Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Nestlé-Boykott

2013-09-04T02:54:20Z

Wingman4l7: /* Current status of the boycott */ --fixed citation typo

{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2011}}
A [[boycott]] was launched in the United States on July 7, 1977, against the Swiss-based [[Nestlé]] corporation. It spread in the United States, and expanded into Europe in the early 1980s. It was prompted by concern about Nestlé's "aggressive marketing" of [[breast milk]] substitutes ([[infant formula]]), particularly in less economically developed countries ([[LEDC]]s), which campaigners claim contributes to the unnecessary suffering and deaths of babies, largely among the poor.<ref>
[http://www.BabyMilkAction.org/ Campaigners website stating their claims]</ref> Among the campaigners, Professor Derek Jelliffe and his wife Patrice, who contributed to establish the [[World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action]] (WABA), were particularly instrumental in helping to coordinate the boycott and giving it ample visibility worldwide.

==The baby milk issue==
Groups such as the [[International Baby Food Action Network]] (IBFAN) and [[Save the Children]] claim that the promotion of infant formula over breastfeeding has led to health problems and deaths among infants in less economically developed countries.<ref>{{cite web | title = What is the Problem? | work = IBFAN | url = http://www.ibfan.org/site2005/Pages/article.php?art_id=23&iui=1| accessdate = June 6, 2007 }}</ref><ref name="savechildren">[http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/resources/online-library/a-generation-on-baby-milk-marketing-still-putting-childrens-lives-at-risk A Generation On: Baby milk marketing still putting children’s lives at risk] Save the Children report, May 2007 (pdf).</ref> There are four problems that can arise when poor mothers in developing countries switch to formula:

*Formula must normally be mixed with water, which is often contaminated in poor countries, leading to disease in vulnerable infants.<ref name="Moorhead_2007">[http://www.guardian.co.uk/medicine/story/0,,2079757,00.html Milking it] Joanna Moorhead, The Guardian, May 15, 2007</ref> Because of the low literacy rates in developing nations, many mothers are not aware of the sanitation methods needed in the preparation of bottles. Even mothers able to read in their native tongue may be unable to read the language in which sterilization directions are written.

*Although some mothers can understand the sanitation standards required, they often do not have the means to perform them: fuel to boil water, electric (or other reliable) light to enable sterilisation at night. [[UNICEF]] estimates that a formula-fed child living in disease-ridden and unhygienic conditions is between 6 and 25 times more likely to die of [[diarrhea]] and four times more likely to die of [[pneumonia]] than a breastfed child.<ref name=unicef>{{cite web | title = Infant and Young Child Feeding and Care| work = UNICEF | url = http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/index_breastfeeding.html| accessdate = June 8, 2007 }}</ref>

*Many poor mothers use less formula powder than is necessary, in order to make a container of formula last longer. As a result, some infants receive inadequate [[nutrition]] from weak solutions of formula.<ref>[http://www.WorldConcern.org/NETCOMMUNITY/Page.aspx?&pid=1556&srcid=596 World Concern website describes mothers' needs to dilute formula]</ref>

*Breast milk has many natural benefits lacking in formula. [[Nutrients]] and [[antibodies]] are passed to the baby while [[hormones]] are released into the mother's body.<ref name=CDC>{{cite web | title=Breastfeeding | work=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | url=http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/ | accessdate=January 23, 2007}}</ref> Breastfed babies are protected, in varying degrees, from a number of illnesses, including diarrhea, [[bacterial meningitis]], [[gastroenteritis]], [[Otitis media|ear infection]], and [[respiratory infection]].<ref name="Gartner_2005">{{cite journal | author=Gartner LM | title=Breastfeeding and the use of human milk | journal=Pediatrics | year=2005 | pages=496–506 | volume=115 | issue=2 | url=http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;115/2/496 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2004-2491 | pmid= 15687461 | author-separator=, | display-authors=1 | last2=Morton | first2=J | last3=Lawrence | first3=RA | last4=Naylor | first4=AJ | last5=O'Hare | first5=D | last6=Schanler | first6=RJ | last7=Eidelman | first7=AI | author8=American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Breastfeeding}}</ref><ref name=HHS>{{cite web|title=Mothers and Children Benefit from Breastfeeding|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20090316071541/http://www.4woman.gov/breastfeeding/index.cfm?page=227|publisher=Womenshealth.gov|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090316071541/http://www.4woman.gov/breastfeeding/index.cfm?page=227|archivedate=16 Mar 2009|date=27 February 2009}}</ref><ref name="Merck">[http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec09/ch122/ch122a.html "Gastroenteritis"]. ''Merck Manuals Online Medical Library''. February 1, 2003. Retrieved November 21, 2006.</ref> Breast milk contains the right amount of the nutrients essential for [[neuronal]] (brain and nerve) development.<ref name="Atkinson_1989">{{cite book | author = Atkinson, S | coauthors = Bo Lönnerdal | title = Proteins and non-protein nitrogens in human milk | publisher = CRC Press | year = 1989 | pages = 131 | isbn = 0-8493-6795-6 }}</ref> The bond between baby and mother can be strengthened during breastfeeding.<ref name="HHS" /> Frequent and exclusive breastfeeding can also [[lactational amenorrhea|delay the return of fertility]], which can help women in developing countries to space their births.<ref>{{cite web | title = Comparison of Effectiveness | work = Planned Parenthood | month = April | year = 2005 | url = http://www.PlannedParenthood.org/birth-control-pregnancy/birth-control/effectiveness.htm | accessdate = August 12, 2006 }}, which cites: :{{cite book | first=RA | last=Hatcher | year=2000 | title=Contraceptive Technology | edition=18th | publisher=Ardent Media | location=New York | isbn=0-9664902-6-6 | author-separator=, | author2=Trussel J | author3=Stewart F | display-authors=2 }}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] recommends that, in the majority of cases, babies should be exclusively breast fed for the first six months.<ref>[http://www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/EB109/eeb10912.pdf World Health Organization], "Global strategy for infant and young child feeding," section titled "EXERCISING OTHER FEEDING OPTIONS" November 24, 2001</ref>

Advocacy groups and charities have accused Nestlé of unethical methods of promoting infant formula over breast milk to poor mothers in developing countries.<ref>[http://www.InFactCanada.ca/nestle_boycott_product.htm Nestlé Products to Boycott]</ref><ref name="history">[http://www.BabyMilkAction.org/pages/history.html History of the campaign] Baby Milk Action Group</ref> For example, IBFAN claim that Nestlé distributes free formula samples to hospitals and maternity wards; after leaving the hospital, the formula is no longer free, but because the supplementation has interfered with lactation, the family must continue to buy the formula. IBFAN also allege that Nestlé uses "humanitarian aid" to create markets, does not label its products in a language appropriate to the countries where they are sold, and offers gifts and sponsorship to influence health workers to promote its products.<ref>{{cite web | title = How breastfeeding is undermined | work = IBFAN | url = http://www.ibfan.org/english/issue/bfundermined01.html | accessdate = June 6, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070415171525/http://www.ibfan.org/english/issue/bfUndermined01.html  |archivedate = April 15, 2007}}</ref> Nestlé denies these allegations.<ref name=Nestle_response>{{cite web | title = WHO Code Violation Allegations | work = Nestlé | url = http://www.babymilk.nestle.com/Who+Code+Issues/Allegations/ | accessdate = June 6, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070409144431/http://www.babymilk.nestle.com/Who+Code+Issues/Allegations/  |archivedate = April 9, 2007}}</ref>

==History of the boycott==
Nestlé's marketing strategy was first written about in ''[[New Internationalist]]'' magazine in 1973 and in a booklet called ''[[The Baby Killer]]'', published by the British NGO [[War On Want]] in 1974. Nestlé attempted to sue the publisher of a German-language translation (Third World Action Group) for [[libel]]. After a two-year trial, the court found in favour of Nestlé because they could not be held responsible for the infant deaths 'in terms of criminal law'.<ref name="Sethi_1994">{{cite journal | author=Sethi, S. Prakash |title= Multinational Corporations and the Impact of Public Advocacy on Corporate Strategy: Nestlé and the Infant Formula Controversy| journal= Journal of International Business Studies| year=1994 | pages= 658–660 | volume= 25 | issue=3 | doi=10.1057/jibs.1994.41 | jstor=155364}}</ref>
Because the defendants were only fined 300 Swiss Francs (just over US$400, adjusted for inflation<ref>http://www.forecasts.org/data/data/EXSZUS.htm</ref>), and Judge Jürg Sollberger commented that Nestlé "must modify its publicity methods fundamentally", ''[[TIME]]'' magazine declared this a "moral victory" for the defendants.<ref name="TIME_1976">[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,914298,00.html The Formula Flap] TIME Magazine, Jul. 12, 1976</ref>

The widespread publicity led to the launch of the boycott in [[Minneapolis]], USA, by the [[Corporate_Accountability_International#History|Infant Formula Action Coalition]] (INFACT) and this boycott soon spread to Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Europe. In May 1978, the US Senate held a public hearing into the promotion of breast milk substitutes in developing countries and joined calls for a Marketing Code. In 1979, WHO and UNICEF hosted an international meeting that called for the development of an international code of marketing, as well as action on other fronts to improve infant and early child feeding practices. The International Baby Food Action Network (IBFAN) was formed by six of the campaigning groups at this meeting.<ref name ="history"/>

In 1981, the 34th [[World Health Assembly]] (WHA) adopted Resolution WHA34.22 which includes the [[International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes]]. The Code covers infant formula and other milk products, foods and beverages, when marketed or otherwise represented to be suitable as a partial or total replacement of breast milk. It bans the promotion of breast milk substitutes and gives health workers the responsibility for advising parents. It limits manufacturing companies to the provision of scientific and factual information to health workers and sets forth labeling requirements.<ref>{{cite web | title = The International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes | work = WHO| year=1981|url = http://www.WHO.int/nutrition/publications/code_english.pdf | accessdate = June 6, 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref>

In 1984, boycott coordinators met with Nestlé, which agreed to implement the code, and the boycott was officially suspended. In 1988 IBFAN alleged that formula companies were flooding health facilities in the developing world with free and low-cost supplies, and the boycott was relaunched the following year.<ref name="Moorhead_2007"/>

In May 1999 a ruling against Nestlé was issued by the UK [[Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)|Advertising Standards Authority]] (ASA). Nestlé claimed in an anti-boycott advertisement that it markets infant formula “ethically and responsibly”. The ASA found that Nestlé could not support this nor other claims in the face of evidence provided by the campaigning group Baby Milk Action.<ref name="Ferriman_1999">{{cite journal | last = Ferriman| first = Annabel | title= Advertising Standards Authority finds against Nestlé | journal=BMJ| date = February 13, 1999| pages= 318:417| url= http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/318/7181/417/a | pmid= 9974443 | volume = 318 | issue = 7181 | pmc=1114895}}</ref>

In November 2000 the [[European Parliament]] invited IBFAN, UNICEF, and Nestlé to present evidence to a Public Hearing before the Development and Cooperation Committee. Evidence was presented by the IBFAN group from [[Pakistan]] and UNICEF's legal officer commented on Nestlé's failure to bring its policies into line with the World Health Assembly Resolutions. Nestlé declined an invitation to attend, claiming scheduling conflicts, although it sent a representative of the auditing company it had commissioned to produce a report on its Pakistan operation.<ref>{{cite press release | title = European Parliament public hearing on Nestlé's baby food marketing | publisher = Breast Feeding Promotion Network of India | date = November 22, 2000 | url = http://www.bpni.org/Press_Releases/pr-nov.22,2000.pdf | accessdate = June 8, 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release | title = MEPs shocked as Nestlé and Adidas snub Public Hearing on corporate responsibility | publisher = Baby Milk Action | date = November 23, 2000 | url = http://www.ibfan.org/english/news/press/press23nov00.html | accessdate = June 8, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = European Parliament Committee on Development | work = Nestlé | url = http://www.BabyMilk.nestle.com/News/All+Countries/Other/European+Parliament+Committee+on+Development.htm | accessdate = June 7, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070927020154/http://www.BabyMilk.nestle.com/News/All+Countries/Other/European+Parliament+Committee+on+Development.htm  |archivedate = September 27, 2007}}</ref>

==Current status of the boycott==

{{As of|2013}}, the Nestlé boycott is coordinated by the ''International Nestlé Boycott Committee'', the secretariat for which is the UK group ''Baby Milk Action''.<ref>[http://www.BabyMilkAction.org/ Baby Milk Action]</ref> Company practices are monitored by the [[International Baby Food Action Network]] (IBFAN), which consists of more than 200 groups in over 100 countries.

In parallel with the boycott, campaigners work for implementation of the Code and Resolutions in legislation, and claim that 60 countries have now introduced laws implementing most or all of the provisions.<ref>{{cite web | title = The role of regulations in protecting infant health| work = IBFAN | url = http://www.ibfan.org/site2005/Pages/article.php?art_id=310&iui=1| accessdate = June 7, 2007}}</ref>

Many European universities, colleges, and schools have banned the sale of Nestlé products from their shops and vending machines. In the United Kingdom, 73 student unions, 102 businesses, 30 faith groups, 20 health groups, 33 consumer groups, 18 local authorities, 12 trade unions, education groups, 31 MPs, and many celebrities support the Nestlé boycott.<ref>{{cite web | title = UK groups endorsing the boycott| work = Baby Milk Action | url = http://www.BabyMilkAction.org/pages/endorsers.html#education |accessdate = November 7, 2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ousu.org/content/index.php?page=4113 An example of one such ban] Council of the Oxford University Student Union, June 9, 2006</ref>

Nestlé claims that it is in full compliance with the International Code.<ref>{{cite web | title = The "International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes"| work = Nestlé | url = http://www.BabyMilk.nestle.com/Who+Code+Issues/Nestle+Code+Compliance/Nestle+code+compliance.htm | accessdate = June 6, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070516200307/http://www.babymilk.nestle.com/Who+Code+Issues/Nestle+Code+Compliance/Nestle+code+compliance.htm  |archivedate = May 16, 2007}}</ref> According to Nestlé [[CEO]] [[Peter Brabeck-Letmathe]], "we also carry out annual audits on WHO Code compliance with a sample of Nestlé companies, and we investigate any substantiated claims made by those who believe we have broken the Code.... If we find that the Code has been deliberately violated, we take disciplinary action."<ref>{{cite web | title = Foreword by Peter Brabeck | work = Nestlé | url = http://www.BabyMilk.nestle.com/Developping+World/Foreword/
| accessdate = June 11, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070409050111/http://www.BabyMilk.nestle.com/Developping+World/Foreword/  |archivedate = April 9, 2007}}</ref> The company maintains that many of the allegations are unsubstantiated, out of date, or use IBFAN's own non-standard interpretation of the Code.<ref name=Nestle_response/>

In May 2011, the debate over Nestlé's unethical marketing of infant formula was relaunched in the Asia-Pacific region. Nineteen leading [[Laos]]-based international NGOs, including [[Save the Children]], [[Oxfam]], [[CARE International]], [[Plan International]] and [[World Vision]] have launched a boycott of Nestlé and written an open letter to the company. Among other unethical practices, the NGOs criticized the lack of labelling in Laos and the provision of incentives to doctors and nurses to promote the use of infant formula.<ref>{{cite web | title = The "LAOS: NGOs flay Nestlé’s infant formula strategy | url = http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportID=93040 | accessdate = 2011-06-023}}</ref>

==Boycott in the media==
An episode of the TV show ''[[The Mark Thomas Comedy Product]]'' produced by the British [[Channel Four]] in 1999 investigated the boycott and Nestlé's practices concerning baby milk. [[Mark Thomas]] attempted to find evidence for claims against Nestlé and to speak to heads of the company. In one portion of the show he "received a tin of baby milk from [[Mozambique]]. All instructions are in English. 33 languages and dialects are recognised in Mozambique. Portuguese is the official language. However, only about 30% of the population can speak it. English is usually the second language for people in Mozambique.<ref>[http://www.MarkThomasInfo.com/info/series4.asp Website for the Mark Thomas Product TV show]</ref>

In 2001, comedian [[Robert Newman (comedian)|Robert Newman]] and actress [[Emma Thompson]] called for a boycott of the [[Perrier Comedy Award]], because [[Perrier]] is owned by Nestlé.<ref>{{cite news | last = Scott | first = Kirsty | title = Spoof horror writer wins £5,000 Perrier award: Fringe comedy contest soured by baby milk protests | publisher = ''The Guardian'' | date = August 27, 2001| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/edinburghfestival2001/story/0,,543033,00.html| accessdate = June 11, 2007 }}</ref> An alternative competition called the Tap Water Awards was set up the following year.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Tap Water Awards| url = http://www.TapWaterAwards.org/| accessdate = June 11, 2007 }}</ref>

In 2002, authors [[Germaine Greer]] and [[Jim Crace]] withdrew from the [[Hay Festival]] in protest over Nestlé's sponsorship thereof.<ref>{{cite news | title = Writers boycott literary festival| publisher = BBC News| date = May 27, 2002| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2010324.stm| accessdate = June 7, 2007}}</ref>

A 2007 article in ''[[The Guardian]]'' highlighted aggressive marketing practices by Nestlé in [[Bangladesh]].<ref name="Moorhead_2007"/>

==See also==
*[[H2NO]] (a campaign by Coca-Cola to offer diners alternatives to drinking water)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ibfan.org/ International Baby Food Action Network (IBFAN)]
*[http://www.babymilkaction.org/ Baby Milk Action]
*[http://www.ibfan.org/english/pdfs/btr04/btr04nestle.pdf Nestlé marketing profile], from Breaking the Rules Stretching the Rules, IBFAN, 2004
*[http://babymilk.8k.com/ Edinburgh University Néstle Boycott Campaign]
*[http://www.babymilk.nestle.com Nestlé's response to the baby milk issue]

{{Nestlé}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nestle Boycott}}
[[Category:Boycotts of organizations]]
[[Category:Consumer boycotts]]
[[Category:Breastfeeding advocacy]]
[[Category:Nestlé|Boycott]]

Helium-3

2013-08-04T11:46:12Z

Wingman4l7: minor formatting fix

{{about|the elemental isotope| the record label|Helium 3 (record label)}}
{{Infobox isotope
| background = cyan
| isotope_name = Helium-3
| alternate_names =Helium-3, He-3
| symbol =He
| mass_number =3
| mass =3.0160293
| num_neutrons =1
| num_protons =2
| abundance =0.000137% (% He on Earth)
| abundance_2 =0.001% (% He Solar System)
| halflife =stable
| error_halflife =
| text_color =
| image =
| parent =Tritium
| parent_symbol =H
| parent_mass =3
| parent_decay =[[beta decay]] of tritium
| spin =1/2
}}

'''Helium-3''' (He-3) is a light, non-[[radioactive]] [[isotope]] of [[helium]] with two [[proton]]s and one [[neutron]]. It is rare on [[Earth]], and it is sought for use in [[nuclear fusion]] research. The abundance of helium-3 is thought to be greater on the [[Moon]] (embedded in the upper layer of [[lunar soil|regolith]] by the [[solar wind]] over billions of years),<ref>{{cite article|title=Global inventory of Helium-3 in lunar regoliths estimated by a multi-channel microwave radiometer on the Chang-E 1 lunar satellite|coauthors=Fa WenZhe & Jin YaQiu|url=http://lunarnetworks.blogspot.in/2010/12/change-1-maps-moons-helium-3-inventory.html|date=December2010}}</ref> though still low in quantity (28 [[parts per million|ppm]] of lunar regolith is [[helium-4]] and from one ppb to 50 ppb is helium-3),<ref>{{cite conference|first=E. N.|last=Slyuta|coauthors=Abdrakhimov, A. M.; Galimov, E. M.|date = March 12–16, 2007|year= |title=The Estimation of Helium-3 Probable Reserves in Lunar Regolith|conference=38th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference|pages=2175|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2007/pdf/2175.pdf}}</ref><ref name="F. H. Cocks 2010">{{cite journal|author=F. H. Cocks|year=2010|title=3He in permanently shadowed lunar polar surfaces|journal= Icarus|volume=206|issue=2|pages=778–779|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.12.032|bibcode=2010Icar..206..778C}}</ref> and the [[solar system]]'s [[gas giant]]s (left over from the original [[solar nebula]]).

The [[helion (chemistry)|helion]], the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of a helium-3 atom, consists of two protons but only one neutron, in contrast with two neutrons in common helium. Its hypothetical existence was first proposed in 1934 by the [[Australia]]n [[nuclear physicist]] [[Mark Oliphant]] while he was working at the [[University of Cambridge]] [[Cavendish Laboratory]]. Oliphant had performed experiments in which fast [[deuteron]]s collided with deuteron targets (incidentally, the first demonstration of [[nuclear fusion]]).<ref>{{cite journal|title=Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen|first=M. L. E.|last=Oliphant|coauthors=Harteck, P.; Rutherford, E.|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A|volume=144|issue=853|year=1934|pages=692–703|jstor=2935553| doi = 10.1098/rspa.1934.0077|bibcode=1934RSPSA.144..692O}}</ref>

Helium-3 was hypothesized to be a [[radioactive isotope]] until helions were also found in samples of natural helium, which is mostly [[helium-4]], taken both from the terrestrial atmosphere and from [[natural gas]] wells. This was done by [[Luis W. Alvarez]] and [[Robert Cornog]] in [[cyclotron]] experiments at the [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] in [[California]] in 1939.<ref>{{cite web|year=1981|publisher= Newsmagazine Publication|url=http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1981/81fepi1.html|title=Lawrence and His Laboratory: Episode: A Productive Error|accessdate=2009-09-01}}</ref>

Although helium-3 was found to be about 10,000 times rarer than helium-4 in the helium from the gas wells, its significant presence in underground gas deposits implied that either it did not decay, or else it had a very long [[half-life]] – billions of years. [[Hydrogen-1]] and helium-3 are the only stable nuclides that contain more protons than neutrons.

Helium-3 occurs as a primordial nuclide, escaping from the Earth's crust into the atmosphere and into [[outer space]] over millions of years. Helium-3 is also thought to be a natural [[nucleogenic]] and [[cosmogenic nuclide]], one produced when lithium is bombarded by natural neutrons. Those are released by [[spontaneous fission]] and by [[nuclear reaction]]s with [[cosmic ray]]s. Some of the helium-3 found in the terrestrial atmosphere is also a relic of atmospheric and underwater [[nuclear weapons testing]], conducted by the three big nuclear powers before 1963. Most of this comes from the decay of [[tritium]] (hydrogen-3), which decays into helium-3 with a [[half life]] of 12.3 years. Furthermore, some [[nuclear reactor]]s (landbound or shipbound) periodically release some helium-3 and tritium into the atmosphere, especially whenever something goes wrong. The [[Chernobyl disaster|nuclear reactor disaster at Chernobyl]] released a huge amount of radioactive tritium into the atmosphere, and smaller problems cause smaller releases. Furthermore, significant amounts of tritium and helium-3 have been deliberately produced in national arsenal nuclear reactors by the irradiation of [[lithium-6]]. The tritium is used to “boost” [[nuclear weapons]], and some of this inevitably escapes during its production, transportation, and storage. Hence, helium-3 enters the atmosphere both through its direct release and through the [[radioactive decay]] of tritium. The vast majority of these two gases have been produced and leaked by the former [[Soviet Union]], [[Russia]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[Republic of France]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2012}}

Helium-3 is proposed as a second-generation fuel for [[nuclear fusion]] in hypothetical [[fusion power|fusion power plant]]s, but such plants are still very early in their development—especially since first generation reactors have not yet entered into service. Helium-3 can be used in instruments for the detection of free neutrons, such as neutrons leaking from [[nuclear reactor]]s.

== Physical properties ==
Because of its lower atomic mass of 3.02 [[atomic mass unit]]s, helium-3 has some [[physical properties]] different from those of helium-4, with a mass of 4.00 atomic mass units. Because of the weak, induced dipole–dipole interaction between helium atoms, their macroscopic physical properties are mainly determined by their [[zero-point energy]] (ground-state kinetic energy). Also, the microscopic properties of helium-3 cause it to have a higher zero-point energy than helium-4. This implies that helium-3 can overcome dipole–dipole interactions with less thermal energy than helium-4 can.

The [[quantum mechanical]] effects on helium-3 and helium-4 are significantly different because with two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons, helium-4 has an overall "[[spin (physics)|spin]]" of '''zero''', making it a '''[[boson]]''', but with one fewer neutron, helium-3 has an overall spin of '''plus or minus one half''', making it a '''[[fermion]]'''.

Helium-3 boils at 3.19 [[kelvin|K]] compared with helium-4 at 4.23 K, and its [[critical point (thermodynamics)|critical point]] is also lower at 3.35 K, compared with helium-4 at 5.2 K. Helium-3 has less than one-half of the density when it is at its boiling point: 59 gram per liter compared to the 125 gram per liter of helium-4 — at a pressure of one atmosphere. Its latent heat of vaporization is also considerably lower at 0.026 [[kilojoule per mole]] compared with the 0.0829 [[kilojoule per mole]] of helium-4.<ref>[http://www.trgn.com/database/cryogen.html Teragon's Summary of Cryogen Properties] Teragon Research, 2005</ref>

== Fusion reactions ==
{| class="wikitable" | style="float: right; border: 1px solid #BBB; margin: .56em 0 0 .9em;"
|+ Comparison of neutronicity of reactions<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.tm.net/lapointe/IEC_Fusion.html|title=Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lancs.ac.uk/ug/suttond1/#fusion|title = Nuclear Fission and Fusion|accessdate=2007-05-06|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070404153838/http://www.lancs.ac.uk/ug/suttond1/#fusion |archivedate=2007-04-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://library.thinkquest.org/28383/nowe_teksty/htmla/2_37a.html|title=The Fusion Reaction|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/fdm1291.pdf|format=PDF|title=A Strategy for D – 3He Development|author = John Santarius|month=June|year=2006|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/nucrea.html|title=Nuclear Reactions|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref>
|-
! Reactants
!
! Products
! ''Q''

! n/MeV
|-
! colspan="5"|First-generation fusion fuels
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Deuterium|21H]] (D-D)
| →
| 32He + 10n
| 3.268 [[MeV]]
| 0.306
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Deuterium|21H]] (D-D)
| →
| [[Tritium|31H]] + 11p
| 4.032 [[MeV]]
| 0
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Tritium|31H]] (D-T)
| →
| [[Helium-4|42He]] + 10n
| 17.571 [[MeV]]
| 0.057
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="5"|Second-generation fusion fuel
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Deuterium|21H]] + 32He (D-3He)
| →
| [[Helium-4|42He]] + 11p
| 18.354 [[MeV]]
| 0
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="5"|Third-generation fusion fuels
|- style="text-align: center;"
| 32He + 32He
| →
| [[Helium-4|42He]]+ 211p
| 12.86 [[MeV]]
| 0
|- style="text-align: center;"
| 115B + 11p
| →
| 3 [[Helium-4|42He]]
| 8.68 [[MeV]]
| 0
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="5"|Net result of D burning (sum of first 4 rows)
|- style="text-align: center;"
| 6D
| →
| 2([[Helium-4|4He]] + n + p)
| 43.225 [[MeV]]
| 0.046
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="5"|Current nuclear fuel
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Uranium-235|235U]] + n
| →
| 2 [[Fission product|FP]]+ 2.5n
| ~200 [[MeV]]
| 0.001
|}

[[Image:fusion rxnrate.svg|right|300px|thumb|The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvins) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion energy.]]

Some fusion processes produce highly energetic neutrons which render reactor components [[radioactive]] with [[activation product]]s through the continuous bombardment of the reactor's components with emitted neutrons. Because of this bombardment and irradiation, [[power generation]] must occur indirectly through thermal means, as in a fission reactor. However, the appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the [[aneutronic fusion|aneutronic]] nature of its reaction products. Helium-3 itself is non-radioactive. The lone high-energy by-product, the [[proton]], can be contained using electric and magnetic fields. The momentum energy of this proton (created in the fusion process) will interact with the containing electromagnetic field, resulting in direct net electricity generation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/presentations/jfs_ieee0904.pdf|format=PDF|title= Lunar 3He and Fusion Power|author=John Santarius|date=September 28, 2004|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref>

Because of the higher [[Coulomb barrier]], the temperatures required for [[Deuterium|21H]] + 32He fusion are much higher than those of conventional [[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Tritium|31H]] ([[deuterium]] + [[tritium]]) fusion. Moreover, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, reactions between nuclei of the same reactant will occur, and the D-D reaction ([[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Deuterium|21H]]) does produce a [[neutron]]. Reaction rates vary with temperature, but the D-3He reaction rate is never greater than 3.56 times the D-D reaction rate (see graph). Therefore fusion using D-3He fuel may produce a somewhat lower neutron flux than D-T fusion, but is by no means clean, negating some of its main attraction.

A second possibility, fusing 32He with itself (32He + 32He), requires even higher temperatures (since now both reactants have a +2 charge), and thus is even more difficult than the D-3He reaction. However, it does offer a possible reaction that produces no neutrons; the protons it produces possess charges and can be contained using electric and magnetic fields, which in turn results in direct electricity generation. 32He + 32He fusion has been demonstrated in the laboratory and is thus theoretically feasible and would have immense advantages, but commercial viability is many years in the future.<ref>{{cite journal|url= http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/19296/|title=Mining the Moon: Lab experiments suggest that future fusion reactors could use helium-3 gathered from the moon|author=Mark Williams|journal=MIT Technology Review|date=August 23, 2007|accessdate=2011-01-25}}</ref>

The amounts of helium-3 needed as a replacement for [[fossil fuel|conventional fuel]]s are substantial by comparison to amounts currently available. The total amount of energy produced in the [[Deuterium|21H]] + 32He reaction is 18.4 M[[electronvolt|eV]], which corresponds to some 493 [[watt-hour|megawatt-hour]]s (4.93×108 W·h) per three [[gram]]s (one [[mole (chemistry)|mole]]) of ³He. Even if that total amount of energy could be converted to electrical power with 100% efficiency (a physical impossibility), it would correspond to about 30 minutes of output of a gigawatt electrical plant; a year's production by the same plant would require some 52.5 kilograms of helium-3.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}

The amount of fuel needed for large-scale applications can also be put in terms of total consumption: According to the US Energy Information Administration, "Electricity consumption by 107 million U.S. households in 2001 totaled 1,140 billion kW·h" (1.14×1015 W·h). Again assuming 100% conversion efficiency, 6.7 [[tonne]]s per year of helium-3 would be required for that segment of the energy demand of the United States, 15 to 20 tonnes per year given a more realistic end-to-end conversion efficiency.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}

== Neutron detection ==
'''Helium-3''' is a most important isotope in instrumentation for [[neutron detection]]. It has a high absorption cross section for thermal [[neutron radiation|neutron]] beams and is used as a converter gas in neutron detectors. The neutron is converted through the nuclear reaction
:n + 3He → 3H + 1H + 0.764 MeV
into charged particles [[tritium]] (T, 3H) and [[Hydrogen atom|protium]] (p, 1H) which then are detected by creating a charge cloud in the stopping gas of a [[proportional counter]] or a [[Geiger-Müller tube]].<ref>[http://www.lanl.gov/quarterly/q_sum03/neutron_detect.shtml A Modular Neutron Detector | Summer 2003| Los Alamos National Laboratory]. Lanl.gov. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref>

Furthermore, the absorption process is strongly [[Spin (physics)|spin]]-dependent, which allows a [[Spin polarization|spin-polarized]] helium-3 volume to transmit neutrons with one spin component while absorbing the other. This effect is employed in [[Polarized neutron scattering|neutron polarization analysis]], a technique which probes for magnetic properties of matter.<ref>[http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/AnnualReport/FY2002_html/pages/neutron_spin.htm NCNR Neutron Spin Filters]. Ncnr.nist.gov (2004-04-28). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref><ref>[http://www.ill.eu/science-technology/neutron-technology-at-ill/optics/3he-spin-filters/ ILL 3He spin filters]. Ill.eu (2010-10-22). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/staff/hammouda/publications/2000_gentile_j_appl_cryst.pdf|title= SANS polarization analysis with nuclear spin-polarized 3He|doi=10.1107/S0021889800099817|journal=J. Appl. Cryst. |year=2000|volume= 33|pages= 771–774}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/equipment/he3nsf/index.html Neutron Spin Filters: Polarized 3He]. NIST.gov</ref>

The [[United States]] [[Department of Homeland Security]] had hoped to deploy detectors to spot smuggled plutonium in shipping containers by their neutron emissions, but the worldwide shortage of helium-3 following the drawdown in nuclear weapons production since the [[Cold War]] has to some extent prevented this.<ref>Wald, Matthew L.. (2009-11-22) [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/23/us/23helium.html?partner=rss&emc=rss Nuclear Bomb Detectors Stopped by Material Shortage]. Nytimes.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref>

== Cryogenics ==
A [[helium-3 refrigerator]] uses helium-3 to achieve temperatures of 0.2 to 0.3 [[kelvin]]. A [[dilution refrigerator]] uses a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 to reach [[cryogenics|cryogenic]] temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a [[kelvin]].<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20100208194054/http://na47sun05.cern.ch/target/outline/dilref.html Dilution Refrigeration]. cern.ch</ref>

An important property of helium-3, which distinguishes it from the more common helium-4, is that its nucleus is a [[fermion]] since it contains an odd number of spin 1/2 particles. Helium-4 nuclei are [[boson]]s, containing an even number of spin 1/2 particles. This is a direct result of the [[Angular momentum quantum number#Addition of quantized angular momenta|addition rules]] for quantized angular momentum. At low temperatures (about 2.17 K), helium-4 undergoes a [[phase transition]]: A fraction of it enters a [[superfluid]] [[phase (matter)|phase]] that can be roughly understood as a type of [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]. Such a mechanism is not available for helium-3 atoms, which are fermions. However, it was widely speculated that helium-3 could also become a superfluid at much lower temperatures, if the atoms formed into ''pairs'' analogous to [[Cooper pair]]s in the [[BCS theory]] of [[superconductivity]]. Each Cooper pair, having integer spin, can be thought of as a boson. During the 1970s, [[David Lee (physicist)|David Lee]], [[Douglas Osheroff]] and [[Robert Coleman Richardson]] discovered two phase transitions along the melting curve, which were soon realized to be the two superfluid phases of helium-3.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Osheroff|first=D. D. |authorlink= |coauthors=Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M.|year=1972|month= |title=Evidence for a New Phase of Solid He3 |journal=[[Physical Review Letters]]|volume=28|issue=14|pages=885–888|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885|url= |bibcode= 1972PhRvL..28..885O}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Osheroff|first=D. D.|authorlink= |coauthors=Gully, W. J.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M.|year=1972|month= |title=New Magnetic Phenomena in Liquid He3 below 3 mK|journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=29|issue=14|pages=920–923|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.920|bibcode=1972PhRvL..29..920O}}</ref> The transition to a superfluid occurs at 2.491 millikelvins (i.e., 0.002491 K) on the melting curve. They were awarded the 1996 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for their discovery. [[Anthony James Leggett|Tony Leggett]] won the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on refining understanding of the superfluid phase of helium-3.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Leggett|first=A. J.|authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1972 |month= |title=Interpretation of Recent Results on He3 below 3 mK: A New Liquid Phase?|journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=29|issue=18|pages=1227–1230|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.1227|url= |bibcode=1972PhRvL..29.1227L}}</ref>

In zero magnetic field, there are two distinct superfluid phases of 3He, the A-phase and the B-phase. The B-phase is the low-temperature, low-pressure phase which has an isotropic energy gap. The A-phase is the higher temperature, higher pressure phase that is further stabilized by a magnetic field and has two point nodes in its gap. The presence of two phases is a clear indication that 3He is an unconventional superfluid (superconductor), since the presence of two phases requires an additional symmetry, other than gauge symmetry, to be broken. In fact, it is a ''p''-wave superfluid, with spin one, '''S'''=1, and angular momentum one, '''L'''=1. The ground state corresponds to total angular momentum zero, '''J'''='''S'''+'''L'''=0 (vector addition). Excited states are possible with non-zero total angular momentum, '''J'''>0, which are excited pair collective modes. Because of the extreme purity of superfluid 3He (since all materials except 4He have solidified and
sunk to the bottom of the liquid 3He and any 4He has phase separated entirely, this is the most pure condensed matter state), these collective modes have been studied with much greater precision than in any other unconventional pairing system.

== Medical lung imaging ==
Helium-3 nuclei have an intrinsic [[nuclear spin]] of ½, and a relatively high [[magnetogyric ratio]]. Helium-3 can be [[Hyperpolarization (physics)|hyperpolarized]] using non-equilibrium means such as spin-exchange optical pumping.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Hyperpolarized 3He Gas Production and MR Imaging of the Lung|first1 = Jason C.|last1 = Leawoods|first2 = Dmitriy A.|last2 = Yablonskiy|first3 = Brian|last3 = Saam|first4 = David S.|last4 = Gierada|first5 = Mark S.|last5 = Conradi|year =2001|journal =Concepts in Magnetic Resonance|volume =13|pages =277–293}}</ref> During this process, [[circular polarization|circularly polarized]] infrared laser light, tuned to the appropriate wavelength, is used to excite electrons in an [[alkali metal]], such as [[caesium]] or [[rubidium]] inside a sealed glass vessel. The [[angular momentum]] is transferred from the alkali metal electrons to the noble gas nuclei through collisions. In essence, this process effectively aligns the nuclear spins with the magnetic field in order to enhance the [[nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]] signal. The hyperpolarized gas may then be stored at pressures of 10 atm, for up to 100 hours. Following inhalation, gas mixtures containing the hyperpolarized helium-3 gas can be imaged with an MRI scanner to produce anatomical and functional images of lung ventilation. This technique is also able to produce images of the airway tree, locate unventilated defects, measure the [[pulmonary gas pressures|alveolar oxygen partial pressure]], and measure the [[ventilation/perfusion ratio]]. This technique may be critical for the diagnosis and treatment management of chronic respiratory diseases such as [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)]], [[emphysema]], [[cystic fibrosis]], and [[asthma]].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Hyperpolarized Gas Imaging of the Lung|first1 = Talissa|last1 = Altes|first2 = Michael|last2 = Salerno|year =2004|journal =J Thorac Imaging|volume =19|pages =250–258}}</ref>

== Production ==
Current US industrial consumption of helium-3 is approximately 60,000 liters per year;<ref name="fas">[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41419.pdf The Helium 3 Shortage: Supply, Demand, and Options for Congress]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> cost at auction has typically been approximately $100/liter although increasing demand has raised prices to as much as $2,000/liter in recent years.<ref>[http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/diagnostics/physics-projects-deflate-for-lack-of-helium3 Physics Projects Deflate for Lack of Helium-3]. Spectrum.ieee.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> Helium-3 is naturally present in small quantities due to radioactive decay, but virtually all helium-3 used in industry is manufactured. Helium-3 is a product of [[tritium]] decay, and tritium can be produced through neutron bombardment of [[deuterium]], [[lithium]], [[boron]], or [[nitrogen]] targets. Production of tritium in significant quantities requires the high neutron flux of a nuclear reactor; breeding tritium with lithium-6 consumes the neutron, while breeding with lithium-7 produces a low energy neutron as a replacement for the consumed fast neutron.

Current supplies of helium-3 come, in part, from the dismantling of nuclear weapons where it accumulates,<ref>Charmian Schaller [http://web.archive.org/web/20061029124748/http://afci.lanl.gov/aptnews/aptnews.mar1_98.html Accelerator Production of Tritium – That Could Mean 40 Years of Work]. Los Alamos Monitor. March 1, 1998</ref><ref>[http://www.ieer.org/sdafiles/vol_5/5-1/tritium.html Science for Democratic Action Vol. 5 No. 1]. IEER. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> however the need for warhead disassembly is diminishing. Consequently tritium itself is in short supply, and the US Department of Energy recently began producing it by the lithium irradiation method at the Tennessee Valley Authority's Watts Bar reactor.<ref name="fas"/> Substantial quantities of tritium could also be extracted from the heavy water moderator in [[CANDU]] nuclear reactors.

Production of helium-3 from tritium at a rate sufficient to meet world demand will require significant investment, as tritium must be produced at the same rate as helium-3, and approximately eighteen times as much tritium must be maintained in storage as the amount of helium-3 produced annually by decay (production rate {{math| ''{{Fraction |dN|dt}}'' }} from number of moles or other unit mass of tritium {{math|<VAR>''N''</VAR>}}, is {{math|''N γ'' {{=}} ''N'' {{Fraction |(ln 2)|''t''½}} }} where the value of {{math|{{Fraction |''t''½|(ln 2)}} }} is about 18 years; see [[radioactive decay]]). If commercial fusion reactors were to use helium-3 as a fuel, they would require tens of tonnes of helium-3 each year to produce a fraction of the world's power, requiring substantial expansion of facilities for tritium production and storage.<ref name=Witt>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]]</ref>

== Abundance ==

=== Solar nebula (primordial) abundance ===
One early estimate of the primordial ratio of 3He to 4He in the solar nebula has been the measurement of their ratio in the atmosphere of Jupiter, measured by the mass spectrometer of the Galileo atmospheric entry probe. This ratio is about 1:10,000,<ref>{{Cite journal | bibcode = 1996Sci...272..846N | title = The Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer: Composition of Jupiter's Atmosphere | author1 = Niemann | first1 = Hasso B. | last2 = Atreya | first2 = Sushil K. | last3 = Carignan | first3 = George R. | last4 = Donahue | first4 = Thomas M. | last5 = Haberman | first5 = John A. | last6 = Harpold | first6 = Dan N. | last7 = Hartle | first7 = Richard E. | last8 = Hunten | first8 = Donald M. | last9 = Kasprzak | first9 = Wayne T. | volume = 272 | year = 1996 | pages = 846–9 | journal = Science | doi = 10.1126/science.272.5263.846 | pmid = 8629016 | issue = 5263}}</ref> or 100 parts of 3He per million parts of 4He. This is roughly the same ratio of the isotopes in lunar regolith, when it contains 28 ppm helium-4 and 2.8 ppb helium-3 (which is at the lower end of actual sample measurements, which vary from about 1.4 to 15 ppb). However, terrestrial ratios of the isotopes are lower by a factor of 100, mainly due to enrichment of helium-4 stocks in the mantle by billions of years of [[alpha decay]] from [[uranium]] and [[thorium]].

=== Terrestrial abundance ===
{{main|isotope geochemistry}}

3He is a primordial substance in the Earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], considered to have become entrapped within the Earth during planetary formation. The ratio of 3He to 4He within the Earth's crust and mantle is less than that for assumptions of solar disk composition as obtained from meteorite and lunar samples, with terrestrial materials generally containing lower 3He/4He ratios due to ingrowth of 4He from radioactive decay.

3He is present within the mantle, in the ratio of 200–300 parts of 3He to a million parts of 4He. Ratios of 3He/4He in excess of atmospheric are indicative of a contribution of 3He from the mantle. Crustal sources are dominated by the [[helium-4|4He]] which is produced by the decay of radioactive elements in the crust and mantle.

The ratio of Helium-3 to Helium-4 in natural Earth-bound sources varies greatly.<ref name=Aldrich>Aldrich, L.T.; Nier, Alfred O. Phys. Rev. 74, 1590 – 1594 (1948). The Occurrence of He3 in Natural Sources of Helium. Page 1592, Tables I and II.</ref><ref name=Holden>Holden, Normen E. 1993. Helium Isotopic Abundance Variation in Nature. [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/10183304-ds0WIi/10183304.PDF copy of paper BNL-49331] "Table II. 3He Abundance of Natural Gas ... 3He in ppm ... Aldrich 0.05 – 0.5 ... Sano 0.46 – 22.7", "Table V. ... of Water ... 3He in ppm ... 1.6 – 1.8 East Pacific ... 0.006 – 1.5 Manitoba Chalk River ... 164 Japan Sea" (Aldrich measured Helium from US wells, Sano that of Taiwan gas [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v323/n6083/abs/323055a0.html])</ref> Samples of the ore [[Spodumene]] from Edison Mine, South Dakota were found to contain 12 parts of helium-3 to a million parts of helium-4. Samples from other mines showed 2 parts per million.<ref name=Aldrich/>

Helium is also present as up to 7% of some natural gas sources,<ref>[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/He/key.html WebElements Periodic Table: Professional Edition: Helium: key information]. Webelements.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> and large sources have over 0.5% (above 0.2% makes it viable to extract).<ref name=SmithDM>[[#Smith|Smith, D.M.]] "any concentration of helium above approximately 0.2 percent is considered worthwhile examining" ... "U.S. government still owns approximately 1 billion nm3 of helium inventory", "Middle East and North Africa ... many very large, helium-rich (up to 0.5 percent) natural gas fields" (Smith uses nm3 to mean "normal [[cubic metre]]", elsewhere called "cubic metre at [[standard temperature and pressure|STP]])</ref> Algeria's annual gas production is assumed to contain 100 million normal cubic metres<ref name=SmithDM/> and this would contain between 5 and 50 m3 of Helium-3 (about 1 to 10 kilograms) using the normal abundance range of 0.5 to 5 ppm. Similarly the US 2002 stockpile of 1 billion normal m3<ref name=SmithDM/> would have contained about 10 to 100 kilograms of helium-3.

3He is also present in the [[Earth's atmosphere]]. The natural abundance of 3He in naturally occurring helium gas is 1.38{{e|-6}} (1.38 parts per million). The partial pressure of helium in the Earth's atmosphere is about 0.52 Pa, and thus helium accounts for 5.2 parts per million of the total pressure (101325 Pa) in the Earth's atmosphere, and 3He thus accounts for 7.2 parts per trillion of the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere of the Earth has a mass of about 5.14{{e|15}} tonnes,<ref>[http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2FJCLI-3299.1 The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses]. Ams.allenpress.com (1970-01-01). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> the mass of 3He in the Earth's atmosphere is the product of these numbers, or about 37,000 tonnes of 3He.

3He is produced on Earth from three sources: lithium [[spallation]], [[cosmic rays]], and beta decay of tritium (3H). The contribution from cosmic rays is negligible within all except the oldest regolith materials, and lithium spallation reactions are a lesser contributor than the production of 4He by [[alpha particle]] emissions.

The total amount of helium-3 in the mantle may be in the range of 0.1–1 million [[tonne]]s. However, most of the mantle is not directly accessible. Some helium-3 leaks up through deep-sourced [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] volcanoes such as those of the [[Hawaii]]an islands, but only 300 grams per year is emitted to the atmosphere. [[Mid-ocean ridge]]s emit another 3 kilogram per year. Around [[subduction|subduction zone]]s, various sources produce helium-3 in [[natural gas]] deposits which possibly contain a thousand tonnes of helium-3 (although there may be 25 thousand tonnes if all ancient subduction zones have such deposits). Wittenberg estimated that United States crustal natural gas sources may have only half a tonne total.<ref>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]] p. 3, Table 1; p. 9.</ref> Wittenberg cited Anderson's estimate of another 1200 metric tonnes in [[interplanetary dust]] particles on the ocean floors.<ref>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]] Page A-1 citing Anderson 1993, "1200 metric tone"</ref> In the 1994 study, extracting helium-3 from these sources consumes more energy than fusion would release.<ref>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]] Page A-4 "1 kg (3He), pumping power would be 1.13{{e|6}} MYyr ... fusion power derived ... 19 MWyr"</ref> Wittenberg also writes that extraction from US crustal natural gas, consumes ten times the energy available from fusion reactions.<ref>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]] Page A-4 using Table 1 page A-5 of US crustal natural gas</ref>{{Clarify|date=July 2008}}

== Extraterrestrial abundance ==
Materials on the [[Moon]]'s surface contain helium-3 at concentrations on the order of between 1.4 and 15 [[Parts per billion|ppb]] in sunlit areas,<ref>[http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/Research/he3_pubs.html FTI Research Projects :: 3He Lunar Mining]. Fti.neep.wisc.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2007/pdf/2175.pdf|format=PDF|title=The estimation of helium-3 probable reserves in lunar regolith|author=E. N. Slyuta and A. M. Abdrakhimov, and E. M. Galimov|work=Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII|year=2007}}</ref> and may contain concentrations as much as 50 [[Parts per billion|ppb]] in permanently shadowed regions.<ref name="F. H. Cocks 2010"/> A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/536/1 |title=A fascinating hour with Gerald Kulcinski|author=Eric R. Hedman|date=January 16, 2006|work=The Space Review}}</ref> have proposed to [[Exploration of the Moon|explore the moon]], mine lunar [[regolith]] and use the helium-3 for [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]]. Recently, companies as [[Planetary Resources]] have also stated to be interested in mining helium-3 on the moon. Because of the low concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process extremely large amounts of regolith (over 150 million tonnes of regolith to obtain one ton of helium 3),<ref>{{cite web|title=The challenge of mining He-3 on the lunar surface: how all the parts fit together|author=I.N. Sviatoslavsky|month=November|year=1993|url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/wcsar9311-2.pdf|format=PDF}} Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics Technical Report WCSAR-TR-AR3-9311-2.</ref> and some proposals have suggested that helium-3 extraction be piggybacked onto a larger mining and development operation.{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}}

The primary objective of [[Indian Space Research Organization]]'s first lunar probe called [[Chandrayaan-I]], launched on October 22, 2008, was reported in some sources to be mapping the Moon's surface for helium-3-containing minerals.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/News_By_Industry/ET_Cetera/With_He-3_on_mind_India_gets_ready_for_lunar_mission/articleshow/3500270.cms|title=With He-3 on mind, India gets ready for lunar mission|work=The Times Of India | date=2008-09-19}}</ref> However, this is debatable; no such objective is mentioned in the project's official list of goals, while at the same time, many of its scientific payloads have noted helium-3-related applications.<ref>[http://www.isro.org/chandrayaan/htmls/objective_scientific.htm Scientific]. Isro.org (2008-11-11). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref><ref>[http://luna-ci.blogspot.com/2008/11/chandrayaan-1-payload-feature-2-sub-kev.html Luna C/I:: Chandrayaan-1 Payload Feature #2: Sub KeV Atom Reflecting Analyser (SARA)]. Luna-ci.blogspot.com (2008-11-12). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref>

[[Cosmochemistry|Cosmochemist]] and [[geochemist]] [[Ouyang Ziyuan]] from the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]] who is now in charge of the [[Chang'e program|Chinese Lunar Exploration Program]] has already stated on many occasions that one of the main goals of the program would be the mining of helium-3, from which operation "each year three space shuttle missions could bring enough fuel for all human beings across the world."<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2006-07/26/content_649325.htm He asked for the moon-and got it]. Chinadaily.com.cn (2006-07-26). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> which is an extreme overstatement however, as one [[Payload (air and space craft)|payload]] to [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]] of current [[spacecraft]] designs is less than 4 tonnes. To "bring enough fuel for all human beings across the world",<ref name="Witt"/> more than one Space Shuttle load (and the processing of 4 million tonnes of regolith) per week would be necessary.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}

In January 2006, the Russian space company [[RKK Energiya]] announced that it considers lunar helium-3 a potential economic resource to be mined by 2020,<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080809210848/http://www.space.com/news/ap_060126_russia_moon.html Russian Rocket Builder Aims for Moon Base by 2015, Reports Say]. Associated Press (via space.com). 26 January 2006</ref> if funding can be found.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.thespacereview.com/article/551/1|title=Moonscam: Russians try to sell the Moon for foreign cash|author=James Oberg|date = February 6, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/824/1|title=Death throes and grand delusions| author = [[Dwayne A. Day]]|work=[[The Space Review]]|date=March 5, 2007}}</ref>

Mining [[gas giant]]s for helium-3 has also been proposed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System| author=Bryan Palaszewski|url=http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2006/TM-2006-214122.pdf|format=PDF}} NASA Technical Memorandum 2006-214122. AIAA–2005–4319. Prepared for the 41st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit cosponsored by AIAA, ASME, SAE, and ASEE, Tucson, Arizona, July 10–13, 2005.</ref> The [[British Interplanetary Society]]'s hypothetical [[Project Daedalus]] interstellar probe design was fueled by helium-3 mines in the atmosphere of [[Jupiter]], for example. Jupiter's high gravity makes this a less energetically favorable operation than extracting helium-3 from the other gas giants of the solar system, however.

== Power generation ==
{{Weasel|section|date=March 2013}}
A second-generation approach to controlled [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] power involves combining helium-3 (32He) and [[deuterium]] ([[Deuterium|21H]]). This reaction produces a [[helium-4]] ion ([[Helium-4|42He]]) (like an [[alpha particle]], but of different origin) and a high-energy [[proton]] (positively charged hydrogen ion) (11p). The most important potential advantage of this fusion reaction for power production as well as other applications lies in its compatibility with the use of [[electrostatic]] fields to control fuel [[ion]]s and the fusion protons. Protons, as positively charged particles, can be converted directly into [[electricity]], through use of [[Solid-state chemistry|solid-state]] conversion materials as well as other techniques. Potential conversion efficiencies of 70% may be possible, as there is no need to convert proton energy to heat in order to drive a [[turbine]]-powered [[Electric generator|electrical generator]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}.

There have been many claims about the capabilities of helium-3 power plants. According to proponents, fusion power plants operating on [[deuterium]] and helium-3 would offer lower capital and [[operating cost]]s than their competitors due to less technical complexity, higher conversion efficiency, smaller size, the absence of radioactive fuel, no air or water [[pollution]], and only low-level [[radioactive]] waste disposal requirements. Recent estimates suggest that about $6 billion in [[investment]] [[Capital (economics)|capital]] will be required to develop and construct the first helium-3 fusion [[power plant]]. Financial breakeven at today's wholesale [[electricity]] prices (5 US cents per [[kilowatt-hour]]) would occur after five 1-[[gigawatt]] plants were on line, replacing old conventional plants or meeting new demand.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/air_space/1283056.html?page=4|title=Mining The Moon|author=Paul DiMare|date=October 2004|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref>

The reality is not so clear-cut. The most advanced fusion programs in the world are [[inertial confinement fusion]] (such as [[National Ignition Facility]]) and [[magnetic confinement fusion]] (such as [[ITER]] and other [[tokamak]]s). In the case of the former, there is no solid roadmap to power generation. In the case of the latter, commercial power generation is not expected until around 2050.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iter.org/proj/Pages/ITERAndBeyond.aspx|title=ITER & Beyond|accessdate= 2009-08-04}}</ref> In both cases, the type of fusion discussed is the simplest: D-T fusion. The reason for this is the very low [[Coulomb barrier]] for this reaction; for D+3He, the barrier is much higher, and it is even higher for 3He–3He. The immense cost of reactors like [[ITER]] and [[National Ignition Facility]] are largely due to their immense size, yet to scale up to higher plasma temperatures would require reactors far larger still. The 14.7 MeV proton and 3.6 MeV alpha particle from D–3He fusion, plus the higher conversion efficiency, means that more electricity is obtained per kilogram than with D-T fusion (17.6 MeV), but not that much more. As a further downside, the rates of reaction for [[Aneutronic fusion#Candidate aneutronic reactions|helium-3 fusion reactions]] are not particularly high, requiring a reactor that is larger still or more reactors to produce the same amount of electricity.

