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Helicopter 66

2018-08-09T01:38:07Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 195.201.107.239 (talk): disruptive edits (HG) (3.4.4)

{{featured article}}
{| {{Infobox aircraft begin
| name = Helicopter 66
| image = SH-3D Sea King of HS-4 recovers Apollo 11 astronaut on 24 July 1969.jpg
| caption = Helicopter 66 pictured in 1969
| alt = Helicopter 66 pictured in 1969
}}
{{Infobox aircraft career
| other names = "Old 66"<ref name="nambp">{{cite web|title=Sikorsky UH-3H Sea King|url=http://nambp.org/sikorsky-uh-3h-sea-king|website=nambp.org|publisher=[[Naval Air Museum Barbers Point]]|accessdate=February 9, 2018}}</ref>, Helicopter 740
| type = Helicopter
| manufacturer = [[Sikorsky Aircraft]]
| construction number =
| construction date = 
| civil registration = 
| military serial = BuNo 152711<ref name="nambp"/>
| radio code = 
| first flight = 
| owners = [[U.S. Navy]]
| in service = 1968–1975
| last flight = June 4, 1975
| flights = 
| total hours = 3,245.2
| total distance = 
| status = 
| aircraft carried = 
| fate = Crashed and submerged
| preservation = 
}}
|}

'''Helicopter 66''' is the common name of a [[United States Navy]] [[Sikorsky Sea King]] [[helicopter]] used during the late 1960s for the water recovery of astronauts during the [[Apollo program]]. It has been called "one of the most famous, or at least most iconic, helicopters in history", was the subject of a 1969 song by [[Manuela (singer)|Manuela]] and was made into a [[Die-cast toy|die-cast model]] by [[Dinky Toys]]. In addition to its work in support of [[NASA]], Helicopter 66 also transported the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah of Iran]] during his 1973 visit to the aircraft carrier [[USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63)|USS ''Kitty Hawk'']].

Helicopter 66 was delivered to the U.S. Navy in 1967 and formed part of the inventory of [[HSC-4|U.S. Navy Helicopter Anti-Submarine Squadron Four]] for the duration of its active life. Among its pilots during this period was [[Donald S. Jones]], who would go on to command the [[United States Third Fleet]]. Later re-numbered Helicopter 740, the aircraft crashed in the [[Pacific Ocean]] in 1975 during a training exercise. At the time of its crash, it had logged more than 3,200 hours of service.

==Design==
[[File:Apollo 10 Helicopter Recovery - GPN-2000-001143.jpg|thumb|alt=Helicopter 66 pictured during the Apollo 10 recovery|left|Helicopter 66 pictured during the [[Apollo 10]] recovery in 1969]]
Helicopter 66 is a [[Sikorsky Sea King]] SH-3D.<ref name="snews"/> The SH-3D model Sea Kings were designed for [[anti-submarine warfare]] (ASW) and were typically configured to carry a crew of four and up to three passengers.<ref name="Fas">{{cite web|title=H-3 Sea King|url=https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/h-3.htm|website=fas.org|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/h-3.htm|accessdate=February 7, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Powered by two [[General Electric]] T58-GE-10 turboshaft engines producing maximum {{convert|1400|hp|lk=in}} each, SH-3Ds had a maximum airspeed of {{convert|120|knots|adj=off}} and a mission endurance averaging 4.5 hours.<ref name="Fas"/><ref>{{cite web |title=S-61 |archive-date=January 1, 1970 |archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100///https://www.sikorskyarchives.com/S-61%20(HSS-2)%20Flupd.php |url=https://www.sikorskyarchives.com/S-61%20(HSS-2)%20Flupd.php |website=sikorskyarchives.com |publisher=Igor I. Sikorsky Historical Archives |accessdate=June 15, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref> They had a maximum allowable weight of {{convert|20,500|lbs|adj=off}} with the ability to carry an external payload of up to {{convert|6,000|lbs|adj=off}}.<ref name="Fas"/>

During ASW missions, the Sea King SH-3D was typically armed with [[Mark 46 torpedo|MK-46/44]] torpedoes.<ref name="Fas"/>

==History==
===Early history and Apollo missions===
Helicopter 66 was delivered to the U.S. Navy on March 4, 1967 and, in 1968, was added to the inventory of U.S. Navy Helicopter Anti-Submarine Squadron Four (HS-4).<ref name="snews"/> Its original tail number was NT-66/2711.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sikorsky UH-3H Sea King (S-61B) – USA – Navy|url=http://www.airliners.net/photo/USA-Navy/Sikorsky-UH-3H-Sea-King-S-61B/2276627|website=[[airliners.net]]|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////http://www.airliners.net/photo/USA-Navy/Sikorsky-UH-3H-Sea-King-S-61B/2276627|publisher=[[Leaf Group]]|accessdate=February 7, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Activated on June 30, 1952, Squadron Four – "the Black Knights" – was the first anti-submarine warfare helicopter squadron of the U.S. Navy to deploy aboard an aircraft carrier when, in 1953, it operated from {{USS|Rendova}}.<ref name="navymil"/> It began using the Sea King SH-3D in 1968, transitioning from the SH-3A model.<ref name="navymil"/> That year, the squadron was assigned to Carrier Anti-Submarine Air Group 59 and deployed aboard [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']] to the [[Sea of Japan]] (''East Sea'') in response to the capture of {{USS|Pueblo|AGER-2|6}} by the [[Korean People's Navy]].<ref name="navymil"/> Later that year, ''Yorktown''—and Squadron Four—was tasked to support the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) in the oceanic recovery of returning astronauts.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="navymil">{{cite web|title=HSC-4 Command History|url=http://www.public.navy.mil/AIRFOR/HSC4/Pages/COMMAND%20HISTORY.aspx|website=HELSEACOMBATRON FOUR|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////http://www.public.navy.mil/AIRFOR/HSC4/Pages/COMMAND%20HISTORY.aspx|publisher=[[U.S. Navy]]|accessdate=February 7, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>{{efn|Early U.S. manned spaceflights used water landings during return to Earth due to the minimum additional technology needed to outfit the spacecraft.<ref name="discover">{{cite news|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100///http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/vintagespace/2018/02/10/why-cosmonauts-dont-splash-down/#.WvclwYAvyUk|last1=Teitel|first1=Amy|title=Why Cosmonauts Have Never Splashed Down|url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/vintagespace/2018/02/10/why-cosmonauts-dont-splash-down/#.WvclwYAvyUk|accessdate=May 12, 2018|work=[[Discover Magazine]]|date=February 10, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The command capsule required only parachutes to slow its descent sufficiently for a survivable landing on a "soft" surface like water, instead of the retrorockets that would be required for a landing on a "hard" surface like land.<ref name="discover"/>}}
[[File:Helicopter_66_Apollo_8.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The Apollo 8 crew shown disembarking Helicopter 66 aboard USS Yorktown following their return to Earth|The [[Apollo 8]] crew disembarks Helicopter 66 aboard USS ''Yorktown'' following their return to Earth in 1968]]
During the [[Apollo 8]], [[Apollo 10]], and [[Apollo 11]] missions, Helicopter 66 was the primary recovery vehicle which hoisted returning astronauts from the spacecraft command modules.<ref name="snews"/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Putnam|first1=Milt|title=Navy Photographer Tells the Story of Apollo 11 Recovery|url=http://www.navyhistory.org/2012/02/navy-photographer-apollo-11-recovery/|website=navyhistory.org|publisher=Naval Historical Foundation|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////http://www.navyhistory.org/2012/02/navy-photographer-apollo-11-recovery/|accessdate=November 3, 2017|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> As a result, it was featured prominently in television news coverage and still photography, achieving—in the words of space historian [[Dwayne A. Day]]—the status of "one of the most famous, or at least most iconic, helicopters in history".<ref name="snews"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Blair|first1=Don|title=Splashdown!: NASA and the Navy|date=2004|publisher=Turner Publishing Company|isbn=978-1-56311-985-9|page=43}}</ref> [[Commander (United States)|Commander]] [[Donald S. Jones]], who would later command the [[United States Third Fleet]], piloted Helicopter 66 during its inaugural astronaut recovery mission following Apollo 8, and again during the Apollo 11 recovery.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Carmichael|first1=Scott|title=Moon Men Return: USS Hornet and the Recovery of the Apollo 11 Astronauts|date=2012|publisher=[[Naval Institute Press]]|isbn=978-1-61251-252-5|pages=121–122}}</ref>

Following the Apollo 11 mission, the Navy switched to a three-digit designation system and Helicopter 66 was retagged Helicopter 740.<ref name="snews"/> Recognizing the fame Helicopter 66 had achieved, the Navy began the practice of repainting Helicopter 740 as Helicopter 66 for the later recovery missions in which it participated, [[Apollo 12]] and [[Apollo 13]], painting it back as Helicopter 740 at the conclusion of each mission.<ref name="snews"/><ref>{{cite news|title=From One to Another|url=https://www.verticalmag.com/features/20256-from-one-to-another-html/|accessdate=November 3, 2017|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////https://www.verticalmag.com/features/20256-from-one-to-another-html/|archive-date=January 1, 1970|work=Vertical Magazine|date=April 12, 2012|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> During the period of its use for astronaut recovery, Helicopter 66 bore [[kill marks]] on its fuselage showing a space capsule silhouette, with one being added for each recovery in which it participated.<ref>{{cite news|title=Helicopter Unit Changes Command|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/122502453/|accessdate=February 7, 2018|page=20|work=Chula Vista Star-News|publisher=[[newspapers.com]]|date=September 26, 1971}}{{paywall}}</ref> For the recovery of the Apollo 11 astronauts, the underside of the fuselage was emblazoned with the words "Hail, Columbia".<ref>{{cite AV media
| people = [[Ron Nessen]]
| date = July 24, 1969
| title = [[NBC News]]
| trans-title =
| medium = [[television]]
| language = English
| url =
| access-date =
| format =
| time =
| location =
| publisher = [[National Broadcasting Company]]
| id =
| isbn =
| oclc =
| quote = The President's applauding as they play "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean." Columbia, of course, is the module out there ... We understand that President Nixon requested the band play "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean". Written on the bottom of the helicopter is another welcome aboard for the astronauts, it says "Hail, Columbia".| ref =}}</ref>{{efn|The name of the Apollo 11 command capsule was "Columbia" and [[President of the United States]] [[Richard Nixon]], who was personally embarked aboard USS ''Hornet'' for the recovery, had ordered the Band of the [[COMNAVAIRPAC]] to perform "[[Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean]]" during the recovery.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nixon|first1=Richard|title=RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon|date=2013|page=172|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4767-3183-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Astronauts Aboard Carrier|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/140157017/|accessdate=September 27, 2017|work=[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]|page=1|date=July 24, 1969}}{{paywall}}</ref>}}

====List of Helicopter 66 Apollo recovery flights====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Mission !! Flight date !! Base ship !! Pilot !! Reference
|-
| [[Apollo 8]] || December 27, 1968 || [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']] || [[Donald S. Jones]] || <ref name="snews"/>
|-
| [[Apollo 10]] || May 29, 1969 || [[USS Princeton (LPH-5)|USS ''Princeton'']] || Chuck B. Smiley ||<ref name="snews"/>
|-
| [[Apollo 11]]|| July 24, 1969 || [[USS Hornet (CVS-12)|USS ''Hornet'']] || Donald S. Jones ||<ref name="snews"/>
|-
| [[Apollo 12]]|| November 24, 1969|| [[USS Hornet (CVS-12)|USS ''Hornet'']]|| Warren E. Aut ||<ref name="snews"/>
|-
| [[Apollo 13]]|| April 17, 1970|| [[USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2)|USS ''Iwo Jima'']] || Chuck B. Smiley ||<ref name="snews"/>
|}

===Later history and crash===
By 1973 Helicopter Squadron Four, and Helicopter 66 with it, were embarked aboard [[USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63)|USS ''Kitty Hawk'']].<ref name="navymil"/> That year, Helicopter 66 transported the [[Shah of Iran]], [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], to ''Kitty Hawk'' for a shipboard visit while it transited the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name="navymil"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Kitty Hawk II (CVA-63)|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/k/kitty-hawk-cva-63-ii.html|website=Naval History and Heritage Command|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/k/kitty-hawk-cva-63-ii.html|publisher=[[U.S. Navy]]|accessdate=February 7, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

At 7:00 p.m. on June 4, 1975, Helicopter 66 departed [[Naval Outlying Landing Field Imperial Beach]] near [[San Diego, California]] en route to the U.S. Navy's Helo Offshore Training Area to conduct a regularly scheduled, three-hour nighttime anti-submarine training exercise.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="report"/> During the operation, in which it was carrying a full complement of four crew, the helicopter crashed.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="report"/> Though the crew was subsequently rescued by the [[U.S. Coast Guard]], pilot [[Leo Rolek]] was critically injured and later died of the wounds he sustained in the crash.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="report"/> The exact cause of the downing of Helicopter 66 is unknown; as of 2017 the U.S. Navy incident report remains largely classified.<ref name="srd">{{cite news|last1=Day|first1=Dwayne|title=It’s time to recover Helo 66|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3326/1|archive-date=January 1, 1970|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3326/1|accessdate=November 3, 2017|work=[[The Space Review]]|date=September 17, 2017|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The broken fuselage of the helicopter later sank in {{convert|800|fathom|m}} of water.<ref name="report">{{cite web|title=Aircraft Accident Report|accessdate=February 7, 2018|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/archive/895.pdf|website=[[The Space Review]]|pages=1–4|date=|publisher=[[United States Navy aircraft mishap board]]|via=[[The Space Review]]|type=Original U.S. Navy accident report scanned and uploaded by ''The Space Review''.|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////http://www.thespacereview.com/archive/895.pdf|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> At the time of its crash, Helicopter 66 had clocked 3,245.2 flight hours since being brought into service, and 183.6 hours since its last overhaul.<ref name="srd"/>

The submerged helicopter remains property of the U.S. Navy, and an abortive effort by private interests to surface it for preservation was not realized.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="srd"/>
[[File:Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King (6586631957).jpg|thumb|right|alt=A Sikorksy Sea King painted in Helicopter 66 livery shown at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in 2011|A Sikorksy Sea King painted in Helicopter 66 livery and owned by the [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]], on display at the [[Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum]] in 2011]]

==Legacy==
[[File:Helicopter 66, portion of a painting by Tom O'Hara.png|thumb|right|Portion of the painting ''Recovery Helicopter 66'' by Tom O'Hara]]
A painting of Helicopter 66 was commissioned in 1969 from artist Tom O'Hara as part of a NASA art initiative.<ref name="si">{{cite web|title=Recovery Helicopter #66|url=https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/recovery-helicopter-66|website=airandspace.si.edu|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=November 3, 2017}}</ref> It was subsequently placed in the custody of the [[National Air and Space Museum]].<ref name="si"/>

In September 1969 German singer [[Manuela (singer)|Manuela]] released a [[Single (music)|single]] titled "Helicopter U.S. Navy 66" which features the sound of helicopter rotors.<ref>{{cite web|language=[[German (language)|German]]|title=Manuela – Helicopter U.S. Navy 66 (song) |url=http://germancharts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Manuela&titel=Helicopter+U%2ES%2E+Navy+66&cat=s|website=germancharts.com|publisher=[[Bundesverband Musikindustrie]]|accessdate=February 8, 2018}}</ref> The song was covered the next year by the Belgian pop singer [[Christiane Bervoets|Samantha]], and was credited with helping launch her career.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hoe zou het zijn met Samantha?|url=https://radio2.be/antwerpen/hoe-zou-het-zijn-met-samantha|accessdate=February 11, 2018|work=[[Radio 2 (Belgium)]]|date=June 24, 2016|language=[[Dutch (language)|Dutch]]}}</ref> In a 2007 interview, the popularity of "Helicopter U.S. Navy 66" as a closing song at dance clubs in 1970s Belgium was cited by the Belgian [[Schlager music|Schlager]] vocalist [[Laura Lynn (Belgian singer)|Laura Lynn]] as the inspiration for her hit "Goud".<ref>{{cite news|language=[[Dutch (language)|Dutch]]|title=Home Muziek Radio & Televisie Musical & Theater Film Fotoalbums Kalender Wedstrijden "Goud" nieuwe album van Laura Lynn!|url=http://www.frontview-magazine.be/nl/nieuws/goud-nieuwe-album-van-laura-lynn|accessdate=February 11, 2018|work=Front View Magazine|date=June 7, 2007}}</ref>

During the early 1970s [[Dinky Toys]] released a [[Die-cast toy|die-cast model]] of a Sea King helicopter in Helicopter 66 livery.<ref name="mm"/> The model included a working winch which could lift a plastic space capsule toy.<ref name="mm">{{cite news|title=Dinky Toys News Space Recovery Special|last1=Lomax|first1=Frank|url=https://archive.org/details/meccano-magazine-1971-06|accessdate=February 7, 2018|work=[[Meccano Magazine]]|page=274|date=June 1971}}</ref>

Replicas of Helicopter 66 are on display at the [[USS Hornet Museum|USS ''Hornet'' Museum]] and the [[USS Midway Museum|USS ''Midway'' Museum]].<ref name="snews">{{cite news|last1=Day|first1=Dwayne|title=The last flight of Helo 66|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/895/1|accessdate=November 3, 2017|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////http://www.thespacereview.com/article/895/1|work=[[The Space Review]]|date=June 25, 2007|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In the case of the helicopter at the USS Hornet Museum, it is a retired Navy Sikorsky Sea King painted in Helicopter 66 markings, used to represent Helicopter 66 in the motion picture ''[[Apollo 13 (movie)|Apollo 13]]''.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Day|first1=Dwayne|title=Helo 66 revisited|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////http://www.thespacereview.com/article/903/1|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/903/1|accessdate=November 3, 2017|work=[[The Space Review]]|date=July 9, 2007|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> A Sikorsky Sea King painted in Helicopter 66 livery is also held by the [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Artifact Pick of the Week|url=https://www.evergreenmuseum.org/artifact-pick-of-the-week-sikorsky-uh-3h-sea-king-2|website=evergreenmuseum.org|publisher=[[Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum]]|archive-date=January 1, 1970|archive-url=https://perma-archives.org/warc/19700101000100/////https://www.evergreenmuseum.org/artifact-pick-of-the-week-sikorsky-uh-3h-sea-king-2|accessdate=February 7, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of individual aircraft]]
* [[Splashdown]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category inline}}

[[Category:Individual aircraft]]
[[Category:Apollo 11]]
[[Category:Sikorsky aircraft]]
[[Category:United States military helicopters]]
[[Category:Search and rescue helicopters]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-12-16T03:45:08Z

Work permit: para

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

The concentration of '''[[carbon dioxide]] (CO2) in [[atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]]''' is approximately 390 ppm (parts per million) by volume {{As of|2010|lc=on}},<ref name="Carbon Trends">{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref> and rising by about 1.9 ppm/yr.<ref name="carbon budget">[http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/08/hl-full.htm Carbon Budget 2008 Highlights]{{dead link|date=December 2010|url=http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/08/hl-full.htm}}</ref> Carbon dioxide is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]]. Despite its relatively small overall concentration in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> The present level is higher than at any time during the last 800 thousand years,<ref name="deep ice">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm | work=BBC News | title=Deep ice tells long climate story | date=2006-09-04 | accessdate=2010-04-28}}</ref> and likely higher than in the past 20 million years.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref>

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref name="Carbon Trends"/><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emissions.svg|thumb|300px|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2007.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They gain the energy needed for this reaction through the absorption of sunlight by pigments such as [[Chlorophyll]]. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms and other plants, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|[[False-color]] image of smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Many sources of CO2 emissions are natural. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of [[fossil fuels]] around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> Although the initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[tonne|megatonnes]] of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html Volcanic Gases and Their Effects]", [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov volcanoes.usgs.gov]</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by natural sinks, physical and biological processes which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is directly removed from the atmosphere by land plants for photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract Abstract], ''Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks ''.</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning fossil fuels such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. In 2008, 8.67 gigatonnes of carbon (31.8 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2) were released from fossil fuels worldwide, compared to 6.14 gigatonnes in 1990.<ref name="Le Quere">[http://lgmacweb.env.uea.ac.uk/lequere/co2/carbon_budget.htm Global carbon budget 2008], [http://lgmacweb.env.uea.ac.uk lgmacweb.env.uea.ac.uk]</ref> In addition, land use change contributed 1.20 gigatonnes in 2008, compared to 1.64 gigatonnes in 1990.<ref name="Le Quere"/>

This addition, about 3% of annual natural emissions {{As of|1997|lc=on}}, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "[http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html Common Questions about Climate Change]"</ref> As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, and {{As of|2008|lc=on}}, its concentration is 38% above pre-industrial levels.<ref name="carbon budget"/>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Past variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]
The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[Annum|ka]]). In 1832 antarctic ice core levels were 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 ka. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmc = 129389 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 ka were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g. H. J Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 ka.<ref name="deep ice"/> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html Vostok Ice Core Data], [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and volcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years.

Various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida"/> In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, the time of the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]] and when the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] started to take its current form, CO2 is found to have been about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{seealso|Solubility pump}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water, a process which has been termed [[ocean acidification]]. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean<ref name=arch05>Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. ''J. Geophys. Res.'', '''110''', doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.</ref>, however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]
*[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]
*[[Climate change]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Ocean acidification]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-26T02:38:16Z

Work permit: /* See also */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a minor [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 antarctic ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref>

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropogenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted <ref>Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, T. Berntsen, R. Betts, D.W. Fahey, J. Haywood, J. Lean, D.C. Lowe, G. Myhre, J. Nganga, R. Prinn, G. Raga, M. Schulz and R. Van Dorland, [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf 2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing.] In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.</ref>.

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[Annum|ka]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 ka.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 ka. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 ka were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 0.8 Ma.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{seealso|Solubility pump}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean<ref name=arch05>Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. ''J. Geophys. Res.'', '''110''', doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.</ref>, however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-26T02:37:45Z

Work permit: /* Current concentration */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a minor [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 antarctic ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref>

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropogenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted <ref>Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, T. Berntsen, R. Betts, D.W. Fahey, J. Haywood, J. Lean, D.C. Lowe, G. Myhre, J. Nganga, R. Prinn, G. Raga, M. Schulz and R. Van Dorland, [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf 2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing.] In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.</ref>.

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[Annum|ka]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 ka.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 ka. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 ka were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 0.8 Ma.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{seealso|Solubility pump}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean<ref name=arch05>Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. ''J. Geophys. Res.'', '''110''', doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.</ref>, however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-26T02:34:47Z

Work permit: Undid revision 352087178 by 70.140.62.166 (talk) remove questionable, uncited material. Only cited material is already included

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a minor [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 antarctic ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropogenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted <ref>Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, T. Berntsen, R. Betts, D.W. Fahey, J. Haywood, J. Lean, D.C. Lowe, G. Myhre, J. Nganga, R. Prinn, G. Raga, M. Schulz and R. Van Dorland, [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf 2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing.] In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.</ref>.

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[Annum|ka]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 ka.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 ka. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 ka were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 0.8 Ma.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{seealso|Solubility pump}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean<ref name=arch05>Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. ''J. Geophys. Res.'', '''110''', doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.</ref>, however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Manhattanville

2010-03-21T23:51:19Z

Work permit: /* University expansions */ wording per wp:peacock

:''"Manhattanville" redirects here. For the college, see [[Manhattanville College]].''
[[Image:Subway elevated2.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[125th Street (IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line station)|125th Street station]] at Broadway and 125th Street, one of Manhattanville's primary landmarks]]

'''Manhattanville''' is a neighborhood in the [[New York City]] [[borough (New York City)|borough]] of [[Manhattan]] bordered on the south by [[Morningside Heights, Manhattan|Morningside Heights]] on the west by the [[Hudson River]], on the east by [[Harlem]] and on the north by [[Hamilton Heights, Manhattan|Hamilton Heights]]. Its borders straddle West 125th Street, roughly from [[122nd Street (Manhattan)|122nd Street]] to 135th Street and from the Hudson River to [[St. Nicholas Park]].

Throughout the 19th century, Manhattanville was a town that bustled around a wharf active with ferry and daily river conveyances. It was the first principal terminus on the northbound [[Hudson River Railroad]], and the hub of daily stage coach, omnibus and streetcar lines. Situated near the famous Bloomingdale Road, its hotels, houses of entertainment and post office made it an alluring destination of suburban retreat from the city, yet its direct proximity to the Hudson River also made it an invaluable industrial entry point for construction materials and other freight bound for [[upper Manhattan]]. With the construction of road and railway viaducts over the valley in which the town sat, Manhattanville, increasingly absorbed into the growing city, became a marginalized industrial area.

The neighborhood is now the site of a major planned expansion of [[Columbia University]], which has campuses in Morningside Heights to the south and [[Washington Heights, Manhattan|Washington Heights]] to the north.

==History==
===Colonial period===
Manhattanville sits in a valley formerly called Moertje David's Vly ('Mother David's Valley'; in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] 'Vly' is short for 'vallei' = valley) during the Dutch Colonial period and as Harlem Cove during the English Colonial period. During the [[American Revolutionary War]], the valley was also known as the Hollow Way, where the main action of the [[Battle of Harlem Heights]] began under the command of General [[George Washington]]. During the [[War of 1812]] the valley's southern ridges latered figured as the site of the Manhattanville Pass whose defense fortifications and breastworks included<ref>See [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:WbUZwrA5GBcJ:www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsE_L/laightFort.htm+%22manhattanville+pass%22&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 Fort Laight] and [http://www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsM_P/nycBlockhouses.htm Blockhouse No. 4]</ref>, now the sites of Morningside Gardens houses and Public School No. 36, respectively. ''See also [[Manhattan Valley]]''

===Village of Manhattanville===
In 1806, the village of Manhattanville was established in this valley around the crossroads of Bloomingdale Road and Manhattan Street, now roughly [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] and 125th Street. The village's original streets were laid out by Jacob Schieffelin and other wealthy merchants, mostly [[Quakers]], who had country seats in the area. The town thrived as a result of the development of Manhattan Street from the Hudson River, whose convenient access also became a crucial catalyst in the growth of the older village of Harlem to the southeast on the Harlem River. Situated at approximately the same latitude, Harlem and Manhattanville flourished together throughout the 19th century as the two most prominent villages in upper Manhattan.

Manhattanville's early population was a diverse and eclectic mix of intermarried American patriots and British loyalists; at least one prominent former African slave trader; slave owners and enslaved African-Americans; Quaker anti-slavery activists and free black abolitionists; tradesmen, poor laborers and wealthy industrialists. Many were affiliated with the same institutions, principally the historic New York City landmarked St. Mary's Protestant Episcopal Church, organized in 1823, which was the first Episcopal church to dissolve [[pew]] rentals in 1831, and the Manhattanville Free School (established in 1827, later Public School No. 43) still at their original sites. Manhattanville's most prominent resident was industrialist [[Daniel F. Tiemann]] (1805-1899), owner of the D.F. Tiemann & Company Color Works, who was also Mayor of New York City from 1858 to 1859. The Tiemann laboratory and factory which was originally located on [[23rd Street (Manhattan)|23rd Street]] and [[Park Avenue (Manhattan)|Fourth Avenue]] in New York City, near [[Madison Square|Madison Square Park]], relocated uptown to Manhattanville in 1832, in part due to an underground spring of running water at the new uptown location.<ref name="Baptista">Baptista, Robert J., [http://www.colorantshistory.org/TiemannColorWorks.html "D.F. Tiemann & Co. Color Works, Manhattanville, New York City"], Colorants Industry History, July 7, 2009</ref>
[[Image:1853Tiemann&CoAd2sm.jpg|thumb|left]]

===Immigration and urbanization===
Later noteworthy population changes occurred around the mid-19th century with the influx of mostly Catholic Irish (who established the Church of the Annunciation in 1854) and Germans (who established St. Joseph's Roman Catholic Church in 1860). After the [[American Civil War]], the Jewish immigrant population that began to distinguish itself in Harlem gradually filtered into the western blocks of Manhattanville (and established Chevra Talmud Torah Anshei Marovi, also known as [[Old Broadway Synagogue]], in 1911). Other prominent 19th-century Manhattanville institutions included the Academy of Convent of the Sacred Heart (later called [[Manhattanville College]]) and [[Manhattan College]].

In 1904, the opening of the new Broadway [[Interborough Rapid Transit]] (IRT) subway line galvanized Manhattanville's radical transformation from rural [[exburb]] to an extension of the growing city, with the elevated railway providing rapid transit downtown. Cuban, Dominican and Puerto Rican immigrants moved into the area during the 20th century. By the 1970s, the southern part of Manhattanville (up to about 125th Street) was being filled by Columbia and [[Barnard College]] students, staff and faculty, as the university continued to expand. This trend has continued today and is spreading north. In 2006, Columbia built a new School of Social Work on Amsterdam Avenue at 122nd Street. In addition, other colleges have been building dormitories in the area, as described below. Also, West 125th Street has experienced a general economic upturn since the end of the 1990s. Many of the buildings below 125th Street have converted to cooperative ownership as the area experiences continuing [[gentrification]] and increasing demand for housing.
[[File:Mabstoa amsterdam depo.JPG|right|thumb|The former Amsterdam Bus Depot]]
===Recent developments===
====University expansions====
Manhattanville is the site of a planned major expansion of [[Columbia University]]. The university has begun to purchase several square blocks of the neighborhood between [[125th Street|125th]]<ref>Because of the dogleg shape of 125th Street on the west side, 125th Street and 129th Street merge, and so only four or five blocks are involved in the tract.</ref> and 133rd Streets on the south and north and between Broadway and 12th Avenue on the east and west. The current physical plant of those blocks will be partly demolished to construct a new campus, secondary school and park land, designed by Italian architect [[Renzo Piano]]. Local residents fear the impact of the further gentrification from this expansion in addition to the possible, and controversial, use of [[eminent domain]]. In June 2007, the [[New York City Department of City Planning]] certified that Columbia's application for the rezoning is complete. This action launched the public review and comment period under the city's Uniform Land Use Review Procedure, which lasted until the end of 2007.<ref>[http://www.neighbors.columbia.edu/pages/manplanning/ From the university's Manhattanville planning page, which includes links to news releases]</ref>

In November 2007, the ''[[New York Daily News]]'' summarized the plan as follows: "Columbia owns 65% [of the tract]. The [[New York State|state]] and [[Con Ed]] have 23%. That gives the university access to 88% of the tract. Most of the remaining 12% consists of two gas stations and a half-dozen commercial properties. The school is trying to negotiate purchases. In the entire 17 acres, there are only 132 apartments with fewer than 300 tenants, and all have been offered equivalent or better housing, with a guarantee that eminent domain will not be used to acquire homes. None of the apartments are in the first phase of the project; none will be touched until at least 2015.<ref>[http://neighbors.columbia.edu/pages/manplanning/community/letters/nydailynews.html "Columbia Passes Big Test",] ''New York Daily News'', November 28, 2007</ref> On December 19, 2007, the New York City Council voted to approve the University’s proposed rezoning of the site.<ref>[http://neighbors.columbia.edu/pages/manplanning/learn_more/statement.html "City Council Announces Approval of Columbia University Expansion",] City Council press release, December 19, 2007</ref>

To the north, a 600-unit student dorm known as 'The Towers'<ref>[http://www.ccnytowers.com/ccny/ From the CCNY website]</ref> finished construction in June 2006 as an extension of the [[City College of New York]] on St. Nicholas Terrace. This is the first time that City College has housed students on the campus. Occupancy began in Fall 2006. To the south, near 122nd Street, the [[Manhattan School of Music]] also built a dormitory around 2003. Also in 2006, [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] opened a smaller dormitory on 122nd Street between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue. The increase in student residences is one of several factors rapidly changing the character of Manhattanville, and cafes and restaurants have opened on Broadway, La Salle Street and Amsterdam Avenue to accommodate the population growth.

At 135th St. and Convent Avenue, City College is rapidly completing the construction of the new School of Architecture and Urban Design building.<ref>[http://www.rvapc.com/ht/HTProject.aspx?Base=Projects&projID=147 From the architects' website]</ref> Based on a pre-existing 1950s structure this redesign and reconstruction by [[Rafael Viñoly]] Architects is intended to add a modern aesthetic to the eclectic architectural mix in the area.

====West Harlem Piers====
[[Image:West Harlem Piers jeh.JPG|thumb|West Harlem Piers]]
After a groundbreaking ceremony in November 2005, construction of the West Harlem Piers Waterfront park began in April 2006.<ref>[http://neighbors.columbia.edu/pdf-files/Harlem_Piers.pdf From the University's Harlem Piers page]</ref> The park includes a fishing pier, a kayak launch, sculptures, and water taxi landings, stretches from 125th St to 132nd Street, partly on land formerly used as a [[parking lot]]. It closed a gap in the [[Manhattan Waterfront Greenway]] that runs along the western side of Manhattan Island and will later connect up the Hudson River. The park opened in early October 2008, delayed through the summer by the discovery that fencing designed to prevent users from falling into the river did not meet specifications. <ref>Daniel Amsallag, Construction Snag Delays Pier Opening, Columbia Daily Spectator, September 15, 2008</ref> The area that surrounds the park and piers is at times called ViVa (Viaduct Valley).

====Arts and nightlife====
Artistic revitilization continued in October 2006 when The Gatehouse Theater opened. The Gatehouse Theater is an additional facility of Aaron Davis Hall<ref>[http://www.aarondavishall.org/ From the Aaron Davis Hall website]</ref> performing art space, one of Harlem's leading artistic venues specializing in dance. It was built by rehabilitating a former 19th century water pumping station at 135th St and Amsterdam. Upon completion, both Aaron Davis Hall and the Gatehouse Theater evolved to share a common name, Harlem Stage. Another important artistic venue for the area is the non profit exhibition space, Triple Candie, at 126th Street and Amsterdam.

== Historic religious institutions ==
Four of Manhattanville’s houses of worship are among the most historically distinguished in all of Harlem. None is located in the area slated for the expansion of Columbia University.

