation = 115 m |
province = [[Leinster]] |
county = [[County Westmeath]] |
dailconstituency = [[Westmeath (Dáil Éireann constituency)|Westmeath]]|
EU constituency = [[East (European Parliament constituency)|East]] |
stdcode = |
town pop = 271|
rural pop = 558|
census yr = 2002 |
|}}

'''Delvin''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Dealbhna'' or ''Dealbhna Mhór'') is a small town in north [[County Westmeath]], [[Ireland]] located on the [[N52 road (Ireland)|N52]] [[roads in Ireland|road]] at a junction with the [[N51 road (Ireland)|N51]] to [[Navan]]. The town is 20 km from [[Mullingar]] (along the N52) and is the setting of the book [[Valley of the Squinting Windows]] by [[Brinsley MacNamara]], described under the fictitious name of "Garradrimna".
[[Image:IMG DelvinCastle1779c.jpg|thumb|280px|left|Old ruin of Delvin/Nugent Castle in the Main Street (1181)]]
The word Delvin comes from [[Delbhna]], a tribe from the west of Ireland. Members of this tribe settled in the place that is now Delvin.

==Delvin Castle and Clonyn Castle==
The original Delvin Castle (aka Nugent Castle), now in ruin, is believed to have been built in [[1181]] by [[De Lacy|Hugh de Lacy]], Lord of Meath for his brother-in-law, [[Gilbert de Nugent]]. It will be renovated to a new hotel in 2009 with a full gym and licensed bar. Gilbert De Nugent came to Ireland with Hugh De Lacy in [[1171]]. Gilbert settled on some land in Delvin and was granted the title Baron of Delvin. The ruins of Nugent Castle remain near the center of the town. A second castle was built by Gilbert de Nogent some centuries later, some hundreds of metres from the centre of the Delvin settlement of that time. Today, [[Clonyn Castle]] is situated on dominatrix ground south of Delvin between the [[N52 road (Ireland)|N52]] and the Collinstown road. An alternative access to the castle grounds exists on this Collinstown road opposite the church. This access also is used by the Delvin golf course club members. The Delvin area is now home to the Westmeath chapter of the Hells Angels.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

[[The Barony of Delvin]] remained with the Viscounts Gormanston throughout the 19th and early 2Oth century. Indeed, it was not until the 199Os that the Barony was once again deeded to a de Vere. Richard II granted Robert de Vere 9th Earl of Oxford and 10th Lord Chamberlain the Marquessate of Dublin and the whole of Ireland at this time, when the de Vere's took right to Kilkea Castle. (The Barony of Delvin was contained in the earldom of Oxford, by Aubery de Vere, until it was broken up by Robert de Vere's Irish dominions in 1392). Viscounts Gormanston stood down on behalf of Lady Wendy DeVere Knight-Wilton in the 1990s giving assignment on behalf of her husband, so the deed of the Barony could be passed on to him, Raymond John DeVere-Austin, AKA Raymond Austin (the DeVere family name was joined to Austin on his marriage to Wendy DeVere Knight-Wilton in 1984). It is the present holder, Baron DeVere-Austin of Delvin, to whom the honour of taking this historic feudal title into the next millennium belongs.

[[Image:DelvinRCChurch2935.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Church of the Assumption (1881)]]

==Amenities/Facilities==
Delvin Castle Golf Club—an 18 hole golf course—is located near the town. There is a bank branch, school, church, hotel/guest house, a few shops and a take-away in the town. There are also a few pubs on the Main Street, the most popular being O'Shaughnessy's. It is likely that several more amenities will open over the next few years due to the construction of a large housing estate near the town in 2004.

Recently a new hair salon has opened on main street and many new houses have been built since 2004. As of 2007 the town has continued to expand and work on a development in the centre of the village has recently recommenced. Plans have also recently been unveiled for the provision of a new sports and leisure facility within the village. Some outdoor facilities are expected to be available by Summer 2007, while plans for the multi-purpose indoor leisure complex are being prepared and fund raising gathers pace.

==See also==
* [[List of towns in the Republic of Ireland]]
* [[Sir Thomas Chapman, 7th Baronet]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hal-pc.org/~nugent/castle.html Nugent Castle]
*[http://cloghmore.bravepages.com/westmeath/delvin.html Picture of the Castle]
*[http://www.golfmidlandsireland.com/clubfrm.htm Delvin Golf Club]

[[Category:Towns and villages in County Westmeath]]

[[nl:Delvin]]
[[sv:Delvin]]

Killua Castle

2008-08-17T00:38:52Z

Xn4: /* See also */ Sir Thomas Chapman, 7th Baronet

[[Image:Killua Castle.jpg|thumb|right|Killua Castle Clonmellon Co. Westmeath]]
[[Image:Killulagh Castle.jpg|thumb|right|Killua Castle [[Sir Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter G. Raleigh]] once domiciled in the Castle County Westmeath, currently under renovation]]
[[Image:W G Raleigh Monument.jpg|thumb|right|Sir Walter G. Raleigh Commemoration Obelisk Erected by Thoman Chapman Bar, A.D. 1810]]
[[Image:Walter Raleigh Plaque.jpg|thumb|right|Sir Walter G. Raleigh Plaque, Erected by Thoman Chapman Bar, A.D. 1810]]
''' Killua Castle''',<ref>[http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/niah/search.jsp?type=record&county=WM&regno=15306023 Killua Castle, Clonmellon, County Westmeath: Buildings of Ireland: National Inventory of Architectural Heritage]</ref> and the nearby Raleigh Obelisk, are situated near [[Clonmellon]] town, in north [[County Westmeath]]. The castle and the [[obelisk]] are separated by some 200 m to 300m, and belonged to the Chapman family more than two centuries ago, beginning with Captain [[Benjamin Chapman]], patriarch of the [[Chapman Baronets]] of Killua Castle. From here, the Chapmans administered the surrounding farm lands of some {{convert|9000|acre|km2}} during the penal law period on behalf of the English crown.

It is currently in the possession of the Krause family, who acquired it in 2000. It is currently being restored.

==Raleigh Obelisk==
The obelisk marks the position where [[Sir Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter G. Raleigh]] planted some of the first potatoes that he imported to Ireland.<ref>[http://buildingsofireland.com/niah/search.jsp?type=record&county=WM&regno=15306024&print=true Raleigh Obelisk, Killua Castle, Clonmellon, County Westmeath: Buildings of Ireland: National Inventory of Architectural Heritage]</ref> [[Parmentier|Antoine Parmentier]] who promoted the cultivation of [[potato]]es for human consumption and the Spanish conquistadores who first imported them from [[South America]] along the south and west Irish coast are also associated with Irish potato promotion.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} However, it is uncertain who is initially responsible of the first potato plantation in Ireland, even though Raleigh is frequently accredited with this mile stone in Irish history. The obelisk erected by Sir Thomas Chapman in 1810, marks the Raleigh contribution to Ireland in providing stable nourishment to the farming/working class land tenants.

Sir Thomas Chapman, Baronet, in the year 1810 is believed to have sited the Obelisk upon the ground where [[Sir Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter G. Raleigh]] first planted the potato tubers in Ireland.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

==Other Westmeath Castles==
* [[Ballinlough Castle]]
* [[Delvin Castle]]
* [[Knockdrin|Knockdrin Castle]]
* [[Tullynally Castle]]
* [[Tyrrellspass Castle]]

== See also ==
* [[Sir Thomas Chapman, 7th Baronet]]

==External links==
* [http://www.clonmellon.com clonmellon.com]
* [http://examiner.handywebhosting.net/story.asp?stID=582&cid=181&cid2= Locals sign petition for Clonmellon name change]
* [http://www.mindspring.com/~xeowulf/Killua.html Killua Castle before renovation]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Towns and villages in County Westmeath]]
[[Category:Castles in County Westmeath]]
[[Category:Ruins in the Republic of Ireland]]

{{Westmeath-geo-stub}}

Killua Castle

2008-08-17T00:37:47Z

Xn4: /* Raleigh Obelisk */

[[Image:Killua Castle.jpg|thumb|right|Killua Castle Clonmellon Co. Westmeath]]
[[Image:Killulagh Castle.jpg|thumb|right|Killua Castle [[Sir Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter G. Raleigh]] once domiciled in the Castle County Westmeath, currently under renovation]]
[[Image:W G Raleigh Monument.jpg|thumb|right|Sir Walter G. Raleigh Commemoration Obelisk Erected by Thoman Chapman Bar, A.D. 1810]]
[[Image:Walter Raleigh Plaque.jpg|thumb|right|Sir Walter G. Raleigh Plaque, Erected by Thoman Chapman Bar, A.D. 1810]]
''' Killua Castle''',<ref>[http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/niah/search.jsp?type=record&county=WM&regno=15306023 Killua Castle, Clonmellon, County Westmeath: Buildings of Ireland: National Inventory of Architectural Heritage]</ref> and the nearby Raleigh Obelisk, are situated near [[Clonmellon]] town, in north [[County Westmeath]]. The castle and the [[obelisk]] are separated by some 200 m to 300m, and belonged to the Chapman family more than two centuries ago, beginning with Captain [[Benjamin Chapman]], patriarch of the [[Chapman Baronets]] of Killua Castle. From here, the Chapmans administered the surrounding farm lands of some {{convert|9000|acre|km2}} during the penal law period on behalf of the English crown.

It is currently in the possession of the Krause family, who acquired it in 2000. It is currently being restored.

==Raleigh Obelisk==
The obelisk marks the position where [[Sir Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter G. Raleigh]] planted some of the first potatoes that he imported to Ireland.<ref>[http://buildingsofireland.com/niah/search.jsp?type=record&county=WM&regno=15306024&print=true Raleigh Obelisk, Killua Castle, Clonmellon, County Westmeath: Buildings of Ireland: National Inventory of Architectural Heritage]</ref> [[Parmentier|Antoine Parmentier]] who promoted the cultivation of [[potato]]es for human consumption and the Spanish conquistadores who first imported them from [[South America]] along the south and west Irish coast are also associated with Irish potato promotion.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} However, it is uncertain who is initially responsible of the first potato plantation in Ireland, even though Raleigh is frequently accredited with this mile stone in Irish history. The obelisk erected by Sir Thomas Chapman in 1810, marks the Raleigh contribution to Ireland in providing stable nourishment to the farming/working class land tenants.

Sir Thomas Chapman, Baronet, in the year 1810 is believed to have sited the Obelisk upon the ground where [[Sir Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter G. Raleigh]] first planted the potato tubers in Ireland.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

==Other Westmeath Castles==
* [[Ballinlough Castle]]
* [[Delvin Castle]]
* [[Knockdrin|Knockdrin Castle]]
* [[Tullynally Castle]]
* [[Tyrrellspass Castle]]

== External links==
* [http://www.clonmellon.com clonmellon.com]
* [http://examiner.handywebhosting.net/story.asp?stID=582&cid=181&cid2= Locals sign petition for Clonmellon name change]
* [http://www.mindspring.com/~xeowulf/Killua.html Killua Castle before renovation]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Towns and villages in County Westmeath]]
[[Category:Castles in County Westmeath]]
[[Category:Ruins in the Republic of Ireland]]

{{Westmeath-geo-stub}}

Britisch-Indien

2008-08-16T23:21:12Z

Xn4: interwiki

[[Bild:British Raj Red Ensign.svg|thumb|Flagge Britisch-Indiens]]
'''Britisch-Indien''' (alternative [[Englische Sprache|Englisch]]/[[Sanskrit]] Bezeichnungen: ''British Raj'' und ab 1876 ''Indian Empire'') war die Bezeichnung für die von 1858 bis 1947 unter direkter britischer Kolonialherrschaft stehenden Länder des [[Indischer Subkontinent|indischen Subkontinents]] bzw. das heutige [[Indien]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesch]]. Von 1886 bis 1937 war auch Birma (heute [[Myanmar]]) Teil Britisch-Indiens. Darüber hinaus unterstanden der britisch-indischen Verwaltung auch einige Stützpunkte auf der [[Arabische Halbinsel|arabischen Halbinsel]], besonders [[Aden]].

Die [[England|Engländer]] hatten schon im 17. Jahrhundert erste Handelsstützpunkte gegründet. Im 18. Jahrhundert stieg die [[Britische Ostindien-Kompanie]] zur führenden Macht des Subkontinents auf, agierte aber offiziell im Namen des indischen [[Großmogul]]s. Nach dem Sepoy-Aufstand 1857 wurden ihre Rechte 1858 mit dem ''Government of India Act'' an die britische Krone übertragen. 1877 wurde das '''Kaiserreich Indien''' (''Indian Empire'') in [[Personalunion]] mit Großbritannien proklamiert. Die britische Herrschaft endete 1947 mit der Unabhängigkeit der beiden Nachfolgestaaten Indien und Pakistan.

== Geschichte ==
=== Ausgangssituation===

Nach dem Zerfall der [[Mogulreich|Mogulmacht]] unter [[Aurangzeb]] im Jahr 1707 stieg das Reich der [[Marathen]] (1674–1818, gegründet von [[Shivaji]]) in Südwestindien auf. Die Marathen waren die letzte indische Großmacht vor der britischen Herrschaft, neben ihnen spielten noch die Machthaber von [[Hyderabad (Staat)|Hyderabad]] und [[Mysore (Staat)|Mysore]] eine Rolle in der indischen Politik, wobei die Fiktion eines weiter bestehenden Mogulreiches bis 1857 aufrechterhalten wurde, weil es den legalen Rahmen jeder Herrschaft bildete.

===Die ostindische Kompanie===

''→ [[Britische Ostindien-Kompanie]]''

In der 2. Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts dehnten die [[Königreich Großbritannien|Briten]] bzw. die [[Britische Ostindien-Kompanie]] nach Verdrängung der [[Frankreich|Franzosen]] ([[Karnataka-Kriege]]) und [[Portugal|Portugiesen]] ([[Goa]]) ihren Machtbereich in Indien aus. Zunächst sicherten sie unter [[Robert Clive]] nur ihre Handelsinteressen in [[Bengalen]] ab. Doch aus einem reinen Engagement im Handel wurden schnell auch handfeste Machtinteressen. Die Kompanie mischte sich in die Streitigkeiten der indischen Fürsten ein ([[Schlacht bei Plassey]] 1757) und übernahm das Steuerprivileg in Bengalen von den Mogulkaisern. 1758 hatte es Clive noch abgelehnt, 1765 nahm er es an.

Bald erwiesen sie sich als ehrgeizige und flexible Machthaber. 1769 kam [[Warren Hastings]], er wurde 1771 Gouverneur von Bengalen und wies seine Leute an, die Verwaltung zu übernehmen: zuvor hatte sich die Kompanie immer hinter der fiktiv aufrechterhaltenen Herrschaft des [[Nawab]]s versteckt. Er und seine Nachfolger verknüpften indische Soldaten mit europäischer Kriegsführung und britische Handelsgewinne mit indischen Steuern, bekämpften die (bei Indern und Briten gleichermaßen weitverbreitete) [[Korruption]], schlossen Schutzverträge ab und übernahmen Landstrich um Landstrich. Wo sie nicht selbst an der Macht waren, dienten Beamte der Ostindien-Kompanie als Berater.

Die Briten konnten dabei mit dem Amt des [[Generalgouverneur und Vizekönig von Indien| Generalgouverneurs]] und seines Beratungsgremiums (1773, nach 1784 dann ein Aufsichtsrat in London) eine einheitliche Politik organisieren. Auf der Gegenseite stand ein von vielen Konflikten zerrissenes Indien, in dem sich immer eine Partei fand, die bereit war, aus niederen Beweggründen mit den Engländern zu paktieren. Der technologische Vorsprung durch die industrielle Revolution trat hinzu und seit dem Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts konnte die Ostindische Kompanie so immer weitere Teile Indiens unter ihre Kontrolle bringen. 1803 fiel Delhi an die Briten, damit unterstand auch der [[Großmogul|Mogulkaiser]] (nach wie vor der fiktive Herrscher Indiens) deren Kontrolle.

Mit den zunehmenden Eroberungen wurde die Kompanie aber selbst immer desorganisierter. Ihre Angestellten wurden über die Bestechungsgelder der indischen Fürsten und den Privathandel Millionäre <ref>Die Angestellten wurden zumindest bis zur Zeit von [[Charles Cornwallis, 1. Marquess Cornwallis|Cornwallis]] (reg. 1786-93) schlecht bezahlt. Sie durften aber auf eigene Faust Handel treiben und dafür auch eine gewisse Quote des Frachtraums der Gesellschaft beanspruchen.</ref>, während die Kriegskosten von den Aktionären gedeckt werden mussten und die Kompanie einen Schuldenberg vor sich herschob. Mehrere Gesetze wandelten die Ostindische Kompanie daher 1773 (Regulation Act), 1784 ([[Pitt's India Act|India Act]]), 1793, 1813 (weitreichende Abschaffung des Handelsmonopols), 1833/4 (Verwaltungskörperschaft ohne Handelskontore) von einer Handelsgesellschaft schrittweise in eine autonome Verwaltungsorganisation unter Kontrolle der britischen Regierung um. Die Handelsangestellten wurden durch Beamte ersetzt und Indien dem britischen Handel geöffnet, d.h. das Monopol der Gesellschaft gebrochen.

===Anpassungsversuche===

Der Erfolg der Engländer war mühsam erkauft, vor allem konnten sie die auseinandergehenden kulturellen Vorstellungen von Verwaltung zunächst nicht verbinden. So ließ Warren Hastings das [[Schari'a|islamische Strafrecht]] bestehen, weil es einfach zu handhaben war. Ab 1774 gab es dann einen Obersten Gerichtshof nach englischen Gesetz, der aber nach einer Festlegung von 1781 nur für Europäer galt. Die grausamsten Strafen des islamischen Gesetzes (Pfählen, Verstümmeln) wurden abgeschafft, aber bis 1861 gab es kein verbindliches Strafgesetzbuch, sondern die Briten verließen sich auf einheimische Rechtsexperten. Das Englische wurde erst in den 30er Jahren des 19. Jh. zur Verwaltungssprache, zuvor war es das Persische. Alles in allem waren die Briten bis weit ins 19. Jh. hinein nicht in der Lage, die Verwaltung zu ordnen und zu vereinheitlichen: es gab überflüssige Ämter, widersprüchliche Verträge, falsche Interpretation früherer Rechtspraxis usw. - kurz ein Chaos in allen Besitz-, Steuer-, Amts- und Hoheitsfragen.

Auch bemühte man sich in den letzten Jahrzehnten des 18. Jahrhunderts, das altehrwürdige [[Landwirtschaft]]ssystem Indiens dem europäischen System des Grundbesitzes anzupassen. Mit diesen Maßnahmen wurde eine Verschuldung des Bodens durch [[Spekulation (Wirtschaft)|Spekulantentum]] eingeleitet (Boden konnte unter den Briten bei Zahlungsunfähigkeit verkauft werden, 1793 "dauerhafte Verpachtung" schafft neue Grundeigentümer).

[[Bild:Silver_Rupee_Madras Presidency.JPG|thumb|250px|Silberrupie aus der "[[Madras (Präsidentschaft)|Madras Presidency]]", geprägt vor der Vereinheitlichung der Münzen 1835. Die Briten orientierten sich bis dato an der einheimischen Gestaltung.]]

=== Lord Dalhousie und der Weg zum großen Aufstand 1857 ===

''→ vgl. [[Indischer Aufstand von 1857]]''

Mit dem Verlauf des 19. Jahrhunderts traten Beamte (z.B. Justizminister Lord Macaulay), die sich die Umwandlung Indiens im englischen Sinne und die Vermittlung fortschrittlicher, christlicher Werte ins Programm schrieben, an die Stelle der Geschäftsleute, die sich einst um intensive Sprach- und Landeskenntnisse bemühten. Zum Beispiel wurden 1834 die bis dahin üblichen Ehen und gesellschaftlichen Beziehungen mit Indern verboten und eine Trennung zwischen den beiden Gruppierungen eingeführt.

[[James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1. Marquess of Dalhousie| Lord Dalhousie]] übte 1848–1856 das Amt des [[Generalgouverneur und Vizekönig von Indien|Generalgouverneurs]] aus. Er schuf mit großer Energie ein enges Gewebe einer straff organisierten Verwaltung. Die alten Freiräume der Art "Schafft Ordnung im Land, macht die Leute glücklich und sorgt dafür, dass es keinen Spektakel gibt" gab es für die Beamten (viele davon auch im zivilen Bereich arbeitende Offiziere) nun nicht mehr. Die in Indien gültige Praxis der [[Adoption]] von Thronfolgern wurde dem Einspruchsrecht des Generalgouverneurs unterworfen und Lord Dalhousie annektierte so eine Handvoll dieser abhängigen [[Fürstenstaat]]en. Daneben gab es in [[Avadh]] (Hauptstadt: [[Lakhnau]], heute Teil von [[Uttar Pradesh]]) eine wiederholt angeprangerte Misswirtschaft, die ihm zum Vorwand diente, es 1856 ebenfalls zu annektieren (wenn auch diesmal auf Anweisung seiner Direktoren in [[London]] hin).

Die Klasse der Grundeigentümer war ebenfalls von den Reformen des Lords betroffen. Im [[Dekkan]] wurden rund 20 000 Grundstücke teils unter zweifelhaften Ansprüchen enteignet, ohne dass man althergebrachte Werte und Sitten respektierte und Ungerechtigkeiten ausglich. (Den [[Jat (Volk)|Jats]] in der Umgebung von Delhi hatte man ihr Weideland z.B. steuerlich wie Ackerland veranlagt - sie litten unter der Steuer.) In den Gefängnissen wurde die Kastentrennung aufgehoben, indem man alle miteinander essen ließ. Die [[Brahmane]]n wurden durch moderne westliche Erziehung um ihre Autorität gebracht.

Die Folgen dieser energischen Politik spürte man im [[Indischer Aufstand von 1857|Sepoy-Aufstand]]. Der Sepoy-Aufstand wird verschiedentlich als erste Befreiungsbewegung gegen die Briten gesehen, da er auf einem Widerstand gegen Beschneidung angestammter Rechte und Traditionen beruhte. Es gab nicht nur eine Unzufriedenheit, die sich durch alle Kasten zog, sondern auch die angestammte Führerschaft für einen Aufstand: [[Nana Sahib]], verantwortlich für das Massaker an englischen Frauen und Kindern in [[Kanpur]], war z. B. der Adoptivsohn des letzten [[Marathen|Peshwas]] [[Baji Rao II.]] und wurde durch Dalhousies Politik um seine Rente gebracht. Er hatte einen fähigen General namens [[Tantia Topi]]. Die [[Rani]] von [[Jhansi]] [[Lakshmibai]], eine legendäre Aufstandsführerin, war um die Nachfolge ihres Adoptivsohnes gebracht worden. Auch der Exkönig von Awadh hatte seine Agitatoren in den Sepoy-Regimentern, und viele Sepoys stammten von dort.

Die nach europäischem Vorbild ausgebildeten indischen Soldaten ([[Sepoy]]) waren damals die tauglichsten in [[Asien]], sie wurden von Briten befehligt und zählten 1830 187.000 Mann gegenüber 16.000 Briten. Inder konnten bloß bis zum Kompanieführer aufsteigen. Das Kräfteverhältnis am Vorabend des [[Indischer Aufstand von 1857|Sepoy-Aufstandes]] war wie folgt: 277.746 Sepoys gegen 45.522 britische Soldaten. Trotzdem siegten die Briten und im Nachhinein begründete die selbstgerechte Politik von [[James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1. Marquess of Dalhousie| Lord Dalhousie]] nicht nur die Zeit des imperialistischen Britisch-Indien, sondern auch den modernen indischen Einheitsstaat.

=== Nach dem Sepoy-Aufstand ===

[[Bild:Meyers b12 s0532a.jpg|thumb|Karte des Kaiserreichs Indien]]
Nach dem Sepoy-Aufstand 1857/58 endete die Herrschaft der [[Britische Ostindien-Kompanie|Britischen Ostindien-Kompanie]], ihre letzten Machtbefugnisse bzw. Sonderrechte wurden an die Krone übertragen.

Dies geschah mit dem ''Government of India Act'', den das britische Parlament am 2. August 1858 unter dem Einfluss [[Henry John Temple, 3. Viscount Palmerston|Palmerstons]] verabschiedete. Kernpunkte des Gesetzes waren:
* die Übernahme aller Territorien in Indien von der Ostindien-Kompanie, die zugleich die ihr bisher übertragenen Macht- und Kontrollbefugnisse verlor.
* die Regierung der Besitzungen im Namen der Königin [[Viktoria (Vereinigtes Königreich)|Viktoria]] als [[Kronkolonie]]. Es wurde ein ''Secretary of State for India'' an die Spitze der behördlichen Verwaltung gestellt.
* die Übernahme allen Vermögens der Gesellschaft und das Eintreten der Krone in alle zuvor geschlossenen Verträge und Abmachungen.