To attempt to work around this problem of massively large power plants that may not even be economical with D-T fusion, let alone the far more challenging D–3He fusion, a number of other reactors have been proposed – the [[Fusor]], [[Polywell]], [[Focus fusion]], and many more, though many of these concepts have fundamental problems with achieving a net energy gain, and generally attempt to achieve fusion in thermal disequilibrium, something that could potentially prove impossible,<ref>{{cite news|url= http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/29869|title=A general critique of inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion systems|author= Todd Rider|accessdate=2007-05-07}}</ref> and consequently, these long-shot programs tend to have trouble garnering funding despite their low budgets. Unlike the "big", "hot" fusion systems, however, if such systems were to work, they could scale to the higher barrier "[[aneutronic fusion|aneutronic]]" fuels, and therefore their proponents tend to promote [[Aneutronic fusion#Technical challenges|p-B fusion]], which requires no exotic fuels like helium-3.

== In popular culture ==
* Helium-3 was harvested in the 2009 science fiction movie ''[[Moon (film)|Moon]]'', by the story's protagonist Sam Bell, the occupant of a mining station on the far side of the [[Moon]].<ref>Scott, A. O. [ "Moon"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', June 12, 2009.</ref><ref>[ "SciFi Movie Review: Moon"],
SciTechStory.com website, October 23, 2010.</ref><ref>Ebert, Roger. [ "Reviews: Moon"], ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', June 17, 2009</ref>
* In the 2012 comedic science fiction movie ''[[Iron Sky]]'' a group of Nazis living on the dark side of the Moon use harvested helium-3 stored in huge silos to power their machines and flying saucers. The movie takes place in 2018 when other nations are also keen on gathering this precious resource to feed their increasing power needs.<ref>Child, Ben [http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/filmblog/2012/mar/19/iron-sky-timo-vuorensola "How Iron Sky fell to Earth"], [[The Guardian]] Film blog, March 19, 2012</ref><ref>Sweeting, Adam, [http://www.theartsdesk.com/film/iron-sky "Iron Sky - Impressive flying saucers aren't enough to save Nazi satire"], [http://www.theartsdesk.com theartsdesk.com], May 22, 2012</ref>

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|2}}

=== Bibliography ===
* <cite id=Smith>{{cite journal
|author=D.M Smith, T.W. Goodwin, J.A.Schiller
|url=http://www.airproducts.com/NR/rdonlyres/E44F8293-1CEE-4D80-86EA-F9815927BE7E/0/ChallengestoHeliumSupply111003.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Challenges to the worldwide supply of helium in the next decade
|publisher=Air Products and Chemicals
|accessdate=2008-07-01
}}</cite>
* <cite id=Witt>{{cite journal
|author=L.J. Wittenberg
|date=July 1994
|url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/fdm967.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Non-Lunar 3He Resources
|accessdate=2008-07-01
}}</cite>
* <cite id=Schmitt>{{cite book
|author=H.H. Schmitt
|year= 2005|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IerrQGC6S2YC&printsec=frontcover|isbn=0-387-24285-6
|title=Return to the Moon: Exploration, Enterprise, and Energy in the Human Settlement of Space
|publisher=Springer
}}</cite>

== External links ==
* [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/2003/presentation-speech.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003, presentation speech]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/broadband/tx/moonsale/ Moon for Sale: A BBC Horizon documentary on the possibility of lunar mining of Helium-3]

{{Isotope|element=helium
|lighter=[[diproton]]
|heavier=[[helium-4]]
|before=[[lithium-4]] '''([[proton emission|p]]) '''[[hydrogen-3]] '''([[beta decay|β−]])
|after=Stable
}}

[[Category:Isotopes of helium|Helium-03]]
[[Category:Nuclear fusion fuels]]

Transcomputationales Problem

2013-07-02T01:31:18Z

Wingman4l7: /* See also */ -- fixed wikilink

In [[computational complexity theory]], a '''transcomputational problem''' is a problem that requires processing of more than 1093 bits of information.<ref name=Klir>{{cite book|last=Klir|first=George J.|title=Facets of systems science|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-306-43959-9|pages=121–128}}</ref> Any number greater than 1093 is called a '''transcomputational number'''. The number 1093, called [[Bremermann's limit]], is, according to [[Hans-Joachim Bremermann]], the total number of bits processed by a hypothetical computer the size of the [[Earth]] within a time period equal to the estimated age of the Earth.<ref name="Klir"/><ref name="Bre">Bremermann, H.J. (1962) [http://holtz.org/Library/Natural%20Science/Physics/Optimization%20Through%20Evolution%20and%20Recombination%20-%20Bremermann%201962.htm ''Optimization through evolution and recombination''] In: Self-Organizing systems 1962, edited M.C. Yovitts et al., Spartan Books, Washington, D.C. pp. 93–106.</ref> The term ''transcomputational'' was coined by Bremermann.<ref>{{cite web|last=Heinz Muhlenbein|title=Algorithms, data and hypotheses : Learning in open worlds|url=http://muehlenbein.org/algo95.pdf|publisher=German National Research Center for Computer Science|accessdate=3 May 2011}}</ref>

==Examples of transcomputational problems==
===Testing integrated circuits===
Exhaustively testing all combinations of an [[integrated circuit]] with 308 [[input]]s and 1 [[output]] requires testing of a total of 2308 combinations of inputs. Since the number 2308 is a transcomputational number (that is, a number greater than 1093), the problem of testing such a system of [[integrated circuit]]s is a transcomputational problem. This means that there is no way one can verify the correctness of the circuit for all combinations of inputs through [[Brute-force search|brute force]] alone.<ref name="Klir"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Miles|first=William|title=Bremermann's Limit|url=http://www.wmiles.com/2010/01/bremermanns-limit|accessdate=1 May 2011}}</ref>

===Pattern recognition===
Consider a ''q'' ×''q '' array of the [[chessboard]] type each square of which can have one of ''k'' [[color]]s. Altogether there are ''k''''n'' [[color]] [[pattern]]s, where ''n'' = ''q''2. The problem of determining of the best classification of the patterns, according to some chosen criterion, may be solved by a search through all possible color patterns. For two colors, such a search becomes transcomputational when the array is 18 × 18 or larger. For a 10 ×10 array, the problem becomes transcomputational when there are 9 or more colors.<ref name="Klir"/>

This has some relevance in the physiological studies of the [[retina]]. The retina contains about a million [[Light sensitivity|light-sensitive]] [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s. Even if there were only two possible states for each cell (say, an active state and an inactive state) the processing of the [[retina]] as a whole requires processing of more than 10300,000 bits of information. This is far beyond [[Bremermann's limit]].<ref name="Klir"/>

===General systems problems===
A [[system]] of ''n'' variables, each of which can take ''k'' different states, can have
''k''''n'' possible system states. To analyze such a system, a minimum of ''k''''n'' bits of information are to be processed. The problem becomes transcomputational when ''k''''n'' > 1093. This happens for the following values of ''k'' and ''n''<ref name="Klir"/>:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ''k'' || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10
|-
| ''n'' || 308 || 194 || 154 || 133 || 119 || 110 || 102 || 97 || 93
|}

==Implications==
The existence of real-world transcomputational problems implies the limitations of computers as data processing tools. This point is best summarized in Bremermann's own words:<ref name="Bre"/>

:"The experiences of various groups who work on problem solving, theorem proving and pattern recognition all seem to point in the same direction: These problems are tough. There does not seem to be a royal road or a simple method which at one stroke will solve all our problems. My discussion of ultimate limitations on the speed and amount of data processing may be summarized like this: Problems involving vast numbers of possibilities will not be solved by sheer data processing quantity. We must look for quality, for refinements, for tricks, for every ingenuity that we can think of. Computers faster than those of today will be a great help. We will need them. However, when we are concerned with problems in principle, present day computers are about as fast as they ever will be.

:We may expect that the technology of data processing will proceed step by step – just as ordinary technology has done. There is an unlimited challenge for ingenuity applied to specific problems. There is also an unending need for general notions and theories to organize the myriad details."

== In fiction ==
In Douglas Adams's ''[[Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', Earth '''is''' a supercomputer, designed to calculate the "Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe and Everything".<ref>See [[Places_in_The_Hitchhiker's_Guide_to_the_Galaxy#Earth]]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Matrioshka_brain#Concept|Jupiter brain]] is a theoretical computing megastructure the size of a planet

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Transcomputational Problem}}
[[Category:Theory of computation]]
[[Category:Computational complexity theory]]

Transcomputationales Problem

2013-07-02T01:29:44Z

Wingman4l7: /* Implications */ -- move colon

In [[computational complexity theory]], a '''transcomputational problem''' is a problem that requires processing of more than 1093 bits of information.<ref name=Klir>{{cite book|last=Klir|first=George J.|title=Facets of systems science|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-306-43959-9|pages=121–128}}</ref> Any number greater than 1093 is called a '''transcomputational number'''. The number 1093, called [[Bremermann's limit]], is, according to [[Hans-Joachim Bremermann]], the total number of bits processed by a hypothetical computer the size of the [[Earth]] within a time period equal to the estimated age of the Earth.<ref name="Klir"/><ref name="Bre">Bremermann, H.J. (1962) [http://holtz.org/Library/Natural%20Science/Physics/Optimization%20Through%20Evolution%20and%20Recombination%20-%20Bremermann%201962.htm ''Optimization through evolution and recombination''] In: Self-Organizing systems 1962, edited M.C. Yovitts et al., Spartan Books, Washington, D.C. pp. 93–106.</ref> The term ''transcomputational'' was coined by Bremermann.<ref>{{cite web|last=Heinz Muhlenbein|title=Algorithms, data and hypotheses : Learning in open worlds|url=http://muehlenbein.org/algo95.pdf|publisher=German National Research Center for Computer Science|accessdate=3 May 2011}}</ref>

==Examples of transcomputational problems==
===Testing integrated circuits===
Exhaustively testing all combinations of an [[integrated circuit]] with 308 [[input]]s and 1 [[output]] requires testing of a total of 2308 combinations of inputs. Since the number 2308 is a transcomputational number (that is, a number greater than 1093), the problem of testing such a system of [[integrated circuit]]s is a transcomputational problem. This means that there is no way one can verify the correctness of the circuit for all combinations of inputs through [[Brute-force search|brute force]] alone.<ref name="Klir"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Miles|first=William|title=Bremermann's Limit|url=http://www.wmiles.com/2010/01/bremermanns-limit|accessdate=1 May 2011}}</ref>

===Pattern recognition===
Consider a ''q'' ×''q '' array of the [[chessboard]] type each square of which can have one of ''k'' [[color]]s. Altogether there are ''k''''n'' [[color]] [[pattern]]s, where ''n'' = ''q''2. The problem of determining of the best classification of the patterns, according to some chosen criterion, may be solved by a search through all possible color patterns. For two colors, such a search becomes transcomputational when the array is 18 × 18 or larger. For a 10 ×10 array, the problem becomes transcomputational when there are 9 or more colors.<ref name="Klir"/>

This has some relevance in the physiological studies of the [[retina]]. The retina contains about a million [[Light sensitivity|light-sensitive]] [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s. Even if there were only two possible states for each cell (say, an active state and an inactive state) the processing of the [[retina]] as a whole requires processing of more than 10300,000 bits of information. This is far beyond [[Bremermann's limit]].<ref name="Klir"/>

===General systems problems===
A [[system]] of ''n'' variables, each of which can take ''k'' different states, can have
''k''''n'' possible system states. To analyze such a system, a minimum of ''k''''n'' bits of information are to be processed. The problem becomes transcomputational when ''k''''n'' > 1093. This happens for the following values of ''k'' and ''n''<ref name="Klir"/>:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ''k'' || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10
|-
| ''n'' || 308 || 194 || 154 || 133 || 119 || 110 || 102 || 97 || 93
|}

==Implications==
The existence of real-world transcomputational problems implies the limitations of computers as data processing tools. This point is best summarized in Bremermann's own words:<ref name="Bre"/>

:"The experiences of various groups who work on problem solving, theorem proving and pattern recognition all seem to point in the same direction: These problems are tough. There does not seem to be a royal road or a simple method which at one stroke will solve all our problems. My discussion of ultimate limitations on the speed and amount of data processing may be summarized like this: Problems involving vast numbers of possibilities will not be solved by sheer data processing quantity. We must look for quality, for refinements, for tricks, for every ingenuity that we can think of. Computers faster than those of today will be a great help. We will need them. However, when we are concerned with problems in principle, present day computers are about as fast as they ever will be.

:We may expect that the technology of data processing will proceed step by step – just as ordinary technology has done. There is an unlimited challenge for ingenuity applied to specific problems. There is also an unending need for general notions and theories to organize the myriad details."

== In fiction ==
In Douglas Adams's ''[[Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', Earth '''is''' a supercomputer, designed to calculate the "Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe and Everything".<ref>See [[Places_in_The_Hitchhiker's_Guide_to_the_Galaxy#Earth]]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Matrioshka_brain#Jupiter_brain|Jupiter brain]] is a theoretical computing megastructure the size of a planet

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Transcomputational Problem}}
[[Category:Theory of computation]]
[[Category:Computational complexity theory]]

Wirkstoffdesign

2013-06-08T12:03:22Z

Wingman4l7: /* Computer-aided drug design {{anchor|Computer-assisted drug design}} */ -- rm 3 empty parameters

{{Distinguish|Designer drug}}
'''Drug design''', sometimes referred to as '''rational drug design''' or more simply [[rational design]], is the [[invention|inventive]] process of finding new [[medications]] based on the knowledge of a [[biological target]].<ref name="isbn0-415-...">{{cite book | author = Madsen, Ulf; Krogsgaard-Larsen, Povl; Liljefors, Tommy | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = Textbook of Drug Design and Discovery | edition = | language = | publisher = Taylor & Francis | location = Washington, DC | year = 2002 | origyear = | pages = | quote = | isbn = 0-415-28288-8 | oclc = | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}</ref> The drug is most commonly an [[organic compound|organic]] [[small molecule]] that activates or inhibits the function of a [[biomolecule]] such as a [[protein]], which in turn results in a [[therapeutic effect|therapeutic]] benefit to the [[patient]]. In the most basic sense, drug design involves the design of small molecules that are complementary in [[shape]] and [[electric charge|charge]] to the biomolecular target with which they interact and therefore will bind to it. Drug design frequently but not necessarily relies on [[molecular modelling|computer modeling]] techniques.<ref name="isbn012178245x">{{cite book | author = Cohen, N. Claude | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = Guidebook on Molecular Modeling in Drug Design | edition = | language = | publisher = Academic Press | location = Boston | year = 1996 | origyear = | pages = | quote = | isbn = 0-12-178245-X | oclc = | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}</ref> This type of modeling is often referred to as '''computer-aided drug design'''. Finally, drug design that relies on the knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of the biomolecular target is known as '''structure-based drug design'''.

The phrase "drug design" is to some extent a [[misnomer]]. What is really meant by drug design is [[ligand (biochemistry)|ligand]] design (i.e., design of a small molecule that will bind tightly to its target).<ref name="pmid8739258">{{cite journal | author = Tollenaere JP | title = The role of structure-based ligand design and molecular modelling in drug discovery | journal = Pharm World Sci | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 56–62 | year = 1996 | month = April | pmid = 8739258 | doi = 10.1007/BF00579706 }}</ref> Although modeling techniques for prediction of binding affinity are reasonably successful, there are many other properties, such as [[bioavailability]], [[biological half-life|metabolic half-life]], lack of [[adverse drug reaction|side effects]], etc., that first must be optimized before a ligand can become a safe and efficacious drug. These other characteristics are often difficult to optimize using rational drug design techniques.

==Background==
Typically a drug target is a key [[molecule]] involved in a particular [[metabolic pathway|metabolic]] or [[signal transduction|signaling]] pathway that is specific to a disease condition or [[pathology]] or to the [[infectivity]] or survival of a [[microorganism|microbial]] [[pathogen]]. Some approaches attempt to inhibit the functioning of the pathway in the diseased state by causing a key molecule to stop functioning. Drugs may be designed that bind to the active region and inhibit this key molecule. Another approach may be to enhance the normal pathway by promoting specific molecules in the normal pathways that may have been affected in the diseased state. In addition, these drugs should also be designed so as not to affect any other important "off-target" molecules or [[antitarget]]s that may be similar in appearance to the target molecule, since drug interactions with off-target molecules may lead to undesirable [[adverse effect|side effect]]s. [[Sequence homology]] is often used to identify such risks.

Most commonly, drugs are [[organic compound|organic]] [[small molecule]]s produced through chemical synthesis, but biopolymer-based drugs (also known as [[biologic medical product|biologics]]) produced through biological processes are becoming increasingly more common. In addition, [[mRNA]]-based [[gene silencing]] technologies may have therapeutic applications.

==Types==
[[File:Flow charts of two strategies of structure based drug design.jpg|thumb|500 px|Flow charts of two strategies of structure-based drug design]]There are two major types of drug design. The first is referred to as '''ligand-based drug design''' and the second, '''structure-based drug design'''.

===Ligand-based===
Ligand-based drug design (or '''indirect drug design''') relies on knowledge of other molecules that bind to the biological target of interest. These other molecules may be used to derive a [[pharmacophore]] model that defines the minimum necessary structural characteristics a molecule must possess in order to bind to the target.<ref name="isbn0-9636817-6-1">{{cite book | author = Guner, Osman F. | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = Pharmacophore Perception, Development, and use in Drug Design | edition = | language = | publisher = International University Line | location = La Jolla, Calif | year = 2000 | origyear = | pages = | quote = | isbn = 0-9636817-6-1 | oclc = | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}</ref> In other words, a model of the biological target may be built based on the knowledge of what binds to it, and this model in turn may be used to design new molecular entities that interact with the target. Alternatively, a [[quantitative structure-activity relationship]] (QSAR), in which a correlation between calculated properties of molecules and their experimentally determined biological activity, may be derived. These QSAR relationships in turn may be used to predict the activity of new analogs.

===Structure-based===
Structure-based drug design (or '''direct drug design''') relies on knowledge of the [[tertiary structure|three dimensional structure]] of the biological target obtained through methods such as [[X-ray_crystallography#Protein_crystallography|x-ray crystallography]] or [[Protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy|NMR spectroscopy]].<ref name="isbn1-4020-4406-2">{{cite book | author = Leach, Andrew R.; Harren Jhoti | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = Structure-based Drug Discovery | edition = | language = | publisher = Springer | location = Berlin | year = 2007 | origyear = | pages = | quote = | isbn = 1-4020-4406-2 | oclc = | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}</ref> If an experimental structure of a target is not available, it may be possible to create a [[homology modeling|homology model]] of the target based on the experimental structure of a related protein. Using the structure of the biological target, candidate drugs that are predicted to bind with high [[dissociation constant|affinity]] and [[Ligand_(biochemistry)#Selective_and_non-selective|selectivity]] to the target may be designed using interactive graphics and the intuition of a [[medicinal chemistry|medicinal chemist]]. Alternatively various automated computational procedures may be used to suggest new drug candidates.

As '''experimental methods''' such as X-ray crystallography and NMR develop, the amount of information concerning 3D structures of biomolecular targets has increased dramatically. In parallel, information about the structural dynamics and electronic properties about ligands has also increased. This has encouraged the rapid development of the structure-based drug design. Current methods for structure-based drug design can be divided roughly into two categories. The first category is about “finding” ligands for a given receptor, which is usually referred as database searching. In this case, a large number of potential ligand molecules are screened to find those fitting the binding pocket of the receptor. This method is usually referred as ligand-based drug design. The key advantage of database searching is that it saves synthetic effort to obtain new lead compounds. Another category of structure-based drug design methods is about “building” ligands, which is usually referred as receptor-based drug design. In this case, ligand molecules are built up within the constraints of the binding pocket by assembling small pieces in a stepwise manner. These pieces can be either individual atoms or molecular fragments. The key advantage of such a method is that novel structures, not contained in any database, can be suggested.<ref name="ligbuilder">{{cite journal | author = Wang R,Gao Y,Lai L | title = LigBuilder: A Multi-Purpose Program for Structure-Based Drug Design | journal = Journal of Molecular Modeling | year=2000 | volume=6 | issue = 7–8 | pages=498–516 | doi = 10.1007/s0089400060498}}</ref><ref name="CBDDreview">{{cite journal | author = Schneider G, Fechner U | title = Computer-based de novo design of drug-like molecules | journal = Nat Rev Drug Discov | volume = 4 | issue = 8 | pages = 649–63 | year = 2005 | month = August | pmid = 16056391 | doi = 10.1038/nrd1799 | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid15031495">{{cite journal | author = Jorgensen WL | title = The many roles of computation in drug discovery | journal = Science | volume = 303 | issue = 5665 | pages = 1813–8 | year = 2004 | month = March | pmid = 15031495 | doi = 10.1126/science.1096361 | url = |bibcode = 2004Sci...303.1813J }}</ref>

====Active site identification====
Active site identification is the first step in this program. It analyzes the protein to find the binding pocket, derives key interaction sites within the binding pocket, and then prepares the necessary data for Ligand fragment link. The basic inputs for this step are the 3D structure of the protein and a pre-docked ligand in PDB format, as well as their atomic properties. Both ligand and protein atoms need to be classified and their atomic properties should be defined, basically, into four atomic types:
*'''hydrophobic atom''': All carbons in hydrocarbon chains or in aromatic groups.
*'''H-bond donor''': Oxygen and nitrogen atoms bonded to hydrogen atom(s).
*'''H-bond acceptor''': Oxygen and [[Orbital_hybridisation#sp2_hybrids|sp2]] or [[Orbital_hybridisation#sp_hybrids|sp hybridized]] nitrogen atoms with lone electron pair(s).
*'''Polar atom''': Oxygen and nitrogen atoms that are neither H-bond donor nor H-bond acceptor, sulfur, phosphorus, halogen, metal, and carbon atoms bonded to hetero-atom(s).

The space inside the ligand binding region would be studied with virtual probe atoms of the four types above so the chemical environment of all spots in the ligand binding region can be known. Hence we are clear what kind of chemical fragments can be put into their corresponding spots in the ligand binding region of the receptor.

====Ligand fragment link====
[[File:Flow chart for structure based drug design.jpg|thumb|500 px|Flow chart for structure-based drug design]]
When we want to plant “seeds” into different regions defined by the previous section, we need a fragments database to choose fragments from. The term “fragment” is used here to describe the building blocks used in the construction process. The rationale of this algorithm lies in the fact that organic structures can be decomposed into basic chemical fragments. Although the diversity of organic structures is infinite, the number of basic fragments is rather limited.

Before the first fragment, i.e. the seed, is put into the binding pocket, and other fragments can be added one by one, it is useful to identify potential problems. First, the possibility for the fragment combinations is huge. A small perturbation of the previous fragment conformation would cause great difference in the following construction process. At the same time, in order to find the lowest binding energy on the [[Potential energy surface]] (PES) between planted fragments and receptor pocket, the scoring function calculation would be done for every step of conformation change of the fragments derived from every type of possible fragments combination. Since this requires a large amount of computation, using different tricks may use less computing power and let the program work more efficiently. When a ligand is inserted into the pocket site of a receptor, groups on the ligand that bind tightly with the receptor should have the highest priority in finding their lowest-energy conformation. This allows us to put several seeds into the program at the same time and optimize the conformation of those seeds that form significant interactions with the receptor, and then connect those seeds into a continuous ligand in a manner that make the rest of the ligand have the lowest energy. The pre-placed seeds ensure high binding affinity and their optimal conformation determines the manner in which the ligand will be built, thus determining the overall structure of the final ligand. This strategy efficiently reduces the calculation burden for fragment construction. On the other hand, it reduces the possibility of the combination of fragments, which reduces the number of possible ligands that can be derived from the program. The two strategies above are widely used in most structure-based drug design programs. They are described as “'''Grow'''” and “'''Link'''”. The two strategies are always combined in order to make the construction result more reliable.<ref name='ligbuilder'/><ref name='CBDDreview'/><ref name="pmid7922037">{{cite journal | author = Verlinde CL, Hol WG | title = Structure-based drug design: progress, results and challenges | journal = Structure | volume = 2 | issue = 7 | pages = 577–87 | year = 1994 | month = July | pmid = 7922037 | doi = 10.1016/S0969-2126(00)00060-5 | url = }}</ref>

====Scoring method====
{{Main|Scoring functions for docking}}
Structure-based drug design attempts to use the structure of proteins as a basis for designing new ligands by applying accepted principles of molecular recognition. The basic assumption underlying structure-based drug design is that a good ligand molecule should bind tightly to its target. Thus, one of the most important principles for designing or obtaining potential new ligands is to predict the binding affinity of a certain ligand to its target and use it as a criterion for selection.


One early method was developed by Böhm<ref name="pmid7964925">{{cite journal | author = Böhm HJ | title = The development of a simple empirical scoring function to estimate the binding constant for a protein-ligand complex of known three-dimensional structure | journal = J. Comput. Aided Mol. Des. | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 243–56 | year = 1994 | month = June | pmid = 7964925 | doi = 10.1007/BF00126743 | url = |bibcode = 1994JCAMD...8..243B }}</ref> to develop a general-purposed empirical scoring function in order to describe the binding energy. The following “Master Equation” was derived:

<math>\begin{array}{lll}\Delta G_{\text{bind}} = -RT \ln K_{\text{d}}\\[1.3ex]
K_{\text{d}} = \dfrac{[\text{Receptor}][\text{Acceptor}]}{[\text{Complex}]}\\[1.3ex]

\Delta G_{\text{bind}} = \Delta G_{\text{desolvation}} + \Delta G_{\text{motion}} + \Delta G_{\text{configuration}} + \Delta G_{\text{interaction}}\end{array}</math>

where:
* desolvation – [[enthalpy|enthalpic]] penalty for removing the ligand from solvent
* motion – [[entropy|entropic]] penalty for reducing the degrees of freedom when a ligand binds to its receptor
* configuration – conformational strain energy required to put the ligand in its "active" conformation
* interaction – enthalpic gain for "resolvating" the ligand with its receptor

The basic idea is that the overall binding free energy can be decomposed into independent components that are known to be important for the binding process. Each component reflects a certain kind of free energy alteration during the binding process between a ligand and its target receptor. The Master Equation is the linear combination of these components. According to Gibbs free energy equation, the relation between dissociation equilibrium constant, Kd, and the components of free energy was built.

Various computational methods are used to estimate each of the components of the master equation. For example, the change in polar surface area upon ligand binding can be used to estimate the desolvation energy. The number of rotatable bonds frozen upon ligand binding is proportional to the motion term. The configurational or strain energy can be estimated using [[molecular mechanics]] calculations. Finally the interaction energy can be estimated using methods such as the change in non polar surface, statistically derived [[potential of mean force|potentials of mean force]], the number of hydrogen bonds formed, etc. In practice, the components of the master equation are fit to experimental data using multiple linear regression. This can be done with a diverse training set including many types of ligands and receptors to produce a less accurate but more general "global" model or a more restricted set of ligands and receptors to produce a more accurate but less general "local" model.<ref name="pmid10623530">{{cite journal | author = Gohlke H, Hendlich M, Klebe G | title = Knowledge-based scoring function to predict protein-ligand interactions | journal = J. Mol. Biol. | volume = 295 | issue = 2 | pages = 337–56 | year = 2000 | month = January | pmid = 10623530 | doi = 10.1006/jmbi.1999.3371 | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid11858637">{{cite journal | author = Clark RD, Strizhev A, Leonard JM, Blake JF, Matthew JB | title = Consensus scoring for ligand/protein interactions | journal = J. Mol. Graph. Model. | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–95 | year = 2002 | month = January | pmid = 11858637 | doi = 10.1016/S1093-3263(01)00125-5 | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid12197663">{{cite journal | author = Wang R, Lai L, Wang S | title = Further development and validation of empirical scoring functions for structure-based binding affinity prediction | journal = J. Comput. Aided Mol. Des. | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 11–26 | year = 2002 | month = January | pmid = 12197663 | doi = 10.1023/A:1016357811882 | url = }}</ref>

==Rational drug discovery==
In contrast to traditional methods of [[drug discovery]], which rely on [[trial-and-error]] testing of chemical substances on [[cell culture|cultured cell]]s or [[animal]]s, and matching the apparent effects to treatments, rational drug design begins with a hypothesis that modulation of a specific biological target may have therapeutic value. In order for a biomolecule to be selected as a drug target, two essential pieces of information are required. The first is evidence that modulation of the target will have therapeutic value. This knowledge may come from, for example, disease linkage studies that show an association between mutations in the biological target and certain disease states. The second is that the target is "drugable". This means that it is capable of binding to a small molecule and that its activity can be modulated by the small molecule.

Once a suitable target has been identified, the target is normally [[molecular cloning|cloned]] and [[protein expression|expressed]]. The expressed target is then used to establish a [[Drug_discovery#Screening_and_design|screening assay]]. In addition, the three-dimensional structure of the target may be determined.

The search for small molecules that bind to the target is begun by screening libraries of potential drug compounds. This may be done by using the screening assay (a "wet screen"). In addition, if the structure of the target is available, a [[virtual screening|virtual screen]] may be performed of candidate drugs. Ideally the candidate drug compounds should be "[[druglikeness|drug-like]]", that is they should possess properties that are predicted to lead to [[oral bioavailability]], adequate chemical and metabolic stability, and minimal toxic effects. Several methods are available to estimate druglikeness such as [[Lipinski's Rule of Five]] and a range of scoring methods such as [[Lipophilic efficiency]]. Several methods for predicting drug metabolism have been proposed in the scientific literature, and a recent example is SPORCalc.<ref name="pmid19157988">{{cite journal | author = Smith J, Stein V | title = SPORCalc: A development of a database analysis that provides putative metabolic enzyme reactions for ligand-based drug design | journal = Computational Biology and Chemistry | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–59 | year = 2009 | month = April | pmid = 19157988 | doi = 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2008.11.002 | url = }}</ref> Due to the complexity of the drug design process, two terms of interest are still [[Serendipity#Pharmacology|serendipity]] and [[bounded rationality]]. Those challenges are caused by the large [[chemical space]] describing potential new drugs without [[adverse effect|side-effect]]s.

==Computer-aided drug design {{anchor|Computer-assisted drug design}}==
Computer-aided drug design uses [[computational chemistry]] to discover, enhance, or study [[drugs]] and related biologically active [[molecule]]s. The most fundamental goal is to predict whether a given molecule will bind to a target and if so how strongly. [[Molecular mechanics]] or [[molecular dynamics]] are most often used to predict the conformation of the [[small molecule]] and to model conformational changes in the biological target that may occur when the small molecule binds to it. [[Semi-empirical quantum chemistry method|Semi-empirical]], [[ab initio quantum chemistry methods]], or [[density functional theory]] are often used to provide optimized parameters for the molecular mechanics calculations and also provide an estimate of the electronic properties (electrostatic potential, [[polarizability]], etc.) of the drug candidate that will influence binding affinity.

Molecular mechanics methods may also be used to provide semi-quantitative prediction of the binding affinity. Also, knowledge-based [[scoring functions for docking|scoring function]] may be used to provide binding affinity estimates. These methods use [[linear regression]], [[machine learning]], [[neural net]]s or other statistical techniques to derive predictive binding affinity equations by fitting experimental affinities to computationally derived interaction energies between the small molecule and the target.<ref name="pmid17554857">{{cite journal | author = Rajamani R, Good AC | title = Ranking poses in structure-based lead discovery and optimization: current trends in scoring function development | journal = Curr Opin Drug Discov Devel | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 308–15 | year = 2007 | month = May | pmid = 17554857 | doi = | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid19128212">{{cite journal | author = de Azevedo WF, Dias R | title = Computational methods for calculation of ligand-binding affinity | journal = Curr Drug Targets | volume = 9 | issue = 12 | pages = 1031–9 | year = 2008 | month = December | pmid = 19128212 | doi = 10.2174/138945008786949405| url = }}</ref>

Ideally the computational method should be able to predict affinity before a compound is synthesized and hence in theory only one compound needs to be synthesized. The reality however is that present computational methods are imperfect and provide at best only qualitatively accurate estimates of affinity. Therefore in practice it still takes several iterations of design, synthesis, and testing before an optimal molecule is discovered. On the other hand, computational methods have accelerated discovery by reducing the number of iterations required and in addition have often provided more novel small molecule structures.

Drug design with the help of computers may be used at any of the following stages of drug discovery:
# hit identification using [[virtual screening]] (structure- or ligand-based design)
# [[drug discovery hit to lead|hit-to-lead]] optimization of affinity and selectivity (structure-based design, [[Quantitative structure-activity relationship|QSAR]], etc.)
# [[drug development|lead optimization]] optimization of other pharmaceutical properties while maintaining affinity
[[File:wiki Clustering.png|thumb| 400px |alt=Flowchart of a common Clustering Analysis for Structure-Based Drug Design|Flowchart of a Usual Clustering Analysis for Structure-Based Drug Design]]
In order to overcome the insufficient prediction of binding affinity calculated by recent scoring functions, the protein-ligand interaction and compound 3D structure information are used to analysis. For structure-based drug design, several post-screening analysis focusing on protein-ligand interaction has been developed for improving enrichment and effectively mining potential candidates:
* Consensus scoring<ref name="pmid18831053">{{cite journal | author = Liang S, Meroueh SO, Wang G, Qiu C, Zhou Y | title = Consensus scoring for enriching near-native structures from protein-protein docking decoys | journal = Proteins | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 397–403 | year = 2009 | month = May | pmid = 18831053 | pmc = 2656599 | doi = 10.1002/prot.22252}}</ref><ref name="pmid16426072">{{cite journal | author = Oda A, Tsuchida K, Takakura T, Yamaotsu N, Hirono S | title = Comparison of consensus scoring strategies for evaluating computational models of protein-ligand complexes | journal = J Chem Inf Model | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 380–91 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16426072 | doi = 10.1021/ci050283k}}</ref>
** Selecting candidates by voting of multiple scoring functions
** May lose the relationship between protein-ligand structural information and scoring criterion
* Geometric analysis
** Comparing protein-ligand interactions by visually inspecting individual structures
** Becoming intractable when the number of complexes to be analyzed increasing
* Cluster analysis<ref name="pmid14711306">{{cite journal | author = Deng Z, Chuaqui C, Singh J | title = Structural interaction fingerprint (SIFt): a novel method for analyzing three-dimensional protein-ligand binding interactions | journal = J. Med. Chem. | volume = 47 | issue = 2 | pages = 337–44 | year = 2004 | month = January | pmid = 14711306 | doi = 10.1021/jm030331x | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid16426058">{{cite journal | author = Amari S, Aizawa M, Zhang J, Fukuzawa K, Mochizuki Y, Iwasawa Y, Nakata K, Chuman H, Nakano T | title = VISCANA: visualized cluster analysis of protein-ligand interaction based on the ab initio fragment molecular orbital method for virtual ligand screening | journal = J Chem Inf Model | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 221–30 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16426058 | doi = 10.1021/ci050262q}}</ref>
** Represent and cluster candidates according to protein-ligand 3D information
** Needs meaningful representation of protein-ligand interactions.

==Examples==
A particular example of rational drug design involves the use of three-dimensional information about biomolecules obtained from such techniques as X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy. Computer-aided drug design in particular becomes much more tractable when there is a high-resolution structure of a target protein bound to a potent ligand. This approach to drug discovery is sometimes referred to as structure-based drug design. The first unequivocal example of the application of [[QSAR|structure-based drug design]] leading to an approved drug is the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor [[dorzolamide]], which was approved in 1995.<ref name="pmid8164249">{{cite journal | author = Greer J, Erickson JW, Baldwin JJ, Varney MD | title = Application of the three-dimensional structures of protein target molecules in structure-based drug design | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 37 | issue = 8 | pages = 1035–54 | year = 1994 | month = April | pmid = 8164249 | doi = 10.1021/jm00034a001| url = }}</ref><ref name="isbn3-527-29343-4">{{cite book | author = Hendrik Timmerman; Klaus Gubernator; Hans-Joachim Böhm; Raimund Mannhold; Hugo Kubinyi | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = Structure-based Ligand Design (Methods and Principles in Medicinal Chemistry) | edition = | language = | publisher = Wiley-VCH | location = Weinheim | year = 1998 | origyear = | pages = | quote = | isbn = 3-527-29343-4 | oclc = | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}</ref>

Another important case study in rational drug design is [[imatinib]], a [[tyrosine kinase]] inhibitor designed specifically for the ''bcr-abl'' fusion protein that is characteristic for [[Philadelphia chromosome]]-positive [[leukemia]]s ([[chronic myelogenous leukemia]] and occasionally [[acute lymphocytic leukemia]]). Imatinib is substantially different from previous drugs for [[cancer]], as most agents of [[chemotherapy]] simply target rapidly dividing cells, not differentiating between cancer cells and other tissues.

Additional examples include:
{{columns-list|2|
* Many of the [[atypical antipsychotic]]s
* [[Cimetidine]], the prototypical [[H2-receptor antagonist|H2-receptor antagonist]] from which the later members of the class were developed
* Selective [[Cyclooxygenase|COX-2]] inhibitor [[NSAID]]s
* [[Dorzolamide]], a [[carbonic anhydrase]] inhibitor used to treat glaucoma
* [[Enfuvirtide]], a peptide HIV entry inhibitor
* [[Nonbenzodiazepines]] like [[zolpidem]] and [[zopiclone]]
* [[Probenecid]]
* [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]]s (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), a class of [[antidepressant]]s
* [[Zanamivir]], an [[antiviral drug]]
* [[Isentress]], HIV Integrase inhibitor<ref>http://autodock.scripps.edu/news/autodocks-role-in-developing-the-first-clinically-approved-hiv-integrase-inhibitor</ref>
}}

;Case studies
* [[5-HT3 antagonist#5-HT3 antagonists drug design|5-HT3 antagonists]]
* [[Development of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists|Acetylcholine receptor agonists]]
* [[Discovery and development of angiotensin receptor blockers|Angiotensin receptor blockers]]
* [[Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitors]]
* [[Cannabinoid receptor antagonist#Drug design|Cannabinoid receptor antagonists]]
* [[Discovery and development of CCR5 receptor antagonists|CCR5 receptor antagonists]]
* [[Discovery and development of cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors|Cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors]]
* [[Development of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors|Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors]]
* [[Discovery and development of HIV protease inhibitors|HIV protease inhibitors]]
* [[NK1 receptor antagonist#Drug discovery and development|NK1 receptor antagonists]]
* [[Discovery and development of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors|Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors]]
* [[Discovery and development of proton pump inhibitors|Proton pump inibitors]]
* [[Discovery and development of triptans|Triptans]]
* [[Discovery and development of TRPV1 antagonists|TRPV1 antagonists]]
* [[Discovery and Development of Renin Inhibitors|Renin inhibitors]]
* [[c-Met inhibitors]]

==See also==
{{columns-list|2|
* [[Bioinformatics]]
* [[Cheminformatics]]
* [[Drug development]]
* [[Drug discovery]]
* [[List of pharmaceutical companies]]
* [[Medicinal chemistry]]
* [[Molecular Conceptor]]
* [[Molecular design software]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

==External links==
* {{MeshName|Drug+Design}}
* [http://www.click2drug.org Click2Drug.org] - Directory of computer-aided Drug Design tools.
* [http://mcule.com mcule.com] - Free package of Drug Design tools.

{{Medicinal chemistry}}
{{Drug design}}

[[Category:Pharmacology]]
[[Category:Design of experiments]]
[[Category:Clinical research]]
[[Category:Medicinal chemistry]]
[[Category:Drug discovery]]

Mordfall James Byrd junior

2013-01-14T03:05:13Z

Wingman4l7: /* Murder */ -- formatting fixes

{{Infobox person
| name = James Byrd, Jr.
| image =JamesByrdJr..jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1949|5|2}}
| birth_place = [[Beaumont, Texas]], United States
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1998|06|07|1949|05|2}}
| death_place = [[Jasper, Texas]], United States
| occupation =
}}
'''James Byrd, Jr.''' (May 2, 1949 – June 7, 1998) was an [[African-American]] who was [[murder]]ed by three men, of whom at least two were [[White supremacy|white supremacists]], in [[Jasper, Texas]], on June 7, 1998. Shawn Berry, Lawrence Russell Brewer, and John King dragged Byrd behind a [[pick-up truck]] along an [[asphalt]] road.
Byrd, who remained conscious throughout most of the ordeal, was killed when his body hit the edge of a [[culvert]], severing his right arm and head. The murderers drove on for another mile before dumping his torso in front of an African-American cemetery in Jasper.<ref name ="dragging">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/US/9807/06/dragging.death.02/|title=3 whites indicted in dragging death of black man in Texas|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=1998-07-06|accessdate=2010-07-24}}</ref> Byrd's lynching-by-dragging gave impetus to passage of a Texas hate crimes law. It later led to the [[Federal government of the United States|federal]] October 22, 2009 [[Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act]], commonly known as the [[Matthew Shepard]] Act. President [[Barack Obama]] signed the bill into law on October 28, 2009.<ref>[http://content.usatoday.com/communities/theoval/post/2009/10/620000629/1 Obama signs hate-crimes law rooted in crimes of 1998 ([[USA TODAY]], Oct 28, 2009)]</ref>

Lawrence Russell Brewer was executed by lethal injection for this crime by the state of Texas on September 21, 2011.<ref name="cbsnews.com">[http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504083_162-20110188-504083.html White supremacist Lawrence Russell Brewer executed for dragging death ([[CBS News]], September 22, 2011)]</ref> King remains on Texas' death row while appeals are pending,<ref name="King, John William">"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=04684561 King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref><ref name="tdcj.state.tx.us">"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/kingjohn.htm King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref><ref name="keysDidPrison"/> while Berry was sentenced to life imprisonment.

==Victim==
James Byrd, Jr. was born in [[Beaumont, Texas]], one of nine children, to Stella (1925 – October 7, 2010) and James Byrd, Sr. (born 1924).<ref name=KFDM>[http://www.kfdm.com/articles/pain-39700-dies-praised.html Mother of James Byrd, Jr. dies] (October 7, 2010)</ref>

===Family===
Ross Byrd, the only son of James Byrd, has been involved with Murder Victims' Families for Reconciliation, an organization that opposes capital punishment. He has campaigned to spare the lives of those who murdered his father and appears briefly in the documentary ''Deadline'' about the death penalty in Illinois.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jeralyn|title=Families of Murder Victims Opposed to Capital Punishment|url=http://www.talkleft.com/story/2002/07/05/175/14540|work=The Politics of Crime|publisher=TalkLeft.com|accessdate=27 August 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/05/07/60II/main552832.shtml Killing Time - [[Dan Rather]] interviews Renee and Ross Byrd]</ref>

==Murder==
On June 7, 1998, Byrd, age 49, accepted a ride from Shawn Berry (age 24), Lawrence Russell Brewer (age 31) and John King (age 23). Berry, who was driving, was acquainted with Byrd from around town. Instead of taking Byrd home, the three men took Byrd to a remote county road out of town, beat him severely, urinated on him and chained him by his ankles to their pickup truck before dragging him for three miles. Brewer later claimed that Byrd's throat had been slashed by Berry before he was dragged. However, forensic evidence suggests that Byrd had been attempting to keep his head up while being dragged, and an [[autopsy]] suggested that Byrd was alive during much of the dragging. Although, his body had caught the [[culvert]] on the side of the road, resulting in Byrd's decapitation. Byrd died after his right arm and head were severed after his body hit a culvert.<ref name="ClosingArguments">"[http://www.cnn.com/US/9902/22/dragging.death.03/ Closing arguments today in Texas dragging-death trial]," [[CNN]], February 22, 1999.</ref> Byrd's brain and skull were found intact, further suggesting he maintained consciousness while being dragged.<ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Paul|title=Criminal Law, Case Studies & Controversies|year=2008|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=New York|pages=204}}</ref>

Berry, Brewer and King dumped their victim's mutilated remains in front of an African-American church on Huff Creek Road; the three men then went to a barbecue. Along the area where Byrd was dragged, authorities found a wrench with "Berry" written on it. They also found a lighter that was inscribed with "Possum", which was King's prison [[nickname]].<ref>"[http://web.archive.org/web/20051227000441/http://www.texasobserver.org/showArticle.asp?ArticleID=275 Justice in Jasper]," ''[[Texas Observer]]'', September 17, 1999.</ref> The following morning, Byrd's limbs were found scattered across a seldom-used road. The police found 81 places that were littered with Byrd's remains. State law enforcement officials, along with Jasper's [[District Attorney]], determined that since Brewer and King were well-known [[white supremacists]], the murder was a [[hate crime]]. They decided to call upon the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] less than 24 hours after the discovery of Byrd's remains.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}

King had several racist [[tattoo]]s: a black man hanging from a tree, [[Nazism|Nazi]] symbols, the words "[[Aryan race|Aryan]] Pride," and the patch for a gang of white supremacist inmates known as the [[Prison gang#In the United States|Confederate Knights of America]].<ref>"[http://www.cnn.com/US/9902/16/dragging.death.04/index.html Texas sheriff 'knew somebody was murdered because he was black']," CNN, February 16, 1999.</ref> In a jailhouse letter to Brewer that was intercepted by jail officials, King expressed pride in the crime and said he realized in committing the murder he might have to die. "Regardless of the outcome of this, we have made history. Death before dishonor. [[Sieg Heil]]!" King wrote.<ref name="ClosingArguments" /> An officer investigating the case also testified that witnesses said King had referenced ''[[The Turner Diaries]]'' after beating Byrd.<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/jasper1.html The officer's account of the initial stages of the investigation through an affidavit filed in Jasper County, Texas on June 9, 1998.]</ref>

Berry, Brewer and King were tried and convicted for Byrd's murder. Brewer and King received the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]], while Berry was sentenced to [[Life imprisonment|life in prison]].

Brewer was executed by lethal injection on September 21, 2011<ref name="cbsnews.com"/> while King remains on Texas' death row.<ref name="King, John William"/><ref name="tdcj.state.tx.us"/><ref name="keysDidPrison"/>

==Perpetrators==
[[File:PolunskyUnitWestLivingstonTX.jpg|thumb|The perpetrators were held at the [[Allan B. Polunsky Unit]]]]

===Shawn Allen Berry===
The driver of the truck, Berry was the most difficult to convict of the three defendants because there was a lack of evidence to suggest that he was a racist. {{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} Berry had also claimed that Brewer and King were entirely responsible for the crime. Brewer, however, testified that Berry had cut Byrd's throat before he was tied to the truck. The jury decided that there was little evidence to support this claim.<ref name="Texas NAACP">{{cite web |title=Texas NAACP| url=http://www.texasnaacp.org/jasper.htm | accessdate=June 19, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070430140528/http://www.texasnaacp.org/jasper.htm  |archivedate = April 30, 2007}}</ref> As a result, Berry was spared the death penalty and was sentenced to life in prison. Berry, [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice|TDCJ]]#00894758, is currently held at the [[Ramsey Unit]] in [[Rosharon, Texas]],<ref name="keysDidPrison">Keys, Perryn. "[http://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/jasper__the_road_back__did_prison_time_turn_man_into_one_of_byrd_s_killers__06-30-2008_13_18_38.html?showFullArticle=y JASPER: THE ROAD BACK: Did prison time turn man into one of Byrd's killers?]" ''[[Beaumont Enterprise]]''. June 9, 2008. Retrieved on July 23, 2010.</ref> and his parole eligibility date is June 7, 2038.<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/index2.htm Berry, Shawn Allen]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> As of 2003 Berry is in protective custody; he spends 23 hours per day in an {{convert|8|ft|m|adj=on}} by {{convert|6|ft|m|adj=on}} cell, with one hour for exercise. Berry married a woman named Christie Marcontell by proxy.<ref>King, Joyce. ''Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas''. [[Random House, Inc.]], 2002. [http://books.google.com/books?id=dhH1GOJCrmkC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&dq=%22Shawn+Allen+Berry+is+at+the+Ramsey%22&source=bl&ots=4hdi_kbdSy&sig=mgjNcuQdCljQofrLdOrzhpdg8OI&hl=en&ei=LinSTN7gEoWBlAePt_S2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Shawn%20Allen%20Berry%20is%20at%20the%20Ramsey%22&f=false 207]. Retrieved from [[Google Books]] on November 3, 2010. ISBN 0-375-42132-7, ISBN 978-0-375-42132-7.</ref> Marcontell was Berry's girlfriend at the time of the murder. The two have a child together.

===Lawrence Russell Brewer===
Brewer was a white supremacist who, prior to Byrd's murder, had served a prison sentence for drug possession and burglary. He was paroled in 1991. After violating his parole conditions in 1994, Brewer was returned to prison. According to his court testimony, he joined a white supremacist gang with King in prison in order to safeguard himself from other inmates.<ref name="Court TV Online">{{cite web | title=Court TV Online| url=http://www.courttv.com/archive/trials/brewer/092199_pm_ctv.html| accessdate=June 19, 2007}}</ref> Brewer and King became friends in the [[Beto Unit]] prison.<ref name="keysDidPrison"/> A psychiatrist testified that Brewer did not appear repentant for his crimes. Brewer was ultimately convicted and [[death penalty|sentenced to death]].<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=03897953 Brewer, Lawrence Russell]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> Brewer, TDCJ#999327,<ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/brewerlawrence.htm Brewer, Lawrence Russell]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref> was on death row at the [[Polunsky Unit]].<ref name="keysDidPrison"/> Brewer was executed in the [[Huntsville Unit]] on September 21, 2011.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lawrence Russell Brewer executed in 1998 dragging death |author=Heather Nolan and Jessica Lipscomb |url=http://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/article/Lawrence-Russell-Brewer-executed-in-1998-dragging-2182092.php |newspaper=Beaumont Enterprise |date=September 22, 2011 |accessdate=September 22, 2011}}</ref> The day before his execution, Brewer told [[KHOU (TV)|KHOU 11 News]] in [[Houston]]: "As far as any regrets, no, I have no regrets. No, I'd do it all over again, to tell you the truth."<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/21/troy-davis-and-lawrence-b_n_974293.html Troy Davis And Lawrence Brewer, A Tale Of Two Executions]</ref>

====Last meal practice ended in Texas====
Before his execution Brewer ordered a large meal that included two [[chicken fried steak]]s, a triple-meat bacon cheeseburger, a large bowl of fried [[okra]], a pound of barbecue, three fajitas, a meat lover's pizza, a pint of ice cream, and a slab of peanut butter fudge with lots of crushed peanuts. However he did not eat any of it and the meal was discarded, prompting Texas prison officials to end the 87-year-old tradition<ref>[http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/local_news/article/Last-meal-tradition-for-death-row-inmates-2184368.php Last-meal requests off death row menu]</ref> of giving [[last meal]]s to condemned inmates.<ref>[http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Last-meal-requests-come-to-an-end-on-Texas-death-2184484.php Last meal requests come to an end on Texas death row (''[[San Antonio Express-News]]'', September 23, 2011)]</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/23/us/texas-death-row-kitchen-cooks-its-last-last-meal.html Texas Death Row Kitchen Cooks Its Last ‘Last Meal’ (''[[New York Times]]'', September 22, 2011)]</ref><ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-15040658 Last meal: What's the point of this death row ritual?], Daniel Nasaw, BBC News Magazine, 26 September 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-26.</ref>

===John William King===
King was accused of beating Byrd with a bat and then dragging him behind a [[pickup truck|truck]] until he died. King had previously claimed that he had been [[prison rape|gang-raped]] in prison by black inmates.<ref name="Prison Fellowship">{{cite web | title=Justice Fellowship| work="Prison Rape - It's No Joke" | url=http://www.justicefellowship.org/article.asp?ID=2695 | accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref> Although he had no previous record of racism, King had joined a white supremacist prison gang, allegedly for self-protection.<ref>Nolan, Pat: [http://www.justicefellowship.org/key-issues/issues-in-criminal-justice-reform/issue-1/pf-commentary-prison-rape/12780-prison-rape-its-no-joke "Prison Rape - It's No Joke"] Washington Post, June 25, 2009</ref> As a child he was diagnosed as manic-depressive. He was found guilty and sentenced to death for his role in Byrd's kidnapping and murder.<ref name="King, John William"/> King, TDCJ#999295,<ref name="tdcj.state.tx.us"/> is on death row at the Polunsky Unit.<ref name="keysDidPrison"/>

==Reactions to the murder==
Numerous aspects of the Byrd murder echo [[lynching in the United States|lynching tradition]]s. These include [[mutilation]] or [[decapitation]] and revelry, such as a barbecue or a picnic, during or after.

Byrd's murder was strongly condemned by [[Jesse Jackson]] and the [[Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change|Martin Luther King Center]] as an act of vicious [[racism]] and focused national attention on the prevalence of [[White supremacy|white supremacist]] [[prison gang]]s.

The victim's family created the James Byrd Foundation for Racial Healing after his death. In 1999 [[Chantal Akerman]], inspired by the literary works of [[William Faulkner]], set out to make a film about the beauty of the American South. However, after arriving on location (in Jasper, Texas) and learning of the brutal racist murder, she changed her focus. Akerman made ''Sud'' (French for "South") a meditation on the events surrounding the crime and the history of racial violence in the United States. In 2003, a movie about the crime, titled ''[[Jasper, Texas (film)|Jasper, Texas]]'', was produced and aired on [[Showtime (TV network)|Showtime]]. The same year, a documentary named ''Two Towns of Jasper'', made by filmmakers Marco Williams and Whitney Dow, premiered on [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]'s P.O.V. series.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/pov/ PBS.org]</ref>

Basketball star [[Dennis Rodman]] paid for funeral expenses and gave Byrd's family $25,000. Fight promoter Don King gave Byrd's children $100,000 to be put towards their education expenses.<ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Paul|title=Criminal Law, Case Studies & Controversies|year=2008|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7335-6927-0{{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (0) does not correspond to calculated figure.}}|pages=1176}}</ref>

While at radio station [[WIAD|WARW]] in Washington, D.C., DJ [[The Greaseman|Doug Tracht]] (also known as "The Greaseman") made a derogatory comment about James Byrd after playing [[Lauryn Hill]]'s song "[[Doo Wop (That Thing)]]".<ref>"The Reliable Source" Annie Groer, Ann Gerhart. ''[[The Washington Post]]''. Washington, D.C.: March 18, 1999. pg. C.03</ref> The February 1999 incident proved catastrophic to Tracht's radio career, igniting protests from black and white listeners alike. He was quickly fired from WARW and lost his position as a volunteer deputy sheriff in [[Falls Church]], [[Virginia]].

In May 2004 two white teenagers were arrested and charged with criminal mischief for desecrating James Byrd Jr.'s grave with racial slurs and profanities.<ref>[http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/State-briefs-White-teens-charged-in-grave-1977172.php White teens charged in grave desecration ([[Houston Chronicle]], May 12, 2004)]</ref>

===Impact on US politics===
Some advocacy groups, such as the [[NAACP]] National Voter Fund, made an issue of this case during [[George W Bush]]'s presidential campaign in 2000. They accused Bush of implicit racism since, as governor of Texas, he opposed [[hate crime]] legislation. Also, citing a prior commitment, Bush could not appear at Byrd's funeral. Because two of the three murderers were sentenced to death and the third to life in prison (all charged with and convicted of capital murder, the highest felony level in Texas) Governor Bush maintained that 'we don't need ''tougher'' laws'. The 77th Texas Legislature passed the James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Act. With the signature of [[Governor of Texas|Governor]] [[Rick Perry]] who inherited the balance of Bush's unexpired term, the act became Texas state law in 2001.<ref>{{cite news |title= Texas governor signs into law hate-crimes bill |agency= [[Associated Press]] |newspaper= The Deseret News |date= May 11, 2001 |page= A2}}</ref> In 2009, the [[Matthew Shepard Act|Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act]] expanded the [[Hate crimes in the United States#Federal prosecution of hate crimes|1969 United States federal hate-crime law]] to include crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]], [[gender identity]], or [[disability]].<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/10/28/obama-signs-billion-defense-policy/ Obama Signs Defense Policy Bill That Includes 'Hate Crime' Legislation]</ref>

===Musical tributes===
In 2010, Alabama musician [[Matthew Mayfield]] penned, recorded, and released a song in Byrd's honor. The tune, titled "Still Alive," is the fourth track on Mayfield's EP ''You're Not Home''. "Still Alive" clearly related a stark bitterness towards racism and equated such hate crimes to genocide.