'''St. Mary’s Protestant Episcopal Church''' on West 126th Street (formerly Lawrence Street), organized in 1823, was the only church in the district (indeed, in the entire Harlem territory with the exception of the Dutch Reformed Church on the East Side) in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Its present stone building, built in 1908-1909 by T. E. Blake and the architectural firm of Carrere & Hastings, is the church’s second structure on same site of the church’s original wood frame structure, built in 1824 and consecrated in 1826. In 1831, St. Marys was the first church in the Episcopal Diocese to abolish [[pew]] rentals. The marble seal inlaid into the church porch of '''"Jacob Schieffelin's Vault"''', the [[burial vault (tomb)|burial vault]] in which Jacob Schieffelin and his wife Hannah Lawrence Schieffelin (who were the church's land donors as well as Manhattanville's principal founders) are interred, is clearly visible to passersby. Today St. Mary's is the oldest congregation in continuous service on its original site in the entire Harlem area. In 1998, the complex of church, its adjacent frame parish house (circa 1851) and brick school building (1890) were officially designated a [[List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan above 110th Street|New York City landmark]].

'''Church of the Annunciation''' (Roman Catholic) on Covent Avenue and West 131st Street, founded in 1854, was the first Catholic church to be built on Manhattan’s west side above 2nd Street, and ministered particularly to the Irish Catholic laborers on the Hudson River Railroad. The Christian Brothers established the church building adjacent to Manhattan College, at 131st Street and the Bloomingdale Road (Old Broadway). The Brothers subsequently sold the adjoining church and rectory sites to John Hughes, the first Catholic Archbishop of New York. The present stone building, built in 1906-1907 by the architectural firm of Lynch & Orchard, is the church’s second structure, to which the congregation moved from two blocks east in 1907.

'''St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic Church''', founded in 1860 as the Church of the Holy Family by Manhattanville’s German Catholic community at the northwest corner of 125th Street and [[Morningside Avenue (Manhattan)|Morningside Avenue]] (formerly Ninth Avenue). A 100th anniversary souvenir history in 1960 noted: “While the construction of the church was going on . . . on May 30, of the year 1861 was celebrated what was probably the first public Corpus Christi procession in New York City.” Manhattanville historian John J. Hopper mentions this church in his circa 1920 reminiscences as “the German Catholic Church at Ninth Avenue, which my father [Isaac A. Hopper] built” during his boyhood on Manhattan Street from 1853 to 1865. (Although the AIA guide attributes the church’s architecture to the Herter Brothers in 1889, the incorrect building date was probably confused that of the St. Joseph R.C. School building around the corner at 168 Morningside Avenue). David Dunlap cites this church in his book, “Glory in Gotham: Manhattan’s Houses of Worship,” as the oldest church [building] in Harlem.

'''[[Old Broadway Synagogue]]''', an Orthodox Jewish synagogue incorporated in 1911 under the name Chevra Talmud Torah Anshei Marovi, was built on Old Broadway (a rare vestige on Manhattan island of the Bloomingdale Road) by the architectural firm of Meisner & Uffner in 1923. The congregation formed from the mostly [[Ashkenazic]] Jewish population of Russian and Polish immigrants to New York during the 1880s who had made their way up to Central Harlem, then migrated to blocks west. The building is listed individually on the [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan above 110th Street|National Register of Historic Places]].

== Other sites of interest ==
[[File:Claremont 135 theater jeh.JPG|thumb|Former Claremont Theater]]
Aside from [[Grant's Tomb]], [[Riverside Church]] and the Manhattan School of Music at the southwestern corner, the principal landmarks in Manhattanville are the elevated section of the [[IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line]] and the elevated [[Riverside Drive Viaduct]]. Within the neighborhood is [[Manhattanville Houses]], a 1,272 unit development of the [[New York City Housing Authority]], which opened in 1961. Designed in the international style by noted Swiss-born architect [[William Lescaze]], the development was initially created to house middle income residents.

The neighborhood also contains the landmarked Claremont Theater<ref>[http://therealestate.observer.com/2006/06/new-landmark-designation.html From the Real Estate Observer website]</ref>, the [[Manhattanville Bus Depot]], St. Mary's Church, and the Fairway Supermarket, whose broad selections attract distant customers.

In Riverside Park, north of Grant's Tomb, is the site of the former Claremont Inn, a riverside respite and hotel for the affluent back in its heyday. It was originally built around 1775 as a private mansion and estate. By the end of the 19th century it was bought by the city of New York and leased to a hotelier. There was also a place to rent bicycles at the inn. It had a serious fire in the 1940s which caused its demise. A plan was in the making for a reuse of the inn and restaurant and grounds when yet a final fire caused its closing in 1951. A stone plaque marks where it once stood.<ref>[http://harlembespoke.blogspot.com/2009/03/remember-claremont-inn.html "Remember: The Claremont Inn"], ''Harlem Bespoke''</ref><ref>[http://harlembespoke.blogspot.com/2009/04/remember-claremont-bicycles.html "Remember: Claremont Bicycles"], ''Harlem Bespoke''</ref><ref>[http://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/riversidepark/monuments/262 "Riverside Park: Claremont Inn tablet"], [[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]]. Claremont Inn Tablet in Claremont Playground; Incised plaque set in pavement; Deer Isle granite; Dedicated: 1952</ref>

In the 1920s, on 131st Street between [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] and Twelfth Avenue, there was a [[Studebaker]] automobile factory plant in Manhattanville which made luxury cars. The building was sold in the [[Great Depression]] in the 1930s to [[Borden Food Corporation|Borden]] to be used as a dairy plant. In the 21st century it is used by Columbia University and has a Studebaker Cafe in it.<ref>[http://harlembespoke.blogspot.com/2009_04_01_archive.html "Studebaker Building"], ''Harlem Bespoke''</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

* Washington, Eric K., [http://books.google.com/books?id=_8Rds6AN-fYC&printsec=frontcover ''Manhattanville: Old Heart of West Harlem''], Arcadia Publishing, Images of America series, 2002, ISBN 0-7385-0986-8
* [http://www.prattcenter.net/cp-cb9-197a.php CB9M 197-a Plan]
* [http://www.cb9m.org/other_docs.php CB9M West Harlem Piers Master Plan]

==External links==
* [http://www.CB9M.org Community Board No. 9 - Manhattan]
* [http://www.cb9m.blogspot.com CB9M Chairman's Blog]
* [http://www.ericKwashington.com/id13.html ''Manhattanville: Old Heart of West Harlem''] - Eric K. Washington website
* [http://www.stopcolumbia.org Coalition to Preserve Community website]
* [http://www.westharlemldc.org/ West Harlem Local Development corporation]
* [http://www.westharlembusinessgroup.com West Harlem Business Group website]

{{manhattan}}

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[[Category:Harlem, New York]]
[[Category:Neighborhoods in Manhattan]]

[[ca:Manhattanville]]
[[es:Manhattanville (Manhattan)]]
[[fr:Manhattanville]]

Manhattanville

2010-03-21T23:50:25Z

Work permit: /* University expansions */ remove uncited

:''"Manhattanville" redirects here. For the college, see [[Manhattanville College]].''
[[Image:Subway elevated2.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[125th Street (IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line station)|125th Street station]] at Broadway and 125th Street, one of Manhattanville's primary landmarks]]

'''Manhattanville''' is a neighborhood in the [[New York City]] [[borough (New York City)|borough]] of [[Manhattan]] bordered on the south by [[Morningside Heights, Manhattan|Morningside Heights]] on the west by the [[Hudson River]], on the east by [[Harlem]] and on the north by [[Hamilton Heights, Manhattan|Hamilton Heights]]. Its borders straddle West 125th Street, roughly from [[122nd Street (Manhattan)|122nd Street]] to 135th Street and from the Hudson River to [[St. Nicholas Park]].

Throughout the 19th century, Manhattanville was a town that bustled around a wharf active with ferry and daily river conveyances. It was the first principal terminus on the northbound [[Hudson River Railroad]], and the hub of daily stage coach, omnibus and streetcar lines. Situated near the famous Bloomingdale Road, its hotels, houses of entertainment and post office made it an alluring destination of suburban retreat from the city, yet its direct proximity to the Hudson River also made it an invaluable industrial entry point for construction materials and other freight bound for [[upper Manhattan]]. With the construction of road and railway viaducts over the valley in which the town sat, Manhattanville, increasingly absorbed into the growing city, became a marginalized industrial area.

The neighborhood is now the site of a major planned expansion of [[Columbia University]], which has campuses in Morningside Heights to the south and [[Washington Heights, Manhattan|Washington Heights]] to the north.

==History==
===Colonial period===
Manhattanville sits in a valley formerly called Moertje David's Vly ('Mother David's Valley'; in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] 'Vly' is short for 'vallei' = valley) during the Dutch Colonial period and as Harlem Cove during the English Colonial period. During the [[American Revolutionary War]], the valley was also known as the Hollow Way, where the main action of the [[Battle of Harlem Heights]] began under the command of General [[George Washington]]. During the [[War of 1812]] the valley's southern ridges latered figured as the site of the Manhattanville Pass whose defense fortifications and breastworks included<ref>See [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:WbUZwrA5GBcJ:www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsE_L/laightFort.htm+%22manhattanville+pass%22&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 Fort Laight] and [http://www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsM_P/nycBlockhouses.htm Blockhouse No. 4]</ref>, now the sites of Morningside Gardens houses and Public School No. 36, respectively. ''See also [[Manhattan Valley]]''

===Village of Manhattanville===
In 1806, the village of Manhattanville was established in this valley around the crossroads of Bloomingdale Road and Manhattan Street, now roughly [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] and 125th Street. The village's original streets were laid out by Jacob Schieffelin and other wealthy merchants, mostly [[Quakers]], who had country seats in the area. The town thrived as a result of the development of Manhattan Street from the Hudson River, whose convenient access also became a crucial catalyst in the growth of the older village of Harlem to the southeast on the Harlem River. Situated at approximately the same latitude, Harlem and Manhattanville flourished together throughout the 19th century as the two most prominent villages in upper Manhattan.

Manhattanville's early population was a diverse and eclectic mix of intermarried American patriots and British loyalists; at least one prominent former African slave trader; slave owners and enslaved African-Americans; Quaker anti-slavery activists and free black abolitionists; tradesmen, poor laborers and wealthy industrialists. Many were affiliated with the same institutions, principally the historic New York City landmarked St. Mary's Protestant Episcopal Church, organized in 1823, which was the first Episcopal church to dissolve [[pew]] rentals in 1831, and the Manhattanville Free School (established in 1827, later Public School No. 43) still at their original sites. Manhattanville's most prominent resident was industrialist [[Daniel F. Tiemann]] (1805-1899), owner of the D.F. Tiemann & Company Color Works, who was also Mayor of New York City from 1858 to 1859. The Tiemann laboratory and factory which was originally located on [[23rd Street (Manhattan)|23rd Street]] and [[Park Avenue (Manhattan)|Fourth Avenue]] in New York City, near [[Madison Square|Madison Square Park]], relocated uptown to Manhattanville in 1832, in part due to an underground spring of running water at the new uptown location.<ref name="Baptista">Baptista, Robert J., [http://www.colorantshistory.org/TiemannColorWorks.html "D.F. Tiemann & Co. Color Works, Manhattanville, New York City"], Colorants Industry History, July 7, 2009</ref>
[[Image:1853Tiemann&CoAd2sm.jpg|thumb|left]]

===Immigration and urbanization===
Later noteworthy population changes occurred around the mid-19th century with the influx of mostly Catholic Irish (who established the Church of the Annunciation in 1854) and Germans (who established St. Joseph's Roman Catholic Church in 1860). After the [[American Civil War]], the Jewish immigrant population that began to distinguish itself in Harlem gradually filtered into the western blocks of Manhattanville (and established Chevra Talmud Torah Anshei Marovi, also known as [[Old Broadway Synagogue]], in 1911). Other prominent 19th-century Manhattanville institutions included the Academy of Convent of the Sacred Heart (later called [[Manhattanville College]]) and [[Manhattan College]].

In 1904, the opening of the new Broadway [[Interborough Rapid Transit]] (IRT) subway line galvanized Manhattanville's radical transformation from rural [[exburb]] to an extension of the growing city, with the elevated railway providing rapid transit downtown. Cuban, Dominican and Puerto Rican immigrants moved into the area during the 20th century. By the 1970s, the southern part of Manhattanville (up to about 125th Street) was being filled by Columbia and [[Barnard College]] students, staff and faculty, as the university continued to expand. This trend has continued today and is spreading north. In 2006, Columbia built a new School of Social Work on Amsterdam Avenue at 122nd Street. In addition, other colleges have been building dormitories in the area, as described below. Also, West 125th Street has experienced a general economic upturn since the end of the 1990s. Many of the buildings below 125th Street have converted to cooperative ownership as the area experiences continuing [[gentrification]] and increasing demand for housing.
[[File:Mabstoa amsterdam depo.JPG|right|thumb|The former Amsterdam Bus Depot]]
===Recent developments===
====University expansions====
Manhattanville is the site of a planned major expansion of [[Columbia University]]. The university has begun to purchase several square blocks of the neighborhood between [[125th Street|125th]]<ref>Because of the dogleg shape of 125th Street on the west side, 125th Street and 129th Street merge, and so only four or five blocks are involved in the tract.</ref> and 133rd Streets on the south and north and between Broadway and 12th Avenue on the east and west. The current physical plant of those blocks will be partly demolished to construct a new campus, secondary school and park land, designed by Italian architect [[Renzo Piano]]. Local residents fear the impact of the further gentrification from this expansion in addition to the possible, and highly controversial, use of [[eminent domain]]. In June 2007, the [[New York City Department of City Planning]] certified that Columbia's application for the rezoning is complete. This action launched the public review and comment period under the city's Uniform Land Use Review Procedure, which lasted until the end of 2007.<ref>[http://www.neighbors.columbia.edu/pages/manplanning/ From the university's Manhattanville planning page, which includes links to news releases]</ref>

In November 2007, the ''[[New York Daily News]]'' summarized the plan as follows: "Columbia owns 65% [of the tract]. The [[New York State|state]] and [[Con Ed]] have 23%. That gives the university access to 88% of the tract. Most of the remaining 12% consists of two gas stations and a half-dozen commercial properties. The school is trying to negotiate purchases. In the entire 17 acres, there are only 132 apartments with fewer than 300 tenants, and all have been offered equivalent or better housing, with a guarantee that eminent domain will not be used to acquire homes. None of the apartments are in the first phase of the project; none will be touched until at least 2015.<ref>[http://neighbors.columbia.edu/pages/manplanning/community/letters/nydailynews.html "Columbia Passes Big Test",] ''New York Daily News'', November 28, 2007</ref> On December 19, 2007, the New York City Council voted to approve the University’s proposed rezoning of the site.<ref>[http://neighbors.columbia.edu/pages/manplanning/learn_more/statement.html "City Council Announces Approval of Columbia University Expansion",] City Council press release, December 19, 2007</ref>

To the north, a 600-unit student dorm known as 'The Towers'<ref>[http://www.ccnytowers.com/ccny/ From the CCNY website]</ref> finished construction in June 2006 as an extension of the [[City College of New York]] on St. Nicholas Terrace. This is the first time that City College has housed students on the campus. Occupancy began in Fall 2006. To the south, near 122nd Street, the [[Manhattan School of Music]] also built a dormitory around 2003. Also in 2006, [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] opened a smaller dormitory on 122nd Street between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue. The increase in student residences is one of several factors rapidly changing the character of Manhattanville, and cafes and restaurants have opened on Broadway, La Salle Street and Amsterdam Avenue to accommodate the population growth.

At 135th St. and Convent Avenue, City College is rapidly completing the construction of the new School of Architecture and Urban Design building.<ref>[http://www.rvapc.com/ht/HTProject.aspx?Base=Projects&projID=147 From the architects' website]</ref> Based on a pre-existing 1950s structure this redesign and reconstruction by [[Rafael Viñoly]] Architects is intended to add a modern aesthetic to the eclectic architectural mix in the area.

====West Harlem Piers====
[[Image:West Harlem Piers jeh.JPG|thumb|West Harlem Piers]]
After a groundbreaking ceremony in November 2005, construction of the West Harlem Piers Waterfront park began in April 2006.<ref>[http://neighbors.columbia.edu/pdf-files/Harlem_Piers.pdf From the University's Harlem Piers page]</ref> The park includes a fishing pier, a kayak launch, sculptures, and water taxi landings, stretches from 125th St to 132nd Street, partly on land formerly used as a [[parking lot]]. It closed a gap in the [[Manhattan Waterfront Greenway]] that runs along the western side of Manhattan Island and will later connect up the Hudson River. The park opened in early October 2008, delayed through the summer by the discovery that fencing designed to prevent users from falling into the river did not meet specifications. <ref>Daniel Amsallag, Construction Snag Delays Pier Opening, Columbia Daily Spectator, September 15, 2008</ref> The area that surrounds the park and piers is at times called ViVa (Viaduct Valley).

====Arts and nightlife====
Artistic revitilization continued in October 2006 when The Gatehouse Theater opened. The Gatehouse Theater is an additional facility of Aaron Davis Hall<ref>[http://www.aarondavishall.org/ From the Aaron Davis Hall website]</ref> performing art space, one of Harlem's leading artistic venues specializing in dance. It was built by rehabilitating a former 19th century water pumping station at 135th St and Amsterdam. Upon completion, both Aaron Davis Hall and the Gatehouse Theater evolved to share a common name, Harlem Stage. Another important artistic venue for the area is the non profit exhibition space, Triple Candie, at 126th Street and Amsterdam.

== Historic religious institutions ==
Four of Manhattanville’s houses of worship are among the most historically distinguished in all of Harlem. None is located in the area slated for the expansion of Columbia University.

'''St. Mary’s Protestant Episcopal Church''' on West 126th Street (formerly Lawrence Street), organized in 1823, was the only church in the district (indeed, in the entire Harlem territory with the exception of the Dutch Reformed Church on the East Side) in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Its present stone building, built in 1908-1909 by T. E. Blake and the architectural firm of Carrere & Hastings, is the church’s second structure on same site of the church’s original wood frame structure, built in 1824 and consecrated in 1826. In 1831, St. Marys was the first church in the Episcopal Diocese to abolish [[pew]] rentals. The marble seal inlaid into the church porch of '''"Jacob Schieffelin's Vault"''', the [[burial vault (tomb)|burial vault]] in which Jacob Schieffelin and his wife Hannah Lawrence Schieffelin (who were the church's land donors as well as Manhattanville's principal founders) are interred, is clearly visible to passersby. Today St. Mary's is the oldest congregation in continuous service on its original site in the entire Harlem area. In 1998, the complex of church, its adjacent frame parish house (circa 1851) and brick school building (1890) were officially designated a [[List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan above 110th Street|New York City landmark]].

'''Church of the Annunciation''' (Roman Catholic) on Covent Avenue and West 131st Street, founded in 1854, was the first Catholic church to be built on Manhattan’s west side above 2nd Street, and ministered particularly to the Irish Catholic laborers on the Hudson River Railroad. The Christian Brothers established the church building adjacent to Manhattan College, at 131st Street and the Bloomingdale Road (Old Broadway). The Brothers subsequently sold the adjoining church and rectory sites to John Hughes, the first Catholic Archbishop of New York. The present stone building, built in 1906-1907 by the architectural firm of Lynch & Orchard, is the church’s second structure, to which the congregation moved from two blocks east in 1907.

'''St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic Church''', founded in 1860 as the Church of the Holy Family by Manhattanville’s German Catholic community at the northwest corner of 125th Street and [[Morningside Avenue (Manhattan)|Morningside Avenue]] (formerly Ninth Avenue). A 100th anniversary souvenir history in 1960 noted: “While the construction of the church was going on . . . on May 30, of the year 1861 was celebrated what was probably the first public Corpus Christi procession in New York City.” Manhattanville historian John J. Hopper mentions this church in his circa 1920 reminiscences as “the German Catholic Church at Ninth Avenue, which my father [Isaac A. Hopper] built” during his boyhood on Manhattan Street from 1853 to 1865. (Although the AIA guide attributes the church’s architecture to the Herter Brothers in 1889, the incorrect building date was probably confused that of the St. Joseph R.C. School building around the corner at 168 Morningside Avenue). David Dunlap cites this church in his book, “Glory in Gotham: Manhattan’s Houses of Worship,” as the oldest church [building] in Harlem.

'''[[Old Broadway Synagogue]]''', an Orthodox Jewish synagogue incorporated in 1911 under the name Chevra Talmud Torah Anshei Marovi, was built on Old Broadway (a rare vestige on Manhattan island of the Bloomingdale Road) by the architectural firm of Meisner & Uffner in 1923. The congregation formed from the mostly [[Ashkenazic]] Jewish population of Russian and Polish immigrants to New York during the 1880s who had made their way up to Central Harlem, then migrated to blocks west. The building is listed individually on the [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan above 110th Street|National Register of Historic Places]].

== Other sites of interest ==
[[File:Claremont 135 theater jeh.JPG|thumb|Former Claremont Theater]]
Aside from [[Grant's Tomb]], [[Riverside Church]] and the Manhattan School of Music at the southwestern corner, the principal landmarks in Manhattanville are the elevated section of the [[IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line]] and the elevated [[Riverside Drive Viaduct]]. Within the neighborhood is [[Manhattanville Houses]], a 1,272 unit development of the [[New York City Housing Authority]], which opened in 1961. Designed in the international style by noted Swiss-born architect [[William Lescaze]], the development was initially created to house middle income residents.

The neighborhood also contains the landmarked Claremont Theater<ref>[http://therealestate.observer.com/2006/06/new-landmark-designation.html From the Real Estate Observer website]</ref>, the [[Manhattanville Bus Depot]], St. Mary's Church, and the Fairway Supermarket, whose broad selections attract distant customers.

In Riverside Park, north of Grant's Tomb, is the site of the former Claremont Inn, a riverside respite and hotel for the affluent back in its heyday. It was originally built around 1775 as a private mansion and estate. By the end of the 19th century it was bought by the city of New York and leased to a hotelier. There was also a place to rent bicycles at the inn. It had a serious fire in the 1940s which caused its demise. A plan was in the making for a reuse of the inn and restaurant and grounds when yet a final fire caused its closing in 1951. A stone plaque marks where it once stood.<ref>[http://harlembespoke.blogspot.com/2009/03/remember-claremont-inn.html "Remember: The Claremont Inn"], ''Harlem Bespoke''</ref><ref>[http://harlembespoke.blogspot.com/2009/04/remember-claremont-bicycles.html "Remember: Claremont Bicycles"], ''Harlem Bespoke''</ref><ref>[http://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/riversidepark/monuments/262 "Riverside Park: Claremont Inn tablet"], [[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]]. Claremont Inn Tablet in Claremont Playground; Incised plaque set in pavement; Deer Isle granite; Dedicated: 1952</ref>

In the 1920s, on 131st Street between [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] and Twelfth Avenue, there was a [[Studebaker]] automobile factory plant in Manhattanville which made luxury cars. The building was sold in the [[Great Depression]] in the 1930s to [[Borden Food Corporation|Borden]] to be used as a dairy plant. In the 21st century it is used by Columbia University and has a Studebaker Cafe in it.<ref>[http://harlembespoke.blogspot.com/2009_04_01_archive.html "Studebaker Building"], ''Harlem Bespoke''</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

* Washington, Eric K., [http://books.google.com/books?id=_8Rds6AN-fYC&printsec=frontcover ''Manhattanville: Old Heart of West Harlem''], Arcadia Publishing, Images of America series, 2002, ISBN 0-7385-0986-8
* [http://www.prattcenter.net/cp-cb9-197a.php CB9M 197-a Plan]
* [http://www.cb9m.org/other_docs.php CB9M West Harlem Piers Master Plan]

==External links==
* [http://www.CB9M.org Community Board No. 9 - Manhattan]
* [http://www.cb9m.blogspot.com CB9M Chairman's Blog]
* [http://www.ericKwashington.com/id13.html ''Manhattanville: Old Heart of West Harlem''] - Eric K. Washington website
* [http://www.stopcolumbia.org Coalition to Preserve Community website]
* [http://www.westharlemldc.org/ West Harlem Local Development corporation]
* [http://www.westharlembusinessgroup.com West Harlem Business Group website]

{{manhattan}}

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[[Category:Harlem, New York]]
[[Category:Neighborhoods in Manhattan]]

[[ca:Manhattanville]]
[[es:Manhattanville (Manhattan)]]
[[fr:Manhattanville]]

Manhattanville

2010-03-21T23:48:35Z

Work permit: /* Arts and nightlife */ it's closed, see http://www.clubplanet.com/Venues/129970/New-York/Cherry-Lounge

:''"Manhattanville" redirects here. For the college, see [[Manhattanville College]].''
[[Image:Subway elevated2.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[125th Street (IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line station)|125th Street station]] at Broadway and 125th Street, one of Manhattanville's primary landmarks]]

'''Manhattanville''' is a neighborhood in the [[New York City]] [[borough (New York City)|borough]] of [[Manhattan]] bordered on the south by [[Morningside Heights, Manhattan|Morningside Heights]] on the west by the [[Hudson River]], on the east by [[Harlem]] and on the north by [[Hamilton Heights, Manhattan|Hamilton Heights]]. Its borders straddle West 125th Street, roughly from [[122nd Street (Manhattan)|122nd Street]] to 135th Street and from the Hudson River to [[St. Nicholas Park]].

Throughout the 19th century, Manhattanville was a town that bustled around a wharf active with ferry and daily river conveyances. It was the first principal terminus on the northbound [[Hudson River Railroad]], and the hub of daily stage coach, omnibus and streetcar lines. Situated near the famous Bloomingdale Road, its hotels, houses of entertainment and post office made it an alluring destination of suburban retreat from the city, yet its direct proximity to the Hudson River also made it an invaluable industrial entry point for construction materials and other freight bound for [[upper Manhattan]]. With the construction of road and railway viaducts over the valley in which the town sat, Manhattanville, increasingly absorbed into the growing city, became a marginalized industrial area.

The neighborhood is now the site of a major planned expansion of [[Columbia University]], which has campuses in Morningside Heights to the south and [[Washington Heights, Manhattan|Washington Heights]] to the north.

==History==
===Colonial period===
Manhattanville sits in a valley formerly called Moertje David's Vly ('Mother David's Valley'; in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] 'Vly' is short for 'vallei' = valley) during the Dutch Colonial period and as Harlem Cove during the English Colonial period. During the [[American Revolutionary War]], the valley was also known as the Hollow Way, where the main action of the [[Battle of Harlem Heights]] began under the command of General [[George Washington]]. During the [[War of 1812]] the valley's southern ridges latered figured as the site of the Manhattanville Pass whose defense fortifications and breastworks included<ref>See [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:WbUZwrA5GBcJ:www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsE_L/laightFort.htm+%22manhattanville+pass%22&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 Fort Laight] and [http://www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsM_P/nycBlockhouses.htm Blockhouse No. 4]</ref>, now the sites of Morningside Gardens houses and Public School No. 36, respectively. ''See also [[Manhattan Valley]]''

===Village of Manhattanville===
In 1806, the village of Manhattanville was established in this valley around the crossroads of Bloomingdale Road and Manhattan Street, now roughly [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] and 125th Street. The village's original streets were laid out by Jacob Schieffelin and other wealthy merchants, mostly [[Quakers]], who had country seats in the area. The town thrived as a result of the development of Manhattan Street from the Hudson River, whose convenient access also became a crucial catalyst in the growth of the older village of Harlem to the southeast on the Harlem River. Situated at approximately the same latitude, Harlem and Manhattanville flourished together throughout the 19th century as the two most prominent villages in upper Manhattan.

Manhattanville's early population was a diverse and eclectic mix of intermarried American patriots and British loyalists; at least one prominent former African slave trader; slave owners and enslaved African-Americans; Quaker anti-slavery activists and free black abolitionists; tradesmen, poor laborers and wealthy industrialists. Many were affiliated with the same institutions, principally the historic New York City landmarked St. Mary's Protestant Episcopal Church, organized in 1823, which was the first Episcopal church to dissolve [[pew]] rentals in 1831, and the Manhattanville Free School (established in 1827, later Public School No. 43) still at their original sites. Manhattanville's most prominent resident was industrialist [[Daniel F. Tiemann]] (1805-1899), owner of the D.F. Tiemann & Company Color Works, who was also Mayor of New York City from 1858 to 1859. The Tiemann laboratory and factory which was originally located on [[23rd Street (Manhattan)|23rd Street]] and [[Park Avenue (Manhattan)|Fourth Avenue]] in New York City, near [[Madison Square|Madison Square Park]], relocated uptown to Manhattanville in 1832, in part due to an underground spring of running water at the new uptown location.<ref name="Baptista">Baptista, Robert J., [http://www.colorantshistory.org/TiemannColorWorks.html "D.F. Tiemann & Co. Color Works, Manhattanville, New York City"], Colorants Industry History, July 7, 2009</ref>
[[Image:1853Tiemann&CoAd2sm.jpg|thumb|left]]

===Immigration and urbanization===
Later noteworthy population changes occurred around the mid-19th century with the influx of mostly Catholic Irish (who established the Church of the Annunciation in 1854) and Germans (who established St. Joseph's Roman Catholic Church in 1860). After the [[American Civil War]], the Jewish immigrant population that began to distinguish itself in Harlem gradually filtered into the western blocks of Manhattanville (and established Chevra Talmud Torah Anshei Marovi, also known as [[Old Broadway Synagogue]], in 1911). Other prominent 19th-century Manhattanville institutions included the Academy of Convent of the Sacred Heart (later called [[Manhattanville College]]) and [[Manhattan College]].

In 1904, the opening of the new Broadway [[Interborough Rapid Transit]] (IRT) subway line galvanized Manhattanville's radical transformation from rural [[exburb]] to an extension of the growing city, with the elevated railway providing rapid transit downtown. Cuban, Dominican and Puerto Rican immigrants moved into the area during the 20th century. By the 1970s, the southern part of Manhattanville (up to about 125th Street) was being filled by Columbia and [[Barnard College]] students, staff and faculty, as the university continued to expand. This trend has continued today and is spreading north. In 2006, Columbia built a new School of Social Work on Amsterdam Avenue at 122nd Street. In addition, other colleges have been building dormitories in the area, as described below. Also, West 125th Street has experienced a general economic upturn since the end of the 1990s. Many of the buildings below 125th Street have converted to cooperative ownership as the area experiences continuing [[gentrification]] and increasing demand for housing.
[[File:Mabstoa amsterdam depo.JPG|right|thumb|The former Amsterdam Bus Depot]]
===Recent developments===
====University expansions====
Manhattanville is the site of a planned major expansion of [[Columbia University]]. The university has begun to purchase several square blocks of the neighborhood between [[125th Street|125th]]<ref>Because of the dogleg shape of 125th Street on the west side, 125th Street and 129th Street merge, and so only four or five blocks are involved in the tract.</ref> and 133rd Streets on the south and north and between Broadway and 12th Avenue on the east and west. The current physical plant of those blocks will be partly demolished to construct a new campus, secondary school and park land, designed by Italian architect [[Renzo Piano]]. Local residents fear the impact of the further gentrification from this expansion in addition to the possible, and highly controversial, use of [[eminent domain]]. Groups such as the Coalition to Preserve Community, composed of local residents, and the West Harlem Business Group, made up of local businesses, oppose Columbia's current plan for expansion.{{Fact|date=November 2008}} In June 2007, the [[New York City Department of City Planning]] certified that Columbia's application for the rezoning is complete. This action launched the public review and comment period under the city's Uniform Land Use Review Procedure, which lasted until the end of 2007.<ref>[http://www.neighbors.columbia.edu/pages/manplanning/ From the university's Manhattanville planning page, which includes links to news releases]</ref>

In November 2007, the ''[[New York Daily News]]'' summarized the plan as follows: "Columbia owns 65% [of the tract]. The [[New York State|state]] and [[Con Ed]] have 23%. That gives the university access to 88% of the tract. Most of the remaining 12% consists of two gas stations and a half-dozen commercial properties. The school is trying to negotiate purchases. In the entire 17 acres, there are only 132 apartments with fewer than 300 tenants, and all have been offered equivalent or better housing, with a guarantee that eminent domain will not be used to acquire homes. None of the apartments are in the first phase of the project; none will be touched until at least 2015.<ref>[http://neighbors.columbia.edu/pages/manplanning/community/letters/nydailynews.html "Columbia Passes Big Test",] ''New York Daily News'', November 28, 2007</ref> On December 19, 2007, the New York City Council voted to approve the University’s proposed rezoning of the site.<ref>[http://neighbors.columbia.edu/pages/manplanning/learn_more/statement.html "City Council Announces Approval of Columbia University Expansion",] City Council press release, December 19, 2007</ref>

To the north, a 600-unit student dorm known as 'The Towers'<ref>[http://www.ccnytowers.com/ccny/ From the CCNY website]</ref> finished construction in June 2006 as an extension of the [[City College of New York]] on St. Nicholas Terrace. This is the first time that City College has housed students on the campus. Occupancy began in Fall 2006. To the south, near 122nd Street, the [[Manhattan School of Music]] also built a dormitory around 2003. Also in 2006, [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] opened a smaller dormitory on 122nd Street between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue. The increase in student residences is one of several factors rapidly changing the character of Manhattanville, and cafes and restaurants have opened on Broadway, La Salle Street and Amsterdam Avenue to accommodate the population growth.

At 135th St. and Convent Avenue, City College is rapidly completing the construction of the new School of Architecture and Urban Design building.<ref>[http://www.rvapc.com/ht/HTProject.aspx?Base=Projects&projID=147 From the architects' website]</ref> Based on a pre-existing 1950s structure this redesign and reconstruction by [[Rafael Viñoly]] Architects is intended to add a modern aesthetic to the eclectic architectural mix in the area.

====West Harlem Piers====
[[Image:West Harlem Piers jeh.JPG|thumb|West Harlem Piers]]
After a groundbreaking ceremony in November 2005, construction of the West Harlem Piers Waterfront park began in April 2006.<ref>[http://neighbors.columbia.edu/pdf-files/Harlem_Piers.pdf From the University's Harlem Piers page]</ref> The park includes a fishing pier, a kayak launch, sculptures, and water taxi landings, stretches from 125th St to 132nd Street, partly on land formerly used as a [[parking lot]]. It closed a gap in the [[Manhattan Waterfront Greenway]] that runs along the western side of Manhattan Island and will later connect up the Hudson River. The park opened in early October 2008, delayed through the summer by the discovery that fencing designed to prevent users from falling into the river did not meet specifications. <ref>Daniel Amsallag, Construction Snag Delays Pier Opening, Columbia Daily Spectator, September 15, 2008</ref> The area that surrounds the park and piers is at times called ViVa (Viaduct Valley).