Gleichzeitig wurde der letzte Mogulkaiser [[Bahadur Shah II.]] abgesetzt. Von nun an regierte der Rat des Generalgouverneurs, welcher dem "India Office" in London unterstand. Den Indern wurden dieselben Rechte wie den Briten zugesagt, und auch der Zugang zu allen Regierungsposten. Die Fürstenstaaten konnten wieder durch Adoption weitervererbt werden.

=== Kaiserreich ===
1877 nahm [[Victoria (Vereinigtes Königreich)|Königin Victoria von England]] den Titel "[[Kaiser von Indien|Kaiserin von Indien]]" an und dokumentierte damit, dass Indien zur Hauptstütze des [[Britisches Imperium|britischen Weltreiches]] geworden war. Der Kaisertitel wurde nicht zuletzt geschaffen, um eine Art legale Basis für die britische Herrschaft zu schaffen: schließlich hatte die Ostindische Kompanie bis zuletzt im Namen des Mogulkaisers regiert. Das "Kaiserreich Indien" war geteilt in die Gebiete unter direkter Kontrolle (etwa 2/3 des Landes) und in die abhängigen Gebiete unter einheimischen Fürsten, den so genannten "[[Fürstenstaat|Princely States]]". Daher wurde für den [[Generalgouverneur und Vizekönig von Indien|Generalgouverneur]] schon 1858 der zusätzliche Titel [[Vizekönig]] eingeführt: Generalgouverneur war er in den direkt beherrschten Gebieten, Vizekönig gegenüber den einheimischen Fürsten.

[[Birma]] wurde in mehreren Kriegen (1852, 1866 und 1886) von Großbritannien besetzt und ebenfalls an das Kaiserreich Indien angeschlossen (bis 1937). Auch gab es immer wieder langwierige Kämpfe an der Nordwestgrenze gegen [[Afghanistan]], wo auch dem [[Russisches Reich|russischen]] Vordringen in [[Zentralasien]] begegnet werden sollte. Eine direkte Kontrolle über Afghanistan erwies sich aber als undurchführbar. 1893 wurde die [[Durand-Linie]] gezogen, die bis heute die Grenze zwischen Pakistan und Afghanistan bildet und von afghanischer Seite nach wie vor nicht anerkannt ist.

=== Zeit der Unabhängigkeitsbewegung ===
[[Bild:QUITIN2.JPG|thumb|250px|Gandhis Unabhängigkeitsbewegung, 1942]]
1885 wurde der [[Indischer Nationalkongress|Indische Nationalkongress]] gegründet, der für die Unabhängigkeit Indiens eintrat. Wegen des wachsenden Einflusses der Hindus im INC kam es 1906 zur Gründung der rivalisierenden [[Muslimliga]]. Indischer Nationalkongress und Muslimliga verfassten 1916 gemeinsam eine Erklärung mit Forderungen nach indischer Unabhängigkeit ([[Lucknow-Pakt]]). Diese wurde von der britischen Regierung im August 1917 mit einer politischen Absichtserklärung beantwortet, Indien einen allmählichen Übergang zur Selbstregierung zuzugestehen.

Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg, in dem 1,3 Millionen Mann der [[British Indian Army|Indischen Armee]] auf britischer Seite kämpften, war das weiterhin unter britischer Herrschaft stehende Indien eines der Gründungsmitglieder im [[Völkerbund]]. Unter der Führung [[Mahatma Gandhi]]s kam es in der Zwischenkriegszeit zum passiven Widerstand gegen die britische Herrschaft. Gandhi bemühte sich dabei um die politische Einheit zwischen Hindus und Muslimen. 1935 wurden im ''Government of India Act (1935)'' Wahlen zu Provinzparlamenten in die Wege geleitet, die der Indische Nationalkongress im Jahr 1937 in sieben von elf Provinzen gewann. Im selben Jahr wurde Birma zur unabhängigen Kronkolonie erhoben.

Obwohl die indische Öffentlichkeit ganz und gar nicht mit den Nazis sympathisierte und Englands Haltung gegenüber Deutschland begrüßte, erklärten die führenden politischen Kräfte Indiens, nur in den Krieg eintreten zu wollen, wenn im Gegenzug Indien seine Unabhängigkeit erhalten würde. Der britische Generalgouverneur erklärte beim Ausbruch des Zweiten Weltkrieges den Kriegszustand des Indischen Empire mit Deutschland jedoch, ohne die indischen Politiker zu konsultieren. Zu Beginn des Krieges hatte Indien eine Armee von rund 200.000 Mann, bei seinem Ende hatten sich 2,5 Millionen Mann gemeldet: die größte Freiwilligen-Armee im Zweiten Weltkrieg.

In Verhandlungen erstritten [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] und [[Mahatma Gandhi]] schließlich nach 1945 die Unabhängigkeit des Landes. 1947 wurde Britisch-Indien unabhängig. Nach der [[Zwei-Nationen-Theorie]] wurde das Land dabei in einen hinduistischen Teil, das heutige [[Indien]], und einen muslimischen Teil, dem heutigen [[Pakistan]] aufgeteilt. Zum damaligen Pakistan gehörte auch das heute unabhängige [[Bangladesch]].

== Wirtschaft und Soziales ==

Unter der Herrschaft der Ostindischen Kompanie war Indien immer mehr zum wirtschaftlichen Ausbeutungsobjekt herabgesunken. Die indische Weberei als Industriezweig wurde z. B. durch die beginnende Maschinenproduktion in [[Europa]] ruiniert: Der europäische Markt war verschlossen, zur gleichen Zeit führte England Fertigkleidung in Indien ein, d.h. Indien wurde zum Absatzmarkt, während die Textilexporte rasch zurückgingen.

Das wirtschaftliche Monopol der Ostindischen Kompanie wurde schon 1813 abgeschafft, sie hatte aber nach wie vor die Verwaltung inne und einige Privilegien. Neben ihr stiegen nun sogenannte "Agency Houses" auf, die eigene Unternehmungen finanzierten, aber noch keine ausreichende Kapitaldecke besaßen. Die Investitionen hielten sich in engen Grenzen, denn der europäische und amerikanische Markt waren sicherer und hatten bessere logistische Voraussetzungen vorzuweisen. Eine Reihe von Pleiten der "Agency Houses" und die Einstellung sämtlicher Handelsgeschäfte der Company 1833/4 erlaubte es daher einem Inder einzusteigen: [[Dwarkanath Tagore]] (1794-1846). Danach stieg der Einfluss des britischen Kapitals wieder an, z.B. im Zusammenhang mit dem Eisenbahnbau.
Als Gegenmaßnahmen zur schlechten Infrastruktur begann man 1839 mit dem Ausbau der [[Grand Trunk Road]], einer schon seit der Mogulzeit bestehenden Straße von Delhi ausgehend, die bis [[Kolkata|Kalkutta]] geführt wurde. [[Bank]]en wurden eingerichtet, Dampfer auf den Flüssen eingesetzt und ab 1853 begann man mit dem Bau der ersten (schon in den 1840ern projektierten) [[Eisenbahn]]linie.

Im sozialen Bereich kam es zu weiteren Veränderungen. [[Sklaverei]] wurde abgeschafft und [[Sati|Witwenverbrennung]] wurde 1829 zumindest im Gebiet unter direkter britischer Verwaltung verboten. 1829 ging die Regierung auch gegen die [[Thugs]] vor, eine Mördersekte der Göttin [[Kali (Göttin)|Kali]]. Einer der Vorkämpfer einer Art geistigen Erneuerung Indiens war der Brahmanensohn [[Ram Mohan Roy]] (1772–1833), der sich gegen das [[Kastenwesen]], Witwenverbrennung und Unterdrückung der Frauen wandte. Sein Ziel war es, [[Hinduismus]] und [[Christentum]] in Einklang zu bringen, denn er ging davon aus, dass beide Glaubensrichtungen im Kern moralisch und rational waren.

Nach dem Sepoy-Aufstand wurde den Indern dieselben Rechte wie Briten zugesagt, und auch (bei entsprechender Befähigung) der Zugang zu allen Regierungsposten. Das hatte den Aufstieg vieler modern ausgebildeter Inder in der Verwaltung zur Folge, auch in höhere Posten bei der Armee. Auch unter direkter britischer Herrschaft fand eine gesteuerte Entwicklung der Kolonie statt, die dem Prinzip folgte, Rohstoffe in der Kolonie zu gewinnen, diese im Heimatland zu verarbeiten und die Kolonie gleichzeitig als Absatzmarkt für Fertigprodukte zu verwenden. Daher wurde Indien kaum [[Industrialisierung|industrialisiert]], es fand nur ein Ausbau der Infrastruktur, insbesondere der Eisenbahn statt. Hauptprodukte der Kolonie waren [[Baumwolle]] und [[Tee]]; auch große Mengen an [[Getreide]] ([[Weizen]]) wurden nach England exportiert.

Die Nutznießer der [[Modernisierung]] Indiens (Straßen, Kanäle, Eisenbahnen, Fabriken, Colleges und Universitäten, Zeitungen usw.) waren trotz allem in erster Linie die Briten. Denn letztendlich unterstand die indische Verwaltung der Kontrolle des "India Office" in London und damit dem britischen Parlament, nicht den Indern. Die Sprache der Oberschicht war [[Englische Sprache|Englisch]]. Die Gesetze galten zwar für alle, wurden jedoch von den Briten gemacht und die wirtschaftlichen Gewinner waren zunächst sie, dann erst die entstehende indische Mittelschicht.

Technische Errungenschaften wie etwa der Buchdruck wurden von den Indern selbst aufgenommen, und es entstand eine lebhafte indische Presse.

An der Masse der Bauern (oft ungebildet und verschuldet) und Handwerker ging die Modernisierung vorbei, sie war für sie ein Fremdgut ohne Beziehung zur eigenen Tradition. Dafür verschärften die Umstellung auf den Anbau von Exportprodukten wie [[Baumwolle]] anstelle von Grundnahrungsmitteln und die hohe Steuerbelastung die [[Armut]] auf dem Land. [[Dürre]] und [[Hochwasser]] verursachten immer wieder [[Hungersnot|Hungersnöte]] mit Millionen Opfern. Entsprechend ihrer ''[[laissez faire]]''-Wirtschaftspolitik unternahmen die Briten wenig, um den Hungernden beizustehen.

== Die Provinzen des Kaiserreichs Indien ==
=== Direkt kontrollierte Provinzen ===
*[[Madras (Präsidentschaft)|Madras]]: 1640 gegründet, Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts stark erweitert.
*[[Bombay (Präsidentschaft)|Bombay]]: 1687 von Surat nach Bombay verlegt. In den Kriegen gegen die [[Marathen]] erweitert.
*[[Bengalen (Präsidentschaft)|Bengalen]]: 1690 gegründet. Nach der [[Schlacht von Plassey]] und den Kriegen gegen die Marathen erweitert.
*[[Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri]]: vom [[Sindhia]] von [[Gwalior]] 1818 abgetreten
*[[Coorg]]: 1834 annektiert.
*''Nordwestprovinzen'': 1835 von der Präsidentschaft Bengalen abgetrennt; 1877 gemeinsame Verwaltung mit ''Awadh''; 1902 formelle Vereinigung der beiden Provinzen und Umbenennung in [[Vereinigte Provinzen von Agra und Awadh]].
*[[Awadh]] (''Oudh''): 1857 annektierter Fürstenstaat, seit 1877 von den ''Nordwestprovinzen'' verwaltet
*[[Punjab]]: 1849 aus in den [[Sikh-Kriegen]] erworbenen Territorien gegründet.
*[[Provinz Nagpur]]: 1853 aus einem annektierten Fürstenstaat geschaffen, 1861 an die Zentralprovinzen angeschlossen
*[[Zentralprovinzen (Indien)|Zentralprovinzen]]: 1861 aus der Vereinigung von Nagpur sowie den Saugor- and Nerbudda-Territorien entstanden. 1905 in ''Zentralprovinzen und [[Berar]]'' umbenannt.
*[[Birma]]: Unterer Teil 1852 annektiert, 1862 zur Provinz erhoben, oberer Teil 1886 hinzugefügt. 1937 vom Kaiserreich Indien abgetrennt und zur selbständigen [[Kronkolonie]] erhoben.
*[[Assam]]: 1874 von Bengalen abgetrennt.
*[[Andamanen und Nikobaren]]: 1875 als eigene Provinz organisiert.
*[[Belutschistan]]: die unter direkter Herrschaft stehenden Teile 1887 als Provinz organisiert.
*[[Nordwestprovinz]]: 1901 vom Punjab abgetrennt.
*[[Bihar|Bihar und Orissa]]: 1912 von Bengalen abgetrennt. Nach der Trennung Orissas 1935 ''Bihar'' genannt.
*[[Delhi (Stadt)|Delhi]]: 1912 mit der Erhebung Delhis zur Hauptstadt vom Punjab abgetrennt.
*[[Aden]]: 1932 von der Präsidentschaft Bombay abgetrennt; 1937 vom Kaiserreich Indien abgetrennt und zur eigenständigen Kronkolonie erhoben.
*[[Orissa]]: 1935 von Bihar getrennt.
*[[Sindh]]: 1935 von Bombay getrennt.
*[[Panth-Piploda]]: 1942 aus abgetretenen Fürstenstaaten zur Provinz erhoben.

=== Einer Provinz gleichgestellte Fürstenstaaten ===
*[[Hyderabad (Staat)|Hyderabad]]: Territorium des [[Nizam]]s
*[[Kaschmir]]
*[[Mysore (Staat)|Mysore]]
*[[Rajputana]]: eine Konföderation mehrerer Staaten – der Großteil des heutigen [[Rajasthan]]

== Anmerkungen ==
<references />

== Siehe auch ==

*[[Britische Ostindien-Kompanie]]
*[[Indischer Aufstand von 1857]]
*[[Generalgouverneur und Vizekönig von Indien]]
*[[Britische Kolonien]]
*[[Fürstenstaat]]en

== Literatur ==

*[[Gebrüder Schlagintweit|Emil Schlagintweit]]: ''Indien in Wort und Bild. Eine Schilderung des indischen Kaiserreiches''. 2 Bände. Leipzig 1880–1881 (Digitalisat: [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/schlagintweit1880 Band 1], [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/schlagintweit1881 Band 2])
*Lawrence James: Raj - The Making and Unmaking of British India, London, 1997, ISBN 0-316-64072-7
*Denis Judd: Lion and the Tiger. The Rise and Fall of the British Raj 1600-1947, Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-192-80358-1

== Weblinks ==

* [http://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/article.asp?article_id=1034&conferencier_id=3187 L'Inde britannique ou « le joyau de la Couronne » par Claude Markovits, sur le site de Clio]

[[Kategorie:Britische Kolonialgeschichte]]
[[Kategorie:Historisches Überseegebiet]]
[[Kategorie:Historischer Staat (Indien)]]
[[Kategorie:Geschichte Pakistans]]
[[Kategorie:Geschichte Bangladeschs]]
[[Kategorie:Südasiatische Geschichte]]

[[ar:الهند البريطانية]]
[[bg:Британска Индия]]
[[bn:ব্রিটিশ ভারত]]
[[cs:Britská Indie]]
[[da:Britisk Indien]]
[[en:British India]]
[[eo:Brita Hindio]]
[[es:Raj Británico]]
[[fi:Brittiläinen Intia]]
[[fr:Raj britannique]]
[[hi:ब्रिटिश राज]]
[[id:Kemaharajaan Britania]]
[[it:Raj Britannico]]
[[ja:イギリス領インド帝国]]
[[ml:ബ്രിട്ടീഷ് രാജ്]]
[[mr:ब्रिटिश भारत]]
[[nl:Brits-Indië]]
[[nn:Britisk India]]
[[no:Britisk India]]
[[pl:Indie Brytyjskie]]
[[pt:Índia britânica]]
[[ro:India Britanică]]
[[ru:Британская Индия]]
[[simple:British Raj]]
[[sv:Brittiska Indien]]
[[sw:Uhindi ya Kiingereza]]
[[th:บริติชราช]]
[[tr:Britanya Hindistanı]]
[[wuu:英属印度]]
[[zh:英属印度]]

Austin Farrer

2008-08-14T07:57:33Z

Xn4: typo

'''Austin Marsden Farrer''' (1904–[[29 December]] [[1968]]) was an [[England|English]] [[theologian]] and [[philosopher]].

==Life==
Farrer was born the only son of the three children of Augustus and Evangeline Farrer in [[Hampstead]], [[London]], [[England]]. His father was a [[Baptist]] minister and Farrer was brought up in that faith. Encouraged by his father to value scholarship he nevertheless found the divisions within the Baptist church dispiriting and whilst at university, became an [[Anglican]]. He went to [[St Paul's School (London)|St Paul's School]], in London where he gained a scholarship to [[Balliol College]], [[Oxford]], [[Oxfordshire]], [[England]]. Finding his spiritual home at [[St. Barnabas church]] in Oxford, his theology and his spirituality became profoundly [[Catholic]]. After gaining a first in Greats, he went up to Cuddesdon [[Seminary|Theological College]] where he trained with the future [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Michael Ramsey]]. He served a [[curacy]] in [[Dewsbury]], [[West Yorkshire]], [[England]] after which he was invited to become [[chaplain]] and [[tutor]] at [[St Edmund Hall]] in [[Oxford]] in 1931. He became [[Fellow]] and Chaplain of [[Trinity College, Oxford|Trinity College]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] from 1935 to 1960. On the death of [[Oliver Quick]] in 1959, the [[Regius Professor of Divinity|Regius Professorship of Divinity]] became vacant and Farrer's name was widely canvassed. However, his typological approach to the reading of Scripture, notably in his books on [[St. Mark]] and [[Book of Revelation|The Book of Revelation]], were out of the mainstream of biblical scholarship and his article 'On dispensing with Q' (one of the supposed lost sources of the [[Gospels]]) raised a furore on both sides of the Atlantic. [[Henry Chadwick]] was appointed instead. The following year, Farrer was appointed as Warden of [[Keble College, Oxford]], a post which he held until his death shortly after Christmas in 1968 aged 64.

After Farrer's sudden death, [[Spencer Barrett]] as Sub-Warden presided over the change of college statute which removed the requirement for Keble College's warden to be an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[clergy]]man.<ref name=hollis>Hollis, Adrian, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2001/oct/17/guardianobituaries.humanities Spencer Barrett, Oxford don devoted to classics and his college], obituary in ''[[The Guardian]]'', October 17 2001, online at guardian.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008</ref>

==Work==
Apart from his biblical scholarship, which was considered maverick, Farrer's work was mainly philosophical, though again he was out of the mainstream. He was not influenced by the empiricism of such contemporaries as [[John Wisdom]], [[Gilbert Ryle]] and [[A.J. Ayer]]. The 'Metaphysicals', as his small group of fellow thinkers were called, were of an entirely different temper. His thinking was essentially [[Thomist]]. One of his closer friends was the [[Christian apologist]] [[C.S. Lewis]] who dedicated his book on the [[Psalms]] to him. Farrer took the last sacraments to Lewis before his death. Others included [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] and [[Dorothy Sayers]]. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Farrer has been more studied and more admired since his death in the United States than in his own country.

His major contribution to Christian thought is his notion of 'double agency', that human actions are fully our own but also are the work of God, though perfectly hidden. He described God for such purposes as 'intelligent act' <ref> see his ''Fatih and Speculation'' (1968) </ref>.

He was known as a fine preacher and several books of his sermons were printed, all but one posthumously. He had the gift of marrying considerable scholarship with profound spirituality. Serving at a weekday mass with him was said to be a moving experience.

His books included several on St. Mark, two commentaries on the book of Revelation, a study of the Temptations, entitled ''The Triple Victory'', philosophical works such as ''The Freedom of the Will'', ''Finite and Infinite'' and ''Faith and Speculation'', the apologetic books '' A Science of God'' (which was the Archbishop's Lent Book) and ''Saving Belief'', a defence of the goodness of God called ''Love Almighty and Ills Unlimited'', a meditation on the Creed called ''Lord, I believe'' and numerous collections of sermons. Articles written by him, some of which were subsequently collected, run into dozens.

== Bibliography ==
* Philip Curtis, ''A Hawk among Sparrows: A Biography of Austin Farrer''. London: SPCK, 1985.
* Charles Conti, ''Metaphysical Personalism''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995
* Brian Hebblethwaite and Edward Henderson, eds., ''Divine Action: Studies Inspired by the Philosophical Theology of Austin Farrer''. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1990.
* Charles Hefling, ''Jacob's Ladder: Theology and Spirituality in the Thought of Austin Farrer''. Cambridge, MA: Cowley, 1979.
* David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson, eds., ''Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer''. New York and London: T & T Clark / Continuum, 2004. ISBN 0-567-02510-1 ''See the thorough and up-to-date bibliography in this book for secondary works--books, articles, dissertations, and discussions in books--about the philosophy, theology, preaching, and biblical studies of Austin Farrer.''

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Farrer, Austin}}
[[Category:1904 births]]
[[Category:1968 deaths]]
[[Category:British theologians]]
[[Category:Fellows of Trinity College, Oxford]]

Austin Farrer

2008-08-14T07:56:58Z

Xn4: /* Life */ note on aftermath of death

'''Austin Marsden Farrer''' (1904–[[29 December]] [[1968]]) was an [[England|English]] [[theologian]] and [[philosopher]].

==Life==
Farrer was born the only son of the three children of Augustus and Evangeline Farrer in [[Hampstead]], [[London]], [[England]]. His father was a [[Baptist]] minister and Farrer was brought up in that faith. Encouraged by his father to value scholarship he nevertheless found the divisions within the Baptist church dispiriting and whilst at university, became an [[Anglican]]. He went to [[St Paul's School (London)|St Paul's School]], in London where he gained a scholarship to [[Balliol College]], [[Oxford]], [[Oxfordshire]], [[England]]. Finding his spiritual home at [[St. Barnabas church]] in Oxford, his theology and his spirituality became profoundly [[Catholic]]. After gaining a first in Greats, he went up to Cuddesdon [[Seminary|Theological College]] where he trained with the future [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Michael Ramsey]]. He served a [[curacy]] in [[Dewsbury]], [[West Yorkshire]], [[England]] after which he was invited to become [[chaplain]] and [[tutor]] at [[St Edmund Hall]] in [[Oxford]] in 1931. He became [[Fellow]] and Chaplain of [[Trinity College, Oxford|Trinity College]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] from 1935 to 1960. On the death of [[Oliver Quick]] in 1959, the [[Regius Professor of Divinity|Regius Professorship of Divinity]] became vacant and Farrer's name was widely canvassed. However, his typological approach to the reading of Scripture, notably in his books on [[St. Mark]] and [[Book of Revelation|The Book of Revelation]], were out of the mainstream of biblical scholarship and his article 'On dispensing with Q' (one of the supposed lost sources of the [[Gospels]]) raised a furore on both sides of the Atlantic. [[Henry Chadwick]] was appointed instead. The following year, Farrer was appointed as Warden of [[Keble College, Oxford]], a post which he held until his death shortly after Christmas in 1968 aged 64.

After Farrer's sudden death, [[Spencer Barrett]] as Sub-Warden presided over the change of college statute which removed the requirement for Keble College's warden to be an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[clergy]]man.<ref name=hollis>Hollis, Adrian, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2001/oct/17/guardianobituaries.humanities Spencer Barrett, Oxford don devoted to classics and his college], obituary in ''[[The Guardian]]'', October 17 2001, online at guardian.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008</ref

==Work==
Apart from his biblical scholarship, which was considered maverick, Farrer's work was mainly philosophical, though again he was out of the mainstream. He was not influenced by the empiricism of such contemporaries as [[John Wisdom]], [[Gilbert Ryle]] and [[A.J. Ayer]]. The 'Metaphysicals', as his small group of fellow thinkers were called, were of an entirely different temper. His thinking was essentially [[Thomist]]. One of his closer friends was the [[Christian apologist]] [[C.S. Lewis]] who dedicated his book on the [[Psalms]] to him. Farrer took the last sacraments to Lewis before his death. Others included [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] and [[Dorothy Sayers]]. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Farrer has been more studied and more admired since his death in the United States than in his own country.

His major contribution to Christian thought is his notion of 'double agency', that human actions are fully our own but also are the work of God, though perfectly hidden. He described God for such purposes as 'intelligent act' <ref> see his ''Fatih and Speculation'' (1968) </ref>.