"Tell Me Why" by Will Smith featuring Mary J. Blige mentions Byrd on Will Smith's fourth album, [[Lost and Found (Will Smith album)|Lost and Found]]

"The Ballad of James Byrd" is another tribute to Byrd, written and performed by Southern Californian musician Ross Durand.

Houston rapper [[E.S.G.]] mentions Byrd on the song "Realest Rhyming" from his 1999 album [[Shinin' N' Grindin']], stating "...let the Klu Klux know that I'mma blast ya/heard how ya done James Byrd down up in Jasper."

"The New Hell" by death metal band [[The Famine]] mentions Byrd on their album ''[[The Architects of Guilt]]'' (2011).

"Jasper", by [[Confrontation Camp]], is the fifth track on the album ''[[Objects in the Mirror Are Closer Than They Appear (Confrontation Camp album)|Objects in the Mirror Are Closer Than They Appear]]'' (2000).

"100 Miles" by Rollins Band is a b-side track from their album "Get Some Go Again." The song's lyrics are written in the first person about a vigilante who takes the lives of Byrd's killers. (2000)

"Guitar Drag" by sound artist [[Christian Marclay]] is a video- and sound-installation about the murdering of James Byrd (2000).

"I Heard 'Em Say" by [[Ryan Bingham]] is about Byrd's murder and the racially charged climate around Jasper following the crime (2012).

==See also==
{{Portal|Texas}}
* [[Dragging death]]
* [[Lynching]]

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* King, Joyce. ''Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas.'' Pantheon, 2002.
* Temple-Raston, Dina. ''A Death in Texas: A Story of Race, Murder, and a Small Town's Struggle for Redemption.'' Henry Holt and Co., January 6, 2002.
* Ainslie, Ricardo. ''Long Dark Road: Bill King and Murder in Jasper, Texas.'' [[University of Texas]] Press, 2004.

==External links==
* [http://www.lizardproductions.com/RememberHisName.html Remember His Name - From Hate To Healing: The Long Road Home] documentary in production by Lizard Productions
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7105192 James Byrd, Jr.] at Find A Grave
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0335185 ''Jasper, Texas''] - television movie
* [http://capmag.com/article.asp?ID=1464 Politically Correct Murder and Media Bias] by [[Larry Elder]] - compares media coverage of the Byrd case to the murder of [[Ken Tillery]]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~action/ads2/adnaacp.html NAACP National Voter Fund - Campaign ads 2000]
* [http://www.matthewmayfield.com/album/yourenothome.html Listen to "Still Alive" by Matthew Mayfield]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Byrd Jr., James
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = May 2, 1949
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Jasper, Texas]] [[U.S.A]]
| DATE OF DEATH = June 7, 1998
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Jasper, Texas]] [[United States|U.S.A.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Byrd Jr., James}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]
[[Category:1998 murders in the United States]]
[[Category:African-American history of Texas]]
[[Category:American murder victims]]
[[Category:Murdered African-American people]]
[[Category:People from Jasper County, Texas]]
[[Category:People murdered in Texas]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence against African Americans]]
[[Category:Homicides by motor vehicle]]
[[Category:1998 in Texas]]
[[Category:Capital murder cases|Byrd]]
[[Category:Deaths by person]]

[[fr:Affaire James Byrd, Jr.]]
[[ru:Бёрд, Джеймс]]
[[fi:James Byrd, Jr]]

Company of Heroes 2

2012-11-29T21:07:34Z

Wingman4l7: /* Gameplay */ -- moved comma

{{Infobox video game
| title = Company of Heroes 2
| image = [[Image:CoH2 initial box art (re-sized).jpeg|center|256px|Company of Heroes 2]]
| caption =
| developer = [[Relic Entertainment]]
| publisher = [[THQ]]
| distributor = 
| designer = Quinn Duffy
| series = ''[[Company of Heroes]]''
| engine = [[Essence Engine|Essence Engine 3.0]]<ref name="COH2IGN">{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2012/05/07/company-of-heroes-2-officially-announced|title=Company of Heroes 2 Officially Announced|last=Onyett|first=Charles|publisher=[[IGN]]|date=2012-05-07|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref>
| version =
| platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]]
| released = {{Video game release||Early 2013<ref name="COH2GameSpot">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamespot.com/news/company-of-heroes-2-confirmed-for-early-2013-6375383|title=Company of Heroes 2 confirmed for 'early 2013'|last=Makuch|first=Eddie|publisher=[[GameSpot]]|date=2012-05-07|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref>}}
| genre = [[Real-time strategy]]
| modes = [[Single-player video game|Single-player]], [[Multiplayer video game|multiplayer]]
| ratings = 
| media = [[DVD]], [[Digital distribution|download]]
| requirements =
}}

'''''Company of Heroes 2''''' is an upcoming [[real-time strategy]] [[video game|game]] being developed by [[Relic Entertainment]] and published by [[THQ]] for the [[Microsoft Windows]] platform.<ref name="COH2CVG">{{cite web|url=http://www.computerandvideogames.com/346616/company-of-heroes-2-briefing-on-may-7/|title=Company of Heroes 2 'briefing' on May 7|last=Jackson|first=Mike|publisher=[[Computer and Video Games]]|date=2012-05-07|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref> It is the sequel to the critically acclaimed 2006 game ''[[Company of Heroes]]''.

As with the original ''Company of Heroes'', the game will be set in [[World War II]] but will focus on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]. ''Company of Heroes 2'' will run on Relic Entertainment's proprietary [[Essence Engine|Essence 3.0]] [[game engine]], which THQ claims will allow the developer to bring "new technological advancements" to the game.<ref name=COH2GameSpot/> The game is currently slated for an early 2013 release.

==Gameplay==
The game will feature the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Red Army]] as a new faction and will take the player on various stages of the Eastern Front campaign, from [[Operation Barbarossa]] to the [[Battle of Berlin]]. The game is built on Relic's proprietary Essence 3.0 engine, which showcases new improvements compared to Relic's previous games. One such improvements is the new [[Line of sight (gaming)|line-of-sight]] technology, TrueSight,<ref name="COH2Features">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamespot.com/company-of-heroes-2/previews/surviving-the-frozen-heart-of-mother-russia-6378021/|title=Surviving the Frozen Heart of Mother Russia|last=McGee|first=Maxwell|publisher=GameSpot|date=2012-05-22|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref> which aims to better emulate troop visibility in real combat. In contrast with traditional unit visibility, TrueSight more accurately represents a unit's visibility range based on environmental conditions and type of unit. Essence 3.0 will also incorporate an innovative weather-simulating technology known as ColdTech and destructible environments.<ref name="COH2Weather">{{cite web|url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2012-07-24-company-of-heroes-2s-dynamic-weather-system-will-freeze-your-ass-off|title=Company of Heroes 2's dynamic weather system will freeze your ass off|last=Matulef|first=Jeffrey|publisher=[[Eurogamer]]|date=2012-07-24|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref><ref name="COH2Destruction">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamebreaker.tv/pc-games/company-of-heroes-2-hail-mother-russia/|title=Company Of Heroes 2 Will Have New Obstacles, Destructible Environment|last=Regimbal|first=Austin|publisher=[http://www.gamebreaker.tv/ GameBreaker]|date=2012-05-22|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref>

''Company of Heroes 2'' will take advantage of [[DirectX 11]] but will also support [[DirectX 9]]. The game will also utilize [[Valve Corporation|Valve]]'s [[Steamworks]] technology with matchmaking and achievements.<ref name=COH2Features/> In regards to strategy mechanics, the game is set to retain the traditional ''Company of Heroes'' formula.<ref name="COH2PreviewIGN">{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2012/05/22/company-of-heroes-2-small-changes-big-differences|title=Company of Heroes 2: Small Changes, Big Differences|last=Gallegos|first=Anthony|publisher=IGN|date=2012-05-22|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref>

==Development==
[[THQ]] first announced the sequel to the acclaimed ''[[Company of Heroes]]'' in May 2012.<ref name="COH2Happening">{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2012/05/03/company-of-heroes-2-is-happening|title=Company of Heroes 2 is Happening|last=Gallegos|first=Anthony|publisher=IGN|date=2012-05-03|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref> THQ executive vice president of core games [[Danny Bilson]] noted that the publisher will continue working on ''Company of Heroes 2'' following its launch next year. He said gamers can expect a "strong post-launch support digital content plan that enhances and expands the product's lifecycle."

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.companyofheroes.com/}}
*[http://companyofheroes.wikia.com/wiki/Company_of_Heroes_Wiki ''Company of Heroes'' Wiki]

{{Relic Entertainment}}
{{THQ}}

[[Category:Company of Heroes]]
[[Category:Real-time strategy video games]]
[[Category:THQ games]]
[[Category:Upcoming video games scheduled for 2013]]
[[Category:Video games developed in Canada]]
[[Category:Video game sequels]]
[[Category:Windows games]]

{{Strategy-videogame-stub}}

[[nl:Company of Heroes 2]]
[[ru:Company of Heroes 2]]

Benutzer:Snackroeg/Kernreaktoren der Generation 5

2012-10-05T06:08:29Z

Wingman4l7: rm spaces

[[File:GenIVRoadmap.jpg|right|480px|Nuclear Energy Systems Deployable no later than 2030 and offering significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, and economics]]
'''Generation IV reactors''' (Gen IV) are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. Most of these designs are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally considered second- or third-generation systems, with most of the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago.

Relative to current nuclear power plant technology, the claimed benefits for 4th generation reactors include:
* Nuclear waste that remains radioactive for a few centuries instead of millennia<ref>{{cite web |title=Strategies to Address Global Warming |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/mailings/2009/20090713_Strategies.pdf}}</ref>
* 100-300 times more energy yield from the same amount of nuclear fuel<ref>{{cite web |title=4th Generation Nuclear Power |url=http://www.ossfoundation.us/projects/energy/nuclear}}</ref>
* The ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the production of electricity
* Improved operating safety

== Reactor types ==
Many reactor types were considered initially; however, the list was downsized to focus on the most promising technologies and those that could most likely meet the goals of the Gen IV initiative. Three systems are nominally [[thermal reactor]]s and three are [[fast reactor]]s. The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is also being researched for potentially providing high quality process heat for hydrogen production. The fast reactors offer the possibility of burning actinides to further reduce waste and of being able to "breed more fuel" than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance and physical protection.

=== Thermal reactors ===
==== Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) ====
[[File:Very High Temperature Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR)]]
{{Main|Very high temperature reactor}}
The '''very high temperature reactor''' concept uses a [[graphite]]-moderated core with a once-through [[uranium]] fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt as the [[Very_high_temperature_reactor#Coolant|coolant]]. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000 °C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a [[pebble bed reactor]] design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or [[hydrogen]] production via the thermochemical [[Sulfur-iodine cycle|iodine-sulfur]] process. It would also be [[Passive nuclear safety|passively safe]].

The planned construction of the first VHTR, the South African PBMR (pebble bed modular reactor), lost government funding in February, 2010.<ref>[http://www.powergenworldwide.com/index/display/articledisplay/6322207443/articles/power-engineering-international/volume-18/Issue_3/regulars/world-news/INTERNATIONAL.html South Africa to stop funding Pebble Bed nuclear reactor]</ref> A pronounced increase of costs and concerns about possible unexpected technical problems had discouraged potential investors and customers.

==== Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) ====
[[File:Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)]]
{{Main|Supercritical water reactor}}
The '''supercritical water reactor''' (SCWR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a concept that uses [[supercritical fluid|supercritical water]] as the working fluid. SCWRs are basically [[light water reactor]]s (LWR) operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct, once-through cycle. As most commonly envisioned, it would operate on a direct cycle, much like a boiling water reactor ([[BWR]]), but since it uses supercritical water (not to be confused with [[Critical mass (nuclear)|critical mass]]) as the working fluid, would have only one phase present, like the pressurized water reactor ([[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]]). It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs.

Supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) are promising advanced nuclear systems because of their high [[thermal efficiency]] (i.e., about 45% vs. about 33% efficiency for current LWRs) and considerable plant simplification.

The main mission of the SCWR is generation of low-cost [[electricity]]. It is built upon two proven technologies, LWRs, which are the most commonly deployed power generating reactors in the world, and supercritical [[fossil fuel]] fired [[boiler]]s, a large number of which are also in use around the world. The SCWR concept is being investigated by 32 organizations in 13 countries.

==== Molten-salt reactor (MSR) ====
[[File:Molten Salt Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)]]
{{Main|Molten salt reactor}}
{{see also|Liquid fluoride thorium reactor}}
A '''molten salt reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a type of [[nuclear reactor]] where the primary [[coolant]], or even the fuel itself is a molten salt mixture. There have been many designs put forward for this type of reactor and a few prototypes built. The early concepts and many current ones rely on [[nuclear fuel]] dissolved in the molten [[fluoride]] salt as [[uranium]] tetrafluoride (UF4) [[Thorium fuel cycle|or thorium tetrafluoride]] (ThF4), the fluid would reach [[Critical mass (nuclear)|criticality]] by flowing into a [[graphite]] core which would also serve as the [[neutron moderator|moderator]]. Many current concepts rely on fuel that is dispersed in a graphite matrix with the molten salt providing low pressure, high temperature cooling.

The [[liquid fluoride thorium reactor]] ([[acronym]] '''LFTR'''; spoken as ''lifter'') is a thermal breeder molten salt reactor which uses the [[thorium fuel cycle]] in a [[fluoride]]-based molten salt fuel to achieve high operating temperatures at [[atmospheric pressure]]. It has recently been the subject of a renewed interest worldwide.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/victor-stenger/lftr-a-longterm-energy-so_b_1192584.html | work=Huffington Post | first=Victor | last=Stenger | title=LFTR: A Long-Term Energy Solution? | date=12 January 2012}}</ref>

=== Fast reactors ===

==== Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) ====
[[File:Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)]]
{{Main|Gas-cooled fast reactor}}
The '''gas-cooled fast reactor''' (GFR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> system features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]] for efficient conversion of [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and management of [[actinide]]s. The reactor is [[helium]]-cooled, with an outlet temperature of 850 °C and using a direct [[Brayton cycle]] [[Closed-cycle gas turbine|gas turbine]] for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to operate at very high temperatures and to ensure an excellent retention of [[Nuclear fission|fission]] products: composite [[ceramic]] fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic clad elements of actinide compounds. Core configurations are being considered based on pin- or plate-based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks.

==== Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) ====
[[File:Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)]]
{{Main|Sodium-cooled fast reactor}}
{{see also|Experimental Breeder Reactor II|Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station|Monju Nuclear Power Plant|Phénix|BN-600 reactor}}
The SFR<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a project that builds on two closely related existing projects, the [[LMFBR|liquid metal fast breeder reactor]] and the [[Integral Fast Reactor]].

The goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by [[breeder reactor|breeding]] plutonium and eliminating the need for [[transuranic]] isotopes ever to leave the site. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on [[fast neutron]]s, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). In addition to the benefits of removing the long [[half-life]] transuranics from the waste cycle, the SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats, and the chain reaction automatically slows down. In this manner, it is passively safe.

The SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid [[sodium]] and fueled by a metallic alloy of [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]]. The fuel is contained in steel cladding with liquid sodium filling in the space between the clad elements which make up the fuel assembly. One of the design challenges of an SFR is the risks of handling sodium, which reacts explosively if it comes into contact with water. However, the use of liquid metal instead of water as coolant allows the system to work at atmospheric pressure, reducing the risk of leakage.

==== Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) ====
[[File:Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)]]
{{Main|Lead-cooled fast reactor}}
{{See also|MYRRHA}}
The '''lead-cooled fast reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap">{{cite journal| year=2002 | title=A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems | last=US DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee |volume=GIF-002-00|url=http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/documents/gen_iv_roadmap.pdf}}</ref> features a fast-neutron-spectrum [[lead]] or [[lead]]/[[bismuth]] [[eutectic]] ([[Lead-bismuth eutectic|LBE]]) liquid-metal-cooled reactor with a closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]]. Options include a range of plant ratings, including a "battery" of 50 to 150 MW of electricity that features a very long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW, and a large monolithic plant option at 1,200 MW. (The term ''battery'' refers to the long-life, factory-fabricated core, not to any provision for electrochemical energy conversion.) The fuel is metal or nitride-based containing [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and [[transuranic]]s. The LFR is cooled by natural [[convection]] with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 °C, possibly ranging up to 800 °C with advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by thermochemical processes.

== Advantages and disadvantages==
Relative to current nuclear power plant technology, the claimed benefits for 4th generation reactors include:
* Nuclear waste that remains radioactive for a few centuries instead of millennia <ref>{{cite web |title=Strategies to Address Global Warming |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/mailings/2009/20090713_Strategies.pdf}}</ref>
* 100-300 times more energy yield from the same amount of nuclear fuel <ref>{{cite web |title=4th Generation Nuclear Power |url=http://www.ossfoundation.us/projects/energy/nuclear}}</ref>
* The ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the production of electricity
* Improved operating safety

One disadvantage of any new reactor technology is that safety risks may be greater initially as reactor operators have little experience with the new design. Nuclear engineer [[David Lochbaum]] has explained that almost all serious nuclear accidents have occurred with what was at the time the most recent technology. He argues that "the problem with new reactors and accidents is twofold: scenarios arise that are impossible to plan for in simulations; and humans make mistakes".<ref name=safe/> As one director of a U.S. research laboratory put it, "fabrication, construction, operation, and maintenance of new reactors will face a steep learning curve: advanced technologies will have a heightened risk of accidents and mistakes. The technology may be proven, but people are not".<ref name=safe>[[Benjamin K. Sovacool]]. A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia, ''Journal of Contemporary Asia'', Vol. 40, No. 3, August 2010, p. 381.</ref>

A specific risk of the sodium-cooled fast reactor is related to using metallic sodium as a coolant. In case of a breach, sodium explosively reacts with water. Fixing breaches may also prove dangerous, as the noble gas argon is also used to prevent sodium oxidation. Argon is an asphyxiant, so workers may be exposed to this additional risk. This is a pertinent problem as can be testified by the events at the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Monju at Tsuruga, Japan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Japan Strains to Fix a Reactor Damaged Before Quake |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/18/world/asia/18japan.html | work=The New York Times | first=Hiroko |last=Tabuchi |date=17 June 2011}}</ref>

== Participating countries ==
The members of the GIF are:
* {{ARG}} [http://www.cnea.gov.ar/] (Spanish-only web site)
* {{CAN}} [http://www.aecl.ca/]
* {{CHN}} [http://www.caea.gov.cn/n602669/n2231600/n2272156/n2272415/167948.html]
* {{EU}} [http://www.euronuclear.org/1-information/generation-IV.htm]
* {{FRA}} [http://www.cea.fr/]
* {{JPN}} [http://www.jaea.go.jp/english/]
* {{KOR}} [http://www.mest.go.kr/index.html] (Korean-only web site)
* {{RUS}} [http://www.rosatom.ru/en/]
* {{RSA}} [http://www.eskom.co.za/live/index.php]
* {{SUI}} [http://www.psi.ch/index_e.shtml]
* {{UK}} [http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/sources/nuclear/technology/fission/page17924.html]
* {{USA}} [http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html]

The nine GIF founding members were joined by Switzerland in 2002, Euratom in 2003 and most recently by China and Russia at the end of 2006.<ref>{{cite web | author=[[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique]]|title= Future nuclear systems| url=http://nucleaire.cea.fr/fr/nucleaire_futur/pu_schema1ch2.htm}}</ref>

Also Australia has shown interest to join the GIF.{{cn|date=March 2012}}

== Designs under development ==
* VVER-1700/393 (Super-VVER or VVER-SKD) — Supercritical-water-cooled reactor with double-inlet-core

==See also==
* [[Nuclear reactor]]
* [[Nuclear material]]
* [[Nuclear physics]]
* [[List of reactor types]]
* [[Generation II reactor]]
* [[Generation III reactor]]
* [[Integral Fast Reactor]]
* [[Liquid fluoride thorium reactor]]
* [[Breeder reactor]]
* [[Small modular reactor]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://inlportal.inl.gov/portal/server.pt?open=514&objID=1361&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=10&mode=2&in_hi_userid=200&cached=true Article from Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors.]
* [http://www.gen-4.org/ Generation IV International Forum (GIF)]
* [http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology]
* [http://www.engr.utk.edu/nuclear/colloquia/slides/Gen%20IV%20U-Tenn%20Presentation.pdf Gen IV presentation]
* [http://www.ecology.at/ecology/files/pr577_1.pdf Science or Fiction - Is there a Future for Nuclear?] (Nov. 2007) - A publication from the Austrian [[Ecology Institute (Austria)|Ecology Institute]] about 'Generation IV' and Fusion reactors.
* {{cite web |url=http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2011/December/Nuclear_Power_After_Fukushima.cfm |title=Nuclear Power After Fukushima |author=Gail H. Marcus |date= December 2011 |work= Mechanical Engineering (the magazine of [[ASME]])|accessdate=23 January 2012}} "In the wake of a severe plant accident, advanced reactor designs are getting renewed attention."

{{Nuclear Technology}}

[[Category:Nuclear power reactor types]]
[[Category:Idaho National Laboratory]]

[[de:Generation IV International Forum]]
[[es:Reactor nuclear de IV generación]]
[[fa:راکتور نسل ۴]]
[[fr:Forum International Génération IV]]
[[ko:4세대 원자로]]
[[hr:Nuklearni reaktori IV. generacije]]
[[it:Reattore nucleare di IV generazione]]
[[nl:Vierde-generatiekernreactor]]
[[ja:第4世代原子炉]]
[[no:Generasjon IV internasjonale forum]]
[[pl:Reaktory jądrowe IV generacji]]
[[pt:Reatores Nucleares de Quarta Geração]]
[[fi:Reaktorisukupolvet]]
[[sv:Fjärde generationens reaktor]]

Ispace

2012-09-17T05:56:24Z

Wingman4l7: /* Locations */ -- rm spaces

{{More footnotes|date=August 2010}}

[[Image:White label space rover.jpg|thumb|right|Concept design of a Moon Rover by White Label Space]]

'''White Label Space''' was formed in early 2008 by a group of experienced space professionals inspired by the challenge of the [[Google Lunar X PRIZE]]. The team aims to finance its [[Google Lunar X PRIZE]] mission from advertising expenditure of large global companies.<ref>[http://www.googlelunarxprize.org/lunar/teams/white-label-space/about White Label Space team page] on the [[Google Lunar X PRIZE]] site</ref>{{full}}

==Locations==
The headquarters of White Label Space is in the Netherlands, hosted in the office of the Dutch aerospace company AOES Group BV.<ref>[http://www.whitelabelspace.com/2009/08/aoes-group-bv-specialist-space.html Dutch Firm AOES Group BV Partners with White Label Space Team in $30 Million Google Lunar X PRIZE], 31 August 2009</ref>{{full}}

In 2010 the team also established White Label Space Japan LLC, a Limited Liability Company registered in Japan.<ref>[http://www.whitelabelspace.com/2010/09/wls-japan-office-open-for-business.html WLS Japanese Office Open for Business], 9 September 2010</ref>{{full}}

==Partners==
{{asof|2008|01}}, the team had nine official partners:<ref>[http://www.whitelabelspace.com/2009/01/partners.html White Label Space Official Partners Page], 2008-01-01.</ref>{{update after|2011|02|13}}
* [[Advanced Operations and Engineering Services]] (AOES Group BV) - an international engineering services and consultancy provider providing specialist support for design and analysis tasks related to the structures, thermal and propulsion subsystems of the Lander and Rover
* The [[Swiss Propulsion Laboratory]] - developing a low-cost engine for the landing stage of the White Label Space mission using its in-house rocket motor test bench
* [[Tohoku University]] Space Robotics Laboratory - designing the Moon rover for the mission
* [[Airborne Composites BV]] - a developer of advanced composite products and technologies for space and other industries, and will provide lightweight high performance composite structures for the mission
* Emxys - a designer and manufacturer of instrumentation and control embedded electronic systems for science and industry markets <ref>[http://www.whitelabelspace.com/2009/11/emxys-new-partner-for-electronic.html Emxys - New Partner for Electronic Systems], 27 November 2009</ref>{{full}}
* Space Technology Group at the [[Technical University of Munich]]
* LunarNumbat - a team of Australians and New Zealanders who are using [[Open Source]] technologies to develop new software and electronic hardware in support of the White Label Space mission
* [[Wrocław University of Technology]] - developer of aerospace communications equipment
* JAQAR Space Engineering - the partner for orbital design and mission analysis

==See also==
* [[Google Lunar X PRIZE]]
* [[X PRIZE Foundation]]
* [[Space advertising|Space Advertising]]
* [[Private spaceflight|Private Spaceflight]]

==External links==
* [http://www.whitelabelspace.com/ White Label Space Website]
* [http://whitelabelspacejapanoffice.blogspot.com/ White Label Space Japan Site]
* [http://www.whitelabelspace.com/2009/02/euromoon-2000.html Euromoon 2000]
* [http://www.aoes.com AOES Group BV website]
* [http://www.emxys.com/ Emxys website]
* [http://www.jaqarsoftware.com/ JAQARsoftware.com website]
* [http://www.lunarnumbat.org/ Lunar Numbat home page]
* [http://www.lrt.mw.tum.de/en/wissenschaft/forschungsgruppen_satellitentechnik.phtml TU Munich Satellite Technology Group]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Google Lunar X Prize}}

[[Category:Google Lunar X Prize]]

Kerbal Space Program

2012-09-10T09:50:07Z

Wingman4l7: /* Planned features */ -- formatting and clarification

{{Refimprove|date=September 2011}}
{{Gamecleanup|date=September 2011}}
{{Infobox video game
|title=Kerbal Space Program
|image=[[File:KSPscreenshot.png|250px]]
|caption= ''A rocket sitting on the pad, with the Mün (fictional moon) in the background''
|developer = [[Squad (game developer)]]
|publisher = [[Squad (game developer)]]
|series =
|engine = [[Unity3D]]
|version = 0.16 (Demo: 0.13.3)
|released = June 24, 2011 (first alpha release)
July 20, 2012 (0.16)<ref>{{cite web|last=Kerbal Space Program|title=0.16 Release Date News|url=http://kerbaldevteam.tumblr.com/post/27656469809/ksp-0-16-one-small-step-for-kerbalkind|publisher=Crew|accessdate=21 July 2012}}</ref>
|genre = [[Space flight simulator game]] [[Simulation game]]
|modes = [[Single-player video game|Single-player]]
|ratings = Not yet rated
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS]]
|media = Download
|requirements=
|input = [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]] and [[computer mouse|Mouse]]
}}

'''''Kerbal Space Program''''' ('''KSP''') is a currently in-development [[space flight simulator game]] that allows players to build a rocket and launch it into space.

==Gameplay==
This game allows players to build and pilot a space vehicle, made out of pre-fabricated modules (also referred to as 'parts') such as liquid fuel engines, fuel tanks, solid fuel rockets,landing gear, wings and steering fins.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kerbalspaceprogram.com/about.php |title=About |publisher=Kerbal Space Program |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> Additional parts such as payload fairings, wheeled rovers, and weapons have been added to the game by players. Players can also control the characters piloting the vehicle, called 'Kerbals'.

Within the game there is currently one planet, Kerbin, which the player launches from, and its two moons, known as Mün and Minmus. While it is possible to orbit the sun, named Kerbol, there is currently no geometric model representing it, making the sun a singularity. Kerbin, Mün and Minmus travel along a circular orbit, with Kerbin orbiting the sun and the moons orbiting Kerbin.
From version 0.14 on, support for persistent worlds has been added: any object that has attained a stable orbit, or is anyway in a predictable path outside of an atmosphere, will be saved between play sessions, its trajectory propagated simultaneously with all the others. Version 0.16 added the feature of [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVAs]], allowing players to control the Kerbals.<ref>{{cite web|title=KSP 0.16|url=http://kerbaldevteam.tumblr.com/post/27656469809/ksp-0-16-one-small-step-for-kerbalkind|accessdate=21 July 2012}}</ref> A "tracking station" interface allows the player to resume any of the flights in progress, switch between them, and also visit non-controllable [[space debris]]. Vehicles cannot dock yet, but the introduction of this feature is the current priority of the developers.

==Modification==
The game supports extensive [[mod (video gaming)|end-user modification]], allowing craft parts to easily be built and implemented by players. As a result, the game enjoys a significant modding community, with hundreds of modifications released to date. These modifications to the game add to functionality, allowing craft such as land vehicles or airplanes to be created far more easily than with the base game.

Beginning with the paid 0.14.1 version, the game supports an extensive plugin API, allowing players and mod-makers to create parts that load additional code at runtime; this code extends the base game, allowing for new functionality or for more powerful control of the existing ones (e.g. autopilot modules, or telemetry).
The plugins are written in [[C Sharp (programming_language)|C#]], as is the base game.

==Inconsistencies==
While [[newtonian physics]] generally is implemented in a realistic manner, the [[game engine]]'s inability to solve the [[n-body problem]] only allows gravity from one celestial body at a time to be modeled, with gravity 'switching' at a definite point. This prevents the simulation of [[Lagrangian points]] and other situations involving gravitational pull from multiple objects. This was a trade-off intentionally made by the developers, to improve the stability and speed of the simulation, in addition to the predictability, which will help certain planned features.

The physics simulation is based on the [[PhysX]] middleware, utilized as part of the [[Unity (game engine)|Unity 3D]]. The unique necessities of the game, which has to correctly handle distances in a range of at least 13 [[orders of magnitude]] and velocities in the order of kilometers per second, have required a number of workarounds to avoid [[numerical stability]] issues. Some bugs of this nature are still not completely solved as of now.

==Planned features==
According to the game's website, several features are planned for KSP in the future:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kerbalspaceprogram.com/~kerbalsp/wiki/index.php?title=Planned_features#Future_releases |title=Planned features - Kerbal Space Program Wiki |publisher=Kerbalspaceprogram.com |date=2012-03-06 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>
* Spacecraft [[Spacecraft Docking and Berthing Mechanisms|docking]]
* A star system fully populated with planets and moons
* Officially supported [[rover (space exploration)|rover]]
* [[Space station]] construction
* Space program economic management, with the space simulation game [[Buzz Aldrin's Race Into Space]] as an acknowledged inspiration

The game is currently in the [[software release life cycle|alpha stage of development]], with the current software being only a very small approximation of the final product. The current game can be purchased through the developer's 'Kerbal Space Program Store' at a cost of US $18.00. Version 0.13 will remain free as a [[game demo|demo]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kerbalspaceprogram.com/about.php |title=About |publisher=Kerbal Space Program |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> and will never be updated.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://kerbalspaceprogram.com/ Kerbal Space Program Main Website]
*[http://www.destructoid.com/hands-on-kerbal-space-program-206484.phtml Destructoid: Hands-on: Kerbal Space Program]
*[http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2011/07/12/trans-lunar-kerbal-space-program/ Rock Paper Shotgun: Trans-Lunar: Kerbal Space Program]
*[http://pc.ign.com/objects/113/113426.html IGN: Kerbal Space Program]
*[http://www.kotaku.com.au/2011/07/will-you-help-these-stupid-aliens-into-space/ Kotaku: Will You Help These Stupid Aliens Into Space?]
*[http://www.giantbomb.com/quick-look-kerbal-space-program/17-6420/ Giant Bomb: Quick Look - Kerbal Space Program]

[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:2011 video games]]
[[Category:Unity engine games]]
[[Category:Space flight simulation computer games]]

[[es:Kerbal Space Program]]
[[fr:Kerbal Space Program]]
[[ru:Kerbal Space Program]]
[[fi:Kerbal Space Program]]

Transcomputationales Problem

2012-09-05T06:19:49Z

Wingman4l7: /* In fiction */ -- moved period

In computational complexity theory, a '''transcomputational problem''' is a problem that requires processing of more than 1093 bits of information.<ref name=Klir>{{cite book|last=Klir|first=George J.|title=Facets of systems science|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-306-43959-9|pages=121–128}}</ref> Any number greater than 1093 is called a '''transcomputational number'''. The number 1093, called [[Bremermann's limit]], is, according to [[Hans-Joachim Bremermann]], the total number of bits processed by a hypothetical computer the size of the [[Earth]] within a time period equal to the estimated age of the Earth.<ref name="Klir"/><ref name="Bre">Bremermann, H.J. (1962) [http://holtz.org/Library/Natural%20Science/Physics/Optimization%20Through%20Evolution%20and%20Recombination%20-%20Bremermann%201962.htm ''Optimization through evolution and recombination''] In: Self-Organizing systems 1962, edited M.C. Yovitts et al., Spartan Books, Washington, D.C. pp. 93–106.</ref> The term ''transcomputational'' was coined by Bremermann.<ref>{{cite web|last=Heinz Muhlenbein|title=Algorithms, data and hypotheses : Learning in open worlds|url=http://muehlenbein.org/algo95.pdf|publisher=German National Research Center for Computer Science|accessdate=3 May 2011}}</ref>

==Examples of transcomputational problems==
===Traveling salesman problem===
The [[travelling salesman problem]] is the problem of finding a tour of given list of cities which minimizes the total cost of the tour. A tour must visit all cities in the list exactly once, and return to the starting city. If there are ''n'' cities in the list, the number of possible tours is ''n''!. Since 66! is approximately equal to 5.443449391*1092 and 67! to 3.647111092*1094, the problem of enumerating all possible tours becomes transcomputational for ''n'' > 66.

===Testing integrated circuits===
Exhaustively testing all combinations of an [[integrated circuit]] with 308 [[input]]s and 1 [[output]] requires testing of a total of 2308 combinations of inputs. Since the number 2308 is a transcomputational number (that is, a number greater than 1093), the problem of testing such a system of [[integrated circuit]]s is a transcomputational problem. This means that there is no way one can verify the correctness of the circuit for all combinations of inputs through [[Brute-force search|brute force]] alone.<ref name="Klir"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Miles|first=William|title=Bremermann's Limit|url=http://www.wmiles.com/2010/01/bremermanns-limit|accessdate=1 May 2011}}</ref>

===Pattern recognition===
Consider a ''q'' ×''q '' array of the [[chessboard]] type each square of which can have one of ''k'' [[color]]s. Altogether there are ''k''''n'' [[color]] [[pattern]]s, where ''n'' = ''q''2. The problem of determining of the best classification of the patterns, according to some chosen criterion, may be solved by a search through all possible color patterns. For two colors, such a search becomes transcomputational when the array is 18 × 18 or larger. For a 10 ×10 array, the problem becomes transcomputational when there are 9 or more colors.<ref name="Klir"/>

This has some relevance in the physiological studies of the [[retina]]. The retina contains about a million [[Light sensitivity|light-sensitive]] [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s. Even if there were only two possible states for each cell (say, an active state and an inactive state) the processing of the [[retina]] as a whole requires processing of more than 10300,000 bits of information. This is far beyond [[Bremermann's limit]].<ref name="Klir"/>

===General systems problems===
A [[system]] of ''n'' variables, each of which can take ''k'' different states, can have
''k''''n'' possible system states. To analyze such a system, a minimum of ''k''''n'' bits of information are to be processed. The problem becomes transcomputational when ''k''''n'' > 1093. This happens for the following values of ''k'' and ''n''<ref name="Klir"/>:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ''k'' || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10
|-
| ''n'' || 308 || 194 || 154 || 133 || 119 || 110 || 102 || 97 || 93
|}

==Implications==
The existence of real-world transcomputational problems implies the limitations of computers as data processing tools. This point is best summarized in Bremermann's own words<ref name="Bre"/>:

:"The experiences of various groups who work on problem solving, theorem proving and pattern recognition all seem to point in the same direction: These problems are tough. There does not seem to be a royal road or a simple method which at one stroke will solve all our problems. My discussion of ultimate limitations on the speed and amount of data processing may be summarized like this: Problems involving vast numbers of possibilities will not be solved by sheer data processing quantity. We must look for quality, for refinements, for tricks, for every ingenuity that we can think of. Computers faster than those of today will be a great help. We will need them. However, when we are concerned with problems in principle, present day computers are about as fast as they ever will be.

:We may expect that the technology of data processing will proceed step by step – just as ordinary technology has done. There is an unlimited challenge for ingenuity applied to specific problems. There is also an unending need for general notions and theories to organize the myriad details."

== In fiction ==
In Douglas Adams's ''[[Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', Earth '''is''' a supercomputer, designed to calculate the "Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe and Everything".<ref>See [[Places_in_The_Hitchhiker's_Guide_to_the_Galaxy#Earth]]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Matrioshka_brain#Jupiter_brain|Jupiter brain]] is a theoretical computing megastructure the size of a planet

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Transcomputational Problem}}
[[Category:Theory of computation]]
[[Category:Computational complexity theory]]

[[pt:Problema transcomputacional]]
[[ru:Трансвычислительная задача]]

Automated Planet Finder

2012-08-27T05:28:10Z

Wingman4l7: improved reference

{{Update|date=April 2012}}
[[File:Automated Planet Finder Dome.JPG|220px|thumb|right|The Automated Planet Finder dome. In the background is the dome housing the [[C. Donald Shane telescope]]. ]]
The '''Automated Planet Finder Telescope''' (APF) is a fully automated 2.4-meter optical telescope under construction at [[Lick Observatory]] designed to search for [[extrasolar planets]] in the range of five to twenty times the mass of the [[Earth]]. The instrument will examine 25 stars per night. Over a decade, the telescope will study 1,000 nearby stars for planets.<ref>[http://www.ucsc.edu/news_events/text.asp?pid=1537 Major gift supports crucial piece of Automated Planet Finder]</ref> It has an estimated cost of $10 million.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Automated-Planet-Finder-telescope-seeks-life-3177056.php |title=Automated Planet Finder telescope seeks life |first=David |last=Perlman |date=August 21, 2010 |work=San Franciso Chronicle}}</ref>

The telescope will use high-precision [[radial velocity]] measurements to measure the gravitational reflex motion of nearby stars caused by the orbiting of planets. It is capable of detecting stellar motions as small as one meter per second, comparable to a slow walking speed. The main targets will be stars within about 100 light years of the Earth.

First light was originally scheduled for 2006, but delays in the construction of the
major components of the telescope pushed this back to mid-2009.<ref>[http://ucodirector.blogspot.com/2009/10/uco-newsletter-6-october-2009.html UCO Director Newsletters: Newsletter #6 October 2009]</ref> Now it is scheduled for the first months of 2011.

The spectrometer will be very sensitive and is optimized for speed and radial velocity precision, will detect the very small changes in each star’s velocity, down to 1 meter per second (1.0 m/s).<ref>http://www.ucolick.org/public/telescopes/apf.html APF Telescope</ref> With the same radial velocity precision as [[HARPS]] and [[W. M. Keck Observatory#Instruments|HIRES]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ucolick.org/public/telescopes/apf.html Automated Planet Finder Telescope - ucolick.org]
*[http://mthamilton.ucolick.org/apfcam/ APF Camera view of Dome - ucolick.org]

{{coord|37.3425407|-121.6381903|display=title}}

[[Category:Telescopes]]
[[Category:Lick Observatory]]

{{observatory-stub}}

[[es:Buscador de Planetas Automatizado]]
[[it:Automated Planet Finder]]
[[nl:Automated Planet Finder]]

Bildpyramide

2012-08-07T05:59:58Z

Wingman4l7: /* Pyramid generation kernels */ -- ref improvement

{{FeatureDetectionCompVisNavbox}}

'''Pyramid''' or ''''pyramid representation'''' is a type of [[Scale model|multi-scale]] [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] [[Knowledge representation|representation]] developed by the [[computer vision]], [[image processing]] and [[signal processing]] communities, in which a signal or an image is subject to repeated [[smoothing]] and [[Downsampling|subsampling]]. Historically, pyramid representation is a predecessor to [[scale space]] representation and [[multiresolution analysis]].

==Pyramid generation==

There are two main types of pyramids; lowpass pyramids and bandpass pyramids. A ''lowpass pyramid'' is generated by first smoothing the image with an appropriate smoothing filter and then subsampling the smoothed image, usually by a factor of two along each coordinate direction. This smoothed image is then subjected to the same processing, resulting in a yet smaller image. As this process proceeds, the result will be a set of gradually more smoothed images, where in addition the spatial sampling density decreases level by level. If illustrated graphically, this multi-scale representation will look like a pyramid, from which the name has been obtained. A ''bandpass pyramid'' is obtained by forming the difference between adjacent levels in a pyramid, where in addition some kind of interpolation is performed between representations at adjacent levels of resolution, to enable the computation of pixelwise differences.

==Pyramid generation kernels==

A variety of different smoothing kernels have been proposed for generating pyramids.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Burt | first1 = P. J.
| doi = 10.1016/0146-664X(81)90092-7
| title = Fast filter transform for image processing
| journal = Computer Graphics and Image Processing
| volume = 16
| pages = 20–51
| year = 1981
| month = May
}}</ref><ref name=Crowley1981>{{Cite paper |last=Crowley |first=James L. |title=A representation for visual information |publisher=Carnegie-Mellon University, Robotics Institute |year=1981 |month=November |id=tech. report CMU-RI-TR-82-07 |url=http://www.ri.cmu.edu/publication_view.html?pub_id=37}}</ref><ref>Burt, Peter and Adelson, Ted, "[http://web.mit.edu/persci/people/adelson/pub_pdfs/pyramid83.pdf The Laplacian Pyramid as a Compact Image Code]", IEEE Trans. Communications, 9:4, 532–540, 1983.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Crowley | first1 = J. L.
| last2 = Parker | first2 = A. C.
| title = A representation for shape based on peaks and ridges in the difference of low-pass transform
| journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
| volume = 6
| issue = 2
| pages = 156–170
| year = 1984
| month = March
| pmid = 21869180
| doi = 10.1109/TPAMI.1984.4767500
}}</ref><ref>Crowley, J. L. and Sanderson, A. C. "[http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-Sanderson-PAMI87.pdf Multiple resolution representation and probabilistic matching of 2-D gray-scale shape]", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 9(1), pp 113-121, 1987.</ref><ref>P. Meer, E. S. Baugher and A. Rosenfeld "Frequency domain analysis and synthesis of image generating kernels", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol 9, pages 512-522, 1987.</ref> Among the suggestions that have been given, the ''binomial kernels'' arising from the [[binomial coefficient]]s stand out as a particularly useful and theoretically well-founded class.<ref name=Crowley1981/><ref>Lindeberg, Tony, "[http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/abstracts/Lin90-PAMI.html Scale-space for discrete signals]," PAMI(12), No. 3, March 1990, pp. 234-254.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, Tony. [http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/book.html Scale-Space Theory in Computer Vision], Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994, ISBN 0-7923-9418-6</ref><ref>See the article on [[multi-scale approaches]] for a very brief theoretical statement</ref> Thus, given a two-dimensional image, we may apply the (normalized) binomial filter (1/4, 1/2, 1/4) typically twice or more along each spatial dimension and then subsample the image by a factor of two. This operation may then proceed as many times as desired, leading to a compact and efficient multi-scale representation. If motivatived by specific requirements, intermediate scale levels may also be generated where the subsampling stage is sometimes left out, leading to an ''oversampled'' or ''hybrid pyramid''. With the increasing computational efficiency of [[CPU]]s available today, it is in some situations also feasible to use wider support [[Gaussian filter]]s as smoothing kernels in the pyramid generation steps.

==Applications of pyramids==
'''Alternate Representation'''
 
In the early days of computer vision, pyramids were used as the main type of multi-scale representation for computing multi-scale image [[feature detection (computer vision)|features]] from real-world image data. More recent techniques include scale space representation, which has been popular among some researchers due to its theoretical foundation, the ability to decouple the subsampling stage from the multi-scale representation, the more powerful tools for theoretical analysis as well as the ability to compute a representation at ''any'' desired scale, thus avoiding the algorithmic problems of relating image representations at different resolution. Nevertheless, pyramids are still frequently used for expressing computationally efficient approximations to scale-space representation.<ref>Crowley, J, Riff O. [http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-ScaleSpace03.pdf Fast computation of scale normalised Gaussian receptive fields], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, 2003.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, T. and Bretzner, L. [http://www.nada.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/cvap279.html Real-time scale selection in hybrid multi-scale representations], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, pages 148-163, 2003.</ref><ref>Lowe, D. G., “[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/lowe04distinctive.html Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints]”, International Journal of Computer Vision, 60, 2, pp. 91-110, 2004.</ref>
 
 
'''Detail Manipulation'''
 
Laplacian image pyramids based off the [[bilateral filter]] provide a good framework for image detail enhancement and manipulation.<ref>Photo Detail Manipulation via Image Pyramids [http://mcclanahoochie.com/blog/portfolio/opencl-image-pyramid-detail-enhancement/]</ref> The difference images between each layer are modified to exaggerate or reduce details at different scales in an image.

==See also==
*[[Mipmap]]
*[[Scale space implementation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Image processing]]
[[Category:Computer vision]]

[[ar:هرم الصور]]
[[fr:Pyramide (traitement d'image)]]

Bildpyramide

2012-07-16T00:39:55Z

Wingman4l7: improved reference

{{FeatureDetectionCompVisNavbox}}

'''Pyramid''' or ''''pyramid representation'''' is a type of [[Scale model|multi-scale]] [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] [[Knowledge representation|representation]] developed by the [[computer vision]], [[image processing]] and [[signal processing]] communities, in which a signal or an image is subject to repeated [[smoothing]] and [[Downsampling|subsampling]]. Historically, pyramid representation is a predecessor to [[scale space]] representation and [[multiresolution analysis]].

==Pyramid generation==

There are two main types of pyramids; lowpass pyramids and bandpass pyramids. A ''lowpass pyramid'' is generated by first smoothing the image with an appropriate smoothing filter and then subsampling the smoothed image, usually by a factor of two along each coordinate direction. This smoothed image is then subjected to the same processing, resulting in a yet smaller image. As this process proceeds, the result will be a set of gradually more smoothed images, where in addition the spatial sampling density decreases level by level. If illustrated graphically, this multi-scale representation will look like a pyramid, from which the name has been obtained. A ''bandpass pyramid'' is obtained by forming the difference between adjacent levels in a pyramid, where in addition some kind of interpolation is performed between representations at adjacent levels of resolution, to enable the computation of pixelwise differences.

==Pyramid generation kernels==

A variety of different smoothing kernels have been proposed for generating pyramids.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Burt | first1 = P. J.
| doi = 10.1016/0146-664X(81)90092-7
| title = Fast filter transform for image processing
| journal = Computer Graphics and Image Processing
| volume = 16
| pages = 20–51
| year = 1981
| month = May
}}</ref><ref name=Crowley1981>Crowley, James "A representation for visual information", PhD thesis, Carnegie-Mellon University, Robotics Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1981.</ref><ref>Burt, Peter and Adelson, Ted, "[http://web.mit.edu/persci/people/adelson/pub_pdfs/pyramid83.pdf The Laplacian Pyramid as a Compact Image Code]", IEEE Trans. Communications, 9:4, 532–540, 1983.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Crowley | first1 = J. L.
| last2 = Parker | first2 = A. C.
| title = A representation for shape based on peaks and ridges in the difference of low-pass transform
| journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
| volume = 6
| issue = 2
| pages = 156–170
| year = 1984
| month = March
| pmid = 21869180
| doi = 10.1109/TPAMI.1984.4767500
}}</ref><ref>Crowley, J. L. and Sanderson, A. C. "[http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-Sanderson-PAMI87.pdf Multiple resolution representation and probabilistic matching of 2-D gray-scale shape]", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 9(1), pp 113-121, 1987.</ref><ref>P. Meer, E. S. Baugher and A. Rosenfeld "Frequency domain analysis and synthesis of image generating kernels", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol 9, pages 512-522, 1987.</ref> Among the suggestions that have been given, the ''binomial kernels'' arising from the [[binomial coefficient]]s stand out as a particularly useful and theoretically well-founded class.<ref name=Crowley1981/><ref>Lindeberg, Tony, "[http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/abstracts/Lin90-PAMI.html Scale-space for discrete signals]," PAMI(12), No. 3, March 1990, pp. 234-254.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, Tony. [http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/book.html Scale-Space Theory in Computer Vision], Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994, ISBN 0-7923-9418-6</ref><ref>See the article on [[multi-scale approaches]] for a very brief theoretical statement</ref> Thus, given a two-dimensional image, we may apply the (normalized) binomial filter (1/4, 1/2, 1/4) typically twice or more along each spatial dimension and then subsample the image by a factor of two. This operation may then proceed as many times as desired, leading to a compact and efficient multi-scale representation. If motivatived by specific requirements, intermediate scale levels may also be generated where the subsampling stage is sometimes left out, leading to an ''oversampled'' or ''hybrid pyramid''. With the increasing computational efficiency of [[CPU]]s available today, it is in some situations also feasible to use wider support [[Gaussian filter]]s as smoothing kernels in the pyramid generation steps.

==Applications of pyramids==
'''Alternate Representation'''
 
In the early days of computer vision, pyramids were used as the main type of multi-scale representation for computing multi-scale image [[feature detection (computer vision)|features]] from real-world image data. More recent techniques include scale space representation, which has been popular among some researchers due to its theoretical foundation, the ability to decouple the subsampling stage from the multi-scale representation, the more powerful tools for theoretical analysis as well as the ability to compute a representation at ''any'' desired scale, thus avoiding the algorithmic problems of relating image representations at different resolution. Nevertheless, pyramids are still frequently used for expressing computationally efficient approximations to scale-space representation.<ref>Crowley, J, Riff O. [http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-ScaleSpace03.pdf Fast computation of scale normalised Gaussian receptive fields], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, 2003.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, T. and Bretzner, L. [http://www.nada.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/cvap279.html Real-time scale selection in hybrid multi-scale representations], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, pages 148-163, 2003.</ref><ref>Lowe, D. G., “[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/lowe04distinctive.html Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints]”, International Journal of Computer Vision, 60, 2, pp. 91-110, 2004.</ref>
 
 
'''Detail Manipulation'''
 
Laplacian image pyramids based off the [[bilateral filter]] provide a good framework for image detail enhancement and manipulation.<ref>Photo Detail Manipulation via Image Pyramids [http://mcclanahoochie.com/blog/portfolio/opencl-image-pyramid-detail-enhancement/]</ref> The difference images between each layer are modified to exaggerate or reduce details at different scales in an image.

==See also==
*[[Mipmap]]
*[[Scale space implementation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Image processing]]
[[Category:Computer vision]]

[[ar:هرم الصور]]
[[fr:Pyramide (traitement d'image)]]

Bildpyramide

2012-07-13T06:17:25Z

Wingman4l7: /* Pyramid generation kernels */ -- whoops

{{FeatureDetectionCompVisNavbox}}

'''Pyramid''' or ''''pyramid representation'''' is a type of [[Scale model|multi-scale]] [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] [[Knowledge representation|representation]] developed by the [[computer vision]], [[image processing]] and [[signal processing]] communities, in which a signal or an image is subject to repeated [[smoothing]] and [[Downsampling|subsampling]]. Historically, pyramid representation is a predecessor to [[scale space]] representation and [[multiresolution analysis]].

==Pyramid generation==

There are two main types of pyramids; lowpass pyramids and bandpass pyramids. A ''lowpass pyramid'' is generated by first smoothing the image with an appropriate smoothing filter and then subsampling the smoothed image, usually by a factor of two along each coordinate direction. This smoothed image is then subjected to the same processing, resulting in a yet smaller image. As this process proceeds, the result will be a set of gradually more smoothed images, where in addition the spatial sampling density decreases level by level. If illustrated graphically, this multi-scale representation will look like a pyramid, from which the name has been obtained. A ''bandpass pyramid'' is obtained by forming the difference between adjacent levels in a pyramid, where in addition some kind of interpolation is performed between representations at adjacent levels of resolution, to enable the computation of pixelwise differences.

==Pyramid generation kernels==

A variety of different smoothing kernels have been proposed for generating pyramids.<ref>Burt, P.J. "Fast filter transforms for image processing", Computer Vision, Graphics and Image Processing, vol 16, pages 20-51, 1981.</ref><ref name=Crowley1981>Crowley, James "A representation for visual information", PhD thesis, Carnegie-Mellon University, Robotics Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1981.</ref><ref>Burt, Peter and Adelson, Ted, "[http://web.mit.edu/persci/people/adelson/pub_pdfs/pyramid83.pdf The Laplacian Pyramid as a Compact Image Code]", IEEE Trans. Communications, 9:4, 532–540, 1983.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Crowley | first1 = J. L.
| last2 = Parker | first2 = A. C.
| title = A representation for shape based on peaks and ridges in the difference of low-pass transform
| journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
| volume = 6
| issue = 2
| pages = 156–170
| year = 1984
| month = March
| pmid = 21869180
| doi = 10.1109/TPAMI.1984.4767500
}}</ref><ref>Crowley, J. L. and Sanderson, A. C. "[http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-Sanderson-PAMI87.pdf Multiple resolution representation and probabilistic matching of 2-D gray-scale shape]", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 9(1), pp 113-121, 1987.</ref><ref>P. Meer, E. S. Baugher and A. Rosenfeld "Frequency domain analysis and synthesis of image generating kernels", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol 9, pages 512-522, 1987.</ref> Among the suggestions that have been given, the ''binomial kernels'' arising from the [[binomial coefficient]]s stand out as a particularly useful and theoretically well-founded class.<ref name=Crowley1981/><ref>Lindeberg, Tony, "[http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/abstracts/Lin90-PAMI.html Scale-space for discrete signals]," PAMI(12), No. 3, March 1990, pp. 234-254.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, Tony. [http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/book.html Scale-Space Theory in Computer Vision], Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994, ISBN 0-7923-9418-6</ref><ref>See the article on [[multi-scale approaches]] for a very brief theoretical statement</ref> Thus, given a two-dimensional image, we may apply the (normalized) binomial filter (1/4, 1/2, 1/4) typically twice or more along each spatial dimension and then subsample the image by a factor of two. This operation may then proceed as many times as desired, leading to a compact and efficient multi-scale representation. If motivatived by specific requirements, intermediate scale levels may also be generated where the subsampling stage is sometimes left out, leading to an ''oversampled'' or ''hybrid pyramid''. With the increasing computational efficiency of [[CPU]]s available today, it is in some situations also feasible to use wider support [[Gaussian filter]]s as smoothing kernels in the pyramid generation steps.