====Arts and nightlife====
Artistic revitilization continued in October 2006 when The Gatehouse Theater opened. The Gatehouse Theater is an additional facility of Aaron Davis Hall<ref>[http://www.aarondavishall.org/ From the Aaron Davis Hall website]</ref> performing art space, one of Harlem's leading artistic venues specializing in dance. It was built by rehabilitating a former 19th century water pumping station at 135th St and Amsterdam. Upon completion, both Aaron Davis Hall and the Gatehouse Theater evolved to share a common name, Harlem Stage. Another important artistic venue for the area is the non profit exhibition space, Triple Candie, at 126th Street and Amsterdam.

== Historic religious institutions ==
Four of Manhattanville’s houses of worship are among the most historically distinguished in all of Harlem. None is located in the area slated for the expansion of Columbia University.

'''St. Mary’s Protestant Episcopal Church''' on West 126th Street (formerly Lawrence Street), organized in 1823, was the only church in the district (indeed, in the entire Harlem territory with the exception of the Dutch Reformed Church on the East Side) in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Its present stone building, built in 1908-1909 by T. E. Blake and the architectural firm of Carrere & Hastings, is the church’s second structure on same site of the church’s original wood frame structure, built in 1824 and consecrated in 1826. In 1831, St. Marys was the first church in the Episcopal Diocese to abolish [[pew]] rentals. The marble seal inlaid into the church porch of '''"Jacob Schieffelin's Vault"''', the [[burial vault (tomb)|burial vault]] in which Jacob Schieffelin and his wife Hannah Lawrence Schieffelin (who were the church's land donors as well as Manhattanville's principal founders) are interred, is clearly visible to passersby. Today St. Mary's is the oldest congregation in continuous service on its original site in the entire Harlem area. In 1998, the complex of church, its adjacent frame parish house (circa 1851) and brick school building (1890) were officially designated a [[List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan above 110th Street|New York City landmark]].

'''Church of the Annunciation''' (Roman Catholic) on Covent Avenue and West 131st Street, founded in 1854, was the first Catholic church to be built on Manhattan’s west side above 2nd Street, and ministered particularly to the Irish Catholic laborers on the Hudson River Railroad. The Christian Brothers established the church building adjacent to Manhattan College, at 131st Street and the Bloomingdale Road (Old Broadway). The Brothers subsequently sold the adjoining church and rectory sites to John Hughes, the first Catholic Archbishop of New York. The present stone building, built in 1906-1907 by the architectural firm of Lynch & Orchard, is the church’s second structure, to which the congregation moved from two blocks east in 1907.

'''St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic Church''', founded in 1860 as the Church of the Holy Family by Manhattanville’s German Catholic community at the northwest corner of 125th Street and [[Morningside Avenue (Manhattan)|Morningside Avenue]] (formerly Ninth Avenue). A 100th anniversary souvenir history in 1960 noted: “While the construction of the church was going on . . . on May 30, of the year 1861 was celebrated what was probably the first public Corpus Christi procession in New York City.” Manhattanville historian John J. Hopper mentions this church in his circa 1920 reminiscences as “the German Catholic Church at Ninth Avenue, which my father [Isaac A. Hopper] built” during his boyhood on Manhattan Street from 1853 to 1865. (Although the AIA guide attributes the church’s architecture to the Herter Brothers in 1889, the incorrect building date was probably confused that of the St. Joseph R.C. School building around the corner at 168 Morningside Avenue). David Dunlap cites this church in his book, “Glory in Gotham: Manhattan’s Houses of Worship,” as the oldest church [building] in Harlem.

'''[[Old Broadway Synagogue]]''', an Orthodox Jewish synagogue incorporated in 1911 under the name Chevra Talmud Torah Anshei Marovi, was built on Old Broadway (a rare vestige on Manhattan island of the Bloomingdale Road) by the architectural firm of Meisner & Uffner in 1923. The congregation formed from the mostly [[Ashkenazic]] Jewish population of Russian and Polish immigrants to New York during the 1880s who had made their way up to Central Harlem, then migrated to blocks west. The building is listed individually on the [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan above 110th Street|National Register of Historic Places]].

== Other sites of interest ==
[[File:Claremont 135 theater jeh.JPG|thumb|Former Claremont Theater]]
Aside from [[Grant's Tomb]], [[Riverside Church]] and the Manhattan School of Music at the southwestern corner, the principal landmarks in Manhattanville are the elevated section of the [[IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line]] and the elevated [[Riverside Drive Viaduct]]. Within the neighborhood is [[Manhattanville Houses]], a 1,272 unit development of the [[New York City Housing Authority]], which opened in 1961. Designed in the international style by noted Swiss-born architect [[William Lescaze]], the development was initially created to house middle income residents.

The neighborhood also contains the landmarked Claremont Theater<ref>[http://therealestate.observer.com/2006/06/new-landmark-designation.html From the Real Estate Observer website]</ref>, the [[Manhattanville Bus Depot]], St. Mary's Church, and the Fairway Supermarket, whose broad selections attract distant customers.

In Riverside Park, north of Grant's Tomb, is the site of the former Claremont Inn, a riverside respite and hotel for the affluent back in its heyday. It was originally built around 1775 as a private mansion and estate. By the end of the 19th century it was bought by the city of New York and leased to a hotelier. There was also a place to rent bicycles at the inn. It had a serious fire in the 1940s which caused its demise. A plan was in the making for a reuse of the inn and restaurant and grounds when yet a final fire caused its closing in 1951. A stone plaque marks where it once stood.<ref>[http://harlembespoke.blogspot.com/2009/03/remember-claremont-inn.html "Remember: The Claremont Inn"], ''Harlem Bespoke''</ref><ref>[http://harlembespoke.blogspot.com/2009/04/remember-claremont-bicycles.html "Remember: Claremont Bicycles"], ''Harlem Bespoke''</ref><ref>[http://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/riversidepark/monuments/262 "Riverside Park: Claremont Inn tablet"], [[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]]. Claremont Inn Tablet in Claremont Playground; Incised plaque set in pavement; Deer Isle granite; Dedicated: 1952</ref>

In the 1920s, on 131st Street between [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] and Twelfth Avenue, there was a [[Studebaker]] automobile factory plant in Manhattanville which made luxury cars. The building was sold in the [[Great Depression]] in the 1930s to [[Borden Food Corporation|Borden]] to be used as a dairy plant. In the 21st century it is used by Columbia University and has a Studebaker Cafe in it.<ref>[http://harlembespoke.blogspot.com/2009_04_01_archive.html "Studebaker Building"], ''Harlem Bespoke''</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

* Washington, Eric K., [http://books.google.com/books?id=_8Rds6AN-fYC&printsec=frontcover ''Manhattanville: Old Heart of West Harlem''], Arcadia Publishing, Images of America series, 2002, ISBN 0-7385-0986-8
* [http://www.prattcenter.net/cp-cb9-197a.php CB9M 197-a Plan]
* [http://www.cb9m.org/other_docs.php CB9M West Harlem Piers Master Plan]

==External links==
* [http://www.CB9M.org Community Board No. 9 - Manhattan]
* [http://www.cb9m.blogspot.com CB9M Chairman's Blog]
* [http://www.ericKwashington.com/id13.html ''Manhattanville: Old Heart of West Harlem''] - Eric K. Washington website
* [http://www.stopcolumbia.org Coalition to Preserve Community website]
* [http://www.westharlemldc.org/ West Harlem Local Development corporation]
* [http://www.westharlembusinessgroup.com West Harlem Business Group website]

{{manhattan}}

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[[Category:Harlem, New York]]
[[Category:Neighborhoods in Manhattan]]

[[ca:Manhattanville]]
[[es:Manhattanville (Manhattan)]]
[[fr:Manhattanville]]

Ave (Gruß)

2010-03-15T06:52:38Z

Work permit:

{{Refimprove|date=July 2009}}
{{this|the Roman salutation|AVE (disambiguation)}}
{{Wiktionary|ave}}
'''''Ave''''' is a [[Latin]] word, used by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s as a [[salutation (greeting)|salutation]] and [[greeting]], meaning "hail". It is the singular [[imperative mood|imperative]] form of the verb ''avēre'', which meant "to be well"; thus one could translate it literally as "be well" or "farewell".<ref>[http://catholic.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/lookup.pl?stem=aveo&ending= Latin Word Lookup:aveo]</ref>

The Classical Latin pronunciation of ''ave'' was {{IPA2|ˈaweː}}. In Church Latin, it is ideally {{IPA2|ˈave}}, and in English, it tends to be {{pronEng|ˈɑːveɪ}}.

The term was notably used to greet the [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] or other authorities. [[Suetonius]] recorded that [[gladiator]]s before combat addressed Caesar with the words ''[[Ave Caesar morituri te salutant|Ave Caesar! Morituri te salutant]]!'' ("Hail, Caesar! Those who are about to die salute you!")

The [[Vulgate]] version of the [[Annunciation]] translates the salute of the angel to [[Mary, Mother of Jesus]] as ''[[Hail Mary|Ave Maria]], gratia plena'' ("Hail Mary, full of grace").
''Ave Maria'' is a Catholic Marian prayer that also has inspired authors of religious music.

[[Fascist]] regimes during the 20th century also adopted the greeting. It was used during [[Nazi Germany]] in the indirect [[German language|German]] translation, ''[[wikt:heil|heil]]''.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== See also==
*[[Roman salute]]
*[[Ave Imperator, morituri te salutant]]

[[Category:Latin words and phrases]]
[[Category:Greeting words and phrases]]

[[fr:Ave]]
[[mk:Аве]]
[[ru:Аве]]
[[sv:Ave]]
[[tr:Ave (Latince)]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-02T02:57:09Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 antarctic ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted <ref>Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, T. Berntsen, R. Betts, D.W. Fahey, J. Haywood, J. Lean, D.C. Lowe, G. Myhre, J. Nganga, R. Prinn, G. Raga, M. Schulz and R. Van Dorland, [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf 2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing.] In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.</ref>.

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{seealso|Solubility pump}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean<ref name=arch05>Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. ''J. Geophys. Res.'', '''110''', doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.</ref>, however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-02T02:56:31Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 antarctic ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted <ref>Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, T. Berntsen, R. Betts, D.W. Fahey, J. Haywood, J. Lean, D.C. Lowe, G. Myhre, J. Nganga, R. Prinn, G. Raga, M. Schulz and R. Van Dorland, [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf | 2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing.] In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.</ref>.

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{seealso|Solubility pump}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean<ref name=arch05>Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. ''J. Geophys. Res.'', '''110''', doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.</ref>, however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-02T02:47:28Z

Work permit: /* Relationship with oceanic concentration */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 antarctic ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf].

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{seealso|Solubility pump}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean<ref name=arch05>Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. ''J. Geophys. Res.'', '''110''', doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.</ref>, however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-02T02:45:25Z

Work permit: /* Relationship with oceanic concentration */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 antarctic ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf].

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean<ref name=arch05>Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. ''J. Geophys. Res.'', '''110''', doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.</ref>, however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-02T02:40:28Z

Work permit: /* Relationship with oceanic concentration */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 antarctic ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf].

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.{{fact}}

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-02T02:39:45Z

Work permit: /* Current concentration */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 antarctic ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf].

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-03-02T02:36:24Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ redundant with next section

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf].

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Roy DeMeo

2010-01-26T03:33:56Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 71.246.115.116 (talk) to last version by 86.182.231.62

{{Infobox Person
|name=Roy DeMeo
|image=Roydemeo3.JPG|right|thumb|200px|
|caption=Roy DeMeo, July 14, 1981
|birth_date={{birth date|1942|9|7|mf=y}}
|birth_place=[[Brooklyn]], [[New York]], [[USA]]
|death_date={{death date|1983|1|10|mf=y}}
|death_place=[[Brooklyn, New York]], [[USA]]
}}

'''Roy Albert DeMeo''' (September 7, 1942<ref>[http://www.familysearch.org/Eng/Search/SSDI/individual_record.asp?recid=054321270&lds=3&region=-1&regionfriendly=&frompage=99]</ref> – January 10, 1983) was a ranking member of the [[Gambino crime family]].

He is most infamous for heading a crew of car thieves, drug dealers and murderers suspected by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) of somewhere between 75-200 murders from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s. The crew also gained notoriety due to their use of [[dismemberment]] as a method of disposing of their victims. For a time, Roy DeMeo lived on a waterfront estate on Whitewood Drive in the Bar Harbour section of [[Massapequa Park, New York]].

== Early life and criminal career ==
Roy "THE MACHINE KD" Albert DeMeo was born in 1942 in [[Bath Beach, Brooklyn]] into a working class Italian immigrant family. As a teen, he began a small [[loansharking]] operation which turned into a full time job by the age of 17. DeMeo graduated from [[James Madison High School (New York)|James Madison High School]] in 1959 and began working in criminal enterprise while maintaining legitimate business practices. He married shortly after high school and fathered three children. He worked his way up the criminal career ladder through a continued loansharking operation.

By the early 1960s, DeMeo had quit his legitimate job at a Banner Dairy Supermarket to focus on loansharking and any other opportunities for income that presented themselves. He conducted most of his business at a neighborhood bar, Phil's Lounge. In 1965, he became a silent partner of the bar, now renamed the [[Gemini Lounge]]. The Lounge served as the DeMeo crew's primary headquarters for the next several years, with an apartment building directly behind the bar being the site of dozens of murders and dismemberments committed by the crew.

Through the late 1960s, DeMeo's [[organized crime]] prospects increased on two fronts. He continued in the loansharking business with Anthony Gaggi, and began developing a crew of young men involved in [[car theft]] and [[drug trafficking]]. It was this collective of criminals that would become known both in the underworld and in law enforcement circles as the DeMeo Crew. The first member of the crew was [[Chris Rosenberg|Harvey 'Chris' Rosenberg]], who met DeMeo in 1966 at the age of 16.

Rosenberg was dealing drugs at a [[Canarsie]] gas station, and Roy helped him increase his business and profits by loaning Chris money so that he could deal the narcotics in larger amounts. By 1972, Chris had introduced his friends to Roy and they began working for him as well. These early members of the crew included [[Joseph "Dracula" Guglielmo]] (Roy's cousin), [[Joseph Testa]], [[Anthony Senter]] and Joseph's younger brother [[Patrick Testa]].

Roy joined the Boro of Brooklyn Credit Union that same year, gaining a position on the board of directors shortly afterward. He utilized his position to [[money laundering|launder money]] he had earned through his illegal ventures. He also introduced colleagues at the Credit Union to a lucrative side-business, laundering the money of drug dealers he had become acquainted with. Roy also built up his loansharking business with funds stolen from credit union reserves. His collection of loanshark customers, while still primarily those in the car industry, soon included other businesses such as a dentist's office, an [[abortion clinic]], restaurants and flea markets. He was also listed as an employee for a Brooklyn company named S & C Sportswear Corporation, and frequently told his neighbors he worked in construction, food retailing and the used car business.

== Andrei Katz murder ==
{{details|Andrei Katz}}

In late 1974, a conflict that had erupted between the Roy's crew and a young [[bodyshop]] owner named Andrei Katz had continued to escalate. In May 1975, Roy was informed by a police officer that, as a result of this conflict, Andrei was cooperating with authorities. In June he was lured to a place where he could be confronted. After being abducted, he was stabbed to death and then dismembered. An accomplice who helped bait Katz confessed her role and [[Joseph Testa]] and [[Henry Borelli]] were both arrested. They would secure an acquittal at trial in January 1976.

This was the first known murder committed by the DeMeo crew, and for years was thought to have been the first occasion where Roy or members of his crew had dismembered a body for disposal. In 2003 however, new information was provided to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) by [[Bonanno crime family|Bonanno]] [[Underboss]] [[Salvatore Vitale]], who claimed that in 1974 he was ordered to deliver the corpse of a man who had just been murdered to a garage in [[Queens]] so that it could be disposed of. When he arrived at the location, Vitale claims, Roy DeMeo was present along with several other men who may have been early members of the DeMeo Crew. Vitale also claims that Roy had with him a knife, presumably to dismember the corpse. This information suggests that DeMeo and his followers may have been involved in murder and dismemberment earlier than previously thought by law enforcement.

== Gemini Method ==

As the 1970s continued, Roy cultivated his followers into a crew experienced with the process of murdering and dismembering victims. With the exception of killings intended to send a message to any who would hinder their criminal activities, or murders that presented no other alternative, a set method of execution was established by Roy and crew to ensure that victims would be dispatched quickly and then made to disappear.

The method of execution was dubbed the Gemini Method, named after the [[Gemini Lounge]], the primary hangout of the DeMeo crew as well as the site where most of the crew's victims were killed. The exact process of the Gemini Method, revealed by multiple crew members and associates who became government witness in the early 1980s, was as follows: typically, the victim would be lured through the side door of the Lounge, and into the apartment that made up the back portion of the building. At this point, a crew member (almost always Roy DeMeo according to crew member turned government witness [[Frederick DiNome]]) would approach with a silenced pistol in one hand and a towel in the other, shooting the victim in the head then wrapping the towel around the victim's head wound like a turban in order to staunch the blood flow.

Immediately after, another member of the crew (originally [[Chris Rosenberg]] up until his 1979 murder, according to government witness testimony) would stab the victim in the heart in order to prevent any more blood from pumping out of the gunshot wound. By then the victim would be dead, at which point the body would be stripped of its clothing and dragged into the bathroom where it was left while the remaining blood drained out and/or congealed within the body. This was to eliminate the messiness of the next step, when crew members would place the body onto plastic tarps laid out in the main room and proceed to dismember it, cutting off the arms, legs and head.

The body parts would then be put into bags, placed in cardboard boxes and sent off to the [[Fountain Avenue]] Dump in [[Brooklyn]], where so many tons of garbage were dropped each day that it was a near impossibility for the bodies to ever be discovered. During the initial stages of an early 1980s Federal/State task force targeting the DeMeo Crew, a plan by authorities to excavate sections of the dump in order to locate remains of victims was aborted when it was deemed too costly and likely to fail at locating any meaningful evidence.

Although this Gemini method was the most common method the crew practiced, some victims would be killed in other ways for varying reasons. At times, suspected informants or those who committed an act of disrespect against a member of the crew or their superiors had their bodies left in the streets of New York to serve as a message and warning. As well, there were occasions where it would not be possible to lure the intended victim into the Gemini Lounge, in which case other locations would have to be used. A yacht owned by one of DeMeo's men was used on at least one occasion to dispose of bodies as well.

In the latter half of 1975, Roy became a silent partner in a [[peep show]]/[[prostitution]] establishment in [[New Jersey]] after the owner of the business became unable to pay his loansharking debts. Roy also began dealing in pornography, including [[bestiality]], which he sold to his New Jersey establishment as well as connections he had in [[Rhode Island]]. When his superior [[Anthony Gaggi|Nino Gaggi]] found out about Roy's involvement in such [[taboo]] films, he ordered Roy to stop on threat of death. Roy did not stop however, and Gaggi continued to accept his weekly payments. Gaggi's nephew [[Dominick Montiglio]] claimed that the subject was simply never mentioned between the two men after the initial confrontation, and as long as Roy continued to provide copiously for his boss the violation of his order was never addressed.

Another forbidden subject between Roy and his boss Nino was [[narcotics]]. In the Gambino Family, as most of the other [[Mafia]] Families in the country, drug-dealing was an act punishable by death for any members caught being involved, owing to the stiffer sentences imposed for such crimes. It was feared by the administrations of the Mafia Families that those facing such harsh penalties would be more likely to flip, or become cooperators for the government. Gaggi and DeMeo, like many others however, continued to deal in narcotics despite the warning due to the massive amounts of profits earned.

By this time, Roy's drug operations had expanded greatly from his initial operations in the late 1960s and early 1970s. He had recently started selling [[cocaine]] out of the [[Gemini Lounge]] and was also the financer of a large [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] operation that imported the drug from [[Colombia]] in 25-pound [[bale]]s. The marijuana would be delivered from offshore [[freighter]]s and sold out of a [[Canarsie]] [[bodyshop]]. Roy's weekly [[tribute]]s to Nino continued to increase from his drug operations and Nino continued to feign ignorance as to the source of the money.

As 1975 drew to a close, Roy was almost [[indictment|indicted]] due to [[Internal Revenue Service]] (IRS) investigations into his income. Months earlier, the Boro of Brooklyn Credit Union had been pushed into [[insolvency]] as a result of DeMeo and his colleague's plundering of its finances. As a result Roy quit the Credit Union, avoiding law enforcement attention that increased as the Union was merged into another one. Despite this, Roy's had already gained the attention of the IRS earlier in the year. Before an indictment could be handed down against him however, he utilized false [[affidavit]]s from businesses owned by friends and acquaintances claiming that he was on their payrolls as an employee. These affidavits served to account for some of his income and he and the IRS reached a settlement.

In May 1976, another murder was committed by the DeMeo crew. [[Joseph Brocchini]], a [[made man|made]] member in another of New York's [[Five Families]], was involved in an argument with Roy related to a pornography business both were involved in. The argument turned into a physical altercation when Brocchini punched DeMeo in the face, giving him a black eye. Mafia protocol prevented DeMeo, still only an associate of the Gambino Family, from retaliating in any way against Brocchini or he would be killed. DeMeo went to his boss Nino and explained the situation. [[Dominick Montiglio]], Nino's nephew who was now fully working for his uncle, claimed to have been present at this meeting, where DeMeo allegedly swore revenge regardless of the rules.

Nino responded that they would never be given permission but reportedly agreed with Roy's intentions, merely advising him to ensure that the murder could not be traced back to them. On May 20, 1976, Roy and Henry Borelli shot Brocchini five times in the back of the head in the office of a used-car dealership he owned. The office was ransacked and the other employees were blindfolded and handcuffed prior to the shooting in order to give the illusion that the murder was the result of an [[armed robbery]] gone bad.

In the following month [[Vincent Governara]], a young man with no organized crime ties, was shot down by Roy and Anthony Gaggi. Gaggi had held a long-standing feud with Governara and had told his nephew Dominick Montiglio to keep a lookout for him. One night Dominick spotted Governara's car outside of a building hosting a [[craps|craps game]] in the New York neighborhood of [[Bensonhurst]]. Once informed of his nephew's discovery, Nino, along with Roy and Dominick, excused themselves from a birthday party being held at the time for Dominick's wife and drove back to the location where Governara's car had been seen. There, the trio waited until Governara left the game and approached his car, at which point Nino and Roy shot him several times. Governara died in the hospital a week later.

One month later in July, Roy flew to [[Florida]] and murdered George Byrum, another man targeted for revenge by Nino Gaggi. Byrum had provided information to robbers that led to Nino's Florida home being robbed. Roy lured Byrum to a hotel under the pretenses of a business deal. As soon as Byrum walked into the room he was shot to death by DeMeo. Roy, Nino, and a Gambino soldier operating out of Florida originally planned to dismember the corpse in the hotel room and transport it out in suitcases. This plan was quickly abandoned due to the presence of construction workers near the hotel room and the body was found shortly thereafter lying in the hotel's bathtub with its head halfway sawed off.

Roy's sources of income, as well as his crew, continued to grow. By July 1976 he added an automobile firm by the name of Team Auto Wholesalers to his loanshark customers. The owner of Team Auto, Matthew Rega, also purchased stolen vehicles from the crew and sold them off at a New Jersey car lot that he owned. He also involved himself with [[carjacking|hijacking]], targeting trucks that were delivering or receiving shipments from the [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]]. His crew now included [[Edward Grillo|Edward 'Danny' Grillo]], a hijacker who had just been released from prison.

Roy also allegedly added to his body count according to various sources, including an FBI informant who reported that Roy DeMeo was a "ruthless killer" who had killed at least one dozen people and dismembered their bodies to make them disappear. Nino Gaggi's nephew [[Dominick Montiglio]], who sometimes drove Roy on errands, also claims that during one trip around this time Roy had pointed to a recently built gas station and stated that he and his crew had buried the bodies of two victims under its foundation.

In the fall of 1976, the Gambino Family went through a massive change when its boss [[Carlo Gambino]] died of natural causes. [[Paul Castellano]] was named the boss of the Gambino Family, with [[Aniello Dellacroce]] retaining the position of [[Underboss]]. The implications of this were twofold for Roy. His superior, Nino was elevated to the position of [[caporegime|Capo]], taking over the crew of men Paul headed before becoming boss. This promotion was beneficial for Roy, whose mentor was now even closer to the ruling Gambino hierarchy. Another advantage was that now that Carlo Gambino had died, new associates would be eligible for membership into the Family.

Paul did not immediately "open the books" for new members however, opting instead to promote existing members and change around leadership of the crews he now presided over. He also reportedly told Gaggi he was against the idea of Roy ever being made for a number of reasons. Castellano's illegal activities focused more on [[white-collar crime]], and it was said by both law enforcement and other mafiosi that he looked at himself as more of a businessman than a gangster. He looked down on the street guys, such as Roy, who were involved in things like auto theft and hijacking. Additionally, Paul felt Roy in particular was unpredictable and did not feel he could be controlled. Nino's attempts at persuading Paul to consider inducting Roy were continually rejected because of this.

Despite the considerable contributions Roy had already made to the Gambino Family, not least of which were his tens of thousands of dollars worth of weekly payments to Nino Gaggi, by Spring of 1977 DeMeo was still not a made, or official, member. Reportedly distraught at his situation, Roy continued to look for more opportunities to bring in larger amounts of profit to his superiors.

== The Westies alliance ==

DeMeo found what he needed to ensure that he would be officially inducted into the Gambino Family when he formed an alliance with a gang of [[Irish-American]] criminals known as the [[Westies]] soon to be headed by [[James Coonan]]. Coonan's only obstacle to assuming control of the westside and its lucrative money making enterprise was [[Mickey Spillane (gangster)|Mickey Spillane]], the mainstay of criminal activities in the area for 20 odd years.

In May 1977, Roy and crew member Danny Grillo murdered Spillane at the behest of Coonan, who then became the top criminal figure in the westside. Roy, sensing an opportunity to create a vast source of income for his superiors, informed Nino Gaggi of the possibilities of a partnership between the Westies and the Gambino Family. Shortly afterwards, Coonan and his second in command [[Mickey Featherstone]] were called to a meeting with Paul Castellano, becoming a de-facto arm of the Gambino crime family and agreeing to share 10 per cent of all profits. In exchange, the Westies would be privy to several lucrative union deals and take on murder contracts for the Italians.

It was his pivotal role in the Westie/Gambino alliance that reportedly convinced Castellano to give Roy his "button", or formally induct him into the crime family. DeMeo was made in mid-1977, being put in charge of handling all Family business with the Westies. He was also ordered to get permission before committing any murders, and to avoid drug-dealing. Despite this warning, DeMeo's crew continued to sell large amounts of [[cocaine]], [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]], and a variety of narcotic pills, a violation many members of all [[Five Families]] continued to commit through the late 1970s and early 1980s due to the tremendous profits gained.

Although he had been ordered by his superiors that he had to get permission before any murders, DeMeo continued to commit unsanctioned killings. In July 1977 Roy and his men committed a double homicide, shooting to death [[Johnathan Quinn]], a successful car thief suspected of cooperating with law enforcement, and [[Cherie Golden]], Quinn's 19-year old girlfriend. DeMeo and his men dumped the bodies in locations where they would be discovered to serve as a warning against cooperation with authorities. When questioned by his superiors as to the motive of killing a young woman, Roy claimed she was a risk and may have cooperated had the police pressured her.

[[File:Demeo4.JPG|frame|right|1982 police surveillance photo of Roy DeMeo. The DeMeo crew were under constant surveillance by both Federal and State branches of law enforcement from the late 1970s to the early 1980s. (see also the [[:Image:Roydemeo2.jpg|full photograph]])]]

By 1978, Roy was heard bragging to associates that he had murdered one hundred people. It was also during this year that he put out word among not just the Gambino Family but the other New York Cosa Nostra families as well that he and his crew were available for murder contracts. In at least one case, the crew charged a relatively paltry fee of $5,000. Other murders were committed for free, Roy describing them to crew members as "professional favors". He added to his crew [[Frederick DiNome]], who served as his chaffeur but also became involved in the Crew's various illegal activities. DiNome was reportedly fiercely loyal to Roy, who had befriended him when the two were teenagers.

In November 1978 DeMeo and his crew murdered one of their own members, [[Edward Grillo|Edward 'Danny' Grillo]]. Grillo, who had fallen into heavy debt with DeMeo, was killed after Roy and Nino Gaggi felt that he was becoming susceptible to police coercion to cooperate against the crew. Grillo, who was dismembered and disposed of like many of the crew's murder victims, was the first occurrence of intra-crew discipline.

The next crew member who was murdered by Roy and the others was [[Chris Rosenberg]], Roy's second-in-command within the group and reportedly his most loyal ally. Rosenberg had set up a drug deal with a Cuban man living in Florida and then murdered him and his associates when they traveled to New York to complete the sale. The Cuban had connections with a Colombian drug cartel and violence was threatened between the Colombians and the Gambino family unless Rosenberg was murdered.

Roy was ordered to kill Chris but stalled for weeks. During this period of time Roy committed his most public murder, the victim being a college student with no criminal ties named Dominick Ragucci who was paying for his tuition by being a door-to-door salesman. DeMeo saw Ragucci parked outside his house and assumed it was an assassin. After a car chase, which according to Albert DeMeo's book "For the Sins of My Father", consisted of Freddy DiNome at the wheel with Roy DeMeo and Joesph Guglielmo hanging out of the windows firing wildly (Guglielmo even shot holes in the cars floorboards in his excitement). Ragucci was shot to death by Roy when his car became too damaged to continue driving. Roy, convinced it was an assassin from the drug cartel, returned home and gathered his family. He drove them out of New York and left them at a hotel for a short time.

In the meantime his murder of the college student had infuriated his superior Nino Gaggi, who ordered him again to kill Chris Rosenberg before there were any other innocent victims. In May 1979 Rosenberg, who reportedly had no knowledge of the Colombian situation, arrived at a meeting of the DeMeo Crew and was shot in the head by Roy. Crew member [[Anthony Senter]] then finished Chris off when he managed to get up after Roy shot him.

Unlike Grillo, Rosenberg's body was not dismembered or made to disappear. The Colombians had demanded that his murder make the papers otherwise they would not believe it had actually occurred. Roy's men placed Rosenberg's body in his car and left it on the side of Cross Bay Boulevard (near Gateway National Wildlife Refuge) to be found. Roy's son Albert DeMeo would later write a book in which he stated that Chris's murder affected his father deeply. Likewise, testimony from [[Frederick DiNome]] and [[Vito Arena]] claims that Roy expressed his regret at having to kill Chris and at times even appeared depressed over it.

== Empire Boulevard operation ==
As 1979 continued Roy DeMeo began to expand his business activities, in particular his auto theft operation, which would soon become the largest in [[New York City]]'s history. Dubbed the Empire Boulevard Operation by FBI agents, the operation consisted of hundreds of stolen cars being shipped from ports in New Jersey to [[Kuwait]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. Roy put together a group of five active partners in the operation, all of whom earned approximately $30,000 a week each in profit.

Aside from the active partners, other associates and crew members performed the actual stealing of the automobiles off the streets of New York. Among these associates was [[Vito Arena]], a long-time car thief and armed robber who began working for Roy in 1978 after murdering his old partner. Like DiNome, Arena would become closely involved with the DeMeo Crew by the end of the 1970s. In 1979, the scheme was nearly stopped by a legitimate car dealer who threatened to inform the police. He was murdered along with an uninvolved acquaintance before he could provide the proper authorities with information.

== Eppolito murders ==
In late 1979, Roy and Nino Gaggi became involved in a conflict with [[James Eppolito]] and [[James Eppolito Jr.]], two made Gambino members in Gaggi's crew. They were both respectively the paternal uncle and cousin of the corrupt former [[New York City Police Department]] detective, [[Louis Eppolito]]. Louis Eppolito's father, Ralph Eppolito, was James Eppolito's brother and also a made member of the Gambino family.

Eppolito met with Paul Castellano and accused DeMeo and Gaggi of drug-dealing, which carried the penalty of death. Castellano, to whom Gaggi was a close ally, sided against Eppolito in the situation and gave Gaggi permission to do what he pleased. He and Roy DeMeo shot the two to death in Eppolito Jr.'s car en route to the [[Gemini Lounge]] on October 1, 1979. A witness driving by right as the shots were fired within the parked car managed to alert a nearby police officer, who arrested Gaggi after a shootout between the two that left Gaggi with a bullet wound in his neck.

Because Roy had split up with Gaggi as they left the scene, he was not arrested or identified by the witness. Gaggi would be charged with murder and the attempted murder of a police officer but through jury tampering was convicted only of assault and given a 5 to 15 year sentence in Federal Prison. DeMeo would murder the witness shortly after Gaggi's sentencing in March 1980.

The Empire Boulevard Operation had continued to expand through 1979 and 1980 until the warehouse serving as its headquarters was raided by agents from the [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]] branch of the FBI in the summer of 1980. The FBI had been surveilling the warehouse and some of the men unloading vehicles there and had shortly thereafter obtained a search warrant. Henry Borelli and Frederick DiNome were arrested in May 1981 for their roles in the operation, but there was not enough evidence to arrest any of the other active partners. Roy ordered Borelli and DiNome to plead guilty to the charges in hopes that it would stop any further investigations into his activities by the FBI or other law enforcement agencies.

== Downfall and murder ==
[[File:Roydemeo2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|DeMeo in a 1982 surveillance photo with 2nd-in-command [[Joseph Testa]]. Testa would be suspected in DeMeo's murder less than one year later.]]

By 1982, the FBI was investigating the enormous number of missing and murdered persons who were linked to DeMeo or who had last been seen entering the [[Gemini Lounge]]. It is around this time that an FBI bug in the home of Gambino Family soldier [[Angelo Ruggiero]] picked up a conversation between Angelo and [[Gene Gotti]], a brother of [[John Gotti]].