He was known as a fine preacher and several books of his sermons were printed, all but one posthumously. He had the gift of marrying considerable scholarship with profound spirituality. Serving at a weekday mass with him was said to be a moving experience.

His books included several on St. Mark, two commentaries on the book of Revelation, a study of the Temptations, entitled ''The Triple Victory'', philosophical works such as ''The Freedom of the Will'', ''Finite and Infinite'' and ''Faith and Speculation'', the apologetic books '' A Science of God'' (which was the Archbishop's Lent Book) and ''Saving Belief'', a defence of the goodness of God called ''Love Almighty and Ills Unlimited'', a meditation on the Creed called ''Lord, I believe'' and numerous collections of sermons. Articles written by him, some of which were subsequently collected, run into dozens.

== Bibliography ==
* Philip Curtis, ''A Hawk among Sparrows: A Biography of Austin Farrer''. London: SPCK, 1985.
* Charles Conti, ''Metaphysical Personalism''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995
* Brian Hebblethwaite and Edward Henderson, eds., ''Divine Action: Studies Inspired by the Philosophical Theology of Austin Farrer''. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1990.
* Charles Hefling, ''Jacob's Ladder: Theology and Spirituality in the Thought of Austin Farrer''. Cambridge, MA: Cowley, 1979.
* David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson, eds., ''Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer''. New York and London: T & T Clark / Continuum, 2004. ISBN 0-567-02510-1 ''See the thorough and up-to-date bibliography in this book for secondary works--books, articles, dissertations, and discussions in books--about the philosophy, theology, preaching, and biblical studies of Austin Farrer.''

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Farrer, Austin}}
[[Category:1904 births]]
[[Category:1968 deaths]]
[[Category:British theologians]]
[[Category:Fellows of Trinity College, Oxford]]

Bill Tilman

2008-08-12T06:54:57Z

Xn4: Category:Old Berkhamstedians

{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Bill Tilman
| image = HaroldWilliamTilman.jpg
| caption = Bill Tilman by Sandy Lee
| birth_date = [[February 14]], [[1898]]
| birth_place = [[Wallasey]], [[Cheshire]], [[England]]
| death_date = 1977
| death_place = South [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| occupation = [[Mountaineer]], [[Explorer]]
| salary =
| networth =
| spouse =
| website =[http://www.tilman.tv]
| footnotes =
}}

[[Major]] '''Harold William "Bill" Tilman''', [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Military Cross|MC and Bar]] ([[14 February]] [[1898]]–1977) was an [[England|English]] [[mountaineering|mountaineer]] and [[explorer]], renowned for his [[Himalaya]]n climbs and [[sailing]] voyages.

==Early years and Africa==
Tilman was born on [[14 February]] [[1898]] in [[Wallasey]] in [[Cheshire]], the son of a well-to-do [[sugar]] merchant and educated at [[Berkhamsted Collegiate School|Berkhamsted Boys school]]. At the age of 18, Tilman was commissioned into the [[Royal Field Artillery]] and fought in the [[World War I|First World War]], including the [[Battle of the Somme]], and was twice awarded the [[Military Cross]] for bravery. His climbing career, however, began with his acquaintance with [[Eric Shipton]] in [[Kenya]], [[East Africa]], where they were both [[coffee]] growers. Beginning with their joint traverse of [[Mount Kenya]] in 1929 and their ascents of [[Kilimanjaro]] and the fabled "Mountains of the Moon" [[Ruwenzori]], Shipton and Tilman formed one of the most famed partnerships in mountaineering history. When it came time to leave Africa, Tilman was not content with merely flying home but rode a bicycle across the continent to the West Coast where he embarked for England.

==World War II==
He later volunteered for service in the [[World War II|Second World War]], seeing action in North Africa, and on the beaches at [[Dunkirk, France|Dunkirk]]. He then was dropped by [[parachute]] behind enemy lines to fight with [[Albania]]n and [[Italy|Italian]] partisans, was awarded the [[Distinguished Service Order]] for his efforts, and the keys to the city of [[Belluno]] which he helped save from occupation and destruction.

==Asian mountaineering==
Tilman was involved in two of the 1930s [[Mount Everest]] expeditions - participating in the 1935 Reconnaissance Expedition, and reaching 27,200 feet without oxygen as the expedition leader in 1938. He penetrated the [[Nanda Devi]] sanctuary with [[Eric Shipton]] in 1934, and in 1936 he went on to lead an Anglo-American expedition to Nanda Devi. With the support of a team which included [[Peter Lloyd (mountaineer)|Peter Lloyd]] and [[H. Adams Carter]], Tilman and [[Noel Odell]] succeeded in making the first ascent of the mountain, which remained the highest summit climbed by man until 1950. Tilman later described their arrival on the summit:
::Odell had brought a thermometer, and no doubt sighed for the [[hypsometer]]. From it we found that the air temperature was 20°F but in the absence of the wind we could bask gratefully in the friendly rays of our late enemy the sun. It was difficult to realise that we were actually standing on top of the same peak which we had viewed two months ago from [[Ranikhet]], and which had then appeared incredibly remote and inaccessible, and it gave us a curious feeling of exaltation to know that we were above every peak within a hundred miles on either hand. [[Dhaulagiri]], 1,000ft higher, and 200 miles away in Nepal, was our nearest rival. I believe we so far forgot ourselves as to shake hands on it. <Ref> H. W. Tilman, 'Gentleman's Relish', in ''Mirrors in the Cliffs'', ed J. Perrin, (Diadem), pp. 220–1. ISBN 0-906371-95-3 </Ref>

In 1939, Tilman was the first man to attempt climbing in the remote and unexplored [[Assam Himalaya]], exploring the Southern approaches of Gori Chen, 6538 metres, before his team succumbed to malaria. In 1947 he attempted [[Rakaposhi]], then made his way to Kashgar to join up with [[Eric Shipton]] in a lightweight attempt on [[Muztagh Ata]], 7546 metres, which nearly succeeded. On his way back to India, he detoured through [[Afghanistan]]'s Wakhan Corridor to see the source of the river [[Oxus]]. During his extensive exploration of the areas of [[Langtang]], [[Ganesh Himal|Ganesh]] and Manang in [[Nepal]] in 1949, Tilman was the first to ascend Paldor, 5896 metres, and found the pass named after him beyond Gangchempo.

==Sailing==
Following his military career behind enemy lines in the [[Second World War]], Tilman took up deep sea sailing. Sailing in deep seas on the Bristol Channel pilot [[Cutter (ship)|cutter]] ''Mischief'', which he purchased in 1954, and subsequently on his other pilot cutters ''Sea Breeze'' and ''Baroque'', Tilman voyaged to [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctic]] waters in search of new and uncharted mountains to climb. On his last voyage in 1977, in his eightieth year, Tilman was invited to ship as crew in ''En Avant'' with mountaineers sailing to the South Atlantic to climb [[Smith Island]]. The expedition was led, and the boat skippered, by the youthful [[Simon Richardson]]. He and his crew aboard the old, converted steel [[tug]] made it successfully and without incident to [[Rio de Janeiro]]. Thereafter, en route to the [[Falkland Islands]], they disappeared without trace - it was presumed the ship had foundered with all hands.

==Partial mountaineering timeline: 1929-1950==
* 1929: Tilman is introduced to rock climbing in the [[Lake District]] of [[England]].
* 1930: He ascends Mawenzi and almost ascends Kibo on [[Kilimanjaro]], with Eric Shipton.
* 1930: He makes first ascent of West Ridge of Batian, and traverses to Nelion, with Shipton.
* 1932: Tilman ascends Mounts Speke, Baker, and Stanley in the [[Ruwenzori Range]], with Shipton.
* 1932: In April, he is involved in an accident in the Lake District which leads to the death of J. S. Brogden.
* 1932: Later that year, he makes various climbs in the Alps.
* 1933: Tilman ascends Kilimanjaro (to summit) alone.
* 1934: Tilman and Shipton, with three others, make the first recorded entrance into the [[Nanda Devi National Park|Nanda Devi Sanctuary]]. They also explore the nearby [[Badrinath]] Range.
* 1935: Tilman participates in the [[Mount Everest]] Reconnaissance Expedition, and climbs various peaks near Everest.
* 1936: Tilman attempts various peaks and passes, including the Zemu Gap, in [[Sikkim]], near [[Kangchenjunga]]. Later, he leads the first ascent of [[Nanda Devi]].
* 1937: Shipton and Tilman make a major reconnaissance and surveying expedition in the [[Karakoram]].
* 1938: Tilman leads another Mount Everest Expedition; he and three others reach above 27,300 ft (8,320 m) but fail to reach the summit.
* 1938: He traverses the Zemu Gap.
* 1939: He leads an expedition in the remote [[Assam Himalaya]], which ends in disaster. They attempt [[Gori Chen]], but reach only the lower slopes. The party was ravaged by [[Malaria]], causing the death of one member.
* 1941: Tilman climbs various peaks in [[Kurdistan]].
* 1942: He makes a night ascent of Zaghouan, in [[Tunisia]].
* 1947: Tilman leads an attempt on [[Rakaposhi]] which explores five different routes, none of which get near the summit. The expedition then explored the Kukuay Glacier on the southwest side of the [[Batura Muztagh]].
* 1947: He attempts [[Muztagh Ata]], with Shipton and Gyalgen Sherpa.
* 1948: Tilman attempts [[Bogda Feng]], in northern [[Xinjiang]], with Shipton and two others, but they only reach outlying summits.
* 1948: He attempts [[Chakragil]], in western [[Xinjiang]].
* 1948: He travels in the [[Chitral]] area of the [[Hindu Kush]].
* 1949: Tilman leads a four-month exploratory and scientific expedition to the [[Langtang]], [[Ganesh Himal|Ganesh]], and Jugal Himals in [[Nepal]], in the early stages of that country's re-opening to outsiders. He climbs Paldor in the Ganesh Himal.
* 1950: He leads the British [[Annapurna]] Expedition, which gets close to the summit of Annapurna IV, and attempts other nearby peaks.
* 1950: Tilman and [[Charles Snead Houston|Charles Houston]] view Mount Everest from the lower slopes of [[Pumori]], on the recently opened Nepalese side of the peak.

Source: ''The Seven Mountain-Travel Books''.

==Resources==
=== Documentary DVD ===
*"Warrior, Wanderer" The Life & Times of the Legendary Explorer Bill Tilman. DVD. Mistral Films. Due for release July, 2008.

=== Books ===
*"Warrior, Wanderer" The Life & Times of the Legendary Explorer Bill Tilman. Author David Glen. ISBN 1-887062-02-5
* Eric Shipton, ''The Six Mountain-Travel Books'' (Mountaineers Books, 1997), ISBN 0-89886-539-5.
* H. W. Tilman, ''Mount Everest 1938'' (Pilgrims Publishing) ISBN 81-7769-175-9 (contains the infamous Appendix B on the [[Yeti]])
* H. W. Tilman, ''Nepal Himalaya'' (Pilgrims Publishing) ISBN 81-7303-107-X
* H. W. Tilman, ''The Seven Mountain-Travel Books'' (Mountaineers` Books) ISBN 0-89886-960-9, comprising:
** ''Snow on the Equator'' (1937)
** ''The Ascent of Nanda Devi'' (1937)
** ''When Men and Mountains Meet'' (1946)
** ''Everest 1938'' (1948)
** ''Two Mountains and a River'' (1949)
** ''China to Chitral'' (1951)
** ''Nepal Himalaya'' (1952)
* H. W. Tilman, ''Eight Sailing/Mountain-Exploration Books'' (Diadem Books) ISBN 0-89886-143-8, comprising:
** ''Mischief in Patagonia'' (1957)
** ''Mischief among the Penguins'' (1961)
** ''Mischief in Greenland'' (1964)
** ''Mostly Mischief'' (1966)
** ''Mischief Goes South'' (1968)
** ''In Mischief's Wake'' (1971)
** ''Ice With Everything'' (1974)
** ''Triumph and Tribulation'' (1977)

==References==

{{reflist}}
* Anderson, John Richard Lane, ''High Mountains and Cold Seas: Life of H. W. Tilman'' (Gollancz Books) ISBN 0-575-02806-8
* Glen, David, ''Warrior, Wanderer: The Life & Times of the Legendary Explorer Bill Tilman'' (Progeny Books) ISBN 1-887062-02-5
* Madge, Tim, ''The Last Hero - Bill Tilman: A Biography of the Explorer'' (The Mountaineers' Books) ISBN 0-89886-452-6

== External links ==
*[http://www.tilman.tv/ 'Warrior Wanderer' The Life & Times of the Legendary Explorer by David A. Glen]
*Chris Bonington, ‘Tilman, Harold William (1898–1977x9)’, rev., [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31762 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography], Oxford University Press, 2004

{{wikiquote}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tilman, Bill}}
[[Category:1898 births]]
[[Category:1977 deaths]]
[[Category:Royal Artillery officers]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:English mountain climbers]]
[[Category:English explorers]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Military Cross]]
[[Category:Old Berkhamstedians]]
[[Category:People from Wallasey]]
[[Category:People lost at sea]]

[[it:Bill Tilman]]
[[pl:Bill Tilman]]

Frank Smythe

2008-08-12T06:54:17Z

Xn4: Category:Old Berkhamstedians

{{Cleanup|date=November 2007}}
'''Francis Sydney Smythe''', also known as '''Frank Smythe''' ([[6 July]] [[1900]] - [[27 June]] [[1949]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] mountaineer, author,<ref>{{cite book |title=An Alpine Journey
|author=Smythe, F. S.
|publisher=London, Victor Gollancz
|date=1934 }}</ref><ref name=fss1>{{cite book
|quotes=no
|author=F. S. Smythe
|year=1930
|title=The Kangchenjunga Adventure
|publisher=Victor Gollancz Ltd}}</ref><ref name=fss2 >{{cite book
|quotes=no
|author=F. S. Smythe
|year=1949
|title=The Valley of Flowers
|publisher=W.W. Norton}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Frank Smythe: The Six Alpine/Himalayan Climbing Books
|author=F. S. Smythe
|id=ISBN13 9780898867404}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=The Spirit of the Hills
|author=Smythe, F. S.
|publisher=London, Hodder & Stoughton
|date=1945 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Climbs in the Canadian Rockies
|author=Smythe, Frank S.
| publisher=London, Hodder and Stoughton
|date=1950 }} </ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Rocky Mountains
|author= Smythe, Frank S.
| publisher=London, Adam and Charles Black
|date=1948}} </ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Peaks and Valleys
|author=F. S. Smythe
|publisher=London, Adam and Charles Black
|date=1938}} </ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Over Tyrolean Hills
|author=F. S. Smythe
|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton
|date=1936}} </ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Snow on the Hills
|author=F. S. Smythe
|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton
|date=1946}} </ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=The Mountain Scene
|author=F. S. Smythe
|publisher=London, Adam and Charles Black
|date=1937}} </ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Mountains in Colour
|author=F. S. Smythe
|publisher=London, Max Parish
|date=1949}} </ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Climbs and Ski Runs: Mountaineering and Ski-ing in the Alps, Great Britain and Corsica
|author=F. S. Smythe
|publisher=William Blackwood
|date=1929}} </ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Camp Six: An account of the 1933 Mount Everest expedition
|author=F. S. Smythe
|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton
|date=1937}} </ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Kamet Conquered
|author=F. S. Smythe
|publisher=Victor Gollancz
|date=1932}} </ref> photographer and botanist in the early years of high altitude mountaineering.

Smythe trained as an electrical engineer and worked for brief periods with the Royal Air Force and Kodak before devoting himself to writing and public lecturing. Smythe enjoyed mountaineering, photography, collecting plants, and gardening; he toured as a lecturer; and he wrote a total of twenty seven books.{{fact|date=April 2008}}

He was best known as a mountaineer. The highlights of his climbing, summarized below, included first ascents of the Brenva Face of [[Mont Blanc]] and of [[Kamet]], and attempts on [[Kanchenjunga]] and [[Mount Everest]] in the 1930s. It has been stated that the man had a tendency for irascibility, that some of his mountaineering contemporaries said "decreased with altitude"<ref>{{cite book
|title=Everest: The Official History
|author=George Band
|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers Ltd
|date=2003}} </ref> Smythe's focused approach is well documented, not only through his own writings, but by his contemporaries and later works.

Among his many public lectures, Smythe gave at least several to the [[Royal Geographical Society]], his first being in [[1931]] titled "Explorations in Garhwal around Kamet", his second in [[1947]] titled "An Expedition to the Lloyd George Mountains, North-East British Columbia".

Smythe was a prodigious writer and produced many popular books. However his book "The Kangchenjunga Adventure" launched Smythe as a legitimate and respected author.<ref>{{cite book |title=Smythe's Mountains: F. S. Smythe and his Climbs
|author=Harry Calvert
|publisher=Gollancz
|date=1985}} </ref>

During the [[Second World War]] he served in the [[Canadian Rockies]] as a mountaineer training officer for the [[Lovat Scouts]]. He went on to write two books about climbing in the Rockies, ''Rocky Mountains'' (1948) and ''Climbs in the Canadian Rockies'' (1951). [[Mount Smythe]] (10,650 feet) was named in his honour.

In 1949, in [[Delhi]], he was taken ill with food poisoning; then a succession of [[malaria]] attacks took their toll and he died on June 27th 1949 two weeks before his 49th birthday.

==Climbing Highlights==
* [[1927]] and [[1928]] Smythe made the first ascent of the Brenva Face of [[Mont Blanc]].
* [[1930]] Smythe was a member of the international team (Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Greate Britain), to attempt [[Kangchenjunga]]. Under the leadership of Professor Dyrenfurth.
* [[1931]] Smythe was the leader of the first successful expedition to climb [[Kamet]] (7,756 m) in 1931, at the time it was the highest peak yet climbed. During the [[Kamet]] expedition Smythe and Holdswordth discovered what is now called the [[Valley of Flowers]]<ref name=fss2 >{{cite book |quotes=no |author=F. S. Smythe|year=1949|title=The Valley of Flowers|publisher=W.W. Norton}}</ref> in the Himalaya, now in the state of [[Uttarakhand]], [[India]].
* [[1933]] Smythe was a member of the Everest expedition lead by [[Hugh Ruttledge]].<ref name=hr1 >{{cite book |quotes=no |author=Hugh Ruttledge|year=1933|title=Everest 1933|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton}}</ref>
* [[1936]] Smythe was again a member of Hugh Ruttledge's 2nd Everest Expedition.
* [[1938]] Smythe was a member of [[Eric Shipton]] and [[Bill Tilman]]'s<ref name=bt1 >{{cite book |quotes=no |author=H. W. Tilman|year=1938|title=Mount Everest 1938|publisher=Pilgrims Publishing}}</ref> expedition to Everest.

== Citations ==
<div class="references"><references/></div>

==References==
*Arnold Lunn, ‘Smythe, Francis Sydney (1900–1949)’, rev. A. M. Snodgrass, [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/36175 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography], Oxford University Press, 2004
* [http://imagingeverest.rgs.org/Units/71.html Royal Geographical Society—Imaging Everest ]
* [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/campaigns/everest/franksmythe.xml Simon Smythe - Grandson's recollection]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Smythe, Frank}}

[[Category:1900 births]]
[[Category:1949 deaths]]
[[Category:British mountain climbers]]
[[Category:British writers]]
[[Category:English mountain climbers]]
[[Category:Old Berkhamstedians]]
[[Category:People from Chamoli]]
[[Category:British explorers]]
[[Category:English explorers]]

[[fr:Frank S. Smythe]]

Bill Fiske, Baron Fiske

2008-08-12T06:51:25Z

Xn4: Category:Old Berkhamstedians

:''This article is about Bill Fiske, British politician. There is an article on the US sportsman and fighter pilot [[Billy Fiske]].''

'''William Geoffrey Fiske, Baron Fiske''' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] ([[3 July]] [[1905]] - [[13 January]] [[1975]]), commonly known as '''Bill Fiske''', was the first Leader of the [[Greater London Council]] and oversaw the [[decimalisation]] of the [[Pound Sterling]] as Chairman of the Decimal Currency Board.

Fiske came from a middle-class family with radical sympathies who often discussed politics, with his maternal grandfather a particularly strong influence. However, in his early life Fiske's main interest was in the art of ancient Greece. He was sent to [[Berkhamsted Collegiate School]], and on leaving, went to work for the [[Bank of England]]. After twelve years at the Bank, he took advantage of its generous pension scheme and left in [[1935]], and began to work as a Company Secretary.

When [[World War II]] broke out, Fiske was drafted as a specialist into the [[Civil Service]] where he founded the Society of Civil Servants. The war helped to energise him in politics generally and he unsuccessfully fought the constituency of [[Hampstead]] for the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] in the general election of [[1945]].

The next year saw Fiske elected to the [[London County Council]] for [[Hammersmith]] South, a seat previously held by the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]]. He managed to hold his seat and make it safe, while gradually becoming so enthusiastic about council work that by [[1955]] it had eclipsed his previous ambitions to be elected to Parliament. (On becoming Leader of the GLC, he observed that "Here you see far more of the results of what you do than you can across the river.")

Fiske became popular among his colleagues in the Labour Group and in [[1960]] he was elected as Chief Whip, deposing Freda Corbet who had held the job for 12 years and was a close ally of the Labour leader [[Isaac Hayward]]. He was less popular among individual members of the Labour Party, and when the LCC was abolished, he was selected as a candidate for the new [[Greater London Council]] in [[London Borough of Havering|Havering]], which was marginal. He was however selected as the Leader of the Labour Group for the GLC elections.

He fought the [[1964]] elections on traditional lines, campaigning on the record of the LCC in building new [[Council housing]] which was regarded as good quality at the time. Despite predictions that the wider boundaries of the GLC would hand power to the Conservatives, Fiske was returned in his own seat and Labour won a comfortable victory. When Labour won the general election later that year, Fiske was given a [[knighthood]].

In power Fiske's administration treated the GLC as a version of the LCC with wider boundaries, which ignored the increased power of the new London Boroughs. Attempts to press GLC policy on unwilling boroughs were made but could now be resisted. The GLC also had to cope with increasing road transport problems because of the increase in the number of cars. Fiske proposed to increase charges for parking in inner London, with residents' parking permits required for those living in the zone, stating that he hoped more people would leave their car and use public transport. The scheme proved unpopular among car drivers.

Fiske carried on a policy of subsidies for the arts, and it was under his leadership that the decision was made to build the [[Royal National Theatre]] on the South Bank site. He himself served as a member of the board. However, he was unable to hold council house rents down as far as he wished.

The [[1967]] elections took place when the Labour Government of [[Harold Wilson]] had become unpopular and it was accepted that Fiske would find it difficult to hold on. However, the result was shattering. Not merely did Fiske lose his own seat, the Labour Party was reduced to only 20 members. Fiske accepted immediately that his career in local politics was over. He received a [[life peerage]] with the title '''Baron Fiske''', of Brent in [[Greater London]] as a consolation.

He had already been handed a lifeline by [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] [[James Callaghan]] who, thinking of his Bank of England experience, appointed him Chairman of the Decimal Currency Board on [[12 December]] [[1966]]. Fiske was charged with arranging the changeover from a Pound consisting of 20 shillings, with each shilling containing 12 pence, to a decimalised Pound of 100 new pence.

Fiske led an ambitious public campaign in the years leading up to the switch, trying to make sure every business and every consumer was aware of the implications. Public information films were made and shown on television and leaflets were distributed by the Government. The date for the switch, which became known as '[[Decimal day]]' or 'D day', was set for Monday [[15 February]] [[1971]] but the new decimal coins (some of which were the same value as existing pre-decimal coinage) were introduced gradually.

In the event, despite some predictions of disaster, D day went off smoothly, with the main concerns being over retailers using the opportunity to round prices up and thereby boost inflation. The Decimal Currency Board was wound up at the end of 1971, and Fiske then went into retirement. He used his seat in the Lords to campaign in support of council tenants, statutory control of estate agents, and for better treatment of [[diabetes]].