==Applications of pyramids==
'''Alternate Representation'''
 
In the early days of computer vision, pyramids were used as the main type of multi-scale representation for computing multi-scale image [[feature detection (computer vision)|features]] from real-world image data. More recent techniques include scale space representation, which has been popular among some researchers due to its theoretical foundation, the ability to decouple the subsampling stage from the multi-scale representation, the more powerful tools for theoretical analysis as well as the ability to compute a representation at ''any'' desired scale, thus avoiding the algorithmic problems of relating image representations at different resolution. Nevertheless, pyramids are still frequently used for expressing computationally efficient approximations to scale-space representation.<ref>Crowley, J, Riff O. [http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-ScaleSpace03.pdf Fast computation of scale normalised Gaussian receptive fields], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, 2003.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, T. and Bretzner, L. [http://www.nada.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/cvap279.html Real-time scale selection in hybrid multi-scale representations], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, pages 148-163, 2003.</ref><ref>Lowe, D. G., “[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/lowe04distinctive.html Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints]”, International Journal of Computer Vision, 60, 2, pp. 91-110, 2004.</ref>
 
 
'''Detail Manipulation'''
 
Laplacian image pyramids based off the [[bilateral filter]] provide a good framework for image detail enhancement and manipulation.<ref>Photo Detail Manipulation via Image Pyramids [http://mcclanahoochie.com/blog/portfolio/opencl-image-pyramid-detail-enhancement/]</ref> The difference images between each layer are modified to exaggerate or reduce details at different scales in an image.

==See also==
*[[Mipmap]]
*[[Scale space implementation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Image processing]]
[[Category:Computer vision]]

[[ar:هرم الصور]]
[[fr:Pyramide (traitement d'image)]]

Bildpyramide

2012-07-13T06:17:02Z

Wingman4l7: /* Pyramid generation kernels */ -- added DOI

{{FeatureDetectionCompVisNavbox}}

'''Pyramid''' or ''''pyramid representation'''' is a type of [[Scale model|multi-scale]] [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] [[Knowledge representation|representation]] developed by the [[computer vision]], [[image processing]] and [[signal processing]] communities, in which a signal or an image is subject to repeated [[smoothing]] and [[Downsampling|subsampling]]. Historically, pyramid representation is a predecessor to [[scale space]] representation and [[multiresolution analysis]].

==Pyramid generation==

There are two main types of pyramids; lowpass pyramids and bandpass pyramids. A ''lowpass pyramid'' is generated by first smoothing the image with an appropriate smoothing filter and then subsampling the smoothed image, usually by a factor of two along each coordinate direction. This smoothed image is then subjected to the same processing, resulting in a yet smaller image. As this process proceeds, the result will be a set of gradually more smoothed images, where in addition the spatial sampling density decreases level by level. If illustrated graphically, this multi-scale representation will look like a pyramid, from which the name has been obtained. A ''bandpass pyramid'' is obtained by forming the difference between adjacent levels in a pyramid, where in addition some kind of interpolation is performed between representations at adjacent levels of resolution, to enable the computation of pixelwise differences.

==Pyramid generation kernels==

A variety of different smoothing kernels have been proposed for generating pyramids.<ref>Burt, P.J. "Fast filter transforms for image processing", Computer Vision, Graphics and Image Processing, vol 16, pages 20-51, 1981.</ref><ref name=Crowley1981>Crowley, James "A representation for visual information", PhD thesis, Carnegie-Mellon University, Robotics Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1981.</ref><ref>Burt, Peter and Adelson, Ted, "[http://web.mit.edu/persci/people/adelson/pub_pdfs/pyramid83.pdf The Laplacian Pyramid as a Compact Image Code]", IEEE Trans. Communications, 9:4, 532–540, 1983.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Crowley | first1 = J. L.
| last2 = Parker | first2 = A. C.
| title = A representation for shape based on peaks and ridges in the difference of low-pass transform
| journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
| volume = 6
| issue = 2
| pages = 156–170
| year = 1984
| month = March
| pmid = 21869180
| doi = 10.1109/TPAMI.1984.4767500
}}</ref><ref>Crowley, J. L. and Sanderson, A. C. "[http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-Sanderson-PAMI87.pdf Multiple resolution representation and probabilistic matching of 2-D gray-scale shape]", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 9(1), pp 113-121, 1987.</ref><ref>P. Meer, E. S. Baugher and A. Rosenfeld "Frequency domain analysis and synthesis of image generating kernels", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol 9, pages 512-522, 1987.</ref> Among the suggestions that have been given, the ''binomial kernels'' arising from the [[binomial coefficient]]s stand out as a particularly useful and theoretically well-founded class.<ref name=Crowley1981/><ref>Lindeberg, Tony, "[http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/abstracts/Lin90-PAMI.html Scale-space for discrete signals]," PAMI(12), No. 3, March 1990, pp. 234-254.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, Tony. [http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/book.html Scale-Space Theory in Computer Vision], Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994, ISBN 0-7923-9418-6</ref><ref>See the article on [[multi-scale approaches]] for a very brief theoretical statement</ref> Thus, given a two-dimensional image, we may apply the (normalized) binomial filter (1/4, 1/2, 1/4) typically twice or more along each spatial dimension and then subsample the image by a factor of two. This operation may then proceed as many times as desired, leading to a compact and efficient multi-scale representation. If motivatived by specific requirements, intermediate scale levels may also be generated where the subsampling stage is sometimes left out, leading to an ''oversampled'' or ''hybrid pyramid''. With the increasing computational efficiency of [[CPU]]s available today, it is in some situations also feasible to use wider support [[Gaussian filter]]s as smoothing kernels in the pyramid generation steps.

{{reflist}}

==Applications of pyramids==
'''Alternate Representation'''
 
In the early days of computer vision, pyramids were used as the main type of multi-scale representation for computing multi-scale image [[feature detection (computer vision)|features]] from real-world image data. More recent techniques include scale space representation, which has been popular among some researchers due to its theoretical foundation, the ability to decouple the subsampling stage from the multi-scale representation, the more powerful tools for theoretical analysis as well as the ability to compute a representation at ''any'' desired scale, thus avoiding the algorithmic problems of relating image representations at different resolution. Nevertheless, pyramids are still frequently used for expressing computationally efficient approximations to scale-space representation.<ref>Crowley, J, Riff O. [http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-ScaleSpace03.pdf Fast computation of scale normalised Gaussian receptive fields], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, 2003.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, T. and Bretzner, L. [http://www.nada.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/cvap279.html Real-time scale selection in hybrid multi-scale representations], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, pages 148-163, 2003.</ref><ref>Lowe, D. G., “[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/lowe04distinctive.html Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints]”, International Journal of Computer Vision, 60, 2, pp. 91-110, 2004.</ref>
 
 
'''Detail Manipulation'''
 
Laplacian image pyramids based off the [[bilateral filter]] provide a good framework for image detail enhancement and manipulation.<ref>Photo Detail Manipulation via Image Pyramids [http://mcclanahoochie.com/blog/portfolio/opencl-image-pyramid-detail-enhancement/]</ref> The difference images between each layer are modified to exaggerate or reduce details at different scales in an image.

==See also==
*[[Mipmap]]
*[[Scale space implementation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Image processing]]
[[Category:Computer vision]]

[[ar:هرم الصور]]
[[fr:Pyramide (traitement d'image)]]

Bildpyramide

2012-07-13T06:09:04Z

Wingman4l7: /* Pyramid generation kernels */ -- ref improvement

{{FeatureDetectionCompVisNavbox}}

'''Pyramid''' or ''''pyramid representation'''' is a type of [[Scale model|multi-scale]] [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] [[Knowledge representation|representation]] developed by the [[computer vision]], [[image processing]] and [[signal processing]] communities, in which a signal or an image is subject to repeated [[smoothing]] and [[Downsampling|subsampling]]. Historically, pyramid representation is a predecessor to [[scale space]] representation and [[multiresolution analysis]].

==Pyramid generation==

There are two main types of pyramids; lowpass pyramids and bandpass pyramids. A ''lowpass pyramid'' is generated by first smoothing the image with an appropriate smoothing filter and then subsampling the smoothed image, usually by a factor of two along each coordinate direction. This smoothed image is then subjected to the same processing, resulting in a yet smaller image. As this process proceeds, the result will be a set of gradually more smoothed images, where in addition the spatial sampling density decreases level by level. If illustrated graphically, this multi-scale representation will look like a pyramid, from which the name has been obtained. A ''bandpass pyramid'' is obtained by forming the difference between adjacent levels in a pyramid, where in addition some kind of interpolation is performed between representations at adjacent levels of resolution, to enable the computation of pixelwise differences.

==Pyramid generation kernels==

A variety of different smoothing kernels have been proposed for generating pyramids.<ref>Burt, P.J. "Fast filter transforms for image processing", Computer Vision, Graphics and Image Processing, vol 16, pages 20-51, 1981.</ref><ref name=Crowley1981>Crowley, James "A representation for visual information", PhD thesis, Carnegie-Mellon University, Robotics Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1981.</ref><ref>Burt, Peter and Adelson, Ted, "[http://web.mit.edu/persci/people/adelson/pub_pdfs/pyramid83.pdf The Laplacian Pyramid as a Compact Image Code]", IEEE Trans. Communications, 9:4, 532–540, 1983.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Crowley | first1 = J. L.
| last2 = Parker | first2 = A. C.
| title = A representation for shape based on peaks and ridges in the difference of low-pass transform
| journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
| volume = 6
| issue = 2
| pages = 156–170
| year = 1984
| month = February
| pmid = 21869180
}}</ref><ref>Crowley, J. L. and Sanderson, A. C. "[http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-Sanderson-PAMI87.pdf Multiple resolution representation and probabilistic matching of 2-D gray-scale shape]", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 9(1), pp 113-121, 1987.</ref><ref>P. Meer, E. S. Baugher and A. Rosenfeld "Frequency domain analysis and synthesis of image generating kernels", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol 9, pages 512-522, 1987.</ref> Among the suggestions that have been given, the ''binomial kernels'' arising from the [[binomial coefficient]]s stand out as a particularly useful and theoretically well-founded class.<ref name=Crowley1981/><ref>Lindeberg, Tony, "[http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/abstracts/Lin90-PAMI.html Scale-space for discrete signals]," PAMI(12), No. 3, March 1990, pp. 234-254.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, Tony. [http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/book.html Scale-Space Theory in Computer Vision], Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994, ISBN 0-7923-9418-6</ref><ref>See the article on [[multi-scale approaches]] for a very brief theoretical statement</ref> Thus, given a two-dimensional image, we may apply the (normalized) binomial filter (1/4, 1/2, 1/4) typically twice or more along each spatial dimension and then subsample the image by a factor of two. This operation may then proceed as many times as desired, leading to a compact and efficient multi-scale representation. If motivatived by specific requirements, intermediate scale levels may also be generated where the subsampling stage is sometimes left out, leading to an ''oversampled'' or ''hybrid pyramid''. With the increasing computational efficiency of [[CPU]]s available today, it is in some situations also feasible to use wider support [[Gaussian filter]]s as smoothing kernels in the pyramid generation steps.

==Applications of pyramids==
'''Alternate Representation'''
 
In the early days of computer vision, pyramids were used as the main type of multi-scale representation for computing multi-scale image [[feature detection (computer vision)|features]] from real-world image data. More recent techniques include scale space representation, which has been popular among some researchers due to its theoretical foundation, the ability to decouple the subsampling stage from the multi-scale representation, the more powerful tools for theoretical analysis as well as the ability to compute a representation at ''any'' desired scale, thus avoiding the algorithmic problems of relating image representations at different resolution. Nevertheless, pyramids are still frequently used for expressing computationally efficient approximations to scale-space representation.<ref>Crowley, J, Riff O. [http://www-prima.inrialpes.fr/Prima/Homepages/jlc/papers/Crowley-ScaleSpace03.pdf Fast computation of scale normalised Gaussian receptive fields], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, 2003.</ref><ref>Lindeberg, T. and Bretzner, L. [http://www.nada.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/cvap279.html Real-time scale selection in hybrid multi-scale representations], Proc. Scale-Space'03, Isle of Skye, Scotland, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2695, pages 148-163, 2003.</ref><ref>Lowe, D. G., “[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/lowe04distinctive.html Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints]”, International Journal of Computer Vision, 60, 2, pp. 91-110, 2004.</ref>
 
 
'''Detail Manipulation'''
 
Laplacian image pyramids based off the [[bilateral filter]] provide a good framework for image detail enhancement and manipulation.<ref>Photo Detail Manipulation via Image Pyramids [http://mcclanahoochie.com/blog/portfolio/opencl-image-pyramid-detail-enhancement/]</ref> The difference images between each layer are modified to exaggerate or reduce details at different scales in an image.

==See also==
*[[Mipmap]]
*[[Scale space implementation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Image processing]]
[[Category:Computer vision]]

[[ar:هرم الصور]]
[[fr:Pyramide (traitement d'image)]]

Imposter-Phänomen

2012-07-02T01:05:17Z

Wingman4l7: /* External links */ -- rm extra blank line

{{More footnotes|date=July 2010}}
{{Merge|pseudocompetence|date=June 2011}}
{{dablink|Not to be confused with [[Capgras Syndrome]], in which a sufferer who observes a familiar person believes that person to have been replaced by an [[impostor]] or supernatural [[changeling]].}}
__NOTOC__
The '''impostor syndrome''', sometimes called '''impostor phenomenon''' or '''fraud syndrome''', is a psychological phenomenon in which people are unable to [[internalize]] their accomplishments. It is not an officially recognized [[psychological disorder]], and is not among the conditions described in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], but it has been the subject of numerous books and articles by [[psychologist]]s and [[educator]]s. The term was coined by [[clinical psychologists]] Pauline Clance and Suzanne Imes in 1978.<ref name="Clance-Imes"/>

Despite external evidence of their competence, those with the syndrome remain convinced that they are frauds and do not deserve the success they have achieved. Proof of success is dismissed as luck, timing, or as a result of deceiving others into thinking they are more [[intelligent]] and competent than they believe themselves to be.

The impostor syndrome, in which competent people find it impossible to believe in their own competence, can be viewed as complementary to the [[Dunning–Kruger effect]], in which incompetent people find it impossible to believe in their own incompetence.

== Demographics ==
The impostor syndrome was once thought to be particularly common among women who are successful in their given careers, but has since been shown to occur for an equal number of men.<ref name="Langford-Clance"/> It is commonly associated with academics and is widely found among [[graduate school|graduate students]].<ref name="Laursen"/>

== Notes ==
{{reflist|50em|refs=
<ref name="Laursen">{{cite web
|last = Laursen
|first = Lucas
|date = 15 February 2008
|url = http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/career_development/previous_issues/articles/2008_02_15/caredit_a0800025
|title = No, You're Not an Impostor
|publisher = Science Careers
}}</ref>
<ref name="Clance-Imes">{{cite journal
|last = Clance
|first = Pauline Rose
|last2 = Imes
|first2 = Suzanne Ament
|year = 1978
|url = http://www.paulineroseclance.com/pdf/ip_high_achieving_women.pdf
|title = The Impostor Phenomenon Among High Achieving Women: Dynamics and Therapeutic Intervention
|journal = Psychotherapy Theory, Research and Practice
|volume = 15
|number = 3
|pages = 241–47
| format = [[PDF]]
}}</ref>
<ref name="Langford-Clance">{{cite journal
|last = Langford
|first = Joe
|last2 = Clance
|first2 = Pauline Rose
|year = 1993
|url = http://www.paulineroseclance.com/pdf/-Langford.pdf
|title = The Impostor Phenomenon: Recent Research Findings Regarding Dynamics, Personality and Family Patterns and Their Implications for Treatment
|journal = Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training
|volume = 30
|number = 3
|pages = 495–501
|format = [[PDF]]
}}</ref>
}}

== References ==

{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
|title= The Impostor Phenomenon: Overcoming the Fear That Haunts Your Success
|author = Pauline Clance
|year = 1985
|location = Atlanta
|publisher = Peachtree Publishers
}}
* {{cite book
|title = If I'm So Successful, Why Do I Feel Like a Fake: The Impostor Phenomenon
|author = Joan C. Harvey
|author2 = Cynthia Katz
|publisher = [[St. Martin's Press]]
|month = April
|year = 1985
|isbn = 0-312-40492-1
|isbn-13 = 978-0312404925
}}
* {{cite book
|title = The Secret Thoughts of Successful Women: Why Capable Suffer from the Impostor Syndrome and How to Thrive in Spite of It
|author = Valerie Young, Ed.D.
|publisher = [[Crown/Random House]]
|month = October
|year = 2011
|isbn = 978-0-307-45271-09]

}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==

* {{citation
| url = http://paulineroseclance.com/impostor_phenomenon.html
| title = Impostor Phenomenon
| first = Pauline Rose
| last = Clance}}
* {{citation
|title = Feeling like a fraud
|journal = YorkU (alumni magazine)
|publisher = [[York University]]
|month = October
|year = 2006
|page = 9
|url = http://digital.olivesoftware.com/Olive/ODE/YorkU/LandingPage/LandingPage.aspx?href=WVJLLzIwMDcvMTIvMzE.&pageno=MTQ.&entity=QXIwMTQwMA..&view=ZW50aXR5
}}
* [http://scienceblogs.com/effectmeasure/2006/07/the_imposter.php The Imposter] Effect Measure, July 12, 2006
* [http://www.inc.com/magazine/20060901/handson-leadership.html The Impostor Syndrome]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/2006_07_wed_03.shtml Impostor syndrome] BBC Radio 4, Woman's Hour, 15 Feb 2006
* [http://paulineroseclance.com/pdf/IP_reference_list-2-8-2010.doc Pauline Clance's Impostor Phenomenon Reference List]
* [https://www.usenix.org/conference/wiac12/overcoming-my-biggest-roadblock-myself Overcoming my Biggest Roadblock, Myself] Conference: WiAC 2012

{{DEFAULTSORT:Impostor Syndrome}}
[[Category:Popular psychology]]

{{psych-stub}}

[[es:Síndrome del impostor]]
[[fr:Syndrome de l'imposteur]]
[[ko:가면현상]]
[[it:Sindrome dell'impostore]]
[[pt:Síndrome do impostor]]

Imposter-Phänomen

2012-07-01T23:39:32Z

Wingman4l7: /* External links */ -- put conference name on same line as external reference

The Last of Us

2012-06-07T13:22:26Z

Wingman4l7: /* Gameplay */ -- added wikilink

{{Infobox video game
|title=The Last of Us
|image=[[File:Last of Us cover.jpg|250px]]
|caption=
|developer=[[Naughty Dog]]
|publisher=[[Sony Computer Entertainment]]
|director=Neil Druckmann (creative director) Bruce Straley (game director)
|designer=
|programmer=
|writer=
|composer=[[Gustavo Santaolalla]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Minkley |first=Johnny |url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2011-12-13-the-last-of-us-scored-by-oscar-winner-gustavo-santaolalla |title=The Last Of Us scored by Oscar-winner Gustavo Santaolalla • News • |publisher=Eurogamer.net |date=2011-12-13 |accessdate=Q4 2012/Q1 2013
}}</ref>
|series=
|engine= In-house engine<ref>http://playstationlifestyle.net/2012/05/20/naughty-dog-on-the-last-of-us-graphics-engine-improvements/</ref> [[Havok (software)|Havok]] ([[game physics]])
|version=
|released=2013<ref>http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2012-06-06-the-last-of-us-a-2013-game</ref>
|genre=[[Action-adventure game|Action adventure]], [[Survival game|survival]]
|modes=[[Single-player video game|Single-player]], [[Multiplayer video game|multiplayer]]
|ratings=
|platforms=[[PlayStation 3]]
|media=[[Blu-ray Disc]]
}}
'''''The Last of Us''''' is an upcoming post-apocalyptic [[Virtual camera system#Third person view games|third-person]] [[survival horror|survival]] [[action-adventure game|action-adventure]] [[video game]] developed by [[Naughty Dog]] for the [[PlayStation 3]]. It was officially revealed on December 10, 2011 during the [[Spike TV Video Game Awards]].

==Synopsis==
===Cast===
The main characters in the game, Ellie and Joel, are played by [[Ashley Johnson]] and [[Troy Baker]], respectively. Joel is a "ruthless" survivor and Ellie is a 14-year-old girl who is wise beyond her years, but is too young to remember the world as it once was.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vg247.com/2011/12/12/ellen-page-not-involved-with-the-last-of-us-enslaved-design-lead-on-board/ |title=Ellen Page not involved with The Last of Us, Enslaved design lead on board |publisher=VG247 |date=2011-12-12 |accessdate=2012-01-14}}</ref>

===Setting===
The game will start in post-apocalyptic [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://boringpittsburgh.com/news/the-last-of-us-ps3-post-apocalyptic-pittsburgh/#more-9854/ |title=Last of Us to be set in Pittsburgh}}</ref> and slowly move its way out of the city to other unannounced areas. It is suggested that survival will involve both killing and scavenging.<ref name=preview/>

===Gameplay===
It's been confirmed by Naughty Dog that the player will take control of Joel, while Ellie will be controlled by the AI. The game will involve both gunfighting and melee combat and it will also have a cover system. Unlike [[Uncharted]], the players will have to find health packs to recover health. In the first two trailers two types of enemies can be seen: The Infected - former humans who were infected by the virus, and The Survivors - other humans that are not infected by the virus but still hostile towards Joel and Ellie for reasons unknown.

At Sony’s Press Conference at E3 2012 the first game play of the game was shown, receiving huge praise from spectators. The game play shows you playing as Joel trying to get to a bridge. The player brings Joel and Ellie into a flooded hotel where they hear other people. When the other people are heard Joel’s ammo and health finally appear showing four bullets in his revolver, and he and Ellie quickly go into cover mode. A violent fight soon ensues taking the player through several areas of the hotel - showing the different styles of fighting and weaponry in the game. The fighting gameplay shows Joel putting a man in the sleeper hold, some hand-to-hand combat, and the aiming system for a pistol and shotgun. The AI in the game was shown for the human survivors, with several enemies using cover and one enemy recognizing the sound of an empty magazine. An inventory system was also demonstrated, in which Joel creates a Molotov cocktail. Joel's limited number of rounds also suggests that supplies will be limited, a typical mechanic in the end-of-the-world genre of games.

For Ellie, it shows her assisting Joel when needed such as distracting a man by yelling at him and throwing a brick at him when Joel’s out of rounds. In another scene, Ellie stabs a man in the back when he jumps Joel, allowing Joel to free himself. Ellie’s health was not shown or noted in the demo, so it is unknown as to whether or not she will need to be healed when she is injured.

==Development==
The game was first teased before the [[2011 video game awards|Spike Video Game Awards]] on November 29, 2011, with a billboard in [[Times Square]] mentioning "a PS3 exclusive you won't believe".<ref>{{cite web|author=Jake Denton |url=http://www.computerandvideogames.com/327914/vgas-to-premiere-a-ps3-exclusive-you-wont-believe/ |title=PS3 News: Video Game Awards (VGA's) to premiere 'a PS3 exclusive you won't believe' |publisher=''[[Computer and Video Games]]''|date=2011-11-30 |accessdate=2011-12-04}}</ref> Initial trailers showed an apocalyptic event, including riots, epidemic, quarantine, and violence, as well as a clip of the [[BBC]]'s ''[[Planet Earth (TV series)|Planet Earth]]'' showing an ant infected with [[Cordyceps unilateralis]], a dangerous parasitic fungus that usually kills insects such as ants. On December 9, players of ''[[Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception]]'' spotted an in-game reference to the aforementioned trailer with the newspaper headline "scientists are still struggling to understand deadly fungus".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vg247.com/2011/12/09/rumour-the-last-of-us-teased-in-uncharted-3/ |title=Rumour – The Last of Us teased in Uncharted 3 |publisher=VG247 |date=2011-12-09 |accessdate=2012-01-14}}</ref>

At the Spike Video Game Awards, Sony officially unveiled the game, a brand new [[intellectual property]] from [[Naughty Dog]], created by an 80-strong Naughty Dog team no one knew existed. A gameplay trailer, made up of in-engine footage,<ref>{{cite web|last=Minkley |first=Johnny |url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2011-12-13-the-last-of-us-preview |title=The Last of Us Preview • Previews • |publisher=Eurogamer.net |date=2011-12-13 |accessdate=2012-01-14}}</ref> showed a man and a teenage girl fending off other survivors, and what appeared to be people with unusual fungal growth, before running out into a dilapidated city covered in greenery, reminiscent of the film ''[[I Am Legend (film)|I Am Legend]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vg247.com/2011/12/11/naughty-dogs-the-last-of-us-announced-at-vgas/ |title=Naughty Dog's The Last of Us announced at VGAs |publisher=VG247 |date=2011-12-12 |accessdate=2012-01-14}}</ref>

Shortly after the unveiling, Naughty Dog co-president Evan Wells posted on the PlayStation Blog new ''The Last of Us'' details:
{{prettyquote|''The Last of Us'' is a genre-defining experience that blends survival and action elements to tell a character driven tale about a modern plague decimating mankind. Nature encroaches upon civilization, forcing remaining survivors to kill for food, weapons and whatever they can find. Joel, a ruthless survivor, and Ellie, a brave young teenage girl who is wise beyond her years, must work together to survive their journey across what remains of the United States.<ref>{{cite web|author=Evan Wells |url=http://blog.us.playstation.com/2011/12/10/naughty-dog-reveals-the-last-of-us-at-2011-vgas/ |title=Naughty Dog Reveals The Last of Us at 2011 VGAs |publisher=SCEA |date=2011-12-10 |accessdate=2011-12-11}}</ref>}}

The announcement confirmed that the new project is being headed by studio game director Bruce Straley. Former lead designer on ''[[Enslaved: Odyssey to the West]]'', Mark Richard Davies, has been working at Naughty Dog on the game.<ref>{{cite web|author=computerandvideogames.com Tamoor Hussain |url=http://www.computerandvideogames.com/329270/the-last-of-us-gets-enslaved-lead-designer-doesnt-star-ellen-page/ |title=PS3 News: The Last of Us gets Enslaved lead designer, doesn't star Ellen Page |publisher=ComputerAndVideoGames.com |date=2011-12-12 |accessdate=2012-01-14}}</ref> After ''Uncharted 2: Among Thieves'' shipped in 2009, some of the development team from the game formed the team for ''The Last of Us'', while the remainder worked on ''Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vg247.com/2011/12/13/second-naughty-dog-team-at-work-on-the-last-of-us-for-two-years/ |title=Second Naughty Dog team at work on The Last of Us for two years |publisher=VG247 |date=2011-12-13 |accessdate=2012-01-14}}</ref> ''The Last of Us'' marks the first time that Naughty Dog has become a two-team studio.<ref name=preview/> It is also the first time the studio has introduced a second new IP in the same hardware generation.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yin |first=Wesley |url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2011-12-11-the-last-of-us-confirmed-as-a-new-naughty-dog-playstation-3-exclusive |title=The Last of Us confirmed as a new Naughty Dog PlayStation 3 exclusive • News • |publisher=Eurogamer.net |date=2011-12-11 |accessdate=2012-01-14}}</ref> A gameplay by the developers was shown at the E3 2012, showing us the stealth and confrontations we will have to survive in-game.

===Concept===
[[File:TheLastOfUs concept.jpg|thumb|right|Stealth and cover mechanics are featured in the game. This image shows the title's two protagonists, Joel and Ellie, ducking behind a shop counter as other survivors search the place.]]
The concept for ''The Last of Us'' arose after watching [[BBC]] nature documentary ''[[Planet Earth (TV series)|Planet Earth]]'', which showed the [[cordyceps]] fungus-infected ants, resulting in taking over its brain and producing growths from its head; the idea that the fungus could infect humans became the initial idea for the game. Major artistic inspirations included the movies ''[[No Country for Old Men]]'' and ''[[The Road]]'', comic ''[[The Walking Dead (comics)|The Walking Dead]]'', historical novel ''[[City of Thieves (novel)|City of Thieves]]'', Richard Matheson's 1954 novel ''[[I Am Legend (novel)|I Am Legend]]'' and the films it inspired.<ref name=preview>{{cite web|last=Minkley |first=Johnny |url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2011-12-13-the-last-of-us-preview |title=The Last of Us Preview • Previews • |publisher=Eurogamer.net |date=2011-12-13 |accessdate=2012-01-14}}</ref>

While the fungus epidemic is the main backdrop of the game, ''The Last of Us'' is not a "zombie game", but "a love story about a father-daughter-like relationship", influenced in part by the sequence between Nathan Drake and Victor Sullivan, his mentor and adoptive father, in the ''Uncharted'' series. Joel is a survivor and anti-hero, and Ellie is a 14 year-old girl with no experience of the world pre-apocalypse.<ref name=preview/> The composer for the game will be [[Gustavo Santaolalla]]. The team wanted to focus on emotion with the soundtrack rather than horror.<ref name=preview/>

On release of the initial trailer for the game ''[[Dead Island]]'', the team was concerned that the two games would be largely similar, both exploring the human or emotional side to an apocalyptic event. However, on release of the aforementioned game, the team realised that the gameplay did not match up to that showed by the trailer; by contrast, lead designer Neil Druckmann feels that the trailer for ''The Last of Us'' is "very representative of what we're going for".<ref name=preview/> Druckmann also stated that he wants the story in ''The Last of Us'' to raise the bar for other video game developers, as he feels the standard of story-telling is not as good as it should be within the industry.<ref name="EU Release">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamingunion.net/news/naughty-dog-launches-damning-verdict-wants-other-devs-to-wake-up--7249.html | title=Naughty Dog Launches Damning Verdict, Wants Other Devs To Wake Up |publisher=GamingUnion.net |date=2011-12-13 |accessdate=2011-12-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Minkley |first=Johnny |url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2011-12-13-naughty-dog-wants-to-change-the-f-ing-industry-with-the-last-of-us |title=Naughty Dog wants to "change the f***ing industry" with The Last of Us • News • |publisher=Eurogamer.net |date=2011-12-13 |accessdate=2012-01-14}}</ref>

The developer showcased an extended length gameplay video at Sony's press conference during the [[Electronic Entertainment Expo 2012]].

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{official|http://www.lastofus.com/agegate.html}}

{{Naughty Dog}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Last of Us, The}}
[[Category:Horror video games]]
[[Category:Naughty Dog games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 3 games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 3-only games]]
[[Category:Post-apocalyptic video games]]
[[Category:Sony Computer Entertainment games]]
[[Category:Survival video games]]
[[Category:Upcoming video games scheduled for 2013]]
[[Category:Video games set in the United States]]
[[Category:Zombie video games]]

[[es:The Last of Us]]
[[fr:The Last of Us]]
[[it:The Last of Us]]
[[ja:THE LAST OF US]]
[[pl:The Last of Us]]
[[pt:The Last of Us]]
[[ru:The Last of Us]]
[[fi:The Last of Us]]

Trinidad Moruga Scorpion

2012-04-30T08:25:12Z

Wingman4l7: improved reference

{{Infobox pepper
| name = Trinidad Moruga Scorpion
| heat = Exceptionally Hot
| scoville = up to 2,000,000
}}

The '''Trinidad Moruga Scorpion''' (Capsicum Chinense), endemic to the district of [[Moruga]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]], is currently the world's hottest [[Chili pepper]]. The [[New Mexico State University|New Mexico State University's]] Chili Pepper Institute has identified the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion as the newest hottest chili pepper in the world as of February 2012.<ref name="yahoo article">{{cite news|url=http://news.yahoo.com/trinidad-moruga-scorpion-wins-hottest-pepper-title-015457622.html|title=Trinidad Moruga Scorpion wins hottest pepper title|date=February 16, 2012|author=Susan Montoya Bryan|publisher=[[Associated Press]] |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/67J3MeXUF |archivedate=2012-04-12}}</ref><ref name="moruga_scorpion">{{Cite web
|url=http://yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/story/2012-03-11/Chile-Pepper-Institute-studies-whats-hot/53490214/1
|title=Chile Pepper Institute studies what's hot
|publisher=USA Today
|first=Monika
|last=Joshi
|date=2012-03-11
|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/667FrVkGP
|archivedate=2012-03-12
}}</ref> According to the New Mexico State University Chili Institute, the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion ranks as high as 2,009,231 SHU on the [[Scoville scale]], making it the hottest chili pepper in the world to date.<ref>http://thepepperseed.com/peppers/trinidad-scorpion-moruga-the-worlds-hottest-chilli-pepper</ref>

Paul Bosland, a renowned chili pepper expert and director of the Chili Institute, said that, "You take a bite. It doesn't seem so bad, and then it builds and it builds and it builds. So it is quite nasty."<ref name="yahoo article" />

The golf ball-sized chili pepper scored the highest among a handful of chili breeds reputed to be among the hottest in the world. Its mean heat topped more than 1.2 million units on the Scoville heat scale, while fruits from some individual plants reached 2 million heat units.<ref name="yahoo article" />

Leaving out the heat the Moruga Scorpion has a tender fruitlike flavor, which makes it a unique sweet-hot combination.<ref name="moruga_scorpion" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Capsicum Cultivars}}

{{Food-stub}}
[[Category:Chili peppers]]

[[nl:Trinidad Moruga Scorpion]]

Botanicula

2012-03-10T01:54:29Z

Wingman4l7: improved bare URL reference

{{Infobox VG
| title = Botanicula
| image=
| developer = [[Amanita Design]]
| publisher = [[Amanita Design]], Daedalic Entertainment<ref>[http://www.daedalic.de/en/news/Daedalic_to_publish_Amanitas_Botanicula News: Daedalic to publish Amanita’s Botanicula throughout Europe]</ref>
| engine =
| distributor = [[Amanita Design]]
| modes = [[Single-player]]
| designer = Jaromír Plachý
| composer = Czech alternative band DVA<ref>http://amanita-design.net/games/botanicula.html</ref>
| engine = [[Adobe Flash]]
| platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]] [[Mac OS X]] [[iPad]]
| released = March 2012
| genre = [[Graphic adventure game|Graphic Adventure]]
| input = [[Keyboard (computing)|Keyboard]] & [[Mouse (computing)|Mouse]]
}}

'''''Botanicula''''' is a [[puzzle video game|puzzle]] [[Point-and-click adventure game#Point-and-click adventure|point-and-click adventure game]] developed by [[Amanita Design]]. The game is set to be released in March, 2012 for platforms [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]]. A version for [[iPad]] will also be developed with no official release date set as of yet. The game is also in consideration to be ported to [[Android]] and [[iOS]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2012/02/07/igf-factor-2012-botanicula/ |title=IGF Factor 2012: Botanicula |author=Alec Meer |date=February 7th, 2012 |work=[[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]]}}</ref>

==Plot summary==
[[File:Botanicula Heros.jpg|thumb|left|128px|From left to right
Mr.Lantern, Mrs.Mushroom, Mr.Poppy Head, Mr.Feather and Mr.Twig ]]

''Botanicula'' follows the adventure of five botanical creatures(named Mr.Lantern, Mr.Twig, Mr.Poppy Head, Mr.Feather and Mrs.Mushroom) that are trying to save the last seed of their home tree from evil parasitic creatures that have infested their home.

==Gameplay==
Like the previous games from Amanita Design Botanicula follows the same scheme of gameplay, the player controls five protagonist characters exploring the environment, solving puzzles and collecting items that are required for the obstacles that come in their way, The player is able interact with other creatures and easter eggs that are present in the lush environment.

Like [[Machinarium]] the game is expected to have no spoken or written dialogue. <ref>http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2011/12/06/hands-on-botanicula/</ref>

==Awards==
* Annual Independent Games Festival - Excellence in Audio Award (2012)
Botanicula won the 14th annual award in 'Excellence in Audio' at Independent Games Festival.<ref>http://igf.com/2012/03/fourteenth_annual_independent_.html</ref>

==References==

{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.amanitadesign.com/ Amanita Design website]
*[http://botanicula.net/ Official site]

Lady Blunt

2012-01-16T04:18:53Z

Wingman4l7: fixed puntuation positions

{{redirect|Lady Blunt|the mistress of King Henry VIII|Elizabeth Blount}}
The '''Lady Blunt''' Stradivarius violin of 1721 is a violin made by Italian luthier [[Antonio Stradivari]] of Cremona.<ref>http://www.cozio.com/Luthier.aspx?id=17</ref> It is named after its first known owner [[Lady Anne Blunt]], daughter of [[Ada Lovelace]], granddaughter of [[Lord Byron]].

The Lady Blunt is one of the two best-preserved Stradivarius violins in existence.<ref >{{cite news | title =Rare Stradivarius Violin to be Sold| work =Sophie Hull | publisher =artsandcollections.com| date =2011-05-03 | url = http://www.artsandcollections.com/index.php?/article/rare_stradivarius_violin_to_be_sold_317/| accessdate = 2011-06-16}}</ref> It has survived, like the [[Messiah Stradivarius]] of 1716, in near-original condition since it has resided mostly in the hands of collectors and seen little use.



This violin was sold at auction by [[Sotheby's]] in 1971 for the then-record amount of £84,000<ref name=bbcjune>{{cite news | title=Stradivarius violin sold for £9.8m at charity auction | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-13852872 | publisher=BBC News | date=2011-06-21 | accessdate=2011-06-21}}</ref> (US$200,000).<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.gramophone.co.uk/classical-music-news/10m-strad-to-be-auctioned-for-japan-tsunami-fund | publisher=Gramophone | title=$10m Strad to be auctioned for Japan tsunami fund | last=Gill | first=Caroline | date=2011-04-28 | accessdate=2011-06-21}}</ref>

In 2008 it was sold to the [[Nippon Music Foundation]] for over [[USD|US$10]] million in a private transaction.<ref>{{cite news | publisher=Wall Street Journal | url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704330404576291270903154748.html | title=A $10 Million Fiddle? Stradivarius Takes Another Bow at Auction | last=Gamerman | first=Ellen | date=2011-04-30 | accessdate=2011-06-21}}</ref> The Lady Blunt was sold by [[Tarisio Auctions]] on their 20 June 2011 online auction for £9.8 million (US$15.9 million),<ref name=bbcjune></ref> more than four times the previous auction record for a Stradivarius, held by the [[Molitor Stradivarius|Molitor]] when it sold for US$3.6 million in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stradivarius Sells for $15.9 Million to Help Japan Quake Relief|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-06-20/stradivarius-sets-15-9-million-auction-price-to-help-japan-quake-relief.html|publisher=Bloomberg|date=2011-06-20}}</ref> The proceeds will go to the Nippon Foundation's Northeastern Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Relief Fund.<ref name=bbcmay>{{cite news | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-13258256 | title=Stradivarius to be sold to raise money for Japan quake | publisher=BBC News | date=2011-05-02 | accessdate=2011-05-02}}</ref> When it went up for sale it was called "the best-preserved Stradivarius to be offered for sale in the past century."<ref name=bbcmay></ref>

==See also==
* [[Stradivarius]]
* [[List of Stradivarius instruments]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://tarisio.com/wp/tag/stradivarius/ Listing on Tarisio.com, including description, provenance and pictures]

[[Category:1721 works]]
[[Category:Stradivari violins]]

{{string-instrument-stub}}

Speed Tape

2012-01-12T03:26:42Z

Wingman4l7: rm space; add {{cn}} template

{{multiple issues|refimprove=June 2010|expert = June 2010|orphan = December 2009}}
'''Speed tape''' is an [[Aluminium|aluminized]] [[adhesive tape|tape]] used to do minor repairs on [[airplanes]]. It looks similar to [[duct tape]] (silver gray), but its [[adhesive]] is capable of sticking on an airplane [[fuselage]] or wing at high speeds, hence the name. During the [[Vietnam War]], [[helicopter]] [[Helicopter rotor|rotor]] blades damaged by small-arms fire had a temporary repair performed by battle-damage repair crews in the field using the tape.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} This tape is also known as 600 mph tape.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Passengers surprised to see planes patched with tape
| author = Jason Whitely
| url = http://www.wfaa.com/news/local/Passengers-surprised-to-see-tape-patching-planes-91567634.html
| newspaper = [[WFAA]]
| date = 19 April 2010
| accessdate = 20 January 2011
}}
</ref>

In the [[U.S. Air Force]], it was often referred to as "thousand mile an hour" tape.

*It is [[Thermal conductivity|thermally conductive]].
*It has a high [[Heat reflector|heat reflectivity]].
*It resists [[UV degradation]] for long-term durability.
*It is resistant to moisture and [[solvents]].
*It is also [[flame resistant]].

Use of speed tape should be authorized by engineering teams and comply with certain requirements. For example it can be used "with holes no larger in diameter than 2 inches and no closer to the edge of the panel than 3 inches."<ref>{{cite news
| title = Improper Use of Tape to Fix Wings May Lead to FAA Fine for United
| author = Don Phillips
| url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A5484-2002Dec3&notFound=true
| newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]
| date = 4 December 2002
| accessdate = 20 January 2011
}}
</ref>

==References==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Speed Tape}}
[[Category:Adhesive tape]]
[[Category:Aircraft components]]

{{Aviation-stub}}

Linux-libre

2012-01-06T04:01:44Z

Wingman4l7: /* Mascots of Linux-libre */ -- added space between sentences

{{Distinguish|Linux|Linux kernel}}
{{Other uses|Linux (disambiguation)}}
{{notability|Products|date=December 2011}}
{{primary sources|date=December 2011}}
{{self-published|date=December 2011}}
{{Infobox software
| name = Linux-libre
| title = Linux-libre
| logo = [[File:Freedo.svg|180px|Freedo, official mascot of Linux-libre]]
| screenshot = 
| caption =
| collapsible =
| author =
| developer = [[Free Software Foundation Latin America]]
| released = {{Start date|2008|05|19}}<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.fsfla.org/download/linux-libre/releases/old/gen1/2.6.26-libre-rc/?C=M;O=A
|title = Index of /download/linux-libre/releases/old/gen1/2.6.26-libre-rc
|author = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|authorlink = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|date = May 19, 2008
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
}}</ref>
| discontinued =
| latest release version = 3.1.6<ref name="latest_release">{{cite web
|url = http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/download/releases/?C=M;O=A
|title = Index of /download/linux-libre/releases
|author = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|authorlink = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|date = January 9, 2011
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
}}</ref>
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2011|12|22}}
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date = 
| frequently updated = 
| programming language = [[C (programming language)|C]] and [[Assembly language]]
| operating system = [[GNU]]
| platform = [[x86]], [[x86-64]], [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]]
| size = {{Nowrap|71 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]}}<ref name="latest_release" />
| language = [[English language|English]]
| status = Active
| genre = [[Kernel (computing)|Kernel]]
| license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] 2
| website = {{URL|http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/index.en.html}}
}}
'''Linux-libre''' is a project that releases and maintains modified versions of the [[Linux kernel]]. Their kernel version removes any software that does not include its [[source code]], has its source code [[Obfuscated code|obfuscated]] or released under [[Proprietary software|proprietary licenses]]. The parts that have no source code are called [[binary blob]]s and are generally proprietary [[firmware]]. Linux-libre is endorsed by the [[Free Software Foundation]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://directory.fsf.org/wiki/Linux_%28BLOB_free_version%29
|title = Linux (BLOB free version)
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = Free Software Foundation
|authorlink = Free Software Foundation
|work = Free Software Directory
|quote = [...] in the interest of freedom, we are providing a link to a version of the kernel in which this proprietary code has been removed so that it is entirely free software
}}</ref>, and it is a main piece of the [[List of Linux distributions endorsed by the Free Software Foundation|totally free GNU distributions]]. Linux-libre is maintained and released by the [[Free Software Foundation Latin America]] (FSFLA).

== Elimination of proprietary firmware ==
The cleaning process is achieved by using a [[Scripting language|script]] called ''deblob-main''.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/index.en.html#how
|title = How it is done
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|enlaceautor = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|obra = Linux-libre, Free as in Freedo
|cita = The removal of non-Free bits from the kernel Linux is accomplished with the script deblob-main
}}</ref> This script is inspired by the one used for [[gNewSense]]. Jeff Moe made subsequent modifications to meet certain requirements for its use with the [[BLAG Linux and GNU]] distribution. There is another script called ''deblob-check'',<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://fsfla.org/svn/fsfla/software/linux-libre/scripts/
|title = fsfla - Revision 8200: /software/linux-libre/scripts
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|obra = Free Software Foundation Latin America
}}</ref> which is used to check if a kernel source file, a [[Patch (computing)|patch]] or a compressed sources file still contains software suspicious of being proprietary.

=== Disadvantages ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2011}}
The elimination of proprietary [[Device driver|drivers]] from the kernel precludes the use of Linux-libre on hardware that has not yet compatibility with [[free software]], such as some [[sound card|sound]], [[video card|video]] and [[Wi-Fi|wireless]] [[Network interface controller|network]] cards, and other devices. Whenever it is possible, free drivers are included as substitutes.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}

In addition, it has been discovered that the act of eliminating all references to closed but legally redistributable firmware needed for a driver to run correctly at the source code level effectively renders the driver (and its corresponding hardware) unworkable under any circumstances, even if a user has a copy of the correct firmware placed into the /lib/firmware directory. This effectively makes the Linux-libre kernel almost useless for mainstream desktop computing, as most devices today (especially networking hardware) require the use of such firmware in order to function at all.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}

== Timeline ==
{{Timeline Linux-libre}}

== Linux-libre distributions ==
[[File:Trisquel-5-desktop.png|thumb|[[Trisquel]] implements 100% free kernels based on Linux-libre since version 2.1.]]
The following distributions use or have available Linux-libre as its kernel:<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/index.en.html
|title = Linux-libre, Free as in Freedo
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|authorlink = Free Software Foundation Latin America
}}</ref>

{|
|
* Amagi
* [[Arch Linux]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://aur.archlinux.org/packages.php?ID=51364
|title = linux-libre 3.1-2
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = Arch Linux
|authorlink = Arch Linux
|date = August 9, 2011
|work = AUR
}}</ref>
* [[BLAG Linux and GNU]]
* [[Canaima (operating system)|Canaima]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://forja.softwarelibre.gob.ve/projects/linux-libre/
|title = Linux-Libre: Resumen del proyecto
|accessdate = December 6, 2001
|last = Fossi
|first = Damián
|date = August 24, 2009
|obra = Forja
|language = [[Spanish language|Castilian]]
|trans_title = Linux-Libre: Proyect abstract
|cita = Linux Libre consiste en publicar y mantener versiones libres del Kernel para Canaima GNU/Linux
}}</ref>
* ConnochaetOS<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.connochaetos.org/wiki/
|title = ConnochaetOS
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|quote = ConnochaetOS [...] feature: a current Linux-Libre “LTS” kernel [...]
}}</ref>
* [[Dragora]]
* [[Gentoo Linux]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://bugs.gentoo.org/show_bug.cgi?id=266157
|title = Bug 266157
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|last = O'Kelly
|first = Tim
|date = April 14, 2009
|work = Gentoo's Bugzilla
|publisher = Gentoo Linux
}}</ref>
* [[gNewSense]]
|
* [[Kongoni (Operating System)|Kongoni]]
* NeonatoX GNU/linux-libre
* Parabola GNU/Linux-libre
* RMS GNU/Linux-libre<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://rmsgnulinux.com.ar/
|title = RMS GNU/Linux-libre
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = RMS GNU/Linux-libre
|year = 2011
}}</ref>
* Tlamaki GNU/Linux
* [[Trisquel]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://trisquel.info/en/wiki/how-trisquel-made
|title = How Trisquel is Made
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = The Trisquel Project
|work = Trisquel GNU/Linux
|quote = To provide our users with a fully free kernel we use a set of scripts based in the ones from Linux-libre, with some modifications of our own
}}</ref>
* Venenux GNU/Linux<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://venenux.org/repos/venenux/pool/principal/l/linux-source-2.6.28.7-venenux-libre/
|title = Index of /repos/venenux/pool/principal/l/linux-source-2.6.28.7-venenux-libre
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|date = August 24, 2009
|work = VENENUX GNU/LINUX
}}</ref>
|}

In addition, the following distributions are planned to include Linux-libre as its kernel:
* [[dyne:bolic]]<ref name="dyne:bolic freeeee">{{cite mailing list
|url = http://lists.linuxaudio.org/pipermail/linux-audio-tuning/2008-September/000059.html
|title = <nowiki>[</nowiki>LAT<nowiki>]</nowiki> hello, dyne:bolic -rt and freeeee
|date = September 10, 2008
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|mailinglist = [Fundación Software Libre América Latina] Linux-audio-tuning
|author = jaromil
}}</ref>
* [[Musix GNU/Linux]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = ftp://musix.ourproject.org/pub/musix/deb/kernel/2.6.26-libre-rt
|title = ftp://musix.ourproject.org/pub/musix/deb/kernel/2.6.26-libre-rt
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|work = Índice de ftp://musix.ourproject.org/
|language = Castilian
|trans_title = Index of ftp://musix.ourproject.org/
}}</ref>

=== Availability ===
The source codes and [[Compiler|precompiled]] packages of different versions of the debugged kernel recognized by the Linux-libre project are available on the respective pages of the different distributions or individual programmers. Freed-ora is a sub Libre-libre subproject that prepares and maintains [[RPM Package Manager|RPM]] packages based on the [[Fedora (operating system)|Fedora]] kernel.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/freed-ora
|title = Linux-libre's Freed-ora project
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|authorlink = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|quote = Freed-ora is a sub-project that prepares and maintains 100% Free RPMs that track Fedora's non-Free kernels
}}</ref> There are also precompiled packages for [[Debian]]<ref>{{cite mailing list
|url = http://lists.debian.org/debian-devel-announce/2009/04/msg00010.html
|title = Linux-libre for Debian Lenny
|date = April 23, 2009
|accessdate = May 12, 2009
|mailinglist = [Debian Mailing Lists] Announcements for developers
|last = Millan
|first = Robert
|quote = This is to announce that Debian packages of Linux-libre [...] are now available for Lenny users who want to use them [...]
}}</ref> and derived distributions such as [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://aligunduz.org/gNewSense/
|title = Uncle Gnufs' World Famous Home Baked Free Kernel Shoppe
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|last = Gündüz
|first = Ali
|work = aligunduz.org
}}</ref>

== Real-time version ==
[[File:AndrewMorton-3.jpg|thumb|[[Andrew Morton (computer programmer)|Andrew Morton]], a developer of the [[Linux kernel]].]]
The kernel of dyne:bolic has the particularity of have been compiled to work in [[Real-time computing|real-time]], giving it a better performance for multimedia editing.<ref name="dyne:bolic freeeee" /> In addition, a precompiled version with realtime patches from [[Andrew Morton (computer programmer)|Andrew Morton]] is available on the LTS versions of [[Trisquel]] as an optional download.

== Mascots of Linux-libre ==
[[File:Freetz.svg|thumb|Freetz is the older brother of the current mascot of Linux-libre.]]
* '''Stux:''' It was the first mascot and it is a picture of a clean penguin, hanging to dry after washing.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.flickr.com/photos/laelew/1962432706/
|title = Pingouin
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|last = Laë
|first = Lewis
|date = October 31, 2007
|publisher = [[Flickr]]
|language = [[French language|French]] and English
|quote = C'est devenue la mascotte de ce site : fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/
}}</ref> It was taken by Lewis Laë, who granted a permission to FSFLA to used it on its website; however, is not covered by a free license. Then, there was made a call to artists and graphic designers to create a mascot that shows the freedom gained by the penguin, as Stux, although clean, is still in prison.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/index.en.html#artwork
|title = Artwork
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|authorlink = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|work = Linux-libre, Free as in Freedo.
}}</ref>

The mascots that emerged by the call and are shown on the Linux-libre project website are:
* '''Freetz:''' Drawn by Burnaron, it represents a free penguin that just got out of the shower, published in two versions: [[Raster graphics|raster]]<ref>{{cite mailing list
|url = http://fsfla.org/pipermail/linux-libre/2009-March/000453.html
|title = Mi logo for linux-libre
|date = March 9, 2009
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|mailinglist = [Fundación Software Libre América Latina] linux-libre
|author = Burnaron
}}</ref> and [[vector graphics]].<ref>{{cite mailing list
|url = http://fsfla.org/pipermail/linux-libre/2009-March/000464.html
|title = About the logo of linux libre
|date = March 22, 2009
|accessdate = Decamber 6, 2011
|mailinglist = [Fundación Software Libre América Latina] linux-libre
|author = burnaron
}}</ref>
* '''Lux:''' Drawn by Guillaume Pasquet, it represents the holy free [[penguin]] (with [[angel]] wings and an [[aureola]]), made based on [[Tux]] (by [[Larry Ewing]]), official mascot of the standard Linux kernel.<ref>{{cite mailing list
|url = http://fsfla.org/pipermail/linux-libre/2009-March/000498.html
|title = Angel penguin in vectorial graphics!
|date = March 31, 2009
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|mailinglist = [Fundación Software Libre América Latina] linux-libre
|last = Pasquet
|first = Guillaume
|quote = I have made an angel penguin in vectorial graphics (svg with inkscape). It is based on the original Tux from Larry Ewing.
}}</ref>
** Levitating [[Wildebeest|Gnu]] and '''Lux''': It's a composition by [[Alexandre Oliva]] of the levitating gnu, one of the logos of the GNU project, playing the flute to free '''Lux''', making it levitate out of the cage where he was imprisoned. It was published in two versions: raster and vector graphics.<ref>{{cite mailing list
|url = http://fsfla.org/pipermail/linux-libre/2009-April/000531.html
|title = artwork: gnu playing flute to free lux
|date = April 14, 2009
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|mailinglist = [Fundación Software Libre América Latina] linux-libre
|last = Oliva
|first = Alexandre
|authorlink = Alexandre Oliva
}}</ref>
* '''Freedo:''' It is the current official mascot of the Linux-libre project. It is a modified version of Freetz by Ruben Rodríguez Pérez.<ref>{{cite mailing list
|url = http://fsfla.org/pipermail/linux-libre/2009-April/000541.html
|title = <nowiki>[</nowiki>GNU-linux-libre<nowiki>]</nowiki> naming the Linux-libre artwork
|date = April 15, 2009
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|mailinglist = [Fundación Software Libre América Latina] linux-libre
|last = Rodríguez Pérez
|first = Rubén
}}</ref> There is also a gray alternative for printing created by Fernando.<ref>{{cite mailing list
|url = http://fsfla.org/pipermail/linux-libre/2009-April/000584.html
|title = <nowiki>[</nowiki>GNU-linux-libre<nowiki>]</nowiki> naming the Linux-libre artwork
|date = April 21, 2009
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|mailinglist = [Fundación Software Libre América Latina] linux-libre
|author = Fernando
}}</ref>
** '''Freedo''' with GNU: Alexander Oliva also created a combination of Freedo with the GNU logo, creating a logo that can be used to show on the kernel boot.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Free software|Linux}}
* [[Free Software Foundation Latin America]]
* [[GNU]]
* [[Linux kernel]]

== References ==
{{listaref|2}}

{{commonscat|Free Software Foundation Latin America}}
== External links ==
* [http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/index.en.html Linux-libre, Free as in Freedo] (official site)
* [http://directory.fsf.org/wiki/Linux_%28BLOB_free_version%29 Linux (BLOB free version)]
* [https://www.kernel.org/ The Linux Kernel Archives]

{{Linux}}

[[Category:Free_software]]
[[Category:Operating system kernels]]

[[ar:لينكس ليبرا]]
[[es:Linux-libre]]
[[eo:Linux-libre]]
[[fa:لینوکس-لیبره]]
[[fr:Linux-libre]]
[[it:Linux-libre]]

Council of Conservative Citizens

2011-12-21T12:04:24Z

Wingman4l7: /* Controversy and criticism */ -- fixed formatting

{{Multiple issues|disputed=December 2009|POV=December 2009|cleanup=December 2009}}
{{Infobox Organization
|name = Council of Conservative Citizens
|image = Council of Conservative Citizens Logo.jpg
|size = 200px
|caption =
|abbreviation = CofCC
|motto =
|formation = 1988
|type =
|status =
|purpose =
|headquarters = [[St. Louis, Missouri]]
|location =
|region_served =
|membership =
|language =
|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|affiliations =
|num_staff =
|num_volunteers =
|budget =
|website = [http://www.cofcc.org/ www.cofcc.org]
}}
The '''Council of Conservative Citizens''' ('''CofCC''') is an American political organization that supports a large variety of [[conservative]] and [[paleoconservative]] causes in addition to [[white nationalism]],<ref name="A Space for Hate">{{cite book | title=A Space for Hate: The White Power Movement's Adaptation Into Cyberspace | author=Adam G. Klein | year=June 2010 | page=93 | isbn=978-1936117079}}</ref> and [[white separatism]].<ref name="Statement of Principles">[http://cofcc.org/introduction/statement-of-principles Council of Conservative Citizens - Statement of Principles]</ref> Several members of the CofCC Board of Directors are former leaders of the [[segregationist]] Citizens' Councils of America, founded by Major Bob Patterson, which is commonly referred to as the [[White Citizens' Council]].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://cofcc.org/2010/07/naacp-chief-ben-jealous-plugs-cofcc-on-cnn-website-and-npr/
| title = NAACP chief Ben Jealous plugs CofCC on CNN website and NPR.
| date = 16 July 2010
| publisher = Council of Conservative Citizens
| accessdate = 31 October 2010 }}</ref> The organization is headquartered in [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], [[Missouri]]. Other US states with active chapters include [[Florida]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Alabama]], [[Louisiana]], [[Tennessee]], [[South Carolina]], [[North Carolina]], [[Virginia]], [[Texas]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Mississippi]], [[Michigan]], [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[California]] and [[New York]]. Sporadic CofCC activities occur in other parts of the country as well.