In the conversation, it is discussed that Paul Castellano had put out a hit on DeMeo, but was having difficulty finding someone willing to do the job. Gene Gotti mentions that his brother John was wary of taking the contract, as DeMeo had an "army of killers" around him. It is also mentioned in this same secretly recorded conversation that, at that time, John had killed fewer than 10 people, while DeMeo had killed at least 38. According to mob turncoat [[Salvatore Gravano]], eventually the contract was given to [[Frank DeCicco]], but Frank and his crew couldn't get to DeMeo either. DeCicco allegedly handed the job to Roy's own men.

According to the book ''Murder Machine'', in his final days Roy DeMeo was seen wearing a leather jacket, a shotgun concealed underneath. On January 10, 1983, DeMeo went to crew member [[Patrick Testa]]'s [[bodyshop]] for a meeting with his men. A few days later, on January 18, he was found murdered in his abandoned car's trunk. He had been shot multiple times in the head and also had a bullet wound in his hand, assumed by law enforcement as being from throwing his hand up to his face in a self-defense reflex when the shots were fired at him. [[Anthony Gaggi]] was suspected by law enforcement officials of being the one who personally killed DeMeo, although it is highly likely crew members Joseph Testa and [[Anthony Senter]] were present as well.

Gaggi was not charged with this crime, although he was charged with a number of other murders. He died of a heart attack during his trial in 1988, aged 62. It should be noted, however, that according to [[Anthony Casso]]'s 2008 biography, Roy DeMeo was killed at Patrick Testa's East Flatbush home by Joseph Testa and Anthony Senter following an agreement with Casso, who was given the contract by Gotti and DeCicco after they were unable to kill DeMeo during the fall of 1982. The Casso biography notes that DeMeo was seated, about to receive coffee, when Testa and Senter opened fire. Anthony Gaggi was not present.

In April,1984, [[Colombo crime family]] soldier [[Ralph Scopo]] was overheard explaining to an associate that DeMeo had been killed by his own family because they merely suspected that he would not be able to stand up to legal charges that resulted from his stolen car ring. The motive as suggested by Scopo is widely accepted by law enforcement and other sources.

DeMeo's crew was soon rounded up and the core members [[Henry Borelli]], Joseph Testa, and Anthony Senter were imprisoned for life after two trials that saw them convicted of a collective total of 25 murders, in addition to extortion, car-theft and drug trafficking. The convictions were secured in large part by testimony of former members [[Frederick DiNome]] and [[Dominick Montiglio]].

Paul Castellano was indicted for ordering the murder of DeMeo, as well as a host of other crimes, but he was killed in December 1985 while out on bail in the middle of the first trial. The murder was ordered by John Gotti, who thus became the new boss of the Gambino family.

The FBI and NYPD say that DeMeo and his Gemini Crew murdered at least 70 people between 1973 and 1983, but the true total could be as high as 200. The vast majority were disposed of so thoroughly that they were never found.

[[Richard Kuklinski]], a convicted contract killer and the focus of three HBO Undercover programs, also worked with Roy DeMeo. In fact, Kuklinski made this claim in the second of the three HBO documentaries. He filled several contracts for DeMeo, and also claimed that he was the one who murdered him. He shot him five times (twice in the head), and pistol-whipped his corpse, leaving him in the trunk of his car to be found.

== Sale of personal belongings and artifacts ==

Through a family friend, personal items claimed to having belonged to Roy DeMeo, including artifacts from the Gemini Lounge, were sold on [[ebay]] in 2007 and into 2008, and again in September 2009, by his son, Al DeMeo, with an accompanying [[notarized]] [[certificate of authenticity]].
Among the items regularly sold are personally-owned neckties, personally signed checks, monogrammed personal belongings, etc.

== Sources ==
*''Murder Machine'' by Gene Mustain & [[Jerry Capeci]], 1993, ISBN 0-451-40387-8
* ''For The Sins of My Father: A Mafia Killer, His Son, and the Legacy of a Mob Life'', by Al DeMeo, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7679-1129-0

== References ==

<references/>

== External links ==
*[http://www.crimelibrary.com/serial_killers/weird/roy_demeo/1.html Roy DeMeo at Crime Library]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Demeo, Roy}}
[[Category:1942 births]]
[[Category:1983 deaths]]
[[Category:Italian-American mobsters]]
[[Category:Murdered Italian-American mobsters]]
[[Category:American Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:People from Brooklyn]]
[[Category:American drug traffickers]]
[[Category:Mafia hitmen]]
[[Category:Gambino crime family]]
[[Category:DeMeo Crew]]
[[Category:DeMeo Crew victims]]
[[Category:Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens)]]
[[Category:American mass murderers]]

[[ja:ロイ・デメイオ]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-26T03:30:33Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 90.199.247.172 (talk) to last version by Work permit

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf].

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:36:56Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ wiki

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf].

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:20:08Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ rm wp:or and irrelvant

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf].

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:18:51Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ not relevant to section

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:16:55Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:16:00Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:11:51Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:11:02Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. [[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]] In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:10:31Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ mv image

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. [[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:09:08Z

Work permit: /* Current concentration */ rm image, not relevant to article

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. [[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:07:53Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ mv sentance

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. [[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:05:46Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ rm redundant statement

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T10:01:19Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T09:58:54Z

Work permit: merge origins and sources, to make clear these two sections are redundant

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere by a variety of natural sources, and over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T09:50:27Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere by a variety of natural sources, and over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Origins==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T09:45:14Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere by a variety of natural sources, and over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], but modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

But these natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Origins==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T09:43:18Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ move paragraphs

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere by a variety of natural sources, and over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

But these natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Origins==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T09:40:51Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ move paragraph, rm uncited

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere by a variety of natural sources, and over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. But these natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Origins==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T09:38:24Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ move paragraph

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. This was essential for a warm and stable climate conducive to life.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere by a variety of natural sources, and over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. But these natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Origins==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T09:35:36Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ rm uncited material

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. This was essential for a warm and stable climate conducive to life.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere by a variety of natural sources, and over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. But these natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Origins==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2010-01-23T09:33:56Z

Work permit: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ reword

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the nominal 5,000,000 gigatonnes of gas and aerosols that comprise the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> This is 103 ppmv (36%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. This was essential for a warm and stable climate conducive to life.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (0.13-0.23 gigatonnes or 145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the total atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes (3×1012 tonnes).

Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere by a variety of natural sources, and over 95% of total CO2 emissions are non-anthropgenic. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. But these natural sources are nearly balanced by physical and biological processes, called natural sinks, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is removed by plants during the photosynthesis.

As a result of this natural balance, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere would have changed little if human activities had not added an amount every year. This addition, presently about 3% of annual natural emissions, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, until at present, its concentration is 30% above pre- industrial levels.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref>

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Origins==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antarctica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Sonia Chang-Díaz

2009-08-31T04:05:32Z

Work permit: images

{{Infobox State Senator
| image =Sonya Chang-Diaz.jpg
| name = Sonia Chang-Díaz
| caption = Sonia Chang-Díaz
| state = Massachusetts
| state_senate= Massachusetts
| district = 2nd Suffolk
| term = 2009
| predecessor = [[Dianne Wilkerson]]
| successor =
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1978|3|31|mf=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| alma_mater = [[University of Virginia]]
| occupation = [[Teacher]]
| residence = [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
| spouse =
| partner =
| religion =
| website =
}}

'''Sonia Rosa Chang-Díaz''' (born [[March 31]], [[1978]]<ref>{{cite web|title=STS-75 Press Kit|date=February 1996|publisher=[[NASA]]|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/presskit/1996/STS-75_Press_Kit.txt}}</ref>) is an [[United States|American]] politician who has been elected to the [[Massachusetts Senate]], representing the 2nd Suffolk District in [[Massachusetts]]. She is the first [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]] woman elected to serve in that body.<ref>{{cite news|first=John C.|last=Drake |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2008/09/17/a_senate_fixture_toppled/ |title=A Senate fixture toppled: Chang-Díaz defeats embattled Wilkerson in primary |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=2008-09-17}}</ref>

==Background==
Chang-Díaz has both [[Chinese people|Chinese]] and [[Spanish people|Spanish]] heritage through her father [[Franklin Chang-Díaz]], a [[Costa Rica]]n-[[United States|American]] [[physics|physicist]] and former [[NASA]] [[astronaut]]. He attended the University of Connecticut and enrolled in the Students Support Service program, one of the federal TRIO programs that help low-income and first generation college students. When her opponents suggested that she is not a [[person of color]], Chang-Diaz calls it "disingenuous" and asserted "let me say very clearly, I'm proud of my [[Latina]] heritage, my father emigrated to this country from Costa Rica."<ref name="wbur"/> She has also said that race and ethnic identity are unimportant to voters and has described that "In my experience...of talking to voters one on one, everyday, is that's not something that voters are really interested in."<ref name="wbur"/>

Sonia Chang-Díaz was born shortly after her father earned his [[Doctor of Science]] degree from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. Growing up in [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]], her mother was a [[social worker]] and both her parents were active [[volunteering|volunteers]] in the community.<ref>[http://www.leftahead.com/?p=146 "Chang-Diaz Loaded for 2nd Suffolk"]</ref>

Before seeking election Chang-Díaz was a teacher in the [[Lynn, Massachusetts|Lynn]] school system, a teacher in the [[Boston Public Schools]] system, and an outreach director for the [http://www.massbudget.org/ Massachusetts Budget and Policy Center]. She lives in [[Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts|Jamaica Plain]].<ref name="wbur">[http://www.wbur.org/news/2008/80605_20081010.asp "Race and Class Divide Heated State Senate Race"]</ref>

==Massachusetts Senate campaigns==
[[image:Diaz&Menino.jpg|thumb|Sonia Chang-Díaz and [[List of mayors of Boston, Massachusetts|Mayor]] [[Thomas Menino]]]]
In 2006, the [[Massachusetts Senate|Massachusetts state senator]] for the Second [[Suffolk County, Massachusetts|Suffolk]] district, [[Dianne Wilkerson]], failed to submit nomination papers with enough signatures for certification on the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] primary election ballot, requiring her to run a [[write-in campaign|sticker campaign]] for the party's nomination. Chang-Díaz then entered the race as a sticker candidate, challenging Wilkerson in a "[[minority-majority]]" district covering a number of inner-city neighborhoods of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], including the [[South End, Boston, Massachusetts|South End]], [[Roxbury, Massachusetts|Roxbury]], [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]], and [[Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts|Jamaica Plain]]. Wilkerson won the nomination and was [[Massachusetts Senate elections, 2006|re-elected]] as a state senator.

In 2008, Chang-Díaz challenged Wilkerson again for the party's nomination, with both candidates appearing on the ballot. In the [[September 2008]] [[primary election]], Chang-Díaz won the Democratic nomination.<ref>{{cite news|last=Drake|first=John C.|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2008/09/changdiaz_beats.html |title=Chang-Diaz beats Wilkerson in state Senate primary |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=2008-09-16}}</ref> On October 28, 2008, Wilkerson was arrested by the [[FBI]] on public corruption charges and a federal criminal complaint was filed against her that alleged she was caught on tape stuffing a cash bribe into her [[bra]] and accepted those cash payments in exchange for her official duties and responsibilities.<ref>http://www.usdoj.gov/usao/ma/Press%20Office%20-%20Press%20Release%20Files/Oct2008/WilkersonPressRelease.html</ref><ref>http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/oct/29/state-senator-accused-accepting-8-bribes/</ref> The bribes were allegedly accepted in return for her help in obtaining a liquor license for a proposed nightclub and transferring public land to a federal agent posing as a private developer.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.bostonherald.com/news/politics/view/2008_10_30_Experts_say_officials_could_flip_Dianne_Wilkerson:_Probe_s_scope_may_widen/srvc=home&position=0 | title=Experts say officials could flip Dianne Wilkerson | date=2008-10-30 | accessdate=2008-10-30|author=Laurel J. Sweet and Hillary Chabot|publisher=[[Boston Herald]] }}</ref><ref>http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/20081028/democrat-sen-dianne-wilkerson-arrested-corruption-charges.htm</ref> In the wake of the scandal, Chang-Díaz won the [[Massachusetts Senate elections, 2008|general election]] on [[November 4]], [[2008]] and was sworn into office in January 2009.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2008/11/05/foes_troubles_tinge_chang_diaz_triumph/ | title=Foe's troubles tinge Chang-Diaz triumph | date=2008-11-05 | accessdate=2008-11-05|first= Donovan |last=Slack |work=[[The Boston Globe]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.soniachangdiaz.com/ Sonia Chang-Diaz] Campaign web site

{{start box}}
{{s-par|us-ma-sen}}
{{s-bef| before= [[Dianne Wilkerson]]}}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Massachusetts Senate|Massachusetts State Senator]] for [[Suffolk County, Massachusetts|2nd Suffolk District]]| years= 2009–}}
{{s-inc}}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chang-Diaz, Sonia}}
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:Costa Rican Americans]]
[[Category:Hispanic American politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Massachusetts Democrats]]
[[Category:Massachusetts State Senators]]
[[Category:University of Virginia alumni]]
[[Category:Women state legislators in Massachusetts]]

Gunnedah

2009-08-30T07:02:57Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 211.28.153.2 to last revision by Bidgee (HG)

{{Refimprove|date=May 2008}}
{{Infobox Australian Place | type = town
| name = Gunnedah
| state = nsw
| image = Gunnedah-NSW-Australia 2005-12-01 IMG 0814.JPG
| caption = Gunnedah viewed from Mt Porcupine.
| lga = Gunnedah Shire Council
|county = [[Pottinger County, New South Wales|Pottinger]]
| postcode = 2380
| est = 1833
| pop = 7,542 (2006)
| elevation= 264
| maxtemp =
| mintemp =
| rainfall =
| stategov =
| fedgov =
| dist1 = 75
| location1= [[Tamworth, New South Wales|Tamworth]]
| dist2 = 475
| location2= Sydney
}}
[[Image:Gunnedah miners.JPG|thumb|200px|Monument to miners who have lost their lives, Gunnedah, NSW]]
[[Image:Gunnedah location map in New South Wales.PNG|thumb|200px|Location of Gunnedah in New South Wales (red)]]

'''Gunnedah''' ({{pronEng|ˈɡʌnədɑː}})<ref>''[[Macquarie Dictionary|Macquarie Dictionary, Fourth Edition]]'' (2005). Melbourne, The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. ISBN 1-876429-14-3</ref> is a town and [[Local Government Areas of Australia|Local government area]] (see [[Gunnedah Shire Council]]) in north-western [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]. 7,542 people lived in the town of Gunnedah in 2006, including 931 indigenous persons (12.3%)<ref name="abs">{{Census 2006 AUS|id=UCL136800|name=Gunnedah (Urban Centre/Locality)|accessdate=2008-05-29|quick=on}}</ref>.

Gunnedah is located on the [[Oxley Highway|Oxley]] and [[Kamilaroi Highway|Kamilaroi]] Highways providing road links to the state capital [[Sydney]] at a distance of {{convert|475|km|mi}} and the nearest regional centre [[Tamworth, New South Wales|Tamworth]] is {{convert|75|km|mi}}. It is also linked to Sydney by rail. The town is served by the daily [[Countrylink]] Xplorer service between [[Sydney]] and [[Moree, New South Wales|Moree]].

The major industry is agriculture, with 80% of the shire area devoted to farming. Gunnedah's primary exports are cotton, coal, beef, lamb and pork, and cereal and oilseed grains. Gunnedah is also home to [[AgQuip]], Australia's largest annual [[field day|exhibition of agricultural equipment]].

==History==
Gunnedah and the surrounding areas were originally inhabited by Aborigines who spoke the [[Kamilaroi]] (Gamilaraay) language. The area now occupied by the town was settled by Europeans in 1833 or 1834.

[[Dorothea Mackellar]] wrote her famous poem ''[[My Country]]'' (popularly known as ''I Love a Sunburnt Country'') about her family's farm near Gunnedah. This is remembered by the annual Dorothea Mackellar Poetry Awards for school students held in Gunnedah.

Coal was discovered on Black Jack Hill in 1877. By 1891, 6,000 tons of coal had been raised from shafts. The Gunnedah Colliery Company was registered in May 1899 and by 22 June a private railway some {{convert|5.7|km|mi}} in length had been completed from the railway station to their mine. In September 1957, the Government Railway took over the working of the line<ref>'''''A Short History of the Gunnedah Colliery Co. Ltd. Railway''''' Eardley, Gifford [[Australian Railway History|Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin]], March 1977 pp58-67</ref>.

==Geography==
Gunnedah Shire is situated {{convert|264|m|ft}} above sea level on the [[Liverpool Plains]] in the [[Namoi River]] valley. It is very flat; the tallest hills are {{convert|400|to|500|m|ft}} above sea level. The climate is hot in summer, mild in winter and dry, although rainstorms in catchment areas occasionally cause flooding of the Namoi River. Major floods cut transport links to the town, briefly isolating it from the outside world.

The Gunnedah area is noted for its abundance of native wildlife, including [[kangaroo]]s, [[echidna]]s and [[koala]]s. Koalas can often be found in trees within the town, as well as in the surrounding countryside with the help of signs placed by the local tourist centre.

== Media ==
Local media include the Namoi Valley Independent newspaper and the radio stations 2MO and 2GGG. 2MO claims to be the first station established in Australia outside the capital cities.

== Railway station ==
Gunnedah railway station is situated on the [[Mungindi railway line, New South Wales|Mungindi (or North West) railway line]], {{convert|475|km|mi}} from Sydney.<ref>[http://www.nswrail.net/locations/show.php?name=NSW:Gunnedah&line=NSW:mungindi:0 Gunnedah Railway Station]. NSWrail.net. Accessed 1 April 2008.</ref> The station, opened in 1879, consists of a substantial station building on a single side platform, a passing loop and small goods yard. Currently a single daily [[Xplorer (train)|Xplorer]] diesel railmotor operating between Sydney and [[Moree, New South Wales|Moree]] serves the station.<ref>[http://www.countrylink.info/timetables/northwest/moree_to CountyLink Timetable] CountryLink.info. Accessed 1 April 2008.</ref>

== Notable Gunnedahians ==
* [[Erica Packer]] – mogulette and aspiring pop chanteuse <ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/news/people/girl-from-gunnedah-to-leave-others-in-her-wake/2007/06/18/1182019036450.html The Sydney Morning Herald: national, world, business, entertainment, sport and technology news from Australia's leading newspaper]</ref>
* [[Miranda Kerr]] – supermodel
* [[Ben Smith (rugby league)]] – Rugby League Player
* [[John O'Neill (rugby league)]] – Rugby League Player
* [[John "Dallas" Donnelly]] – Rugby League Player
* [[Dorothea Mackellar]] – poet
* Glenn Moule – drummer for [[Howling Bells]]

== See also ==
{{commonscat}}
* [[Cumbo Gunnerah]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.infogunnedah.com.au/ Info Gunnedah]
*[http://www.agquip.com.au/ AgQuip]
*[http://www.infogunnedah.com.au/shire_profile/main.html Gunnedah Shire Profile]
*[http://www.gunnedahspeedway.com.au/ Gunnedah Speedway]
*[http://www.gunnedah-h.schools.nsw.edu.au/ Gunnedah High School]
*[http://www.gunnedahs-p.schools.nsw.edu.au/ Gunnedah South Public School]

{{s-rail-start|noclear=yes}}
{{s-rail|title=CountryLink}}
{{s-line|system=CountryLink|line=North Western|previous=Boggabri|next=Werris Creek|type=Moree}}
{{end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|30|58|S|150|15|E|type:city(8000)_region:AU-NSW|display=title}}
[[Category:Towns in New South Wales]]

[[fr:Gunnedah]]
[[ga:Gunnedah]]
[[simple:Gunnedah, New South Wales]]

Fight Club (Roman)

2009-08-05T04:27:58Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 190.103.40.105 to last revision by Cybercobra (HG)

{{otheruses4|the novel|the film based on the novel|Fight Club (film)|other uses|Fight Club (disambiguation)}}
{{tooshort|date=April 2009}}
{{Refimprove|date=March 2009}}
{{infobox Book | 
| name = Fight Club
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Fightclubcvr.jpg|200px]]
| image_caption = First edition cover
| author = [[Chuck Palahniuk]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist = Jacket design by Michael Ian Kaye Photograph by Melissa Hayden Soap by Proverbial Inc.
| country = United States
| language = English
| series =
| genre = [[Satire|Satirical novel]]
| publisher = [[W. W. Norton & Company]]
| release_date = August 1996
| english_release_date =
| media_type = Print ([[hardcover]], [[paperback]], & library binding) & audio cassette
| pages = 208 pp (first edition, hardcover)
| isbn = ISBN 0-393-03976-5 (first edition, hardcover)
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}
'''''Fight Club''''' is a [[1996 in literature|1996]] novel by [[Chuck Palahniuk]]. The book follows the experiences of an anonymous [[protagonist]] struggling with his way of life and changes in American pop-culture masculinity. To overcome this, he establishes an underground [[fighting]] club as radical [[psychotherapy]].<ref name="lowercase">In the novel, the club's name is lowercased; it is only spelled with initial caps as a title. In this article, "fight club" denotes the fighting club, "''Fight Club''" denotes the novel.</ref>

In 1999, director [[David Fincher]] adapted the novel into a [[Fight Club (film)|film of the same name]].

==History==
Chuck Palahniuk first tried publishing a novel (''[[Invisible Monsters]]'') but publishers rejected it as it was considered too disturbing, so he concentrated on writing ''Fight Club,'' which was intended to be even more disturbing. Initially it was published as a short story (chapter 6 in the novel) in the compilation ''Pursuit of Happiness,'' but he later on expanded it to novel length.<ref name="tomlinson">Tomlinson, Sarah. "[http://www.salon.com/ent/movies/int/1999/10/13/palahniuk/index.html Is it fistfighting, or just multi-tasking?]". Salon.com. October 13, 1999.</ref>

The novel was re-issued in 1999 and 2004, the latter edition including an author's introduction about the conception and popularity of novel and movie.

The original hardcover edition of ''Fight Club'' was well reviewed and won some literary awards. It then went to Hollywood, generating cinematic-adaptation interest, and in 1999, screenwriters [[Jim Uhls]], [[August Olsen]] with co-producers [[Conor Strait]] & [[Aaron Curry (producer)|Aaron Curry]] and director [[David Fincher]] did so. The film "failed",<ref>Linson, Art (Fight Club producer), What Just Happened?: Bitter Hollywood Tales from the Front Line (New York: Grove Press, 2008) pp. 125–127.</ref> but nevertheless a [[Cult film|cult following]] emerged with the DVD edition and as a result an original, hardcover edition of the novel is now a collector's item.<ref name="offman">Offman, Craig. "[http://archive.salon.com/books/log/1999/09/03/fight_club/ Movie makes "Fight Club" book a contender]". [[Salon.com]]. September 3, 1999.</ref>

The club is based on fist fights that Palahniuk once fought while camping.<ref name="jemielity">Jemielity, Sam. "[http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/dotcomversation/palahniuk/ Chuck Palahniuk:The Playboy.Conversation]". [[Playboy]].com. Retrieved June 30, 2005.</ref> In interviews, the writer has said he does not know, yet still is approached by aficionados wanting to know—Where is the local fight club?—insisting there is no such real organization, like in the novel. However, he has heard of real, existing fight clubs, some said to have existed before the novel. The novel's current introduction refers to actual, fight-club-style mischief, by a "waiter from one of London's two finest restaurants" who said he ejaculated into Margaret Thatcher's food. Likewise the [[support groups]]; as a volunteer, he took terminally ill people to them. Moreover, Project Mayhem is lightly based on the [[Cacophony Society]], of which he is a member, and other events derived from stories told to him.<ref name="palahniukstf228229">Palahniuk, ''Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories'', pp. 228–229.</ref>

Beyond his public and private lives, ''Fight Club'''s cultural impact is evidenced by U.S. teenagers' and techies' establishment of fight clubs.<ref name="usatoday">"[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-05-29-fight-club_x.htm Fight club draws techies for bloody underground beatdowns]". [[Associated Press]]. May 29, 2006.</ref> Pranks, such as food-tampering, have been repeated by fans of the book, documented in his essay "Monkey Think, Monkey Do",<ref name="palahniukstf212215">Palahniuk, ''Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories'', pp. 212–215.</ref> in the book ''[[Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories]]'' and in the introduction to the 2004 re-issue of ''Fight Club.'' Other fans have been inspired to pro-social activity, telling him it inspired them to return to college.<ref name="tomlinson" />

Besides ''Fight Club'', few of Palahniuk's writings have been adapted, although his novel ''[[Choke (novel)|Choke]]'' was made into a [[Choke (film)|movie]] in 2008. In 2004 ''Fight Club'' was to be transformed into [[musical theater]], developed by Palahniuk, Fincher, and [[Trent Reznor]].<ref name="chang">Chang, Jade. "[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/collective/A2799633 tinseltown: fight club and fahrenheit]". [[BBC]].co.uk. July 2, 2004.</ref>

==Plot summary==
The novel tells the story of an anonymous protagonist who hates his job and his lifestyle; he works as a Product Recall Specialist for an anonymous car company, responsible for organizing [[product recall]]s of defective models only if the corresponding [[cost-benefit analysis]] indicates that the recall-cost is less than the cost of [[out-of-court settlement]]s paid to the relatives of the killed (paralleling the [[Ford Pinto#Safety problems|Ford Pinto's safety problems and recall]]). His dissatisfaction, combined with his frequent business trips through several time zones, is mentally taxing enough that he develops severe [[insomnia]].

At his doctor's recommendation (who thinks insomnia is not a serious ailment), the narrator attends a support group for men suffering from [[testicular cancer]], to "see what real suffering is like". He finds that crying and listening to the emotional problems of suffering people is an emotional release and is able to sleep again, but becomes dependent on attending these meetings. Although not dying like the others, he is never caught being a "tourist" until meeting Marla Singer, a woman who attends the support groups as well. She reflects the narrator's "tourism", reminding him that he is a faker and does not belong there. He begins to hate Marla for keeping him from crying, and, therefore, from sleeping. After a confrontation, they agree to attend separate support group meetings to avoid each other.

Shortly after this incident, his life changes radically on meeting Tyler Durden, a charismatic [[psychopath]] who works low-paying night jobs in order to perform deviant behaviour on the job. After his confrontation with Tyler, an explosion destroys the narrator's condominium apartment; he asks Tyler if he can stay at his house. Tyler agrees, but asks for something in return: "I want you to hit me as hard as you can".<ref name="palahniukfc46">Palahniuk, ''Fight Club'', 1999, p. 46.</ref> Their fight, in a bar's parking lot, attracts local, socially disenchanted men; "Fight Club", a new form of psychological support group is born, mental therapy via [[Bare-knuckle boxing|bare-knuckle]] fighting, set to rules:


{{quotation|
#You don't talk about fight club.
#You don't talk about fight club.<ref name="2rules">The first rules of both fight club and Project Mayhem are repeated for emphasis. Fans of the novel and the film have latched on to the first two rules of fight club as a [[meme]] and have made it into a [[catchphrase]] (although slightly changed to "you do not talk about fight club", based on the variation in the film).</ref>
#When someone says stop, or goes limp, even if he's just faking it, the fight is over.<ref name="lostrule">Shortly after the third rule is introduced, it is dropped from the club and the other rules move up one numbered position. It is mentioned by the narrator the first time he states the rules, but it is not mentioned by Tyler when he states them. Tyler also adds the eighth rule, which becomes the seventh rule in his version of the rule set. This may have been the result of a [[continuity error]], though it is also possible that Tyler changed the rules to allow the narrator to break the third rule later in the novel. Another interpretation could be that the first set of rules are easier on combatants than the amended rules (ways out if unconscious and not having to fight compared to no ways out and having to fight), proving the more aggressive Tyler is taking a stronger hold of the narrator. Palahniuk (1999), pp. 49–50.</ref>
#Only two guys to a fight.
#One fight at a time.
#They fight without shirts or shoes.
#The fights go on as long as they have to.
#If this is your first night at fight club, you have to fight.
|Fight Club|pages 48–50<ref name="palahniukfc4850">Palahniuk, ''Fight Club'', 1999, pp. 48–50.</ref>}}

Later in the book, the mechanic tells the narrator two new rules of the fight club. The first new rule is that nobody is the center of the fight club except for the two men fighting. The second new rule is that the fight club will always be free.

Meanwhile, Tyler rescues Marla from a suicide attempt, and the two initiate an affair that confounds the narrator. Throughout this affair, Marla is mostly unaware of the existence of fight club and completely unaware of Tyler and the narrator's interaction with one another.<ref name="tylermarla"> Because Tyler and Marla are never seen at the same time, the narrator wonders if Tyler and Marla are the same person. This foreshadows the later revelation of Tyler and the narrator being the same person. Palahniuk may have also meant for this detail to be a [[red herring (plot device)|red herring]]. Palahniuk (1999), p. 65.</ref>

As the fight club's membership grows (and, unbeknownst to the narrator, spreads to other cities across the country), Tyler begins to use it to spread anti-consumerist ideas and recruits its members to participate in increasingly elaborate attacks on [[corporate America]]. This was originally the narrator's idea, but Tyler takes control from him. Tyler eventually gathers the most devoted fight club members (referred to as "[[Monkeys in space|space monkey]]s") and forms "Project Mayhem," a [[cult]]-like organization that trains itself as an army to bring down modern civilization. This organization, like the fight club, is controlled by a set of rules:


{{quotation|
#You don't ask questions.
#You don't ask questions.
#No excuses.
#No lies.
#You have to trust Tyler.|Fight Club|pages 119, 122, 125<ref name="palahniukfc119122125">Palahniuk, ''Fight Club'', 1999, pp. 119, 122 & 125. also pg 69</ref>}}

The narrator starts off as a loyal participant in Project Mayhem, seeing it as the next step for the fight club. However, he becomes uncomfortable with the increasing destructiveness of their activities after it results in the death of [[#Robert "Bob" Paulson|Bob]].

As the narrator endeavors to stop Tyler and his followers, [[anagnorisis|he learns]] that he is Tyler;<ref name="unreliable">The narrator's inability to explain Tyler's existence earlier on in the story is a classic example of an [[unreliable narrator]].</ref> Tyler is not a separate person, but a [[Dissociative identity disorder|separate personality]]. As the narrator struggled with his hatred for his job and his consumerist lifestyle, his mind began to form a new personality that was able to escape from the problems of his normal life. The final straw came when he met Marla; Tyler was truly born as a distinct personality when the narrator's unconscious desire for Marla clashed with his conscious hatred for her. Having come to the surface, Tyler's personality has been slowly taking over the narrator's mind, which he planned to take over completely by making the narrator's real personality more like his. The narrator's bouts of insomnia had actually been Tyler's personality surfacing; Tyler would be active whenever the narrator was "sleeping." This allowed Tyler to manipulate the narrator into helping him create the fight club; Tyler learned recipes for creating explosives when he was in control and used this knowledge to blow up his own condo.

The narrator also learns that Tyler plans to blow up the Parker-Morris building (the fictional "tallest building in the world") in the downtown area of the city using [[homemade bomb]]s created by Project Mayhem. The actual reason for the explosion is to destroy the nearby national museum. During the explosion, Tyler plans to die as a [[martyr]] for Project Mayhem, taking the narrator's life as well. Realizing this, the narrator sets out to stop Tyler, although Tyler is always thinking ahead of him. In his attempts to stop Tyler, he makes peace with Marla (who has always known the narrator as Tyler) and explains to her that he is not Tyler Durden. The narrator is eventually forced to confront Tyler on the roof of the building. The narrator is held captive at gunpoint by Tyler, forced to watch the destruction wrought on the museum by Project Mayhem. Marla comes to the roof with one of the support groups. Tyler vanishes, as "Tyler was his hallucination, not hers."<ref name="palahniukfc195">Palahniuk, ''Fight Club'', 1999, p. 195.</ref>

With Tyler gone, the narrator waits for the bomb to explode and kill him. However, the bomb malfunctions because Tyler mixed [[paraffin]] into the explosives, which the narrator says early in the book "has never, ever worked for me." Still alive and holding the gun that Tyler used to carry on him, the narrator decides to make the first decision that is truly his own: he puts the gun in his mouth and shoots himself. Some time later, he awakens in a hospital, believing that he is dead and has gone to heaven. The book ends with members of Project Mayhem who work at the institution telling the narrator that their plans still continue, and that they are expecting Tyler to come back.

==Characters==
===Narrator===
An employee of an unnamed car company specializing in recalls, he is extremely depressed and suffers from insomnia, which is later revealed to be connected to his [[dissociative identity disorder]]. The narrator of ''Fight Club'' sets a precedent for the protagonists of later novels by Palahniuk, especially in the case of male protagonists, as they often shared his anti-heroic and [[transgressional fiction|transgressive]] behavior. The narrator in ''Fight Club'' is unnamed throughout the novel. Some fans or readers call him "Joe" because of his constant use of the name in statements such as "I am Joe's boiling point". Contrary to popular belief, Tyler Durden is not the narrator's name, he is the narrator's [[alter ego]]. The quotes "I am Joe's (blank)" refer to the narrator's reading old ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' articles in which human organs write about themselves in the first person, with titles such as "I Am Joe's Liver". However, the film adaptation replaces "Joe" with "Jack". In the movie, it is worth noting that the Narrator is at one point called Cornelius by Bob during a brief moment where they see each other on the street; however, it is one of the fake names he gives at the support groups.

===Tyler Durden===
A charismatic but [[Nihilism|nihilistic]] [[neo-Luddite]], [[radical environmentalist]] and [[anarcho-primitivism|anarcho-primitivist]] with a strong hatred for [[consumer culture]]. "Because of his nature,"<ref name="palahniukfc25">Palahniuk, ''Fight Club'', 1999, p. 25.</ref> Tyler works night jobs where he causes problems for the companies; he also makes soap to supplement his income and create the ingredients for his bomb making which will be put to work later with his fight club. He is the co-founder of fight club (it was his idea to have the fight that led to it). He later launches Project Mayhem, from which he and the members make various attacks on consumerism. Tyler is blonde, as by the narrator's comment "in his everything-blonde way". He frequently describes (and acts on) his opposition to [[mass society]], [[materialism]], [[property]], [[capitalism]], and almost all [[technology]] and [[social order]]. He even vows to annihilate [[civilization]] itself. He describes his ideal world as a neo-[[paleolithic]] paradise, in [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction|post-apocalyptic]] urban ruins. The unhinged but magnetic Tyler could also be considered an antihero (especially since he and the narrator are technically the same person). However, he becomes the [[antagonist]] of the novel later in the story. Few characters like Tyler have appeared in later novels by Palahniuk, though the character of Oyster from ''[[Lullaby (novel)|Lullaby]]'' shares many similarities.