{{start box}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box|title=Leader of the [[Greater London Council]]|years=1964-67|before=''New creation''|after=[[Desmond Plummer|Sir Desmond Plummer]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Labour Party politicians (UK)|Fiske, Bill]]
[[Category:Members of the London County Council|Fiske, Bill]]
[[Category:Members of the Greater London Council|Fiske, Bill]]
[[Category:Life peers|Fiske, Bill Fiske, Baron]]
[[Category:Old Berkhamstedians|Fiske]]
[[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire|Fiske, Bill]]
[[Category:1905 births|Fiske, Bill]]
[[Category:1975 deaths|Fiske, Bill]]

Martin Burgess

2008-08-11T03:14:01Z

Xn4: /* Education */ -> /* Early life */ & typo fixed

'''Edward Martin Burgess''' [[Society of Antiquaries of London|FSA]] [[British Horological Institute|FBHI]], born [[21 November]] [[1931]], known as '''Martin Burgess''', is an [[England|English]] [[horologist]] and master [[clockmaker]].
==Early life==
Burgess was educated at [[Gresham's School]], [[Holt, Norfolk|Holt]], between 1944 and 1949, where he was a member of [[Farfield]]. His exact contemporaries at Farfield included [[Robert Aagaard]], later a furniture maker and conservator who founded the youth movement Cathedral Camps.<ref>''Old Greshamian Club Book'' (Cromer, Cheverton & Son Ltd, 1998), p. 17</ref><ref>'AAGAARD, Robert', in ''Who Was Who'', A. & C. Black, 1920–2007; online edition by [[Oxford University Press]], December 2007: [http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whowaswho/U4890 AAGAARD, Robert] (subscription required), accessed 10 August 2008</ref>

==Career==
After a first career as a restorer of [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] antiquities, Burgess turned to [[horology]] and [[clockmaker|clock-making]] and has specialized in building innovative and gigantic [[clock]]s, often with a detached [[escapement]].

He is also a leading expert on [[John Harrison]], the 18th century horologist who built the first ever successful marine [[chronometer]], leading to the possibility of an accurate measurement of [[longitude]]. Even now, the principles of Harrison's regulator clocks are not fully understood.

Burgess coined the term ''sculptural horology'' in the 1960s.

===Notable clocks===
Burgess’s '''Sculptural Clock with Bells''' has the dimensions 8’ high, 54 1/2” wide, and 18 1/2” deep, and is now in the Former Time Museum of [[Rockford, Illinois]].

His magnificent '''Second Sculptural Clock''', made in 1965, is now
owned by the American graphic artist Donald Saff. The clock (which appeared on the cover of the ''[[Horological Journal]]'' for August 2001) has a massive compound [[pendulum]] which beats at 2.5 seconds and an escape wheel which turns in five minutes. A limited edition of thirty-five half-size replicas, known as ‘Concord clocks’, [[John Harrison|Harrison style]] with grasshopper escapement and compound pendulum, was made by E. Dent and has the dimensions 30" high, 14" wide, 11" deep.

His '''Gurney Clock''' was given to the people of [[Norwich]] by [[Barclays Bank]] to mark the 200th anniversary of the founding of what is now Barclays by the [[Gurney]] family in Norwich in 1775. The clock is in the shape of a golden lion [[automaton]] in a golden castle (the lion and castle are two of the [[Heraldry|heraldic]] symbols of Norwich) and has a weight-driven observatory Harrison regulator of a type designed in 1775. On the hour, bronze balls are taken by the lion and travel down a track to a set of scales (a symbol of Barclay’s Bank) and on into the castle. The clock took eleven years to build and was housed in a public park, but by 1992 it had been badly vandalised. After a long campaign by the Norwich Society, it was then restored and installed in the Castle Mall, Norwich, inside a massive glass and metal case.

==Publications==
*''The Mail-maker's Technique'' in ''The Antiquaries Journal'' Vol 33 (1953) 48-55
*''Further Research into the Construction of Mail Garments'' in ''The Antiquaries Journal'' Vol 33 (1953) 193-202
*''The Mail Shirt From Sinigaglia'' in ''The Antiquaries Journal'' Vol 37 (1957) 199-205
*''A Mail Shirt From The Hearst Collection'' in ''The Antiquaries Journal''
*''A Habergeon of Westwale'' by William Reid and E. Martin Burgess in ''The Antiquaries Journal''
*''The Grasshopper Escapement, its Geometry and its Properties'' in ''Antiquarian Horology'', Volume 7, part 5 (1970)
*''Principles and Objectives'', in ''Conservation of Clocks and Watches'' (ed. Peter B. Wills, British Horological Institute)
*''How Greenwich Observatory Lost the Harrison Regulators'' (in ''Horological Journal'', November 1974)
*''The Harrison Regulator for the Gurney Clock'' (in ''Horological Journal'', July 1987)
*''Looking forward to the Harrison Seminar'' (in ''Horological Journal'', July 1988)
*''Reply to Mr Greene from Martin Burgess'' (in ''Horological Journal'', April 1990)
*''Questioning Airy'' (in ''Horological Journal'', July 1990)
*''Harrison & H4'' (in ''Horological Journal'', November 1993)
*''Quest for Longitude'' (in ''Horological Journal'', April 1997)

==Honours==
*Fellow of the [[Society of Antiquaries of London|Society of Antiquaries]]
*Fellow of the [[British Horological Institute]]

==Documentary film==
The documentary ''Clock-maker'' (1971), directed and produced by Richard Gayer, is a profile of Burgess. It focuses on the building of one of his gigantic clocks, an open mechanism eighteen feet high, driven by weights and weighing some 350 kilograms, or 760 pounds avoirdupois.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
*[http://www.michlmayr.com/gurney.asp The Gurney Clock]
*[http://www.bhi.co.uk/hj/John%20Harrison%20in%20the%20HJ.htm Burgess on John Harrison]
*[http://www.my-time-machines.net/dent_-_concorde.htm The Dent-Concord clock]
*[http://surfin_dude.tripod.com/creative/clocks/future/hopes.html Time to Dream]
*[http://norwich1.com/interesting.htm Norwich's Gurney Clock]
*[http://www.ahsoc.demon.co.uk/AHS%20list%20of%20articles.pdf Antiquarian Horology]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Burgess, Martin}}
[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:Clockmakers]]
[[Category:Old Greshamians]]
[[Category:People from Essex]]
[[Category:English designers]]
[[Category:English inventors]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Martin Burgess

2008-08-11T03:12:42Z

Xn4: {{reflist|2}}, linked Robert Aagaard

'''Edward Martin Burgess''' [[Society of Antiquaries of London|FSA]] [[British Horological Institute|FBHI]], born [[21 November]] [[1931]], known as '''Martin Burgess''', is an [[England|English]] [[horologist]] and master [[clockmaker]].
==Education==
Burgess was educated at [[Gresham's School]], [[Holt, Norfolk|Holt]], between 1944 and 1949, where he was a member of [[Farfield]]. His exact contemporaries at Farfield included [[Robert Aagaard]], later a furniture maker and conservator who founded the youth movement Cathedral Camps.<ref>''Old Greshamian Club Book'' (Cromer, Cheverton & Son Ltd, 1998), p. 17</ref><ref>'AAGAARD, Robert', in ''Who Was Who'', A. & C. Black, 1920–2007; online edition by [[Oxford University Press]], December 2007: [http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whowaswho/U4890 AAGAARD, Robert] (subscription required), accessed 10 August 2008</ref><ref name=ind/>

==Career==
After a first career as a restorer of [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] antiquities, Burgess turned to [[horology]] and [[clockmaker|clock-making]] and has specialized in building innovative and gigantic [[clock]]s, often with a detached [[escapement]].

He is also a leading expert on [[John Harrison]], the 18th century horologist who built the first ever successful marine [[chronometer]], leading to the possibility of an accurate measurement of [[longitude]]. Even now, the principles of Harrison's regulator clocks are not fully understood.

Burgess coined the term ''sculptural horology'' in the 1960s.

===Notable clocks===
Burgess’s '''Sculptural Clock with Bells''' has the dimensions 8’ high, 54 1/2” wide, and 18 1/2” deep, and is now in the Former Time Museum of [[Rockford, Illinois]].

His magnificent '''Second Sculptural Clock''', made in 1965, is now
owned by the American graphic artist Donald Saff. The clock (which appeared on the cover of the ''[[Horological Journal]]'' for August 2001) has a massive compound [[pendulum]] which beats at 2.5 seconds and an escape wheel which turns in five minutes. A limited edition of thirty-five half-size replicas, known as ‘Concord clocks’, [[John Harrison|Harrison style]] with grasshopper escapement and compound pendulum, was made by E. Dent and has the dimensions 30" high, 14" wide, 11" deep.

His '''Gurney Clock''' was given to the people of [[Norwich]] by [[Barclays Bank]] to mark the 200th anniversary of the founding of what is now Barclays by the [[Gurney]] family in Norwich in 1775. The clock is in the shape of a golden lion [[automaton]] in a golden castle (the lion and castle are two of the [[Heraldry|heraldic]] symbols of Norwich) and has a weight-driven observatory Harrison regulator of a type designed in 1775. On the hour, bronze balls are taken by the lion and travel down a track to a set of scales (a symbol of Barclay’s Bank) and on into the castle. The clock took eleven years to build and was housed in a public park, but by 1992 it had been badly vandalised. After a long campaign by the Norwich Society, it was then restored and installed in the Castle Mall, Norwich, inside a massive glass and metal case.

==Publications==
*''The Mail-maker's Technique'' in ''The Antiquaries Journal'' Vol 33 (1953) 48-55
*''Further Research into the Construction of Mail Garments'' in ''The Antiquaries Journal'' Vol 33 (1953) 193-202
*''The Mail Shirt From Sinigaglia'' in ''The Antiquaries Journal'' Vol 37 (1957) 199-205
*''A Mail Shirt From The Hearst Collection'' in ''The Antiquaries Journal''
*''A Habergeon of Westwale'' by William Reid and E. Martin Burgess in ''The Antiquaries Journal''
*''The Grasshopper Escapement, its Geometry and its Properties'' in ''Antiquarian Horology'', Volume 7, part 5 (1970)
*''Principles and Objectives'', in ''Conservation of Clocks and Watches'' (ed. Peter B. Wills, British Horological Institute)
*''How Greenwich Observatory Lost the Harrison Regulators'' (in ''Horological Journal'', November 1974)
*''The Harrison Regulator for the Gurney Clock'' (in ''Horological Journal'', July 1987)
*''Looking forward to the Harrison Seminar'' (in ''Horological Journal'', July 1988)
*''Reply to Mr Greene from Martin Burgess'' (in ''Horological Journal'', April 1990)
*''Questioning Airy'' (in ''Horological Journal'', July 1990)
*''Harrison & H4'' (in ''Horological Journal'', November 1993)
*''Quest for Longitude'' (in ''Horological Journal'', April 1997)

==Honours==
*Fellow of the [[Society of Antiquaries of London|Society of Antiquaries]]
*Fellow of the [[British Horological Institute]]

==Documentary film==
The documentary ''Clock-maker'' (1971), directed and produced by Richard Gayer, is a profile of Burgess. It focuses on the building of one of his gigantic clocks, an open mechanism eighteen feet high, driven by weights and weighing some 350 kilograms, or 760 pounds avoirdupois.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
*[http://www.michlmayr.com/gurney.asp The Gurney Clock]
*[http://www.bhi.co.uk/hj/John%20Harrison%20in%20the%20HJ.htm Burgess on John Harrison]
*[http://www.my-time-machines.net/dent_-_concorde.htm The Dent-Concord clock]
*[http://surfin_dude.tripod.com/creative/clocks/future/hopes.html Time to Dream]
*[http://norwich1.com/interesting.htm Norwich's Gurney Clock]
*[http://www.ahsoc.demon.co.uk/AHS%20list%20of%20articles.pdf Antiquarian Horology]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Burgess, Martin}}
[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:Clockmakers]]
[[Category:Old Greshamians]]
[[Category:People from Essex]]
[[Category:English designers]]
[[Category:English inventors]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Welbeck Abbey

2008-08-10T03:02:48Z

Xn4: added Image:WELBECK Paragon un Barbe.jpg

{{Expand|date=May 2007}}

'''Welbeck Abbey''' was the principal [[abbey]] of the [[Premonstratensian]] order in England and later the principal residence of the [[Dukes of Portland]].

==Monastic period==
The Abbey's estate was first mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]], where it is recorded as belonging to one Hugh FitzBaldric. [[Thomas de Cuckney]] founded an there in 1140. It was an abbey of [[Premonstratensian]] canons, dedicated to [[Saint James the Great|St James the Great]]. The abbey was enriched by liberal gifts from the Goushills, D’Eyncourts, Bassets, and other families of [[Nottinghamshire]]; and it also received a considerable grant from [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]. With so much wealth at his disposal, the Abbot of Welbeck was an influential man, and in 1512 all the houses of the order in England were placed under his care.

===Abbots of Welbeck Abbey===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-2}}
* Berengar, occurs between 1153 and 1169
* Adam, occurs between 1183 and 1194
* Richard, occurs between 1194 and 1224
* William, occurs 1229, 1236, 1243
* Richard, occurs 1250, 1252, 1256-7
* Adam, occurs 1263, 1272, 1276
* Thomas, occurs 1281, 1292
* John de Duckmanton, 1309
* John de Cestrefeld, 1310
* William de Kendall, 1316
* John de Nottingham, 1322
* William de Aslakeden, 1335
* Robert Spalding, 1341
* John de Wirksop, 1349
{{Col-2-of-2}}
* Hugh de Langley, 1360
* George de Gamelston, occurs 1369, 1383, 1387
* William de Staveley, occurs 1389
* John Bankwell, occurs 1393
* John de Norton, occurs 1412, dies 1450
* [[John Greene]], 1450
* William Burton, occurs 1475, 1482
* John Lancaster alias Acastre, occurs 1488, 1491
* John Copper, occurs 1492
* Thomas Wydur, occurs 1494, 1497, 1500
* Robert, occurs 1502
* Thomas Wilkinson, 1503
* John Maxey, 1520, died 1536
* Richard Bentley, surrendered 1538
{{Col-end}}

==Country house==
[[Image:WELBECK Paragon un Barbe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Welbeck Abbey in the 17th century]]

Upon the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the site was granted by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] to Richard Whalley, of [[Screveton]]. After being owned by a [[City of London]] clothier, the abbey was purchased from [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury|Gilbert, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]], by Sir Charles Cavendish, son of [[Bess of Hardwick]]. It then passed to Sir Charles's son [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|William Cavendish]], later first [[Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne]]. Members of the Cavendish family converted it into a [[English country house|country house]] and added a riding house in the 17th century, al though only a few basements and inner walls were retained from the original fabric of the former Abbey buildings.

Welbeck became the principal family seat of the early [[Duke of Newcastle|Dukes of Newcastle]]. In the 18th century, it passed through an heiress into the Bentinck family and became the main seat of the [[Earl of Portland|Earls and Dukes of Portland]].

The [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]] undertook what are considered the most substantial building works at Welbeck.

The kitchen gardens covered 22 acres and were surrounded by high walls with recesses behind them in which [[brazier]]s could be placed to hasten the ripening of fruit. One of the walls, a peach wall, measured over 1000 feet in length.

An immense new riding house was built which was 396' long, 108' wide and 50' high and which enclosed a tan gallop of 422 yards. It was lit by 4,000 gas jets.

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

There was a tunnel over one thousand yards in length, leading from the house to the riding school and wide enough for several people to walk side by side. Parallel to this tunnel was another, more roughly constructed, which was used by workmen.
A longer and more elaborate tunnel, one and a half miles long and intended as a carriage drive broad enough for two carriages to pass, was said to lead towards Worksop, but the true extent of this is not clear.

The 5th Duke also excavated underground chambers. One was a great hall, 160 feet long and 63 feet wide and originally intended as a chapel, then used as a picture gallery and occasionally as a ballroom. All these underground rooms were painted pink. The Duke also made many alterations to the house above ground. A vast amount of plumbing was done with elaborate new bathrooms made and a great many new pipes laid.

New lodges were built at different entrances to the Park.

This work cost prodigious sums and involved the employment of thousands of men - masons, bricklayers, joiners, plumbers, navvies etc. While there were disputes from time to time (wages, hours, etc) the Duke personally got on very well with his employees and earned the nickname 'the workman's friend'. He created employment in the district both for the skilled and the unskilled.

By 1879 Welbeck was in a state of disrepair. The only rooms habitable were the four or five rooms used by the 5th Duke in the west wing. All the rooms were painted pink, with parquet floors, all bare and without furniture, except that almost every room had a 'convenience' in the corner.

After the Second World War, Welbeck was leased by the Dukes of Portland to the Ministry of Defence and was used as an army training college, '[[Welbeck College]]' until 2005.

==Welbeck today==
The descendents of the Cavendish Bentinck family still live on the estate. The Abbey itself is the home of William Parente, the only grandchild of the [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland|7th Duke of Portland]] and his [[Ivy Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland|Duchess]],<ref name=burke>Charles Mosley, ed., ''Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage'', 107th edition, 3 volumes (Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 2003), volume 3, page 3336</ref> who was appointed [[High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire]] in 2003,<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=56884|startpage=3603|endpage=3604|date=[[21 March]] [[2003]]|accessdate=2008-07-24}}</ref> while Lady Anne Bentinck, the younger daughter of the 7th Duke, lives at Welbeck Woodhouse, and owns most of the 17,000 acre estate.

==List of owners and occupiers==
* ca 1086 Hugh FitzBaldric
* 1140 - 1538 [[Premonstratensian]] canons in the Abbey of St. James
* 1538 - 1558 Richard Whalley of [[Screveton]]
* 1558 - 1595 Edward Osborne of London, ''citizen and clothworker''
* 1595 - ???? Robert Booth and Ranulph Catterall
* ???? - 1607 [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]] and [[Mary Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury]]
* 1607 - 1617 [[Sir Charles Cavendish]]
* 1617 - 1676 [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1676 - 1691 [[Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1691 - 1711 [[John Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]] and [[Lady Margaret Cavendish]]
* 1711 - 1734 [[Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer]] and [[Lady Henrietta Cavendish Holles]]
* 1734 - 1785 [[William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland]] and [[Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland]]
* 1785 - 1809 [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland]]
* 1809 - 1854 [[William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland]]
* 1854 - 1879 [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland]]
* 1879 - 1943 [[William John Arthur Charles James Cavendish-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland]]
* 1943 - 1977 [[William Arthur Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland]] and [[Ivy Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland]]
* 1977 - Present [[Lady Alexandra Margaret Anne Cavendish-Bentinck]]
* 1943 - 2005 [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] (leasing the majority of the abbey from the 7th Duke and his successors)
* 1992 - Present [[William Henry Marcello Parente]] (grandson of the 7th Duke, occupying part of the abbey with his family)

==References==
[[Image:WelbeckAbbeyJonesViews1829.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey in 1829]]
{{reflist|2}}

==Links==
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_hgpm.asp?ID=2076 Welbeck Abbey entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/follies/portland.html Follies]
*[http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/Jacks1881/welbeckp1.htm Jacks, The Great Houses of Nottinghamshire]
*[http://web.mac.com/sostler Welbeck Postcards]

[[Category:Houses in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:Monasteries in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:1140 establishments]]
[[Category:1538 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in the 1140s]]
[[Category:Premonstratensian monasteries in England]]
[[Category:Subterranea]]

Franz von Pocci

2008-08-08T20:13:18Z

Xn4: /* Ehrungen */ + Bild:Pocci Ritter, Lustige Gesellschaft.jpg

[[Image:Franz von Pocci.jpg|thumb|Franz Graf von Pocci, Foto von [[Franz Hanfstaengl]], 1857]]
[[Bild:Franz Graf von Pocci.jpg|thumb|Franz Graf von Pocci]]

Der „Kasperlgraf“ '''Franz Graf von Pocci''' ''(gesprochen "Potschi")'' (* [[7. März]] [[1807]] in [[München]]; † [[5. Juli]] [[1876]] ebd.) war ein deutscher [[Zeichner]], [[Radierung|Radierer]], [[Schriftsteller]] und [[Musiker]].

== Leben ==
Franz von Pocci war der Sohn des [[Italien|italienischen]] Offiziers Fabrizio, der an den [[Bayern|bayerischen]] Königshof zu [[Kurfürst]] [[Karl Theodor (Pfalz und Bayern)|Karl Theodor]] gerufen wurde. Seine Mutter war eine [[Dresden|Dresdner]] Baronin. Nach dem Studium der [[Rechtswissenschaft|Rechtswissenschaften]] wurde er mit 23 Jahren [[Zeremonienmeister]] [[Ludwig I. (Bayern)|König Ludwigs I.]] von Bayern. Dieser berief ihn 1847 zum Hofmusikintendanten und ernannte ihn 1864 zum königlich-bayerischen Oberstkämmerer.

Pocci unterstützte den Marionettentheater-Gründer [[Josef Leonhard Schmid|Josef Leonhard "Papa" Schmidt]] beim schwierigen Genehmigungsverfahren für das [[Münchner Marionettentheater]]. Auf seinen Rat hin beantragte Schmidt das Theater für Kinder und Erwachsene.

== Werk ==
Der „Kasperlgraf“ verfasste mehr als 40 [[Kasper]]lstücke für das [[Marionette|Marionettentheater]] mit Themen aus der [[Märchen]]- und [[Sage]]nwelt sowie Beiträge für die [[Münchener Bilderbogen]]. Er war sehr kreativ und produktiv und hinterließ der Nachwelt unzählige Karikaturen und rund 600 Musikstücke, so zum Beispiel das Lied "Wenn ich ein Vöglein wär".

Seine Kasperlgeschichten ranken sich um den Kasperl [[Larifari]], der jedoch kein netter Held, sondern eine eher ambivalente Figur ist. Larifari weist auch dunkle Seiten auf und ist als ein nie erwachsen gewordener Erwachsener zu verstehen. Larifari hat keine Eltern, sondern wird von einem Zauberer in ein goldenes Ei hineingezaubert und einer Henne zum Ausbrüten gegeben. Er hatte so nie die Chance, in einer intakten Familie aufzuwachsen und wird zum Blender, Trickser und Narzissmus|Narzissten.

Gleichwohl ist Pocci nicht der Erfinder des Kasperltheaters. Beispielsweise existierten davor schon in England der [[Mr. Punch]] oder im deutschsprachigen Raum der [[Hanswurst]]. Entstanden ist die Figur des Larifari im Salzburger Land als derbes Vergnügen, das Pocci in seinen Werken kultivieren wollte.

==Ehrungen==
[[Bild:Pocci Ritter, Lustige Gesellschaft.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Ritter'', Bild von Pocci aus ''Lustige Gesellschaft'' (1867)]]
In München ist nach ihm die [[Liste Münchner Straßennamen|Poccistraße]] und die anliegende [[U-Bahn München|U-Bahn]]haltestelle benannt, in Landshut der Graf-Pocci-Weg.

Am 11. März 2006 wurde ihm zu Ehren in [[Münsing]] ein Denkmal errichtet: Poccis Sommerresidenz für mehr als die letzten drei Jahrzehnte seines Lebens war sein zu Münsing gehörendes ''Schloss Ammerland'' gewesen.

Zusätzlich soll in München vor dem Marionettentheater noch 2007 anlässlich seines 200. Geburtstages ein weiteres Denkmal neben dem Eingang in der Blumenstraße aufgestellt werden. Geschaffen wird es vom Künstler [[Ernst Grünwald]]. Seine Form soll an eine kleine transportable Bühne erinnern. Vor einem großen Porträt Poccis steht das Münchner Kindl, das den sich verneigenden Kasperl Larifari vorstellt.

Anlässlich des 200. Geburtstages des Künstlers zeigte die [[Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]] von 27. Juli bis 14. Oktober 2007 eine Ausstellung des Schriftstellers, Zeichners und Komponisten Pocci: Lebensdokumente, Briefe, Originalzeichnungen und Druckgrafiken.