==History==
The CofCC was founded in 1988 in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], Georgia, and is now headquartered in St. Louis. The CofCC was formed by various Republicans, [[Conservative Democrat]]s, and some former members of the Citizens' Councils of America, sometimes called the [[White Citizens Council]], a segregationist organization formerly prominent in the 1960s and 1970s. [[Lester Maddox]], the late former [[List of governors of Georgia|governor of Georgia]], was a charter member.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://cofcc.org/memoriam/lester_maddox.htm
| title = Remembering Lester Maddox
| Council of Conservative Citizens Website
| accessdate = 2007-04-19 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070611112129/http://cofcc.org/memoriam/lester_maddox.htm |archivedate = 2007-06-11}}</ref> [[Gordon Lee Baum]] is the current CEO. Tom Dover, head of Dover Cylinder Repair is the president. Leonard Wilson, a former Alabama State Committeeman for both [[Alabama Republican Party|Republican]] and [[Alabama Democratic Party|Democratic]] parties, sits on the CofCC Executive Board. Bill Lord Sr, Carroll County Coroner, former head of the Carroll Academy School Board, also sits of the Executive Board.

The organization often holds meetings with various other paleo-conservative organizations in the United States, and sometimes meets with [[Nationalist]] organizations from Europe. In 1997, several members of the CofCC attended an event hosted by [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]]'s [[National Front (France)|National Front]] party. The delegation from the CofCC presented Le Pen with a [[Flags of the Confederate States of America|Confederate flag]], which had been flown over the [[South Carolina]] [[South Carolina State House|state capitol building]].<ref>{{Cite web
| last = Taylor
| first = Jared
| url = http://www.amren.com/ar/1998/11/index.html
| title = A Festival for France: The Front National's gigantic celebration of French Nationalism
| work = American Renaissance
| accessdate = 2007-03-12
| date = 1998-09
| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080411091458/http://www.amren.com/ar/1998/11/index.html
| archivedate = 2008-04-11 }}</ref>

Following several articles detailing some of its members past involvement with the White Citizens Council, several conservative politicians distanced themselves from the organization. One such politician was [[Bob Barr]], who had spoken at CofCC functions, saying he found the groups' racial views to be "repugnant," and didn't realize the nature of the group when he agreed to speak at the group's meeting.<ref>{{Cite web
| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990317-2,00.html
| authorlink = Bob Barr
| last = Barr
| first = Bob
| date = 1999-03-01
| accessdate = 2007-03-12
| title = Representative Barr Responds (Letter)
| work = Time Magazine }}</ref>

In later years, additional media articles on the involvement of other Republican party leaders and conservative Democrats with the CofCC attempted to force a distinct denunciation of their association with the organization. For instance, [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|U.S. Senate Majority Leader]] [[Trent Lott]] had also been a member of the CofCC. Subsequent to the report, the CofCC was denounced by the Chairman of the [[Republican National Committee]], [[Jim Nicholson (U.S. politician)|Jim Nicholson]], for holding "racist and nationalist views" and demanded that Lott formally denounce the organization. Although Lott refused to denounce the organization he did state he had resigned his membership. Subsequently, Nicholson, demanded Lott denounce his former segregationist views following a speech he gave at Senator [[Strom Thurmond]]'s birthday dinner when he promoted the Senator's former [[Dixiecrat]] Presidential campaign.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A37288-2002Dec10 | work=The Washington Post | title=Lott Remarks on Thurmond Echoed 1980 Words | first1=Thomas B. | last1=Edsall | first2=Brian | last2=Faler | date=December 11, 2002 | accessdate=May 26, 2010}}</ref> Following the ensuring controversy Nicholson's demands initiated, Lott once again apologized for his past support for segregation, his past associations, and his remarks at Thurmond's birthday. This caused his loss of support from a number of important conservatives, not least, Thurmond himself. Consequently, Lott resigned his post as [[Senate Minority Leader]]. Similarly, former House Minority Leader [[Dick Gephardt]] also attended an event of the organization's St. Louis predecessor the "Metro-South Citizens Council" shortly before the name change in the mid-1980s. This was an event he has repeatedly referred to as a mistake.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,108068,00.html
| last = Cameron
| first = Carl
| title = Gephardt Admits Mistake on Race Issues in '70s
| work = FoxNews.com
| date = 2004-01-11
| accessdate = 2007-03-12 }}</ref> However, rather than gain him support, his denunciation appears to have cost him votes in Democratic primaries for the Presidency. {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} Similarly, in 1993, [[Mike Huckabee]], then the Lieutenant Governor of [[Arkansas]], agreed to speak at the CofCC's national convention in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] in his pursuit for the Governorship of Arkansas. By the time of the CofCC convention, Huckabee was unable to leave Arkansas. Instead, he sent a videotaped speech, which "was viewed and extremely well received by the audience," according to the CofCC newsletter.<ref>{{Cite web| last =Blumenthal| first = Max| title =Mike Huckabee's White Supremacist Links| publisher = ''[[The Nation]]''| date = 2008-01-18| url = http://www.thenation.com/blogs/campaignmatters?pid=272545| accessdate = 2008-01-21}}</ref> However, following his success in the election, in April 1994, Huckabee withdrew from a speaking engagement before the CofCC. He commented, "I will not participate in any program that has [[racism|racist]] overtones. I've spent a lifetime fighting racism and [[anti-Semitism]]."<ref>{{Cite news
|last=Duhart
|first=Bill
|coauthors=
|title=Huckabee won't appear with racist.
|work=
|pages=
|language=
|publisher=Philadelphia Tribune
|date=1994-04-12
|url=
|accessdate=}}</ref>

Other prominent conservative national and state politicians who were members refused to denounce, distance, or resign their membership, and continued attending meetings and giving speeches remained prominent political leaders within the conservative movement including former [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Jesse Helms]]. Senator Helms remained supportive of the CofCC and consistently won his elections, and support from the CofCC was considered decisive enough that the organization was influential in office throughout his terms in the Senate. Similarly, former governors [[H. Guy Hunt]] of Alabama and [[Kirk Fordice]] of Mississippi, as well as Senator [[Strom Thurmond]] remained active members and/or gave speeches to the organization. Strom Thurmond remained in the Senate, retiring in 2002.

The SPLC and the ''[[Miami Herald]]'' tallied a further 38 federal, state, and local politicians who appeared at CofCC events between 2000 and 2004.<ref>[http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=487 SPLCenter.org: Communing with the Council]</ref> The ADL states the following politicians are members or have spoken at meetings: Senator [[Trent Lott]], Mississippi Governor [[Haley Barbour]], Mississippi state senators [[Gary Jackson (politician)|Gary Jackson]], and [[Dean Kirby]], several Mississippi state representatives. People who have also spoken at CofCC meetings include Ex-Governors [[Guy Hunt]] of Alabama, and [[Kirk Fordice]] of Mississippi. U.S. Senator [[Roger Wicker]] of Mississippi is said to have attended as well.<ref name="adl.org">[http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/CCCitizens.asp?xpicked=3&item=12 Council of Conservative Citizens - Extremism in America]</ref>

In 2005, the Council of Conservative Citizens held its National Conference in [[Montgomery, Alabama]]. [[George Wallace Jr.]], an Alabama Public Service Commissioner and former State Treasurer who was then running for Lieutenant Governor, and [[Sonny Landham]], an actor, spoke at the conference.

==Issues==
The CofCC considers itself a traditional conservative group opposing liberals and [[neo-conservativism|neo-conservatives]], supports [[national self-determination]], immigration restriction, [[federalism]], [[home rule]], and opposition to [[free trade]] and global [[capitalism]]. Its specific issues include [[states rights]], [[race relations]] (especially [[interracial marriage]], which it opposes), and conservative [[Christian]] values. They have criticized [[Martin Luther King]], who is considered by the organization as a left-wing agitator of [[Black American]] communities with notable ties to [[communism]], and holding personal sexual morals unworthy of a person deserving national recognition,<ref>
{{Cite web
| url = http://www.cofcc.org/foundation/reparations.htm
| title = Reparations for Slavery: Strategies and Tactics
| year = 2003
| accessdate = 2007-03-14
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070206022935/http://www.cofcc.org/foundation/reparations.htm  |archivedate = 2007-02-06}}</ref> and consider the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|Civil Rights Movement]], and the [[Frankfurt School]] as elementally subversive to the [[Separation of powers under the United States Constitution]]. Consistent with paleo-conservatism, they regard American culture as an offshoot of the [[European culture|European cultural]], specifically the [[United Kingdom|British]] Protestant tradition. Consequently, the Council of Conservative Citizens is currently active in organizing the restriction, reduction, and/or moratorium of immigration, enforcing laws and regulation against [[illegal aliens]], ending what they see as [[racial discrimination]] against whites through [[affirmative action]] and [[racial quotas]], overturning [[Supreme Court]] rulings and Congressional Acts such as [[forced busing]] and [[gun control]], ending [[free trade]] economic policy, and supports [[sexual morality]], including promotion of the [[Defense of Marriage Act]] and persecution of [[homosexuality]]. In turn, the CofCC works with a number of European [[nationalist]] such as ''[[Front National (France)|Front National]]'', and ''[[Vlaams Belang]]'' and the [[United Kingdom Independence Party]].

Following its publishing of several dozen conservative organizations ranging from the [[Federation for American Immigration Reform]] to [[Vdare]] as [[hate group]]s in 2005, the CofCC staged a protest in front of the offices of the SPLC in [[Montgomery, Alabama]]. {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} About 72 members organized a demonstration of several hundred protesters receiving state-wide publicity and focusing attention on the SPLC's fundraising and raising suspicions of [[demagoguery]] by the center. The CofCC continues protesting speaking engagements by [[Morris Dees]] in [[Alabama]], [[Mississippi]], [[Missouri]], [[Indiana]], and [[South Carolina]] declaring him to be a threat to [[free speech]] and a fraud.

==Activities==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2010}}
The CofCC publishes the ''Citizens Informer'' newspaper quarterly. Previously edited by the late [[Samuel T. Francis]] and web designer [[Joel T. LeFevre]], William Rolen has recently taken over.<ref>http://cofcc.org/extras/june10ci.pdf</ref> Its editorial board includes Baum, [[Virginia Abernethy]], Sam G. Dickson, [[Wayne Lutton]], and [[Jared Taylor]]. Recent contributors to the ''Citizen Informer'' have included [[Lawrence Auster]], [[Louis Calabro]] and [[Robert Locke]]. It has also printed syndicated columns of [[Joseph Sobran]], [[Patrick Buchanan]], [[Rand Paul]], and [[United States Congress|Congressional]] speeches of [[Ron Paul]]. Numerous Mississippi businesses advertise in the ''Citizens Informer'', most notably the famous Crystal Grill.

The CofCC has a non-profit foundation, the Conservative Citizens Foundation, which is currently raising money for a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] monument project.

==State chapters==
===Tennessee===
In [[Tennessee]] there are several chapters. One in west Tennessee, one in Middle Tennessee, one for east Tennessee and another for southeast Tennessee. In Western Tennessee the chapter runs the ''[[The Political Cesspool]]'' radio show. {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

===Mississippi===
In Mississippi there are several chapters that are working closely with private [[segregation academies|academies]]. These academies (many of which were originally called “council schools”) are [[private schools]] established for white parents to avoid the [[desegregation]] of public schools after the ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' ruling.

Mississippi is the only state that has major politicians who are open CofCC members, including [[Mississippi State Senate|State Senators]] and [[Mississippi House of Representatives|State Representatives]]. The CofCC once claimed 34 members in the Mississippi legislature.<ref name="SPLC40">
{{Cite web
| url = http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=115&printable=1
| title = 40 to Watch: What does the radical right look like after a year of reverses? The future may lie in the personalities still peopling the fringe
| author = Beirich, Heidi
| coauthors = Potok, Mark
| work = Intelligence Report
| publisher = Southern Poverty Law Center
| date = Fall 2003 }}</ref>

===South Carolina===
The Council of Conservative Citizens held demonstrations in South Carolina between 1993 and 2000 to keep the [[Confederate flag]] on the state house dome. Demonstrations were held in the upstate, down to the tourist coast in Myrtle Coast and [[Hilton Head Island]]. The rallies started as a response to NAACP rallies calling for the flag to come down and their protests numbered several thousand. After a 1999 rally, when the CofCC drew 1,500 demonstrators to the capital, other groups asked to form a coalition. In 2000, a coalition march drew 8,000 people and was faced with an equal number of CofCC protesters{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}. Several coalition members endorsed a compromise that led to the flag coming down and being placed in front of the statehouse on the Confederate Soldier statue.

The previous SC CofCC state director, Francis Bell died in 2005 after fighting a long battle with cancer. The South Carolina CofCC is now headed by a four member board of directors and has active chapters in Charleston and Greenville.

==Controversy and criticism==
Various critics describe the organization as a hate group. ''[[The New York Times]]'' and the [[Anti-Defamation League]] have described the Council of Conservative Citizens as a [[white supremacist]] organization.<ref name="adl.org"/><ref name="splc">{{Cite web|url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=1048|title=Hate in the Mainstream: Ann Coulter Defends White Supremacist Group|accessdate=June 9, 2009}}</ref> The CofCC is considered by the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] (SPLC) to be part of the "[[neo-confederate]] movement." In general, organizations such as the [[NAACP]], [[League of United Latin American Citizens]], SPLC (which lists it as a "hate group"<ref name="SPLCreport">
{{Cite web
| url = http://www.splcenter.org/center/splcreport/article.jsp?aid=103
| title = Center Report Exposes Links Between Hate Group, Lawmakers
| accessdate = 2007-03-12
| publisher = Southern Poverty Law Center
| month = September | year = 2004 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070930165149/http://www.splcenter.org/center/splcreport/article.jsp?aid=103  |archivedate = 2007-09-30}}</ref>) and the [[Anti-Defamation League]] consider it a threat. Max Blumenthal calls it America's premier racist organization and elementally dangerous to America.<ref>[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060911/george_allen/3 Beyond Macaca: The Photograph That Haunts George Allen]</ref> Some vocal critics in the Republican Party include [[neo-conservative]]s within the [[Conservative Political Action Conference]], who consider the Council of Conservative Citizens a [[nationalist]] and [[homophobia|homophobic]] organization, pointing to its advocacy of [[Federalism]] and promotion of the historic [[national identity]] of America. This view is partially based on the CofCC's statement of principles, which condemns the Federal government's intervention into State and Local affairs in forcing racial integration (item 2), free-trade and globalism, immigration by non-Europeans (item 2), homosexuality, and interracial marriage (item 6).<ref name="Statement of Principles"/>

According to its supporters, the Council of Conservative Citizens opposes [[globalism]], [[multiculturalism]], [[racism]] against whites, and what they perceive to be an intrusive Federal government. The group claims it has a key role in reporting what it sees as the racial overtones of violence against whites, both in the [[United States]] and elsewhere. An April 2005 photo essay on the CofCC website claimed that images of decapitated, burnt and mangled bodies of [[white people|whites]] are victims of [[black people|black]] violence in South Africa. The website closes with the statement that someday American whites will be a minority and will be subject to the same form of violence.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20050204012636/cofcc.org/shelby.htm Shelby County Tennessee Chapter]</ref>

Conservative columnist [[Ann Coulter]] has defended the group against charges of racism, claiming on the basis of a viewing of their website that there is "no evidence" that the CofCC supports segregation.<ref name="splc"/>

==See also==
{{Portalbox|United States|Discrimination}}
*[[American Renaissance (magazine)]]
*[[White nationalism]]
*[[Conservatism]]
*[[White Citizens' Council]]
*[[Occidental Quarterly]]
*[[Paleoconservatism]]
*[[Right-wing politics]]
*[[VDARE]]
*[[The Political Cesspool]]
*[[American Third Position Party]]
*[[States' rights]]

==Footnotes==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.cofcc.org/ Official website]
**[http://cofcc.org/?page_id=71 A Statement of the Principles of the Council of Conservative Citizens]
**[http://alcofcc.wordpress.com/ Alabama Chapter]
**[http://ctcofcc.wordpress.com/ Connecticut Chapter]
**[http://www.chicagoamren.com/ Illinois Chapter]
**[http://members.aol.com/kidrebel777/KidRebel777/ Southeast Missouri Chapter]
**[http://www.galilei.com/stl/cofcc/ Missouri (St. Louis) Chapter]
**[http://www.kinism.net/index.php/weblog/beliefs/ The Kinist Institute Manifesto]
**[http://stlcofcc.wordpress.com/ St. Louis CofCC Blog]
**[http://heritagelost.wordpress.com/ South Carolina Chapter]
**[http://www.cofccne.com/ Massachusetts Chapter]
**[http://www.micofcc.org/ Michigan Chapter]
**[http://micofcc.wordpress.com/ Michigan CofCC Blog]
**[http://members.aol.com/kidrebel777/KidRebel777/ Southeast Missouri]
*[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05023/446341.stm ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'': Jared Taylor, a racist in the guise of 'expert'] January 23, 2005 (Part one of two-part series. Focuses on Taylor but includes information about CofCC).
*[http://www.adl.org/mwd/ccc.asp Summary of newspaper reports of CofCC by Anti-Defamation League] Last updated February 4, 1999.
*[http://www.adl.org/learn/Ext_US/CCCitizens.asp?xpicked=3&item=12 Anti-Defamation League: Extremism in America]
*[http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=487 SPLC's ''Intelligence Report'': Communing with the Council] Fall 2004
*[http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?pid=460 The Neo-Confederates]
*[http://mediamatters.org/items/200505040001 "Christian Science Monitor failed to note Minuteman Project volunteer's white supremacist ties"] by [[MediaMatters]]

{{White nationalism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Council Of Conservative Citizens}}
[[Category:Council of Conservative Citizens| ]]
[[Category:Culture of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Identity politics in the United States]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1988]]
[[Category:Paleoconservatism]]
[[Category:Political organizations in the United States]]
[[Category:Politics of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Right-wing populism]]
[[Category:White nationalists]]
[[Category:White supremacist groups in the United States]]

Wiseguy

2011-12-19T07:43:42Z

Wingman4l7: /* Plot summary */ -- fixed wikilink

{{Unreferenced|date=February 2008}}
{{Infobox Book
|name = Wiseguy
|author = [[Nicholas Pileggi]]
|isbn = 0-671-44734-3
|pub_date = 1986
|genre = [[Novel]]
}}
'''''Wiseguy''''' (ISBN 0-671-44734-3) is a 1986 non-fiction book by crime reporter [[Nicholas Pileggi]] that chronicles the story of Mafia mobster-turned-informant [[Henry Hill]]. The book is the basis for the 1990 movie ''[[Goodfellas]]'' directed by [[Martin Scorsese]].

==Plot summary==
Hill began his life of crime at age 12 in 1955 by working as a go-fer for [[Paul Vario]], the local boss of Hill's working class Irish/Italian neighborhood. Eventually Hill was "promoted" to selling stolen cigarettes for Vario, which he was later caught and arrested for in 1959. Hill refused to cooperate with the police, earning the respect of Vario and Vario's associate [[Jimmy Burke (gangster)|Jimmy Burke]].

In 1960, when Hill was 17, he enlisted in the U.S. Army, to everyone's surprise. When questioned about his decision by Vario, Hill explained that he wanted to please his father, who disapproved of his son's association with the Mafia. While stationed at [[Fort Bragg (North Carolina)|Fort Bragg]] in [[North Carolina]], however, Hill continued his criminal activities, which led to his discharge in 1963. He returned to the streets of [[New York City|New York]], where he was happily welcomed back by Vario and Burke. In 1964, Hill met [[Tommy DeSimone]], a young aspiring gangster with [[psychopathic]] tendencies, and both worked as stick-up men for Vario, hijacking trucks and selling the stolen goods on the street. In 1965 Hill reluctantly joined Lenny Vario, Paul Vario's son, on a double date, where he met Karen Friedman, a young [[Jewish]] girl from the [[Five Towns]] section of New York. The two continued to date and [[eloped]] only four months after meeting. They had their first child, Gregg, in 1966, and a second, Gina, in 1968.

In 1967, Jimmy Burke masterminded [[Air France Robbery (1967)|a robbery of the Air France cargo terminal]] at [[JFK International Airport]]. The heist was carried out by Hill, DeSimone, [[Robert McMahon|Robert "Frenchy" McMahon]], and [[Montague Montemurro]] in April of that year.

In 1969, Hill began an affair with Linda Coppociano behind Karen's back, and bought a restaurant/lounge called The Suite. It was here that on June 11, 1970, Burke and DeSimone murdered [[William Devino|William "Billy Batts" Devino]], a [[made man]] with the Gambino family and a close friend of fellow mobster [[John Gotti]].
{{bio-book-stub}}
[[Category:1986 books]]
[[Category:Non-fiction books about organized crime]]
[[it:Il delitto paga bene]]

Mission Ares

2011-12-18T09:43:40Z

Wingman4l7: /* External links */ -- rm uneeded link

{{Infobox Book|
| name = Voyage
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Voyage Stephen Baxter.jpg|200px]]
| author = [[Stephen Baxter]]
| cover_artist =
| country = [[Great Britain]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Science fiction novel]]
| publisher = [[Voyager Books]] (UK)
| release_date = 21 November 1996
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages = 660 pp (first edition, hardback)
| isbn = ISBN 0-00-224616-3 (first edition, hardback)
| oclc= 54247061
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}
'''''Voyage''''' is a 1996 [[hard science fiction]] novel by [[United Kingdom|British]] author [[Stephen Baxter]]. The book depicts a manned mission to [[Mars]] as it might have been in another timeline, one where [[John F. Kennedy]] survived the assassination attempt on him in 1963. ''Voyage'' won a [[Sidewise Award for Alternate History]], and was nominated for the [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]] in 1997.<ref name="WWE-1997">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1997
| title = 1997 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-08-03
}}</ref> It has since been made into a radio serial for [[BBC Radio 4]].

==Plot summary==

The book tells the story in flashbacks during the actual Mars mission of the chronicalized history until the mission's beginning. The [[Divergence point|point of divergence]] for this alternate timeline happens on [[November 22, 1963]], where [[John F. Kennedy]] survived [[John F. Kennedy assassination| the assassination]] (It is implied that [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] was killed, in the renaming of the [[Kennedy Space Center]] as the Jacqueline B. Kennedy Space Center), but was crippled and thus incapacitated, as [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] is still sworn in. On July 20, 1969, astronauts [[Neil Armstrong]] and Joe Muldoon walk on the moon, and Nixon's "most historic phone call" is joined by a call from former President Kennedy, committing the United States to send a manned mission to [[Mars]], which Nixon backs as part of his fateful decision to decide the future of manned spaceflight, instead of deciding on the [[Space Shuttle]] program as he did in our timeline.

Preparations for this new goal include slashing the number of moon landings so funding and leftover [[Apollo spacecraft]] hardware can go towards the efforts of the manned Mars mission. [[Apollo 12]] still lands, [[Apollo 13]] still suffers its disaster, but [[Apollo 14]] is crewed by the astronauts of the canceled ''[[Apollo 15]]'' mission in order to carry out the [[Apollo 15, Lunar surface|scientific experiments on the lunar surface]], and is the last manned moon landing. At the same time, the [[NERVA]] program is revived to become the chosen Mars spacecraft development, with larger tests in Nevada, but without containment and plagued with engineering problems.

The book centers around chronicling the lives of the future Mars mission astronauts, NASA and contractor personnel all involved helping in making the mission become a reality, and the shifts within NASA's astronaut and management hierarchy throughout the mission's preparations, including female geologist Natalie York's quest to become an astronaut, and her stormy relationships between fellow astronaut Ben Priest and with NERVA engineer Mike Conlig. Other astronauts include Ralph Gershon, a former fighter-bomber pilot involved in illegal bombing missions in Cambodia during the [[Vietnam War]] whose dream is to be the first black man in space, and Phil Stone, a veteran Air Force [[test pilot]]-turned-astronaut who has flown in a long-term stay on a lunar orbital station before the Mars mission.

In the 1970s, the [[Skylab]] Space Station is launched, but apparently as a [[wet workshop]] design that is based on the [[Saturn IB]] [[S-IVB]] upper stage called ''Skylab A''. The [[Saturn V]] that might have launched Skylab in our timeline instead launches ''Skylab B'', a lunar orbit space station unofficially named "Moonlab", also a wet workshop based on the S-IVB. The [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] is instead a series of visits by the [[Apollo Command/Service Module]] to [[Salyut]] space stations, and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] missions to both Skylab and Moonlab. To facilitate the latter, the Soviets finally finish work on their [[N-1 (rocket)|N-1]]. The Skylab/Moonlab programs lead to improvements in the design of the Apollo Command/Service Module. A Block III CSM is produced using battery power in place of fuel cells, followed by the Block IV and V, which had a degree of reusability (modular construction and resistance to salt water [[corrosion]]). Also chronicled is the development of the experimental 'Mars Excursion Module' by small aerospace firm Columbia Aviation as it struggles against larger rival contractors of NASA and its engineers working painstakingly against the technical challenges of a working and reliable Mars lander.

During the [[Reagan Administration]], the Saturn V is upgraded to the Saturn VB, which has numerous improvements, including the use of [[solid rocket boosters]] to double its payload. A test of the NERVA is finally launched atop one of these, called ''Apollo-N'', but suffers from [[pogo oscillations]] in the [[S-IC]] first stage. This damages the NERVA upper stage, which catastrophically fails once fired in orbit; despite returning to Earth safely, the entire crew (including Ben Priest) is killed from [[radiation poisoning]], and the space program nearly collapses from hostile political and public opinion against the use of nuclear power in space, and the seemingly unnecessary risks and reasons of a Mars mission.

In the aftermath, a new Mars mission plan dubbed ''Ares'' is drawn up, utilizing on-orbit assembly of a different long duration Mars-ship using wet-workshop [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn rocket]] components as the propulsion systems as well as a skylab habitat module and [[external tank]]s to hold extra fuel, and performing a [[Venus]] flyby reminiscent of the [[manned Venus flyby]] [[NASA]] planned in the aftermath of the original Apollo program, but done in this timeline for [[Gravity assist|gravitational assistance]], and finally a landing at [[Mangala Valles]] on March 27, 1986.

However, as a side effect, a number of unmanned probes - including the [[Viking program]], [[Pioneer Venus project]], [[Mariner 10]], [[Pioneer 10|Pioneers 10]] and [[Pioneer 11|11]], and the [[Voyager program]] - are cancelled so that their funding can be redirected to the manned Mars mission, although another Mariner orbiter is sent to Mars to help prepare for the manned landing. As a result, although humans walk on Mars, their knowledge of the solar system, including Mars itself, is far less than in reality.

==Characters in "Voyage"==
* ''Natalie York''. An intelligent but [[cynical]] female geologist training to become the first American female astronaut (almost parallel to [[Sally Ride]], but she is never mentioned in the book). 'Ares' Mission Specialist. She seemingly acts as the book's protagonist and a characterized incarnation of Baxter's views of NASA and humanity's destiny in space, an all-knowing archetype character used predominantly in Baxter's other novels.
* ''Phil Stone''. A Former U.S. Air Force test pilot who in this timeline, was the last to fly the [[X-15]] rocket plane and the first pilot to ever recover from a hypersonic spin. He becomes an astronaut following the moon landings to fly the Apollo/Moonlab missions. 'Ares' Mars Mission Commander.
* ''Ralph Gershon''. An [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] pilot once involved in illegal CIA operations in Cambodia during the Vietnam War, and joins NASA afterward to help develop the first Mars lander. 'Ares' MEM (Mars Excursion Module) Pilot.
* ''Ben Priest''. York's love interest and fellow astronaut, flight engineer/LEM-less pilot of the doomed ''Apollo-N'' mission.
* ''Gregory Dana''. Aerospace Engineer and Nazi death-camp survivor, responsible for the redevelopment of the Mars Mission profile.
* ''JK Lee''. Director and Chief Engineer of Columbia Aviation, responsible for building the MEM and very dedicated (if not obsessed) to the task.
* ''Mike Conlig'' In charge of developing the [[NERVA]] engine, and York's estranged boyfriend.
* ''Hans Udet''. NASA director of the Mars project and a big supporter of NERVA, and former Nazi rocket scientist whom Gregory Dana despise for him being the man in charge of the very death camp where Gregory was held at.
* ''Bert Seger''. NASA manager who worked for both Fred Michaels and Joe Muldoon.
* ''Joe Muldoon''. Second man on the Moon (a parallel of [[Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin]]) and a prominent figurehead and manager in the development of the Mars mission.
* ''Chuck Jones''. A [[surly]] astronaut (a parallel of [[Wally Schirra]] and [[Malcolm Scott Carpenter]]) who was the second American to orbit the Earth, Phil Stone's fellow Moonlab veteran, and commander of the doomed ''Apollo-N'' mission.
* ''Fred Michaels''. NASA Administrator from 1969 to 1981, a parallel of [[James E. Webb]].
* ''Jim Dana''. Astronaut, son of Gregory Dana, Command Module Pilot of ''Apollo-N''.
* ''Adam Bleeker''. Astronaut and geologist-in-training, Moonlab veteran and contender for the position of 'Ares' Mission Specialist along with Natalie York, but taken off flight status due to concerns about cumulative radiation exposure from long duration space missions.
* ''Vladimir Viktorenko''. Cosmonaut, Apollo/Soyuz/Moonlab veteran and friend of Joe Muldoon and Natalie York.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rrbvM5HuQRE Animation based in descriptions from the book, using Orbiter Space Flight Simulator]

{{Baxter}}

[[Category:1996 novels]]
[[Category:Alternate history novels]]
[[Category:1990s science fiction novels]]
[[Category:British science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Sidewise Award winners]]
[[Category:Novels by Stephen Baxter]]
[[Category:Mars in fiction]]

[[fr:Voyage (roman, 1996)]]

Mission Ares

2011-12-18T09:40:50Z

Wingman4l7: /* Plot summary */ -- removed capitalization on wikilinks

{{Infobox Book|
| name = Voyage
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Voyage Stephen Baxter.jpg|200px]]
| author = [[Stephen Baxter]]
| cover_artist =
| country = [[Great Britain]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Science fiction novel]]
| publisher = [[Voyager Books]] (UK)
| release_date = 21 November 1996
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages = 660 pp (first edition, hardback)
| isbn = ISBN 0-00-224616-3 (first edition, hardback)
| oclc= 54247061
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}
'''''Voyage''''' is a 1996 [[hard science fiction]] novel by [[United Kingdom|British]] author [[Stephen Baxter]]. The book depicts a manned mission to [[Mars]] as it might have been in another timeline, one where [[John F. Kennedy]] survived the assassination attempt on him in 1963. ''Voyage'' won a [[Sidewise Award for Alternate History]], and was nominated for the [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]] in 1997.<ref name="WWE-1997">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1997
| title = 1997 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-08-03
}}</ref> It has since been made into a radio serial for [[BBC Radio 4]].

==Plot summary==

The book tells the story in flashbacks during the actual Mars mission of the chronicalized history until the mission's beginning. The [[Divergence point|point of divergence]] for this alternate timeline happens on [[November 22, 1963]], where [[John F. Kennedy]] survived [[John F. Kennedy assassination| the assassination]] (It is implied that [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] was killed, in the renaming of the [[Kennedy Space Center]] as the Jacqueline B. Kennedy Space Center), but was crippled and thus incapacitated, as [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] is still sworn in. On July 20, 1969, astronauts [[Neil Armstrong]] and Joe Muldoon walk on the moon, and Nixon's "most historic phone call" is joined by a call from former President Kennedy, committing the United States to send a manned mission to [[Mars]], which Nixon backs as part of his fateful decision to decide the future of manned spaceflight, instead of deciding on the [[Space Shuttle]] program as he did in our timeline.

Preparations for this new goal include slashing the number of moon landings so funding and leftover [[Apollo spacecraft]] hardware can go towards the efforts of the manned Mars mission. [[Apollo 12]] still lands, [[Apollo 13]] still suffers its disaster, but [[Apollo 14]] is crewed by the astronauts of the canceled ''[[Apollo 15]]'' mission in order to carry out the [[Apollo 15, Lunar surface|scientific experiments on the lunar surface]], and is the last manned moon landing. At the same time, the [[NERVA]] program is revived to become the chosen Mars spacecraft development, with larger tests in Nevada, but without containment and plagued with engineering problems.

The book centers around chronicling the lives of the future Mars mission astronauts, NASA and contractor personnel all involved helping in making the mission become a reality, and the shifts within NASA's astronaut and management hierarchy throughout the mission's preparations, including female geologist Natalie York's quest to become an astronaut, and her stormy relationships between fellow astronaut Ben Priest and with NERVA engineer Mike Conlig. Other astronauts include Ralph Gershon, a former fighter-bomber pilot involved in illegal bombing missions in Cambodia during the [[Vietnam War]] whose dream is to be the first black man in space, and Phil Stone, a veteran Air Force [[test pilot]]-turned-astronaut who has flown in a long-term stay on a lunar orbital station before the Mars mission.

In the 1970s, the [[Skylab]] Space Station is launched, but apparently as a [[wet workshop]] design that is based on the [[Saturn IB]] [[S-IVB]] upper stage called ''Skylab A''. The [[Saturn V]] that might have launched Skylab in our timeline instead launches ''Skylab B'', a lunar orbit space station unofficially named "Moonlab", also a wet workshop based on the S-IVB. The [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] is instead a series of visits by the [[Apollo Command/Service Module]] to [[Salyut]] space stations, and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] missions to both Skylab and Moonlab. To facilitate the latter, the Soviets finally finish work on their [[N-1 (rocket)|N-1]]. The Skylab/Moonlab programs lead to improvements in the design of the Apollo Command/Service Module. A Block III CSM is produced using battery power in place of fuel cells, followed by the Block IV and V, which had a degree of reusability (modular construction and resistance to salt water [[corrosion]]). Also chronicled is the development of the experimental 'Mars Excursion Module' by small aerospace firm Columbia Aviation as it struggles against larger rival contractors of NASA and its engineers working painstakingly against the technical challenges of a working and reliable Mars lander.

During the [[Reagan Administration]], the Saturn V is upgraded to the Saturn VB, which has numerous improvements, including the use of [[solid rocket boosters]] to double its payload. A test of the NERVA is finally launched atop one of these, called ''Apollo-N'', but suffers from [[pogo oscillations]] in the [[S-IC]] first stage. This damages the NERVA upper stage, which catastrophically fails once fired in orbit; despite returning to Earth safely, the entire crew (including Ben Priest) is killed from [[radiation poisoning]], and the space program nearly collapses from hostile political and public opinion against the use of nuclear power in space, and the seemingly unnecessary risks and reasons of a Mars mission.

In the aftermath, a new Mars mission plan dubbed ''Ares'' is drawn up, utilizing on-orbit assembly of a different long duration Mars-ship using wet-workshop [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn rocket]] components as the propulsion systems as well as a skylab habitat module and [[external tank]]s to hold extra fuel, and performing a [[Venus]] flyby reminiscent of the [[manned Venus flyby]] [[NASA]] planned in the aftermath of the original Apollo program, but done in this timeline for [[Gravity assist|gravitational assistance]], and finally a landing at [[Mangala Valles]] on March 27, 1986.

However, as a side effect, a number of unmanned probes - including the [[Viking program]], [[Pioneer Venus project]], [[Mariner 10]], [[Pioneer 10|Pioneers 10]] and [[Pioneer 11|11]], and the [[Voyager program]] - are cancelled so that their funding can be redirected to the manned Mars mission, although another Mariner orbiter is sent to Mars to help prepare for the manned landing. As a result, although humans walk on Mars, their knowledge of the solar system, including Mars itself, is far less than in reality.

==Characters in "Voyage"==
* ''Natalie York''. An intelligent but [[cynical]] female geologist training to become the first American female astronaut (almost parallel to [[Sally Ride]], but she is never mentioned in the book). 'Ares' Mission Specialist. She seemingly acts as the book's protagonist and a characterized incarnation of Baxter's views of NASA and humanity's destiny in space, an all-knowing archetype character used predominantly in Baxter's other novels.
* ''Phil Stone''. A Former U.S. Air Force test pilot who in this timeline, was the last to fly the [[X-15]] rocket plane and the first pilot to ever recover from a hypersonic spin. He becomes an astronaut following the moon landings to fly the Apollo/Moonlab missions. 'Ares' Mars Mission Commander.
* ''Ralph Gershon''. An [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] pilot once involved in illegal CIA operations in Cambodia during the Vietnam War, and joins NASA afterward to help develop the first Mars lander. 'Ares' MEM (Mars Excursion Module) Pilot.
* ''Ben Priest''. York's love interest and fellow astronaut, flight engineer/LEM-less pilot of the doomed ''Apollo-N'' mission.
* ''Gregory Dana''. Aerospace Engineer and Nazi death-camp survivor, responsible for the redevelopment of the Mars Mission profile.
* ''JK Lee''. Director and Chief Engineer of Columbia Aviation, responsible for building the MEM and very dedicated (if not obsessed) to the task.
* ''Mike Conlig'' In charge of developing the [[NERVA]] engine, and York's estranged boyfriend.
* ''Hans Udet''. NASA director of the Mars project and a big supporter of NERVA, and former Nazi rocket scientist whom Gregory Dana despise for him being the man in charge of the very death camp where Gregory was held at.
* ''Bert Seger''. NASA manager who worked for both Fred Michaels and Joe Muldoon.
* ''Joe Muldoon''. Second man on the Moon (a parallel of [[Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin]]) and a prominent figurehead and manager in the development of the Mars mission.
* ''Chuck Jones''. A [[surly]] astronaut (a parallel of [[Wally Schirra]] and [[Malcolm Scott Carpenter]]) who was the second American to orbit the Earth, Phil Stone's fellow Moonlab veteran, and commander of the doomed ''Apollo-N'' mission.
* ''Fred Michaels''. NASA Administrator from 1969 to 1981, a parallel of [[James E. Webb]].
* ''Jim Dana''. Astronaut, son of Gregory Dana, Command Module Pilot of ''Apollo-N''.
* ''Adam Bleeker''. Astronaut and geologist-in-training, Moonlab veteran and contender for the position of 'Ares' Mission Specialist along with Natalie York, but taken off flight status due to concerns about cumulative radiation exposure from long duration space missions.
* ''Vladimir Viktorenko''. Cosmonaut, Apollo/Soyuz/Moonlab veteran and friend of Joe Muldoon and Natalie York.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.worldswithoutend.com/novel.asp?ID=605 Voyage] Voyage
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rrbvM5HuQRE Animation based in descriptions from the book, using Orbiter Space Flight Simulator]

{{Baxter}}

[[Category:1996 novels]]
[[Category:Alternate history novels]]
[[Category:1990s science fiction novels]]
[[Category:British science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Sidewise Award winners]]
[[Category:Novels by Stephen Baxter]]
[[Category:Mars in fiction]]

[[fr:Voyage (roman, 1996)]]

Mission Ares

2011-12-18T09:04:25Z

Wingman4l7: /* Plot summary */ -- removed capitalization on wikilink

{{Infobox Book|
| name = Voyage
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Voyage Stephen Baxter.jpg|200px]]
| author = [[Stephen Baxter]]
| cover_artist =
| country = [[Great Britain]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Science fiction novel]]
| publisher = [[Voyager Books]] (UK)
| release_date = 21 November 1996
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages = 660 pp (first edition, hardback)
| isbn = ISBN 0-00-224616-3 (first edition, hardback)
| oclc= 54247061
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}
'''''Voyage''''' is a 1996 [[hard science fiction]] novel by [[United Kingdom|British]] author [[Stephen Baxter]]. The book depicts a manned mission to [[Mars]] as it might have been in another timeline, one where [[John F. Kennedy]] survived the assassination attempt on him in 1963. ''Voyage'' won a [[Sidewise Award for Alternate History]], and was nominated for the [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]] in 1997.<ref name="WWE-1997">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1997
| title = 1997 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-08-03
}}</ref> It has since been made into a radio serial for [[BBC Radio 4]].

==Plot summary==

The book tells the story in flashbacks during the actual Mars mission of the chronicalized history until the mission's beginning. The [[Divergence point|point of divergence]] for this alternate timeline happens on [[November 22, 1963]], where [[John F. Kennedy]] survived [[John F. Kennedy assassination| the assassination]] (It is implied that [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] was killed, in the renaming of the [[Kennedy Space Center]] as the Jacqueline B. Kennedy Space Center), but was crippled and thus incapacitated, as [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] is still sworn in. On July 20, 1969, astronauts [[Neil Armstrong]] and Joe Muldoon walk on the moon, and Nixon's "most historic phone call" is joined by a call from former President Kennedy, committing the United States to send a manned mission to [[Mars]], which Nixon backs as part of his fateful decision to decide the future of manned spaceflight, instead of deciding on the [[Space Shuttle]] program as he did in our timeline.

Preparations for this new goal include slashing the number of moon landings so funding and leftover [[Apollo spacecraft]] hardware can go towards the efforts of the manned Mars mission. [[Apollo 12]] still lands, [[Apollo 13]] still suffers its disaster, but [[Apollo 14]] is crewed by the astronauts of the canceled ''[[Apollo 15]]'' mission in order to carry out the [[Apollo 15, Lunar surface|scientific experiments on the lunar surface]], and is the last manned moon landing. At the same time, the [[NERVA]] program is revived to become the chosen Mars spacecraft development, with larger tests in Nevada, but without containment and plagued with engineering problems.

The book centers around chronicling the lives of the future Mars mission astronauts, NASA and contractor personnel all involved helping in making the mission become a reality, and the shifts within NASA's astronaut and management hierarchy throughout the mission's preparations, including female geologist Natalie York's quest to become an astronaut, and her stormy relationships between fellow astronaut Ben Priest and with NERVA engineer Mike Conlig. Other astronauts include Ralph Gershon, a former fighter-bomber pilot involved in illegal bombing missions in Cambodia during the [[Vietnam War]] whose dream is to be the first black man in space, and Phil Stone, a veteran Air Force [[test pilot]]-turned-astronaut who has flown in a long-term stay on a lunar orbital station before the Mars mission.

In the 1970s, the [[Skylab]] Space Station is launched, but apparently as a [[wet workshop]] design that is based on the [[Saturn IB]] [[S-IVB]] upper stage called ''Skylab A''. The [[Saturn V]] that might have launched Skylab in our timeline instead launches ''Skylab B'', a lunar orbit space station unofficially named "Moonlab", also a wet workshop based on the S-IVB. The [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] is instead a series of visits by the [[Apollo Command/Service Module]] to [[Salyut]] space stations, and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] missions to both Skylab and Moonlab. To facilitate the latter, the Soviets finally finish work on their [[N-1 (rocket)|N-1]]. The Skylab/Moonlab programs lead to improvements in the design of the Apollo Command/Service Module. A Block III CSM is produced using battery power in place of fuel cells, followed by the Block IV and V, which had a degree of reusability (modular construction and resistance to salt water [[corrosion]]). Also chronicled is the development of the experimental 'Mars Excursion Module' by small aerospace firm Columbia Aviation as it struggles against larger rival contractors of NASA and its engineers working painstakingly against the technical challenges of a working and reliable Mars lander.

During the [[Reagan Administration]], the Saturn V is upgraded to the Saturn VB, which has numerous improvements, including the use of [[Solid Rocket Boosters]] to double its payload. A test of the NERVA is finally launched atop one of these, called ''Apollo-N'', but suffers from [[pogo oscillations]] in the [[S-IC]] first stage. This damages the NERVA upper stage, which catastrophically fails once fired in orbit; despite returning to Earth safely, the entire crew (including Ben Priest) is killed from [[radiation poisoning]], and the space program nearly collapses from hostile political and public opinion against the use of nuclear power in space, and the seemingly unnecessary risks and reasons of a Mars mission.

In the aftermath, a new Mars mission plan dubbed ''Ares'' is drawn up, utilizing on-orbit assembly of a different long duration Mars-ship using wet-workshop [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn rocket]] components as the propulsion systems as well as a skylab habitat module and [[external tank]]s to hold extra fuel, and performing a [[Venus]] flyby reminiscent of the [[Manned Venus Flyby]] [[NASA]] planned in the aftermath of the original Apollo program, but done in this timeline for [[Gravity assist|gravitational assistance]], and finally a landing at [[Mangala Valles]] on March 27, 1986.

However, as a side effect, a number of unmanned probes - including the [[Viking program]], [[Pioneer Venus project]], [[Mariner 10]], [[Pioneer 10|Pioneers 10]] and [[Pioneer 11|11]], and the [[Voyager program]] - are cancelled so that their funding can be redirected to the manned Mars mission, although another Mariner orbiter is sent to Mars to help prepare for the manned landing. As a result, although humans walk on Mars, paradoxically knowledge of the solar system, including Mars itself, is far less than in reality.

==Characters in "Voyage"==
* ''Natalie York''. An intelligent but [[cynical]] female geologist training to become the first American female astronaut (almost parallel to [[Sally Ride]], but she is never mentioned in the book). 'Ares' Mission Specialist. She seemingly acts as the book's protagonist and a characterized incarnation of Baxter's views of NASA and humanity's destiny in space, an all-knowing archetype character used predominantly in Baxter's other novels.
* ''Phil Stone''. A Former U.S. Air Force test pilot who in this timeline, was the last to fly the [[X-15]] rocket plane and the first pilot to ever recover from a hypersonic spin. He becomes an astronaut following the moon landings to fly the Apollo/Moonlab missions. 'Ares' Mars Mission Commander.
* ''Ralph Gershon''. An [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] pilot once involved in illegal CIA operations in Cambodia during the Vietnam War, and joins NASA afterward to help develop the first Mars lander. 'Ares' MEM (Mars Excursion Module) Pilot.
* ''Ben Priest''. York's love interest and fellow astronaut, flight engineer/LEM-less pilot of the doomed ''Apollo-N'' mission.
* ''Gregory Dana''. Aerospace Engineer and Nazi death-camp survivor, responsible for the redevelopment of the Mars Mission profile.
* ''JK Lee''. Director and Chief Engineer of Columbia Aviation, responsible for building the MEM and very dedicated (if not obsessed) to the task.
* ''Mike Conlig'' In charge of developing the [[NERVA]] engine, and York's estranged boyfriend.
* ''Hans Udet''. NASA director of the Mars project and a big supporter of NERVA, and former Nazi rocket scientist whom Gregory Dana despise for him being the man in charge of the very death camp where Gregory was held at.
* ''Bert Seger''. NASA manager who worked for both Fred Michaels and Joe Muldoon.
* ''Joe Muldoon''. Second man on the Moon (a parallel of [[Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin]]) and a prominent figurehead and manager in the development of the Mars mission.
* ''Chuck Jones''. A [[surly]] astronaut (a parallel of [[Wally Schirra]] and [[Malcolm Scott Carpenter]]) who was the second American to orbit the Earth, Phil Stone's fellow Moonlab veteran, and commander of the doomed ''Apollo-N'' mission.
* ''Fred Michaels''. NASA Administrator from 1969 to 1981, a parallel of [[James E. Webb]].
* ''Jim Dana''. Astronaut, son of Gregory Dana, Command Module Pilot of ''Apollo-N''.
* ''Adam Bleeker''. Astronaut and geologist-in-training, Moonlab veteran and contender for the position of 'Ares' Mission Specialist along with Natalie York, but taken off flight status due to concerns about cumulative radiation exposure from long duration space missions.
* ''Vladimir Viktorenko''. Cosmonaut, Apollo/Soyuz/Moonlab veteran and friend of Joe Muldoon and Natalie York.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.worldswithoutend.com/novel.asp?ID=605 Voyage] Voyage
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rrbvM5HuQRE Animation based in descriptions from the book, using Orbiter Space Flight Simulator]

{{Baxter}}

[[Category:1996 novels]]
[[Category:Alternate history novels]]
[[Category:1990s science fiction novels]]
[[Category:British science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Sidewise Award winners]]
[[Category:Novels by Stephen Baxter]]
[[Category:Mars in fiction]]

[[fr:Voyage (roman, 1996)]]

Benutzer:D1rkW4ll/Jezail

2011-12-11T09:50:18Z

Wingman4l7: /* The jezail in British literature */ -- modified reference

[[File:Jezail.jpg|thumb|200px|Jezail musket]]The '''jezail''' (Sometimes ''Jezzail'' from the [[Pashto language]]) was a simple, cost-efficient and often hand-made [[muzzle-loading]] long arm commonly used in [[British India]], [[Central Asia]] and parts of the [[Middle East]] in the past.

==Features==
[[File:Mir Alam of Kohistan region in Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|upright|Lithograph dated during the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] of a [[Kohistani]] and his jezail.]]
Jezails were generally hand made weapons, and consequently they varied quite a bit in their construction. Jezails were seen as very personal weapons, and unlike the typical military weapons of the time which were very plain and utilitarian, jezails tended to be very well crafted and were usually very beautifully and artistically decorated.

Jezails tended to have very long barrels. These sorts of long weapons were never common in Europe, and only were otherwise seen in American rifles like the [[Kentucky Rifle]]. The American rifles were used for hunting, and tended to be of a smaller caliber (.35 to .45 or so being typical). Jezails were usually designed for military use, and therefore tended to be of larger calibers than the American rifles, with .50 to .75 caliber and larger being common. Larger calibers were possible because the long length of the typical jezail meant that it was heavier than typical muskets of the time. Jezails typically weighed around 12 to 14 pounds, compared to 9 to 10 pounds for a typical musket. The heavy weight of the jezail allowed it to absorb more force from the round, imparting less recoil to the weapon's user.

Many jezails were smooth bore weapons, but some had their barrels rifled. The rifling, combined with the barrel's long length, made these weapons very accurate for their time. The long barrel made reloading easier from horseback, as the butt stock would rest upon the ground while the muzzle would be at eye level.

The firing mechanism was typically either a [[matchlock]] or a [[flintlock]]. Since flintlock mechanisms were complex and difficult to manufacture, many jezails used the lock mechanism from stolen or broken [[Brown Bess]] muskets.

The stocks were hand made and were very ornately decorated. Jezail stocks also featured a very distinctive curve which is not seen in the stocks of other muskets. The exact function of this curve is debated. Some say that it is purely decorative in nature. Others say that the curve of the stock allowed it to be tucked under the arm and cradled tightly against the body, as opposed to being held to the shoulder like a typical musket or rifle. The argument against this method of firing is that the flash pan would be dangerously close to the face and the weapon would be harder to aim. It is more likely that the rifle was only tucked under the arm of the rider whilst riding horse or camel. It has also been stated that the weapon was fired by grasping the stock near the trigger, like a pistol, while the curved portion is tucked under the firers forearm. This allowed the rifle to be fired with one hand while mounted.

Jezails were often fired from a forked rest, or a horn or metal bi-pod.

==The jezail in the Anglo-Afghan Wars==
[[File:Group of Afridi fighters in 1878.jpg|thumb|Group of [[Afridi]] fighters in 1878, pictured with their jezails, during the [[Second Afghan War]].]]
During this period the jezail was the primary ranged weapon of Afghan warriors and was used with great effect against British troops. British Brown Bess smoothbore muskets were effective at only 150 yards and accurate at 50 yards. Because of their advantage in range, Afghan rebels typically used the jezail from the tops of cliffs along valleys and [[defile (geography)|defile]]s during ambushes. This tactic repeatedly devastated the British during their [[Massacre of Elphinstone's Army|doomed retreat]] from [[Kabul]] to [[Jalalabad]]. Despite the advantages over the Brown Bess, British forces were typically able to defeat jezail armed Afghans when they fought on relatively flat terrain.

In the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] the British established a [[cantonment]] outside of Kabul with dirt walls approximately waist high. Surrounding the cantonment were several abandoned forts which, although out of range of British muskets, were close enough for jezail fire. When [[ghazi warriors|ghazi]] and other Afghan forces besieged Kabul and the cantonment, they occupied the forts and used them to snipe British forces from a safe range.

A description from the [[British Library]] dating to the First Anglo-Afghan War:<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019xzz000000562u00012000.html Ko-i-staun foot soldiery in summer costume (lithograph, British Library)]</ref>
{{Quotation|Afghan snipers were expert marksmen and their juzzails fired roughened bullets, long iron nails or even pebbles over a range of some 250 metres. The Afghans could fling the large rifles across their shoulders as if they were feathers and spring nimbly from rock to rock. They loved to decorate their rifles: [Lieutenant James] Rattray writes of finding one adorned with human teeth.}}

==The jezail in British literature==
The jezail is most famous, at least in Western literature, as the weapon which wounded [[Dr. Watson]]—the fictional biographer of the fictional detective [[Sherlock Holmes]]—in the [[Battle of Maiwand]] during his military service in Afghanistan. In [[A Study in Scarlet]] Watson mentions being wounded in the shoulder.<ref>Doyle, Arthur Conan. A Study in Scarlet, 1887</ref> However, in [[The Sign of the Four]] Watson gives the location of the wound as in his leg.<ref>Doyle, Arthur Conan. The Sign of the Four, 1890</ref> In [[The Noble Bachelor]] Watson refers to the Jezail bullet being "in one of my limbs." These discrepancies have caused debate by Sherlock Holmes fans about which of these locations is the "correct" location of the wound.

The jezail is mentioned repeatedly in some of Wilbur Smith's books, most notably "Monsoon".

The jezail was also mentioned in the [[George MacDonald Fraser]] adventure ''[[Flashman (novel)|Flashman]]'', whose protagonist describes the awful slaughter of British Army troops retreating from [[Kabul]] to [[Jalalabad]] by Afghan jezailchis.

It is used as a metaphor of a cheap weapon in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poetry describing British casualties in colonial wars:
:''A scrimmage in a Border Station''
:''A canter down some dark defile''
:''Two thousand pounds of education''
:''Drops to a ten-rupee jezail.''