===Marla Singer===
A woman whom the narrator meets during a support group. The narrator no longer receives the same release from the groups when he realizes Marla is faking her problems just like he is. After he leaves the groups, he meets her again when she meets Tyler and becomes his lover. She shares many of Tyler's thoughts on consumer culture. In later novels by Palahniuk in which the protagonist is male, a female character similar to Marla has also appeared. Marla and these other female characters have helped Palahniuk to add romantic themes into his novels.

===Robert "Bob" Paulson===
A man that the narrator meets at a support group for [[testicular cancer]]. A former [[bodybuilding|bodybuilder]], Bob lost his testicles to cancer caused by the [[steroids]] he used to bulk up his muscles and had to undergo testosterone injections; this resulted in his body increasing its [[estrogen]], causing him to grow large "[[Gynecomastia|Bitch Tits]]" and develop a softer voice. Because of this, Bob is the only known member that is allowed to wear a shirt (breaking the sixth rule of Fight Club). The narrator befriends Bob and, after leaving the groups, meets him again in fight club. Bob's death later in the story while carrying out an assignment for Project Mayhem causes the narrator to turn against Tyler, because the members of Project Mayhem treat it as a trivial matter instead of a tragedy. When the narrator explains that the dead man had a name and was a real person, a member of Project Mayhem interprets this as an order to give all those who died names. The unnamed member begins chanting "his name is Robert Paulson", and this phrase becomes a mantra that the narrator encounters later on in the story multiple times. The movie differs from the book in that it only states that people in other fight clubs were chanting "His name is Robert Paulson" for the same reason as mentioned above. When the narrator goes to a fight club to shut it down for this reason, Tyler orders them to make him a "homework assignment".

==Motifs==
At two points in the novel, the narrator claims he wants to "wipe [his] ass with the [[Mona Lisa]]"; a mechanic who joins fight club also repeats this to him in one scene.<ref name="palahniukfc124141200">Palahniuk, ''Fight Club'', 1999, pp. 124, 141 & 200.</ref> This [[motif (literature)|motif]] shows his desire for chaos, later explicitly expressed in his urge to "destroy something beautiful". Additionally, he mentions at one point that "Nothing is static. Even the Mona Lisa is falling apart."<ref name="palahniukfc49">Palahniuk, ''Fight Club'', 1999, p. 49.''</ref> University of Calgary literary scholar Paul Kennett claims that this want for chaos is a result of an [[Oedipus complex]], as the narrator, Tyler, and the mechanic all show disdain for their fathers.<ref name="kennett5051">Kennett, pp. 50–51.</ref> This is most explicitly stated in the scene that the mechanic appears in:

{{quotation|
The mechanic says, “If you’re male and you’re Christian and living in America, your father is your model for God. And if you never know your father, if your father bails out or dies or is never at home, what do you believe about God? 
... 
How Tyler saw it was that getting God’s attention for being bad was better than getting no attention at all. Maybe because God’s hate is better than His indifference. 
If you could be either God’s worst enemy or nothing, which would you choose? 
We are God’s middle children, according to Tyler Durden, with no special place in history and no special attention. 
Unless we get God’s attention, we have no hope of damnation or redemption. 
Which is worse, hell or nothing? 
Only if we’re caught and punished can we be saved. 
“Burn the [[Louvre]],” the mechanic says, “and wipe your ass with the Mona Lisa. This way at least, God would know our names.”|Fight Club|page 141<ref name="palahniukfc141">Palahniuk, ''Fight Club'', 1999, p. 141.</ref>}}

Kennett further argues that Tyler wants to use this chaos to change history so that "God's middle children" will have some historical significance, whether or not this significance is "damnation or redemption".<ref name="kennett5152">Kennett, pp. 51–52.</ref> This will figuratively return their absent fathers, as judgment by future generations will replace judgment by their fathers.

After reading ''Reader's Digest'' articles written from the perspective of the organs of a man named Joe, the narrator begins using similar quotations to describe his feelings, often replacing organs with feelings and things involved in his life.

The color [[cornflower blue]] first appears as the color of the narrator's boss's tie and later is requested as an icon color by the same boss.<ref name="palahniukfc49" /> Later, it is mentioned that his boss has eyes of the same color. These mentions of the color are the first of many uses of cornflower blue in Palahniuk's books.

Isolationism, specifically directed towards material items and possessions, is a common theme throughout the novel. Tyler acts as the major catalyst behind the destruction of our vanities, which he claims is the path to finding our inner-selves. "I'm breaking my attachment to physical power and possessions," Tyler whispered, "because only through destroying myself can I discover the greater power of my spirit."

==Themes==

Much of the novel comments on how many men in modern society have found dissatisfaction with the state of masculinity as it currently exists. The characters of the novel lament the fact that many of them were raised by their mothers because their fathers either abandoned their family or divorced their mothers. As a result, they see themselves as being "a generation of men raised by women,"<ref name="palahniukfc50">Palahniuk, ''Fight Club'', 1999, p. 50.</ref> being without a male role model in their lives to help shape their masculinity. This ties in with the anti-consumer culture theme, as the men in the novel see their "IKEA nesting instinct" as resulting from the feminization of men in a matriarchal culture.

Maryville University of St. Louis professor Jesse Kavadlo, in an issue of the literary journal ''Stirrings Still'', claimed that the narrator's opposition to emasculation is a form of projection, and that the problem that he fights is himself.<ref name="kavadlo5">Kavadlo, p. 5.</ref> He also claims that Palahniuk uses [[existentialism]] in the novel to conceal subtexts of [[feminism]] and romance in order to convey these concepts in a novel that is mainly aimed at a male audience.<ref name="kavadlo7">Kavadlo, p. 7.</ref>

Palahniuk himself gives a much simpler assertion about the theme of the novel, stating "all my books are about a lonely person looking for some way to connect with other people."<ref name="palahniukstfxv">Palahniuk, ''Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories'', p. xv.</ref>

Paul Kennett claims that, because the narrator's fights with Tyler are fights with himself, and because he fights himself in front of his boss at the hotel, the narrator is using the fights as a way of asserting himself as his own boss. He argues that these fights are a representation of the struggle of the [[Proletariat|proletarian]] at the hands of a higher capitalist power, and by asserting himself as capable of having the same power he thus becomes his own master. Later, when fight club is formed, the participants are all dressed and groomed similarly, thus allowing them to symbolically fight themselves at the club and gain the same power.<ref name="kennett5354">Kennett, pp. 53–54.</ref>

Afterwards, Kennett says, Tyler becomes nostalgic for the patriarchical power controlling him, and creates Project Mayhem to achieve this. Through this proto-fascist power structure, the narrator seeks to learn "what, or rather, who, he might have been under a firm patriarchy."<ref name="kennett55">Kennett, p. 55.</ref> Through his position as leader of Project Mayhem, Tyler uses his power to become a "God/Father" to the "space monkeys", who are the other members of Project Mayhem (although by the end of the novel his words hold more power than he does, as is evident in the space monkeys' threat to castrate the narrator when he contradicts Tyler's rule). According to Kennett, this creates a paradox in that Tyler pushes the idea that men who wish to be free from a controlling father-figure are only [[self-actualization|self-actualized]] once they have children and become a father themselves.<ref name="kennett56">Kennett, p. 56.</ref> This new structure is, however, ended by the narrator's elimination of Tyler, allowing him to decide for himself how to determine his freedom.

==Awards==
The novel won the following awards:
* the 1997 Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Award<ref name="pnba">Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Awards. http://www.pnba.org/awards.htm. Retrieved June 20, 2005.</ref>
* the 1997 [[Oregon Book Award]] for Best Novel<ref name="oba">[http://www.literary-arts.org/oba_poetry.htm#fiction Oregon Book Awards]. Literary Arts, Inc. Retrieved June 20, 2005.</ref>

==U.S. editions==
* New York: [[W. W. Norton & Company]], August 1996. [[Hardcover]] first edition. ISBN 0-393-03976-5
* New York: [[Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group|Owl Books]], 1997. First [[Paperback#Trade paperback|trade paperback]]. ISBN 0-8050-5437-5
* New York: Owl Books, 1999. Trade paperback reissue (film tie-in cover). ISBN 0-8050-6297-1
* Minneapolis, MN: HighBridge Company, 1999. Unabridged [[audiobook]] on 4 cassettes, read by [[J. Todd Adams]]. ISBN 1-56511-330-6
* Minneapolis, MN: Tandem Books, 1999. School & library binding. ISBN 0-613-91882-7
* New York: Owl Books, 2004. Trade paperback reissue, with a new introduction by the author (bloody lip cover). ISBN 0-8050-7647-6
* New York: Owl Books, 2004. Trade paperback reissue, with a new introduction by the author (film tie-in cover). ISBN 0-8050-7655-7
* New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. Trade paperback (fist cover). ISBN 0-393-32734-5
* New York: Recorded Books LLC, 2008. Unabridged [[audiobook]] on 5 CDs, Read by [[James Colby]]. ISBN 978-1-4361-4960-0

==See also==
* [[Revolution]]
* [[White Collar Boxing]]
* [[1996 in literature]]
* [[Anarcho-primitivism]]
* [[Masculinity]]
* [[Neo-Luddism]]
* [[Transgressional fiction]]
* [[Dissociative identity disorder]]
* [[Hyperreality]]
* [[Green Anarchism]]
* [[Radical environmentalism]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*Avni, Sheerly. "[http://www.alternet.org/mediaculture/24026/ Ten Hollywood Movies That Get Women Right]". [[AlterNet]]. August 12, 2005.
*Brookey, Robert Alan & Westerfelhaus, Robert. "Hiding Homoeroticism in Plain View: The Fight Club DVD as Digital Closet". ''Critical Studies in Media Communication''. March 2002.
*Chang, Jade. "[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/collective/A2799633 tinseltown: fight club and fahrenheit]". [[BBC]].co.uk. July 2, 2004.
*"[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-05-29-fight-club_x.htm Fight club draws techies for bloody underground beatdowns]". [[Associated Press]]. May 29, 2006.
*Giroux, Henry A.. "[http://www.henryagiroux.com/online_articles/fight_club.htm Private Satisfactions and Public Disorders: Fight Club, Patriarchy, and the Politics of Masculine Violence.]". henryagiroux.com Online Articles. Retrieved October 10, 2008.
*Jemielity, Sam. "[http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/dotcomversation/palahniuk/index.html Chuck Palahniuk:The Playboy.Conversation]". [[Playboy]].com. Retrieved September 28, 2006.
*Kavadlo, Jesse. "The Fiction of Self-destruction: Chuck Palahniuk, Closet Moralist". ''Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existential Literature''. Volume 2, Number 2. Fall/Winter 2005. [http://www.stirrings-still.org/ss22.pdf PDF link]
*Kennett, Paul. "Fight Club and the Dangers of Oedipal Obsession". ''Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existential Literature''. Volume 2, Number 2. Fall/Winter 2005. [http://www.stirrings-still.org/ss22.pdf PDF link]
*Offman, Craig. "[http://archive.salon.com/books/log/1999/09/03/fight_club/ Movie makes "Fight Club" book a contender]". [[Salon.com]]. September 3, 1999.
*[http://www.literary-arts.org/oba_poetry.htm#fiction Oregon Book Awards]. Literary Arts, Inc. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
*Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Awards. http://www.pnba.org/awards.htm. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
*Palahniuk, Chuck. ''Stranger Than Fiction : True Stories''. Garden City: [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]], 2004. ISBN 0-385-50448-9
*Straus, Tamara. "[http://www.alternet.org/story/11049/ The Unexpected Romantic: An Interview with Chuck Palahniuk]". AlterNet. June 19, 2001.
*Tomlinson, Sarah. "[http://www.salon.com/ent/movies/int/1999/10/13/palahniuk/index.html Is it fistfighting, or just multi-tasking?]". Salon.com. October 13, 1999.
In addition, the following editions of the novel were used as references for this article:
*Palahniuk, Chuck. ''Fight Club''. New York: Henry Holt, 1997. ISBN 0-8050-6297-1
*Palahniuk, Chuck. ''Fight Club''. Clearwater: Owl Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8050-7647-6
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book | last=Goodlad | first=Lauren M. E | chapter=Men in Black: Androgyny and Ethics in ''Fight Club'' and ''The Crow'' | title=Goth: Undead Subculture | pages=89–118 | publisher=Duke University Press | year=2007 | isbn=0822339218 }}
*{{cite journal | last=Tuss | first=Alex | title=Masculine Identity and Success: A Critical Analysis of Patricia Highsmith's The Talented Mr. Ripley and Chuck Palahniuk's Fight Club | journal=The Journal of Men's Studies | year=2004 | month=Winter | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=pp. 93–102 }}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.chuckpalahniuk.net/books/fight-club/fight-club Chuck Palahniuk.Net section for ''Fight Club'']
{{ChuckPalahniuk}}

[[Category:Fight Club| Fight Club]]
[[Category:1996 novels]]
[[Category:American novels]]
[[Category:Novels by Chuck Palahniuk]]
[[Category:Fictional clubs]]
[[Category:Debut novels]]
[[Category:Postmodern literature]]
[[Category:Existentialist works]]
[[Category:Satirical books]]
[[Category:Cacophony Society]]
[[Category:Fiction with unreliable narrators]]
[[Category:Metafictional works]]
[[Category:Novels made into films]]

[[ar:نادي القتال (رواية)]]
[[cs:Klub rváčů]]
[[da:Fight Club (roman)]]
[[es:El club de lucha]]
[[eo:Bataloklubo]]
[[fr:Fight Club (roman)]]
[[it:Fight Club (romanzo)]]
[[he:מועדון קרב]]
[[hu:Harcosok Klubja]]
[[ja:ファイト・クラブ]]
[[no:Fight Club]]
[[pl:Podziemny krąg (powieść)]]
[[ru:Бойцовский клуб (роман)]]
[[simple:Fight Club]]
[[sk:Fight Club (román)]]
[[fi:Fight Club (kirja)]]
[[uk:Бійцівський клуб (роман)]]

Cradle Mountain

2009-07-22T03:37:56Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 71.105.63.53 to last revision by Michal Nebyla (HG)

{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Cradle Mountain
| Photo = Cradle Mountain Behind Dove Lake.jpg
| Caption=Cradle Mountain as seen from the north, across [[Dove Lake, Tasmania|Dove Lake]]
| Elevation = {{Convert|1545|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="height">{{cite web
| title = LISTmap (Cradle Mountain)
| publisher = Tasmanian Government Department of Primary Industries and Water
| url = http://www.thelist.tas.gov.au/listmap/listmap.jsp?llx=412500&lly=5384500&urx=413800&ury=5385000&layers=17
| accessdate = 2007-06-19 }}</ref> [[Australian Height Datum|AHD]]
| Location = [[Tasmania]]
| Range =
| Prominence =
| Coordinates = {{coord|41|41|4.72|S|145|57|4.59|E|type:mountain|name=Cradle Mountain|display=inline,title}}
| Topographic map =
| Type=|Age=
| First ascent = | Easiest route =
}}

'''Cradle Mountain''' is a distinctive mountain in the [[Cradle Mountain-Lake St Clair National Park]], [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]]. Rising to 1,545 metres above sea level it is one of the principal tourist sites in Tasmania, owing to its natural beauty. The mountain is composed of [[dolerite]] columns, similar to many of the other mountains in the area.

==Access==
The area around the mountain has a large number of day walks, as well as being one terminus of the [[Overland Track]]. The mountain is frequently climbed by tourists, virtually year round. It is a strenuous (recommended allotted time: 6.5 hours) return hike from the Dove Lake car park. The climb up the rocky part of the mountain involves scrambling over large boulders for several hundred metres. The entire climb is exposed to any bad weather that may arrive quickly and at any time. From the summit, (where there was a [[trig point]] tower) there are spectacular 360° views, encompassing [[Dove Lake, Tasmania|Dove Lake]], [[Barn Bluff]] and [[Mount Ossa (Tasmania)|Mount Ossa]].

==Features==
[[Image:Cradle Mountain And Barn Bluff.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Panorama from west, showing Cradle Mountain and, in the distance, Barn Bluff]]
[[Image:Cradle Mountain Seen From Barn Bluff.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Cradle Mountain seen from the south, from neighbouring mountain Barn Bluff]]

The mountain rises above the glacially formed Dove Lake (934m), [[Lake Wilks]], and [[Crater Lake (Tasmania)|Crater Lake]].

The mountain has four named summits. In order of height they are
Cradle Mountain ({{Convert|1545|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="height"/>),
Smithies Peak ({{Convert|1545|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="height2">{{cite web
| title = LISTmap (Cradle Mountain minor peaks)
| publisher = Tasmanian Government Department of Primary Industries and Water
| url = http://www.thelist.tas.gov.au/listmap/listmap.jsp?llx=412500&lly=5384850&urx=414200&ury=5385850&layers=17
| accessdate = 2007-06-19 }}</ref>),
Weindorfers Tower ({{Convert|1459|m|ft|0}}<ref name="height2"/>) and Little Horn ({{Convert|1355|m|ft|0|abbr=on|abbr=on}}<ref name="height2"/>)

==Flora==
The area is covered in a wide variety of alpine and sub-alpine vegetation, most notably including the colourful deciduous [[Nothofagus gunnii]] (Deciduous Beech), itself an anomaly given that most Australian native flora is evergreen, and the [[Mesomelaena sphaerocephala]] (Button Grass) which dominates the alpine wet sedgelands. Some plants that grow on the mountain include the mountain buzzy, the heart berry, the alpine strawberry, the [[waratah]], the [[athrotaxis selaginoides|King Billy pine]] and the [[Athrotaxis cupressoides|pencil pine]].

==Access to the Park and region==
There is a parking area at Ronny Creek, the outlet of Lake Dove, which is approximately 7 km from the national park visitors’ centre. A shuttle bus runs between the two.

In addition to getting here by private transport or by hiking on the Overland Track, there are also public bus services from Launceston and Devonport to the Cradle Mountain Visitors Centre. Many tour companies also stop here.

==External links for public transport access==
*[http://www.tigerline.com.au Tassielink] have buses to/from Devonport and Queenstown/Strahan.
*[http://www.mcdermotts.com.au/ McDermott's] run buses between Cradle Mountain and Launceston (not every day)

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links re park==
* [http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/natparks/cradle/ Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Page]
* [http://www.pvv.org/~bct/taz/overland_track.html Photojournal] covering Cradle Mountain as part of The Overland Track
* [http://www.discovertasmania.com/activities__and__attractions/popular_attractions/cradle_mountain-lake_st_clair_national_park Cradle Mountain Tourist Attraction]

[[Category:Central Highlands (Tasmania)]]
[[Category:Mountains of Tasmania]]

[[fr:Mont Cradle]]

Liste ungewöhnlicher Todesfälle

2009-07-22T03:28:33Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 68.193.131.68 to last revision by 76.247.166.197 (HG)

{{Dynamic list}}
This article provides a '''list of unusual deaths''' – unique, or extremely rare circumstances recorded throughout history. The list also includes less rare, but still unusual, deaths of prominent people.

==Antiquity==

{{dablink|'''Note:''' Many of these stories are likely to be [[apocryphal]]}}

*430 BC: '''[[Empedocles]]''', Pre-Socratic philosopher, secretly jumped into an active volcano <ref>Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 67, 69, 70, 71; Horace, ''ad Pison.'' 464, etc.</ref> ([[Mt. Etna]]). According to [[Diogenes Laërtius]], this was to convince the people of his time that he had been taken up by the gods on [[Olympus]].
*272 BC: '''[[Pyrrhus of Epirus]]''', the conqueror and source of the term ''[[pyrrhic victory]]'', according to [[Plutarch]] died while fighting an urban battle in [[Argos]] when an old woman threw a roof tile at him, stunning him and allowing an Argive soldier to kill him.<ref>{{Citation|author=Thornton, W.|year=1968|title=Allusions in Ulysses|publisher= University of North Carolina Press Chapel Hill|isbn=0807840890|oclc=185879476 27859245|page=29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Dof6ABIIfwkC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=Pyrrhus+roof+tile+-wikipedia&source=web&ots=nlAqM0fuOt&sig=zjHi41MkALpzdW39BnC361yVLO4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result}}</ref>
*270 BC: '''[[Philitas of Cos]]''', Greek intellectual, is said by [[Athenaeus of Naucratis]] to have studied false arguments and erroneous word-usage so intensely that he wasted away and starved to death.<ref>[[Athenaeus of Naucratis|Athenaeus]], ''[[Deipnosophistae]]'', [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature.AthV2.p0115 9.401e].</ref> [[Alan Cameron (classical scholar)|Alan Cameron]] speculates that Philitas died from a [[wasting disease]] which his contemporaries joked was caused by his [[pedantry]].<ref>{{cite journal |journal= The Classical Quarterly |volume=41 |issue=2 |year=1991 |pages=534â8 |author=Alan Cameron |title= How thin was Philitas? |doi= 10.1017/S0009838800004717}}</ref>
*207 BC: '''[[Chrysippus]]''', a Greek [[Stoicism|stoic philosopher]], is believed to have [[died of laughter]] after watching his drunk donkey attempt to eat [[fig]]s.<ref>Donaldson, John William and Müller, Karl Otfried. ''A History of the Literature of Ancient Greece''. London: John W. Parker and Son, 1858, p. 27.</ref>
*162 BC: '''[[Eleazar Maccabeus]]''' was crushed to death at the [[Battle of Beth-zechariah]] by a [[War elephant]] that he believed to be carrying [[Seleucid]] King [[Antiochus V]]; charging in to battle, Eleazar rushed underneath the elephant and thrust a spear into its belly, whereupon it fell dead on top of him.<ref>Scullard, H.H ''The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World'' Thames and Hudson. 1974 pg 186</ref>
*53 BC: The Roman general and consul '''[[Crassus|Marcus Licinius Crassus]]''' was reported as having been put to death by the Parthians after losing the battle of Carrhae, by being forced to drink a goblet of molten gold, symbolic of his great wealth<ref>[[Cassius Dio]] 40.27</ref>.
*4 BC: '''[[Herod the Great]]''' reportedly suffered from fever, intense rashes, colon pains, [[foot drop]], inflammation of the abdomen, a [[putrefaction]] of his genitals that produced worms, convulsions, and difficulty breathing before he finally gave up.<ref>Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Book 17, Chapter 6</ref> However, gruesome deaths have often been attributed by various authors to disliked rulers, including several Roman emperors.
*64 - 67: '''[[Saint Peter]]''' was executed by the Romans. According to tradition, he asked not to be [[crucifixion|crucified]] in the normal way, but was instead executed on an [[Cross of St. Peter|inverted cross]].<ref>"Peter, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> According to [[Origen]] of [[Alexandria]], he said he was not worthy to be crucified in the same way as [[Jesus]] was.<ref>{{Citation|title=Catholic Encyclopedia on St. Peter|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11744a.htm}}</ref>
*c. 98: '''[[Saint Antipas]]''', Bishop of Pergamum, was roasted to death in a [[brazen bull]] during the persecutions of Emperor [[Domitian]]. [[Saint Eustace]], as well as his wife and children supposedly suffered a similar fate under [[Hadrian]]. According to legend, the creator of the brazen bull, Perillos of Athens, was the first to be put into the brazen bull when he presented his invention to [[Phalaris]], Tyrant of [[Agrigentum]], but he was taken out before he died.<ref>[http://home.iprimus.com.au/xenos/antipas.html Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, WA]</ref>
*260: [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor '''[[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]''', after being defeated in battle and captured by the [[Sassanid dynasty|Persians]], was supposedly used as a footstool by the King [[Shapur I of Persia|Shapur I]]. After a long period of punishment and humiliation, Shapur is said to have had the emperor skinned alive and his skin stuffed with straw or dung and preserved as a trophy.<ref>[[Lactantius]], ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'', v; Wickert, L., "Licinius (Egnatius) 84" in ''[[Pauly-Wissowa|Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie]]'' 13.1 (1926), 488-495; Parker, H., ''A History of the Roman World A.D. 138 to 337'' (London, 1958), 170. From [http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallval.htm].</ref> However this story is generally considered to be unreliable as it was likely motivated by the [[Lactantius|author's]] will to establish that the persecutors of the Christians as having died fitting deaths<ref name="Fik">{{cite book |author=Meijer, Fik | title=Emperors don't die in bed |publisher=Routledge | location=New York |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=0-415-31202-7 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-02-14}}</ref>; and by other Near East Roman authors' desire to establish the [[Persia]]ns as barbarians<ref name="BI">{{cite book |author=Isaacs, Benjamin |title=The Near East under Roman Rule |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |location=Boston |year= 1996|pages=440 |isbn=90-04-09989-1 |oclc= |doi=
|accessdate=2008-02-14}}</ref>.
*415: '''[[Hypatia of Alexandria]]''', Greek mathematician and philosopher, was murdered by a mob by having her skin ripped off with sharp sea-shells; what remained of her was burned. (Various types of shells have been named: clams, oysters, abalones, ''etc''. Other sources claim tiles or pottery-shards were used.)<ref>[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Hypatia.html Hypatia biography]</ref>


==Middle Ages==
*892: '''[[Sigurd Eysteinsson|Sigurd the Mighty]]''' of Orkney strapped the head of a defeated foe to his leg, the tooth of which grazed against him as he rode his horse, causing the infection which killed him.
*1063: '''[[Béla I of Hungary]]''' died when his throne's canopy collapsed.
*1135: '''[[Henry I of England]]''' is said to have died after gorging on [[lampreys]], his favorite food.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/southerncounties/content/articles/2007/09/18/inside_out_lamprey_feature.shtml "The pre-historic visitors"], ''BBC'', 18 September 2007</ref>
*1219: According to legend, '''[[Inalchuk]]''', the Muslim governor of the Central Asian town of [[Otrar]], was captured and killed by the invading [[Mongols]], who poured molten [[silver]] in his eyes, ears, and throat.<ref name="Man" >{{cite book | author = John Man | title = Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection | publisher = Macmillan | year = 2007 | isbn = 0312366248 | pages = p. 163}}</ref>
*1258: '''[[Al-Musta'sim]]''' was killed during the Mongol invasion of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. [[Hulagu Khan]], not wanting to spill royal blood, wrapped him in a rug and had him trampled to death by his horses.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/magazine/print?query=lamented&id=84&minGrade=&maxGrade= "The Mamluks"], Jame Waterson, ''History Today'', March, 2006</ref>
*1308: '''[[Duns Scotus|John Duns Scotus]]''', [[Franciscan|O.F.M.]] according to an old tradition was [[Premature burial|buried alive]] following his lapse into a coma.
*1322: '''[[Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford]]''' was fatally speared through the [[anus]] by a pikeman hiding under the bridge during the Battle of [[Boroughbridge]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Mortimer|first=Ian|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=The Greatest Traitor|year=2006|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|location=Unknown|id=}} p. 124</ref>
*1327: '''[[Edward II of England]]''', after being deposed and imprisoned by his [[Queen consort]] [[Isabella of France|Isabella]] and her lover [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]], was rumored to have been murdered by having a red-hot iron inserted into his anus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A History of Great Britain: 3000BC-AD1603|year=2000 |publisher=BBC Worldwide |location= London|id= }} p.220</ref>
*1410: '''[[Martin I of Aragon]]''' died from a lethal combination of [[indigestion]] and [[Death from laughter|uncontrollable laughing]].<ref>[http://www.cc.jyu.fi/mirator/pdf/Morris.pdf "Patronage and Piety - Montserrat and the Royal House of Medieval Catalonia-Aragon"], Paul N. Morris, ''Mirator Lokakuu'', October, 2000</ref>
*1478: '''[[George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence|George Plantagenet]]''', [[Duke of Clarence]], was executed by drowning in a barrel of [[Malvasia|Malmsey wine]]<ref>Thompson, C. J. S. ''Mysteries of History with Accounts of Some Remarkable Characters and Charlatans'', pp. 31 ''ff.'' Kila, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2004.</ref> at his own request.

==Renaissance==
*1514: '''[[György Dózsa]]''', [[Székely]] man-at-arms and peasants' revolt leader in Hungary, was condemned to sit on a red-hot iron throne with a red-hot iron crown on his head and a red-hot sceptre in his hand (mocking at his ambition to be king), by Hungarian [[landed nobility]] in Transylvania. While Dózsa was still alive, he was set upon and his partially roasted body was eaten by six of his fellow rebels, who had been starved for a week beforehand.<ref>http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gyorgy_Dozsa György Dózsa, Encylopedia Brittanica, 1911</ref>
*1556: '''[[Humayun]]''', a [[Mughal emperor]], was descending from the roof of his library after observing Venus, when he heard the ''adhan'', or call to prayer. Humayun's practice was to bow his knee when he heard the ''azaan'', and when he did his foot caught the folds of his garment, causing him to fall down several flights. He died 3 days later of the injuries.<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofhumayun00gulbrich Gulbadan Begum, ''The History of Humayun (Humayun-nama)'']. Trans. & ed. Annette Beveridge, Royal Asiatic Soc. (London) 1902 (ISBN 81-215-1006-6) Internet Archive. page 55.</ref>
*1559: '''[[Henry II of France|King Henry II]]''' of France was killed during a [[jousting]] match, when his helmet's soft golden grille gave way to a broken lancetip which pierced his eye and entered his brain.<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henry_II_Of_France Classic Encyclopedia Web, Based on 1911 Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica]</ref>
*1599: '''[[Nanda Bayin]]''', a [[Bamar|Burman]] king, reportedly [[laughed to death]] when informed, by a visiting Italian merchant, that "Venice was a free state without a king."<ref name="Miscellany">{{cite book
|title=Schott's Original Miscellany
|author=Schott, Ben
|location=London | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing
|year=2003
|isbn=0-7475-6320-9
}}</ref>
*1601: '''[[Tycho Brahe]]''', according to legend, died of complications resulting from a strained bladder at a banquet. It would have been extremely bad etiquette to leave the table before the meal was finished, so he stayed until he became fatally ill. This version of events has since been brought into question as other causes of death (murder by [[Johannes Kepler]], [[suicide]], and mercury poisoning among others) have come to the fore.<ref>[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Brahe.html Brahe, Tycho (1546-1601) - from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography]</ref>
*1649: '''[[Arthur Aston (English Army officer)|Sir Arthur Aston]]''', [[Cavalier|Royalist]] commander of the garrison during the [[Siege of Drogheda]], was beaten to death with his own wooden leg, which the [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] soldiers thought concealed golden coins.<ref>[http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/aston.htm British Civil War site]</ref>
*1660: '''[[Thomas Urquhart]]''', [[scottish people|Scottish]] aristocrat, [[polymath]] and first translator of [[François Rabelais|Rabelais]] into English, is said to have died laughing upon hearing that [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] had taken the throne.<ref>{{cite book | title = Rabelais in English Literature | last = Brown | first = Huntington | isbn = 0-714-620-513 | publisher = Routledge | pages = 126 | year = 1968}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = The History of Scottish Poetry | publisher = Edmonston & Douglas | year = 1861 | pages = 539}}</ref>
*1671: '''[[François Vatel]]''', chef to [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], committed suicide because his seafood order was late and he could not stand the shame of a postponed meal. His body was discovered by an aide, sent to tell him of the arrival of the fish. The authenticity of this story is quite questionable.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/65/va/Vatel-Fr.html Bartelby], but it states the authenticity is doubtful.</ref>
*1673: '''[[Moliere#Death|Molière]]''', the French actor and playwright, died after being seized by a violent coughing fit, while playing the title role in his play [[Le Malade imaginaire]] (The Imaginary Invalid).<ref>[http://litmed.med.nyu.edu/Annotation?action=view&annid=1420 "Moliere,: The Imaginary Invalid"], ''NYU Literature, Arts, and Medicine Database'', 23 October 2003</ref>
*1687: '''[[Jean-Baptiste Lully]]''', [[composer]], died of a [[gangrene|gangrenous]] [[abscess]] after piercing his foot with a staff while he was vigorously conducting a ''[[Te Deum]]'', as it was customary at that time to conduct by banging a staff on the floor. The performance was to celebrate the king's recovery from an illness.<ref>[http://www.vanderbilt.edu/htdocs/Blair/Courses/MUSL243/lullbio.htm Biography of Jean-Baptiste Lully], ''Vanderbilt University''</ref>

==18th century==
*1751: '''[[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]]''', the author of ''L'Homme machine'', a major materialist and sensualist philosopher died of overeating at a feast given in his honor. His philosophical adversaries suggested that by doing so, he had contradicted his theoretical doctrine with the effect of his practical actions.<ref>[http://www.bookrags.com/biography/julien-offray-de-la-mettrie/ Julien Offray de La Mettrie Biography] ''Encyclopedia of World Biography''</ref>
*1753: Professor '''[[Georg Wilhelm Richmann]]''', of [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]], became the first recorded person to be killed while performing electrical experiments when he was struck and killed by a globe of [[ball lightning]]. <ref>[http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-59/iss-1/p42.html Benjamin Franklin and Lightning Rods] ''Physics Today'', January 2006</ref>
*1771: '''[[Adolf Frederick of Sweden|Adolf Frederick]]''', king of [[Sweden]], died of digestion problems on 12 February 1771 after having consumed a meal consisting of [[lobster]], [[caviar]], [[sauerkraut]], smoked [[herring]] and [[Champagne (wine)|champagne]], topped off with 14 servings of his favourite [[dessert]]: [[semla]] served in a bowl of hot [[milk]].<ref>[http://www.thelocal.se/6470/20070220/ The lowdown on Sweden's best buns] ''The Local'', February 2007</ref> He is thus remembered by Swedish schoolchildren as "the king who ate himself to death."<ref>[http://www.messengernews.net/page/content.detail/id/503630.html?nav=5007 Semlor are Swedish treat for Lent] Sandy Mickelson, ''The Messenger'', 27 February 2008</ref>
*1794: '''[[John Kendrick (American sea captain)|John Kendrick]]''', an American sea captain and explorer, was killed in the [[Hawaii|Hawaiian Islands]] when a British ship mistakenly used a loaded cannon to fire a salute to Kendrick's vessel.<ref>[http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=1983] "John Kendrick," ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''</ref>