== Literatur ==
* Die Pocci-Gesellschaft bringt zusammen mit [[Monacensia]], [[Bayerische Staatsbibliothek|Bayerischer Staatsbibliothek]] und [[Internationale Jugendbibliothek|Internationaler Jugendbibliothek]] 2007 eine Gesamtausgabe heraus.
* Marianne Bernhard (Hrsg.): ''Franz Graf von Pocci. Die gesamte Druckgraphik''. Rogner und Bernhard, München 1974, ISBN 3-8077-0022-6, ISBN 3-8077-0025-0
* Annemarie Czettritz: ''Franz Graf Pocci. Freund der Kinder und der Musen.'' Bayerische Vereinsbank, München, 1979
* Michael Dirrigl: ''Franz Graf Pocci. Der Kasperlgraf; "drîer künege getriuwer kameraere"''. Lectura, Nürnberg 2001, ISBN 3-934772-32-3
* Johannes Glötzner: ''Der nackerte Larifari - Franz Graf von Poccis Nudität-Satire''. Edition Enhuber, München, 2007
* Günter Goepfert: ''Franz von Pocci. Vom Zeremonienmeister zum "Kasperlgrafen". Lebens- und Schaffenswege eines universellen Talents''. Verlagsanstalt Bayerland, Dachau 1999, ISBN 3-89251-265-5
* Anna Lucas: ''Franz Pocci und das Kinderbuch. Mit einer Bearbeitung der Schattenspiele.'' Regensberg, Münster in W. 1929
* Eckart Sackmann: ''"Der Staatshämorrhoidarius". In: ders. (Hg.): Deutsche Comicforschung 2007. Comicplus, Hildesheim 2006, ISBN 3-89474-168-6, S. 16-32.
* Reinhard Valenta: ''Franz von Poccis Münchener Kulturrebellion. Alternatives Theater in der Zeit des bürgerlichen Realismus''. Ludwig, München 1991, ISBN 3-7787-2117-8 (zugleich Dissertation der Universität Konstanz)
* Franz Wolter: ''Franz von Pocci als Simplizissimus der Romantik.'' Schmidt, München, 1925

== Weblinks ==
{{Wikiquote|Franz Graf von Pocci}}
* {{PND|118595245}}
* [https://opacplus.bsb-muenchen.de/InfoGuideClient/start.do?Login=opacextez&SearchType=1&Query=-1%3dPocci&BaseURL=https%3a%2f%2fopacplus.bsb-muenchen.de%2fInfoGuideClient%2fstart.do%3fLogin%3dopacextez%26SearchType%3d1 Literatur] über Franz Graf von Pocci in der [[Bayerische Staatsbibliothek|Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek]]
* [http://www.franzgrafpocci-gesellschaft.de Franz-Graf-von-Pocci-Gesellschaft]
* {{PGDA|pocci}}
* [http://www.bsb-muenchen.de/Archiv_Einzeldarstellung.404+M57be43da5ac.0.html Ausstellung „Franz Graf Pocci (1807-1876)…“] in der [[Bayerische Staatsbibliothek|Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek]] München (2007), Kurzbeschreibung und kleine Bildgalerie
* [http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00000502 Bauern-ABC, 1856], Digitalisat
* [http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00000257 Lustiges Komödienbüchlein, Ausgabe 1874], Digitalisat
* [http://webgerman.com/Pocci/ Verschiedene Digitalisate]
* [http://www.bsb-muenchen.de/Pocci.2247.0.html#4794] Nachlass von Franz von Pocci in der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pocci, Franz Graf von}}
[[Kategorie:Zeichner]]
[[Kategorie:Radierer]]
[[Kategorie:Deutscher Musiker]]
[[Kategorie:Autor]]
[[Kategorie:Literatur (19. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Literatur (Deutsch)]]
[[Kategorie:Drama]]
[[Kategorie:Corpsstudent]]
[[Kategorie:Person (München)]]
[[Kategorie:Deutscher]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1807]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1876]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Pocci, Franz Graf von
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Kaspergraf (Pseudonym)
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=deutscher Zeichner, Radierer, Schriftsteller und Musiker
|GEBURTSDATUM=7. März 1807
|GEBURTSORT=[[München]]
|STERBEDATUM=5. Juli 1876
|STERBEORT=[[München]]
}}

Lucius Volumnius Flamma Violens

2008-08-03T18:33:31Z

Xn4: interwiki ca:Luci Volumni Flamma Violent usw.

'''Lucius Volumnius Flamma Violens''' war einer der führenden [[Plebejer|plebejischen]] Staatsmänner Roms während der [[Samnitenkriege]].

== Erstes Konsulat (307 v. Chr.) ==

Er entstammte der aus [[Etrurien]] kommenden plebejischen ''[[gens]] Volumnia'', die 461 v. Chr. mit [[Publius Volumnius Amintinus Gallus]] bereits einen [[Consulat|Konsul]] gestellt hatte. Nach den [[Fasti Capitolini|Konsularfasten]] war Flamma Violens Sohn und Enkel eines ''Gaius'', über die aber nichts bekannt ist. Seine Karriere ist eng mit der des römischen Volkshelden [[Appius Claudius Caecus]] verknüpft, mit dem er zweimal gemeinsam das Konsulat bekleidete.

Während seines ersten Konsulats 307 kämpfte er erfolgreich gegen die [[Sallentiner]].<ref>Livius 9,42,4f.</ref> Laut [[Titus Livius|Livius]] bestanden bei den [[Annalen|Annalisten]] Unklarheiten: Nach einigen habe Volumnius sein Amt anfangs ohne Kollegen geführt, da Appius noch [[Censur|Zensor]] gewesen sein soll und deshalb an der Ausübung seiner Amtsgeschäfte gehindert wurde.<ref>Livius 9,42,2f.</ref> [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi]] hingegen ließ das ganze Jahr aus, da er es für [[Interpolation (Literatur)|interpoliert]] hielt.<ref>Livius 9,44,3f.</ref>

== Zweites Konsulat (296 v. Chr.) und weiteres Leben ==

Die Wahl der Konsuln für 296 war problematisch, da Appius [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus]] als Kollegen wollte, was aber daran scheiterte, dass zwei [[Patrizier]] im Oberamt verboten waren; so wurde Volumnius gewählt.<ref>Livius 10,15,7–12.</ref> Den Konsuln des Vorjahres, Rullianus und [[Publius Decius Mus (Konsul 312 v. Chr.)| Publius Decius Mus]], wurden ihre Amtsbereiche belassen. Volumnius hatte gegen die [[Samniten]] und [[Lukanien|Lukaner]] zu kämpfen. Die Hilfeleistung für seinen Kollegen Appius in [[Etrurien]], die dieser angeblich brieflich angefordert hatte, stieß bei ihm auf völlige Ablehnung. Erst auf Bitten der Soldaten war Appius zu einem gemeinsamen Vorgehen bereit und gelobte, der Kriegsgöttin [[Bellona]] einen Tempel zu errichten, woraufhin den Römern ein glänzender Sieg gelang.<ref>Livius 10,18,5–19,22.</ref> Volumnius kehrte nun an seinen Kriegsschauplatz zurück und schlug einen Einfall der Samniten nach [[Kampanien]] zurück.<ref>Livius 10,20,1–21,12.</ref>

Danach ging er nach Rom zur Abhaltung der Wahlen, die er mit Besonnenheit leitete.<ref>Livius 10,21,13–22,9.</ref> Er war vielleicht der erste Plebejer, der einer Wahlversammlung vorstand. Nach Ablauf seiner Amtszeit blieb er als [[Prokonsul]] in Samnium, wo er am Berg [[Tifernus]] und zusammen mit Appius im ''ager Stellatinus'' siegte.<ref>Livius 10,30,5f. 31,5–7.</ref> Im Jahr 293 befehligte er den rechten Flügel in der siegreichen Schlacht bei [[Aquilonia]] gegen die Samniten und eroberte das feindliche Lager.<ref>Livius 10,40,7. 41,9–12.</ref> Danach wird er nicht mehr genannt.

== Bedeutung und Nachleben ==

Volumnius war mit der Patrizierin ''Verginia'', der Tochter eines sonst unbekannten ''Aulus Verginius'', verheiratet. 296 kam es zu einem Eklat, als Verginia wegen ihrer unstandesgemäßen Heirat von den anderen Patrizierinnen der Zutritt zum Altar der ''[[Pudicitia]] patricia'' verwehrt wurde. Aus Verärgerung ließ sie daher in ihrem Haus einen Altar für die ''Pudicitia plebeia'' errichten.<ref>Livius 10,23,3–10.</ref> Volumnius gehörte zweifellos zu den bedeutendsten Plebejern seiner Zeit, der bei Livius als mäßigendes Element zu seinem als arrogant gezeichneten patrizischen Kollegen Appius dargestellt wird. Ihm allein oder zusammen mit seinem Amtskollegen wurden teilweise in der Annalistik die Erfolge des Decius im Jahr 296 zugeschrieben.<ref>Livius 10,17,11f.</ref> Einige nannten Volumnius fälschlich auch als Teilnehmer an der [[Schlacht von Sentinum]].<ref>Livius 10,30,6f.</ref> Dahinter dürfte eine dem Decius feindlich gesinnte, annalistische Überlieferung zu vermuten sein.

Sein zweites [[Cognomen]] ''Violens'', das in der römischen Nomenklatur kaum Belege hat, ist wohl ahistorisch und findet eine Parallele im 1. Jahrhundert v. Chr. in der Urneninschrift aus der Grablege der ''Volumnii'' in [[Perugia|Perusia]], wo ein ''P. Volumnius A. f. Violens'' genannt wird.<ref>{{CIL|11|1963}} = [[Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum|CIE]] 3763: ''Pup. Velimna au cahatial'', dem in der beigeschriebenen lateinischen Übersetzung ''P. Volumnius A. f. Violens Cafatia natus'' „Publius Volumnius Violens, Sohn des Aulus, Tochter der Cafatia“ entspricht, da im Etruskischen kein Cognomen gesetzt wurde.</ref> Hinter Violens könnte sich die [[Etruskische Sprache|etruskische]] Wiedergabe VILE des griechischen [[Heros]] [[Iolaos]] verbergen. ''Volumnii'' erschienen erst in der späten Republik wieder im öffentlichen Leben Roms.

== Literatur ==

* [[Thomas Robert Shannon Broughton]]: ''The Magistrates of the Roman Republic''. Bd. 1, New York 1951, S. 164f. 176–178. 181.
* Jacques Heurgon: ''A propos du cognomen Violens et du tombeau des Volumnii''. In: ''Archeologia Classica'' 10, 1958, 148–158, bsd. 152.

== Anmerkungen ==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Volumnius Flamma Violens, Lucius}}
[[Kategorie:Mann]]
[[Kategorie:Konsul (Römische Republik)]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Volumnius Flamma Violens, Lucius
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Flamma Violens, Lucius Volumnius
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=römischer Konsul 307 v. Chr. und 296 v. Chr.
|GEBURTSDATUM=
|GEBURTSORT=
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[ca:Luci Volumni Flamma Violent]]
[[en:Lucius Volumnius Flamma Violens]]
[[fr:Lucius Volumnius Flamma Violens]]
[[la:Lucius Volumnius Flamma Violens]]

Baconsthorpe Castle

2008-07-31T16:38:23Z

Xn4: /* History */ wl Sir Christopher Heydon & Privy Council

{{Geobox|Castle
| name = Baconsthorpe Castle
| category =Fortified manor house
| image = Img030.jpg
| image_caption = An Engraving of Baconsthorpe Castle by J. Page from 1781
| flag =
| symbol = Standard of the English Heritage.svg
| country = [[England]]
| state = [[Norfolk]]
| region = [[East of England]]
| district = [[North Norfolk]]
| municipality = [[Baconsthorpe]]
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| established =Built Between 1460 and 1486
| date =
| owner = Managed by English Heritage
| public =
| visitation = Freely accessible to the public
| visitation_date = All year round
| access =

| free = | free_type =

| map =
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| website =http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.12259

| footnotes =
}}
'''Baconsthorpe Castle''' is a fortified manor house, now a ruin, to the north of the village of [[Baconsthorpe]]<ref name="osexpl">{{cite journal | author = Ordnance Survey | date = 2002 | journal = OS Explorer Map | volume = 252 | title = Norfolk Coast East | id = ISBN 0-319-21888-0 }}</ref>, [[Norfolk]], [[England]] ({{gbmapping|TG122382}}). It is a [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]] and a Grade I [[listed building]].<ref name=images>{{cite web |url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/search/details.aspx?pid=1&id=224554 |title=Images of England: Remains of Baconsthorpe Castle |accessdate=2007-12-03 |publisher=[[English Heritage]]}}</ref>

==History==

This castle was built in the period from around 1460 to 1486 by John Heydon (died 1479) and Sir Henry Heydon (died 1504).<ref>Moreton, C. E. (2004) 'Heydon, Sir Henry (d. 1504), ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', [[Oxford University Press]]. [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13167] Retrieved on [[4 December]] [[2007]].</ref> It was built without a licence and initially consisted of a quadrilateral manor house which was later fortified. On the east side was a lake and the other sides were protected by a deep ditch. In the middle of the south wall a three-storeyed gatehouse was built and later the quadrangle was completed with walls, towers and a range of buildings on the east side. A [[drawbridge]] crossed the moat and {{convert|50|yd|m|0}} to the south an outer gatehouse was built.<ref>{{cite book | last =Fry | first =Plantagenet Somerset | authorlink =Plantagenet Somerset Fry | coauthors = | title =The David & Charles Book of Castles |edition= | publisher =David & Charles | date =1980 | location =Newton Abbot | pages =181 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn =0-7153-7976-3 }}</ref>

The house was subject to a dispute in the 16th century when its owner, Sir William Heydon (1540–1594) fell into debt and mortgaged it. In 1590 he decided to sell part of his property but was challenged by his son, [[Christopher Heydon|Sir Christopher Heydon]] (1561–1623). Sir William then threatened to demolish the house but Sir Christopher secured a prohibition from the [[Privy Council]] and the house was spared.<ref>Capp, Bernard (2004) 'Heydon, Sir Henry (d. 1504), ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', [[Oxford University Press]]. [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13166] Retrieved on [[4 December]] [[2007]].</ref> After the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] the house fell into ruin.<ref name=images/>

==Present condition==

The ruins are constructed of [[flint]] with some brick. The curtain walls are complete and include the remains of towers, forming a square court of 30m. In the middle of the south wall are the remains of a three-storey gatehouse with a two-storey projection for the drawbridge. To the east are the remains of a two-storey range. To the south is a lake and a moat surrounds the other three sides.<ref name=images/>

The ruins are administered by [[English Heritage]] and are freely accessible to the public.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.12259 |title=Baconsthorpe Castle |accessdate=2007-12-05 |publisher=English Heritage }}</ref>
[[Image:{{PAGENAME}}.jpg|right|thumb|{{PAGENAME}}]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

{{coor title d|52.89933|N|1.15352|E|region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(TG122382)}}

[[Category:Castles in Norfolk]]
[[Category:English Heritage]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Ruins in England]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Norfolk]]
[[Category:North Norfolk]]
[[Category:History of Norfolk]]
[[Category:Houses in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Norfolk]]

Welbeck Abbey

2008-07-25T16:52:24Z

Xn4: /* List of owners and occupiers */ + [[Ivy Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland

{{Expand|date=May 2007}}

'''Welbeck Abbey''' was the principal [[abbey]] of the [[Premonstratensian]] order in England and later the principal residence of the [[Dukes of Portland]].

==Monastic period==
The Abbey's estate was first mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]], where it is recorded as belonging to one Hugh FitzBaldric. [[Thomas de Cuckney]] founded an there in 1140. It was an abbey of [[Premonstratensian]] canons, dedicated to [[Saint James the Great|St James the Great]]. The abbey was enriched by liberal gifts from the Goushills, D’Eyncourts, Bassets, and other families of [[Nottinghamshire]]; and it also received a considerable grant from [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]. With so much wealth at his disposal, the Abbot of Welbeck was an influential man, and in 1512 all the houses of the order in England were placed under his care.

===Abbots of Welbeck Abbey===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-2}}
* Berengar, occurs between 1153 and 1169
* Adam, occurs between 1183 and 1194
* Richard, occurs between 1194 and 1224
* William, occurs 1229, 1236, 1243
* Richard, occurs 1250, 1252, 1256-7
* Adam, occurs 1263, 1272, 1276
* Thomas, occurs 1281, 1292
* John de Duckmanton, 1309
* John de Cestrefeld, 1310
* William de Kendall, 1316
* John de Nottingham, 1322
* William de Aslakeden, 1335
* Robert Spalding, 1341
* John de Wirksop, 1349
{{Col-2-of-2}}
* Hugh de Langley, 1360
* George de Gamelston, occurs 1369, 1383, 1387
* William de Staveley, occurs 1389
* John Bankwell, occurs 1393
* John de Norton, occurs 1412, dies 1450
* [[John Greene]], 1450
* William Burton, occurs 1475, 1482
* John Lancaster alias Acastre, occurs 1488, 1491
* John Copper, occurs 1492
* Thomas Wydur, occurs 1494, 1497, 1500
* Robert, occurs 1502
* Thomas Wilkinson, 1503
* John Maxey, 1520, died 1536
* Richard Bentley, surrendered 1538
{{Col-end}}

==Country house==
[[Image:WelbeckAbbeyJonesViews1829.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey in 1829]]

Upon the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the site was granted by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] to Richard Whalley, of [[Screveton]]. After being owned by a [[City of London]] clothier, the abbey was purchased from [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury|Gilbert, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]], by Sir Charles Cavendish, son of [[Bess of Hardwick]]. It then passed to Sir Charles's son [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|William Cavendish]], later first [[Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne]]. Members of the Cavendish family converted it into a [[English country house|country house]] and added a riding house in the 17th century, al though only a few basements and inner walls were retained from the original fabric of the former Abbey buildings.

Welbeck became the principal family seat of the early [[Duke of Newcastle|Dukes of Newcastle]]. In the 18th century, it passed through an heiress into the Bentinck family and became the main seat of the [[Earl of Portland|Earls and Dukes of Portland]].

The [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]] undertook what are considered the most substantial building works at Welbeck.

The kitchen gardens covered 22 acres and were surrounded by high walls with recesses behind them in which [[brazier]]s could be placed to hasten the ripening of fruit. One of the walls, a peach wall, measured over 1000 feet in length.

An immense new riding house was built which was 396' long, 108' wide and 50' high and which enclosed a tan gallop of 422 yards. It was lit by 4,000 gas jets.

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

There was a tunnel over one thousand yards in length, leading from the house to the riding school and wide enough for several people to walk side by side. Parallel to this tunnel was another, more roughly constructed, which was used by workmen.
A longer and more elaborate tunnel, one and a half miles long and intended as a carriage drive broad enough for two carriages to pass, was said to lead towards Worksop, but the true extent of this is not clear.

The 5th Duke also excavated underground chambers. One was a great hall, 160 feet long and 63 feet wide and originally intended as a chapel, then used as a picture gallery and occasionally as a ballroom. All these underground rooms were painted pink. The Duke also made many alterations to the house above ground. A vast amount of plumbing was done with elaborate new bathrooms made and a great many new pipes laid.

New lodges were built at different entrances to the Park.

This work cost prodigious sums and involved the employment of thousands of men - masons, bricklayers, joiners, plumbers, navvies etc. While there were disputes from time to time (wages, hours, etc) the Duke personally got on very well with his employees and earned the nickname 'the workman's friend'. He created employment in the district both for the skilled and the unskilled.

By 1879 Welbeck was in a state of disrepair. The only rooms habitable were the four or five rooms used by the 5th Duke in the west wing. All the rooms were painted pink, with parquet floors, all bare and without furniture, except that almost every room had a 'convenience' in the corner.

After the Second World War, Welbeck was leased by the Dukes of Portland to the Ministry of Defence and was used as an army training college, '[[Welbeck College]]' until 2005.

==Welbeck today==
The descendents of the Cavendish Bentinck family still live on the estate. The Abbey itself is the home of William Parente, the only grandchild of the [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland|7th Duke of Portland]] and his [[Ivy Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland|Duchess]],<ref name=burke>Charles Mosley, ed., ''Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage'', 107th edition, 3 volumes (Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 2003), volume 3, page 3336</ref> who was appointed [[High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire]] in 2003,<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=56884|startpage=3603|endpage=3604|date=[[21 March]] [[2003]]|accessdate=2008-07-24}}</ref> while Lady Anne Bentinck, the younger daughter of the 7th Duke, lives at Welbeck Woodhouse, and owns most of the 17,000 acre estate.

==List of owners and occupiers==
* ca 1086 Hugh FitzBaldric
* 1140 - 1538 [[Premonstratensian]] canons in the Abbey of St. James
* 1538 - 1558 Richard Whalley of [[Screveton]]
* 1558 - 1595 Edward Osborne of London, ''citizen and clothworker''
* 1595 - ???? Robert Booth and Ranulph Catterall
* ???? - 1607 [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]] and [[Mary Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury]]
* 1607 - 1617 [[Sir Charles Cavendish]]
* 1617 - 1676 [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1676 - 1691 [[Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1691 - 1711 [[John Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]] and [[Lady Margaret Cavendish]]
* 1711 - 1734 [[Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer]] and [[Lady Henrietta Cavendish Holles]]
* 1734 - 1785 [[William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland]] and [[Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland]]
* 1785 - 1809 [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland]]
* 1809 - 1854 [[William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland]]
* 1854 - 1879 [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland]]
* 1879 - 1943 [[William John Arthur Charles James Cavendish-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland]]
* 1943 - 1977 [[William Arthur Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland]] and [[Ivy Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland]]
* 1977 - Present [[Lady Alexandra Margaret Anne Cavendish-Bentinck]]
* 1943 - 2005 [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] (leasing the majority of the abbey from the 7th Duke and his successors)
* 1992 - Present [[William Henry Marcello Parente]] (grandson of the 7th Duke, occupying part of the abbey with his family)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Links==
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_hgpm.asp?ID=2076 Welbeck Abbey entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/follies/portland.html Follies]
*[http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/Jacks1881/welbeckp1.htm Jacks, The Great Houses of Nottinghamshire]
*[http://web.mac.com/sostler Welbeck Postcards]

[[Category:Houses in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:Monasteries in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:1140 establishments]]
[[Category:1538 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in the 12th century]]
[[Category:Premonstratensian monasteries in England]]
[[Category:Subterranea]]

Welbeck Abbey

2008-07-25T16:50:55Z

Xn4: /* Welbeck today */

{{Expand|date=May 2007}}

'''Welbeck Abbey''' was the principal [[abbey]] of the [[Premonstratensian]] order in England and later the principal residence of the [[Dukes of Portland]].

==Monastic period==
The Abbey's estate was first mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]], where it is recorded as belonging to one Hugh FitzBaldric. [[Thomas de Cuckney]] founded an there in 1140. It was an abbey of [[Premonstratensian]] canons, dedicated to [[Saint James the Great|St James the Great]]. The abbey was enriched by liberal gifts from the Goushills, D’Eyncourts, Bassets, and other families of [[Nottinghamshire]]; and it also received a considerable grant from [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]. With so much wealth at his disposal, the Abbot of Welbeck was an influential man, and in 1512 all the houses of the order in England were placed under his care.

===Abbots of Welbeck Abbey===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-2}}
* Berengar, occurs between 1153 and 1169
* Adam, occurs between 1183 and 1194
* Richard, occurs between 1194 and 1224
* William, occurs 1229, 1236, 1243
* Richard, occurs 1250, 1252, 1256-7
* Adam, occurs 1263, 1272, 1276
* Thomas, occurs 1281, 1292
* John de Duckmanton, 1309
* John de Cestrefeld, 1310
* William de Kendall, 1316
* John de Nottingham, 1322
* William de Aslakeden, 1335
* Robert Spalding, 1341
* John de Wirksop, 1349
{{Col-2-of-2}}
* Hugh de Langley, 1360
* George de Gamelston, occurs 1369, 1383, 1387
* William de Staveley, occurs 1389
* John Bankwell, occurs 1393
* John de Norton, occurs 1412, dies 1450
* [[John Greene]], 1450
* William Burton, occurs 1475, 1482
* John Lancaster alias Acastre, occurs 1488, 1491
* John Copper, occurs 1492
* Thomas Wydur, occurs 1494, 1497, 1500
* Robert, occurs 1502
* Thomas Wilkinson, 1503
* John Maxey, 1520, died 1536
* Richard Bentley, surrendered 1538
{{Col-end}}

==Country house==
[[Image:WelbeckAbbeyJonesViews1829.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey in 1829]]

Upon the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the site was granted by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] to Richard Whalley, of [[Screveton]]. After being owned by a [[City of London]] clothier, the abbey was purchased from [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury|Gilbert, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]], by Sir Charles Cavendish, son of [[Bess of Hardwick]]. It then passed to Sir Charles's son [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|William Cavendish]], later first [[Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne]]. Members of the Cavendish family converted it into a [[English country house|country house]] and added a riding house in the 17th century, al though only a few basements and inner walls were retained from the original fabric of the former Abbey buildings.

Welbeck became the principal family seat of the early [[Duke of Newcastle|Dukes of Newcastle]]. In the 18th century, it passed through an heiress into the Bentinck family and became the main seat of the [[Earl of Portland|Earls and Dukes of Portland]].

The [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]] undertook what are considered the most substantial building works at Welbeck.

The kitchen gardens covered 22 acres and were surrounded by high walls with recesses behind them in which [[brazier]]s could be placed to hasten the ripening of fruit. One of the walls, a peach wall, measured over 1000 feet in length.

An immense new riding house was built which was 396' long, 108' wide and 50' high and which enclosed a tan gallop of 422 yards. It was lit by 4,000 gas jets.

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

There was a tunnel over one thousand yards in length, leading from the house to the riding school and wide enough for several people to walk side by side. Parallel to this tunnel was another, more roughly constructed, which was used by workmen.
A longer and more elaborate tunnel, one and a half miles long and intended as a carriage drive broad enough for two carriages to pass, was said to lead towards Worksop, but the true extent of this is not clear.