[[P.G.Wodehouse]] in "The Little Warrior" (1920, English title "Jill the reckless") describes how the character Uncle Chris, in India during his first hill-campaign, would "walk up and down in front of his men under a desultory shower of jezail-bullets".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wodehouse |first=P.G. |title=The Little Warrior |year=1920 |chapter=XX, part 3}}</ref>

==Contemporary use==
The jezail no longer sees widespread use in warfare of any nature. Limited numbers were, however, used by Afghan Militia during the [[Soviet War in Afghanistan]]. Derivatives of the jezail, barely recognizable, and usually termed 'country-made weapons', are in use in rural India - especially in the state of Uttar Pradesh.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* Tanner, Stephen, (2002) ''Afghanistan: A Military History From Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban'', Da Capo Press, ISBN 0-306-81233-9
* "Firearms of the Islamic world in the Tareq Rajab Museum, Kuwait" By Robert Elgood

[[Category:Muskets]]
[[Category:18th-century weapons]]
[[Category:Weapons of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Rifles of Pakistan]]

[[it:Jezail]]

Dritte Kaffeewelle

2011-11-27T05:22:51Z

Wingman4l7: /* History of term */ -- marked up reference

[[File:Coffee berries, fresh-001.png|thumb|'''Third Wave Coffee''' treats coffee beans as an artisanal ingredient and seeks to convey the flavor in the brewed coffee.]]

The '''Third Wave of Coffee''' refers to a current movement to produce high-quality [[coffee]], and consider coffee as an artisanal foodstuff, like [[wine]], rather than a commodity, like [[wheat]]. This involves improvements at all stages of production, from improving coffee bean growing, harvesting, and processing, to stronger relationships between coffee growers and coffee traders and roasters, to higher quality and fresh roasting, at times called '''microroasting''' (by analogy with [[microbrew]] beer), to skilled brewing.

Third Wave Coffee aspires to the highest form of culinary appreciation of coffee, so that one may appreciate subtleties of flavor, bean varietal, and growing region – similar to other complex culinary products such as wine, tea, and chocolate. Distinctive features of Third Wave Coffee include [[direct trade]] coffee, high-quality beans (see [[specialty coffee]] for scale), [[single-origin coffee]] (as opposed to blends), lighter roasts of the beans, and [[latte art]]. It also sometimes includes naked [[portafilter]]s, and revivals of alternative methods of [[coffee preparation]], such as [[Vacuum coffee maker|vacuum coffee]] (sometimes called "siphon") and individual [[drip brew]].

The term "Third Wave" was coined in 2002, and refers narrowly to an American phenomenon, particularly from the 1990s and continuing today, but with some roots in the 1980s, 1970s, and 1960s. Similar movements exist in the United Kingdom, [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Scandinavia]]. More broadly, Third Wave Coffee can be seen as part of the [[specialty coffee]] movement.

==History of term==
Trish Rothgeb (formerly Skeie) of [http://www.wreckingballcoffee.com/ Wrecking Ball Coffee Roasters] first wrote about the Third Wave of Coffee in a November 2002 article<ref>[http://timwendelboe.no/uploads/the-flamekeeper-2003.pdf ''Norway and Coffee'', The Flamekeeper, Spring 2003]</ref> of [http://www.roastersguild.org/flamekeeper.html The Flamekeeper], a newsletter of the Roaster's Guild, a trade guild of the [[Specialty Coffee Association|Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Nicholas Cho of [http://www.murkycoffee.com/ Murky Coffee] further defined the Third Wave of Coffee in an often-referenced online article<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://coffeegeek.com/opinions/bgafiles/04-02-2005/ |title=The BGA and the Third Wave |work=CoffeeGeek |date=April 1, 2005 |author=Nicholas Cho}}</ref> and earlier in his interview in March 2005 on [[National Public Radio]]'s ''[[All Things Considered]]'' program.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4530264 |title=Coffee Barista Preps for National Competition |work=NPR |date=March 10, 2005 |author=Stuart Cohen}}</ref> More recently, the third wave of coffee has been chronicled by publications such as ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/29/fashion/29Cuppings.html |title=Do I Detect a Hint of ... Joe? |work=The New York Times |date=May 29, 2008 |author=Hannah Wallace}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2008/03/09/travel/09foraging.html |title=Los Angeles: Intelligentsia |work=The New York Times |date=March 9, 2008 |author=Gregory Dicum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/26/nyregion/thecity/26coff.html |title=Bean Town |work=The New York Times |date=October 24, 2008 |author=Ted Botha}}</ref> ''[[LA Weekly]]'',<ref name="LAWeekly_2008-12-03">{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2008-03-13/eat-drink/the-latest-buzz |title=La Mill: The Latest Buzz |work=LA Weekly |date=March 12, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2009-01-01/eat-drink/the-10-best-dishes-of-2008 |title=The 10 Best Dishes of 2008 |work=LA Weekly |date=December 31, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2008-08-21/eat-drink/palate-food-amp-wine-charcuterie-that-39-s-a-cut-above |title=Tierra Mia Explores Coffee for the Latino Palate |work=LA Weekly |date=August 20, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref> ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/features/food/la-fo-roast102506,0,1608401.story |title=Artisans of the roast |work=Los Angeles Times |date=October 25, 2006 |author=Amy Scattergood}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/15/business/fi-smallbiz15 |title=Coffeehouse Serves the Latino Community |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 15, 2008 |author=Cyndia Zwahlen}}</ref> ''[[La Opinión]]''<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.impre.com/negocios-finanzas/2008/9/7/cafe-gourmet-pese-a-la-crisis-79359-1.html |title=Cafe Gourmet Pese La Crisis |work=La Opinion |date=September 7, 2008 |author=Yolanda Arenales |language=Spanish}}</ref> and ''[[The Guardian]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2009/mar/16/best-barista-britain-coffee |title=It’s the third wave of coffee! |work=The Guardian |date=March 16, 2009 |author=Stuart Jeffries}}</ref>

In March 2008, [[Pulitzer Prize for Criticism|Pulitzer Prize]] winning food critic [[Jonathan Gold]] of the ''LA Weekly'' defined the third wave of coffee by saying:

{{Blockquote|The first wave of American coffee culture was probably the 19th-century surge that put [[Folgers]] on every table, and the second was the proliferation, starting in the 1960s at [[Peet's Coffee & Tea|Peet's]] and moving smartly through the [[Starbucks]] grande decaf latte, of espresso drinks and regionally labeled coffee. We are now in the third wave of coffee connoisseurship, where beans are sourced from farms instead of countries, roasting is about bringing out rather than incinerating the unique characteristics of each bean, and the flavor is clean and hard and pure.<ref name="LAWeekly_2008-12-03"/>}}

The earlier term "[[specialty coffee]]" was coined in 1974, and refers narrowly to high-quality beans scoring 80 points or more on a 100-point scale.

==By region==
=== United States ===
In the US, the market is very diverse. Most Third Wave Coffee is served in independently owned and operated coffee shops, with few chains, none large. There are a large number of roasters, often available via mail order, and some stand-alone coffee shops or small chains roast their own coffee; compare [[brewpub]]. There are a few larger businesses, more prominent in roasting than in operating – the "[[Big Three]] of Third Wave Coffee"<ref>[http://www.portafilter.net/2009/12/decades-top-ten-in-specialty-coffee.html The Decade's Top Ten in Specialty Coffee], Nick Cho, Dec 31 2009; also references Michaele Weissman's "God in a Cup", which features the group collectively.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.salon.com/mwt/food/eat_drink/2008/06/30/coffee/index1.html |title=Good to the last drop |date=June 30, 2008 |author=Monica Bhide |work=[[Salon.com|Salon]]}} Elaborates that these three were widely cited in the industry as most influential.</ref> are commonly held to be [[Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea]] of Chicago, Illinois; [[Stumptown Coffee Roasters]] of Portland, Oregon; and [http://www.counterculturecoffee.com/ Counter Culture Coffee] of North Carolina, all of which engage in [[direct trade]] sourcing. Intelligentsia has 6 bars – 3 in Chicago, 3 in Los Angeles, together with 1 "lab" in New York, while Stumptown has 8 bars – 5 bars in Portland, 2 in Seattle, and 1 in New York. By comparison, [[Starbucks]] has well over 10,000 locations.

====Earlier history====
Important earlier influences are [[Peet's Coffee & Tea]] of [[Berkeley, California]], which in the late 1960s began artisanal sourcing, roasting, and blending, and the Seattle coffee scene of the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, which saw the birth of artisanal American espresso bars, and led to nationwide chains, notably Starbucks, which are retrospectively titled "Second Wave". (Peet's primarily retails beans for home brewing, features dark roasts, and did not serve espresso until 1984.) These in turn were predated by [[Italian American]] espresso bars, primarily serving immigrant communities, and 19th century "First Wave" coffee importers.

Another important event was the 1982 foundation of the [[Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Other early importers include Dallis Coffee (founded 1980s) and [[The Coffee Connection]] of Boston (founded 1974, following influence by Peet's).<ref>[http://www.terroircoffee.com/about/george/ All About George]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite news
| issn = 0040-718X
| title = Is Stumptown the New Starbucks — or Better?
| work = Time
| accessdate = 2010-04-07
| date = 2010-03-09
| url = http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1970653,00.html
| first=Josh
| last=Ozersky
}}
* {{ Citation | title = The Cappuccino Conquests. The Transnational History of Italian Coffee | first = Jonathan | last = Morris | year = 2007 | url = http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-report.pdf | postscript = , [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/ website], [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-summary.pdf summary]}}
{{Refend}}

[[Category:Coffee_culture]]

Dritte Kaffeewelle

2011-11-27T05:21:20Z

Wingman4l7: /* History of term */ -- rm apostrophes

[[File:Coffee berries, fresh-001.png|thumb|'''Third Wave Coffee''' treats coffee beans as an artisanal ingredient and seeks to convey the flavor in the brewed coffee.]]

The '''Third Wave of Coffee''' refers to a current movement to produce high-quality [[coffee]], and consider coffee as an artisanal foodstuff, like [[wine]], rather than a commodity, like [[wheat]]. This involves improvements at all stages of production, from improving coffee bean growing, harvesting, and processing, to stronger relationships between coffee growers and coffee traders and roasters, to higher quality and fresh roasting, at times called '''microroasting''' (by analogy with [[microbrew]] beer), to skilled brewing.

Third Wave Coffee aspires to the highest form of culinary appreciation of coffee, so that one may appreciate subtleties of flavor, bean varietal, and growing region – similar to other complex culinary products such as wine, tea, and chocolate. Distinctive features of Third Wave Coffee include [[direct trade]] coffee, high-quality beans (see [[specialty coffee]] for scale), [[single-origin coffee]] (as opposed to blends), lighter roasts of the beans, and [[latte art]]. It also sometimes includes naked [[portafilter]]s, and revivals of alternative methods of [[coffee preparation]], such as [[Vacuum coffee maker|vacuum coffee]] (sometimes called "siphon") and individual [[drip brew]].

The term "Third Wave" was coined in 2002, and refers narrowly to an American phenomenon, particularly from the 1990s and continuing today, but with some roots in the 1980s, 1970s, and 1960s. Similar movements exist in the United Kingdom, [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Scandinavia]]. More broadly, Third Wave Coffee can be seen as part of the [[specialty coffee]] movement.

==History of term==
Trish Rothgeb (formerly Skeie) of [http://www.wreckingballcoffee.com/ Wrecking Ball Coffee Roasters] first wrote about the Third Wave of Coffee in a November 2002 article<ref>[http://timwendelboe.no/uploads/the-flamekeeper-2003.pdf ''Norway and Coffee'', The Flamekeeper, Spring 2003]</ref> of [http://www.roastersguild.org/flamekeeper.html The Flamekeeper], a newsletter of the Roaster's Guild, a trade guild of the [[Specialty Coffee Association|Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Nicholas Cho of [http://www.murkycoffee.com/ Murky Coffee] further defined the Third Wave of Coffee in an often-referenced online article<ref>[http://coffeegeek.com/opinions/bgafiles/04-02-2005/ "The BGA and the Third Wave", CoffeeGeek.com, April 1, 2005]</ref> and earlier in his interview in March 2005 on [[National Public Radio]]'s ''[[All Things Considered]]'' program.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4530264 |title=Coffee Barista Preps for National Competition |work=NPR |date=March 10, 2005 |author=Stuart Cohen}}</ref> More recently, the third wave of coffee has been chronicled by publications such as ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/29/fashion/29Cuppings.html |title=Do I Detect a Hint of ... Joe? |work=The New York Times |date=May 29, 2008 |author=Hannah Wallace}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2008/03/09/travel/09foraging.html |title=Los Angeles: Intelligentsia |work=The New York Times |date=March 9, 2008 |author=Gregory Dicum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/26/nyregion/thecity/26coff.html |title=Bean Town |work=The New York Times |date=October 24, 2008 |author=Ted Botha}}</ref> ''[[LA Weekly]]'',<ref name="LAWeekly_2008-12-03">{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2008-03-13/eat-drink/the-latest-buzz |title=La Mill: The Latest Buzz |work=LA Weekly |date=March 12, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2009-01-01/eat-drink/the-10-best-dishes-of-2008 |title=The 10 Best Dishes of 2008 |work=LA Weekly |date=December 31, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2008-08-21/eat-drink/palate-food-amp-wine-charcuterie-that-39-s-a-cut-above |title=Tierra Mia Explores Coffee for the Latino Palate |work=LA Weekly |date=August 20, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref> ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/features/food/la-fo-roast102506,0,1608401.story |title=Artisans of the roast |work=Los Angeles Times |date=October 25, 2006 |author=Amy Scattergood}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/15/business/fi-smallbiz15 |title=Coffeehouse Serves the Latino Community |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 15, 2008 |author=Cyndia Zwahlen}}</ref> ''[[La Opinión]]''<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.impre.com/negocios-finanzas/2008/9/7/cafe-gourmet-pese-a-la-crisis-79359-1.html |title=Cafe Gourmet Pese La Crisis |work=La Opinion |date=September 7, 2008 |author=Yolanda Arenales |language=Spanish}}</ref> and ''[[The Guardian]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2009/mar/16/best-barista-britain-coffee |title=It’s the third wave of coffee! |work=The Guardian |date=March 16, 2009 |author=Stuart Jeffries}}</ref>

In March 2008, [[Pulitzer Prize for Criticism|Pulitzer Prize]] winning food critic [[Jonathan Gold]] of the ''LA Weekly'' defined the third wave of coffee by saying:

{{Blockquote|The first wave of American coffee culture was probably the 19th-century surge that put [[Folgers]] on every table, and the second was the proliferation, starting in the 1960s at [[Peet's Coffee & Tea|Peet's]] and moving smartly through the [[Starbucks]] grande decaf latte, of espresso drinks and regionally labeled coffee. We are now in the third wave of coffee connoisseurship, where beans are sourced from farms instead of countries, roasting is about bringing out rather than incinerating the unique characteristics of each bean, and the flavor is clean and hard and pure.<ref name="LAWeekly_2008-12-03"/>}}

The earlier term "[[specialty coffee]]" was coined in 1974, and refers narrowly to high-quality beans scoring 80 points or more on a 100-point scale.

==By region==
=== United States ===
In the US, the market is very diverse. Most Third Wave Coffee is served in independently owned and operated coffee shops, with few chains, none large. There are a large number of roasters, often available via mail order, and some stand-alone coffee shops or small chains roast their own coffee; compare [[brewpub]]. There are a few larger businesses, more prominent in roasting than in operating – the "[[Big Three]] of Third Wave Coffee"<ref>[http://www.portafilter.net/2009/12/decades-top-ten-in-specialty-coffee.html The Decade's Top Ten in Specialty Coffee], Nick Cho, Dec 31 2009; also references Michaele Weissman's "God in a Cup", which features the group collectively.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.salon.com/mwt/food/eat_drink/2008/06/30/coffee/index1.html |title=Good to the last drop |date=June 30, 2008 |author=Monica Bhide |work=[[Salon.com|Salon]]}} Elaborates that these three were widely cited in the industry as most influential.</ref> are commonly held to be [[Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea]] of Chicago, Illinois; [[Stumptown Coffee Roasters]] of Portland, Oregon; and [http://www.counterculturecoffee.com/ Counter Culture Coffee] of North Carolina, all of which engage in [[direct trade]] sourcing. Intelligentsia has 6 bars – 3 in Chicago, 3 in Los Angeles, together with 1 "lab" in New York, while Stumptown has 8 bars – 5 bars in Portland, 2 in Seattle, and 1 in New York. By comparison, [[Starbucks]] has well over 10,000 locations.

====Earlier history====
Important earlier influences are [[Peet's Coffee & Tea]] of [[Berkeley, California]], which in the late 1960s began artisanal sourcing, roasting, and blending, and the Seattle coffee scene of the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, which saw the birth of artisanal American espresso bars, and led to nationwide chains, notably Starbucks, which are retrospectively titled "Second Wave". (Peet's primarily retails beans for home brewing, features dark roasts, and did not serve espresso until 1984.) These in turn were predated by [[Italian American]] espresso bars, primarily serving immigrant communities, and 19th century "First Wave" coffee importers.

Another important event was the 1982 foundation of the [[Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Other early importers include Dallis Coffee (founded 1980s) and [[The Coffee Connection]] of Boston (founded 1974, following influence by Peet's).<ref>[http://www.terroircoffee.com/about/george/ All About George]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite news
| issn = 0040-718X
| title = Is Stumptown the New Starbucks — or Better?
| work = Time
| accessdate = 2010-04-07
| date = 2010-03-09
| url = http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1970653,00.html
| first=Josh
| last=Ozersky
}}
* {{ Citation | title = The Cappuccino Conquests. The Transnational History of Italian Coffee | first = Jonathan | last = Morris | year = 2007 | url = http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-report.pdf | postscript = , [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/ website], [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-summary.pdf summary]}}
{{Refend}}

[[Category:Coffee_culture]]

Dritte Kaffeewelle

2011-11-27T05:19:01Z

Wingman4l7: improved refs, combined dupes

[[File:Coffee berries, fresh-001.png|thumb|'''Third Wave Coffee''' treats coffee beans as an artisanal ingredient and seeks to convey the flavor in the brewed coffee.]]

The '''Third Wave of Coffee''' refers to a current movement to produce high-quality [[coffee]], and consider coffee as an artisanal foodstuff, like [[wine]], rather than a commodity, like [[wheat]]. This involves improvements at all stages of production, from improving coffee bean growing, harvesting, and processing, to stronger relationships between coffee growers and coffee traders and roasters, to higher quality and fresh roasting, at times called '''microroasting''' (by analogy with [[microbrew]] beer), to skilled brewing.

Third Wave Coffee aspires to the highest form of culinary appreciation of coffee, so that one may appreciate subtleties of flavor, bean varietal, and growing region – similar to other complex culinary products such as wine, tea, and chocolate. Distinctive features of Third Wave Coffee include [[direct trade]] coffee, high-quality beans (see [[specialty coffee]] for scale), [[single-origin coffee]] (as opposed to blends), lighter roasts of the beans, and [[latte art]]. It also sometimes includes naked [[portafilter]]s, and revivals of alternative methods of [[coffee preparation]], such as [[Vacuum coffee maker|vacuum coffee]] (sometimes called "siphon") and individual [[drip brew]].

The term "Third Wave" was coined in 2002, and refers narrowly to an American phenomenon, particularly from the 1990s and continuing today, but with some roots in the 1980s, 1970s, and 1960s. Similar movements exist in the United Kingdom, [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Scandinavia]]. More broadly, Third Wave Coffee can be seen as part of the [[specialty coffee]] movement.

==History of term==
Trish Rothgeb (formerly Skeie) of [http://www.wreckingballcoffee.com/ Wrecking Ball Coffee Roasters] first wrote about the Third Wave of Coffee in a November 2002 article<ref>[http://timwendelboe.no/uploads/the-flamekeeper-2003.pdf ''Norway and Coffee'', The Flamekeeper, Spring 2003]</ref> of [http://www.roastersguild.org/flamekeeper.html The Flamekeeper], a newsletter of the Roaster's Guild, a trade guild of the [[Specialty Coffee Association|Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Nicholas Cho of [http://www.murkycoffee.com/ Murky Coffee] further defined the Third Wave of Coffee in an often-referenced online article<ref>[http://coffeegeek.com/opinions/bgafiles/04-02-2005/ "The BGA and the Third Wave", CoffeeGeek.com, April 1, 2005]</ref> and earlier in his interview in March 2005 on [[National Public Radio]]'s ''[[All Things Considered]]'' program.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4530264 |title=Coffee Barista Preps for National Competition |work=NPR |date=March 10, 2005 |author=Stuart Cohen}}</ref> More recently, the third wave of coffee has been chronicled by publications such as ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/29/fashion/29Cuppings.html |title=Do I Detect a Hint of ... Joe? |work=The New York Times |date=May 29, 2008 |author=Hannah Wallace}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2008/03/09/travel/09foraging.html |title=Los Angeles: Intelligentsia |work=The New York Times |date=March 9, 2008 |author=Gregory Dicum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/26/nyregion/thecity/26coff.html |title=Bean Town |work=The New York Times |date=October 24, 2008 |author=Ted Botha}}</ref> ''[[LA Weekly]]'',<ref name="LAWeekly_2008-12-03">{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2008-03-13/eat-drink/the-latest-buzz |title=La Mill: The Latest Buzz |work=LA Weekly |date=March 12, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2009-01-01/eat-drink/the-10-best-dishes-of-2008 |title=The 10 Best Dishes of 2008 |work=LA Weekly |date=December 31, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2008-08-21/eat-drink/palate-food-amp-wine-charcuterie-that-39-s-a-cut-above |title=Tierra Mia Explores Coffee for the Latino Palate'' |work=LA Weekly |date=August 20, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref> ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/features/food/la-fo-roast102506,0,1608401.story |title=Artisans of the roast |work=Los Angeles Times |date=October 25, 2006 |author=Amy Scattergood}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/15/business/fi-smallbiz15 |title=Coffeehouse Serves the Latino Community |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 15, 2008 |author=Cyndia Zwahlen}}</ref> ''[[La Opinión]]''<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.impre.com/negocios-finanzas/2008/9/7/cafe-gourmet-pese-a-la-crisis-79359-1.html |title=Cafe Gourmet Pese La Crisis |work=La Opinion |date=September 7, 2008 |author=Yolanda Arenales |language=Spanish}}</ref> and ''[[The Guardian]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2009/mar/16/best-barista-britain-coffee |title=It’s the third wave of coffee! |work=The Guardian |date=March 16, 2009 |author=Stuart Jeffries}}</ref>

In March 2008, [[Pulitzer Prize for Criticism|Pulitzer Prize]] winning food critic [[Jonathan Gold]] of the ''LA Weekly'' defined the third wave of coffee by saying:

{{Blockquote|The first wave of American coffee culture was probably the 19th-century surge that put [[Folgers]] on every table, and the second was the proliferation, starting in the 1960s at [[Peet's Coffee & Tea|Peet's]] and moving smartly through the [[Starbucks]] grande decaf latte, of espresso drinks and regionally labeled coffee. We are now in the third wave of coffee connoisseurship, where beans are sourced from farms instead of countries, roasting is about bringing out rather than incinerating the unique characteristics of each bean, and the flavor is clean and hard and pure.<ref name="LAWeekly_2008-12-03"/>}}

The earlier term "[[specialty coffee]]" was coined in 1974, and refers narrowly to high-quality beans scoring 80 points or more on a 100-point scale.

==By region==
=== United States ===
In the US, the market is very diverse. Most Third Wave Coffee is served in independently owned and operated coffee shops, with few chains, none large. There are a large number of roasters, often available via mail order, and some stand-alone coffee shops or small chains roast their own coffee; compare [[brewpub]]. There are a few larger businesses, more prominent in roasting than in operating – the "[[Big Three]] of Third Wave Coffee"<ref>[http://www.portafilter.net/2009/12/decades-top-ten-in-specialty-coffee.html The Decade's Top Ten in Specialty Coffee], Nick Cho, Dec 31 2009; also references Michaele Weissman's "God in a Cup", which features the group collectively.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.salon.com/mwt/food/eat_drink/2008/06/30/coffee/index1.html |title=Good to the last drop |date=June 30, 2008 |author=Monica Bhide |work=[[Salon.com|Salon]]}} Elaborates that these three were widely cited in the industry as most influential.</ref> are commonly held to be [[Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea]] of Chicago, Illinois; [[Stumptown Coffee Roasters]] of Portland, Oregon; and [http://www.counterculturecoffee.com/ Counter Culture Coffee] of North Carolina, all of which engage in [[direct trade]] sourcing. Intelligentsia has 6 bars – 3 in Chicago, 3 in Los Angeles, together with 1 "lab" in New York, while Stumptown has 8 bars – 5 bars in Portland, 2 in Seattle, and 1 in New York. By comparison, [[Starbucks]] has well over 10,000 locations.

====Earlier history====
Important earlier influences are [[Peet's Coffee & Tea]] of [[Berkeley, California]], which in the late 1960s began artisanal sourcing, roasting, and blending, and the Seattle coffee scene of the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, which saw the birth of artisanal American espresso bars, and led to nationwide chains, notably Starbucks, which are retrospectively titled "Second Wave". (Peet's primarily retails beans for home brewing, features dark roasts, and did not serve espresso until 1984.) These in turn were predated by [[Italian American]] espresso bars, primarily serving immigrant communities, and 19th century "First Wave" coffee importers.

Another important event was the 1982 foundation of the [[Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Other early importers include Dallis Coffee (founded 1980s) and [[The Coffee Connection]] of Boston (founded 1974, following influence by Peet's).<ref>[http://www.terroircoffee.com/about/george/ All About George]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite news
| issn = 0040-718X
| title = Is Stumptown the New Starbucks — or Better?
| work = Time
| accessdate = 2010-04-07
| date = 2010-03-09
| url = http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1970653,00.html
| first=Josh
| last=Ozersky
}}
* {{ Citation | title = The Cappuccino Conquests. The Transnational History of Italian Coffee | first = Jonathan | last = Morris | year = 2007 | url = http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-report.pdf | postscript = , [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/ website], [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-summary.pdf summary]}}
{{Refend}}

[[Category:Coffee_culture]]

Dritte Kaffeewelle

2011-11-27T05:02:46Z

Wingman4l7: improved references

[[File:Coffee berries, fresh-001.png|thumb|'''Third Wave Coffee''' treats coffee beans as an artisanal ingredient and seeks to convey the flavor in the brewed coffee.]]

The '''Third Wave of Coffee''' refers to a current movement to produce high-quality [[coffee]], and consider coffee as an artisanal foodstuff, like [[wine]], rather than a commodity, like [[wheat]]. This involves improvements at all stages of production, from improving coffee bean growing, harvesting, and processing, to stronger relationships between coffee growers and coffee traders and roasters, to higher quality and fresh roasting, at times called '''microroasting''' (by analogy with [[microbrew]] beer), to skilled brewing.

Third Wave Coffee aspires to the highest form of culinary appreciation of coffee, so that one may appreciate subtleties of flavor, bean varietal, and growing region – similar to other complex culinary products such as wine, tea, and chocolate. Distinctive features of Third Wave Coffee include [[direct trade]] coffee, high-quality beans (see [[specialty coffee]] for scale), [[single-origin coffee]] (as opposed to blends), lighter roasts of the beans, and [[latte art]]. It also sometimes includes naked [[portafilter]]s, and revivals of alternative methods of [[coffee preparation]], such as [[Vacuum coffee maker|vacuum coffee]] (sometimes called "siphon") and individual [[drip brew]].

The term "Third Wave" was coined in 2002, and refers narrowly to an American phenomenon, particularly from the 1990s and continuing today, but with some roots in the 1980s, 1970s, and 1960s. Similar movements exist in the United Kingdom, [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Scandinavia]]. More broadly, Third Wave Coffee can be seen as part of the [[specialty coffee]] movement.

==History of term==
Trish Rothgeb (formerly Skeie) of [http://www.wreckingballcoffee.com/ Wrecking Ball Coffee Roasters] first wrote about the Third Wave of Coffee in a November 2002 article<ref>[http://timwendelboe.no/uploads/the-flamekeeper-2003.pdf ''Norway and Coffee'', The Flamekeeper, Spring 2003]</ref> of [http://www.roastersguild.org/flamekeeper.html The Flamekeeper], a newsletter of the Roaster's Guild, a trade guild of the [[Specialty Coffee Association|Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Nicholas Cho of [http://www.murkycoffee.com/ Murky Coffee] further defined the Third Wave of Coffee in an often-referenced online article<ref>[http://coffeegeek.com/opinions/bgafiles/04-02-2005/ "The BGA and the Third Wave", CoffeeGeek.com, April 1, 2005]</ref> and earlier in his interview in March 2005 on [[National Public Radio]]'s ''[[All Things Considered]]'' program.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4530264 |title=Coffee Barista Preps for National Competition |work=NPR |date=March 10, 2005 |author=Stuart Cohen}}</ref> More recently, the third wave of coffee has been chronicled by publications such as ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/29/fashion/29Cuppings.html |title=Do I Detect a Hint of ... Joe? |work=The New York Times |date=May 29, 2008 |author=Hannah Wallace}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2008/03/09/travel/09foraging.html |title=Los Angeles: Intelligentsia |work=New York Times |date=March 9, 2008 |author=Gregory Dicum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/26/nyregion/thecity/26coff.html |title=Bean Town |work=The New York Times |date=October 24, 2008 |author=Ted Botha}}</ref> ''[[LA Weekly]]'',<ref>[http://www.laweekly.com/2008-03-13/eat-drink/the-latest-buzz ''La Mill: The Latest Buzz'', LA Weekly, March 13, 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.laweekly.com/2009-01-01/eat-drink/the-10-best-dishes-of-2008 ''The 10 Best Dishes of 2008'', LA Weekly, December 30, 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.laweekly.com/2008-08-21/eat-drink/palate-food-amp-wine-charcuterie-that-39-s-a-cut-above ''Tierra Mia Explores Coffee for the Latino Palate'', LA Weekly, August 20, 2008]</ref> ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'',<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/features/food/la-fo-roast102506,0,1608401.story ''Artisans of the roast'', Los Angeles Times, October 25, 2006]</ref><ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/15/business/fi-smallbiz15 ''Coffeehouse Serves the Latino Community'', Los Angeles Times, September 15, 2008]</ref> ''[[La Opinión]]''<ref>[http://www.impre.com/negocios-finanzas/2008/9/7/cafe-gourmet-pese-a-la-crisis-79359-1.html ''Cafe Gourmet Pese La Crisis'', La Opinion, September 7, 2008]</ref> and ''[[The Guardian]]''.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2009/mar/16/best-barista-britain-coffee ''It’s the third wave of coffee! '', The Guardian, March 16, 2009]</ref>

In March 2008, [[Pulitzer Prize for Criticism|Pulitzer Prize]] winning food critic [[Jonathan Gold]] of the ''LA Weekly'' defined the third wave of coffee by saying:

{{Blockquote|The first wave of American coffee culture was probably the 19th-century surge that put [[Folgers]] on every table, and the second was the proliferation, starting in the 1960s at [[Peet's Coffee & Tea|Peet's]] and moving smartly through the [[Starbucks]] grande decaf latte, of espresso drinks and regionally labeled coffee. We are now in the third wave of coffee connoisseurship, where beans are sourced from farms instead of countries, roasting is about bringing out rather than incinerating the unique characteristics of each bean, and the flavor is clean and hard and pure.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.laweekly.com/2008-03-13/eat-drink/the-latest-buzz |title=La Mill: The Latest Buzz |work=LA Weekly |date=March 12, 2008 |author=Jonathan Gold}}</ref>}}

The earlier term "[[specialty coffee]]" was coined in 1974, and refers narrowly to high-quality beans scoring 80 points or more on a 100-point scale.

==By region==
=== United States ===
In the US, the market is very diverse. Most Third Wave Coffee is served in independently owned and operated coffee shops, with few chains, none large. There are a large number of roasters, often available via mail order, and some stand-alone coffee shops or small chains roast their own coffee; compare [[brewpub]]. There are a few larger businesses, more prominent in roasting than in operating – the "[[Big Three]] of Third Wave Coffee"<ref>[http://www.portafilter.net/2009/12/decades-top-ten-in-specialty-coffee.html The Decade's Top Ten in Specialty Coffee], Nick Cho, Dec 31 2009; also references Michaele Weissman's "God in a Cup", which features the group collectively.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.salon.com/mwt/food/eat_drink/2008/06/30/coffee/index1.html |title=Good to the last drop |date=June 30, 2008 |author=Monica Bhide |work=[[Salon.com|Salon]]}} Elaborates that these three were widely cited in the industry as most influential.</ref> are commonly held to be [[Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea]] of Chicago, Illinois; [[Stumptown Coffee Roasters]] of Portland, Oregon; and [http://www.counterculturecoffee.com/ Counter Culture Coffee] of North Carolina, all of which engage in [[direct trade]] sourcing. Intelligentsia has 6 bars – 3 in Chicago, 3 in Los Angeles, together with 1 "lab" in New York, while Stumptown has 8 bars – 5 bars in Portland, 2 in Seattle, and 1 in New York. By comparison, [[Starbucks]] has well over 10,000 locations.

====Earlier history====
Important earlier influences are [[Peet's Coffee & Tea]] of [[Berkeley, California]], which in the late 1960s began artisanal sourcing, roasting, and blending, and the Seattle coffee scene of the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, which saw the birth of artisanal American espresso bars, and led to nationwide chains, notably Starbucks, which are retrospectively titled "Second Wave". (Peet's primarily retails beans for home brewing, features dark roasts, and did not serve espresso until 1984.) These in turn were predated by [[Italian American]] espresso bars, primarily serving immigrant communities, and 19th century "First Wave" coffee importers.

Another important event was the 1982 foundation of the [[Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Other early importers include Dallis Coffee (founded 1980s) and [[The Coffee Connection]] of Boston (founded 1974, following influence by Peet's).<ref>[http://www.terroircoffee.com/about/george/ All About George]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite news
| issn = 0040-718X
| title = Is Stumptown the New Starbucks — or Better?
| work = Time
| accessdate = 2010-04-07
| date = 2010-03-09
| url = http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1970653,00.html
| first=Josh
| last=Ozersky
}}
* {{ Citation | title = The Cappuccino Conquests. The Transnational History of Italian Coffee | first = Jonathan | last = Morris | year = 2007 | url = http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-report.pdf | postscript = , [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/ website], [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-summary.pdf summary]}}
{{Refend}}

[[Category:Coffee_culture]]

Dritte Kaffeewelle

2011-11-27T04:52:35Z

Wingman4l7: improved references

[[File:Coffee berries, fresh-001.png|thumb|'''Third Wave Coffee''' treats coffee beans as an artisanal ingredient and seeks to convey the flavor in the brewed coffee.]]

The '''Third Wave of Coffee''' refers to a current movement to produce high-quality [[coffee]], and consider coffee as an artisanal foodstuff, like [[wine]], rather than a commodity, like [[wheat]]. This involves improvements at all stages of production, from improving coffee bean growing, harvesting, and processing, to stronger relationships between coffee growers and coffee traders and roasters, to higher quality and fresh roasting, at times called '''microroasting''' (by analogy with [[microbrew]] beer), to skilled brewing.

Third Wave Coffee aspires to the highest form of culinary appreciation of coffee, so that one may appreciate subtleties of flavor, bean varietal, and growing region – similar to other complex culinary products such as wine, tea, and chocolate. Distinctive features of Third Wave Coffee include [[direct trade]] coffee, high-quality beans (see [[specialty coffee]] for scale), [[single-origin coffee]] (as opposed to blends), lighter roasts of the beans, and [[latte art]]. It also sometimes includes naked [[portafilter]]s, and revivals of alternative methods of [[coffee preparation]], such as [[Vacuum coffee maker|vacuum coffee]] (sometimes called "siphon") and individual [[drip brew]].

The term "Third Wave" was coined in 2002, and refers narrowly to an American phenomenon, particularly from the 1990s and continuing today, but with some roots in the 1980s, 1970s, and 1960s. Similar movements exist in the United Kingdom, [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Scandinavia]]. More broadly, Third Wave Coffee can be seen as part of the [[specialty coffee]] movement.

==History of term==
Trish Rothgeb (formerly Skeie) of [http://www.wreckingballcoffee.com/ Wrecking Ball Coffee Roasters] first wrote about the Third Wave of Coffee in a November 2002 article<ref>[http://timwendelboe.no/uploads/the-flamekeeper-2003.pdf ''Norway and Coffee'', The Flamekeeper, Spring 2003]</ref> of [http://www.roastersguild.org/flamekeeper.html The Flamekeeper], a newsletter of the Roaster's Guild, a trade guild of the [[Specialty Coffee Association|Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Nicholas Cho of [http://www.murkycoffee.com/ Murky Coffee] further defined the Third Wave of Coffee in an often-referenced online article<ref>[http://coffeegeek.com/opinions/bgafiles/04-02-2005/ "The BGA and the Third Wave", CoffeeGeek.com, April 1, 2005]</ref> and earlier in his interview in March 2005 on [[National Public Radio]]'s ''[[All Things Considered]]'' program.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4530264 |title=Coffee Barista Preps for National Competition |work=NPR |date=March 10, 2005 |author=Stuart Cohen}}</ref> More recently, the third wave of coffee has been chronicled by publications such as ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/29/fashio n/29Cuppings.html |title=Do I Detect a Hint of ... Joe? |work=The New York Times |date=May 29, 2008 |author=Hannah Wallace}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2008/03/09/travel/09foraging.html |title=Los Angeles: Intelligentsia |work=New York Times |date=March 9, 2008 |author=Gregory Dicum}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/26/nyregion/thecity/26coff.html?pagewanted=1&sq=third%20wave%20coffee&st=cse&scp=6 ''Bean Town'', New York Times, October 26, 2008]</ref> ''[[LA Weekly]]'',<ref>[http://www.laweekly.com/2008-03-13/eat-drink/the-latest-buzz ''La Mill: The Latest Buzz'', LA Weekly, March 13, 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.laweekly.com/2009-01-01/eat-drink/the-10-best-dishes-of-2008 ''The 10 Best Dishes of 2008'', LA Weekly, December 30, 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.laweekly.com/2008-08-21/eat-drink/palate-food-amp-wine-charcuterie-that-39-s-a-cut-above ''Tierra Mia Explores Coffee for the Latino Palate'', LA Weekly, August 20, 2008]</ref> ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'',<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/features/food/la-fo-roast102506,0,1608401.story ''Artisans of the roast'', Los Angeles Times, October 25, 2006]</ref><ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/15/business/fi-smallbiz15 ''Coffeehouse Serves the Latino Community'', Los Angeles Times, September 15, 2008]</ref> ''[[La Opinión]]''<ref>[http://www.impre.com/negocios-finanzas/2008/9/7/cafe-gourmet-pese-a-la-crisis-79359-1.html ''Cafe Gourmet Pese La Crisis'', La Opinion, September 7, 2008]</ref> and ''[[The Guardian]]''.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2009/mar/16/best-barista-britain-coffee ''It’s the third wave of coffee! '', The Guardian, March 16, 2009]</ref>

In March 2008, [[Pulitzer Prize for Criticism|Pulitzer Prize]] winning food critic [[Jonathan Gold]] of the ''LA Weekly'' defined the third wave of coffee by saying:

{{Blockquote|The first wave of American coffee culture was probably the 19th-century surge that put [[Folgers]] on every table, and the second was the proliferation, starting in the 1960s at [[Peet's Coffee & Tea|Peet's]] and moving smartly through the [[Starbucks]] grande decaf latte, of espresso drinks and regionally labeled coffee. We are now in the third wave of coffee connoisseurship, where beans are sourced from farms instead of countries, roasting is about bringing out rather than incinerating the unique characteristics of each bean, and the flavor is clean and hard and pure.<ref>[http://www.laweekly.com/2008-03-13/eat-drink/the-latest-buzz ''La Mill: The Latest Buzz'' LA Weekly, March 13, 2008]</ref>}}

The earlier term "[[specialty coffee]]" was coined in 1974, and refers narrowly to high-quality beans scoring 80 points or more on a 100-point scale.

==By region==
=== United States ===
In the US, the market is very diverse. Most Third Wave Coffee is served in independently owned and operated coffee shops, with few chains, none large. There are a large number of roasters, often available via mail order, and some stand-alone coffee shops or small chains roast their own coffee; compare [[brewpub]]. There are a few larger businesses, more prominent in roasting than in operating – the "[[Big Three]] of Third Wave Coffee"<ref>[http://www.portafilter.net/2009/12/decades-top-ten-in-specialty-coffee.html The Decade's Top Ten in Specialty Coffee], Nick Cho, Dec 31 2009; also references Michaele Weissman's "God in a Cup", which features the group collectively.</ref><ref>[http://www.salon.com/mwt/food/eat_drink/2008/06/30/coffee/index1.html Good to the last drop], [[Salon.com]], elaborates that these three were widely cited in the industry as most influential.</ref> are commonly held to be [[Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea]] of Chicago, Illinois; [[Stumptown Coffee Roasters]] of Portland, Oregon; and [http://www.counterculturecoffee.com/ Counter Culture Coffee] of North Carolina, all of which engage in [[direct trade]] sourcing. Intelligentsia has 6 bars – 3 in Chicago, 3 in Los Angeles, together with 1 "lab" in New York, while Stumptown has 8 bars – 5 bars in Portland, 2 in Seattle, and 1 in New York. By comparison, [[Starbucks]] has well over 10,000 locations.

====Earlier history====
Important earlier influences are [[Peet's Coffee & Tea]] of [[Berkeley, California]], which in the late 1960s began artisanal sourcing, roasting, and blending, and the Seattle coffee scene of the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, which saw the birth of artisanal American espresso bars, and led to nationwide chains, notably Starbucks, which are retrospectively titled "Second Wave". (Peet's primarily retails beans for home brewing, features dark roasts, and did not serve espresso until 1984.) These in turn were predated by [[Italian American]] espresso bars, primarily serving immigrant communities, and 19th century "First Wave" coffee importers.

Another important event was the 1982 foundation of the [[Specialty Coffee Association of America]]. Other early importers include Dallis Coffee (founded 1980s) and [[The Coffee Connection]] of Boston (founded 1974, following influence by Peet's).<ref>[http://www.terroircoffee.com/about/george/ All About George]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite news
| issn = 0040-718X
| title = Is Stumptown the New Starbucks — or Better?
| work = Time
| accessdate = 2010-04-07
| date = 2010-03-09
| url = http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1970653,00.html
| first=Josh
| last=Ozersky
}}
* {{ Citation | title = The Cappuccino Conquests. The Transnational History of Italian Coffee | first = Jonathan | last = Morris | year = 2007 | url = http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-report.pdf | postscript = , [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/ website], [http://www.cappuccinoconquests.org.uk/assets/project-summary.pdf summary]}}
{{Refend}}

[[Category:Coffee_culture]]

Tetris-Effekt

2011-11-20T08:31:03Z

Wingman4l7: /* Place in memory */ -- ref improvement

[[Image:Emacs Tetris vector based detail.svg|thumb|200px|Screenshot of a tetromino game. People who play video puzzle games like this for a long time may see moving images like this at the edges of their visual fields, when they close their eyes, or when they are drifting off to sleep.]]

The '''Tetris effect''' occurs when people devote sufficient time and attention to an activity that it begins to overshadow their [[thought]]s, [[mental image]]s, and [[dream]]s. It is named after the [[video game]] ''[[Tetris]]''.

People who play Tetris for a prolonged amount of time may then find themselves thinking about ways different shapes in the real world can fit together, such as the boxes on a supermarket shelf or the buildings on a street.<ref name="Earling">Earling, A. (1996, March 21–28). [http://www.citypaper.net/articles/032196/article038.shtml The Tetris Effect: Do computer games fry your brain?] ''Philadelphia City Paper''</ref> In this sense, the Tetris effect is a form of [[habit (psychology)|habit]]. They might also dream about falling Tetris shapes when drifting off to sleep or see images of falling Tetris shapes at the edges of their visual fields or when they close their eyes.<ref name="Earling"/> In this sense, the Tetris effect is a form of [[hallucination]] or [[hypnagogic imagery]].

==Other examples==
The Tetris effect can occur with other video games,<ref name="terdiman">{{Cite news |author=Daniel Terdiman |date=January 11, 2005 |url=http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/news/2005/01/66225 |title=Real World Doesn't Use a Joystick |work=Wired}}</ref> with any prolonged visual task (such as classifying cells on microscope slides, weeding, picking or sorting fruit, flipping burgers, driving long distances, or playing board games such as [[chess]] or [[Go (game)|go]]), and in other sensory modalities.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} In [[kinesthesis]], a person newly on land after spending long periods at sea may move with an unbidden rocking motion, having become accustomed to the ship making such movements (known as [[Illusions of self-motion|sea legs]] or [[mal de debarquement]]). Computer programmers and developers sometimes have similar experiences, and report dreaming about code when they sleep at night.

==Place in memory==
Stickgold et al. (2000) have proposed that Tetris imagery is a separate form of [[memory]], likely related to [[procedural memory]]. This is from their research in which they showed that people with [[anterograde amnesia]], unable to form new [[declarative memory|declarative memories]], reported dreaming of falling shapes after playing ''Tetris'' during the day, despite not being able to remember playing the game at all.<ref name="stickgold">{{Cite journal
| last1 = Stickgold | first1 = Robert
| last2 = Malia | first2 = April
| last3 = Maguire | first3 = Denise
| last4 = Roddenberry | first4 = David
| last5 = O'Connor | first5 = Margaret
| title = Replaying the Game: Hypnagogic Images in Normals and Amnesics
| doi = 10.1126/science.290.5490.350
| journal = Science
| volume = 290
| issue = 5490
| pages = 350–353
| year = 2000
| pmid = 11030656
}}</ref>
A recent Oxford study (2009) suggests Tetris-like video games may help prevent the development of traumatic memories. If the video game treatment is played soon after the traumatic event, the preoccupation with Tetris shapes is enough to prevent the mental recitation of traumatic images, thereby decreasing the accuracy, intensity, and frequency of traumatic reminders. "We suggest it specifically interferes with the way sensory memories are laid down in the period after trauma and thus reduces the number of flashbacks that are experienced afterwards," summarizes Dr. Emily Holmes, who led the study.<ref name="holmes">{{citation | year=2009 | title=Can Playing the Computer Game "Tetris" Reduce the Build-Up of Flashbacks for Trauma? A Proposal from Cognitive Science. | journal=PLoS ONE |volume=4|number=1 | page=e4153 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0004153|author=Holmes EA, James EL, Coode-Bate T, Deeprose C, | pmid=19127289 | issue=1 | pmc=2607539}}</ref><ref name="Tetrishelps">{{Cite news |title=Tetris 'helps to reduce trauma' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7813637.stm |date=January 7, 2009 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

==History of the term==
According to Earling (1996),<ref name="Earling"/> one of the first references to the term is by Garth Kidd in February, 1996.<ref name="Kidd">Kidd, G. (1996). [http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/17.78.html#subj1 Possible future risk of virtual reality.] ''The RISKS Digest: Forum on Risks to the Public in Computers and Related Systems'' '''17(78)'''</ref> Kidd described "after-images of the game for up to days afterwards" and "a tendency to identify everything in the world as being made of four squares and attempt to determine 'where it fits in'". Kidd attributed the origin of the term to computer-game players from [[Adelaide]], [[Australia]]. The earliest description of the phenomenon is in the introduction to [[Neil Gaiman]]'s SF poem "Virus"<ref name=Virus>[http://www.scribd.com/doc/7227151/Gaiman-Neil-Virus Virus]</ref> (1987) in Digital Dreams. More recently, the term has been used in the book [[Tetris Mania]], describing a seventeen year old named Jason suffering from this phenomenon.

==''L'effet Tetris''==
The ''[[:fr:Effet Tetris|effet Tetris]]'' (French: Tetris effect) is a similarly named, but quite different phenomenon found in evolutionary [[AI]] systems related to the concept of [[bounded rationality]]. The ''effet Tetris'' then, is the effect whereby a hasty, but imprecise course of action is better than calculating an optimal move where such a calculation would not be completed in time; in short, [[Evolutionary computation|evolutionary]] systems often find local rather than global optima.

==Game Transfer Phenomena==
Modern term created after the thesis wrote by Angelica Ortiz de Gortari student, a student from the [[Nottigham Trent University]]. The [[Game Transfer Phenomena]] or GTP is the set of residual feelings, thoughts and/or images which remain after playing a videogame. A good example, other than the [[Tetris effect]] would be the awareness of the absence of a [[Head-up display]] in the natural human field of view after playing a [[First-person shooter]] or the urge to arrange (or command) little objects after playing a strategy game such as [[Starcraft]].

==References in Popular Culture==
The Tetris effect is implied in the Simpsons episode, [[Strong Arms of the Ma]], when Homer packs the car while imagining objects (and people) as Tetris shapes.

==See also==
* [[Earworm]]
* [[Fixation (psychology)]]
* [[Highway hypnosis]]
* [[Neuroplasticity]]
* [[Video game addiction]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/2.05/tetris.html ''This Is Your Brain on Tetris''] — Wired magazine, May 1994
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0001F172-55DA-1C75-9B81809EC588EF21 ''Tetris dreams''] - Scientific American magazine, October 2000

{{Tetris}}

[[Category:Tetris]]
[[Category:Memory]]

[[es:Efecto Tetris]]
[[eo:Tetrisefiko]]
[[fr:Effet Tetris]]
[[gl:Efecto Tetris]]
[[it:Effetto Tetris]]
[[ja:テトリス効果]]
[[no:Tetriseffekten]]

Tetris-Effekt

2011-11-20T05:04:01Z

Wingman4l7: /* Other examples */ -- ref cleanup

[[Image:Emacs Tetris vector based detail.svg|thumb|200px|Screenshot of a tetromino game. People who play video puzzle games like this for a long time may see moving images like this at the edges of their visual fields, when they close their eyes, or when they are drifting off to sleep.]]

The '''Tetris effect''' occurs when people devote sufficient time and attention to an activity that it begins to overshadow their [[thought]]s, [[mental image]]s, and [[dream]]s. It is named after the [[video game]] ''[[Tetris]]''.

People who play Tetris for a prolonged amount of time may then find themselves thinking about ways different shapes in the real world can fit together, such as the boxes on a supermarket shelf or the buildings on a street.<ref name="Earling">Earling, A. (1996, March 21–28). [http://www.citypaper.net/articles/032196/article038.shtml The Tetris Effect: Do computer games fry your brain?] ''Philadelphia City Paper''</ref> In this sense, the Tetris effect is a form of [[habit (psychology)|habit]]. They might also dream about falling Tetris shapes when drifting off to sleep or see images of falling Tetris shapes at the edges of their visual fields or when they close their eyes.<ref name="Earling"/> In this sense, the Tetris effect is a form of [[hallucination]] or [[hypnagogic imagery]].

==Other examples==
The Tetris effect can occur with other video games,<ref name="terdiman">{{Cite news |author=Daniel Terdiman |date=January 11, 2005 |url=http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/news/2005/01/66225 |title=Real World Doesn't Use a Joystick |work=Wired}}</ref> with any prolonged visual task (such as classifying cells on microscope slides, weeding, picking or sorting fruit, flipping burgers, driving long distances, or playing board games such as [[chess]] or [[Go (game)|go]]), and in other sensory modalities.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} In [[kinesthesis]], a person newly on land after spending long periods at sea may move with an unbidden rocking motion, having become accustomed to the ship making such movements (known as [[Illusions of self-motion|sea legs]] or [[mal de debarquement]]). Computer programmers and developers sometimes have similar experiences, and report dreaming about code when they sleep at night.

==Place in memory==
Stickgold et al. (2000) have proposed that Tetris imagery is a separate form of [[memory]], likely related to [[procedural memory]]. This is from their research in which they showed that people with [[anterograde amnesia]], unable to form new [[declarative memory|declarative memories]], reported dreaming of falling shapes after playing ''Tetris'' during the day, despite not being able to remember playing the game at all.<ref name="stickgold">Stickgold, R., Malia, A., Maguire, D., Roddenberry, D., & O'Connor, M. (2000). [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/290/5490/350 Replaying the game: Hypnagogic images in normals and amnesics.] ''Science'' '''290''': 350-353. (free abstract)</ref>
A recent Oxford study (2009) suggests Tetris-like video games may help prevent the development of traumatic memories. If the video game treatment is played soon after the traumatic event, the preoccupation with Tetris shapes is enough to prevent the mental recitation of traumatic images, thereby decreasing the accuracy, intensity, and frequency of traumatic reminders. "We suggest it specifically interferes with the way sensory memories are laid down in the period after trauma and thus reduces the number of flashbacks that are experienced afterwards," summarizes Dr. Emily Holmes, who led the study.<ref name="holmes">{{citation | year=2009 | title=Can Playing the Computer Game "Tetris" Reduce the Build-Up of Flashbacks for Trauma? A Proposal from Cognitive Science. | journal=PLoS ONE |volume=4|number=1 | page=e4153 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0004153|author=Holmes EA, James EL, Coode-Bate T, Deeprose C, | pmid=19127289 | issue=1 | pmc=2607539}}</ref><ref name="Tetrishelps">Tetris Helps: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7813637.stm</ref>

==History of the term==
According to Earling (1996),<ref name="Earling"/> one of the first references to the term is by Garth Kidd in February, 1996.<ref name="Kidd">Kidd, G. (1996). [http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/17.78.html#subj1 Possible future risk of virtual reality.] ''The RISKS Digest: Forum on Risks to the Public in Computers and Related Systems'' '''17(78)'''</ref> Kidd described "after-images of the game for up to days afterwards" and "a tendency to identify everything in the world as being made of four squares and attempt to determine 'where it fits in'". Kidd attributed the origin of the term to computer-game players from [[Adelaide]], [[Australia]]. The earliest description of the phenomenon is in the introduction to [[Neil Gaiman]]'s SF poem "Virus"<ref name=Virus>[http://www.scribd.com/doc/7227151/Gaiman-Neil-Virus Virus]</ref> (1987) in Digital Dreams. More recently, the term has been used in the book [[Tetris Mania]], describing a seventeen year old named Jason suffering from this phenomenon.

==''L'effet Tetris''==
The ''[[:fr:Effet Tetris|effet Tetris]]'' (French: Tetris effect) is a similarly named, but quite different phenomenon found in evolutionary [[AI]] systems related to the concept of [[bounded rationality]]. The ''effet Tetris'' then, is the effect whereby a hasty, but imprecise course of action is better than calculating an optimal move where such a calculation would not be completed in time; in short, [[Evolutionary computation|evolutionary]] systems often find local rather than global optima.

==Game Transfer Phenomena==
Modern term created after the thesis wrote by Angelica Ortiz de Gortari student, a student from the [[Nottigham Trent University]]. The [[Game Transfer Phenomena]] or GTP is the set of residual feelings, thoughts and/or images which remain after playing a videogame. A good example, other than the [[Tetris effect]] would be the awareness of the absence of a [[Head-up display]] in the natural human field of view after playing a [[First-person shooter]] or the urge to arrange (or command) little objects after playing a strategy game such as [[Starcraft]].

==References in Popular Culture==
The Tetris effect is implied in the Simpsons episode, [[Strong Arms of the Ma]], when Homer packs the car while imagining objects (and people) as Tetris shapes.