==Modern Age==
===19th century===
*1814: '''[[London Beer Flood]]''', 9 people were killed when 323,000 imperial gallons (1 468 000 L) of beer in the Meux and Company Brewery burst out of their vats and gushed into the streets.
*1830: '''[[William Huskisson]]''', statesman and financier, was crushed to death by the world's first mechanically powered passenger train ([[Stephenson's Rocket]]), at its public opening.<ref>[http://www.lmu.livjm.ac.uk/lhol/content.aspx?itemid=329 "Huskisson, William"], ''International Centre for Digital Content'', 17 January 2003</ref>
*1834: '''[[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]]''', [[Scottish people|Scottish]] [[botanist]], fell into a pit trap accompanied by a bull. He was gored and possibly crushed.<ref>[http://www.life.umd.edu/emeritus/reveal/PBIO/LnC/douglas.html University of Maryland]: The source is uncertain if the bull fell in before or after him.</ref>
*1862: '''[[Jim Creighton]]''', baseball player, died when he swung a bat too hard and ruptured his bladder.
*1868: '''[[Matthew Vassar]]''', brewer and founder of [[Vassar College]], died in mid-speech while delivering his [[Farewell speech|farewell address]] to the College [[Trustee|Board of Trustees]].<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B0CE5DA1230EE34BC4C51DFB0668383679FDE "VASSAR COLLEGE.; Sudden Death of Matthew Vassar, Founder of the Institution, While Reading the Annual Address."], ''The New York Times'', 24 June 1868</ref>
*1871: '''[[Clement Vallandigham]]''', U.S. Congressman and political opponent of [[Abraham Lincoln]], died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound suffered in court while representing the defendant in a murder case. Demonstrating how the murder victim could have inadvertently shot himself, the gun, which Vallandigham believed to be unloaded, discharged and mortally wounded him. His demonstration was successful, however; the defendant was acquitted.
*1897: '''[[Salomon August Andrée]], [[Knut Fraenkel]]''' and '''[[Nils Strindberg]]''' died in October 1897 at Kvitöya (White Island) (located to the northeast of [[Svalbard]]) where they had arrived after a failed attempt to reach the North Pole in a balloon. Their deaths might have been due to exhaustion, but also could have been due to eating insufficiently cooked polar bear meat causing [[trichinosis]], or carbon monoxide poisoning from the miniature kerosene stove when snow made it difficult to air out the fumes.<ref>[http://www.aviation-history.com/airmen/andree.htm "Solomon August Andree - Sweden"], ''True Magazine through Aviation-History.com'', August, 1962</ref>

===20th century===
*1912: '''[[Franz Reichelt]]''', tailor, fell to his death off the first deck of the Eiffel Tower while testing his invention, the coat [[parachute]]. It was his first ever attempt with the parachute and he had told the authorities in advance he would test it first with a dummy.<ref>[http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=321 Damn Interesting » The Intrepid, Ill-Fated Parachutist]</ref>
*1916: '''[[Grigori Rasputin]]''', Russian [[mystic]], was reportedly poisoned while dining with a political enemy, shot in the head, shot three more times, bludgeoned, and then thrown into a frozen river. When his body washed ashore, an autopsy showed the cause of death to be [[hypothermia]]. However, there is now some doubt about the credibility of this account. Another account said that he was poisoned, shot, and stabbed, at which time he got up and ran off - and was later found to have drowned in a frozen river.<ref>[http://history1900s.about.com/od/famouscrimesscandals/a/rasputin.htm Murder of Rasputin]</ref>
*1918: '''[[Gustav Kobbé]]''', writer and musicologist, was killed when the sailboat he was on was struck by a landing seaplane off Long Island, N.Y.<ref name="Obit">[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B02E0D8143EE433A2575BC2A9619C946996D6CF "Hydroplane Kills Kobbe in his Boat; Naval Pilot Unaware He Had Struck Art Critic's Craft."] ''[[New York Times]]''. 28 July 1918. p. 1. Accessed 30 January 2008.</ref>
*1919: In the '''[[Boston Molasses Disaster]]''', 21 people were killed and 150 were injured when a tank containing as much as 2,300,000 US gal (8 700 000 L) of molasses exploded, sending a wave traveling at approximately 35 mph (56 km/h) through part of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States]]. Most fatalities and injuries were caused by the concussive force of the blast or by asphyxiation as victims failed to swim free of the viscous molasses and drowned. <ref name="[[Boston Molasses Disaster]]">{{cite book | last=Puleo | first=Stephen | title=Dark Tide: The Great Boston Molasses Flood of 1919 | publisher= [[Beacon Press]]| location=Boston, Massachusetts | year = 2004|isbn=0-8070-5021-0 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/molasses.asp The Great Molassas Flood] at Snopes.com.</ref>
*1920: '''[[Dan Andersson]]''', a Swedish author, died of cyanide poisoning while staying at Hotel Hellman in [[Stockholm]], because the hotel staff had failed to clear the room after using hydrogen cyanide against bedbugs.
*1923: '''[[Martha Mansfield]]''', an American film actress, died after sustaining severe burns on the set of the film ''The Warrens of Virginia'' after a smoker's match, tossed by a cast member, ignited her Civil War costume of hoopskirts and ruffles.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0543806/bio Martha Mansfield (I) - Biography]</ref>
*1923: '''[[George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon]]''', became the first to die from the alleged [[Curse of the Pharaohs|King Tut's Curse]] after a mosquito bite on his face became seriously infected with [[erysipelas]], which he cut while shaving, leading to blood poisoning and eventually pneumonia.<ref>[http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/carnarvon.htm The Life of Lord Carnarvon]</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Carnarvon Is Dead Of An Insect's Bite At Pharaoh's Tomb. Blood Poisoning and Ensuing Pneumonia Conquer Tut-ankh-Amen Discoverer in Egypt. |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20C11F7355416738DDDAC0894DC405B838EF1D3 |quote=The Earl of Carnarvon died peacefully at 2 o'clock this morning. He was conscious almost to the end. |work=[[New York Times]] |date=April 5, 1923 |accessdate=2008-08-12 }}</ref>
*1925: '''[[Zishe Breitbart|Zishe (Siegmund) Breitbart]]''', a circus strongman and Jewish folklore hero, died as a result of a demonstration in which he drove a spike through five one-inch (2.54 cm) thick oak boards using only his bare hands. He accidentally pierced his knee. The spike was rusted and caused an infection which led to fatal blood poisoning. He was the subject of the [[Werner Herzog]] film, ''[[Invincible (2001 film)|Invincible]]''.<ref>[http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/Breitbart/breitbart-index.htm Siegmund Breitbart]</ref>
*1927: '''[[J.G. Parry-Thomas]]''', a [[Welsh people|Welsh]] racing driver, was decapitated by his car's drive chain which, under stress, snapped and whipped into the cockpit. He was attempting to break his own [[land speed record]] which he had set the previous year. Despite being killed in the attempt, he succeeded in setting a new record of 171 mph (275 km/h).<ref>Reynolds, Barbara. ''Dorothy L. Sayers: her life and soul'', p. 162. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.</ref>
*1927: '''[[Isadora Duncan]]''', [[dancer]], died of a [[cervical fracture|broken neck]] when one of the long [[scarf|scarves]] she was known for caught on the wheel of a [[automobile|car]] in which she was a passenger.<ref>[http://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/page.asp?RelNum=6970 UCLA newsroom]</ref>
*1928: '''[[Alexander Bogdanov]]''', a Russian physician, died following one of his experiments, in which the blood of a student suffering from [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]], L. I. Koldomasov, was given to him in a transfusion.<ref>Bogdanov, Alexander (tr. & ed. Douglas W. Huestis). ''The Struggle for Viability: Collectivism Through Blood Exchange'', p. 7. Tinicum, PA: Xlibris Corporation, 2002.</ref>
*1930: '''William Kogut''', an inmate on death row at [[San Quentin]], decided to commit suicide using only the rudimentary tools available to him in his prison cell. He began by tearing up several packs of playing cards, giving particular focus to obtaining pieces with red ink (at the time, the ink in red playing cards contained [[nitrocellulose]], which is flammable and when wet can create an explosive mixture), and stuffed them into a pipe. He then plugged one end of the pipe firmly with a broom handle and poured water into the other end to soak the card pieces. He then placed the pipe on a kerosene heater next to his bed and placed the open end firmly against his head. The heater turned the water into steam and eventually enough pressure built up inside the pipe so that when it burst, the explosion shot out bits of playing cards with enough force to penetrate Kogut's skull, killing him. In a suicide note, Kogut stated that he and he alone should punish himself for his crimes.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/kogut.asp Death by Playing Cards - Solitaire] at Snopes.com.</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencepunk.com/2007/09/the-ingenious-suicide-of-william-vogut/ The ingenious suicide of William Kogut] at SciencePunk.com, September 10, 2007.</ref>
*1932: '''[[Eben Byers]]''' died of [[radiation poisoning]] after having consumed large quantities of a popular patent medicine containing [[radium]].<ref>[http://www.clpgh.org/exhibit/neighborhoods/northside/nor_n106.html]</ref>
*1933: '''[[Michael Malloy]]''', a homeless man, was murdered by gassing after surviving multiple poisonings, intentional exposure, and being struck by a car. Malloy was murdered by five men in a plot to collect on [[life insurance]] policies they had purchased.<ref>{{cite book |last=Read |first=Simon |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bizarre Killing of Michael Malloy |year=2005 |publisher=Penguin Book Group |location= |id= }}</ref>
*1935: Baseball player '''[[Len Koenecke]]''' was bludgeoned to death with a fire extinguisher by the crew of an aircraft he had chartered, after provoking a fight with the pilot while the plane was in the air.<ref>[http://www.thedeadballera.com/Obits/Koenecke.Len.Obit.html TheDeadballEra.com :: LEN KOENECKE'S OBIT]</ref>
*1939: Finnish actress '''[[:fi:Sirkka Sari|Sirkka Sari]]''' died when she fell down a chimney. She was at a cast party celebrating the completion of a movie, her third and last. She mistook a chimney for a balcony and fell into a heating boiler, dying instantly.<ref>http://koti.mbnet.fi/basil/nest/allmovies.txt</ref><ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OsU_7bTkpNw YouTube - Sirkka Sarin kuolema]</ref>
*1940: Jamaican-born journalist and black nationalist '''[[Marcus Garvey]]''' died after suffering either a cerebral haemorrhage or a heart attack while reading [[List of premature obituaries|his own obituary]], which stated in part that he died "broke, alone and unpopular".<ref name="Garvey" >[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/garvey/filmmore/pt.html ''Marcus Garvey: Look for Me in the Whirlwind''], [[PBS]] documentary (transcript). Last accessed on December 3, 2007.</ref>
*1941: '''[[Sherwood Anderson]]''', writer, swallowed a [[toothpick]] at a party and then died of [[peritonitis]].<ref>[http://athena.english.vt.edu/~appalach/writersA/anderson.html Virginia Tech article]</ref>
*1943: Critic '''[[Alexander Woollcott]]''' suffered a fatal heart attack during an on-air discussion about [[Adolf Hitler]].<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A662230 BBC]</ref>
*1944: Inventor and chemist '''[[Thomas Midgley, Jr.]]''' accidentally strangled himself with the cord of a [[pulley]]-operated mechanical bed of his own design.<ref>[[Bill Bryson|Bryson, Bill]]. ''[[A Short History of Nearly Everything]]''. (2003) Broadway Books, USA. ISBN 0-385-66004-9</ref>
*1945: Scientist '''[[Harry K. Daghlian, Jr.]]''' accidentally dropped a brick of [[tungsten carbide]] onto a sphere of [[plutonium]] while working on the [[Manhattan Project]]. This caused the plutonium to come to criticality; Daghlian died of radiation poisoning, becoming the first person to die in a [[criticality accident]].<ref>[http://www.mphpa.org/classic/FH/LA/Harry_Daghlian.htm Harry K. Daghlian - 1 of 1]</ref>
*1946: '''[[Louis Slotin]]''', chemist and physicist, died of radiation poisoning after being exposed to lethal amounts of ionizing radiation. He died in a very similar way as [[Harry K. Daghlian, Jr.]], from dropping a block of material on the same sphere of plutonium by accident. The sphere of plutonium was nicknamed the [[Demon core]].<ref>http://hhs55.com/slotin.html</ref>
*1947: '''The [[Collyer brothers]]''', extreme cases of [[compulsive hoarding|compulsive hoarders]], were found dead in their home in New York. The younger brother, Langley, died by falling victim to a booby trap he had set up, causing a mountain of objects, books, and newspapers to fall on him crushing him to death. His blind brother, Homer, who had depended on Langley for care, died of starvation some days later. Their bodies were recovered after massive efforts in removing many tons of debris from their home.<ref>[http://www.trivia-library.com/c/biography-of-hermits-of-harlem-homer-and-langley-collyer.htm Biography of Hermits of Harlem Homer and Langley Collyer - Trivia-Library.com]</ref>
*1955: '''[[Margo Jones]]''', theater director, was killed by exposure to [[carbon tetrachloride]] fumes from her newly cleaned carpet.<ref>[http://www.margojones.org/aboutMargo/timeline.lasso Sweet Tornado: Margo Jones and the American Theater]</ref>
*1958: '''[[Gareth Jones (actor)|Gareth Jones]]''', actor, collapsed and died while in make-up between scenes of a [[live television]] play, ''Underground'', at the studios of [[Associated British Corporation]] in [[Manchester]]. Director [[Ted Kotcheff]] continued the play to its conclusion, improvising around Jones' absence.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0428099/bio Gareth Jones (VI) - Biography]</ref>
*1959: In the '''[[Dyatlov Pass incident]]''', Nine ski hikers in the [[Ural Mountains]] abandoned their camp in the middle of the night in apparent terror, some clad only in their underwear despite sub-zero weather. Six of the hikers died of hypothermia and three by unexplained fatal injuries. Though the corpses showed no signs of struggle, one victim had a fatal skull fracture, two had major chest fractures (comparable in force to a car accident), and one was missing her tongue. The victims' clothing also contained high levels of radiation. Soviet investigators determined only that "a compelling unknown force" had caused the deaths, barring entry to the area for years thereafter.<ref name="osadchuk">{{cite news
| url = http://www.sptimes.ru/story/25093
| title = Mysterious Deaths of 9 Skiers Still Unresolved
| author = Svetlana Osadchuk
| publisher = [[St. Petersburg Times (Russia)|St. Petersburg Times]]
| accessdate = 2008-02-28
| date = [[February 19]], [[2008]]
}}</ref>
*1960: In the '''[[Nedelin disaster]]''', over 100 Soviet [[rocket|missile]] technicians and officials died when a switch was turned on unintentionally igniting the rocket, including [[Red Army]] Marshal Nedelin who was seated in a deck chair just 40 meters away overseeing launch preparations. The events were filmed by automatic cameras.<ref>[http://www.russianspaceweb.com/r16_disaster.html Nedelin disaster]</ref>
*1960: '''[[Inejiro Asanuma]]''', 61, the head of the [[Japanese Socialist Party]], was stabbed to death with a [[wakizashi]] sword by extreme rightist [[Otoya Yamaguchi]] during a televised political rally. Yamaguchi was immediately arrested and later committed suicide.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,711952,00.html Assassin's Apologies], ''Time'' magazine, 14 November, 1960.</ref>
*1961: '''[[Valentin Bondarenko]]''', a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[cosmonaut]] trainee, died from shock after suffering [[third-degree burn]]s over much of his body due to a [[flash fire]] in the pure [[oxygen]] environment of a training simulator. This incident was not revealed outside of the Soviet Union until the 1980s.<ref>Oberg, James, ''Uncovering Soviet Disasters'', [http://www.jamesoberg.com/usd10.html Chapter 10: Dead Cosmonauts], pp 156-176, Random house, New York, 1988, retrieved 8 January 2008</ref>
*1963: '''[[Thích Quảng Đức]]''', a Vietnamese Buddhist monk, sat down in the middle of a busy intersection in [[Saigon]], covered himself in gasoline, and lit himself on fire, burning himself to death. Đức was protesting President [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm's]] administration for oppressing the [[Buddhist]] religion.<ref>[http://everything2.com/title/Thich%2520Quang%2520Duc Thich Quang Duc@Everything2.com]</ref>
*1966: '''Worth Bingham''', son of [[Barry Bingham, Sr.]], died when a [[surfboard]], lying atop the back of his convertible, hit a parked car, swung around, and broke his neck.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/04/business/media/04bingham.html?pagewanted=2&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/M/McFadden,%20Robert%20D.%20Jr.
|title=Barry Bingham Jr., Louisville Publisher, Is Dead at 72
|author=
|publisher=The New York Times
|date=4 April 2006
}}</ref>
*1967: '''[[Gus Grissom]]''', '''[[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]]''', and '''[[Roger B. Chaffee]]''', NASA astronauts, died when a [[flash fire]] began in their pure [[oxygen]] environment during a training exercise inside the unlaunched [[Apollo 1]] spacecraft. The spacecraft's escape hatch could not be opened during the fire because it was designed to seal shut under pressure.<ref>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/grissom-vi.html Astronaut Bio: Virgil I. Grissom]</ref>
*1967: Cosmonaut '''[[Vladimir Mikhaylovich Komarov|Vladimir Komarov]]''' became the first person to die during a space mission after the parachute of [[Soyuz 1|his capsule]] failed to deploy following re-entry.<ref>[http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2007/04/dayintech_0424 24 April 1967: Last Day in the Life of Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov]</ref>
*1970: '''[[Yukio Mishima]]''', award-winning Japanese [[playwright]] and [[novelist]], committed [[seppuku]] after failing to inspire a [[coup d'état]] at the headquarters of the [[Japanese Self-Defence Forces]] in [[Tokyo]].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Ross
| first = Christopher
| title = Mishima's Sword: In Search of a Samurai Legend
| publisher = Harper Perennial
| year=2006
| location = London
| pages = 234–238
}}</ref>
*1971: '''[[Jerome Irving Rodale]]''', an American pioneer of [[organic farming]], died of a heart attack while being interviewed on ''[[The Dick Cavett Show]]''. According to [[urban legend]], when he appeared to fall asleep, Cavett quipped "Are we boring you, Mr. Rodale?"<ref>http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/onstage.htm</ref>. Cavett says this is incorrect; the initial response was fellow guest [[Pete Hamill]] saying in a low voice to Cavett, "This looks bad."<ref>http://donkeyod.wordpress.com/2007/05/04/when-that-guy-died-on-my-show/ Reprint of NYT article by Cavett</ref> The show was never broadcast.
*1972: '''[[Leslie Harvey]]''', guitarist of [[Stone the Crows]], was electrocuted on stage by a live microphone.<ref>[http://elvispelvis.com/electrocuted.htm Electrocuted Page in Fuller Up, Dead Musician Directory]</ref>
*1973: '''[[Bruce Lee]]''', an American martial artist and actor, is thought to have died by a severe allergic reaction to [[Equagesic]]. His brain had swollen about 13%. His autopsy was written as "death by misadventure."<ref>{{cite book
| last = Thomas
| first = Bruce
| title = Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit : a Biography
| publisher = Frog LTD.
| year=1994
| location = Berkeley, California
| pages = 209
}}</ref>
*1974: '''[[Christine Chubbuck]]''', an American television [[news reporter]], committed suicide during a live broadcast on 15 July. At 9:38 AM, 8 minutes into her talk show, on WXLT-TV in [[Sarasota]], [[Florida]], she drew out a revolver and shot herself in the head.<ref name="dietz">Dietz, Jon. "On-Air Shot Kills TV Personality", ''Sarasota Herald-Tribune'', 16 July 1974.</ref>
*1974: '''Deborah Gail Stone''', 18, an employee at [[Disneyland Park|Disneyland]] in [[Anaheim, California]], was crushed to death between a moving wall and a stationary wall inside of the revolving [[America Sings]] attraction. <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.mouseplanet.com/david/dk040708.htm |title=Why we'll never forget the tragedy of 30 years ago today |accessdate=2007-07-24 |last=Koenig |first=David |work=MousePlanet }}</ref>
*1975: Physicist and businessman '''[[Kip Siegel]]''' died of a stroke while testifying before a US Congressional subcommittee.<ref>[http://www.eecs.umich.edu/RADLAB/html/LABHISTORY.html Lab History]</ref>

*1975: '''[[Bandō Mitsugorō VIII]]''', a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] kabuki actor, died of severe poisoning when he ate four [[fugu]] livers (also known as [[pufferfish]]). The liver is considered one of the most poisonous parts of the fish, but Mitsugorō claimed to be immune to the poison. The fugu chef felt he could not refuse Mitsugorō and lost his license as a result.<ref>[http://kabuki21.com/mitsugoro8.php Bandô Mitsugorô Viii]</ref>
*1976: '''[[Keith Relf]]''', former singer for British [[rhythm and blues]] band [[The Yardbirds]], died while practicing his electric guitar. He was electrocuted because the amplifier was not properly grounded.<ref>[http://www.elvispelvis.com/electrocuted.htm Electrocuted Page in Fuller Up, Dead Musician Directory]</ref>
*1977: '''[[Tom Pryce]]''' ([[Formula One]] driver) and '''[[Jansen Van Vuuren]]''' (a [[track marshal]]) both died at the [[1977 South African Grand Prix]] after Van Vuuren ran across the track beyond a blind brow to attend to another car which had caught fire and was struck by Pryce's car at approximately 170 mph (274 km/h). Pryce was struck in the face by the marshal's [[fire extinguisher]] and was killed instantly.<ref name="Tom Pryce death">{{cite book |last=Tremayne |first= David|authorlink=David Tremayne |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Lost Generation |origdate= |origyear= 2006 |origmonth=August|url= |format= |accessdate=2007-01-05 |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |date= |year= 2006|month= |publisher= Haynes Publishing|location= |isbn=1-84425-205-1 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter=Chapter 19 - A Moment Of Desperate Sadness|chapterurl= |quote=}}</ref>
*1978: '''[[Georgi Markov]]''', a [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] dissident, was assassinated in [[London]] with a specially [[Bulgarian umbrella|modified umbrella]] that fired a metal pellet with a small cavity full of [[ricin]] into his calf.
*1978: '''[[Janet Parker]]''', a British medical photographer, died of [[smallpox]] in 1978, ten months after the disease was eradicated in the wild, when a researcher at the laboratory Parker worked at accidentally released some virus into the air of the building. She is believed to be the last smallpox fatality in history.<ref>[http://www.qmul.ac.uk/news/newsrelease.php?news_id=18 Twenty five years on: Smallpox revisited Queen Mary, University of London]</ref>
*1978: '''[[Claude François]]''', a French pop singer, was electrocuted when he tried to change a light bulb while standing in his bathtub which was full of water at the time.<ref>[http://www.rfimusique.com/siteEn/biographie/biographie_6147.asp RFI Musique - - Biography - Claude FRANÇOIS]</ref>
*1978: '''[[Kurt Gödel]]''', the Austrian/American mathematician, died of starvation when his wife was hospitalized. Gödel suffered from extreme paranoia and refused to eat food prepared by anyone else. He was 65 pounds (approx. 30 kg) when he died. His death certificate reported that he died of "malnutrition and [[inanition]] caused by personality disturbance" in Princeton Hospital on January 14, 1978.<ref>Toates, Frederick; Olga Coschug Toates (2002). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Practical Tried-and-Tested Strategies to Overcome OCD. Class Publishing, 221. ISBN 978-1859590690. </ref>
*1979: '''[[Robert Williams (robot fatality)|Robert Williams]]''', a worker at a Ford Motor Co. plant, was the first known human to be killed by a robot,<ref name="rlid" >Robot firm liable in death, Tim Kiska, ''The Oregonian'', 11 August 1983. See [http://fusionanomaly.net/threelawsofrobotics.html ROBOT FIRM LIABLE IN DEATH].</ref> after the arm of a one-ton factory robot hit him in the head.
*1979: '''John Bowen''', a 20-year-old of [[Nashua, New Hampshire]] was attending a halftime show at a football game at [[Shea Stadium]] on December 9, 1979. During an event which featured novelty and custom-made remote control flying machines, a 40-pound model plane shaped like a lawnmower accidentally dived into the stands with its sharp blades striking Bowen and another spectator and causing severe head injuries. While the other spectator survived, Bowen died in hospital four days later.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/lawnmower.asp Flying Lawnmower Death - Grim Reaper] at snopes.com. (contains additional references).</ref><ref>[http://www.courant.com/ny-spsmain28112329894sep28,0,3404154.story It was a grand stage for excitement] by Joe Gergen, Hartford Courant, September 28, 2008.</ref>
*1981: '''David Allen Kirwan''' a 24-year-old attempted to rescue a friend's dog after it fell into Celestine Pool, a [[hot spring]] at [[Yellowstone National Park]] on July 20, 1981. Despite numerous shouts from bystanders, Kirwan dove headfirst into the pool but was unable to save the dog. After managing to swin back to shore, he was helped out of pool, where his injuries became apparent - the exposure to the 200oF (93oC) water of the hot spring resulted in third-degree burns to 100% of his body and had also blinded him. After being led to the sidewalk, Kirwan reportedly stated: "That was stupid. How bad am I? That was a stupid thing I did." When one of Kirwan's shoes was removed, all of the skin came off with it. He died the next day at a [[Salt Lake City]] hospital. Although there have been at least 19 deaths due to scalding at the Yellowstone, this was the only known case where someone died after deliberately jumping into one of the park's hot springs.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/hotspring.asp Hot Springs Death - Help Springs Eternal] at Snopes.com</ref><ref>Lee Whittlesey, ''Death in Yellowstone: Accidents and Foolhardiness in the First National Park''. Boulder, Colo. : Roberts Rinehart Publishers, ©1995.</ref>
*1981: American photographer '''[[Carl McCunn]]''' paid a bush pilot to drop him at a remote lake near the Coleen River in [[Alaska]] in March to photograph wildlife, but failed to confirm arrangements for the pilot to pick him up again in August. Rather than starve, McCunn shot himself in the head. His body was found in February 1982.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEED61638F93AA25751C1A964948260&sec=health&spon=&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink|title=LEFT IN WILDS, MAN PENNED DYING RECORD|date=December 19, 1982|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=2008-11-23}}</ref>
*1981: '''[[Boris Sagal]]''', a film director, died while shooting the TV miniseries ''[[World War III (TV miniseries)|World War III]]'' when he walked into the tail rotor blade of a helicopter and was decapitated. <ref>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40911FE3E5C0C778EDDAC0894D9484D81 BORIS SAGAL, 58, MOVIE DIRECTOR, DIES AFTER A HELICOPTER ACCIDENT - Free Preview - The New York Times]</ref>
*1981: '''Jeff Dailey''', a 19-year-old gamer, became the first known person to die while playing [[video game]]s. After achieving a score of 16,660 in the [[arcade game]] [[Berzerk]], he succumbed to a massive heart attack. A year later, an 18-year-old gamer died after achieving high scores in the same game.<ref>[http://www.arcade-history.com/index.php?page=detail&id=236 berzerk, video game at arcade-history]</ref>
*1981: '''[[Kenji Urada]]''', a Japanese factory worker was killed by a malfunctioning robot he was working on at a [[Kawasaki]] plant in Japan. The robot's arm pushed him into a grinding machine, killing him.<ref name="a" >[http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7001829 Trust me, I'm a robot], ''The Economist'', [[June 8]], [[2006]]; accessed online 6-III-2007.</ref>
*1982: '''[[Vic Morrow]]''', actor, was [[decapitation|decapitated]] by a [[helicopter]] blade during filming of ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]''. Two child actors, Myca Dinh Le (who was decapitated) and Renee Shin-Yi Chen (who was crushed), also died.<ref>[http://www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/not_guilty/twilight_zone/1.html The Twilight Zone Tragedy - Crime Library on truTV.com]</ref>
*1982: '''[[Vladimir Smirnov (fencer)|Vladimir Smirnov]]''', an [[1980 Summer Olympics|Olympic champion]] [[Fencing (sport)|fencer]], died of [[brain damage]] nine days after his opponent's [[Foil (sword)|foil]] snapped during a match, penetrated his mask, pierced his eyeball and entered his brain.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,925598,00.html TIME]</ref>
*1982: '''James Joseph Suchochi''' was killed near [[Lake Pleasant Regional Park|Lake Pleasant]], [[Arizona]] while shooting at [[Cacti]] for fun with his shotgun. After firing several shots at a 26ft (8m) tall [[Saguaro Cactus]] from extremely close range, a 4ft limb of the Cactus that was weakened by the gunfire detached and fell on him, crushing him with enough force to cause lethal injuries.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/saguaro.asp Cactus Courageous - Death by Saguaro] at Snopes.com.</ref><ref>[http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/content/printVersion/160293 Whem Cactus and Civilization collide - Trifling with Saguaros can be Hazardous to one's Health] by Dave Walker, Phoenix New Times News, March 3, 1993 (retrieved on May 19, 2009).</ref>
*1983: '''Richard Wertheim''', a linesman at the boys' singles finals in the US open, was struck by a ball hit by a young [[Stefan Edberg]]. He toppled backwards off his chair fracturing his skull as he hit the ground. <ref name="Sporting Life"> [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/08/06/1060145730518.html "Sporting Life"] Accessed 28 January 2007.</ref>
*1983: '''Four divers and a tender''' were killed on the [[Byford Dolphin]] semi-submersible, when a decompression chamber [[Explosive decompression|explosively decompressed]] from 9 [[Atmosphere (unit)|atm]] to 1 atm in a fraction of a second. The diver nearest the chamber opening literally exploded just before his remains were ejected through a 24in (60 cm) opening. The other divers' remains showed signs of boiled blood, unusually strong [[rigor mortis]], large amounts of gas in the blood vessels, and scattered hemorrhages in the soft tissues.<ref>Giertsen, J.C. et al., "An Explosive Decompression Accident", The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 9(2):91-101, 1988.</ref>
*1983: '''[[Sergei Chalibashvili]]''', a professional [[Diving|diver]], died after a diving accident during the [[1983 Summer Universiade]] in [[Edmonton, Alberta]], Canada. When he attempted a three-and-a-half reverse [[somersault]] in the tuck position from the ten meter platform, he smashed his head on the platform and was knocked unconscious. He died after being in a [[coma]] for a week.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,954031,00.html?promoid=googlep TIME]</ref>
*1983: American author '''[[Tennessee Williams]]''' died when he choked on an eyedrop bottle cap in his room at the Hotel Elysee in New York. He would routinely place the cap in his mouth, lean back, and place his eyedrops in each eye. Williams' lack of gag response may have been due to the effects of drugs and alcohol abuse.<ref>[http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=MH&s_site=miami&p_multi=MH&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB35B891D6D7E0F&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM Search Results]</ref>
*1984:'''[[Tommy Cooper]]''', British slapstick comedian died of a heart attack while performing live on national television. The audience continued to laugh as he lay collapsed on the stage, thinking it was part of the act. Following the principle that the show must go on, his body was left on the stage, hastily curtained off, and while attempts were made to revive him the other actors continued the act on the small part of the set which remained.
*1984: '''[[Jon-Erik Hexum]]''', an American television actor, died after he shot himself in the head with a prop gun during a break in filming, playing [[Russian Roulette]] using a [[revolver]] loaded with a single [[blank cartridge]]. Hexum apparently was not informed that blanks have gunpowder that explodes into gas with enough force to cause severe injury or death if the weapon is fired as [[contact shot]]. This is the principle that gives a [[powerhead]] its lethality.
*1986: Over 1,700 people were killed almost instantly near [[Lake Nyos]] in [[Cameroon]] when a mass of approximately 100 million cubic metres of [[carbon dioxide]] that had collected at the bottom of the lake due to seepage from geothermal sources was suddenly released on August 21, 1986. The gas cloud immediately settled (carbon dioxide is heavier than air) and covered an area of up to 12 miles (20 km) from the lake, killing all oxygen-breathing life almost instantly - although the nearby vegetation, which consumes carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, flourished afterwards.<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21/newsid_3380000/3380803.stm|title=21 August: 1986: Hundreds gassed in Cameroon lake disaster|publisher=[[BBC]]|author=BBC contributors|accessdate=May 20, 2009}}</ref>
*1987: '''[[Budd Dwyer]]''', the State Treasurer of Pennsylvania, committed [[suicide]] during a televised [[press conference]] in [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]]. Facing a potential 55-year jail sentence for alleged involvement in a [[Conspiracy (crime)|conspiracy]], Dwyer shot himself in the mouth with a [[revolver]].
*1988: '''C.B. Lansing''' on [[Aloha Airlines Flight 243]], flight attendant was sucked out of an airliner when the bulkhead tore off in mid flight.
*1991: '''Edward Juchniewicz''', a 76-year-old man, was killed when the ambulance stretcher he was strapped to rolled down a grade and overturned. The ambulance attendants, while speaking to a doctor's staff, had left the stretcher unattended. Juchniewicz suffered a head injury and died a short time later.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/medical/emergent/gurney.asp The Runaway Gurney] at Snopes.com.</ref>
*1992: American "survivalist" '''[[Christopher McCandless]]''' died of [[starvation]] near [[Denali National Park]] after a few months trying to live off the land in the Alaskan wilderness. His life and death were researched by [[Jon Krakauer]], who then wrote the novel [[Into the Wild]] which was later turned into a [[Into the Wild (film)|movie]].
*1993: Actor '''[[Brandon Lee]]''', son of [[Bruce Lee]], was shot and killed by [[Michael Massee]] using a prop [[.44 Magnum]] gun while filming the movie ''[[The Crow (film)|The Crow]]''. A cartridge with only a primer and a bullet was fired in the pistol before the fatal scene; this caused a [[squib load]], in which the primer provided enough force to push the bullet out of the cartridge and into the barrel of the revolver, where it became stuck. The malfunction went unnoticed by the crew, and the same gun was used again later to shoot the death scene. His death was not instantly recognized by the crew or other actors; they believed he was still acting.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/movies/actors/brandonlee.asp snopes.com: Brandon Lee's Death in 'The Crow']</ref>
*1993: '''[[Garry Hoy]]''', a 38-year old lawyer and a senior partner at the Holden Day Wilson Law firm in [[Toronto, Canada]], fell to his death on July 9, 1993, after he threw himself against a window on the 24th floor of the [[Toronto-Dominion Centre]] in an attempt to prove to a group of visiting Law Students that the glass was "unbreakable." His first attempt failed to damage the glass at all, but on his second attempt he broke through the glass and he fell over 300 feet to his death.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/window.asp Window Test Death - Through a Glass, Quickly] at Snopes.com</ref><ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20070315.RGOODMAN15/TPStory/? Goodman and Carr falls prey to rivals] by Jacquie McNish, The Globe and Mail, March 15, 2007.</ref>
*1993: '''Michael A. Shingledecker Jr.''' was killed almost instantly when he and a friend were struck by a pickup truck while lying flat on the yellow dividing line of a two-lane highway in [[Polk, Pennsylvania]]. They were copying a daredevil stunt from the movie ''[[The Program]]''. Marco Birkhimer died of a similar accident while performing the same stunt in Route 206 of [[Bordentown, New Jersey]]. <ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEED7123AF93AA25753C1A965958260&sec=&spon=&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink Not Like the Movie: A Dare Leads to Death - New York Times]</ref>
*1994: '''[[Gloria Ramirez]]''' was admitted to [[Riverside, California|Riverside]] General Hospital for complications of advanced cervical cancer. Before she died, her body mysteriously emitted toxic fumes that made several emergency room workers very ill. She has been dubbed as the "toxic lady" by the media. <ref>[http://discovermagazine.com/1995/apr/analysisofatoxic493 Analysis of a Toxic Death | Cancer | DISCOVER Magazine]</ref>
*1996: '''[[Sharon Lopatka]]''', an Internet entrepreneur from [[Maryland]], allegedly solicited a man via the Internet to torture and kill her for the purpose of sexual gratification. Her killer, Robert Fredrick Glass, was convicted of voluntary manslaughter for the homicide.
*1998: '''[[Tom and Eileen Lonergan]]''' were stranded while [[scuba diving]] with a group of divers off Australia's [[Great Barrier Reef]]. The group's boat accidentally abandoned them owing to an incorrect head count taken by the dive boat crew. Their bodies were never recovered. The incident inspired the film ''[[Open Water (film)|Open Water]]'' and an episode of ''[[20/20]]''.<ref>[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/08/04/1091557908320.html "A mystery resurfaces"], ''The Age'', 7 August 2004</ref>
*1998: '''Daniel V. Jones''' committed suicide on a freeway carpool lane near [[Los Angeles, California]] by shooting himself through the chin with a shotgun, which was accidentally televised by journalists monitoring the incident on helicopters. Jones, a former hotel maintenance worker, had killed himself partly because of his frustration over treatment by his [[HMO]].<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE0D7103EF931A35756C0A96E958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all "After a Suicide, Questions on Lurid TV News"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', 2 May, 1998</ref>
*1998: '''Every player on the visiting soccer team''' at a game in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] was struck by a fork bolt of [[lightning]], killing them all instantly.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/203137.stm BBC News | Africa | Lightning kills football team]</ref>
*1999: '''[[Owen Hart]]''', a Canadian-born professional wrestler for [[World Wrestling Entertainment|WWF]], died during a pay-per-view event when performing a stunt. It was planned to have Owen come down from the rafters of the [[Kemper Arena]] on a safety harness tied to a rope to make his ring entrance. The safety latch was released and Owen dropped 78 feet (24 m), bouncing chest-first off the top rope resulting in a severed [[aorta]], which caused his lungs to fill with blood.<ref>[http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9542223 Owen Hart Biography - Biography.com]</ref>
*2000: Airline passenger '''[[Jonathan Burton]]''' stormed the cockpit door of a Southwest Airlines flight from Las Vegas to Salt Lake City. The 19-year-old was subdued by eight other passengers with such force that he died of [[asphyxiation]].<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2DE1F3BF930A1575AC0A9669C8B63 Janofsky, Michael. "Neighbors' Gentler View Of Man Killed on Plane," ''The New York Times'', 23 September 2000.]</ref>