The 5th Duke also excavated underground chambers. One was a great hall, 160 feet long and 63 feet wide and originally intended as a chapel, then used as a picture gallery and occasionally as a ballroom. All these underground rooms were painted pink. The Duke also made many alterations to the house above ground. A vast amount of plumbing was done with elaborate new bathrooms made and a great many new pipes laid.

New lodges were built at different entrances to the Park.

This work cost prodigious sums and involved the employment of thousands of men - masons, bricklayers, joiners, plumbers, navvies etc. While there were disputes from time to time (wages, hours, etc) the Duke personally got on very well with his employees and earned the nickname 'the workman's friend'. He created employment in the district both for the skilled and the unskilled.

By 1879 Welbeck was in a state of disrepair. The only rooms habitable were the four or five rooms used by the 5th Duke in the west wing. All the rooms were painted pink, with parquet floors, all bare and without furniture, except that almost every room had a 'convenience' in the corner.

After the Second World War, Welbeck was leased by the Dukes of Portland to the Ministry of Defence and was used as an army training college, '[[Welbeck College]]' until 2005.

==Welbeck today==
The descendents of the Cavendish Bentinck family still live on the estate. The Abbey itself is the home of William Parente, the only grandchild of the [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland|7th Duke of Portland]] and his [[Ivy Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland|Duchess]],<ref name=burke>Charles Mosley, ed., ''Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage'', 107th edition, 3 volumes (Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 2003), volume 3, page 3336</ref> who was appointed [[High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire]] in 2003,<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=56884|startpage=3603|endpage=3604|date=[[21 March]] [[2003]]|accessdate=2008-07-24}}</ref> while Lady Anne Bentinck, the younger daughter of the 7th Duke, lives at Welbeck Woodhouse, and owns most of the 17,000 acre estate.

==List of owners and occupiers==
* ca 1086 Hugh FitzBaldric
* 1140 - 1538 [[Premonstratensian]] canons in the Abbey of St. James
* 1538 - 1558 Richard Whalley of [[Screveton]]
* 1558 - 1595 Edward Osborne of London, ''citizen and clothworker''
* 1595 - ???? Robert Booth and Ranulph Catterall
* ???? - 1607 [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]] and [[Mary Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury]]
* 1607 - 1617 [[Sir Charles Cavendish]]
* 1617 - 1676 [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1676 - 1691 [[Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1691 - 1711 [[John Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]] and [[Lady Margaret Cavendish]]
* 1711 - 1734 [[Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer]] and [[Lady Henrietta Cavendish Holles]]
* 1734 - 1785 [[William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland]] and [[Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland]]
* 1785 - 1809 [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland]]
* 1809 - 1854 [[William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland]]
* 1854 - 1879 [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland]]
* 1879 - 1943 [[William John Arthur Charles James Cavendish-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland]]
* 1943 - 1977 [[William Arthur Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland]]
* 1977 - Present [[Lady Alexandra Margaret Anne Cavendish-Bentinck]]
* 1943 - 2005 [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] (leasing the majority of the abbey from the 7th Duke and his successors)
* 1992 - Present [[William Henry Marcello Parente]] (grandson of the 7th Duke, occupying part of the abbey with his family)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Links==
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_hgpm.asp?ID=2076 Welbeck Abbey entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/follies/portland.html Follies]
*[http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/Jacks1881/welbeckp1.htm Jacks, The Great Houses of Nottinghamshire]
*[http://web.mac.com/sostler Welbeck Postcards]

[[Category:Houses in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:Monasteries in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:1140 establishments]]
[[Category:1538 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in the 12th century]]
[[Category:Premonstratensian monasteries in England]]
[[Category:Subterranea]]

Welbeck Abbey

2008-07-25T16:49:36Z

Xn4: /* List of owners and occupiers */

{{Expand|date=May 2007}}

'''Welbeck Abbey''' was the principal [[abbey]] of the [[Premonstratensian]] order in England and later the principal residence of the [[Dukes of Portland]].

==Monastic period==
The Abbey's estate was first mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]], where it is recorded as belonging to one Hugh FitzBaldric. [[Thomas de Cuckney]] founded an there in 1140. It was an abbey of [[Premonstratensian]] canons, dedicated to [[Saint James the Great|St James the Great]]. The abbey was enriched by liberal gifts from the Goushills, D’Eyncourts, Bassets, and other families of [[Nottinghamshire]]; and it also received a considerable grant from [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]. With so much wealth at his disposal, the Abbot of Welbeck was an influential man, and in 1512 all the houses of the order in England were placed under his care.

===Abbots of Welbeck Abbey===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-2}}
* Berengar, occurs between 1153 and 1169
* Adam, occurs between 1183 and 1194
* Richard, occurs between 1194 and 1224
* William, occurs 1229, 1236, 1243
* Richard, occurs 1250, 1252, 1256-7
* Adam, occurs 1263, 1272, 1276
* Thomas, occurs 1281, 1292
* John de Duckmanton, 1309
* John de Cestrefeld, 1310
* William de Kendall, 1316
* John de Nottingham, 1322
* William de Aslakeden, 1335
* Robert Spalding, 1341
* John de Wirksop, 1349
{{Col-2-of-2}}
* Hugh de Langley, 1360
* George de Gamelston, occurs 1369, 1383, 1387
* William de Staveley, occurs 1389
* John Bankwell, occurs 1393
* John de Norton, occurs 1412, dies 1450
* [[John Greene]], 1450
* William Burton, occurs 1475, 1482
* John Lancaster alias Acastre, occurs 1488, 1491
* John Copper, occurs 1492
* Thomas Wydur, occurs 1494, 1497, 1500
* Robert, occurs 1502
* Thomas Wilkinson, 1503
* John Maxey, 1520, died 1536
* Richard Bentley, surrendered 1538
{{Col-end}}

==Country house==
[[Image:WelbeckAbbeyJonesViews1829.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey in 1829]]

Upon the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the site was granted by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] to Richard Whalley, of [[Screveton]]. After being owned by a [[City of London]] clothier, the abbey was purchased from [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury|Gilbert, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]], by Sir Charles Cavendish, son of [[Bess of Hardwick]]. It then passed to Sir Charles's son [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|William Cavendish]], later first [[Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne]]. Members of the Cavendish family converted it into a [[English country house|country house]] and added a riding house in the 17th century, al though only a few basements and inner walls were retained from the original fabric of the former Abbey buildings.

Welbeck became the principal family seat of the early [[Duke of Newcastle|Dukes of Newcastle]]. In the 18th century, it passed through an heiress into the Bentinck family and became the main seat of the [[Earl of Portland|Earls and Dukes of Portland]].

The [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]] undertook what are considered the most substantial building works at Welbeck.

The kitchen gardens covered 22 acres and were surrounded by high walls with recesses behind them in which [[brazier]]s could be placed to hasten the ripening of fruit. One of the walls, a peach wall, measured over 1000 feet in length.

An immense new riding house was built which was 396' long, 108' wide and 50' high and which enclosed a tan gallop of 422 yards. It was lit by 4,000 gas jets.

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

There was a tunnel over one thousand yards in length, leading from the house to the riding school and wide enough for several people to walk side by side. Parallel to this tunnel was another, more roughly constructed, which was used by workmen.
A longer and more elaborate tunnel, one and a half miles long and intended as a carriage drive broad enough for two carriages to pass, was said to lead towards Worksop, but the true extent of this is not clear.

The 5th Duke also excavated underground chambers. One was a great hall, 160 feet long and 63 feet wide and originally intended as a chapel, then used as a picture gallery and occasionally as a ballroom. All these underground rooms were painted pink. The Duke also made many alterations to the house above ground. A vast amount of plumbing was done with elaborate new bathrooms made and a great many new pipes laid.

New lodges were built at different entrances to the Park.

This work cost prodigious sums and involved the employment of thousands of men - masons, bricklayers, joiners, plumbers, navvies etc. While there were disputes from time to time (wages, hours, etc) the Duke personally got on very well with his employees and earned the nickname 'the workman's friend'. He created employment in the district both for the skilled and the unskilled.

By 1879 Welbeck was in a state of disrepair. The only rooms habitable were the four or five rooms used by the 5th Duke in the west wing. All the rooms were painted pink, with parquet floors, all bare and without furniture, except that almost every room had a 'convenience' in the corner.

After the Second World War, Welbeck was leased by the Dukes of Portland to the Ministry of Defence and was used as an army training college, '[[Welbeck College]]' until 2005.

==Welbeck today==
The descendents of the Cavendish Bentinck family still live on the estate. The Abbey itself is the home of William Parente, the only grandchild of the [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland|7th Duke of Portland]] and his [[Ivy Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland|Duchess]],<ref name=burke>Charles Mosley, ed., ''Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage'', 107th edition, 3 volumes (Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 2003), volume 3, page 3336</ref>, who was appointed [[High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire]] in 2003.<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=56884|startpage=3603|endpage=3604|date=[[21 March]] [[2003]]|accessdate=2008-07-24}}</ref>, while Lady Anne Bentinck, the younger daughter of the 7th Duke, lives at Welbeck Woodhouse, and owns most of the 17,000 acre estate.

==List of owners and occupiers==
* ca 1086 Hugh FitzBaldric
* 1140 - 1538 [[Premonstratensian]] canons in the Abbey of St. James
* 1538 - 1558 Richard Whalley of [[Screveton]]
* 1558 - 1595 Edward Osborne of London, ''citizen and clothworker''
* 1595 - ???? Robert Booth and Ranulph Catterall
* ???? - 1607 [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]] and [[Mary Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury]]
* 1607 - 1617 [[Sir Charles Cavendish]]
* 1617 - 1676 [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1676 - 1691 [[Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1691 - 1711 [[John Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]] and [[Lady Margaret Cavendish]]
* 1711 - 1734 [[Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer]] and [[Lady Henrietta Cavendish Holles]]
* 1734 - 1785 [[William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland]] and [[Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland]]
* 1785 - 1809 [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland]]
* 1809 - 1854 [[William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland]]
* 1854 - 1879 [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland]]
* 1879 - 1943 [[William John Arthur Charles James Cavendish-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland]]
* 1943 - 1977 [[William Arthur Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland]]
* 1977 - Present [[Lady Alexandra Margaret Anne Cavendish-Bentinck]]
* 1943 - 2005 [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] (leasing the majority of the abbey from the 7th Duke and his successors)
* 1992 - Present [[William Henry Marcello Parente]] (grandson of the 7th Duke, occupying part of the abbey with his family)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Links==
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_hgpm.asp?ID=2076 Welbeck Abbey entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/follies/portland.html Follies]
*[http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/Jacks1881/welbeckp1.htm Jacks, The Great Houses of Nottinghamshire]
*[http://web.mac.com/sostler Welbeck Postcards]

[[Category:Houses in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:Monasteries in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:1140 establishments]]
[[Category:1538 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in the 12th century]]
[[Category:Premonstratensian monasteries in England]]
[[Category:Subterranea]]

Welbeck Abbey

2008-07-25T16:39:06Z

Xn4: tidied & + {{reflist|2}}

{{Expand|date=May 2007}}

'''Welbeck Abbey''' was the principal [[abbey]] of the [[Premonstratensian]] order in England and later the principal residence of the [[Dukes of Portland]].

==Monastic period==
The Abbey's estate was first mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]], where it is recorded as belonging to one Hugh FitzBaldric. [[Thomas de Cuckney]] founded an there in 1140. It was an abbey of [[Premonstratensian]] canons, dedicated to [[Saint James the Great|St James the Great]]. The abbey was enriched by liberal gifts from the Goushills, D’Eyncourts, Bassets, and other families of [[Nottinghamshire]]; and it also received a considerable grant from [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]. With so much wealth at his disposal, the Abbot of Welbeck was an influential man, and in 1512 all the houses of the order in England were placed under his care.

===Abbots of Welbeck Abbey===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-2}}
* Berengar, occurs between 1153 and 1169
* Adam, occurs between 1183 and 1194
* Richard, occurs between 1194 and 1224
* William, occurs 1229, 1236, 1243
* Richard, occurs 1250, 1252, 1256-7
* Adam, occurs 1263, 1272, 1276
* Thomas, occurs 1281, 1292
* John de Duckmanton, 1309
* John de Cestrefeld, 1310
* William de Kendall, 1316
* John de Nottingham, 1322
* William de Aslakeden, 1335
* Robert Spalding, 1341
* John de Wirksop, 1349
{{Col-2-of-2}}
* Hugh de Langley, 1360
* George de Gamelston, occurs 1369, 1383, 1387
* William de Staveley, occurs 1389
* John Bankwell, occurs 1393
* John de Norton, occurs 1412, dies 1450
* [[John Greene]], 1450
* William Burton, occurs 1475, 1482
* John Lancaster alias Acastre, occurs 1488, 1491
* John Copper, occurs 1492
* Thomas Wydur, occurs 1494, 1497, 1500
* Robert, occurs 1502
* Thomas Wilkinson, 1503
* John Maxey, 1520, died 1536
* Richard Bentley, surrendered 1538
{{Col-end}}

==Country house==
[[Image:WelbeckAbbeyJonesViews1829.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey in 1829]]

Upon the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the site was granted by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] to Richard Whalley, of [[Screveton]]. After being owned by a [[City of London]] clothier, the abbey was purchased from [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury|Gilbert, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]], by Sir Charles Cavendish, son of [[Bess of Hardwick]]. It then passed to Sir Charles's son [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|William Cavendish]], later first [[Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne]]. Members of the Cavendish family converted it into a [[English country house|country house]] and added a riding house in the 17th century, al though only a few basements and inner walls were retained from the original fabric of the former Abbey buildings.

Welbeck became the principal family seat of the early [[Duke of Newcastle|Dukes of Newcastle]]. In the 18th century, it passed through an heiress into the Bentinck family and became the main seat of the [[Earl of Portland|Earls and Dukes of Portland]].

The [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]] undertook what are considered the most substantial building works at Welbeck.

The kitchen gardens covered 22 acres and were surrounded by high walls with recesses behind them in which [[brazier]]s could be placed to hasten the ripening of fruit. One of the walls, a peach wall, measured over 1000 feet in length.

An immense new riding house was built which was 396' long, 108' wide and 50' high and which enclosed a tan gallop of 422 yards. It was lit by 4,000 gas jets.

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Picture Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

[[Image:Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson (died 1893).jpg|thumb|right|250px| Welbeck Abbey - Long Gallery by George Washington Wilson]]

There was a tunnel over one thousand yards in length, leading from the house to the riding school and wide enough for several people to walk side by side. Parallel to this tunnel was another, more roughly constructed, which was used by workmen.
A longer and more elaborate tunnel, one and a half miles long and intended as a carriage drive broad enough for two carriages to pass, was said to lead towards Worksop, but the true extent of this is not clear.

The 5th Duke also excavated underground chambers. One was a great hall, 160 feet long and 63 feet wide and originally intended as a chapel, then used as a picture gallery and occasionally as a ballroom. All these underground rooms were painted pink. The Duke also made many alterations to the house above ground. A vast amount of plumbing was done with elaborate new bathrooms made and a great many new pipes laid.

New lodges were built at different entrances to the Park.

This work cost prodigious sums and involved the employment of thousands of men - masons, bricklayers, joiners, plumbers, navvies etc. While there were disputes from time to time (wages, hours, etc) the Duke personally got on very well with his employees and earned the nickname 'the workman's friend'. He created employment in the district both for the skilled and the unskilled.

By 1879 Welbeck was in a state of disrepair. The only rooms habitable were the four or five rooms used by the 5th Duke in the west wing. All the rooms were painted pink, with parquet floors, all bare and without furniture, except that almost every room had a 'convenience' in the corner.

After the Second World War, Welbeck was leased by the Dukes of Portland to the Ministry of Defence and was used as an army training college, '[[Welbeck College]]' until 2005.

==Welbeck today==
The descendents of the Cavendish Bentinck family still live on the estate. The Abbey itself is the home of William Parente, the only grandchild of the [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland|7th Duke of Portland]] and his [[Ivy Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland|Duchess]],<ref name=burke>Charles Mosley, ed., ''Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage'', 107th edition, 3 volumes (Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 2003), volume 3, page 3336</ref>, who was appointed [[High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire]] in 2003.<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=56884|startpage=3603|endpage=3604|date=[[21 March]] [[2003]]|accessdate=2008-07-24}}</ref>, while Lady Anne Bentinck, the younger daughter of the 7th Duke, lives at Welbeck Woodhouse, and owns most of the 17,000 acre estate.

==List of owners and occupiers==
* ca 1086 Hugh FitzBaldric
* 1140 - 1538 [[Premonstratensian]] canons in the Abbey of St. James
* 1538 - 1558 Richard Whalley of [[Screveton]]
* 1558 - 1595 Edward Osborne of London, ''citizen and clothworker''
* 1595 - ???? Robert Booth and Ranulph Catterall
* ???? - 1607 [[Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury]] and [[Mary Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury]]
* 1607 - 1617 [[Sir Charles Cavendish]]
* 1617 - 1676 [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1676 - 1691 [[Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]
* 1691 - 1711 [[John Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]] and [[Lady Margaret Cavendish]]
* 1711 - 1734 [[Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer]] and [[Lady Henrietta Cavendish Holles]]
* 1734 - 1785 [[William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland]] and [[Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland]]
* 1785 - 1809 [[William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland]]
* 1809 - 1854 [[William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland]]
* 1854 - 1879 [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland]]
* 1879 - 1943 [[William John Arthur Charles James Cavendish-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland]]
* 1943 - 1977 [[William Arthur Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland]]
* 1977 - Present [[Lady Alexandra Margaret Anne Cavendish-Bentinck]]
* 1943 - 2005 [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] (leasing the majority of the abbey from the duke)
* 1992 - Present [[William Henry Marcello Parente]] (grandson of the 7th Duke, occupying part of the abbey with his family)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Links==
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_hgpm.asp?ID=2076 Welbeck Abbey entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/follies/portland.html Follies]
*[http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/Jacks1881/welbeckp1.htm Jacks, The Great Houses of Nottinghamshire]
*[http://web.mac.com/sostler Welbeck Postcards]

[[Category:Houses in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:Monasteries in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:1140 establishments]]
[[Category:1538 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in the 12th century]]
[[Category:Premonstratensian monasteries in England]]
[[Category:Subterranea]]

Cherhill White Horse

2008-07-22T01:42:05Z

Xn4: wl

[[Image:Cherhill White Horse.jpg|thumb|200px|The horse in 1892, by the [[William Plenderleath|Rev. W. C. Plenderleath]]]]

The '''Cherhill White Horse''' is a [[hill figure]] on [[Cherhill]] [[Downland|Down]], in the county of [[Wiltshire]], [[England]]. Dating from the late 18th century, it is the third oldest of several such [[leucippotomy|white horses]] to be seen around [[Great Britain]], with only the [[Uffington White Horse]] and the [[Westbury White Horse]] being older.<ref>Marples, Morris, White Horses & Other Hill Figures (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)</ref> The figure is also sometimes called the '''Oldbury White Horse'''.

'Cherhill' is pronounced as if spelt '''Cherrill'''.

==Location==
Facing towards the north-east, the Cherhill White Horse lies on a steep slope of Cherhill down, a little below the earthwork known as [[Oldbury Castle]], and can be seen from the [[A4 road]] and the nearby village of [[Cherhill]].<ref name=wwh>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/cherhill.html The Cherhill or Oldbury white horse] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref> A good viewpoint is a [[lay-by]] alongside the westbound carriageway of the A4 where it passes below the horse. From near here, a [[Rights of way in England and Wales#Footpaths|footpath]] climbs the hill towards the horse itself.<ref name=hows>[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cherhill.htm Cherhill White Horse] at hows.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

Near the Horse is an [[obelisk]] called the Lansdowne Monument, visible in some photographs of the White Horse.<ref name=wwh/> This is a 38-metre stone structure, erected in 1845 by the [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|3rd Marquess of Lansdowne]] to commemorate his ancestor [[William Petty|Sir William Petty]].<ref>[http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/220145 The Lansdowne Monument near to Cherhill, Wiltshire, Great Britain] at geograph.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==Inspiration==
The Cherhill horse may have been inspired by the first such Wiltshire horse, [[Westbury White Horse|that at Westbury]], which had just been remodelled.<ref name=wwh/> The origins of the Westbury horse are more obscure. Unlike the [[Uffington White Horse]] in [[Berkshire]], which has been shown to date from the [[Bronze Age]], the earliest evidence of the existence of the Westbury horse is in a paper published by the Rev. Francis Wise in 1742.<ref>Wise, Francis, ''Further Observations on the White Horse and other Antiquities in Berkshire'' (1742)</ref> A bold theory for the origin of the first Wiltshire horse is that it commemorates [[Alfred the Great]]'s victory over the Danes at the [[Battle of Edington|Battle of Ethandun, 878]]. Another is that it was carved in the early 18th century as a show of loyalty to the new royal house, the [[House of Hanover]], the white horse being an heraldic symbol of the [[Electorate of Hanover]]. One writer on the subject has commented "...the hillside white horse can be a slippery creature, and the origins of some are impossible to establish with any certainty."<ref name=wwhhome>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Home page: An introduction to the white horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Cherhillwhitehorse.jpg|thumb|320px|The Horse as seen from Cherhill]]
The figure at Cherhill was first cut in 1780 by a Dr Christopher Alsop, of [[Calne]], and was created by stripping away the turf to expose the [[chalk]] hillside beneath. Its original size was 165 feet by 220 feet.<ref name=hows/><ref name=bowcott/> Dr Alsop, who was Guild Steward of the Borough of Calne, has been called "the mad doctor", and is reported to have directed the making of the horse from a distance, shouting through a [[megaphone]] from below Labour-in-Vain Hill.<ref name=weird>[http://www.weirdwiltshire.co.uk/whitehorses/cherhill.html Cherhill - 1780] at weirdwiltshire.co.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref><ref name=bowcott/> His design may have been influenced by the work of his friend [[George Stubbs]], notable for his paintings of horses.<ref name=wwh/>

Since 1780, the horse has been 'scoured' several times. In 1935, it was dressed with a mixture of concrete and chalk, and it was cleaned up in 1994.<ref name=hows/> A major restoration was carried out in 2002 by the Cherhill White Horse Restoration Group, when the horse was resurfaced with one hundred and sixty [[tonne]]s of new chalk, the outline was re-cut, and shuttering was added to hold the chalk in place.<ref name=wwh/> This work was supported by a grant of [[pound sterling|£]]18,000 from the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott>Bowcott, Owen, ''[http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/post/7671/cherhill_down_and_oldbury.html Cherhill White Horse Restoration: Historic horse turns a whiter shade of pale]'' dated September 9, 2002, in ''[[The Guardian]]'', at themodernantiquarian.com, accessed 19 July 2008</ref> The present surface is thus made of compacted chalk, and the edges of the figure are well defined.<ref name=hows/>

In the 19th century, the horse had a glittering glass eye, formed from bottles pressed neck-first into the ground. The bottles had been added by a Farmer Angell and his wife, but by the late 19th century they were gone, perhaps taken as souvenirs. During the 1970s, a local youth centre project added a new eye made of glass bottles, but these also disappeared.<ref name=wwh/><ref name=weird/> The eye now consists of stone and concrete and stands proud of the chalk surface.<ref name=hows/>

In 1922, Oldfield Howey noted that "At the time of writing (1922) this horse is sadly in need of scouring, as due to the [[Great War]] all such things have had to be neglected, but we understand that a local lady has come to its rescue and asked permission to restore it. Formerly the [[Lord of the Manor]] was its groom!"<ref>Howey, M. Oldfield, ''Horse in Magic and Myth'' (1923, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2003), page 70</ref>

In the week of the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] in 1937, the horse was floodlit and the letters '''GE''' (for the king and his queen, [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Elizabeth]]) were picked out in red lights above it, with the power coming from a generator at the foot of the hill. The red letters were lit up for five seconds, followed by the floodlights for ten seconds, in a repeating pattern.<ref name=bowcott/>

Thirteen such white horses are known to have existed in Wiltshire. Of these, eight can still be seen, while the others have grown over.<ref name=wwhhome/> The Cherhill White Horse is maintained and saved from this fate by Cherhill [[parish council]].<ref name=hows/>

The hill above the horse now belongs to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott/><ref>[http://www.northwiltslink.co.uk/html/wiltshire_s_white_horses.html Wiltshire's White Horses] at northwiltslink.co.uk</ref>

==Bibliography==
* [[William Plenderleath|Plenderleath, Rev. W. C.]], ''On the White Horses of Wiltshire and Its Neighbourhood'' (''Wilts Archaeological Magazine'', vol. 14 for the year 1872, pp. 12-30)
*Plenderleath, Rev. W. C., ''White Horses of the West of England'' (London: Alfred Russell Smith, & Calne: Alfred Heath, 1885; 2nd edition, London, Allen & Storr, 1892)
*Marples, Morris, ''White Horses & Other Hill Figures'' (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)
*Bergamar, Kate, ''Discovering Hill Figures'' (London: Shire Publications, 1968, 4th revised edition 1997, ISBN 0-7478-0345-5)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Chalk figures in England]]
* [[Leucippotomy]]
* [[Uffington White Horse]]

==External pictures==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/content/images/2007/04/25/tim_norris_cherhill_white_h_313x470.jpg Cherhill White Horse] at bbc.co.uk
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/hist/cherhill.jpg Postcard of the Cherhill White Horse, c. 1910] at hows.org.uk
*[http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2073/1506611767_2d2d0f5d05.jpg?v=0 Cherhill White Horse, close up] at flickr.com
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cher07.jpg Cherhill White Horse, very close up] at hows.org.uk

==External links==
*[http://maps.yahoo.com/broadband/#mvt=m&lat=51.42525&lon=-1.929903&mag=6&zoom=13&q1=51.42525%2C-1.929903 Cherhill White Horse location map] from maps.yahoo.com
*[http://www.pagemost.com/Oldbury-Castle---Cherhill-White-Horse-Wiltshire Interactive map of Oldbury Castle and Cherhill White Horse, Wiltshire], from pagemost.com
*[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Wiltshire White Horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk
*[http://www.wiltshire-web.co.uk/history/horse.htm Horse history] at wiltshire-web.co.uk (the Wiltshire Web)

{{coor title d|51.42525|N|1.929903|W}}

[[Category:Geography of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Geoglyphs]]
[[Category:History of Wiltshire]]

[[ie:Blanc Cavalle de Cherhill]]

Cherhill White Horse

2008-07-22T01:33:18Z

Xn4: better ref for new text in lead

[[Image:Cherhill White Horse.jpg|thumb|200px|The horse in 1892, by the [[William Plenderleath|Rev. W. C. Plenderleath]]]]

The '''Cherhill White Horse''' is a [[hill figure]] on [[Cherhill]] [[Downland|Down]], in the county of [[Wiltshire]], [[England]]. Dating from the late 18th century, it is the third oldest of several such white horses to be seen around [[Great Britain]], with only the [[Uffington White Horse]] and the [[Westbury White Horse]] being older.<ref>Marples, Morris, White Horses & Other Hill Figures (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)</ref> The figure is also sometimes called the '''Oldbury White Horse'''.