==See also==
* [[Earworm]]
* [[Fixation (psychology)]]
* [[Highway hypnosis]]
* [[Neuroplasticity]]
* [[Video game addiction]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/2.05/tetris.html ''This Is Your Brain on Tetris''] — Wired magazine, May 1994
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0001F172-55DA-1C75-9B81809EC588EF21 ''Tetris dreams''] - Scientific American magazine, October 2000

{{Tetris}}

[[Category:Tetris]]
[[Category:Memory]]

[[es:Efecto Tetris]]
[[eo:Tetrisefiko]]
[[fr:Effet Tetris]]
[[gl:Efecto Tetris]]
[[it:Effetto Tetris]]
[[ja:テトリス効果]]
[[no:Tetriseffekten]]

Freie Rückkehrbahn

2011-11-17T03:16:27Z

Wingman4l7: added comma

A '''free return trajectory''' is one of a very small sub-class of [[trajectories]] in which the trajectory of a [[satellite]] traveling away from a primary body (for example, the [[Earth]]) is modified by the presence of a secondary body (for example, the [[Moon]]) causing the satellite to return to the primary body.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schwaninger|first=Arthur J.|title=Trajectories in the Earth-Moon Space with Symmetrical Free Return Properties|publisher=[[NASA]] / [[Marshall Space Flight Center]]|location=Huntsville, Alabama|date=1963|series=Technical Note D-1833|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19630007117_1963007117.pdf}}</ref> This method has been used by several [[spacecraft]], most notably the [[Apollo 8]], [[Apollo 10]], and [[Apollo 11]] lunar missions. Those spacecraft were launched into a free-return trajectory to allow their safe return in the event of a systems failure after launch. They all successfully inserted into orbit upon arriving at the Moon, and so did not take advantage of the free return. Due to the landing site restrictions that resulted from constraining the launch to a free return that flew by the Moon, subsequent Apollo missions, starting with [[Apollo 12]] and including the ill-fated [[Apollo 13]], used a hybrid trajectory that launched to a highly elliptical Earth orbit that fell short of the Moon with effectively a free return to the atmospheric entry corridor. They then performed a mid-course maneuver to change to a trans-Lunar trajectory that was not a free return. This retained the safety characteristics of being on a free return upon launch, and only departed from free return once the systems were checked out and the lunar module was docked with the command module, providing back-up maneuver capabilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/afj/launchwindow/lw1.html|title=Apollo lunar landing launch window: The controlling factors and constraints|last=Wheeler|first=Robin|date=2009|publisher=[[NASA]]|accessdate=2009-10-27}}</ref> In fact, within hours of the accident, Apollo 13 used the lunar module to maneuver from its planned lunar orbit insertion trajectory to a free return trajectory. Apollo 13 was the only Apollo mission to actually complete a free return trajectory.

A true free return trajectory is completed without the assistance of any mid-course corrections or maneuvers. The free return trajectory allows a great distance to be covered relatively directly without the use of additional [[Rocket propellant|fuel]] to return the satellite to the primary body, thus the term "free". The satellite or spacecraft will not actually be captured by the secondary body without the use of its [[rocket engine]] to slow the craft.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{physics-stub}}
[[Category:Ballistics]]

[[hu:Szabad visszatérési pálya]]

Turnitin

2011-09-19T01:24:43Z

Wingman4l7: /* Litigation */ -- updated ref link

{{Infobox software
|name = Turnitin
|logo = [[Image:Turnitin logo.png|center|155px]]
|screenshot = [[Image:Turnitin sample report.png|center|155px]]
|caption = A sample Turnitin report page, with explanations
|author =
|developer = iParadigms, LLC
|latest release version =
|latest release date =
|latest preview version =
|latest preview date =
|operating system =
|platform = Internet (Support OS: Microsoft Windows XP SP2 Windows Vista SP 1, Mac OS X v10.4.11+)
|genre = educational
|license =
|website = [http://www.turnitin.com turnitin.com] [http://www.submit.ac.uk submit.ac.uk](UK)
}}
'''Turnitin''' (also known as '''Turnitin.com''') is an [[Internet]]-based [[plagiarism]]-detection service created by iParadigms, LLC. Institutions. Typically, [[university|universities]] and [[high school]]s buy licenses to submit [[essay]]s to the Turnitin website, which checks the documents for originality. The results can be used to detect plagiarism or in formative exercises help students learn how to avoid plagiarism and improve their writing.<ref>http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/7521/1/Let_them_plagiarise.pdf</ref>

Students may be required by schools to submit essays to Turnitin, as a [[Deterrence (psychological)|deterrent]] to plagiarism. This has been a source of criticism, with some students refusing to do so in the belief that requiring it constitutes a [[presumption of innocence|presumption of guilt]]. Additionally, critics have alleged that use of the software violates educational [[privacy]] and [[intellectual property]] laws.

Parent company iParadigms, LLC, also offers a similar plagiarism detection service for newspaper editors, book and magazine publishers called [[Ithenticate|iThenticate]], and runs the informational website Plagiarism.org. Other services marketed under the Turnitin [[brand]] are aimed at the education market, such as GradeMark (online grading and feedback) and PeerMark (peer review) services. Turnitin released the WriteCycle Suite on February 3, 2009. WriteCycle bundles the Originality Checking service with its GradeMark online grading tools and PeerMark tools. Turnitin [http://turnitin.com/static/what_is_new.html] released Turnitin2 on September 4, 2010.

==Function==
Turnitin checks for possible plagiarism by comparing submitted papers to several databases using a proprietary [[algorithm]]. It scans its own databases, and also has licensing agreements with large academic proprietary databases.

===Student paper database===
The essays submitted by students are stored in a [[database]] used to check for plagiarism. This prevents one student from using another student's paper, by identifying matching text between papers.

In addition to student papers, the database contains a copy of the publicly accessible internet, with the company using a [[webcrawler]] to continually add to the web archive, observing for [[robots.txt]] exclusions. It also contains commercial pages from books, newspapers, and journals. In addition, Turnitin has partnered with a note-sharing website, [[GradeGuru]], {{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} which offers rewards in exchange for study materials created by students.

===Classroom integration===
Teachers may submit student papers to Turnitin.com as individual files, a bulk upload, or a [[ZIP (file format)|ZIP]] file. Teachers can also set up the assignment analysis options so that students can review their originality reports before they make their final submission. A peer-review option is also available.

Some [[virtual learning environment]]s can be configured to support Turnitin, so that student assignments can be automatically submitted for originality analysis. [[Moodle]], [[WebCT]], [[Blackboard Inc.|Blackboard]] and [[ANGEL Learning|ANGEL]] all support Turnitin integration with course sections and assignments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turnitin.com/static/index.html|title=Turnitin|accessdate=2007-04-15|publisher=iParadigms, LLC}}</ref>

==Controversy==
{{Globalize|date=March 2011}}
===Privacy===
The U.S. [[Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act]] (FERPA) prohibits disclosing confidential information about students to third parties without their or their families' permission. Critics of Turnitin argue that sending papers to Turnitin without student permission thus violates their rights.

Turnitin claims its archiving of student papers complies with FERPA, since the statute only applies at two points: when it is transmitted to them, and when it is released from the database when a match is found with another submission. In the former case it is not considered part of the educational record since it has not yet been graded, and in the latter it does not divulge personal identifying information.<ref name="Turnitin US legal document">Foley & Lardner; July 2002; [http://turnitin.com/static/pdf/us_Legal_Document.pdf Turnitin U.S. Legal Document], retrieved September 29, 2006,pp. 2, 5</ref> However, the Family Compliance Policy Office, the department of the Department of Education responsible for enforcing FERPA, has stated that institutions may submit student papers to Turnitin only if they remove all personally identifiable information from the papers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naspa.org/policy/FERPA2006.pdf|title=Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)|accessdate=2007-01-28|author=Family Policy Compliance Office|year=2006}}</ref>

The [[Dalhousie Student Union|Student Union]] at [[Dalhousie University]] has criticized the use of Turnitin at Canadian universities because the American government may be able to access the submitted papers and personal information in the database under the [[USA PATRIOT Act]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dalgazette.ca/?cmd=displaystory&story_id=1050&format=html|title=DSU takes on Turnitin.com|accessdate=2009-03-20|last=McDiarmid|first=Jess|date=2006-03-16|work=Gazette|publisher=Dalhousie University}}</ref>
[[Mount Saint Vincent University]] became the first Canadian university to ban Turnitin's service partly because of implications of the USA PATRIOT Act.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://excal.on.ca/cms2//index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2532&Itemid=2|title=Turnitin risks privacy|accessdate=2009-03-20|last=Halfnight|first=Drew|coauthors=Kristina Jarvis and Josh Visser|date=2006-11-15|work=Excalibur Online|publisher=[[York University]]}}</ref>

===Concerns about violation of student copyright in the United States===
Since Turnitin archives all papers which it receives and it sells its services including that database, for profit, the company has also been charged with violating student [[copyright]] since creators are granted exclusive reproduction rights by [[Title 17 of the United States Code]]. Turnitin founder John Barrie claims the company is merely making [[fair use]] of student work since, despite iParadigms' profiting from use or sale of the software, it is ultimately for educational purposes.

Lawyers for the company also claim that student work is covered under the theory of implied license to evaluate, since it would be pointless to write the essays if they were not meant to be graded. That implied license thus grants permission to copy, reproduce and preserve, it says. [[Dissertation]]s and [[thesis|theses]], the company's lawyers claim, also carry with them the implied permission to archive in a publicly accessible collection such as a university [[library]].<ref name="Turnitin US legal document copyright">Foley & Lardner, ''Id.'', pp. 3-5</ref>

[[University of Minnesota Law School]] [[professor]] Dan Burk countered that the company's use of the papers may not meet the fair-use test for several reasons:
*The company copies the entire paper, not just a portion
*Students' work is often original, interpretive and creative rather than just a compilation of established facts
*Turnitin is a commercial enterprise<ref>Foster, Andrea L.; May 17, 2002; [http://chronicle.com/free/v48/i36/36a03701.htm Plagiarism-Detection Tool Creates Legal Quandary]; ''[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]''; retrieved September 29, 2006</ref>

When a group of students filed suit against Turnitin on that basis, in ''Vanderhye et al. v. iParadigms LLC'', the district court found the practice within fair use; on appeal, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit]] affirmed.<ref>''[http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-4th-circuit/1248473.html A.V. et al. v. iParadigms, LLC]'', 562 F.3d 630 (4th Cir. 2009)</ref>

===Presumption of guilt===
Some students argue that requiring them to submit papers to Turnitin creates a [[presumption of innocence|presumption of guilt]], which may violate scholastic disciplinary codes and applicable local laws and judicial practice. Some teachers and professors support this argument when attempting to discourage their schools from joining Turnitin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bedfordstmartins.com/technotes/techtiparchive/ttip060501.htm|title=Turnitin.com, a Pedagogic Placebo for Plagiarism|accessdate=2007-01-28|last=Carbone|first=Nick|date=2001}}</ref>

==Litigation==
In one well-publicized dispute over mandatory Turnitin submissions, Jesse Rosenfeld, a student at [[McGill University]] declined to submit his academic work to Turnitin. The University Senate eventually ruled that Rosenfeld's assignments were to be graded without using Turnitin.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2004/01/16/mcgill_turnitin030116|title=McGill student wins fight over anti-cheating website|accessdate=2007-04-15|date=2004-01-16|publisher=[[CBC News]]|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070517033653/http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2004/01/16/mcgill_turnitin030116|archivedate=2007-05-17}}</ref> In 2005 another McGill student, Denise Brunsdon, refused to submit her assignment to Turnitin.com and won a similar ruling from the Senate Committee on Student Grievances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcgilldaily.com/view.php?aid=4615|title=Students: 2, Turnitin: 0|accessdate=2007-04-15|last=Churchill|first=Liam|date=2005-12-02|work=[[McGill Daily]]|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070517093213/http://www.mcgilldaily.com/view.php?aid=4615|archivedate=2007-05-17}}</ref>
A few other Canadian universities are currently in the process of either total or partial ban of this service. On March 6, 2006, the Senate at Mount Saint Vincent University in Nova Scotia prohibited the submission of students’ academic work to Turnitin.com and any software that requires students' work to become part of an external database where other parties might have access to it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msvu.ca/senate/2006/MinutesMarch6.pdf|title=Minutes of Meeting|accessdate=2009-03-20|date=2006-03-06|publisher=[[Mount Saint Vincent University Senate]]}}{{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> This decision was granted after the students’ union alerted the university community of their legal and privacy concerns associated with the use of Turnitin.com and other anti-plagiarism devices that profit from students’ academic work.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} This was the first campus-wide ban of its kind in Canada,{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} following similar decisions by Princeton, Harvard, Yale and Stanford in the US.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/2006/04/04/15061/|title=University opts not to 'Turnitin'|accessdate=2009-03-20|last=Osellame|first=Julia|date=2006-04-04|work=[[The Daily Princetonian]]}}</ref>

At [[Ryerson University]] ([[Toronto]]), it is up to the students whether to submit their work to Turnitin.com or to make alternate arrangements with the instructor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ryerson.ca/senate/documents/students.doc|title=Turnitin.com Information for Students|accessdate=2009-03-20|date=2006-12-05|publisher=Ryerson University}}</ref>

On March 27, 2007, with the help of an intellectual property attorney, two students from [[McLean High School]] (with assistance from the Committee For Students' Rights) and two students attending [[Desert Vista High School]], filed suit in United States Circuit Court (Eastern District, Alexandria Division) alleging copyright infringement by iParadigms, Turnitin's parent company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dontturnitin.com/images/iParadigms_Amended_Complaint.pdf|title=A.V., et. al. v. iParadigms, LLC: Amended Complaint for Copyright Infringement|accessdate=2009-03-20|last=Vanderhye|first=R.|date=2007-04-16|format=PDF}}</ref> Nearly a year later, Judge Claude M. Hilton granted [[summary judgment]] on the students' complaint in favor of iParadigms/Turnitin,<ref>{{Cite document|last=Hilton|first=Claude|title=Memorandum Opinion|publisher=United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, Alexandria Division|year=2008|url=http://www.iparadigms.com/iParadigms_03-11-08_Opinion.pdf|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100705110536/http://www.iparadigms.com/iParadigms_03-11-08_Opinion.pdf|archivedate=2010-07-05}}</ref> because they had accepted the [[Clickwrap|click-wrap agreement]] on the Turnitin website. The students appealed the ruling,<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20081206132341/http://www.boston.com/news/education/k_12/articles/2008/04/23/students_appeal_ruling_favoring_plagiarism_detection_service/|archivedate=2008/12/6|url=http://www.boston.com/news/education/k_12/articles/2008/04/23/students_appeal_ruling_favoring_plagiarism_detection_service/|title=Students appeal ruling favoring plagiarism detection service|author=Barakat, Matthew|date=2008-04-28|accessdate=2008-04-29|publisher=[[Boston.com]]}}</ref> and on April 16, 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit affirmed Judge Hilton's judgment in favor of iParadigms/Turnitin.<ref>{{Cite document|last=Wilkinson, Motz, Traxler|title=Appellate Decision|publisher=United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit|date=2009-04-16|format=PDF|url=http://pacer.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinion.pdf/081424.P.pdf}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Plagiarism]]
*[[Ithenticate]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.turnitin.com/ Turnitin]
*[http://www.plagiarism.org Plagiarism.org]
*[http://ccccip.org/files/CCCC-IPpositionstatementDraft%209%2016%2006.pdf CCCC-IP Caucus Recommendations Regarding Academic Integrity and the Use of Plagiarism Detection Services] - recommendations authored by the Caucus on Intellectual Property and Composition/Communication Studies
*[http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20090420/0207284556.shtml Fair Use, Turnitin, And... Why Google Never Should Have Caved On Book Scanning]
*[http://pblog.bna.com/techlaw/2009/04/fourth-circuits-turnitincom-ruling-brings-more-trouble-for-plaintiffs.html Fourth Circuit's Turnitin.com Ruling Brings More Trouble for Plaintiffs]

[[Category:Software for teachers]]
[[Category:Plagiarism detectors]]

Jungfrauen-Reinigungsmythos

2011-09-14T23:50:58Z

Wingman4l7: rm spaces & meaningless word

'''HIV-Virgin Myth''' is a commonly assumed belief that if a man with [[HIV]] or [[AIDS]] [[rape]]s a [[virgin]], he will be healed of his [[disease]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://womensissues.about.com/od/rapesexualassault/g/virgincure.htm|title=Virgin Cure|author=Women's Issues}}</ref>

==Background==
Author [[Hanne Blank]] is of the opinion that the idea may have evolved from [[Christian]] legends of virgin martyrs whose purity served as a form of protection in battling demons.<ref>{{Cite book
| last1 = Blank | first1 = Hanne
| title = Virgin: The Untouched History
| location = USA
| publisher = Bloomsbury USA
| year= 2007
| isbn = 0978-1-59691-010-2}}
</ref> [[Researcher]] Mike Earl-Taylor also indicates the myth gained prominence [[19th century]] [[Victorian England]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} Today, it is believed that the Virgin Cure may explain the staggering rise in child/infant rapes in [[South Africa]], which is facing an HIV/AIDS [[epidemic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2002/april/virgin.htm|title=HIV/AIDS, the stats, the virgin cure and infant rape|author=Science in Africa}}</ref>

Most prevalent in [[Zimbabwe]], the myth started when conventional healers started spreading the thought. Because of this myth, as many as ten girls are being raped every day. Each year as many as 3,600 girls get infected with [[HIV]] after being raped in [[Zimbabwe]]. [[UNICEF]] says that the fake belief has led to the rape of hundreds of girls for approximately a decade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timeinmoments.wordpress.com/2009/06/07/virgin-myth-behind-zimbabwe-child-rapes/|title=‘Virgin Myth’ Behind Zimbabwe Child Rapes|author=Moments In Time}}</ref>

==Ignorance as barrier==

The HIV-Virgin Myth is built on an [[eccentricity (behavior)|eccentric]] [[ethic]] (rape is acceptable if HIV is healed as an outcome) and a total lack of knowledge about [[HIV]] ([[sex]] spreads the illness, it does not heal it).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.science20.com/rugbyologist/silence_virgin_myth|title=Silence: The Virgin Myth|author=science 2.0}}</ref> There are already 8,200,000 [[orphan]]s in the world because of the deadly disease of AIDS, most of them in Africa. With myths like this, the girls in Africa become the most exposed section of society, six times more probably to be HIV positive as compared to boys of the similar age.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/focus-aids-the-myth-that-sex-with-a-virgin-can-cure-hiv-1116662.html|title=Focus Aids: The myth that sex with a virgin can cure HIV|author=The Independent | location=London|date=1999-09-05}}</ref> People are of the [[belief]] that the blood produced by raping a virgin will cleanse the disease from the infected person's blood.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6076758.stm|title=Staging sex myths to save Zimbabwe's girls|author=BBC | work=BBC News|date=2006-10-24}}</ref>

A study by the [[UNISA|University Of South Africa (UNISA)]] revealed that one million women and children are raped yearly. A latest survey carried out by UNISA at the Daimler Chrysler plant in [[East_London,_Eastern_Cape|East London]]; found that 18 percent of the 498 laborers inquired thought that having sex with a virgin cures HIV/AIDS. An earlier study in 1999 by sexual health educators in [[Gauteng]] - the country's economic hub - revealed that 32 percent of the survey participants’ questions disclosed that that they believed the [[myth]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=39838|title=SOUTH AFRICA: Focus on the virgin myth and HIV/AIDS|author=IRIN Global}}</ref>

==Importance of education==

[[Education]] seems to be the only way to help people stop believing the [[Lie|false]] [[myth]] since most of the girls infected are too young to walk, much less guard themselves. There have even been instances where a one-day-old baby was raped.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2009-06-04/living/cnnheroes.betty.makoni_1_young-girls-raped-youngest-girl?_s=PM:LIVING |title=Child rape survivor saves 'virgin myth' victims|author=CNN | date=2009-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/273698 |title=Virgin Myth' Behind Zimbabwe Child Rapes|author=Digital Journal}}</ref>

[[AIDS]] educations being imparted is not helping to a great extent as of now. There is an immediate need of a [[help desk]] which is [[cultural]] in nature and involves the local people, and this seems to be the only workable alternative.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jezebel.com/5283195/silver-linings-one-woman-takes-on-the-virgin-myth-many-others-perpetuate-it |title=Silver Linings: One Woman Takes On The ‘Virgin Myth.’ Many Others Perpetuate It.|author=JEZEBEL}}</ref>

There are many occasions where girls are compelled into [[marriage]] with much older men which only increases their likelihood of HIV [[infection]]. The disgrace attached to AIDS also stops many girls from seeking information or [[health services]] to shield their [[Social status|status]], contributing to the danger of infection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/rosa/Faith.pdf|title=Faith-motivated actions on HIV/AIDS prevention and car4e for children and young people in South Asia|author=UNICEF}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.talkaids.com/2009/06/update-disturbing-myth_08.html Social Marketing and HIV/AIDS]
* [http://www.rense.com/general16/AIDSvirginmyth.htm AIDS 'Virgin' Myth Drives South Africa's Hideous Child-Rape Epidemic]
* [http://www.aegis.com/news/irin/2002/IR020406.html Focus On the Virgin Myth And HIV/Aids]
[[Category:HIV/AIDS]]

Mordfall James Byrd junior

2011-07-10T01:12:48Z

Wingman4l7: /* The perpetrators */ -- modified wikilink

{{About||the Wyoming State Representative|James W. Byrd|the guitarist|James Byrd (guitarist)}}
{{refimprove|date=December 2010}}

{{Infobox person
| name = James Byrd, Jr.
| image =JamesByrdJr..jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1949|5|2}}
| birth_place = [[Beaumont, Texas]], United States
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1998|06|7|1949|05|2}}
| death_place = [[Jasper, Texas]], United States
| occupation =
}}
'''James Byrd, Jr.''' (May 2, 1949 – June 7, 1998) was an [[African-American]] who was [[murder]]ed by three white men in [[Jasper, Texas]], on June 7, 1998. Shawn Berry, Lawrence Brewer, and John King dragged Byrd behind a [[pick-up truck]] along an [[asphalt]] pavement after they wrapped a heavy logging chain around his ankles. Byrd was pulled along for about two miles as the truck swerved from side to side.<ref name ="dragging">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/US/9807/06/dragging.death.02/|title=3 whites indicted in dragging death of black man in Texas|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=1998-07-06|accessdate=2010-07-24}}</ref>

Byrd, who remained conscious throughout most of the ordeal, was killed when his body hit the edge of a [[culvert]] severing his right arm and head. The murderers drove on for another mile before dumping his torso in front of an African-American cemetery in Jasper.<ref name ="dragging"/> Byrd's lynching-by-dragging gave impetus to passage of a Texas hate crimes law. It later led to the [[Federal government of the United States|Federal]] October 22, 2009 [[Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act]], commonly known as the "[[Matthew Shepard]] Act". President [[Barack Obama]] signed the bill into law on October 28, 2009.

== The victim ==
James Byrd, Jr. was born in [[Beaumont, Texas]], one of nine children, to Stella (1925 – October 7, 2010) and James Byrd, Sr. (born 1924).<ref name=KFDM>[http://www.kfdm.com/articles/pain-39700-dies-praised.html Mother of James Byrd, Jr. dies] (October 7, 2010)</ref>

== The murder ==

On June 7, 1998, Byrd, age 49, accepted a ride from Shawn Berry (age 24), Lawrence Brewer (age 31), and John King (age 23). Berry, who was driving, was acquainted with Byrd from around town. Instead of taking Byrd home, the three men took Byrd to a remote county road out of town, beat him with anything they could find, urinated on his unconscious body, chained him by his ankles to their pickup truck dragging him for three miles. Brewer later claimed that Byrd's throat had been slashed by Berry before he was dragged. However, forensic evidence suggests that Byrd had been attempting to keep his head up while being dragged, and an [[autopsy]] suggested that Byrd was alive during much of the dragging. Byrd died after his right arm and head were severed after his body hit a [[culvert]]. His body had caught the culvert on the side of the road, resulting in Byrd's decapitation.<ref name="ClosingArguments">"[http://www.cnn.com/US/9902/22/dragging.death.03/ Closing arguments today in Texas dragging-death trial]," [[CNN]], February 22, 1999</ref>

Berry, Brewer, and King dumped their victim's mutilated remains in front of an African-American [[cemetery]] on Huff Creek Road; the three men then went to a barbecue. Along the area where Byrd was dragged, authorities found a wrench with "Berry" written on it. They also found a lighter that was inscribed with "Possum", which was King's prison [[nickname]].<ref>"[http://web.archive.org/web/20051227000441/http://www.texasobserver.org/showArticle.asp?ArticleID=275 Justice in Jasper]," ''[[Texas Observer]]'', September 17, 1999</ref> The following morning, Byrd's limbs were found scattered across a seldom-used road. The police found 75 places that were littered with Byrd's remains. State law enforcement officials, along with Jasper's [[District Attorney]], determined that since Brewer and King were well-known [[white supremacists]], the murder was a [[hate crime]]. They decided to call upon the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] less than 24 hours after the discovery of Byrd's remains.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}

King had several [[tattoo]]s considered to be racist: a black man hanging from a tree, [[Nazism|Nazi]] symbols, the words "[[Aryan race|Aryan]] Pride," and the patch for a gang of white supremacist inmates known as the [[Prison_gang#Notable_American_Prison_Gangs|Confederate Knights of America]].<ref>"[http://www.cnn.com/US/9902/16/dragging.death.04/index.html Texas sheriff 'knew somebody was murdered because he was black']," CNN, February 16, 1999</ref> In a jailhouse letter to Brewer that was intercepted by jail officials, King expressed pride in the crime and said he realized in committing the murder he might have to die. "Regardless of the outcome of this, we have made history. Death before dishonor. [[Sieg Heil]]!", King wrote.<ref name="ClosingArguments" /> An officer investigating the case also testified that witnesses said King had referenced ''[[The Turner Diaries]]'' after beating Byrd.<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/jasper1.html The officer's account of the initial stages of the investigation through an affidavit filed in Jasper County, Texas on June 9, 1998.]</ref>

Berry, Brewer, and King were tried and convicted for Byrd's murder. Brewer and King received the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]], while Berry was sentenced to [[Life imprisonment|life in prison.]]

== The perpetrators ==
[[File:PolunskyUnitWestLivingstonTX.jpg|thumb|The perpetrators who are under a death sentence are held at the [[Allan B. Polunsky Unit]]]]
; Shawn Allen Berry: The driver of the truck, Berry was the most difficult to convict of the three defendants because there was a lack of evidence to suggest that he himself was a racist. Berry had also claimed that Brewer and King were entirely responsible for the crime. Brewer, however, testified that it was Berry who cut Byrd's throat before he was tied to the truck. The jury decided that there was little evidence to support this claim.<ref name="Texas NAACP">{{cite web |title=Texas NAACP| url=http://www.texasnaacp.org/jasper.htm | accessdate=June 19, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070430140528/http://www.texasnaacp.org/jasper.htm  |archivedate = April 30, 2007}}</ref> As a result, Berry was spared the death penalty and was sentenced to life in prison. Berry, [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice|TDCJ]]#00894758, is in the [[Ramsey Unit]] in [[Brazoria County, Texas]],<ref name="keysDidPrison">Keys, Perryn. "[http://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/jasper__the_road_back__did_prison_time_turn_man_into_one_of_byrd_s_killers__06-30-2008_13_18_38.html?showFullArticle=y JASPER: THE ROAD BACK: Did prison time turn man into one of Byrd's killers?]" ''[[Beaumont Enterprise]]''. June 9, 2008. Retrieved on July 23, 2010.</ref> and his parole eligibility date is June 7, 2038.<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/index2.htm Berry, Shawn Allen]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> As of 2003 Berry is in protective custody; he spends 23 hours per day in a {{convert|8|ft|m|adj=on}} by {{convert|6|ft|m|adj=on}} cell, with one hour for exercise. Berry married a woman named Christie Marcontell by proxy.<ref>King, Joyce. ''Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas''. [[Random House, Inc.]], 2002. [http://books.google.com/books?id=dhH1GOJCrmkC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&dq=%22Shawn+Allen+Berry+is+at+the+Ramsey%22&source=bl&ots=4hdi_kbdSy&sig=mgjNcuQdCljQofrLdOrzhpdg8OI&hl=en&ei=LinSTN7gEoWBlAePt_S2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Shawn%20Allen%20Berry%20is%20at%20the%20Ramsey%22&f=false 207]. Retrieved from [[Google Books]] on November 3, 2010. ISBN 0375421327, 9780375421327.</ref>

; Lawrence Russell Brewer: Brewer was a white supremacist who, prior to Byrd's murder, had served a prison sentence for drug possession and burglary. He was paroled in 1991. After violating his parole conditions in 1994, Brewer was returned to prison. According to his court testimony, he joined a white supremacist gang with King in prison in order to safeguard himself from other inmates.<ref name="Court TV Online">{{cite web | title=Court TV Online| url=http://www.courttv.com/archive/trials/brewer/092199_pm_ctv.html| accessdate=June 19, 2007}}</ref> Brewer and King became friends in the [[Beto Unit]] prison.<ref name="keysDidPrison"/> A psychiatrist testified that Brewer did not appear repentant for his crimes. Brewer was ultimately convicted and [[death penalty|sentenced to death]].<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=03897953 Brewer, Lawrence Russell]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> Brewer, TDCJ#999327,<ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/brewerlawrence.htm Brewer, Lawrence Russell]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref> is in the death row at the [[Polunsky Unit]].<ref name="keysDidPrison"/> Brewer has a scheduled execution date of 09/21/2011.

; John William King: King was accused of beating Byrd with a bat and then dragging him behind a [[pickup truck|truck]] until he died. King had previously claimed that he had been [[prison rape|gang-raped]] in prison by black inmates.<ref name="Prison Fellowship">{{cite web | title=Justice Fellowship| work="Prison Rape - It's No Joke" | url=http://www.justicefellowship.org/article.asp?ID=2695 | accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref> Although he had no previous record of racism, King had joined a white supremacist prison gang, allegedly for self-protection.<ref>Nolan, Pat: [http://www.justicefellowship.org/key-issues/issues-in-criminal-justice-reform/issue-1/pf-commentary-prison-rape/12780-prison-rape-its-no-joke "Prison Rape - It's No Joke"] Washington Post, June 25, 2009</ref> He was found guilty and sentenced to death for his role in Byrd's kidnapping and murder.<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=04684561 King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> King, TDCJ#999295,<ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/kingjohn.htm King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref> is in the death row at the Polunsky Unit.<ref name="keysDidPrison"/>

== Reactions to the murder ==

Numerous aspects of the Byrd murder echo [[lynching in the United States|lynching tradition]]s. These include [[mutilation]] or [[decapitation]] and revelry, such as a barbecue or a picnic, during or after.

Byrd's murder was strongly condemned by [[Jesse Jackson]] and the [[Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change|Martin Luther King Center]] as an act of vicious [[racism]] and focused national attention on the prevalence of [[White supremacy|white supremacist]] [[prison gang]]s.

The victim's family created the [http://www.thebyrdfoundation.org/ James Byrd Foundation for Racial Healing] after his death. In 1999 [[Chantal Akerman]], inspired by the literary works of [[William Faulkner]], set out to make a film about the beauty of the American South. However, after arriving on location (in Jasper, Texas) and learning of the brutal racist murder, she changed her focus. Akerman made ''Sud'' (French for "South") a meditation on the events surrounding the crime and the history of racial violence in the United States. In 2003, a movie about the crime, titled ''[[Jasper, Texas (film)|Jasper, Texas]]'', was produced and aired on [[Showtime (TV network)|Showtime]]. The same year, a documentary named [http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2002/twotownsofjasper/index.html ''Two Towns of Jasper''], made by filmmakers Marco Williams and Whitney Dow, premiered on [[PBS]]'s P.O.V. series.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/pov/ PBS.org]</ref>

Basketball star [[Dennis Rodman]] offered to pay for Byrd's funeral. Although Byrd's family declined this offer, they accepted a $25,000 donation by Rodman to a fund started to support Byrd's family.

While at radio station [[WIAD|WARW]] in Washington, D.C., DJ [[The Greaseman|Doug Tracht]] (also known as "The Greaseman") made a derogatory comment about James Byrd after playing [[Lauryn Hill]]'s song "[[Doo Wop (That Thing)]]".<ref>"The Reliable Source" Annie Groer, Ann Gerhart. ''[[The Washington Post]]''. Washington, D.C.: March 18, 1999. pg. C.03</ref> The February 1999 incident proved catastrophic to Tracht's radio career, igniting protests from black and white listeners alike. He was quickly fired from WARW and lost his position as a volunteer deputy sheriff in [[Falls Church]], [[Virginia]].

== Politics ==

Some advocacy groups, such as the [[NAACP]] National Voter Fund, made an issue of this case during [[George W. Bush]]'s presidential campaign in 2000. They accused Bush of implicit racism since, as governor of Texas, he opposed [[hate crime]] legislation. Also, citing a prior commitment, Bush could not appear at Byrd's funeral. Because two of the three murderers were sentenced to death and the third to life in prison (all charged with and convicted of capital murder, the highest felony level in Texas), Governor Bush maintained that "we don't need ''tougher'' laws". The 77th Texas Legislature passed the James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Act. With the signature of [[Governor of Texas|Governor]] [[Rick Perry]], who had inherited the balance of Bush's unexpired term, the act became Texas state law in 2001.<ref>{{cite news |title= Texas governor signs into law hate-crimes bill |agency= [[Associated Press]] |newspaper= The Deseret News |date= May 11, 2001 |page= A2 |accessdate= February 2, 2010 }}</ref> In 2009, the [[Matthew Shepard Act|Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act]] expanded the [[Hate crimes in the United States#Federal prosecution of hate crimes|1969 United States federal hate-crime law]] to include crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]], [[gender identity]], or [[disability]].<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/10/28/obama-signs-billion-defense-policy/ Obama Signs Defense Policy Bill That Includes 'Hate Crime' Legislation]</ref>

== Family ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2010}}
Ross Byrd, the only son of James Byrd, has been involved with Murder Victims' Families for Reconciliation, an organization that opposes capital punishment. He has campaigned to spare the lives of those who murdered his father and appears briefly in the documentary ''Deadline'' about the death penalty in Illinois.[http://www.talkleft.com/story/2002/07/05/175/14540]

== Musical Tributes ==

In 2010, Alabama musician [[Matthew Mayfield]] penned, recorded, and released a song in Byrd's honor. The tune, titled "Still Alive," is the fourth track on Mayfield's EP "You're Not Home." "Still Alive" clearly related a stark bitterness towards racism and equated such hate crimes to genocide.

"The Ballad of James Byrd" is another tribute to Byrd, written and performed by Southern Californian musician Ross Durand.

"The New Hell" by death metal band [[The Famine]] mentions Byrd on their album The Architects of Guilt (2011).

"Jasper" by [[Confrontation Camp]], the fifth track on the album "[[Objects in the Mirror Are Closer Than They Appear]]" (2000).

== See also ==
{{Portal|Texas}}
* [[Dragging death]]
* [[Lynching]]
* [[Emmett Till]] - victim of a similar racially charged murder in 1955
* [[Murder of Jan Pawel and Quiana Jenkins Pietrzak]] - victims of a similar racially charged murder in 2008

==References==

{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* King, Joyce. ''Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas.'' Pantheon, 2002.
* Temple-Raston, Dina. ''A Death in Texas: A Story of Race, Murder, and a Small Town's Struggle for Redemption.'' Henry Holt and Co., January 6, 2002.

==External links==
* [http://www.lizardproductions.com/RememberHisName.html Remember His Name - From Hate To Healing: The Long Road Home] documentary in production by Lizard Productions
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7105192 James Byrd, Jr.] at Find A Grave
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0335185 ''Jasper, Texas''] - television movie
* [http://capmag.com/article.asp?ID=1464 Politically Correct Murder and Media Bias] by [[Larry Elder]] - compares media coverage of the Byrd case to the murder of [[Ken Tillery]]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~action/ads2/adnaacp.html NAACP National Voter Fund - Campaign ads 2000]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Byrd Jr., James
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = May 2, 1949
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Jasper, Texas]] [[U.S.A]]
| DATE OF DEATH = June 7, 1998
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Jasper, Texas]] [[United States|U.S.A.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Byrd Jr., James}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]
[[Category:1998 murders in the United States]]
[[Category:American murder victims]]
[[Category:Hate crimes]]
[[Category:Murdered African-American people]]
[[Category:Murders]]
[[Category:People from Texas]]
[[Category:People murdered in Texas]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence against African Americans]]
[[Category:Homicides by motor vehicle]]

[[ru:Берд, Джеймс]]

Turnitin

2011-05-16T05:10:48Z

Wingman4l7: /* Litigation */ -- tagged ref as a dead link

{{Infobox software
|name = Turnitin
|logo = [[Image:Turnitin logo.png|center|155px]]
|screenshot = [[Image:Turnitin sample report.png|center|155px]]
|caption = A sample Turnitin report page, with explanations
|author =
|developer = iParadigms, LLC
|latest release version =
|latest release date =
|latest preview version =
|latest preview date =
|operating system =
|platform = Internet (Support OS: Microsoft Windows XP SP2 Windows Vista SP 1, Mac OS X v10.4.11+)
|genre = educational
|license =
|website = [http://www.turnitin.com turnitin.com] [http://www.submit.ac.uk submit.ac.uk](UK)
}}
'''Turnitin''' (also known as '''Turnitin.com''') is an [[Internet]]-based [[plagiarism]]-detection service created by iParadigms, LLC. Institutions. Typically, [[university|universities]] and [[high school]]s buy licenses to submit [[essay]]s to the Turnitin website, which checks the documents for plagiarism.

Students may be required by schools to submit essays to Turnitin, as a [[Deterrence (psychological)|deterrent]] to plagiarism. This has been a source of criticism, with some students refusing to do so in the belief that requiring it constitutes a [[presumption of innocence|presumption of guilt]]. Additionally, critics have alleged that use of the software violates educational [[privacy]] and [[intellectual property]] laws.

Parent company iParadigms, LLC, also offers a similar plagiarism detection service for newspaper editors, book and magazine publishers called [[Ithenticate|iThenticate]], and runs the informational website Plagiarism.org. Other services marketed under the Turnitin [[brand]] are aimed at the education market, such as GradeMark (online grading and feedback) and PeerMark (peer review) services. Turnitin released the WriteCycle Suite on February 3, 2009. WriteCycle bundles the Originality Checking service with its GradeMark online grading tools and PeerMark tools. Turnitin [http://turnitin.com/static/what_is_new.html] released Turnitin2 on September 4, 2010.

==Function==
Turnitin checks for possible plagiarism by comparing submitted papers to several databases using a proprietary [[algorithm]]. It scans its own databases, and also has licensing agreements with large academic proprietary databases.

===Databases===
*A current and extensively archived copy of the publicly accessible internet. The company uses a [[webcrawler]] to continually archive the web, except for [[robots.txt]] exclusions.
*commercial pages from books, newspapers, and journals
*student papers already submitted to Turnitin
*Scans all documents uploaded to [[GradeGuru]].com
*Large proprietary database

====Student paper database====
The essays submitted by students are stored in the [[database]] used to check for plagiarism. This prevents one student from using another student's paper, by identifying matching text between papers. Supporters{{Attribution needed|date=May 2009}} state that maintaining a student's paper in the database protects the student's [[intellectual property]] (or that of the [[university]], in some cases) from future plagiarism.

In addition, Turnitin has partnered with a note-sharing website, GradeGuru.com.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} [[GradeGuru]] offers rewards in exchange for study materials created by students.

===Classroom integration===
Teachers may submit student papers to Turnitin.com as individual files, a bulk upload, or a [[ZIP (file format)|ZIP]] file. Teachers can also set up the assignment analysis options so that students can review their originality reports before they make their final submission. A peer-review option is also available.

Some [[virtual learning environment]]s can be configured to support Turnitin, so that student assignments can be automatically submitted for originality analysis. [[Moodle]], [[WebCT]], [[Blackboard Inc.|Blackboard]] and [[ANGEL Learning|ANGEL]] all support Turnitin integration with course sections and assignments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turnitin.com/static/index.html|title=Turnitin|accessdate=2007-04-15|publisher=iParadigms, LLC}}</ref>

==Controversy==
{{Globalize|date=March 2011}}
===Privacy===
The U.S. [[Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act]] (FERPA) prohibits disclosing confidential information about students to third parties without their or their families' permission. Critics of Turnitin argue that sending papers to Turnitin without student permission thus violates their rights.

Turnitin claims its archiving of student papers complies with FERPA, since the statute only applies at two points: when it is transmitted to them, and when it is released from the database when a match is found with another submission. In the former case it is not considered part of the educational record since it has not yet been graded, and in the latter it does not divulge personal identifying information.<ref name="Turnitin US legal document">Foley & Lardner; July 2002; [http://turnitin.com/static/pdf/us_Legal_Document.pdf Turnitin U.S. Legal Document], retrieved September 29, 2006,pp. 2, 5</ref> However, the Family Compliance Policy Office, the department of the Department of Education responsible for enforcing FERPA, has stated that institutions may submit student papers to Turnitin only if they remove all personally identifiable information from the papers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naspa.org/policy/FERPA2006.pdf|title=Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)|accessdate=2007-01-28|author=Family Policy Compliance Office|year=2006}}</ref>

The [[Dalhousie Student Union|Student Union]] at [[Dalhousie University]] has criticized the use of Turnitin at Canadian universities because the American government may be able to access the submitted papers and personal information in the database under the [[USA PATRIOT Act]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dalgazette.ca/?cmd=displaystory&story_id=1050&format=html|title=DSU takes on Turnitin.com|accessdate=2009-03-20|last=McDiarmid|first=Jess|date=2006-03-16|work=Gazette|publisher=Dalhousie University}}</ref>
[[Mount Saint Vincent University]] became the first Canadian university to ban Turnitin's service partly because of implications of the USA PATRIOT Act.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://excal.on.ca/cms2//index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2532&Itemid=2|title=Turnitin risks privacy|accessdate=2009-03-20|last=Halfnight|first=Drew|coauthors=Kristina Jarvis and Josh Visser|date=2006-11-15|work=Excalibur Online|publisher=[[York University]]}}</ref>

===Possible violation of student copyright in the United States===
Since Turnitin archives all papers which it receives, and it sells its services including that database, for profit, the company has also been charged with violating student [[copyright]] since creators are granted exclusive reproduction rights by [[Title 17 of the United States Code]]. Turnitin founder John Barrie claims the company is merely making [[fair use]] of student work since, despite iParadigms' profiting from use or sale of the software, it is ultimately for educational purposes. The company also says the archiving does not detract from students' future ability to profit from their work, and in fact should even help them by guaranteeing its originality.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}

Lawyers for the company also claim that student work is covered under the theory of implied license to evaluate, since it would be pointless to write the essays if they were not meant to be graded. That implied license thus grants permission to copy, reproduce and preserve, it says. [[Dissertation]]s and [[thesis|theses]], the company's lawyers note, also carry with them the implied permission to archive in a publicly accessible collection such as a university [[library]].<ref name="Turnitin US legal document copyright">Foley & Lardner, ''Id.'', pp. 3-5</ref>

[[University of Minnesota Law School]] [[professor]] Dan Burk counters that the company's use of the papers may not meet the fair-use test for several reasons:
*The company copies the entire paper, not just a portion
*Students' work is often original, interpretive and creative rather than just a compilation of established facts
*Turnitin is a commercial enterprise<ref>Foster, Andrea L.; May 17, 2002; [http://chronicle.com/free/v48/i36/36a03701.htm Plagiarism-Detection Tool Creates Legal Quandary]; ''[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]''; retrieved September 29, 2006</ref>

The high school students appealed the decision and, on April 16, 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit unanimously affirmed the District Court's decision that Turnitin’s archiving of plaintiffs’ work was not a copyright infringement because it fell within the fair use exception to copyright infringement. A copy of the Fourth Circuit decision can be found at A.V. et al. v. iParadigms, LLC, 562 F.3d 630 (4th Cir. 2009). On May 12, 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit denied plaintiffs’ request for rehearing and rehearing en banc (by the full court). No appeal has been taken to the Supreme Court of the United States, so the decision of the Fourth Circuit is final and binding within the jurisdiction of the Fourth Circuit.

===Presumption of guilt===
Some students argue that requiring them to submit papers to Turnitin creates a [[presumption of innocence|presumption of guilt]], which may violate scholastic disciplinary codes and applicable local laws and judicial practice. Some teachers and professors support this argument when attempting to discourage their schools from joining Turnitin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bedfordstmartins.com/technotes/techtiparchive/ttip060501.htm|title=Turnitin.com, a Pedagogic Placebo for Plagiarism|accessdate=2007-01-28|last=Carbone|first=Nick|date=2001}}</ref>

==Litigation==
In one well-publicized dispute over mandatory Turnitin submissions, Jesse Rosenfeld, a student at [[McGill University]] declined to submit his academic work to Turnitin. The University Senate eventually ruled that Rosenfeld's assignments were to be graded without using Turnitin.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2004/01/16/mcgill_turnitin030116|title=McGill student wins fight over anti-cheating website|accessdate=2007-04-15|date=2004-01-16|publisher=[[CBC News]]|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070517033653/http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2004/01/16/mcgill_turnitin030116|archivedate=2007-05-17}}</ref> In 2005 another McGill student, Denise Brunsdon, refused to submit her assignment to Turnitin.com and won a similar ruling from the Senate Committee on Student Grievances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcgilldaily.com/view.php?aid=4615|title=Students: 2, Turnitin: 0|accessdate=2007-04-15|last=Churchill|first=Liam|date=2005-12-02|work=[[McGill Daily]]|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070517093213/http://www.mcgilldaily.com/view.php?aid=4615|archivedate=2007-05-17}}</ref>
A few other Canadian universities are currently in the process of either total or partial ban of this service. On March 6, 2006, the Senate at Mount Saint Vincent University in Nova Scotia prohibited the submission of students’ academic work to Turnitin.com and any software that requires students' work to become part of an external database where other parties might have access to it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msvu.ca/senate/2006/MinutesMarch6.pdf|title=Minutes of Meeting|accessdate=2009-03-20|date=2006-03-06|publisher=[[Mount Saint Vincent University Senate]]}}{{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> This decision was granted after the students’ union alerted the university community of their legal and privacy concerns associated with the use of Turnitin.com and other anti-plagiarism devices that profit from students’ academic work.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} This was the first campus-wide ban of its kind in Canada,{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} following similar decisions by Princeton, Harvard, Yale and Stanford in the US.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/2006/04/04/15061/|title=University opts not to 'Turnitin'|accessdate=2009-03-20|last=Osellame|first=Julia|date=2006-04-04|work=[[The Daily Princetonian]]}}</ref>

At [[Ryerson University]] ([[Toronto]]), it is up to the students whether to submit their work to Turnitin.com or to make alternate arrangements with the instructor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ryerson.ca/senate/documents/students.doc|title=Turnitin.com Information for Students|accessdate=2009-03-20|date=2006-12-05|publisher=Ryerson University}}</ref>

On March 27, 2007, with the help of an intellectual property attorney, two students from [[McLean High School]] (with assistance from the Committee For Students' Rights) and two students attending [[Desert Vista High School]], filed suit in United States Circuit Court (Eastern District, Alexandria Division) alleging copyright infringement by iParadigms, Turnitin's parent company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dontturnitin.com/images/iParadigms_Amended_Complaint.pdf|title=A.V., et. al. v. iParadigms, LLC: Amended Complaint for Copyright Infringement|accessdate=2009-03-20|last=Vanderhye|first=R.|date=2007-04-16|format=PDF}}</ref> Nearly a year later, Judge Claude M. Hilton granted [[summary judgment]] on the students' complaint in favor of iParadigms/Turnitin,<ref>{{Cite document|last=Hilton|first=Claude|title=Memorandum Opinion|publisher=United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, Alexandria Division|year=2008|url=http://www.iparadigms.com/iParadigms_03-11-08_Opinion.pdf}}</ref> because they had accepted the [[Clickwrap|click-wrap agreement]] on the Turnitin website. The students appealed the ruling,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boston.com/news/education/k_12/articles/2008/04/23/students_appeal_ruling_favoring_plagiarism_detection_service/|title=Students appeal ruling favoring plagiarism detection service|author=Barakat, Matthew|date=2008-04-28|accessdate=2008-04-29|publisher=[[Boston.com]]}}{{dead link|May 2011}}</ref>{{dead link|May 2011}} and on April 16, 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit affirmed Judge Hilton's judgment in favor of iParadigms/Turnitin.<ref>{{Cite document|last=Wilkinson, Motz, Traxler|title=Appellate Decision|publisher=United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit|date=2009-04-16|format=PDF|url=http://pacer.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinion.pdf/081424.P.pdf}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Plagiarism]]
*[[Ithenticate]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.turnitin.com/ Turnitin]
*[http://www.plagiarism.org Plagiarism.org]
*[http://ccccip.org/files/CCCC-IPpositionstatementDraft%209%2016%2006.pdf CCCC-IP Caucus Recommendations Regarding Academic Integrity and the Use of Plagiarism Detection Services] - recommendations authored by the Caucus on Intellectual Property and Composition/Communication Studies
*[http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20090420/0207284556.shtml Fair Use, Turnitin, And... Why Google Never Should Have Caved On Book Scanning]
*[http://pblog.bna.com/techlaw/2009/04/fourth-circuits-turnitincom-ruling-brings-more-trouble-for-plaintiffs.html Fourth Circuit's Turnitin.com Ruling Brings More Trouble for Plaintiffs]

[[Category:Software for teachers]]
[[Category:Plagiarism detectors]]

Benutzer:D1rkW4ll/Jezail

2011-04-25T23:26:01Z

Wingman4l7: /* The jezail in British literature */ -- fixed typo and added wikilink

[[File:Jezail.jpg|thumb|200px|Jezail musket]]The '''jezail''' (Sometimes ''Jezzail'' from the [[Pashto language]]) was a simple, cost-efficient and often hand-made muzzle-loading long arm commonly used in [[India]], [[Central Asia]] and parts of the [[Middle East]] in the past.

==Features==
[[File:Mir Alam of Kohistan region in Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|Lithograph dated during the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] of a [[Kohistani]] and his jezail.]]
Jezails were generally hand made weapons, and consequently they varied quite a bit in their construction. Jezails were seen as very personal weapons, and unlike the typical military weapons of the time which were very plain and utilitarian, jezails tended to be very well crafted and were usually very beautifully and artistically decorated.

Jezails tended to have very long barrels. These sorts of long weapons were never common in Europe, and only were otherwise seen in American rifles like the [[Kentucky Rifle]]. The American rifles were used for hunting, and tended to be of a smaller caliber (.35 to .45 or so being typical). Jezails were usually designed for military use, and therefore tended to be of larger calibers than the American rifles, with .50 to .75 caliber and larger being common. Larger calibers were possible because the long length of the typical jezail meant that it was heavier than typical muskets of the time. Jezails typically weighed around 12 to 14 pounds, compared to 9 to 10 pounds for a typical musket. The heavy weight of the jezail allowed it to absorb more force from the round, imparting less recoil to the weapon's user.

Many jezails were smooth bore weapons, but some had their barrels rifled. The rifling, combined with the barrel's long length, made these weapons very accurate for their time. The long barrel made reloading easier from horseback, as the butt stock would rest upon the ground while the muzzle would be at eye level.

The firing mechanism was typically either a [[matchlock]] or a [[flintlock]]. Since flintlock mechanisms were complex and difficult to manufacture, many jezails used the lock mechanism from stolen or broken [[Brown Bess]] muskets.

The stocks were hand made and were very ornately decorated. Jezail stocks also featured a very distinctive curve which is not seen in the stocks of other muskets. The exact function of this curve is debated. Some say that it is purely decorative in nature. Others say that the curve of the stock allowed it to be tucked under the arm and cradled tightly against the body, as opposed to being held to the shoulder like a typical musket or rifle. The argument against this method of firing is that the flash pan would be dangerously close to the face and the weapon would be harder to aim. It is more likely that the rifle was only tucked under the arm of the rider whilst riding horse or camel. It has also been stated that the weapon was fired by grasping the stock near the trigger, like a pistol, while the curved portion is tucked under the firers forearm. This allowed the rifle to be fired with one hand while mounted.

Jezails were often fired from a forked rest, or a horn or metal bi-pod.

==The jezail in the Anglo-Afghan Wars==
[[File:Group of Afridi fighters in 1878.jpg|thumb|Group of [[Afridi]] fighters in 1878, pictured with their jezails, during the [[Second Afghan War]].]]
During this period the jezail was the primary ranged weapon of Afghan warriors and was used with great effect against British troops. British Brown Bess smoothbore muskets were effective at only 150 yards and accurate at 50 yards. Because of their advantage in range, Afghan rebels typically used the jezail from the tops of cliffs along valleys and [[defile (geography)|defile]]s during ambushes. This tactic repeatedly devastated the British during their doomed retreat from [[Kabul]] to [[Jalalabad]]. Despite the advantages over the Brown Bess, British forces were typically able to defeat jezail armed Afghans when they fought on relatively flat terrain.

In the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] the British established a [[cantonment]] outside of Kabul with dirt walls approximately waist high. Surrounding the cantonment were several abandoned forts which, although out of range of British muskets, were close enough for jezail fire. When [[ghazi warriors|ghazi]] and other Afghan forces besieged Kabul and the cantonment, they occupied the forts and used them to snipe British forces from a safe range.

A description from the [[British Library]] dating to the First Anglo-Afghan War:<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019xzz000000562u00012000.html Ko-i-staun foot soldiery in summer costume (lithograph, British Library)]</ref>
{{Quotation|Afghan snipers were expert marksmen and their juzzails fired roughened bullets, long iron nails or even pebbles over a range of some 250 metres. The Afghans could fling the large rifles across their shoulders as if they were feathers and spring nimbly from rock to rock. They loved to decorate their rifles: [Lieutenant James] Rattray writes of finding one adorned with human teeth.}}

==The jezail in British literature==
The jezail is most famous, at least in Western literature, as the weapon which wounded [[Dr. Watson]]—the fictional biographer of the fictional detective [[Sherlock Holmes]]—in the [[Battle of Maiwand]] during his military service in Afghanistan. In [[A Study in Scarlet]] Watson mentions being wounded in the shoulder.<ref>Doyle, Arthur Conan. A Study in Scarlet, 1887</ref> However, in [[The Sign of the Four]] Watson gives the location of the wound as in his leg.<ref>Doyle, Arthur Conan. The Sign of the Four, 1890</ref> In [[The Noble Bachelor]] Watson refers to the Jezail bullet being "in one of my limbs." These discrepancies have caused debate by Sherlock Holmes fans about which of these locations is the "correct" location of the wound.

The jezail is mentioned repeatedly in some of Wilbur Smith's books, most notably "Monsoon".

The jezail was also mentioned in the [[George MacDonald Fraser]] adventure ''[[Flashman (novel)|Flashman]]'', whose protagonist describes the awful slaughter of British Army troops retreating from [[Kabul]] to [[Jalalabad]] by Afghan jezailchis.

It is used as a metaphor of a cheap weapon in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poetry describing British casualties in colonial wars:
:''A scrimmage in a Border Station''
:''A canter down some dark defile''
:''Two thousand pounds of education''
:''Drops to a ten-rupee jezail.''