===21st century===
*2001: '''Bernd-Jürgen Brandes''' from Germany was voluntarily stabbed repeatedly and then partly eaten by [[Armin Meiwes]] (who was later called the Cannibal of Rothenburg). Brandes had answered an internet advertisement by Meiwes looking for someone for this purpose. Brandes explicitly stated in his will that he wished to be killed and eaten.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4752797.stm "German cannibal guilty of murder"], ''BBC News'', 9 May 2006</ref>
*2001: '''Gregory Biggs''', a homeless man in [[Fort Worth, Texas]], was struck by a car being driven by [[Chante Jawan Mallard]], who had been drinking and taking drugs that night. Biggs' torso became lodged in Mallard's windshield with severe but not immediately fatal injuries. Mallard drove home and left the car in her garage with Biggs still lodged in her car's windshield. She repeatedly visited Biggs and even apologized for hitting him. Biggs died of his injuries several hours later.<ref>[http://www.courttv.com/trials/mallard/background.html Woman faced murder trial after leaving accident victim in her car], CourtTV.com, 6 January, 2005. </ref> Chante Mallard was tried and convicted for murder in this case and received a 50-year prison sentence. The film ''[[Stuck (2007 film)|Stuck]]'' is loosely based on this unusual death.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/entertainment/orl-stuckreview-story,0,2389707.story|title='Stuck' is an attempt at getting cheap laughs|last=Moore|first=Roger|date=2008-07-13|publisher=Orlando Sentinel|accessdate=2008-12-27}}</ref>
*2001: Hungarian singer '''[[Jimmy Zámbó]]''' accidentally shot himself in the head when trying to prove that the handgun he fired earlier had no more bullets left. While he did remove the magazine, he forgot the bullet that was left in the chamber.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/1098953.stm</ref>
*2002: '''[[Brittanie Cecil]]''', an American 13-year-old hockey fan, died two days after being struck in the head by a [[hockey puck]] at a game between the [[Columbus Blue Jackets]] and the [[Calgary Flames]] at [[Nationwide Arena]] in [[Columbus, Ohio]].<ref>[http://static.espn.go.com/nhl/news/2002/0319/1354060.html "Girl dies after getting hit by puck at NHL game"], ''ESPN.com'', 20 May 2002</ref>
*2003: '''Doug McKay''' was killed at the [[Island County, Washington|Island county]] [[county fair|fair]] [[amusement park]] when his arm was caught as he sprayed lubricant on a Super Loop 2 circular [[roller coaster]]. The ride was in operation at the time and he was pulled 40 feet (12 m) in the air before falling and landing on a fence.<ref>[http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20030816&slug=webride16 Carnival worker dies in Island County ride accident], The Seattle Times, August 16, 2003.</ref>
*2003: '''[[Brian Douglas Wells]]''', a [[pizza delivery]] man in [[Erie, Pennsylvania]], was killed by a [[Time bomb (explosive)|time bomb]] that was fastened around his neck. He was apprehended by the [[police]] after robbing a [[bank]], and claimed he had been forced to do it by three people who had put the bomb around his neck and would kill him if he refused. The bomb later exploded, killing him. In 2007, police alleged Wells was involved in the robbery plot along with two other conspirators.<ref>{{cite news| last=Nephin| first=Dan| title=Indictment: Bomb Victim in on Bank Plot| publisher=Associated Press| date=2007-07-12| url=http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2007Jul12/0,4670,BankRobberyExplosion,00.html| accessdate=2008-07-21}}</ref>
*2003: '''Dr. Hitoshi Nikaidoh''', a surgical doctor, was decapitated as he stepped on to an elevator at Christus St. Joseph Hospital in [[Houston, Texas]] on August 16, 2003. According to a witness inside the elevator, the elevator doors closed as Nikaidoh entered, trapping his head inside the elevator with the remainder of his body still outside. His body was later found at the bottom of the elevator shaft while the upper portion of his head, severed just above the lower jaw, was found in the elevator. A subsequent investigation revealed that improper electrical wiring installed by a maintenance company several days earlier had effectively bypassed all of the safeguards. <ref>Click2Houston.'' [http://www.click2houston.com/news/2412223/detail.html Doctor Decapitated In Elevator Accident] 18 August 2003</ref><ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/elevator.asp Elevator Decapitation - Lift and Separate] at Snopes.com.</ref>
*2003: '''[[Timothy Treadwell]]''', an American [[environmentalist]] who had lived in the wilderness among bears for thirteen summers in a remote region in [[Alaska]], and his girlfriend '''Amie Huguenard''' were killed and partially consumed by a bear. An audio recording of their deaths was captured on a video camera which had been turned on at the beginning of the incident. [[Werner Herzog]]'s [[documentary film]], ''[[Grizzly Man]]'', discusses Treadwell and his death.<ref>Medred, Craig.''[http://www.adn.com/front/story/4110831p-4127072c.html Wildlife author killed, eaten by bears he loved]''. ''[[Anchorage Daily News]]''. 8 October 2003. Retrieved 4 September 2006.</ref>
*2004: '''Phillip Quinn''', a 24-year-old of [[Kent, Washington]] was killed during an attempt to heat up a [[lava lamp]] bulb on his kitchen stove while closely observing it from only a few feet away. The heat built up pressure in the bulb until it exploded, spraying shards of glass with enough force to pierce his chest, with one shard piercing his heart, killing him.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/lavalamp.asp Lava Lamp Death] at Snopes.com.</ref> The circumstances of his death were later repeated and confirmed in a [[MythBusters_(2006_season)#Episode_60_.E2.80.93_.22Earthquake_Machine.22|2006 episode]] of the popular science television series [[Mythbusters]].<ref>Mytbusters, Seasion 4, episode 60: Earthquake Machine, first aired August 30, 2006.</ref>
*2005: '''[[Kenneth Pinyan]]''' ('Mr. Hands') of [[Gig Harbor]], [[Washington]] died of acute [[peritonitis]] after seeking out and receiving anal intercourse from a [[stallion]], an act he had engaged in previously. Pinyan delayed his visit to the hospital for several hours out of reluctance to explain the circumstances of his injury to doctors. The case led to the criminalization of [[zoophilia|bestiality]] in [[Washington]].<ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002569751_horsesex19m.html The Seattle Times: Local News: Trespassing charged in horse-sex case]</ref> His story was recounted in the [[Sundance Film Festival|award winning]] 2007 documentary film ''[[Zoo (film)|Zoo]]''.
*2005: '''[[Lee Seung Seop]]''', a 28-year-old South Korean, collapsed of fatigue and died after playing the videogame ''[[StarCraft]]'' online for almost 50 consecutive hours in an Internet cafe.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-1729573,00.html "Korean drops dead after 50-hour gaming marathon"], ''Times Online'', 10 August 2005</ref>
*2006: '''Erika Tomanu''', A seven-year-old girl in [[Saitama, Saitama|Saitama]], [[Japan]], died when she was sucked down the intake pipe of a current pool at a water park. The grill that was meant to cover the inlet came off, yet lifeguards at the pool at the time deemed it safe enough to allow swimmers to stay in the water as they had issued a verbal warning of the situation. She was sucked head first more than 10 metres down the pipe by the powerful pump and it took rescuers more than 6 hours to remove her by digging through concrete to access the pipe. <ref>http://www.japantimes.co.jp/weekly/news/nn2006/nn20060805a1.htm Girl sucked into intake at city-run pool</ref>
*2006: '''[[Steve Irwin]]''', an Australian television personality and naturalist known as [[The Crocodile Hunter]], died when his heart was impaled by a [[short-tail stingray]] barb while filming a documentary entitled "Ocean's Deadliest" in [[Queensland]]'s [[Great Barrier Reef]]. <ref>http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,20355064-30417,00.html{{Dead link|date=November 2008}}</ref>
*2006: '''[[Alexander Litvinenko]]''', a former officer of the [[Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation|Russian State security service]], and later a Russian [[dissident]] and [[writer]], died after being poisoned with [[Polonium|polonium-210]] causing [[radiation poisoning|acute radiation syndrome]]. He is the first known case of deliberate poisoning in this manner.
*2007: '''[[Water intoxication#Notable cases|Jennifer Strange]]''', a 28-year-old woman from [[Sacramento]], died of [[water intoxication]] while trying to win a [[Wii]] console in a [[KDND]] 107.9 "The End" radio station's "Hold Your Wee for a Wii" contest, which involved drinking large quantities of water without urinating.<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/california/la-me-water14jan14,1,1368543.story?coll=la-headlines-pe-california "Woman dies after being in water-drinking contest"], ''The Los Angeles Times'', 14 January 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.knbc.com/news/10761800/detail.html "Woman's Death After Water-Drinking Contest Investigated"] ''KNBC.com'', 16 January 2007</ref>
*2007: '''Humberto Hernandez''', a 24-year-old [[Oakland, California]] resident, was killed while walking on a sidewalk after being struck in the face by an airborne [[fire hydrant]]; A passing car blew a tire and swerved onto the sidewalk, striking the fire hydrant. The force of the water pressure released so suddenly it propelled the 200-pound hydrant toward Hernandez with enough force to kill him.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/hydrant.asp Fire Hydrant Death - Fire Plugged] at Snopes.com.</ref><ref>[http://cbs5.com/local/Humberto.Hernandez.fire.2.456707.html Oakland Man Killed By Airborne Fire Hydrant], CBS5.com, June 22, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2007-06-23-fire-hydrant_N.htm Flying fire hydrant kills Calif. man], Associated Press (reprinted in USAToday), June 23, 2007.</ref>
*2007: '''[[Kevin Whitrick]]''', a 42-year-old man, committed [[suicide]] by hanging himself live on a webcam during an Internet chat session.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article1560877.ece |title=Get on with it, said net audience as man hanged himself on webcam |accessdate=2007-05-27 |last=Bale |first=Joanna |date=2007-03-24 |work=Times Online |publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd }}</ref>
*2007: '''[[Surinder Singh Bajwa]]''', the Deputy Mayor of [[Delhi, India]], was kicked by a [[Rhesus Macaque]] monkey at his home and fell from a first floor balcony, suffering serious head injuries. He later died from his injuries.<ref>[http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Bajwa-succumbs-to-injuries/230828/ Bajwa succumbs to injuries]</ref>
*2008: '''[[Abigail Taylor]]''', age 6, died nine months after several of her internal organs were partially sucked out of her lower body while she sat on an excessively powerful swimming pool drain. After several months, surgeons replaced her intestines and pancreas with donor organs. Unfortunately, she later succumbed to a rare transplant-related cancer.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-03-21-3982361687_x.htm Girl, 6, Dies From Swimming Pool Injury] ''USA Today'', 21 March 2008</ref>
*2008: '''Gerald Mellin''', a U.K. businessman, committed [[suicide]] by tying one end of a rope around his neck and the other to a tree. He then hopped into his [[Aston Martin DB7]] and drove down a main road in [[Swansea]] until the rope decapitated him. He supposedly did this as an act of revenge against his ex-wife for leaving him.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1042676/Businessman-uses-Aston-Martin-decapitate-horrific-suicide-revenge-ex-wife.html Businessman uses Aston Martin to decapitate himself]''Mail Online'', 8 August 2008</ref>
*2008: '''David Phyall''', 50, the last resident in a block of flats due to be demolished in [[Bishopstoke]], near [[Southampton]], [[Hampshire]], [[United Kingdom]], cut his own head off with a chainsaw to highlight the injustice of being forced to move out.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/death-was-carefully-thought-through-suicide-1025503.html|title= Chainsaw death was 'carefully thought through suicide'|last=Halfpenny|first=Martin|date=19 November 2008|publisher=The Independent|accessdate=2008-11-22}}</ref>
*2008: '''James Mason''', of [[Chardon, Ohio]], died of heart failure after his wife exercised him to death in a public swimming pool. Christine Newton-John was seen on video tape pulling Mason around the pool and preventing him from getting out of the water 43 times. Newton-John later pleaded guilty to reckless homicide. <ref>[http://www.thestar.com/News/World/article/587759 Wife guilty of exercising husband to death], Toronto Star, 14 February 2009</ref>
*2009: '''Diana Durre''', of [[Chambers, Nebraska]], died after a 75-foot (23 m) Taco Bell sign fell on top of the truck cab she was in. The pole broke at a welded joint about 15 feet (4.5 m) above the ground owing to strong winds. The sign fell right on top of the quad-cab pickup. Diana was meeting a Wyoming couple to sell them some dogs. Officials said they agreed to meet in North Platte, Nebraska about 1 p.m., “right underneath the big Taco Bell sign.” <ref>[http://www.northplattebulletin.com/index.asp?show=news&action=readStory&storyID=16446&pageID=3], North Platte Bulletin, 4 April 2009</ref>
*2009: '''Sergey Tuganov''', a 28-year-old Russian, bet two women that he could continuously have sex with them both for twelve hours. Several minutes after winning the $4,300 bet, he suffered a [[heart attack]] and died. It is believed that the heart attack was the result of Tuganov ingesting an entire bottle of [[Viagra]] just after he accepted the bet.<ref>[http://www.mosnews.com/weird/2009/03/10/marathone/], Mosnews, March 10, 2009</ref>
*2009: '''Martin Cassidy''', a 44-year-old [[stand-up comedian]] from [[Blackburn]], [[England]], died from asphyxia caused by breathing in large quantities of [[nitrous oxide|laughing gas]] while watching [[pornography]] on his laptop computer, according to a coroner. The coroner ruled a case of "Death by misadventure".<ref>{{cite news|last=Watkinson|first=David|url=http://www.thisislancashire.co.uk/news/4293113.Popular_Blackburn_comedian_died_of_accidental_overdose/|title=Popular Blackburn comedian died of accidental gas overdose|publisher=This Is Lancashire|date=2009-04-15|accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref>
*2009: '''Shanno Khan''', an 11-year-old schoolgirl in India, died after being forced by her teacher to stand for hours outside in the searing New Delhi heat as punishment for not doing her homework.<ref>[http://www.news24.com/News24/World/News/0,,2-10-1462_2502959,00.html], AFP, 17 April 2009</ref>

==See also==
* [[Toilet-related injury]]
* [[List of inventors killed by their own inventions]]
* [[Darwin Awards]]
* [[Multiple gunshot suicide]]
* [[List of people who died in public]]
* ''[[1000 Ways to Die]]''
* [[List of unusual diseases and conditions]]
* [[Spontaneous human combustion]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Unusual}}
[[Category:Lists of people by cause of death]]
[[Category:Death-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of things considered unusual]]
[[Category:Executions by method]]

[[fr:Liste de morts insolites]]
[[nl:Lijst van personen die op ongebruikelijke manier zijn overleden]]

Blackwall-Fregatte

2009-04-09T04:43:46Z

Work permit: Undoing own edit (HG)

[[Image:Northfleet.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Blackwall Frigate ''Northfleet'' (1853)]]

'''Blackwall Frigate''' was the colloquial name for a type of three-masted [[full-rigged ship]] built between the late 1830s and the mid 1870s. They were originally intended as replacements for the British [[East Indiaman]] in the trade between [[England]], the [[Cape of Good Hope]], [[India]] and [[China]], but from the 1850s were also employed in the trade between England, [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].

The first Blackwall Frigates were designed and built by the [[Blackwall Yard|Wigram and Green]] shipyard at [[Blackwall, London|Blackwall]] on the [[River Thames]]. Under different owners these yards had built East Indiamen since the early 17th century as well as warships for the [[Royal Navy]]. Whereas the traditional East Indiaman had double stern galleries the Blackwall Frigate had single galleries and was superficially similar in appearance to a naval [[frigate]]. With only a single gallery, the hull-lines at the stern could be very fine and combined with relatively fine underwater lines at the bow, Blackwall Frigates were fast sailing ships, although not as fast as the [[clipper]] ships that appeared in the late 1840s. Another feature of early Blackwall frigates was a highly rounded hull at the bow above the waterline, such ships being referred to as "apple-cheeked". The first two Blackwall Frigates, the 871-ton ''Seringapatam'' and 951-ton ''[[Madagascar (ship)|Madagascar]]'' launched in 1837, carried the names of two slightly larger Indian-built frigates in the Royal Navy, as did a number of their successors. This appears to have been the inspiration for the popular terminology.

Over 120 Blackwall Frigates were built by British and Indian yards before the last, the 1857-ton iron ship ''Melbourne'', was built at Blackwall by the Green family in 1875. They were generally considered to be safe and comfortable ships and were employed in premium trades, but were the victims of some of the most celebrated [[shipwreck]]s of the 19th century. These included:
* ''[[Madagascar (ship)|Madagascar]]'', missing between [[Melbourne, Australia]] and [[London]] in 1853 with the loss of about 150 lives,
* ''Dalhousie'', sank off [[Beachy Head]] on 13 October 1853 with the loss of about 60 passengers and crew,
* ''[[Dunbar (shipwreck)|Dunbar]]'', wrecked near [[Sydney Heads]] on 20 August 1857 with the loss of 121 lives,
* ''[[Northfleet (ship)|Northfleet]]'', run down and sunk by a steamer in the [[English Channel]] on 22 January 1873 with the loss of 320 lives,
* ''[[Cospatrick (ship)|Cospatrick]]'', destroyed by fire south of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] on 18 November 1874 with the loss of 473 lives.

A well known example of later Blackwall frigates was the ''True Briton'' of 1046 tons built in 1861, which made frequent voyages to Australia and New Zealand carrying passengers, convicts and cargo. Photographs of this vessel are on display in the [[State Library of Victoria]].

[[Image:Clyde1860.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The semi-clipper ''Clyde'' (1860) 1151 tons]]

By the 1860s the main difference between Blackwall frigates and clippers was the stern gallery (which "true clippers" never had, though many "semi-clippers" did) and the residual "tumble-home" or hull curvature such that the hull was narrower at deck level than at the waterline) which was greater in a Blackwall frigate than in a clipper or semi clipper.

Both types became superseded as passenger carrying vessels by steamships during the 1870s and later sailing ships of the type colloquially called [[windjammer]]s were built for cargo carrying only.

==Sources==

*Basil Lubbock, ''The Blackwall Frigates'', Brown, Son & Ferguson, Glasgow, 1922.
*''Lloyd's Register of Shipping''
*David Lyon, ''The Navy Sailing List - All the Ships of the Royal Navy built, Purchased and Captured - 1688-1860'', Conway Maritime Press, London, 1993

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=BHC3633 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for painting entitled "The Indiaman Seringapatam arriving home"]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=PAH9329 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for print entitled "The Seringapatam East Indiaman, 1000 Tons"]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=SLR0763 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for a hull model of The Seringapatam]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=BHC3532 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for painting entitled "The Blackwall frigate Owen Glendower at anchor off a coastline"]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=PAH0566 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for print entitled "The Owen Glendower, East Indiaman, 1000 Tons (Entering Bombay Harbour)]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=SLR0780 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for a hull model of The Owen Glendower]
{{Sailing Vessels and Rigs}}

[[Category:Victorian era merchant ships of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Merchant ships of India]]
[[Category:Ship types]]
[[Category:Shipbuilding in London]]

Blackwall-Fregatte

2009-04-09T04:41:32Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 66.75.10.163 to last revision by Salmanazar (HG)

[[Image:Northfleet.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Blackwall Frigate ''Northfleet'' (1853)]]

'''Blackwall Frigate''' was the colloquial name for a type of three-masted [[full-rigged ship]] built between the late 1830s and the mid 1870s. They were originally intended as replacements for the British [[East Indiaman]] in the trade between [[England]], the [[Cape of Good Hope]], [[India]] and [[China]], but from the 1850s were also employed in the trade between England, [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].

The first Blackwall Frigates were designed and built by the [[Blackwall Yard|Wigram and Green]] shipyard at [[Blackwall, London|Blackwall]] on the [[River Thames]]. Under different owners these yards had built East Indiamen since the early 17th century as well as warships for the [[Royal Navy]]. Whereas the traditional East Indiaman had double stern galleries the Blackwall Frigate had single galleries and was superficially similar in appearance to a naval [[frigate]]. With only a single gallery, the hull-lines at the stern could be very fine and combined with relatively fine underwater lines at the bow, Blackwall Frigates were fast sailing ships, although not as fast as the [[clipper]] ships that appeared in the late 1840s. Another feature of early Blackwall frigates was a highly rounded hull at the bow above the waterline, such ships being referred to as "apple-cheeked". The first two Blackwall Frigates, the 871-ton ''Seringapatam'' and 951-ton ''[[Madagascar (ship)|Madagascar]]'' launched in 1837, carried the names of two slightly larger Indian-built frigates in the Royal Navy, as did a number of their successors. This appears to have been the inspiration for the popular terminology.

Over 120 Blackwall Frigates were built by British and Indian yards before the last, the 1857-ton iron ship ''Melbourne'', was built at Blackwall by the Green family in 1875. They were generally considered to be safe and comfortable ships and were employed in premium trades, but were the victims of some of the most celebrated [[shipwreck]]s of the 19th century. These included:
* ''[[Madagascar (ship)|Madagascar]]'', missing between [[Melbourne, Australia]] and [[London]] in 1853 with the loss of about 150 lives,
* ''Dalhousie'', sank off [[Beachy Head]] on 13 October 1853 with the loss of about 60 passengers and crew,
* ''[[Dunbar (shipwreck)|Dunbar]]'', wrecked near [[Sydney Heads]] on 20 August 1857 with the loss of 121 lives,
* ''[[Northfleet (ship)|Northfleet]]'', run down and sunk by a steamer in the [[English Channel]] on 22 January 1873 with the loss of 320 lives,
* ''[[Cospatrick (ship)|Cospatrick]]'', destroyed by fire south of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] on 18 November 1874 with the loss of 473 lives.

A well known example of later Blackwall frigates was the ''True Briton'' of 1046 tons built in 1861, which made frequent voyages to Australia and New Zealand carrying passengers, convicts and cargo. Photographs of this vessel are on display in the [[State Library of Victoria]].

[[Image:Clyde1860.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The semi-clipper ''Clyde'' (1860) 1151 tons]]

By the 1860s the main difference between Blackwall frigates and clippers was the stern gallery (which "true clippers" never had, though many "semi-clippers" did) and the residual "tumble-home" or hull curvature such that the hull was narrower at deck level than at the waterline) which was greater in a Blackwall frigate than in a clipper or semi clipper.

Both types became superseded as passenger carrying vessels by steamships during the 1870s and later sailing ships of the type colloquially called [[windjammer]]s were built for cargo carrying only.

==Sources==

*Basil Lubbock, ''The Blackwall Frigates'', Brown, Son & Ferguson, Glasgow, 1922.
*''Lloyd's Register of Shipping''
*David Lyon, ''The Navy Sailing List - All the Ships of the Royal Navy built, Purchased and Captured - 1688-1860'', Conway Maritime Press, London, 1993

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=BHC3633 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for painting entitled "The Indiaman Seringapatam arriving home"]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=PAH9329 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for print entitled "The Seringapatam East Indiaman, 1000 Tons"]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=SLR0763 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for a hull model of The Seringapatam]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=BHC3532 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for painting entitled "The Blackwall frigate Owen Glendower at anchor off a coastline"]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=PAH0566 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for print entitled "The Owen Glendower, East Indiaman, 1000 Tons (Entering Bombay Harbour)]
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/greenblackwall/viewObject.cfm?ID=SLR0780 National Maritime Museum catalogue entry for a hull model of The Owen Glendower]

[[Category:Victorian era merchant ships of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Merchant ships of India]]
[[Category:Ship types]]
[[Category:Shipbuilding in London]]

Pierre Bouvier

2008-08-06T01:38:29Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 129.128.62.200 to last version by ClueBot (HG)

{{Infobox Musical artist 
| Name = Pierre Bouvier
| Img = Bouviertokyo.JPG
| Img_capt =
| Img_size =
| Background = grey
| Birth_name =
| Alias =
| Born = {{birth date and age|1979|5|9}} [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]]
| Died =
| Instrument = [[Vocals]], [[Guitar]], [[bass guitar|Bass]]
| Genre = [[Pop punk]] [[Alternative rock]] [[Punk rock]] [[Pop rock]]
| Occupation = [[Musician]]
| Years_active = [[1993]]–present
| Label = [[Lava Records|Lava]] / [[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]
| Associated_acts = [[Simple Plan]], [[Reset (band)|Reset]]
| URL = [http://www.myspace.com/officialpierre Bouvier's Myspace] [http://www.simpleplan.com Simple Plan's Official Website]
}}

'''Pierre Charles Bouvier''' (born [[9 May]] [[1979]])<ref>[http://www.variety.com/profiles/people/main/1121719/Pierre%20Bouvier.html?dataSet=1 ''Variety'': Pierre Bouvier profile]</ref> is a [[Québécois]] musician, who is best known as the lead singer for the Canadian [[pop punk]] band [[Simple Plan]].

==Biography==
Before and partly during his musical career, Bouvier worked in a restaurant called [[St-Hubert]] in his hometown of [[Montreal]] as a cook. At age 13, he founded the [[punk rock]] band [[Reset (band)|Reset]] with his schoolmate [[Chuck Comeau]], in which he was the lead singer and bassist.

Dissatisfied with the artistic direction of the band, Bouvier helped establish [[Simple Plan]], of which he is the front man and lead singer and is, along with Comeau, a principal songwriter for the band. Additionally, Bouvier was the band's original bassist until the position was yielded to [[David Desrosiers]], when he later joined the band.

In live performance, he sometimes plays the guitar (electric and acoustic) for certain songs. He also hosted a show on [[MTV]] called ''[[Damage Control (TV series)|Damage Control]]'', which has since ended its run as originally planned.

==Role Model Clothing==
[[Image:Bouvierquebec.jpg|left|thumb|230px|Bouvier at the Quebec show, July 1, 2008]]
He is co-owner of Role Model Clothing, along with [[Chuck Comeau]] and Simple Plan's [[webmaster]], [[photographer]], and [[videographer]] [[Simple_Plan#Patrick_Langlois|Patrick Langlois]].

Role Model Clothing is a clothing line owned by Bouvier, Langlois and Chuck Comeau (who are often seen wearing the shirts on stage and in the band's music videos). The line mostly markets shirts, which invariably include the words "ROLE MODEL" in the design. [[Erik Chandler]], from the band [[Bowling for Soup]], is often seen wearing a Role Model shirt. In the illustration in this article, Bouvier wears a Role Model shirt.

==Damage Control==
[[Damage Control (TV series)|Damage Control]] was a reality television series hosted by Bouvier that first aired on MTV on March 6, 2005. On Damage Control, parents would tell their teenage son or daughter that they would be going away over the weekend, but in actuality, they are just a few houses down monitoring them with Bouvier via hidden cameras and microphones. The teenager would be placed in awkward situations, in which he/she must make decisions. Parents can earn money if they can guess what their teenager will do, and after the parents come back (always with too little time for the teenager to conceal what has occurred), the teenager, still unaware of the filming, can earn money by confessing. Two seasons were filmed before any episodes aired, and no more were planned or filmed, due to the likelihood that once the episodes aired, potential subjects would quickly catch on to what was going on.

==Personal life==
He attended College Beaubois, a high school in Montreal along with other band members [[Sébastien Lefebvre]], [[Jeff Stinco]] and [[Chuck Comeau]] (but not [[David Desrosiers]]).

The song "Save You" on the album titled ''Simple Plan'' is about his brother Jay, who struggled with [[lymphoma]] cancer. His brother has since gone into [[remission]].

==Filmography==
{|class=wikitable
|-
!Year!!Title!!Role!!Notes
|-
| ||[[What's New, Scooby-Doo?]]||Himself (voice)||1 episode
|-
|rowspan=2|2003||[[The New Tom Green Show]]||Himself||1 episode
|-
|Simple Plan: [[A Big Package for You]]||Himself||
|-
|rowspan=2|2004||[[New York Minute]]||Himself||
|-
|Simple Plan: [[Still Not Getting Any...]]||Himself||
|-
|rowspan=2|2005||[[Damage Control (TV series)|Damage Control]]||Himself||Host
|-
|Simple Plan: [[MTV Hard Rock Live]]||Himself||
|-
|2008||Simple Plan: [[Simple Plan (album)|Simple Plan]]||Himself||
|}

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*{{myspace|officialpierre}}
*{{imdb name|1282556}}
*[http://www.simpleplan.com/ Simple Plan's Official website]
*[http://www.rolemodelclothing.com/ Role Model Clothing website]
*[http://www.mtv.com/ontv/dyn/damage_control/series.jhtml Damage Control's Official Page]
*[http://www.myspace.com/officialrolemodelclothing Official Rolemodel Clothing MySpace]

{{Simple Plan}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bouvier, Pierre}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Canadian male singers]]
[[Category:Quebec musicians]]
[[Category:Canadian rock singers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Montreal]]
[[Category:Simple Plan members]]

[[ca:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[de:Pierre Charles Bouvier]]
[[et:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[es:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[fr:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[he:פייר בובייה]]
[[it:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[pl:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[pt:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[fi:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[sv:Pierre Bouvier]]

Chloë Agnew

2008-07-06T05:03:28Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 75.23.74.206 to last version by Huntster (using Huggle)

{{Infobox musical artist
| Name = Chloë Agnew
| Img = Chloe Agnew.jpg 
| Img_size = 200
| Img_capt = Chloë Agnew during one of the Celtic Woman American Meet-&-Greets
| Background = solo_singer
| Born = {{birth date and age|1989|6|9}} [[Dublin]], [[County Dublin]], [[Ireland]]
| Died =
| Instrument = [[Singer|Vocals]]
| Genre = [[Celtic music|Celtic]]
| Occupation = [[Singer]]
| Years_active = 1998 - Present
| Label = [http://www.celticcollections.com Celtic Collections] [[Manhattan Records|Manhattan]]
| Associated_acts = [[Celtic Woman]]
| URL =
}}

'''Chloë Agnew''' (born [[9 June]] [[1989]] in [[Dublin]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]) is an [[Irish language|Irish]] singer who has gained fame for her part in the [[Celtic music]] group [[Celtic Woman]]. She comes from [[Knocklyon]], [[County Dublin]], Ireland, where she resided with her mother [[Adele King|Adéle "Twink" King]] and younger sister Naomi Agnew. She attends [[Alexandra College]] girls school.