'Cherhill' is pronounced as if spelt '''Cherrill'''.

==Location==
Facing towards the north-east, the Cherhill White Horse lies on a steep slope of Cherhill down, a little below the earthwork known as [[Oldbury Castle]], and can be seen from the [[A4 road]] and the nearby village of [[Cherhill]].<ref name=wwh>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/cherhill.html The Cherhill or Oldbury white horse] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref> A good viewpoint is a [[lay-by]] alongside the westbound carriageway of the A4 where it passes below the horse. From near here, a [[Rights of way in England and Wales#Footpaths|footpath]] climbs the hill towards the horse itself.<ref name=hows>[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cherhill.htm Cherhill White Horse] at hows.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

Near the Horse is an [[obelisk]] called the Lansdowne Monument, visible in some photographs of the White Horse.<ref name=wwh/> This is a 38-metre stone structure, erected in 1845 by the [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|3rd Marquess of Lansdowne]] to commemorate his ancestor [[William Petty|Sir William Petty]].<ref>[http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/220145 The Lansdowne Monument near to Cherhill, Wiltshire, Great Britain] at geograph.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==Inspiration==
The Cherhill horse may have been inspired by the first such Wiltshire horse, [[Westbury White Horse|that at Westbury]], which had just been remodelled.<ref name=wwh/> The origins of the Westbury horse are more obscure. Unlike the [[Uffington White Horse]] in [[Berkshire]], which has been shown to date from the [[Bronze Age]], the earliest evidence of the existence of the Westbury horse is in a paper published by the Rev. Francis Wise in 1742.<ref>Wise, Francis, ''Further Observations on the White Horse and other Antiquities in Berkshire'' (1742)</ref> A bold theory for the origin of the first Wiltshire horse is that it commemorates [[Alfred the Great]]'s victory over the Danes at the [[Battle of Edington|Battle of Ethandun, 878]]. Another is that it was carved in the early 18th century as a show of loyalty to the new royal house, the [[House of Hanover]], the white horse being an heraldic symbol of the [[Electorate of Hanover]]. One writer on the subject has commented "...the hillside white horse can be a slippery creature, and the origins of some are impossible to establish with any certainty."<ref name=wwhhome>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Home page: An introduction to the white horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Cherhillwhitehorse.jpg|thumb|320px|The Horse as seen from Cherhill]]
The figure at Cherhill was first cut in 1780 by a Dr Christopher Alsop, of [[Calne]], and was created by stripping away the turf to expose the [[chalk]] hillside beneath. Its original size was 165 feet by 220 feet.<ref name=hows/><ref name=bowcott/> Dr Alsop, who was Guild Steward of the Borough of Calne, has been called "the mad doctor", and is reported to have directed the making of the horse from a distance, shouting through a [[megaphone]] from below Labour-in-Vain Hill.<ref name=weird>[http://www.weirdwiltshire.co.uk/whitehorses/cherhill.html Cherhill - 1780] at weirdwiltshire.co.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref><ref name=bowcott/> His design may have been influenced by the work of his friend [[George Stubbs]], notable for his paintings of horses.<ref name=wwh/>

Since 1780, the horse has been 'scoured' several times. In 1935, it was dressed with a mixture of concrete and chalk, and it was cleaned up in 1994.<ref name=hows/> A major restoration was carried out in 2002 by the Cherhill White Horse Restoration Group, when the horse was resurfaced with one hundred and sixty [[tonne]]s of new chalk, the outline was re-cut, and shuttering was added to hold the chalk in place.<ref name=wwh/> This work was supported by a grant of [[pound sterling|£]]18,000 from the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott>Bowcott, Owen, ''[http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/post/7671/cherhill_down_and_oldbury.html Cherhill White Horse Restoration: Historic horse turns a whiter shade of pale]'' dated September 9, 2002, in ''[[The Guardian]]'', at themodernantiquarian.com, accessed 19 July 2008</ref> The present surface is thus made of compacted chalk, and the edges of the figure are well defined.<ref name=hows/>

In the 19th century, the horse had a glittering glass eye, formed from bottles pressed neck-first into the ground. The bottles had been added by a Farmer Angell and his wife, but by the late 19th century they were gone, perhaps taken as souvenirs. During the 1970s, a local youth centre project added a new eye made of glass bottles, but these also disappeared.<ref name=wwh/><ref name=weird/> The eye now consists of stone and concrete and stands proud of the chalk surface.<ref name=hows/>

In 1922, Oldfield Howey noted that "At the time of writing (1922) this horse is sadly in need of scouring, as due to the [[Great War]] all such things have had to be neglected, but we understand that a local lady has come to its rescue and asked permission to restore it. Formerly the [[Lord of the Manor]] was its groom!"<ref>Howey, M. Oldfield, ''Horse in Magic and Myth'' (1923, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2003), page 70</ref>

In the week of the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] in 1937, the horse was floodlit and the letters '''GE''' (for the king and his queen, [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Elizabeth]]) were picked out in red lights above it, with the power coming from a generator at the foot of the hill. The red letters were lit up for five seconds, followed by the floodlights for ten seconds, in a repeating pattern.<ref name=bowcott/>

Thirteen such white horses are known to have existed in Wiltshire. Of these, eight can still be seen, while the others have grown over.<ref name=wwhhome/> The Cherhill White Horse is maintained and saved from this fate by Cherhill [[parish council]].<ref name=hows/>

The hill above the horse now belongs to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott/><ref>[http://www.northwiltslink.co.uk/html/wiltshire_s_white_horses.html Wiltshire's White Horses] at northwiltslink.co.uk</ref>

==Bibliography==
* [[William Plenderleath|Plenderleath, Rev. W. C.]], ''On the White Horses of Wiltshire and Its Neighbourhood'' (''Wilts Archaeological Magazine'', vol. 14 for the year 1872, pp. 12-30)
*Plenderleath, Rev. W. C., ''White Horses of the West of England'' (London: Alfred Russell Smith, & Calne: Alfred Heath, 1885; 2nd edition, London, Allen & Storr, 1892)
*Marples, Morris, ''White Horses & Other Hill Figures'' (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)
*Bergamar, Kate, ''Discovering Hill Figures'' (London: Shire Publications, 1968, 4th revised edition 1997, ISBN 0-7478-0345-5)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Chalk figures in England]]
* [[Leucippotomy]]
* [[Uffington White Horse]]

==External pictures==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/content/images/2007/04/25/tim_norris_cherhill_white_h_313x470.jpg Cherhill White Horse] at bbc.co.uk
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/hist/cherhill.jpg Postcard of the Cherhill White Horse, c. 1910] at hows.org.uk
*[http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2073/1506611767_2d2d0f5d05.jpg?v=0 Cherhill White Horse, close up] at flickr.com
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cher07.jpg Cherhill White Horse, very close up] at hows.org.uk

==External links==
*[http://maps.yahoo.com/broadband/#mvt=m&lat=51.42525&lon=-1.929903&mag=6&zoom=13&q1=51.42525%2C-1.929903 Cherhill White Horse location map] from maps.yahoo.com
*[http://www.pagemost.com/Oldbury-Castle---Cherhill-White-Horse-Wiltshire Interactive map of Oldbury Castle and Cherhill White Horse, Wiltshire], from pagemost.com
*[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Wiltshire White Horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk
*[http://www.wiltshire-web.co.uk/history/horse.htm Horse history] at wiltshire-web.co.uk (the Wiltshire Web)

{{coor title d|51.42525|N|1.929903|W}}

[[Category:Geography of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Geoglyphs]]
[[Category:History of Wiltshire]]

[[ie:Blanc Cavalle de Cherhill]]

Cherhill White Horse

2008-07-22T01:14:19Z

Xn4: copyedited lead

[[Image:Cherhill White Horse.jpg|thumb|200px|The horse in 1892, by the [[William Plenderleath|Rev. W. C. Plenderleath]]]]

The '''Cherhill White Horse''' is a [[hill figure]] on [[Cherhill]] [[Downland|Down]], in the county of [[Wiltshire]], [[England]]. Dating from the late 18th century, it is the third oldest of several such white horses to be seen around [[Great Britain]], with only the [[Uffington White Horse]] and the [[Westbury White Horse]] being older.<ref name=wwh>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/cherhill.html The Cherhill or Oldbury white horse] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref> The figure is also sometimes called the '''Oldbury White Horse'''.

'Cherhill' is pronounced as if spelt '''Cherrill'''.

==Location==
Facing towards the north-east, the Cherhill White Horse lies on a steep slope of Cherhill down, a little below the earthwork known as [[Oldbury Castle]], and can be seen from the [[A4 road]] and the nearby village of [[Cherhill]].<ref name=wwh/> A good viewpoint is a [[lay-by]] alongside the westbound carriageway of the A4 where it passes below the horse. From near here, a [[Rights of way in England and Wales#Footpaths|footpath]] climbs the hill towards the horse itself.<ref name=hows>[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cherhill.htm Cherhill White Horse] at hows.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

Near the Horse is an [[obelisk]] called the Lansdowne Monument, visible in some photographs of the White Horse.<ref name=wwh/> This is a 38-metre stone structure, erected in 1845 by the [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|3rd Marquess of Lansdowne]] to commemorate his ancestor [[William Petty|Sir William Petty]].<ref>[http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/220145 The Lansdowne Monument near to Cherhill, Wiltshire, Great Britain] at geograph.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==Inspiration==
The Cherhill horse may have been inspired by the first such Wiltshire horse, [[Westbury White Horse|that at Westbury]], which had just been remodelled.<ref name=wwh/> The origins of the Westbury horse are more obscure. Unlike the [[Uffington White Horse]] in [[Berkshire]], which has been shown to date from the [[Bronze Age]], the earliest evidence of the existence of the Westbury horse is in a paper published by the Rev. Francis Wise in 1742.<ref>Wise, Francis, ''Further Observations on the White Horse and other Antiquities in Berkshire'' (1742)</ref> A bold theory for the origin of the first Wiltshire horse is that it commemorates [[Alfred the Great]]'s victory over the Danes at the [[Battle of Edington|Battle of Ethandun, 878]]. Another is that it was carved in the early 18th century as a show of loyalty to the new royal house, the [[House of Hanover]], the white horse being an heraldic symbol of the [[Electorate of Hanover]]. One writer on the subject has commented "...the hillside white horse can be a slippery creature, and the origins of some are impossible to establish with any certainty."<ref name=wwhhome>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Home page: An introduction to the white horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Cherhillwhitehorse.jpg|thumb|320px|The Horse as seen from Cherhill]]
The figure at Cherhill was first cut in 1780 by a Dr Christopher Alsop, of [[Calne]], and was created by stripping away the turf to expose the [[chalk]] hillside beneath. Its original size was 165 feet by 220 feet.<ref name=hows/><ref name=bowcott/> Dr Alsop, who was Guild Steward of the Borough of Calne, has been called "the mad doctor", and is reported to have directed the making of the horse from a distance, shouting through a [[megaphone]] from below Labour-in-Vain Hill.<ref name=weird>[http://www.weirdwiltshire.co.uk/whitehorses/cherhill.html Cherhill - 1780] at weirdwiltshire.co.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref><ref name=bowcott/> His design may have been influenced by the work of his friend [[George Stubbs]], notable for his paintings of horses.<ref name=wwh/>

Since 1780, the horse has been 'scoured' several times. In 1935, it was dressed with a mixture of concrete and chalk, and it was cleaned up in 1994.<ref name=hows/> A major restoration was carried out in 2002 by the Cherhill White Horse Restoration Group, when the horse was resurfaced with one hundred and sixty [[tonne]]s of new chalk, the outline was re-cut, and shuttering was added to hold the chalk in place.<ref name=wwh/> This work was supported by a grant of [[pound sterling|£]]18,000 from the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott>Bowcott, Owen, ''[http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/post/7671/cherhill_down_and_oldbury.html Cherhill White Horse Restoration: Historic horse turns a whiter shade of pale]'' dated September 9, 2002, in ''[[The Guardian]]'', at themodernantiquarian.com, accessed 19 July 2008</ref> The present surface is thus made of compacted chalk, and the edges of the figure are well defined.<ref name=hows/>

In the 19th century, the horse had a glittering glass eye, formed from bottles pressed neck-first into the ground. The bottles had been added by a Farmer Angell and his wife, but by the late 19th century they were gone, perhaps taken as souvenirs. During the 1970s, a local youth centre project added a new eye made of glass bottles, but these also disappeared.<ref name=wwh/><ref name=weird/> The eye now consists of stone and concrete and stands proud of the chalk surface.<ref name=hows/>

In 1922, Oldfield Howey noted that "At the time of writing (1922) this horse is sadly in need of scouring, as due to the [[Great War]] all such things have had to be neglected, but we understand that a local lady has come to its rescue and asked permission to restore it. Formerly the [[Lord of the Manor]] was its groom!"<ref>Howey, M. Oldfield, ''Horse in Magic and Myth'' (1923, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2003), page 70</ref>

In the week of the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] in 1937, the horse was floodlit and the letters '''GE''' (for the king and his queen, [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Elizabeth]]) were picked out in red lights above it, with the power coming from a generator at the foot of the hill. The red letters were lit up for five seconds, followed by the floodlights for ten seconds, in a repeating pattern.<ref name=bowcott/>

Thirteen such white horses are known to have existed in Wiltshire. Of these, eight can still be seen, while the others have grown over.<ref name=wwhhome/> The Cherhill White Horse is maintained and saved from this fate by Cherhill [[parish council]].<ref name=hows/>

The hill above the horse now belongs to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott/><ref>[http://www.northwiltslink.co.uk/html/wiltshire_s_white_horses.html Wiltshire's White Horses] at northwiltslink.co.uk</ref>

==Bibliography==
* [[William Plenderleath|Plenderleath, Rev. W. C.]], ''On the White Horses of Wiltshire and Its Neighbourhood'' (''Wilts Archaeological Magazine'', vol. 14 for the year 1872, pp. 12-30)
*Plenderleath, Rev. W. C., ''White Horses of the West of England'' (London: Alfred Russell Smith, & Calne: Alfred Heath, 1885; 2nd edition, London, Allen & Storr, 1892)
*Marples, Morris, ''White Horses & Other Hill Figures'' (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)
*Bergamar, Kate, ''Discovering Hill Figures'' (London: Shire Publications, 1968, 4th revised edition 1997, ISBN 0-7478-0345-5)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Chalk figures in England]]
* [[Leucippotomy]]
* [[Uffington White Horse]]

==External pictures==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/content/images/2007/04/25/tim_norris_cherhill_white_h_313x470.jpg Cherhill White Horse] at bbc.co.uk
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/hist/cherhill.jpg Postcard of the Cherhill White Horse, c. 1910] at hows.org.uk
*[http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2073/1506611767_2d2d0f5d05.jpg?v=0 Cherhill White Horse, close up] at flickr.com
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cher07.jpg Cherhill White Horse, very close up] at hows.org.uk

==External links==
*[http://maps.yahoo.com/broadband/#mvt=m&lat=51.42525&lon=-1.929903&mag=6&zoom=13&q1=51.42525%2C-1.929903 Cherhill White Horse location map] from maps.yahoo.com
*[http://www.pagemost.com/Oldbury-Castle---Cherhill-White-Horse-Wiltshire Interactive map of Oldbury Castle and Cherhill White Horse, Wiltshire], from pagemost.com
*[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Wiltshire White Horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk
*[http://www.wiltshire-web.co.uk/history/horse.htm Horse history] at wiltshire-web.co.uk (the Wiltshire Web)

{{coor title d|51.42525|N|1.929903|W}}

[[Category:Geography of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Geoglyphs]]
[[Category:History of Wiltshire]]

[[ie:Blanc Cavalle de Cherhill]]

Cherhill White Horse

2008-07-21T14:38:18Z

Xn4: [in caption] + by Rev. W. C. Plenderleath

[[Image:Cherhill White Horse.jpg|thumb|200px|<center>The horse in 1892, by the [[William Plenderleath|Rev. W. C. Plenderleath]]<center>]]

The '''Cherhill White Horse''' is a [[hill figure]] on [[Cherhill]] [[Downland|Down]], in the county of [[Wiltshire]], [[England]]. Dating from the late 18th century, it is the second oldest of several similar white horses to be seen around Wiltshire, with only the [[Westbury White Horse]] being older.<ref name=wwh>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/cherhill.html The Cherhill or Oldbury white horse] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref> The figure is also sometimes called the '''Oldbury White Horse'''.

'Cherhill' is pronounced as if spelt '''Cherrill'''.

==Location==
Facing towards the north-east, the Cherhill White Horse lies on a steep slope of Cherhill down, a little below the earthwork known as [[Oldbury Castle]], and can be seen from the [[A4 road]] and the nearby village of [[Cherhill]].<ref name=wwh/> A good viewpoint is a [[lay-by]] alongside the westbound carriageway of the A4 where it passes below the horse. From near here, a [[Rights of way in England and Wales#Footpaths|footpath]] climbs the hill towards the horse itself.<ref name=hows>[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cherhill.htm Cherhill White Horse] at hows.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

Near the Horse is an [[obelisk]] called the Lansdowne Monument, visible in some photographs of the White Horse.<ref name=wwh/> This is a 38-metre stone structure, erected in 1845 by the [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|3rd Marquess of Lansdowne]] to commemorate his ancestor [[William Petty|Sir William Petty]].<ref>[http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/220145 The Lansdowne Monument near to Cherhill, Wiltshire, Great Britain] at geograph.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==Inspiration==
The Cherhill horse may have been inspired by the first such Wiltshire horse, [[Westbury White Horse|that at Westbury]], which had just been remodelled.<ref name=wwh/> The origins of the Westbury horse are more obscure. Unlike the [[Uffington White Horse]] in [[Berkshire]], which has been shown to date from the [[Bronze Age]], the earliest evidence of the existence of the Westbury horse is in a paper published by the Rev. Francis Wise in 1742.<ref>Wise, Francis, ''Further Observations on the White Horse and other Antiquities in Berkshire'' (1742)</ref> A bold theory for the origin of the first Wiltshire horse is that it commemorates [[Alfred the Great]]'s victory over the Danes at the [[Battle of Edington|Battle of Ethandun, 878]]. Another is that it was carved in the early 18th century as a show of loyalty to the new royal house, the [[House of Hanover]], the white horse being an heraldic symbol of the [[Electorate of Hanover]]. One writer on the subject has commented "...the hillside white horse can be a slippery creature, and the origins of some are impossible to establish with any certainty."<ref name=wwhhome>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Home page: An introduction to the white horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Cherhillwhitehorse.jpg|thumb|320px|The Horse as seen from Cherhill]]
The figure at Cherhill was first cut in 1780 by a Dr Christopher Alsop, of [[Calne]], and was created by stripping away the turf to expose the [[chalk]] hillside beneath. Its original size was 165 feet by 220 feet.<ref name=hows/><ref name=bowcott/> Dr Alsop, who was Guild Steward of the Borough of Calne, has been called "the mad doctor", and is reported to have directed the making of the horse from a distance, shouting through a [[megaphone]] from below Labour-in-Vain Hill.<ref name=weird>[http://www.weirdwiltshire.co.uk/whitehorses/cherhill.html Cherhill - 1780] at weirdwiltshire.co.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref><ref name=bowcott/> His design may have been influenced by the work of his friend [[George Stubbs]], notable for his paintings of horses.<ref name=wwh/>

Since 1780, the horse has been 'scoured' several times. In 1935, it was dressed with a mixture of concrete and chalk, and it was cleaned up in 1994.<ref name=hows/> A major restoration was carried out in 2002 by the Cherhill White Horse Restoration Group, when the horse was resurfaced with one hundred and sixty [[tonne]]s of new chalk, the outline was re-cut, and shuttering was added to hold the chalk in place.<ref name=wwh/> This work was supported by a grant of [[pound sterling|£]]18,000 from the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott>Bowcott, Owen, ''[http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/post/7671/cherhill_down_and_oldbury.html Cherhill White Horse Restoration: Historic horse turns a whiter shade of pale]'' dated September 9, 2002, in ''[[The Guardian]]'', at themodernantiquarian.com, accessed 19 July 2008</ref> The present surface is thus made of compacted chalk, and the edges of the figure are well defined.<ref name=hows/>

In the 19th century, the horse had a glittering glass eye, formed from bottles pressed neck-first into the ground. The bottles had been added by a Farmer Angell and his wife, but by the late 19th century they were gone, perhaps taken as souvenirs. During the 1970s, a local youth centre project added a new eye made of glass bottles, but these also disappeared.<ref name=wwh/><ref name=weird/> The eye now consists of stone and concrete and stands proud of the chalk surface.<ref name=hows/>

In 1922, Oldfield Howey noted that "At the time of writing (1922) this horse is sadly in need of scouring, as due to the [[Great War]] all such things have had to be neglected, but we understand that a local lady has come to its rescue and asked permission to restore it. Formerly the [[Lord of the Manor]] was its groom!"<ref>Howey, M. Oldfield, ''Horse in Magic and Myth'' (1923, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2003), page 70</ref>

In the week of the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] in 1937, the horse was floodlit and the letters '''GE''' (for the king and his queen, [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Elizabeth]]) were picked out in red lights above it, with the power coming from a generator at the foot of the hill. The red letters were lit up for five seconds, followed by the floodlights for ten seconds, in a repeating pattern.<ref name=bowcott/>

Thirteen such white horses are known to have existed in Wiltshire. Of these, eight can still be seen, while the others have grown over.<ref name=wwhhome/> The Cherhill White Horse is maintained and saved from this fate by Cherhill [[parish council]].<ref name=hows/>

The hill above the horse now belongs to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott/><ref>[http://www.northwiltslink.co.uk/html/wiltshire_s_white_horses.html Wiltshire's White Horses] at northwiltslink.co.uk</ref>

==Bibliography==
* [[William Plenderleath|Plenderleath, Rev. W. C.]], ''On the White Horses of Wiltshire and Its Neighbourhood'' (''Wilts Archaeological Magazine'', vol. 14 for the year 1872, pp. 12-30)
*Plenderleath, Rev. W. C., ''White Horses of the West of England'' (London: Alfred Russell Smith, & Calne: Alfred Heath, 1885; 2nd edition, London, Allen & Storr, 1892)
*Marples, Morris, ''White Horses & Other Hill Figures'' (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)
*Bergamar, Kate, ''Discovering Hill Figures'' (London: Shire Publications, 1968, 4th revised edition 1997, ISBN 0-7478-0345-5)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Chalk figures in England]]
* [[Leucippotomy]]
* [[Uffington White Horse]]

==External pictures==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/content/images/2007/04/25/tim_norris_cherhill_white_h_313x470.jpg Cherhill White Horse] at bbc.co.uk
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/hist/cherhill.jpg Postcard of the Cherhill White Horse, c. 1910] at hows.org.uk
*[http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2073/1506611767_2d2d0f5d05.jpg?v=0 Cherhill White Horse, close up] at flickr.com
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cher07.jpg Cherhill White Horse, very close up] at hows.org.uk

==External links==
*[http://maps.yahoo.com/broadband/#mvt=m&lat=51.42525&lon=-1.929903&mag=6&zoom=13&q1=51.42525%2C-1.929903 Cherhill White Horse location map] from maps.yahoo.com
*[http://www.pagemost.com/Oldbury-Castle---Cherhill-White-Horse-Wiltshire Interactive map of Oldbury Castle and Cherhill White Horse, Wiltshire], from pagemost.com
*[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Wiltshire White Horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk
*[http://www.wiltshire-web.co.uk/history/horse.htm Horse history] at wiltshire-web.co.uk (the Wiltshire Web)

{{coor title d|51.42525|N|1.929903|W}}

[[Category:Geography of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Geoglyphs]]
[[Category:History of Wiltshire]]

Cherhill White Horse

2008-07-21T14:30:41Z

Xn4: /* External pictures */ new section

[[Image:Cherhill White Horse.jpg|thumb|200px|<center>The horse in 1892<center>]]

The '''Cherhill White Horse''' is a [[hill figure]] on [[Cherhill]] [[Downland|Down]], in the county of [[Wiltshire]], [[England]]. Dating from the late 18th century, it is the second oldest of several similar white horses to be seen around Wiltshire, with only the [[Westbury White Horse]] being older.<ref name=wwh>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/cherhill.html The Cherhill or Oldbury white horse] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref> The figure is also sometimes called the '''Oldbury White Horse'''.