== Early life ==

Agnew was born to Irish entertainer Adéle "Twink" King and Irish [[oboist]] David Agnew. She made her first television appearance on her mother's programme at just four weeks old, and subsequently sang on the show at the age of six.

In 1998, Agnew represented Ireland and was the winner of the Grand Prix at the First International Children's Song Competition in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], with a song called "The Friendship Tree". She then began to perform [[pantomime]] at the [[Olympia Theatre]] in Dublin and continued in that role for four years.

In 1999, she appeared in ''[[The Young Messiah]]'', a modern adaptation of [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]]'s ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]''. In this production, she played one of the children and performed sign language.<ref name="youngmessiah">{{cite video |url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0227050/ |title=The Messiah XXI |medium=Television production |publisher=NDB TV |location=Dublin |people=Cosel, William (Director) |year=2000 |accessdate=2007-04-15}}</ref>

== Musical career ==

In 2000, at age 11, Agnew approached director [[David Downes]] about recording a song to raise money for the children of [[Afghanistan]]. With his assistance, she recorded "Angel of Mercy" for the album ''This Holy Christmas Night'', which raised over [[Pound sterling|GB£]]20,000 for the Afghan Children's Charity Fund in 2001. That same year, she joined the [[Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin|Christ Church Cathedral]] Girls' Choir, and remained a member for three years.<ref name="cccgc">{{cite web |url=http://www.cccdub.ie/music/girls/2004/girlsppl.html |title=Members of the Girls' Choir |work=Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin |month=September |year=2004 |accessdate=2007-04-15}}</ref>

In 2002, at 12 years of age, Agnew was signed to Celtic Collections, and with the backing of Downes she recorded her debut album ''Chloë''. Two years later, in 2004, she followed this with her second album, ''Chloë: Walking in the Air''. That same year, she appeared as part of the group [[Celtic Woman]] at [[The Helix]] in Dublin. To date, she has recorded three albums with the group and has taken part in several world tours.

== Discography ==

{|class="toccolours" border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="width:375px; margin:0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #E2E2E2;"
|-
!bgcolor="#97A3AF"| Title
!bgcolor="#97A3AF"| Release
!bgcolor="#97A3AF"| Record label
|-
| ''Chloë''
| 2002
| rowspan="2" | Celtic Collections
|-
| ''Chloë: Walking in the Air''
| 2004
|}

==References==
<div class="references-small">

{{reflist}}

==External links==

* {{imdb name|0013128|Chloë Agnew}}

{{Celtic Woman}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Agnew, Chloë}}
[[Category:Celtic Woman members]]
[[Category:Irish female singers]]
[[Category:People from Dublin (city)]]
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

[[et:Chloë Agnew]]
[[pt:Chloë Agnew]]

William Henry Quilliam

2008-07-05T04:05:34Z

Work permit: remove blog reference not a wp:rs (using Huggle)

'''William Henry Quilliam''' ([[April 10]] [[1856]]<ref>[http://www.abdullahquilliamsociety.org.uk/aqsSAQuilliam.html aqsSAQuilliam]</ref><ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article2826203.ece Forgotten champion of Islam: One man and his mosque - This Britain, UK - Independent.co.uk]</ref><ref>[http://www.isle-of-man.com/manxnotebook/people/law/whqllm.htm Brief Biography of William Henry Quilliam]</ref> – [[1932]]), who changed his name to '''Abdullah Quilliam''', was a 19th century convert from [[Christianity]] to [[Islam]], noted for founding [[England]]'s first [[mosque]] and Islamic centre. Quilliam was influential in advancing knowledge of Islam within the [[British Isles]], and gained other converts through his [[literary]] works and the [[Charitable organization|charitable]] institutions he founded.

==Background==
William Quilliam was born in [[Liverpool]] to a wealthy manufacturing family in 1856. He was the son of a watch maker Robert Quilliam, and a claimed relation of <ref>[http://www.mcb.org.uk/features/features.php?ann_id=139 MCB]</ref> [[Captain John Quilliam RN]], [[First Lieutenant]] on [[HMS Victory]] with [[Horatio Nelson|Nelson]] <ref>[http://www.mcb.org.uk/features/features.php?ann_id=139 MCB]</ref>. He established himself as a successful [[solicitor]].

===Conversion to Islam===

Quilliam was brought up a Christian but learned about Islam and converted, either while visiting southern [[France]] in 1882 and crossing over to [[Algeria]] and [[Tunisia]], or after visiting [[Morocco]] in [[1887]] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/heritage/england/liverpool/article_1.shtml]. Returning to Liverpool, he began to spread Islam among the masses as [[‘Abdullah (name)|Abdullah]] Quilliam.

Quilliam established the Liverpool Mosque and Islamic Institute at 8 Brougham Terrace, West Derby Street, Liverpool in 1889, opening on Christmas day. This was England's first mosque, accommodating around a hundred Muslims, This was followed by a Muslim [[college]], headed by [[Haschem Wilde]] and [[Nasrullah Warren]], which offered courses for both Muslims and non-Muslims. A weekly [[Debating]] and [[Literary]] Society within the college attracted many non-Muslim intellectuals.

Quilliam influenced the paths of many converts, including his formerly [[Methodist]] mother, his sons, and prominent [[scientists]] and [[intellectuals]] and his example lead to the conversion of over 150 Englishmen to Islam.

An active writer and essayist, he produced a weekly paper, ''The Crescent'', from [[1893]] until [[1908]].
He published three editions of his masterpiece, ''The Faith of Islam'', which was translated into thirteen languages, gaining him fame across the Islamic world.

He received many honours from the leaders of the Islamic world. He was appointed [[Sheikh al-Islam]] by the [[Ottoman Sultan]], [[Abdul Hamid II]] in 1894 and [[Persia]]n [[Consul (representative)|Consul]] to Liverpool by the [[Shah]]. He also received money from the [[Emir of Afghanistan]] to fund the Islamic Institute in Liverpool.

Quilliam's work in Liverpool stopped when he left England in [[1908]] and the Muslim community there dispersed.

He died in [[1932]], in London, and was buried in [[Brookwood Cemetery]], near [[Woking]]. He was buried near [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], [[Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall]] (who each translated the Qur'an), and [[Rowland Allanson-Winn, 5th Baron Headley|Lord Headley]].

[[Western Muslims]], particularly converts to Islam, see him as a pioneer of the path they have taken. His legacy is maintained by the Abdullah Quilliam Society which was formed in 1996. The Society is raising funds for the purchase of 8-10 Brougham Terrace in order to restore the historic mosque and establish an educational centre.[http://www.salaam.co.uk/charities/26-07-05.php] It has now signed a two-year lease on the premises.<ref>BBC R4 ''Sunday'' 12 August 2007</ref>.

The [[Quilliam Foundation]], a moderate Muslim thinktank aimed at challenging extremist islamist ideologies, was launched in 2008.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/mar/01/islam.religion The Guardian; Ex-Islamists start moderate thinkthank]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7360652.stm|BBC: "Ex-extremists call for 'Western Islam'"]</ref> Some Muslims criticized the organization's choice of name because Quilliam was fervently opposed to [[British Empire|British imperialism]] and strongly supported the [[Ottoman Caliphate]], even as Marmaduke Pickthall was supporting the reformist [[Young Turks]].<ref>[http://www.yahyabirt.com/?p=136/ Abdullah Quilliam: Britain’s First Islamist?]</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Henry Stanley, 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley]]
*[[Sir Charles Edward Archibald Watkin Hamilton, 5th Baronet]]
*[[Faris Glubb]]
*[[Ahmad Thomson]]
*[[Timothy Winter]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.abdullahquilliamsociety.org.uk/ Abdullah Quilliam Society]
*[http://abdullahquilliam.wordpress.com/ Abdullah Quilliam: The History of British Muslims]
*[http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/ Quilliam Foundation]
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article2826203.ece ''Forgotten champion of Islam: One man and his mosque'' The Independent newspaper, 2 August 2007]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/heritage/england/liverpool/article_1.shtml Special BBC feature on Abdullah Quilliam and his Mosque, including audio testimonials from his grand-daughter and admirers]
*[http://www.mcb.org.uk/features/features.php?ann_id=139 The Muslim Council of Britain's special biography and profile on Quilliam's life]
*[http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/bmh/BMH-AQ-poem4.htm ''The Riddle of Life'', poem by Abdullah Quilliam]
*[http://www.wokingmuslim.org/pers/quilliam/ Quilliam mentioned in early Ahmadiyya sources and his connection with the Woking Muslim Mission under the name Professor H.M. Leon]
*[http://www.isb.org.uk/iaw/yesteryear.htm A brief look at Muslims in Britain from yesteryear]
*[http://www.islamic-considerations.blogspot.com Review of Abdullah Quilliam and the misappropriation of his name]

== Sources ==
*{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Philip|title=Islamic Britain: Religion, Politics, and Identity among British Muslims: Bradford in the 1990s|year=1994|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London|id=ISBN 1-85043-861-7}}

[[Category:1856 births|Quilliam, William Abdullah]]
[[Category:1932 deaths|Quilliam, William Abdullah]]
[[Category:Converts to Islam|Quilliam, William Abdullah]]
[[Category:English Muslims|Quilliam, William Abdullah]]
[[Category:English poets|Quilliam, William Abdullah]]
[[Category:English religious writers|Quilliam, William Abdullah]]
[[Category:People from Liverpool|Quilliam, William Abdullah]]
[[Category:Muslim writers|Quilliam, William Abdullah]]
[[Category:Burials at Brookwood Cemetery|Quilliam, William Abdullah]]

Tea bag

2008-07-05T02:41:21Z

Work permit: Reverted 2 edits by 91.135.10.63 to last version by Univer (using Huggle)

{{wiktionary|teabagging}}

'''Teabagging''' is a [[slang]] term for the act of a man placing his [[testicle]]s, specifically the [[scrotum]], in the mouth<ref name="bedside" /> or face of another person, often in a repeated in-and-out motion as in [[irrumatio]]. The practice vaguely resembles dipping a [[tea bag]] into a cup of [[tea]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sexdictionary.info/teabagging.html|title=SexDictionary.info: Tea bagging|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jackandhisbeanstalk.com/guide-to-sex/what-is-teabagging.htm|title=Jack and his Bean Stalk: What is Teabagging?|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref><ref name="teen">{{cite web|url=http://www.teenwire.com/ask/2004/as-20040303p747-teabag.php|title=TeenWire: Ask the Experts - What is Teabagging?|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref>

Teabagging is also an erotic activity used within the context of [[BDSM]] and [[male dominance]], with a [[dominant]] man teabagging his [[submissive]] partner, either a woman or a man, as one variation of [[facesitting]] and/or as a means of inflicting [[Erotic humiliation]].

== The practice ==
An example of teabagging is shown in the movie ''[[Pecker (film)|Pecker]]'' by [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]],<ref name="rot">[http://www.rotten.com/library/sex/teabagging/ Rotten.com: Teabagging]</ref><ref>''Filthy: The John Waters Phenomenon'', [[Robert L. Pela]]. Page 202. ISBN 1-55583-625-9.</ref> which showed a male [[stripper]] repeatedly striking a man's forehead, and purportedly introduced the practice of teabagging to a wider audience.<ref name="rot" />

It has also been reported as a practice in [[hazing]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legalreader.com/archives/003197.html|title=Legal Reader: Definition of Teabagging|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> among athletic teams. This is described in an article by Robert DeKoven from ''[[Gay and Lesbian Times]]''.<ref>[http://www.gaylesbiantimes.com/?id=6927&issue=950 "Is forcible ‘tea-bagging’ just hazing?"], 9 March 2006</ref>

{{Cquote|One such story involved what school officials termed a hazing incident, which involved three varsity wrestlers and three coaches at Argo Community High School near Chicago. The school suspended the wrestlers and coaches for a hazing incident that involved the “tea-bagging” of several freshman wrestlers.
Cyd Zeigler Jr. reports that the incident occurred on a bus trip home last year on Dec. 1. ... According to the Daily Southtown, the three varsity wrestlers pulled freshmen, one by one, to the back of the bus. There, two of the boys held each boy down as the third boy shoved his testicles in the freshman’s face.}}

Teabagging again gained national attention in 2006 in the national media for a similar incident that occurred in Avoca, IA where the local wrestling team performed a similar initiation as the Dennis Horkenbach Chicago incident.

== In the media ==
=== In video games ===
[[Image:BilboTBaggins.jpg|thumb|right|[[Halo 3]] player simulates teabagging a dead opponent.]]

Simulations of teabagging are often used in video games, specifically [[first person shooter]]s such as ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', ''the [[Battlefield_%28series%29|Battlefield]] series of games'', ''[[Call of Duty (series)|Call of Duty]]'', and, probably most notably<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/TECH/09/25/halo3.review/index.html CNN story on Halo]</ref>, ''[[Halo (series)|Halo]]'' (Halo players commonly refer to it as the "''Halo'' Hump" or simply "corpse-humping").<ref>[[wikia:halo:Corpse Humping|Corpse Humping]] at Halopedia, a ''Halo'' wiki</ref> "Teabagging" is performed by repeatedly crouching down - a common movement in FPSs - while on top of an enemy corpse. The act is a form of [[victory dance]] to show [[owned|ownership]] and to humiliate an enemy player. Certain player groups (often referred to as [[Clan_%28computer_gaming%29|clans]]) find the act offensive and therefore forbid its use on game servers they operate.<ref>[http://www.christiangamingnetwork.com/ Christian Gaming Network clan rules]</ref> Conversely, many clans relish the activity and encourage its use.<ref>[http://www.warpigsclan.com/ War Pigs clan rules]</ref>

===Basketball===

The term is also used to describe a player [[slam dunk]]ing over the defending opponent.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} This is better known as "posterizing" as it is common to make a poster out of an image of this act.

=== Miscellaneous ===
*One track on [[rapper]] [[Ludacris]]' [[2004]] album ''[[Chicken & Beer]]'' is a skit labeled "T Baggin'". It is a parody of phone messages that require the dialer to press a number for a service. It says, "If you woke up with a hangover and a pair of [[testicles|hairy balls]] on your [[forehead]], press "7". You pressed "7". You've just been victimized and introduced to a moral crime known as "teabaggin'". We suggest you promptly hang up the phone, beat the ass of any white guys you hung out with last night, and find and destroy all photos before they appear on the Internet. Thank you for calling. Good luck. Goodbye."
*On the [[television]] series ''[[Sex and the City]]'', [[Samantha Jones]], played by [[Kim Cattrall]], explained the practice of teabagging to her friends quite blatantly and loudly in a crowded restaurant in the episode "[[A Woman's Right to Shoes]]".<ref name="bedside">''The Bedside Orgasm Book: 365 Days of Sexual Ecstasy'', Cynthia W. Gentry, 2004. Page 293. ISBN 1-59233-101-7.</ref>
*When [[Robert Knepper]], whose character on ''[[Prison Break]]'' is nicknamed [[Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell|T-Bag]], appeared on ''[[Live with Regis and Kelly]]'' on [[30 January]] [[2007]] he began to recount how he learned what the name meant, but was cut off by host [[Kelly Ripa]], who quickly cut to a commercial break.
*[[We Are Klang]]'s song ''First Kiss'' contains the line "... and a [[lollipop man]] started teabagging me" followed by a mimed description.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://youtube.com/watch?v=vMG3PIOohfI|title=We Are Klang Edinbugh and Beyond 2007 2007-2: 'First Kiss'|accessdate=2007-12-14}}</ref>
* In the Comedy film [[Soul Plane]] Tom Arnold wants to know what Teabagging is after his daughter mentions it to him.
* In the television show [[Kenny vs. Spenny]] during a humiliation, both Kenny and Spenny were teabagged by the crew members after a draw on a competition.
* In the television show [[My Name Is Earl]] in the episode "Girl Earl," a grocery store bagger (Played by [[John Heder]]) returns home to find his house vandalized, and robbed of all his furniture and belongings. He then sees spray painted on the wall across from him the line, "Teabagger, get it?"
* In the television animation [[Family Guy]], [[Stewie Griffin]] asks if Dylan would like to 'Teabag' him at his Naked Tea Party.

== Other uses ==
*In [[windsurfing]] and other [[watersports]], an individual is "teabagged" when they fall beneath the water of a choppy wave.<ref name="rot" />

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

{{sex}}

[[Category:Oral eroticism]]
[[Category:Practical jokes]]
[[Category:Sexual fetishism]]
[[Category:Sexual slang]]
[[Category:Sexual acts]]

[[cs:Teabagging]]
[[pl:Teabagging]]

Beautiful (Christina-Aguilera-Lied)

2008-07-05T02:34:53Z

Work permit: Reverted edits by 201.221.190.31 to last version by Seraphim Whipp (using Huggle)

{{Infobox Single 
| Name = Beautiful
| Cover = Beautifulxtina.jpg
| Artist = [[Christina Aguilera]]
| Album = [[Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)|Stripped]]
| Released = [[December 24]] [[2002]] ([[United States|U.S.]])
| Format = [[12-inch single|12" single]], [[CD single]]
| Recorded =
| Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]], [[contemporary R&B|R&B]]
| Length = 4:05
| Label = [[RCA Records|RCA]]
| Writer = [[Linda Perry]]
| Producer = Linda Perry
| Certification = Platinum ([[Australian Recording Industry Association|ARIA]]) Gold ([[Recording Industry Association of America|RIAA]])
| Last single = "[[Dirrty]]" (2002)
| This single = "'''Beautiful'''" (2002)
| Next single = "[[Fighter (song)|Fighter]]" (2003)
}}

"'''Beautiful'''" is a [[pop music|pop]] song written and produced by [[Linda Perry]] and recorded by [[United States|American]] singer-songwriter [[Christina Aguilera]] for her second studio album, ''[[Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)|Stripped]]'' (2002). It is a [[cello]]-driven, [[classical music|classically]]-flavored [[ballad (music)|ballad]] in which its protagonist deals with hurtful statements made against her that cause her to feel insecure and have low self-esteem. She does not let other people's negativity get the best of her. It was released as the album's second [[single (music)|single]] in late 2002 (see [[2002 in music]]) and reached number one in several countries. The song earned her a [[Grammy Award]] for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.

== Background ==
Perry had written "Beautiful" long before she let anyone hear it. She considered the song very dear and personal to her and was insecure about sharing it with anyone else. At first she had let [[Pink (singer)|Pink]] hear "Beautiful" before anyone else during their ''[[M!ssundaztood]]'' sessions. Pink was so impressed with the song that she had asked Perry if she could record it for her album, but Perry declined, feeling that she wanted to save it for her own singing career. A few months later, while Aguilera and Perry were recording for the ''Stripped'' session, Perry also let Aguilera listen to the song. Aguilera so much liked the song that while Perry was playing the piano for it, Aguilera took over the vocals for the song. After that, Aguilera told Perry that she needed this song on her album. Perry was both impressed by Aguilera and confused, because even though she was blown away by her rendition of the song, she still did not want to give it up. After Aguilera continued lobbying for the song, Perry was finally convinced that Aguilera matched the song perfectly and handed it over to her.<ref>[http://www.ascap.com/playback/2003/fall/perry.html "Linda Perry, High Priestess of Pop"]. [[American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers]]. 2003. Retrieved [[June 12]], [[2007]].</ref>

The song was recorded in a single take. Aguilera reportedly expressed concerns that she had hit some notes too flat and some too sharp, but Perry insisted that she leave them in.

Some instruments used in this song include the cello, piano, violin and drums.

==Music and structure==
"Beautiful" is a gentle [[ballad (music)|ballad]] composed in the key of [[E-flat major|E♭ major]].<ref name="sheet">Sheet music for "Beautiful". Famous Music. 2002.</ref> It moves at a slow 78 [[beats per minute]].<ref name="sheet"/> Aguilera's [[vocal range]] spans over an octave and a half, from B♭3 to G♭5.<ref name="sheet"/> She uses several [[melisma]]s in the song, fitting as many as seven notes in one syllable.<ref name="sheet"/>

==Critical reception==
"Beautiful" received positive reviews from music critics. ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' found it to be a highlight of ''Stripped'', finding it "more restrained" than the rest of the album.<ref>Browne, David. [http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,384149~4~0~stripped,00.html "Stripped (Music - Christina Aguilera)"]. ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]''. [[October 28]], [[2002]]. Retrieved [[June 12]], [[2007]].</ref> ''[[Stylus Magazine]]'' described the song as "a typical ballad that actually tastefully reins in Aguilera's frequent vocal acrobatics".<ref name="stylus">Burns, Todd. [http://www.stylusmagazine.com/reviews/christina-aguilera/stripped.htm "Christina Aguilera - Stripped - Review"]. ''[[Stylus Magazine]]''. [[January 9]], [[2003]]. Retrieved [[June 12]], [[2007]].</ref>

==Release and success==
[[Image:ChristinaAguileraBeautiful.jpg|left|thumb|Christina Aguilera performing "Beautiful" on the [[Back to Basics Tour]].]]

According to Perry, she and Aguilera's management had recommended "Beautiful" as the [[lead single]] from ''Stripped'' but that Aguilera insisted on releasing "[[Dirrty]]" instead.<ref name="dirrty">Hiatt, Brian. [http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,384172,00.html "Rump Shaken"]. ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'', issue 680. [[November 1]], [[2002]]. Retrieved [[June 15]], [[2007]].</ref> [[RCA Records]] stated that it had agreed with Aguilera to release "Dirrty" to attract attention;<ref name="dirrty"/> when the song only reached number forty-eight on the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Hot 100]], "Beautiful" was rush-released as the second single.<ref name="stylus"/> The song peaked at number two on the U.S. Hot 100 largely because of its strong radio airplay; it was released as a 12" [[maxi single]] and at the time sales of this format were much lower than those of regular CD and CD maxi singles. "Beautiful" stayed in the U.S. top forty for twenty-four weeks, and topped many other ''Billboard'' magazine charts. It was equally successful elsewhere, and reached number one on the charts in the UK (where it was her fourth number-one single), [[Australia]] (where it was her first) and [[Canada]] (where it was her second). In New Zealand, it peaked at number one too, and with thirteen weeks in the Top 10, it became the sixtieth most successful song of all time there.<ref>[http://charts.org.nz/bestall.asp charts.org.nz - New Zealand charts portal]</ref>

"Beautiful" won a 2004 [[Grammy Award]] for "[[Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance|Best Female Pop Vocal Performance]]", and Linda Perry received a 2004 [[Grammy Award]] nomination for [[Song of the Year]]. The song was ranked number two in the "Readers' Top Ten Singles" list at the 2004 [[Rolling Stone]] Music Awards, and its video was also placed at number two in the "Best Video, Readers' Pick" category. The video was the recipient of the "Popular Female Video" award at the 2003 Channel [V] Thailand Music Video Awards. A [[remix]] of "Beautiful" by [[Peter Rauhofer]] won a 2003 [[HX Magazine|HX]] Award for "Dance Song of the Year". The single sold over 7,026,000 millions copies worldwide.

==Music video==
[[Image:BeautifulVideo.png|left‎|thumb|A transwoman looking in a mirror in a scene dealing with LGBT and body image issues.]]

The song's [[music video]] was directed by [[Jonas Åkerlund]]. The video opens with Aguilera speaking the line "Don't look at me", followed by scenes of her singing alone in a room intercut with [[self image]]-related sequences of other people, several of which deal with [[body image]]. An [[underweight]] girl examines herself in a [[mirror]], eventually punching through it; a thin boy stands [[lifting weights]] in a room plastered with images of [[bodybuilder]]s; and a girl rips out pages of [[women's magazines]] and throws them into a fire. In one sequence, a girl is [[assault]]ed by several peers, and in another, a [[goth subculture|goth]] sits at the back of a bus while several people get up and move. The video also touches on [[LGBT]] issues. One scene features two [[homosexual]] men, portrayed by Jordan Shannon and Justin Croft, [[French kiss]]ing on a bench and ignoring the stares of people who pass them.<ref name="video">[http://www.glaad.org/media/release_detail.php?id=3283 "Christina Aguilera to be Honored at 14th Annual GLAAD Media Awards Presented by Absolut Vodka in Los Angeles"]. [[Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation]]. [[February 8]], [[2003]]. Retrieved [[June 12]], [[2007]].</ref> Another scene shows a [[transwoman]], played by Robert Sherman, putting on makeup, a wig, and women's clothing.<ref name="video"/>

The music video was successful on video chart programs. It debuted on [[MTV]]'s ''[[Total Request Live]]'' on [[December 9]], [[2002]] at number two.<ref>[http://www.atrl.net/trlarchive/?s=debuts "The TRL Archive - Debuts"]. ATRL. Retrieved [[June 12]], [[2007]].</ref> It was unable to reach the top of the countdown but remained on it for fifty days and retired at number six on [[February 25]], [[2003]].<ref>[http://www.atrl.net/trlarchive/?s=halloffame "The TRL Archive - Hall of Fame"]. ATRL. Retrieved [[June 12]], [[2007]].</ref> The video topped [[MuchMusic]]'s ''[[Countdown (MuchMusic TV series)|Countdown]]'' for two consecutive weeks and remained on the countdown for fifteen weeks.<ref name="t40c">[http://top40-charts.com/songs/full.php?sid=5617&sort=chartid "Christina Aguilera Beautiful"]. Top40-Charts.com. Retrieved [[June 12]], [[2007]].</ref> The video received a Special Recognition award, presented by [[David LaChapelle]], from the [[Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation]] at its [[14th Annual GLAAD Media Awards|14th annual media awards]].<ref name="glaad">[http://www.glaad.org/media/release_detail.php?id=3359 "Eric McCormack, Todd Haynes, Christina Aguilera, The Hours, Six Feet Under Honored at 14th Annual GLAAD Media Awards Presented by Absolut Vodka in Los Angeles"]. [[Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation]]. [[April 26]], [[2003]]. Retrieved [[June 12]], [[2007]].</ref> After an [[a cappella]] performance of the song, Aguilera stated in her acceptance speech that "this song is definitely a universal message that everybody can relate to - anyone that's been [[discriminated]] against or unaccepted, unappreciated or disrespected just because of who you are."<ref name="glaad"/>

==Cover versions==
* [[Elvis Costello]] covered the song specifically for the ''[[House (TV series)|House]]'' episode "[[Autopsy (House episode)|Autopsy]]".<ref>Bundy, Brill and Porter, Rick. [http://tv.zap2it.com/tveditorial/tve_main/1,1002,271%7c96656%7c1%7c,00.html "Press Tour Tidbits: Brett Ratner 'Loves' Naked Men"]. [[Tribune Media Services]]. [[July 29]], [[2005]]. Retrieved [[June 12]], [[2007]].</ref>

* It was also covered by [[Gloria Gaynor]] in the British television program, ''[[Hit Me Baby One More Time]]'', where she performed a [[disco]] version of the song.

* In addition, guitarists [[Richard Fortus]] and [[Robin Finck]] of [[Guns N' Roses]] covered "Beautiful" instrumentally for the early shows of Guns N' Roses' 2006 tour.

* It was covered by [[Kenny G]] and [[Chaka Khan]] for Kenny G's ''[[At Last...The Duets Album]]''.

* [[Clem Snide]] covered the song as the title track to its 2004 ''[[A Beautiful EP]]''.

*''[[MADtv]]'' parodied the music video as "Virginal", with [[Christina Moore]] portraying Aguilera. In the video, the public "didn't care to see Aguilera's [[pubic hair]]" in the "Dirrty" video, so Aguilera becomes "virginal".<ref>Episode 815, ''[[MADtv]]'' ([[15 February]], [[2003]]).</ref>

* Alex Parks winner of [[BBC TV]]'s "[[Fame Academy]]" also recorded a version for her 2003 debut album and appeared as a b-side to her first single "[[Maybe That's What It Takes]]".

* ''[[Australian Idol 2006]]'' runner up [[Jessica Mauboy]] performed a cover during the Top 10 show #1 Hits, which received much praise from the judges and audience. She then went on to release a cover of "Beautiful" for her ''Australian Idol: The Journey'' album which was released as a single but never was charted.

* Bob Ricci recorded a parody of the song called "Unhackable" for his 2008 album Bob's Gone Wild.

* In "Believe the Unseen", an episode of ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'' that first aired on [[2008-01-10]], the song is performed a capella by a young girl with [[Leber's congenital amaurosis]].

* The band [[Hunchback (band)|Hunchback]] recorded a cover version for their album ''[[Pray For Scars]]'' which features Michael Gerald from [[Killdozer (band)|Killdozer]].

* [[The Zutons]] performed a cover of the song for [[Radio 1]]s [[Live Lounge]].

==Formats and track listings==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
;American 12" vinyl single
# "Beautiful" (Peter Rauhofer remix)
# "Beautiful" (Al B Rich Next Level mix)
# "Beautiful" (Valentin club mix)

;American digital download
# "Beautiful" (Peter Rauhofer radio mix)
# "Beautiful" (Al B Rich radio mix)
# "Beautiful" (Valentin radio mix)
# "Beautiful" (Peter Rauhofer short club)
# "Beautiful" (Brother Brown mixshow)
# "Beautiful" (Brother Brown Divine mix)
# "Beautiful" (Al B Rich Next Level mix)
# "Beautiful" (Peter Rauhofer Beautiful theme)
# "Beautiful" (Valentin club mix)
# "Beautiful" (Peter Rauhofer extended club)
# "Beautiful" (Brother Brown dub)
{{col-2}}
;Australian CD single
# "Beautiful"
# "Dame Lo Que Yo Te Doy"
# "Beautiful" (video)

;British 12" vinyl single
# "Beautiful" (Shanghai Surprise mix)
# "Beautiful" (Tom Mandolini mix)
# "Beautiful" (Brother Brown mixshow)
# "Beautiful" (Brother Brown Divine mix)
{{col-end}}

==Credits and personnel==
* Lead vocals: Christina Aguilera
* [[Record producer|Producer]]: Linda Perry
* [[Recording engineer]]: Linda Perry
* [[Bass guitar]]: Linda Perry
* [[Cello]]: Richard Dodd
* [[Drum kit|Drums]]: [[Brian MacLeod]]
* [[Electronic keyboard|Keyboards]]: Damon Fox
* [[Piano]]: Linda Perry
* [[Violin]]: [[Eric Gorfain]]
* [[Audio mixing|Audio mixer]]: Dave Pensado

== Charts ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!align="left"|Chart (2003)<ref name="t40c"/>
!align="center"|Peak position
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Australia}} Australian Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Austria}} Austrian Singles Chart
|align="center"|5
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Canada}} Canadian Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Dutch Top 40]]
|align="center"|2
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Europe}} [[European Hot 100]] Singles
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|France}} French Singles Chart
|align="center"|27
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Germany}} German Singles Chart
|align="center"|4
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Greece}} Greek Singles Chart
|align="center"|12
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Ireland}} [[Irish Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Italy}} Italian Singles Chart
|align="center"|8
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Norway}} Norwegian Singles Chart
|align="center"|5
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Romania}} [[Romanian Top 100]]<ref>[http://www.rt100.ro/top-100-edition.html "Romanian Top 100"] Please see "Issue 15" of the year 2003 </ref>
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Sweden}} Swedish Singles Chart
|align="center"|3
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Switzerland}} Swiss Singles Chart
|align="center"|7
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|UK}} [[UK Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|World}} United World Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|US}} U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot 100
|align="center"|2
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|US}} U.S. ''Billboard'' Adult Contemporary
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|US}} U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot Dance Music/Club Play
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|US}} U.S. ''Billboard'' Rhythmic Top 40
|align="center"|13
|-
|align="left"|{{flagicon|US}} U.S. ''Billboard'' Top 40 Mainstream
|align="center"|1
|}
{{col-end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.rcarecords.com/media/christina_aguilera/audio/11_beautiful_32.ram "Beautiful" audio] ([[RealAudio]] format)
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KNthqC2fsVw "Beautiful" music video]

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Lose Yourself]]" by [[Eminem]]
| title = [[Australian Record Industry Association|ARIA (Australia)]] number one single
| years = [[March 2]] [[2003]]
| after = "[[Lost Without You]]" by [[Delta Goodrem]]
}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[The Ketchup Song]]" by [[Las Ketchup]]
| title = [[Canadian Singles Chart|Canadian number-one single]]
| years = [[March 15]] [[2003]] (1 week)
| after = "[[I Drove All Night]]" by [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]]
}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[All the Things She Said]]" by [[t.A.T.u.]]
| title = [[List of number-one singles from the 2000s (UK)|UK number one single]]
| years = [[March 2]] [[2003]] - [[March 15]] [[2003]]
| after = "[[Spirit in the Sky]]" by [[Gareth Gates]] featuring [[The Kumars]]
}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Feel (Robbie Williams song)|Feel]]" by [[Robbie Williams]]
| title = United World Chart [[List of number-one hits (World)|number one single]]
| years = [[March 8]] [[2003]] - [[April 12]] [[2003]]
| after = "[[I'm with You]]" by [[Avril Lavigne]]
}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Try It on My Own]]" by [[Whitney Houston]]
| title = [[Hot Dance Club Play|''Billboard'' Hot Dance Club Play]] [[Number-one dance hits of 2007 (USA)|Dance Club Play number-one single]]
| years = [[April 19]], [[2003]]
| after = "[[On a High]]" by [[Duncan Sheik]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{Christina Aguilera}}

[[Category:2000s ballads]]
[[Category:2000s pop songs]]
[[Category:2002 singles]]
[[Category:2003 singles]]
[[Category:ARC Weekly Top 40 number-one singles]]
[[Category:Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks number-one singles]]
[[Category:Billboard Hot Dance Club Play number-one singles]]
[[Category:Christina Aguilera songs]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Australia]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Canada]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Ireland]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in New Zealand]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Peter Rauhofer remixes]]
[[Category:Pop ballads]]

[[es:Beautiful]]
[[it:Beautiful (canzone)]]
[[he:Beautiful]]
[[nl:Beautiful]]
[[pl:Beautiful (singel)]]
[[pt:Beautiful]]
[[simple:Beautiful (Christina Aguilera song)]]
[[vi:Beautiful (bài hát Christina Aguilera)]]