'Cherhill' is pronounced as if spelt 'Cherrill'.

==Location==
Facing towards the north-east, the Cherhill White Horse lies on a steep slope of Cherhill down, a little below the earthwork known as [[Oldbury Castle]], and can be seen from the [[A4 road]] and the nearby village of [[Cherhill]].<ref name=wwh/> A good viewpoint is a [[lay-by]] alongside the westbound carriageway of the A4 where it passes below the horse. From near here, a [[Rights of way in England and Wales#Footpaths|footpath]] climbs the hill towards the horse itself.<ref name=hows>[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cherhill.htm Cherhill White Horse] at hows.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

Near the Horse is an [[obelisk]] called the Lansdowne Monument, visible in some photographs of the White Horse.<ref name=wwh/> This is a 38-metre stone structure, erected in 1845 by the [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|3rd Marquess of Lansdowne]] to commemorate his ancestor [[William Petty|Sir William Petty]].<ref>[http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/220145 The Lansdowne Monument near to Cherhill, Wiltshire, Great Britain] at geograph.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==Inspiration==
The Cherhill horse may have been inspired by the first such Wiltshire horse, [[Westbury White Horse|that at Westbury]], which had just been remodelled.<ref name=wwh/> The origins of the Westbury horse are more obscure. Unlike the [[Uffington White Horse]] in [[Berkshire]], which has been shown to date from the [[Bronze Age]], the earliest evidence of the existence of the Westbury horse is in a paper published by the Rev. Francis Wise in 1742.<ref>Wise, Francis, ''Further Observations on the White Horse and other Antiquities in Berkshire'' (1742)</ref> A bold theory for the origin of the first Wiltshire horse is that it commemorates [[Alfred the Great]]'s victory over the Danes at the [[Battle of Edington|Battle of Ethandun, 878]]. Another is that it was carved in the early 18th century as a show of loyalty to the new royal house, the [[House of Hanover]], the white horse being an heraldic symbol of the [[Electorate of Hanover]]. One writer on the subject has commented "...the hillside white horse can be a slippery creature, and the origins of some are impossible to establish with any certainty."<ref name=wwhhome>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Home page: An introduction to the white horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Cherhillwhitehorse.jpg|thumb|320px|The Horse as seen from Cherhill]]
The figure at Cherhill was first cut in 1780 by a Dr Christopher Alsop, of [[Calne]], and was created by stripping away the turf to expose the [[chalk]] hillside beneath. Its original size was 165 feet by 220 feet.<ref name=hows/><ref name=bowcott/> Dr Alsop, who was Guild Steward of the Borough of Calne, has been called "the mad doctor", and is reported to have directed the making of the horse from a distance, shouting through a [[megaphone]] from below Labour-in-Vain Hill.<ref name=weird>[http://www.weirdwiltshire.co.uk/whitehorses/cherhill.html Cherhill - 1780] at weirdwiltshire.co.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref><ref name=bowcott/> His design may have been influenced by the work of his friend [[George Stubbs]], notable for his paintings of horses.<ref name=wwh/>

Since 1780, the horse has been 'scoured' several times. In 1935, it was dressed with a mixture of concrete and chalk, and it was cleaned up in 1994.<ref name=hows/> A major restoration was carried out in 2002 by the Cherhill White Horse Restoration Group, when the horse was resurfaced with one hundred and sixty [[tonne]]s of new chalk, the outline was re-cut, and shuttering was added to hold the chalk in place.<ref name=wwh/> This work was supported by a grant of [[pound sterling|£]]18,000 from the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott>Bowcott, Owen, ''[http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/post/7671/cherhill_down_and_oldbury.html Cherhill White Horse Restoration: Historic horse turns a whiter shade of pale]'' dated September 9, 2002, in ''[[The Guardian]]'', at themodernantiquarian.com, accessed 19 July 2008</ref> The present surface is thus made of compacted chalk, and the edges of the figure are well defined.<ref name=hows/>

In the 19th century, the horse had a glittering glass eye, formed from bottles pressed neck-first into the ground. The bottles had been added by a Farmer Angell and his wife, but by the late 19th century they were gone, perhaps taken as souvenirs. During the 1970s, a local youth centre project added a new eye made of glass bottles, but these also disappeared.<ref name=wwh/><ref name=weird/> The eye now consists of stone and concrete and stands proud of the chalk surface.<ref name=hows/>

In 1922, Oldfield Howey noted that "At the time of writing (1922) this horse is sadly in need of scouring, as due to the [[Great War]] all such things have had to be neglected, but we understand that a local lady has come to its rescue and asked permission to restore it. Formerly the [[Lord of the Manor]] was its groom!"<ref>Howey, M. Oldfield, ''Horse in Magic and Myth'' (1923, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2003), page 70</ref>

In the week of the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] in 1937, the horse was floodlit and the letters '''GE''' (for the king and his queen, [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Elizabeth]]) were picked out in red lights above it, with the power coming from a generator at the foot of the hill. The red letters were lit up for five seconds, followed by the floodlights for ten seconds, in a repeating pattern.<ref name=bowcott/>

Thirteen such white horses are known to have existed in Wiltshire. Of these, eight can still be seen, while the others have grown over.<ref name=wwhhome/> The Cherhill White Horse is maintained and saved from this fate by Cherhill [[parish council]].<ref name=hows/>

The hill above the horse now belongs to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott/><ref>[http://www.northwiltslink.co.uk/html/wiltshire_s_white_horses.html Wiltshire's White Horses] at northwiltslink.co.uk</ref>

==Bibliography==
* [[William Plenderleath|Plenderleath, Rev. W. C.]], ''On the White Horses of Wiltshire and Its Neighbourhood'' (''Wilts Archaeological Magazine'', vol. 14 for the year 1872, pp. 12-30)
*Plenderleath, Rev. W. C., ''White Horses of the West of England'' (London: Alfred Russell Smith, & Calne: Alfred Heath, 1885; 2nd edition, London, Allen & Storr, 1892)
*Marples, Morris, ''White Horses & Other Hill Figures'' (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)
*Bergamar, Kate, ''Discovering Hill Figures'' (London: Shire Publications, 1968, 4th revised edition 1997, ISBN 0-7478-0345-5)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Chalk figures in England]]
* [[Leucippotomy]]
* [[Uffington White Horse]]

==External pictures==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/content/images/2007/04/25/tim_norris_cherhill_white_h_313x470.jpg Cherhill White Horse] at bbc.co.uk
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/hist/cherhill.jpg Postcard of the Cherhill White Horse, c. 1910] at hows.org.uk
*[http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2073/1506611767_2d2d0f5d05.jpg?v=0 Cherhill White Horse, close up] at flickr.com
*[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cher07.jpg Cherhill White Horse, very close up] at hows.org.uk

==External links==
*[http://maps.yahoo.com/broadband/#mvt=m&lat=51.42525&lon=-1.929903&mag=6&zoom=13&q1=51.42525%2C-1.929903 Cherhill White Horse location map] from maps.yahoo.com
*[http://www.pagemost.com/Oldbury-Castle---Cherhill-White-Horse-Wiltshire Interactive map of Oldbury Castle and Cherhill White Horse, Wiltshire], from pagemost.com
*[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Wiltshire White Horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk
*[http://www.wiltshire-web.co.uk/history/horse.htm Horse history] at wiltshire-web.co.uk (the Wiltshire Web)

{{coor title d|51.42525|N|1.929903|W}}

[[Category:Geography of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Geoglyphs]]
[[Category:History of Wiltshire]]

Cherhill White Horse

2008-07-20T03:10:08Z

Xn4: /* Bibliography */ 2 editions

[[Image:Cherhill White Horse.jpg|thumb|200px|<center>The horse in 1892<center>]]

The '''Cherhill White Horse''' is a [[hill figure]] on [[Cherhill]] [[Downland|Down]], in the county of [[Wiltshire]], [[England]]. Dating from the late 18th century, it is the second oldest of several similar white horses to be seen around Wiltshire, with only the [[Westbury White Horse]] being older.<ref name=wwh>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/cherhill.html The Cherhill or Oldbury white horse] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref> The figure is also sometimes called the '''Oldbury White Horse'''.

'Cherhill' is pronounced as if spelt 'Cherrill'.

==Location==
Facing towards the north-east, the Cherhill White Horse lies on a steep slope of Cherhill down, a little below the earthwork known as [[Oldbury Castle]], and can be seen from the [[A4 road]] and the nearby village of [[Cherhill]].<ref name=wwh/> A good viewpoint is a [[lay-by]] alongside the westbound carriageway of the A4 where it passes below the horse. From near here, a [[Rights of way in England and Wales#Footpaths|footpath]] climbs the hill towards the horse itself.<ref name=hows>[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cherhill.htm Cherhill White Horse] at hows.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

Near the Horse is an [[obelisk]] called the Lansdowne Monument, visible in some photographs of the White Horse.<ref name=wwh/> This is a 38-metre stone structure, erected in 1845 by the [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|3rd Marquess of Lansdowne]] to commemorate his ancestor [[William Petty|Sir William Petty]].<ref>[http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/220145 The Lansdowne Monument near to Cherhill, Wiltshire, Great Britain] at geograph.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==Inspiration==
The Cherhill horse may have been inspired by the first such Wiltshire horse, [[Westbury White Horse|that at Westbury]], which had just been remodelled.<ref name=wwh/> The origins of the Westbury horse are more obscure. Unlike the [[Uffington White Horse]] in [[Berkshire]], which has been shown to date from the [[Bronze Age]], the earliest evidence of the existence of the Westbury horse is in a paper published by the Rev. Francis Wise in 1742.<ref>Wise, Francis, ''Further Observations on the White Horse and other Antiquities in Berkshire'' (1742)</ref> A bold theory for the origin of the first Wiltshire horse is that it commemorates [[Alfred the Great]]'s victory over the Danes at the [[Battle of Edington|Battle of Ethandun, 878]]. Another is that it was carved in the early 18th century as a show of loyalty to the new royal house, the [[House of Hanover]], the white horse being an heraldic symbol of the [[Electorate of Hanover]]. One writer on the subject has commented "...the hillside white horse can be a slippery creature, and the origins of some are impossible to establish with any certainty."<ref name=wwhhome>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Home page: An introduction to the white horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Cherhillwhitehorse.jpg|thumb|320px|The Horse as seen from Cherhill]]
The figure at Cherhill was first cut in 1780 by a Dr Christopher Alsop, of [[Calne]], and was created by stripping away the turf to expose the [[chalk]] hillside beneath. Its original size was 165 feet by 220 feet.<ref name=hows/><ref name=bowcott/> Dr Alsop, who was Guild Steward of the Borough of Calne, has been called "the mad doctor", and is reported to have directed the making of the horse from a distance, shouting through a [[megaphone]] from below Labour-in-Vain Hill.<ref name=weird>[http://www.weirdwiltshire.co.uk/whitehorses/cherhill.html Cherhill - 1780] at weirdwiltshire.co.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref><ref name=bowcott/> His design may have been influenced by the work of his friend [[George Stubbs]], notable for his paintings of horses.<ref name=wwh/>

Since 1780, the horse has been 'scoured' several times. In 1935, it was dressed with a mixture of concrete and chalk, and it was cleaned up in 1994.<ref name=hows/> A major restoration was carried out in 2002 by the Cherhill White Horse Restoration Group, when the horse was resurfaced with one hundred and sixty [[tonne]]s of new chalk, the outline was re-cut, and shuttering was added to hold the chalk in place.<ref name=wwh/> This work was supported by a grant of [[pound sterling|£]]18,000 from the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott>Bowcott, Owen, ''[http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/post/7671/cherhill_down_and_oldbury.html Cherhill White Horse Restoration: Historic horse turns a whiter shade of pale]'' dated September 9, 2002, in ''[[The Guardian]]'', at themodernantiquarian.com, accessed 19 July 2008</ref> The present surface is thus made of compacted chalk, and the edges of the figure are well defined.<ref name=hows/>

In the 19th century, the horse had a glittering glass eye, formed from bottles pressed neck-first into the ground. The bottles had been added by a Farmer Angell and his wife, but by the late 19th century they were gone, perhaps taken as souvenirs. During the 1970s, a local youth centre project added a new eye made of glass bottles, but these also disappeared.<ref name=wwh/><ref name=weird/> The eye now consists of stone and concrete and stands proud of the chalk surface.<ref name=hows/>

In 1922, Oldfield Howey noted that "At the time of writing (1922) this horse is sadly in need of scouring, as due to the [[Great War]] all such things have had to be neglected, but we understand that a local lady has come to its rescue and asked permission to restore it. Formerly the [[Lord of the Manor]] was its groom!"<ref>Howey, M. Oldfield, ''Horse in Magic and Myth'' (1923, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2003), page 70</ref>

In the week of the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] in 1937, the horse was floodlit and the letters '''GE''' (for the king and his queen, [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Elizabeth]]) were picked out in red lights above it, with the power coming from a generator at the foot of the hill. The red letters were lit up for five seconds, followed by the floodlights for ten seconds, in a repeating pattern.<ref name=bowcott/>

Thirteen such white horses are known to have existed in Wiltshire. Of these, eight can still be seen, while the others have grown over.<ref name=wwhhome/> The Cherhill White Horse is maintained and saved from this fate by Cherhill [[parish council]].<ref name=hows/>

The hill above the horse now belongs to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott/><ref>[http://www.northwiltslink.co.uk/html/wiltshire_s_white_horses.html Wiltshire's White Horses] at northwiltslink.co.uk</ref>

==Bibliography==
* [[William Plenderleath|Plenderleath, Rev. W. C.]], ''On the White Horses of Wiltshire and Its Neighbourhood'' (''Wilts Archaeological Magazine'', vol. 14 for the year 1872, pp. 12-30)
*Plenderleath, Rev. W. C., ''White Horses of the West of England'' (London: Alfred Russell Smith, & Calne: Alfred Heath, 1885; 2nd edition, London, Allen & Storr, 1892)
*Marples, Morris, ''White Horses & Other Hill Figures'' (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)
*Bergamar, Kate, ''Discovering Hill Figures'' (London: Shire Publications, 1968, 4th revised edition 1997, ISBN 0-7478-0345-5)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Chalk figures in England]]
* [[Leucippotomy]]
* [[Uffington White Horse]]

==External links==
*[http://maps.yahoo.com/broadband/#mvt=m&lat=51.42525&lon=-1.929903&mag=6&zoom=13&q1=51.42525%2C-1.929903 Cherhill White Horse location map] from maps.yahoo.com
*[http://www.pagemost.com/Oldbury-Castle---Cherhill-White-Horse-Wiltshire Interactive map of Oldbury Castle and Cherhill White Horse, Wiltshire], from pagemost.com
*[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Wiltshire White Horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk
*[http://www.wiltshire-web.co.uk/history/horse.htm Horse history] at wiltshire-web.co.uk (the Wiltshire Web)

{{coor title d|51.42525|N|1.929903|W}}

[[Category:Geography of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Geoglyphs]]
[[Category:History of Wiltshire]]

Cherhill White Horse

2008-07-20T03:03:47Z

Xn4: /* History */ + comments of Oldfield Howey, 1922

[[Image:Cherhill White Horse.jpg|thumb|200px|<center>The horse in 1892<center>]]

The '''Cherhill White Horse''' is a [[hill figure]] on [[Cherhill]] [[Downland|Down]], in the county of [[Wiltshire]], [[England]]. Dating from the late 18th century, it is the second oldest of several similar white horses to be seen around Wiltshire, with only the [[Westbury White Horse]] being older.<ref name=wwh>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/cherhill.html The Cherhill or Oldbury white horse] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref> The figure is also sometimes called the '''Oldbury White Horse'''.

'Cherhill' is pronounced as if spelt 'Cherrill'.

==Location==
Facing towards the north-east, the Cherhill White Horse lies on a steep slope of Cherhill down, a little below the earthwork known as [[Oldbury Castle]], and can be seen from the [[A4 road]] and the nearby village of [[Cherhill]].<ref name=wwh/> A good viewpoint is a [[lay-by]] alongside the westbound carriageway of the A4 where it passes below the horse. From near here, a [[Rights of way in England and Wales#Footpaths|footpath]] climbs the hill towards the horse itself.<ref name=hows>[http://www.hows.org.uk/personal/hillfigs/cherhil/cherhill.htm Cherhill White Horse] at hows.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

Near the Horse is an [[obelisk]] called the Lansdowne Monument, visible in some photographs of the White Horse.<ref name=wwh/> This is a 38-metre stone structure, erected in 1845 by the [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|3rd Marquess of Lansdowne]] to commemorate his ancestor [[William Petty|Sir William Petty]].<ref>[http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/220145 The Lansdowne Monument near to Cherhill, Wiltshire, Great Britain] at geograph.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==Inspiration==
The Cherhill horse may have been inspired by the first such Wiltshire horse, [[Westbury White Horse|that at Westbury]], which had just been remodelled.<ref name=wwh/> The origins of the Westbury horse are more obscure. Unlike the [[Uffington White Horse]] in [[Berkshire]], which has been shown to date from the [[Bronze Age]], the earliest evidence of the existence of the Westbury horse is in a paper published by the Rev. Francis Wise in 1742.<ref>Wise, Francis, ''Further Observations on the White Horse and other Antiquities in Berkshire'' (1742)</ref> A bold theory for the origin of the first Wiltshire horse is that it commemorates [[Alfred the Great]]'s victory over the Danes at the [[Battle of Edington|Battle of Ethandun, 878]]. Another is that it was carved in the early 18th century as a show of loyalty to the new royal house, the [[House of Hanover]], the white horse being an heraldic symbol of the [[Electorate of Hanover]]. One writer on the subject has commented "...the hillside white horse can be a slippery creature, and the origins of some are impossible to establish with any certainty."<ref name=wwhhome>[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Home page: An introduction to the white horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Cherhillwhitehorse.jpg|thumb|320px|The Horse as seen from Cherhill]]
The figure at Cherhill was first cut in 1780 by a Dr Christopher Alsop, of [[Calne]], and was created by stripping away the turf to expose the [[chalk]] hillside beneath. Its original size was 165 feet by 220 feet.<ref name=hows/><ref name=bowcott/> Dr Alsop, who was Guild Steward of the Borough of Calne, has been called "the mad doctor", and is reported to have directed the making of the horse from a distance, shouting through a [[megaphone]] from below Labour-in-Vain Hill.<ref name=weird>[http://www.weirdwiltshire.co.uk/whitehorses/cherhill.html Cherhill - 1780] at weirdwiltshire.co.uk, accessed 18 July 2008</ref><ref name=bowcott/> His design may have been influenced by the work of his friend [[George Stubbs]], notable for his paintings of horses.<ref name=wwh/>

Since 1780, the horse has been 'scoured' several times. In 1935, it was dressed with a mixture of concrete and chalk, and it was cleaned up in 1994.<ref name=hows/> A major restoration was carried out in 2002 by the Cherhill White Horse Restoration Group, when the horse was resurfaced with one hundred and sixty [[tonne]]s of new chalk, the outline was re-cut, and shuttering was added to hold the chalk in place.<ref name=wwh/> This work was supported by a grant of [[pound sterling|£]]18,000 from the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott>Bowcott, Owen, ''[http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/post/7671/cherhill_down_and_oldbury.html Cherhill White Horse Restoration: Historic horse turns a whiter shade of pale]'' dated September 9, 2002, in ''[[The Guardian]]'', at themodernantiquarian.com, accessed 19 July 2008</ref> The present surface is thus made of compacted chalk, and the edges of the figure are well defined.<ref name=hows/>

In the 19th century, the horse had a glittering glass eye, formed from bottles pressed neck-first into the ground. The bottles had been added by a Farmer Angell and his wife, but by the late 19th century they were gone, perhaps taken as souvenirs. During the 1970s, a local youth centre project added a new eye made of glass bottles, but these also disappeared.<ref name=wwh/><ref name=weird/> The eye now consists of stone and concrete and stands proud of the chalk surface.<ref name=hows/>

In 1922, Oldfield Howey noted that "At the time of writing (1922) this horse is sadly in need of scouring, as due to the [[Great War]] all such things have had to be neglected, but we understand that a local lady has come to its rescue and asked permission to restore it. Formerly the [[Lord of the Manor]] was its groom!"<ref>Howey, M. Oldfield, ''Horse in Magic and Myth'' (1923, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2003), page 70</ref>

In the week of the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] in 1937, the horse was floodlit and the letters '''GE''' (for the king and his queen, [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Elizabeth]]) were picked out in red lights above it, with the power coming from a generator at the foot of the hill. The red letters were lit up for five seconds, followed by the floodlights for ten seconds, in a repeating pattern.<ref name=bowcott/>

Thirteen such white horses are known to have existed in Wiltshire. Of these, eight can still be seen, while the others have grown over.<ref name=wwhhome/> The Cherhill White Horse is maintained and saved from this fate by Cherhill [[parish council]].<ref name=hows/>

The hill above the horse now belongs to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref name=bowcott/><ref>[http://www.northwiltslink.co.uk/html/wiltshire_s_white_horses.html Wiltshire's White Horses] at northwiltslink.co.uk</ref>

==Bibliography==
* [[William Plenderleath|Plenderleath, Rev. W. C.]], ''On the White Horses of Wiltshire and Its Neighbourhood'' (''Wilts Archaeological Magazine'', vol. 14 for the year 1872, pp. 12-30)
*Plenderleath, Rev. W. C., ''White Horses of the West of England'' (London, Allen & Storr, 1892)
*Marples, Morris, ''White Horses & Other Hill Figures'' (London: Country Life Ltd, 1949; New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)
*Bergamar, Kate, ''Discovering Hill Figures'' (London: Shire Publications, 1968, 4th revised edition 1997, ISBN 0-7478-0345-5)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Chalk figures in England]]
* [[Leucippotomy]]
* [[Uffington White Horse]]

==External links==
*[http://maps.yahoo.com/broadband/#mvt=m&lat=51.42525&lon=-1.929903&mag=6&zoom=13&q1=51.42525%2C-1.929903 Cherhill White Horse location map] from maps.yahoo.com
*[http://www.pagemost.com/Oldbury-Castle---Cherhill-White-Horse-Wiltshire Interactive map of Oldbury Castle and Cherhill White Horse, Wiltshire], from pagemost.com
*[http://wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk/ Wiltshire White Horses] at wiltshirewhitehorses.org.uk
*[http://www.wiltshire-web.co.uk/history/horse.htm Horse history] at wiltshire-web.co.uk (the Wiltshire Web)

{{coor title d|51.42525|N|1.929903|W}}

[[Category:Geography of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Geoglyphs]]
[[Category:History of Wiltshire]]