==Contemporary use==
The jezail no longer sees widespread use in warfare of any nature. Limited numbers were, however, used by Afghan Militia during the [[Soviet War in Afghanistan]]. Derivatives of the jezail, barely recognizable, and usually termed 'country-made weapons', are in use in rural India.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* Tanner, Stephen, (2002) ''Afghanistan: A Military History From Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban'', Da Capo Press, ISBN 0-306-81233-9
* "Firearms of the Islamic world in the Tareq Rajab Museum, Kuwait" By Robert Elgood

[[Category:Muskets]]
[[Category:18th-century weapons]]
[[Category:Weapons of Afghanistan]]

[[it:Jezail]]

Große Chinesische Hungersnot

2011-04-14T09:03:08Z

Wingman4l7: /* Alternative perspectives */ -- ref cleanup

{{History of the People's Republic of China}}
The '''Great Chinese Famine''' ({{zh|s=三年大饥荒|t=三年大饑荒|p=Sānnián dà jīhuāng}}), officially referred to as the '''Three Years of Natural Disasters''' ({{zh|s=三年自然灾害|t=三年自然災害|p=Sānnián zìrán zāihài}}), was the period in the [[People's Republic of China]] between 1958 and 1961 characterized by widespread famine. Although some degree of drought and weather conditions contributed to the disaster, most of the deaths can be attributed to policies of the [[Communist Party of China]] which was led by [[Mao Zedong]].

According to government statistics, there were 15 million excess deaths in this period. Unofficial estimates vary, but scholars have estimated the number of famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million.<ref name="xiz">Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," ''Population and Development Review'' 13, no. 4 (1987), 639-70. For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Mao link]</ref>
[[Yang Jisheng]], a former [[Xinhua News Agency]] reporter who spent over ten years gathering information available to no other scholars, estimates excess deaths of 36 million.<ref name=hunger>[http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=18328 "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine."], chinaelections.org, 7 July 2008</ref>

However, other researchers have questioned the methodology at arriving at such a high number of excess deaths, pointing out that the excess mortality would be more fairly calculated relative to the mortality rates that prevailed throughout the rest of the developing world at the time of the Great Leap Forward, or even the mortality rates that prevailed in China prior to 1949 - not the very low official figure for the year 1957 provided by the Chinese govenment.<ref>http://indowindow.com/akhbar/article.php?article=74&category=8&issue=9</ref> Calculating excess deaths in this manner, the total number of excess deaths for the year 1960 has been put at 4.9 million.<ref>Li. Minqi (2008). ''The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy''. [[Monthly Review Press]]. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5</ref> The remaining years of the Great Leap Forward, 1958, 1959, and 1961, experienced mortality rates that were actually lower than those of pre-revolutionary China, and in fact were virtually the same as those of India in the late 1950s and early 1960s.<ref>http://indowindow.com/akhbar/article.php?article=74&category=8&issue=9</ref>

The phrases "Three Years of Economic Difficulty" and "Three Bitter Years" are also used by Chinese officials to describe this period.
==Causes==
Until the early 1980s, the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|Chinese government]]'s stance, reflected by the name "Three Years of Natural Disasters", was that the famine was largely a result of a series of natural disasters compounded by some planning errors. Researchers outside China, however, generally agree that massive institutional and policy changes which accompanied the [[Great Leap Forward]] were the key factors in the famine.<ref>''China: A Century of Revolution''. Narr. Will Lyman. Ed. Howard Sharp. and Sue Williams Dir. (WinStar Home Entertainment, 1997); Demeny, Paul and Geoffrey McNicoll, Eds. "Famine in China". ''Encyclopedia of Population''. vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2003) p. 388-390</ref> Since the 1980s there has been greater official Chinese recognition of the importance of policy mistakes in causing the disaster, claiming that the disaster was 30% due to natural causes and 70% by mismanagement.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

During the [[Great Leap Forward]], farming was organized into [[People's commune|communes]] and the cultivation of private plots forbidden. This forced [[collective farming|collectivisation]] substantially reduced the incentives for peasants to work well. Iron and steel production was identified as a key requirement for economic advancement. Millions of peasants were ordered away from agricultural work to join the iron and steel production workforce.

[[Yang Jisheng]] would summarize the effect of the focus on production targets in 2008:
<blockquote>In Xinyang, people starved at the doors of the grain warehouses. As they died, they shouted, "Communist Party, Chairman Mao, save us". If the granaries of [[Henan]] and [[Hebei]] had been opened, no one need have died. As people were dying in large numbers around them, officials did not think to save them. Their only concern was how to fulfill the delivery of grain.<ref name=trans>Translation from [http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=18328 "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine."], chinaelections.org, 7 July 2008 of content from [[Yang Jisheng]], ''墓碑－－中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 (Mu Bei - - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi)'', Hong Kong: Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), 2008, ISBN 9789882119093{{zh icon}}</ref></blockquote>

Along with collectivisation, the central Government decreed several changes in agricultural techniques based on the ideas of Ukrainian pseudo-scientist [[Trofim Lysenko]].<ref>''The People's Republic of China 1949-76'', second edition, Michael Lynch (London: Hodder Education, 2008), p. 57</ref> One of these ideas was close planting, whereby the density of seedlings was at first tripled and then doubled again. The theory was that plants of the same species would not compete with each other. In practice they did, which stunted growth and resulted in lower yields. Another policy was based on the ideas of Lysenko's colleague Teventy Maltsev, who encouraged peasants across China to [[plowing|plow]] deeply into the soil (up to 1 or 2 meters). They believed the most fertile soil was deep in the earth, allowing extra strong root growth. However, useless rocks, soil, and sand were driven up instead, burying the topsoil.

These radical changes in farming organization coincided with adverse weather patterns including droughts and floods. In July 1959, the [[Yellow River]] flooded in [[East China]]. According to the Disaster Center,<ref>[http://www.disastercenter.com/disaster/TOP100K.html 100 top disasters of the 20th century]</ref> it directly killed, either through starvation from crop failure or drowning, an estimated 2 million people, while other areas were affected in other ways as well. It could be ranked as one of the deadliest natural disasters of the 20th century.<ref>http://listverse.com/2007/09/07/top-10-deadliest-natural-disasters/</ref>

In 1960, at least some degree of drought and other bad weather affected 55% of cultivated land, while an estimated 60% of agricultural land received no rain at all.<ref name="Atimes">[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FD01Ad04.html Asia times online]</ref> The [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] yearbooks from 1958 to 1962 also reported abnormal weather, followed by droughts and floods. This included {{convert|30|in|mm}} of rain in Hong Kong across five days in June 1959, part of a pattern that hit all of [[Southern China]].

As a result of these factors, year over year grain production in China dropped by 15% in 1959. By 1960, it was at 70% of its 1958 level. There was no recovery until 1962, after the Great Leap Forward ended.<ref>{{cite web|title=WHAT CAUSED THE GREAT CHINESE FAMINE?|url=http://www.res.org.uk/society/mediabriefings/pdfs/2000/January/yang3.pdf|date=2000-01-01|accessdate=2009-05-14}}</ref>

According to the work of [[Nobel prize]] winning economist and expert on famines [[Amartya Sen]], most famines do not result just from lower food production, but also from an inappropriate or inefficient distribution of the food, often compounded by lack of information and indeed misinformation as to the extent of the problem. In the case of these Chinese famines, the urban population had protected legal rights for certain amounts of grain consumption. Local officials in the countryside competed to over-report the levels of production that their communes had achieved in response to the new economic organisation and thus local peasants were left with a much reduced residue.

==Outcome==
According to China Statistical Yearbook (1984), crop production decreased from 200 million tons (1958) to 143.5 million tons (1960). Due to lack of food and incentive to marry at that point in time, the population was about 658,590,000 in 1961, about 13,480,000 less than the population of 1959. Birth rate decreased from 2.922% (1958) to 2.086% (1960) and death rate increased from 1.198% (1958) to 2.543% (1960), while the average numbers for 1962–1965 are about 4% and 1%, respectively.

The officially reported death rates show much more dramatic increases in a number of provinces and counties. In Sichuan province, the most populous province in China, for example, the government reported 11 million deaths out of the average population of about 70 million during 1958–1961, one death in every seven people.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} In Huaibin county, Henan province, the government reported 102 thousand deaths out of a population of 378 thousand in 1960. On the national level, the official statistics implies about 15 million so-called "excess deaths" or "abnormal deaths", most of them resulting from starvation.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

Yu Dehong, the secretary of a party official in [[Xinyang]] in 1959 and 1960, stated,
<blockquote>I went to one village and saw 100 corpses, then another village and another 100 corpses. No one paid attention to them. People said that dogs were eating the bodies. Not true, I said. The dogs had long ago been eaten by the people.<ref name=trans/></blockquote>

Experts{{Weasel-inline|date=November 2010}} widely believe that the government seriously under-reported death tolls. Lu Baoguo, a Xinhua reporter in Xinyang, told [[Yang Jisheng]] of why he never reported on his experience:
<blockquote>In the second half of 1959, I took a long-distance bus from Xinyang to [[Luoshan]] and [[Gushi]]. Out of the window, I saw one corpse after another in the ditches. On the bus, no one dared to mention the dead. In one county, [[Guangshan]], one-third of the people had died. Although there were dead people everywhere, the local leaders enjoyed good meals and fine liquor. ... I had seen people who had told the truth being destroyed. Did I dare to write it?<ref name=trans/></blockquote>

Some Western analysts, such as [[Patricia Buckley Ebrey]], estimate that about 20-40 million people had died of starvation caused by bad government policy and natural disasters. J. Banister estimates this number is about 23 million. Li Chengrui, a former minister of the [[National Bureau of Statistics of China]], estimated 22 million (1998). His estimation was based on [[Ansley J. Coale]] and Jiang Zhenghua's estimation of 17 million. Cao Shuji estimated 32.5 million. The aforementioned [[Yang Jisheng]] (2008) estimated the death toll at 36 million.<ref name=hunger/>

==Alternative perspectives==
{{Undue|date=January 2011}}

[[Wim F Wertheim]], emeritus professor from the [[University of Amsterdam]], has questioned the validity of the large number of famine deaths put forward by various researchers. In the article "Wild Swans and Mao's Agrarian Strategy", Wertheim says <blockquote>Often it is argued that at the censuses of the 1960s "between 17 and 29 millions of Chinese" appeared to be missing, in comparison with the official census figures from the 1950s. But these calculations are lacking any semblance of reliability...it is hard to believe that suddenly, within a rather short period (1953-1960), the total population of China had risen from 450 [million] to 600 million.<ref name="Atimes" /></blockquote>

Other scholars have cautioned against taking a one-sided approach to the issue, and to see the issue in a wider context. For example [[Mobo Gao]], Professor of Chinese Studies and director of the [[Confucius Institute]] at the [[University of Adelaide]],<ref>http://www.confucius.adelaide.edu.au/people/mobogao.html</ref> suggested that the Great Leap Forward did in fact have its own logic and rationality, and that its terrible effects came not from malign intent on the part of the Chinese leadership at the time, but instead relate to the structural nature of its rule, and the vastness of China as a country. Gao says "..the terrible lesson learnt is that China is so huge and when it is uniformly ruled, follies or wrong policies will have grave implications of tremendous magnitude".<ref>{{Cite book |author=Gao. Mobo |year=2007 |title=Gao Village: Rural life in modern China |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-3792-9}}</ref>

Others have suggested that while China did undoubtedly experience large numbers of famine deaths in the years 1958 to 1961, this toll has to be evaluated in light of the overall impressive achievement of Maoist China in dramatically improving life expectancy. Gao quotes figures showing that the Maoist revolution gave an estimated net positive value of 35 billion extra years of life to the Chinese people.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Gao. Mobo |year=2008 |title=The Battle for China's Past |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |isbn=978-0-7453-2780-8}}</ref>

Former Chinese [[dissident]] and political prisoner, [[Minqi Li]], a [[Marxist]] Professor of Economics at the [[University of Utah]], has produced data showing that even the peak death rates during the Great Leap Forward were in fact quite typical in pre-Communist China. Li (2008) argues that based on the average death rate over the three years of the Great Leap Forward, there were several million fewer lives lost during this period than would have been the case under normal mortality conditions before 1949.<ref>{{cite book |author=Li. Minqi |year=2008 |title=The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy |publisher=[[Monthly Review Press]] |isbn=978-1-58367-182-5}}</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=January 2011}}

[[Nobel Prize]] winner economist [[Amartya Sen]] presents an alternative interpretation pointing out the lack of social-political freedom as a major factor behind casualties in his book [[Development as Freedom]] and stating that lack of democracy was the major culprit as "Indeed, no substantial famine has ever occurred in a democratic country—no matter how poor." and that "It is hard to imagine that anything like this could have happened in a country that goes to the polls regularly and that has an independent press. During that terrible calamity the government faced no pressure from newspapers, which were controlled, and none from opposition parties, which were absent."<ref name="Sen1999">{{cite book|author=Amartya Kumar Sen|title=Development as freedom|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Qm8HtpFHYecC|accessdate=14 April 2011|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780192893307}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1961)
* [[Great sparrow campaign]]
* [[Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*Ashton, Basil, Kenneth Hill, Alan Piazza, Robin Zeitz, "Famine in China, 1958-61", ''Population and Development Review,'' Vol. 10, No. 4. (Dec., 1984), pp. 613–645.
*Banister, J. "Analysis of recent data on the population of China", ''Population and Development,'' Vol.10, No.2, 1984.
*[[Jasper Becker|Becker, Jasper]] (1998). ''Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine.'' Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 0805056688
*Cao Shuji, The deaths of China's population and its contributing factors during 1959-1961. China's Population Science (Jan.2005) (In Chinese)
*China Statistical Yearbook (1984), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1984.Page 83,141,190
*China Statistical Yearbook (1991), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1991.
*China Population Statistical Yearbook (1985), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Bureau Publishing House, 1985.
*[[Ansley J. Coale|Coale, Ansley J.]], Rapid population change in China, 1952–1982, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1984.
*Li Chengrui(李成瑞): Population Change Caused by The Great Leap Movement, Demographic Study, No.1, 1998 pp. 97–111
*Dikötter, Frank. ''Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62.'' Walker & Company, 2010. ISBN 0802777686
*Jiang Zhenghua(蒋正华)，Method and Result of China Population Dynamic Estimation, Academic Report of Xi'an University, 1986(3). pp46,84
*Peng Xizhe, "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces", ''Population and Development Review,'' Vol. 13, No.4. (Dec., 1987), pp. 639–670
* Thaxton. Ralph A. Jr (2008). ''Catastrophe and Contention in Rural China: Mao's Great Leap Forward Famine and the Origins of Righteous Resistance in Da Fo Village''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0521722306
*Yang, Dali. ''Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine''. Stanford University Press, 1996.
*[[Yang Jisheng]]. ''Tombstone (Mu Bei - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi).'' Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), [[Hong Kong]] 2008.
*Official Chinese [http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/ChinaFood/data/pop/pop_10.htm statistics], shown as a graph.
*[http://www.medindia.net/health_statistics/general/cruderate.asp Death rates in several Asian nations, 1960 to 1994.]
*Gao. Mobo (2007). ''Gao Village: Rural life in modern China''. [[University of Hawaii Press]]. ISBN 978-0-8248-3792-9
*Gao. Mobo (2008). ''The Battle for China's Past''. [[Pluto Press]]. ISBN 978-0-7453-2780-8
*Li. Minqi (2008). ''The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy''. [[Monthly Review Press]]. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5

[[Category:1959 disasters]]
[[Category:1960 disasters]]
[[Category:1961 disasters]]
[[Category:Famines in China]]
[[Category:History of the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:1959 in China]]
[[Category:1960 in China]]
[[Category:1961 in China]]
[[Category:Famines]]
[[Category:Disasters in the People's Republic of China]]

[[es:Gran Hambruna China]]
[[fr:Grande famine de Chine]]
[[it:Grande carestia cinese]]
[[he:הרעב הגדול בסין]]
[[pt:Fome de 1958-1961 na China]]
[[ru:Великий китайский голод]]
[[vi:Nạn đói lớn ở Trung Quốc]]
[[zh:三年困难时期]]

Große Chinesische Hungersnot

2011-04-14T09:03:08Z

Wingman4l7: /* Alternative perspectives */ -- ref cleanup

Große Chinesische Hungersnot

2011-04-14T08:47:07Z

Wingman4l7: /* Causes */ -- minor cleanup

{{History of the People's Republic of China}}
The '''Great Chinese Famine''' ({{zh|s=三年大饥荒|t=三年大饑荒|p=Sānnián dà jīhuāng}}), officially referred to as the '''Three Years of Natural Disasters''' ({{zh|s=三年自然灾害|t=三年自然災害|p=Sānnián zìrán zāihài}}), was the period in the [[People's Republic of China]] between 1958 and 1961 characterized by widespread famine. Although some degree of drought and weather conditions contributed to the disaster, most of the deaths can be attributed to policies of the [[Communist Party of China]] which was led by [[Mao Zedong]].

According to government statistics, there were 15 million excess deaths in this period. Unofficial estimates vary, but scholars have estimated the number of famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million.<ref name="xiz">Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," ''Population and Development Review'' 13, no. 4 (1987), 639-70. For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Mao link]</ref>
[[Yang Jisheng]], a former [[Xinhua News Agency]] reporter who spent over ten years gathering information available to no other scholars, estimates excess deaths of 36 million.<ref name=hunger>[http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=18328 "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine."], chinaelections.org, 7 July 2008</ref>

However, other researchers have questioned the methodology at arriving at such a high number of excess deaths, pointing out that the excess mortality would be more fairly calculated relative to the mortality rates that prevailed throughout the rest of the developing world at the time of the Great Leap Forward, or even the mortality rates that prevailed in China prior to 1949 - not the very low official figure for the year 1957 provided by the Chinese govenment.<ref>http://indowindow.com/akhbar/article.php?article=74&category=8&issue=9</ref> Calculating excess deaths in this manner, the total number of excess deaths for the year 1960 has been put at 4.9 million.<ref>Li. Minqi (2008). ''The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy''. [[Monthly Review Press]]. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5</ref> The remaining years of the Great Leap Forward, 1958, 1959, and 1961, experienced mortality rates that were actually lower than those of pre-revolutionary China, and in fact were virtually the same as those of India in the late 1950s and early 1960s.<ref>http://indowindow.com/akhbar/article.php?article=74&category=8&issue=9</ref>

The phrases "Three Years of Economic Difficulty" and "Three Bitter Years" are also used by Chinese officials to describe this period.
==Causes==
Until the early 1980s, the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|Chinese government]]'s stance, reflected by the name "Three Years of Natural Disasters", was that the famine was largely a result of a series of natural disasters compounded by some planning errors. Researchers outside China, however, generally agree that massive institutional and policy changes which accompanied the [[Great Leap Forward]] were the key factors in the famine.<ref>''China: A Century of Revolution''. Narr. Will Lyman. Ed. Howard Sharp. and Sue Williams Dir. (WinStar Home Entertainment, 1997); Demeny, Paul and Geoffrey McNicoll, Eds. "Famine in China". ''Encyclopedia of Population''. vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2003) p. 388-390</ref> Since the 1980s there has been greater official Chinese recognition of the importance of policy mistakes in causing the disaster, claiming that the disaster was 30% due to natural causes and 70% by mismanagement.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

During the [[Great Leap Forward]], farming was organized into [[People's commune|communes]] and the cultivation of private plots forbidden. This forced [[collective farming|collectivisation]] substantially reduced the incentives for peasants to work well. Iron and steel production was identified as a key requirement for economic advancement. Millions of peasants were ordered away from agricultural work to join the iron and steel production workforce.

[[Yang Jisheng]] would summarize the effect of the focus on production targets in 2008:
<blockquote>In Xinyang, people starved at the doors of the grain warehouses. As they died, they shouted, "Communist Party, Chairman Mao, save us". If the granaries of [[Henan]] and [[Hebei]] had been opened, no one need have died. As people were dying in large numbers around them, officials did not think to save them. Their only concern was how to fulfill the delivery of grain.<ref name=trans>Translation from [http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=18328 "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine."], chinaelections.org, 7 July 2008 of content from [[Yang Jisheng]], ''墓碑－－中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 (Mu Bei - - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi)'', Hong Kong: Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), 2008, ISBN 9789882119093{{zh icon}}</ref></blockquote>

Along with collectivisation, the central Government decreed several changes in agricultural techniques based on the ideas of Ukrainian pseudo-scientist [[Trofim Lysenko]].<ref>''The People's Republic of China 1949-76'', second edition, Michael Lynch (London: Hodder Education, 2008), p. 57</ref> One of these ideas was close planting, whereby the density of seedlings was at first tripled and then doubled again. The theory was that plants of the same species would not compete with each other. In practice they did, which stunted growth and resulted in lower yields. Another policy was based on the ideas of Lysenko's colleague Teventy Maltsev, who encouraged peasants across China to [[plowing|plow]] deeply into the soil (up to 1 or 2 meters). They believed the most fertile soil was deep in the earth, allowing extra strong root growth. However, useless rocks, soil, and sand were driven up instead, burying the topsoil.

These radical changes in farming organization coincided with adverse weather patterns including droughts and floods. In July 1959, the [[Yellow River]] flooded in [[East China]]. According to the Disaster Center,<ref>[http://www.disastercenter.com/disaster/TOP100K.html 100 top disasters of the 20th century]</ref> it directly killed, either through starvation from crop failure or drowning, an estimated 2 million people, while other areas were affected in other ways as well. It could be ranked as one of the deadliest natural disasters of the 20th century.<ref>http://listverse.com/2007/09/07/top-10-deadliest-natural-disasters/</ref>

In 1960, at least some degree of drought and other bad weather affected 55% of cultivated land, while an estimated 60% of agricultural land received no rain at all.<ref name="Atimes">[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FD01Ad04.html Asia times online]</ref> The [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] yearbooks from 1958 to 1962 also reported abnormal weather, followed by droughts and floods. This included {{convert|30|in|mm}} of rain in Hong Kong across five days in June 1959, part of a pattern that hit all of [[Southern China]].

As a result of these factors, year over year grain production in China dropped by 15% in 1959. By 1960, it was at 70% of its 1958 level. There was no recovery until 1962, after the Great Leap Forward ended.<ref>{{cite web|title=WHAT CAUSED THE GREAT CHINESE FAMINE?|url=http://www.res.org.uk/society/mediabriefings/pdfs/2000/January/yang3.pdf|date=2000-01-01|accessdate=2009-05-14}}</ref>

According to the work of [[Nobel prize]] winning economist and expert on famines [[Amartya Sen]], most famines do not result just from lower food production, but also from an inappropriate or inefficient distribution of the food, often compounded by lack of information and indeed misinformation as to the extent of the problem. In the case of these Chinese famines, the urban population had protected legal rights for certain amounts of grain consumption. Local officials in the countryside competed to over-report the levels of production that their communes had achieved in response to the new economic organisation and thus local peasants were left with a much reduced residue.

==Outcome==
According to China Statistical Yearbook (1984), crop production decreased from 200 million tons (1958) to 143.5 million tons (1960). Due to lack of food and incentive to marry at that point in time, the population was about 658,590,000 in 1961, about 13,480,000 less than the population of 1959. Birth rate decreased from 2.922% (1958) to 2.086% (1960) and death rate increased from 1.198% (1958) to 2.543% (1960), while the average numbers for 1962–1965 are about 4% and 1%, respectively.

The officially reported death rates show much more dramatic increases in a number of provinces and counties. In Sichuan province, the most populous province in China, for example, the government reported 11 million deaths out of the average population of about 70 million during 1958–1961, one death in every seven people.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} In Huaibin county, Henan province, the government reported 102 thousand deaths out of a population of 378 thousand in 1960. On the national level, the official statistics implies about 15 million so-called "excess deaths" or "abnormal deaths", most of them resulting from starvation.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

Yu Dehong, the secretary of a party official in [[Xinyang]] in 1959 and 1960, stated,
<blockquote>I went to one village and saw 100 corpses, then another village and another 100 corpses. No one paid attention to them. People said that dogs were eating the bodies. Not true, I said. The dogs had long ago been eaten by the people.<ref name=trans/></blockquote>

Experts{{Weasel-inline|date=November 2010}} widely believe that the government seriously under-reported death tolls. Lu Baoguo, a Xinhua reporter in Xinyang, told [[Yang Jisheng]] of why he never reported on his experience:
<blockquote>In the second half of 1959, I took a long-distance bus from Xinyang to [[Luoshan]] and [[Gushi]]. Out of the window, I saw one corpse after another in the ditches. On the bus, no one dared to mention the dead. In one county, [[Guangshan]], one-third of the people had died. Although there were dead people everywhere, the local leaders enjoyed good meals and fine liquor. ... I had seen people who had told the truth being destroyed. Did I dare to write it?<ref name=trans/></blockquote>

Some Western analysts, such as [[Patricia Buckley Ebrey]], estimate that about 20-40 million people had died of starvation caused by bad government policy and natural disasters. J. Banister estimates this number is about 23 million. Li Chengrui, a former minister of the [[National Bureau of Statistics of China]], estimated 22 million (1998). His estimation was based on [[Ansley J. Coale]] and Jiang Zhenghua's estimation of 17 million. Cao Shuji estimated 32.5 million. The aforementioned [[Yang Jisheng]] (2008) estimated the death toll at 36 million.<ref name=hunger/>

==Alternative perspectives==
{{Undue|date=January 2011}}

[[Wim F Wertheim]], emeritus professor from the [[University of Amsterdam]], has questioned the validity of the large number of famine deaths put forward by various researchers. In the article "Wild Swans and Mao's Agrarian Strategy", Wertheim says <blockquote>Often it is argued that at the censuses of the 1960s "between 17 and 29 millions of Chinese" appeared to be missing, in comparison with the official census figures from the 1950s. But these calculations are lacking any semblance of reliability...it is hard to believe that suddenly, within a rather short period (1953-1960), the total population of China had risen from 450 [million] to 600 million.<ref name="Atimes" /></blockquote>

Other scholars have cautioned against taking a one-sided approach to the issue, and to see the issue in a wider context. For example [[Mobo Gao]], Professor of Chinese Studies and director of the [[Confucius Institute]] at the [[University of Adelaide]],<ref>http://www.confucius.adelaide.edu.au/people/mobogao.html</ref> suggested that the Great Leap Forward did in fact have its own logic and rationality, and that its terrible effects came not from malign intent on the part of the Chinese leadership at the time, but instead relate to the structural nature of its rule, and the vastness of China as a country. Gao says "..the terrible lesson learnt is that China is so huge and when it is uniformly ruled, follies or wrong policies will have grave implications of tremendous magnitude". <ref>Gao. Mobo (2007). ''Gao Village: Rural life in modern China''. [[University of Hawaii Press]]. ISBN 978-0-8248-3792-9</ref>

Others have suggested that while China did undoubtedly experience large numbers of famine deaths in the years 1958 to 1961, this toll has to be evaluated in light of the overall impressive achievement of Maoist China in dramatically improving life expectancy. Gao quotes figures showing that the Maoist revolution gave an estimated net positive value of 35 billion extra years of life to the Chinese people. <ref>Gao. Mobo (2008). ''The Battle for China's Past''. [[Pluto Press]]. ISBN 978-0-7453-2780-8</ref>

Former Chinese [[dissident]] and political prisoner, [[Minqi Li]], a [[Marxist]] Professor of Economics at the [[University of Utah]], has produced data showing that even the peak death rates during the Great Leap Forward were in fact quite typical in pre-Communist China. Li (2008) argues that based on the average death rate over the three years of the Great Leap Forward, there were several million fewer lives lost during this period than would have been the case under normal mortality conditions before 1949.<ref>Li. Minqi (2008). ''The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy''. [[Monthly Review Press]]. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=January 2011}}

[[Nobel Prize]] winner economist, [[Amartya Sen]] presents an alternative interpretation pointing out the lack of social-political freedom as a major factor behind casualties in his book [[Development as Freedom]] and stating that lack of democracy was the major culprit as "Indeed, no substantial famine has ever occurred in a democratic country—no matter how poor." and that "It is hard to imagine that anything like this could have happened in a country that goes to the polls regularly and that has an independent press. During that terrible calamity the government faced no pressure from newspapers, which were controlled, and none from opposition parties, which were absent."
<ref>http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Qm8HtpFHYecC&source=gbs_navlinks_s</ref>

==See also==
* [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1961)
* [[Great sparrow campaign]]
* [[Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*Ashton, Basil, Kenneth Hill, Alan Piazza, Robin Zeitz, "Famine in China, 1958-61", ''Population and Development Review,'' Vol. 10, No. 4. (Dec., 1984), pp. 613–645.
*Banister, J. "Analysis of recent data on the population of China", ''Population and Development,'' Vol.10, No.2, 1984.
*[[Jasper Becker|Becker, Jasper]] (1998). ''Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine.'' Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 0805056688
*Cao Shuji, The deaths of China's population and its contributing factors during 1959-1961. China's Population Science (Jan.2005) (In Chinese)
*China Statistical Yearbook (1984), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1984.Page 83,141,190
*China Statistical Yearbook (1991), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1991.
*China Population Statistical Yearbook (1985), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Bureau Publishing House, 1985.
*[[Ansley J. Coale|Coale, Ansley J.]], Rapid population change in China, 1952–1982, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1984.
*Li Chengrui(李成瑞): Population Change Caused by The Great Leap Movement, Demographic Study, No.1, 1998 pp. 97–111
*Dikötter, Frank. ''Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62.'' Walker & Company, 2010. ISBN 0802777686
*Jiang Zhenghua(蒋正华)，Method and Result of China Population Dynamic Estimation, Academic Report of Xi'an University, 1986(3). pp46,84
*Peng Xizhe, "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces", ''Population and Development Review,'' Vol. 13, No.4. (Dec., 1987), pp. 639–670
* Thaxton. Ralph A. Jr (2008). ''Catastrophe and Contention in Rural China: Mao's Great Leap Forward Famine and the Origins of Righteous Resistance in Da Fo Village''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0521722306
*Yang, Dali. ''Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine''. Stanford University Press, 1996.
*[[Yang Jisheng]]. ''Tombstone (Mu Bei - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi).'' Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), [[Hong Kong]] 2008.
*Official Chinese [http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/ChinaFood/data/pop/pop_10.htm statistics], shown as a graph.
*[http://www.medindia.net/health_statistics/general/cruderate.asp Death rates in several Asian nations, 1960 to 1994.]
*Gao. Mobo (2007). ''Gao Village: Rural life in modern China''. [[University of Hawaii Press]]. ISBN 978-0-8248-3792-9
*Gao. Mobo (2008). ''The Battle for China's Past''. [[Pluto Press]]. ISBN 978-0-7453-2780-8
*Li. Minqi (2008). ''The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy''. [[Monthly Review Press]]. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5

[[Category:1959 disasters]]
[[Category:1960 disasters]]
[[Category:1961 disasters]]
[[Category:Famines in China]]
[[Category:History of the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:1959 in China]]
[[Category:1960 in China]]
[[Category:1961 in China]]
[[Category:Famines]]
[[Category:Disasters in the People's Republic of China]]

[[es:Gran Hambruna China]]
[[fr:Grande famine de Chine]]
[[it:Grande carestia cinese]]
[[he:הרעב הגדול בסין]]
[[pt:Fome de 1958-1961 na China]]
[[ru:Великий китайский голод]]
[[vi:Nạn đói lớn ở Trung Quốc]]
[[zh:三年困难时期]]

Große Chinesische Hungersnot

2011-04-14T08:47:07Z

Wingman4l7: /* Causes */ -- minor cleanup

{{History of the People's Republic of China}}
The '''Great Chinese Famine''' ({{zh|s=三年大饥荒|t=三年大饑荒|p=Sānnián dà jīhuāng}}), officially referred to as the '''Three Years of Natural Disasters''' ({{zh|s=三年自然灾害|t=三年自然災害|p=Sānnián zìrán zāihài}}), was the period in the [[People's Republic of China]] between 1958 and 1961 characterized by widespread famine. Although some degree of drought and weather conditions contributed to the disaster, most of the deaths can be attributed to policies of the [[Communist Party of China]] which was led by [[Mao Zedong]].

According to government statistics, there were 15 million excess deaths in this period. Unofficial estimates vary, but scholars have estimated the number of famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million.<ref name="xiz">Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," ''Population and Development Review'' 13, no. 4 (1987), 639-70. For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Mao link]</ref>
[[Yang Jisheng]], a former [[Xinhua News Agency]] reporter who spent over ten years gathering information available to no other scholars, estimates excess deaths of 36 million.<ref name=hunger>[http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=18328 "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine."], chinaelections.org, 7 July 2008</ref>

However, other researchers have questioned the methodology at arriving at such a high number of excess deaths, pointing out that the excess mortality would be more fairly calculated relative to the mortality rates that prevailed throughout the rest of the developing world at the time of the Great Leap Forward, or even the mortality rates that prevailed in China prior to 1949 - not the very low official figure for the year 1957 provided by the Chinese govenment.<ref>http://indowindow.com/akhbar/article.php?article=74&category=8&issue=9</ref> Calculating excess deaths in this manner, the total number of excess deaths for the year 1960 has been put at 4.9 million.<ref>Li. Minqi (2008). ''The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy''. [[Monthly Review Press]]. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5</ref> The remaining years of the Great Leap Forward, 1958, 1959, and 1961, experienced mortality rates that were actually lower than those of pre-revolutionary China, and in fact were virtually the same as those of India in the late 1950s and early 1960s.<ref>http://indowindow.com/akhbar/article.php?article=74&category=8&issue=9</ref>

The phrases "Three Years of Economic Difficulty" and "Three Bitter Years" are also used by Chinese officials to describe this period.
==Causes==
Until the early 1980s, the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|Chinese government]]'s stance, reflected by the name "Three Years of Natural Disasters", was that the famine was largely a result of a series of natural disasters compounded by some planning errors. Researchers outside China, however, generally agree that massive institutional and policy changes which accompanied the [[Great Leap Forward]] were the key factors in the famine.<ref>''China: A Century of Revolution''. Narr. Will Lyman. Ed. Howard Sharp. and Sue Williams Dir. (WinStar Home Entertainment, 1997); Demeny, Paul and Geoffrey McNicoll, Eds. "Famine in China". ''Encyclopedia of Population''. vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2003) p. 388-390</ref> Since the 1980s there has been greater official Chinese recognition of the importance of policy mistakes in causing the disaster, claiming that the disaster was 30% due to natural causes and 70% by mismanagement.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

During the [[Great Leap Forward]], farming was organized into [[People's commune|communes]] and the cultivation of private plots forbidden. This forced [[collective farming|collectivisation]] substantially reduced the incentives for peasants to work well. Iron and steel production was identified as a key requirement for economic advancement. Millions of peasants were ordered away from agricultural work to join the iron and steel production workforce.

[[Yang Jisheng]] would summarize the effect of the focus on production targets in 2008:
<blockquote>In Xinyang, people starved at the doors of the grain warehouses. As they died, they shouted, "Communist Party, Chairman Mao, save us". If the granaries of [[Henan]] and [[Hebei]] had been opened, no one need have died. As people were dying in large numbers around them, officials did not think to save them. Their only concern was how to fulfill the delivery of grain.<ref name=trans>Translation from [http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=18328 "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine."], chinaelections.org, 7 July 2008 of content from [[Yang Jisheng]], ''墓碑－－中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 (Mu Bei - - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi)'', Hong Kong: Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), 2008, ISBN 9789882119093{{zh icon}}</ref></blockquote>

Along with collectivisation, the central Government decreed several changes in agricultural techniques based on the ideas of Ukrainian pseudo-scientist [[Trofim Lysenko]].<ref>''The People's Republic of China 1949-76'', second edition, Michael Lynch (London: Hodder Education, 2008), p. 57</ref> One of these ideas was close planting, whereby the density of seedlings was at first tripled and then doubled again. The theory was that plants of the same species would not compete with each other. In practice they did, which stunted growth and resulted in lower yields. Another policy was based on the ideas of Lysenko's colleague Teventy Maltsev, who encouraged peasants across China to [[plowing|plow]] deeply into the soil (up to 1 or 2 meters). They believed the most fertile soil was deep in the earth, allowing extra strong root growth. However, useless rocks, soil, and sand were driven up instead, burying the topsoil.

These radical changes in farming organization coincided with adverse weather patterns including droughts and floods. In July 1959, the [[Yellow River]] flooded in [[East China]]. According to the Disaster Center,<ref>[http://www.disastercenter.com/disaster/TOP100K.html 100 top disasters of the 20th century]</ref> it directly killed, either through starvation from crop failure or drowning, an estimated 2 million people, while other areas were affected in other ways as well. It could be ranked as one of the deadliest natural disasters of the 20th century.<ref>http://listverse.com/2007/09/07/top-10-deadliest-natural-disasters/</ref>

In 1960, at least some degree of drought and other bad weather affected 55% of cultivated land, while an estimated 60% of agricultural land received no rain at all.<ref name="Atimes">[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FD01Ad04.html Asia times online]</ref> The [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] yearbooks from 1958 to 1962 also reported abnormal weather, followed by droughts and floods. This included {{convert|30|in|mm}} of rain in Hong Kong across five days in June 1959, part of a pattern that hit all of [[Southern China]].

As a result of these factors, year over year grain production in China dropped by 15% in 1959. By 1960, it was at 70% of its 1958 level. There was no recovery until 1962, after the Great Leap Forward ended.<ref>{{cite web|title=WHAT CAUSED THE GREAT CHINESE FAMINE?|url=http://www.res.org.uk/society/mediabriefings/pdfs/2000/January/yang3.pdf|date=2000-01-01|accessdate=2009-05-14}}</ref>

According to the work of [[Nobel prize]] winning economist and expert on famines [[Amartya Sen]], most famines do not result just from lower food production, but also from an inappropriate or inefficient distribution of the food, often compounded by lack of information and indeed misinformation as to the extent of the problem. In the case of these Chinese famines, the urban population had protected legal rights for certain amounts of grain consumption. Local officials in the countryside competed to over-report the levels of production that their communes had achieved in response to the new economic organisation and thus local peasants were left with a much reduced residue.

==Outcome==
According to China Statistical Yearbook (1984), crop production decreased from 200 million tons (1958) to 143.5 million tons (1960). Due to lack of food and incentive to marry at that point in time, the population was about 658,590,000 in 1961, about 13,480,000 less than the population of 1959. Birth rate decreased from 2.922% (1958) to 2.086% (1960) and death rate increased from 1.198% (1958) to 2.543% (1960), while the average numbers for 1962–1965 are about 4% and 1%, respectively.

The officially reported death rates show much more dramatic increases in a number of provinces and counties. In Sichuan province, the most populous province in China, for example, the government reported 11 million deaths out of the average population of about 70 million during 1958–1961, one death in every seven people.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} In Huaibin county, Henan province, the government reported 102 thousand deaths out of a population of 378 thousand in 1960. On the national level, the official statistics implies about 15 million so-called "excess deaths" or "abnormal deaths", most of them resulting from starvation.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

Yu Dehong, the secretary of a party official in [[Xinyang]] in 1959 and 1960, stated,
<blockquote>I went to one village and saw 100 corpses, then another village and another 100 corpses. No one paid attention to them. People said that dogs were eating the bodies. Not true, I said. The dogs had long ago been eaten by the people.<ref name=trans/></blockquote>

Experts{{Weasel-inline|date=November 2010}} widely believe that the government seriously under-reported death tolls. Lu Baoguo, a Xinhua reporter in Xinyang, told [[Yang Jisheng]] of why he never reported on his experience:
<blockquote>In the second half of 1959, I took a long-distance bus from Xinyang to [[Luoshan]] and [[Gushi]]. Out of the window, I saw one corpse after another in the ditches. On the bus, no one dared to mention the dead. In one county, [[Guangshan]], one-third of the people had died. Although there were dead people everywhere, the local leaders enjoyed good meals and fine liquor. ... I had seen people who had told the truth being destroyed. Did I dare to write it?<ref name=trans/></blockquote>

Some Western analysts, such as [[Patricia Buckley Ebrey]], estimate that about 20-40 million people had died of starvation caused by bad government policy and natural disasters. J. Banister estimates this number is about 23 million. Li Chengrui, a former minister of the [[National Bureau of Statistics of China]], estimated 22 million (1998). His estimation was based on [[Ansley J. Coale]] and Jiang Zhenghua's estimation of 17 million. Cao Shuji estimated 32.5 million. The aforementioned [[Yang Jisheng]] (2008) estimated the death toll at 36 million.<ref name=hunger/>

==Alternative perspectives==
{{Undue|date=January 2011}}

[[Wim F Wertheim]], emeritus professor from the [[University of Amsterdam]], has questioned the validity of the large number of famine deaths put forward by various researchers. In the article "Wild Swans and Mao's Agrarian Strategy", Wertheim says <blockquote>Often it is argued that at the censuses of the 1960s "between 17 and 29 millions of Chinese" appeared to be missing, in comparison with the official census figures from the 1950s. But these calculations are lacking any semblance of reliability...it is hard to believe that suddenly, within a rather short period (1953-1960), the total population of China had risen from 450 [million] to 600 million.<ref name="Atimes" /></blockquote>

Other scholars have cautioned against taking a one-sided approach to the issue, and to see the issue in a wider context. For example [[Mobo Gao]], Professor of Chinese Studies and director of the [[Confucius Institute]] at the [[University of Adelaide]],<ref>http://www.confucius.adelaide.edu.au/people/mobogao.html</ref> suggested that the Great Leap Forward did in fact have its own logic and rationality, and that its terrible effects came not from malign intent on the part of the Chinese leadership at the time, but instead relate to the structural nature of its rule, and the vastness of China as a country. Gao says "..the terrible lesson learnt is that China is so huge and when it is uniformly ruled, follies or wrong policies will have grave implications of tremendous magnitude". <ref>Gao. Mobo (2007). ''Gao Village: Rural life in modern China''. [[University of Hawaii Press]]. ISBN 978-0-8248-3792-9</ref>

Others have suggested that while China did undoubtedly experience large numbers of famine deaths in the years 1958 to 1961, this toll has to be evaluated in light of the overall impressive achievement of Maoist China in dramatically improving life expectancy. Gao quotes figures showing that the Maoist revolution gave an estimated net positive value of 35 billion extra years of life to the Chinese people. <ref>Gao. Mobo (2008). ''The Battle for China's Past''. [[Pluto Press]]. ISBN 978-0-7453-2780-8</ref>

Former Chinese [[dissident]] and political prisoner, [[Minqi Li]], a [[Marxist]] Professor of Economics at the [[University of Utah]], has produced data showing that even the peak death rates during the Great Leap Forward were in fact quite typical in pre-Communist China. Li (2008) argues that based on the average death rate over the three years of the Great Leap Forward, there were several million fewer lives lost during this period than would have been the case under normal mortality conditions before 1949.<ref>Li. Minqi (2008). ''The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy''. [[Monthly Review Press]]. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=January 2011}}

[[Nobel Prize]] winner economist, [[Amartya Sen]] presents an alternative interpretation pointing out the lack of social-political freedom as a major factor behind casualties in his book [[Development as Freedom]] and stating that lack of democracy was the major culprit as "Indeed, no substantial famine has ever occurred in a democratic country—no matter how poor." and that "It is hard to imagine that anything like this could have happened in a country that goes to the polls regularly and that has an independent press. During that terrible calamity the government faced no pressure from newspapers, which were controlled, and none from opposition parties, which were absent."
<ref>http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Qm8HtpFHYecC&source=gbs_navlinks_s</ref>

==See also==
* [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1961)
* [[Great sparrow campaign]]
* [[Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*Ashton, Basil, Kenneth Hill, Alan Piazza, Robin Zeitz, "Famine in China, 1958-61", ''Population and Development Review,'' Vol. 10, No. 4. (Dec., 1984), pp. 613–645.
*Banister, J. "Analysis of recent data on the population of China", ''Population and Development,'' Vol.10, No.2, 1984.
*[[Jasper Becker|Becker, Jasper]] (1998). ''Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine.'' Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 0805056688
*Cao Shuji, The deaths of China's population and its contributing factors during 1959-1961. China's Population Science (Jan.2005) (In Chinese)
*China Statistical Yearbook (1984), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1984.Page 83,141,190
*China Statistical Yearbook (1991), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1991.
*China Population Statistical Yearbook (1985), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Bureau Publishing House, 1985.
*[[Ansley J. Coale|Coale, Ansley J.]], Rapid population change in China, 1952–1982, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1984.
*Li Chengrui(李成瑞): Population Change Caused by The Great Leap Movement, Demographic Study, No.1, 1998 pp. 97–111
*Dikötter, Frank. ''Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62.'' Walker & Company, 2010. ISBN 0802777686
*Jiang Zhenghua(蒋正华)，Method and Result of China Population Dynamic Estimation, Academic Report of Xi'an University, 1986(3). pp46,84
*Peng Xizhe, "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces", ''Population and Development Review,'' Vol. 13, No.4. (Dec., 1987), pp. 639–670
* Thaxton. Ralph A. Jr (2008). ''Catastrophe and Contention in Rural China: Mao's Great Leap Forward Famine and the Origins of Righteous Resistance in Da Fo Village''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0521722306
*Yang, Dali. ''Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine''. Stanford University Press, 1996.
*[[Yang Jisheng]]. ''Tombstone (Mu Bei - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi).'' Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), [[Hong Kong]] 2008.
*Official Chinese [http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/ChinaFood/data/pop/pop_10.htm statistics], shown as a graph.
*[http://www.medindia.net/health_statistics/general/cruderate.asp Death rates in several Asian nations, 1960 to 1994.]
*Gao. Mobo (2007). ''Gao Village: Rural life in modern China''. [[University of Hawaii Press]]. ISBN 978-0-8248-3792-9
*Gao. Mobo (2008). ''The Battle for China's Past''. [[Pluto Press]]. ISBN 978-0-7453-2780-8
*Li. Minqi (2008). ''The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy''. [[Monthly Review Press]]. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5

[[Category:1959 disasters]]
[[Category:1960 disasters]]
[[Category:1961 disasters]]
[[Category:Famines in China]]
[[Category:History of the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:1959 in China]]
[[Category:1960 in China]]
[[Category:1961 in China]]
[[Category:Famines]]
[[Category:Disasters in the People's Republic of China]]

[[es:Gran Hambruna China]]
[[fr:Grande famine de Chine]]
[[it:Grande carestia cinese]]
[[he:הרעב הגדול בסין]]
[[pt:Fome de 1958-1961 na China]]
[[ru:Великий китайский голод]]
[[vi:Nạn đói lớn ở Trung Quốc]]
[[zh:三年困难时期]]

Lunae Palus

2011-04-06T22:59:02Z

Wingman4l7: /* Search for Life */ -- fixed dead link

[[Image:Lunae Palus map.JPG|thumb|300px|Map of Lunae Palus with labels]]

The '''Lunae Palus [[quadrangle (geography)|quadrangle]]''' is one of a series of [[list of quadrangles on Mars|30 quadrangle maps of Mars]] used by the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) [[Astrogeology Research Program]]. The quadrangle is also referred to as MC-10 (Mars Chart-10).<ref>Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. “Geodesy and Cartography” in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.</ref>

The quadrangle covers the area from 45° to 90° west longitude and 0° to 30° north latitude on [[Mars]]. The Viking I Lander (part of [[Viking program]]) landed in the quadrangle on July 20, 1976, at 22.4° N and 47.5° W. It was the first robot spacecraft to successfully land on the Red Planet.<ref>[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4212/ch10.html On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet. 1958-1978, SP-4212. (NASA)]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Mars Viking 11a097.png|Dunes and rocks on Mars, as seen by Viking I Lander. Click on image to see more details.
Image:Mars Viking 11d128.png|Trenches dug into the Martian surface by the Viking I Lander. The color is fairly accurate with the pink sky. The trenches are in the "Sandy Flats" area of the landing site at Chryse Planitia. The boom holding the meteorology sensors is at left. Click on image to see more details.
</gallery>

==Results From Viking I Mission ==

=== What would it look like walking around the landing site ===

The sky would be a light pink. The dirt would also appear pink. Rocks of many sizes would be spread about. One large rock, named Big Joe, is as big as a banquet table. Some boulders would show erosion due to the wind.<ref>Mutch, T. et al. 1976. The Surface of Mars: The View from the Viking 2 Lander. Science: 194. 1277-1283.</ref> There would be many small sand dunes that are still active. The wind speed would typically be 7 meters per second (16 miles per hour). There would be a hard crust on the top of the soil similar to a deposit, called caliche which is common in the U.S. Southwest.<ref>Clark, B. et al. 1978. Implications of Abundant Hygroscopic Minerals in the Martain Regolith. Icarus: 34. 645-665</ref><ref>Toulmin III, P. et al. 1977. Geochemical and Mineralogical Interpretation of the Viking Inorganic Chemical Results. Journal of Geophysical Research: 82. 4624-4634</ref> Such crusts are formed by solutions of minerals moving up through soil and evaporating at the surface.<ref>Arvidson, R. A. Binder, and K. Jones. 1976. The Surface of Mars. Scientific American: 238. 76-89.</ref>

=== Analysis of Soil ===

The soil resembled those produced from the weathering of basaltic [[lava]]s. The tested soil contained abundant [[silicon]] and [[iron]], along with significant amounts of [[magnesium]], [[aluminum]], [[sulfur]], [[calcium]], and [[titanium]]. Trace elements, [[strontium]] and [[yttrium]], were detected. The amount of [[potassium]] was 5 times lower than the average for the Earth's crust. Some chemicals in the soil contained sulfur and [[chlorine]] that were like those remaining after the evaporation of sea water. Sulfur was more concentrated in the crust on top of the soil then in the bulk soil beneath. The sulfur may be present as [[sulfates]] of [[sodium]], magnesium, calcium, or iron. A [[sulfide]] of iron is also possible.<ref>Clark, B. et al. 1976. Inorganic Analysis of Martian Samples at the Viking Landing Sites. Science: 194. 1283-1288.</ref> Both the [[Spirit Rover]] and the [[Opportunity Rover]] also found sulfates on Mars; consequently sulfates may be common on the Martian surface.<ref>[http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040625a.html Press Release Images: Opportunity. 25 June 2004 (JPL/NASA)]</ref> The Opportunity Rover (landed in 2004 with advanced instruments) found magnesium sulfate and calcium sulfate at [[Meridiani Planum]].<ref>Christensen, P. et al. 2004. Mineralogy at Meridiani Planum from the Mini-TES Experiment on the Opportunity Rover. Science: 306. 1733-1739</ref> Using results from the chemical measurements, mineral models suggest that the soil could be a mixture of about 90% iron-rich [[clay]], about 10% [[magnesium sulfate]] ([[kieserite]]?), about 5% [[carbonate]] ([[calcite]]), and about 5% [[iron oxides]] ([[hematite]], [[magnetite]], [[goethite]]?). These minerals are typical weathering products of mafic [[igneous rocks]].<ref>Baird, A. et al. 1976. Mineralogic and Petrologic Implications of Viking Geochemical Results From Mars: Interim Report. Science: 194. 1288-1293.</ref> Studies with [[magnets]] aboard the landers indicated that the soil is between 3 and 7 percent magnetic materials by weight. The magnetic chemicals could be [[magnetite]] and [[maghemite]]. These could come from the weathering of [[basalt]] rock.<ref>Hargraves, R. et al. 1976. Viking Magnetic Properties Investigation: Further Results. Science: 194. 1303-1309.</ref><ref>Arvidson, R, A. Binder, and K. Jones. The Surface of Mars. Scientific American</ref> Experiments carried out by the Mars Spirit Rover (landed in 2004) indicated that magnetite could explain the magnetic nature of the dust and soil on Mars. Magnetite was found in the soil and that the most magnetic part of the soil was dark. Magnetite is very dark.<ref>Bertelsen, P. et al. 2004. Magnetic Properties Experiements on the Mars Exploration rover Spirit at Gusev Crater. Science: 305. 827-829.</ref>

=== Search for Life ===

Viking did three experiments looking for life. The results were surprising and interesting. Most scientists now believe that the data were due to inorganic chemical reactions of the soil. But a few still believe the results were due to living reactions. No organic chemicals were found in the soil; hence nearly all the scientific community thought that no life was found because no organic chemicals were detected. Not finding any organics was unusual since [[meteorites]] raining on Mars for 5 billion years or so would surely bring some organics. Moreover, dry areas of [[Antarctica]] do not have detectable organic compounds either, but they have organisms living in the rocks.<ref>Friedmann, E. 1982. Endolithic Microorganisms in the Antarctic Cold Desert. Science: 215. 1045-1052.</ref> Mars has almost no ozone layer, like the Earth, so UV light sterilizes the surface and produces highly reactive chemicals such as peroxides that would oxidize any organic chemicals.<ref>Hartmann, W. 2003. A Traveler's Guide to Mars. Workman Publishing. NY NY.</ref> Perchlorate may be the oxidizing chemical. The [[Phoenix Lander]] discovered the chemical [[perchlorate]] in the Martian Soil. Perchlorate is a strong oxidant so it may have destroyed any organic matter on the surface.<ref>[http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0806_Alien_Rumors_Quelled_as_NASA_Announces.html Alien Rumors Quelled as NASA Announces Phoenix Perchlorate Discovery.] A.J.S. Rayl, August 6, 2008.</ref> If it is widespread on Mars, carbon-based life would be difficult at the soil surface.

The question of life on Mars received a new, important twist when research, published in the Journal of Geophysical Research in September 2010, proposed that organic compounds were actually present in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and 2. NASA's Phoenix lander in 2008 detected perchlorate which can break down organic compounds. The study's authors found that perchlorate will destroy organics when heated and will produce chloromethane and dichloromethane, the identical chlorine compounds discovered by both Viking landers when they performed the same tests on Mars. Because perchlorate would have broken down any Martian organics, the question of whether or not Viking found life is still wide open.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/100904081050.htm NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Did Viking Mars landers find life's building blocks? Missing piece inspires new look at puzzle." ScienceDaily 5 September 2010.]</ref>

==Vallis==

'''''Vallis''''' (plural ''valles'') is the [[Latin]] word for ''[[valley]]''. It is used in [[planetary geology]] for the naming of [[landform]] features on other planets.

'''''Vallis''''' (plural ''valles'') was used for old river valleys that were discovered on Mars, when we probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Orbiting cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<ref name="Kieffer1992">{{cite book|author=Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=9780816512577}}</ref><ref name="Raeburn1998">Raeburn, P. 1998. Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars. National Geographic Society. Washington D.C.</ref><ref name="Moore1990">Moore, P. et al. 1990. The Atlas of the Solar System. Mitchell Beazley Publishers NY, NY.</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Bahram Vallis.JPG|[[Bahram Vallis]], as seen by [[HiRISE]]. Rotational landslides (slumps) are visible at the base of north wall.

Image:Maja Valles Streamlined Island.jpg|[[Maja Valles]] Streamlined Island, as seen by HiRISE. Island formed behind the impact crater at the lower right.

Image:Tyras Vallis Fan Deposit.JPG|[[Tyras Vallis]] Fan Deposit, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see layers.

Image:Tyrasvallis2.JPG|[[Tyras Vallis]] Fan Deposit at a different sun angle. The scale bar is 500 meters long. This image is just to the right of the previous image.

Image:Nanedi Valles.jpg|[[Nanedi Valles]], as seen by [[THEMIS]].

Image:Nanedi Valles Close-up.JPG|Nanedi Valles Close-up, as seen by THEMIS.

Image:Vedra, Maumee, and Maja Vallis.JPG|Waters from [[Vedra Vallis]], [[Maumee Vallis]], and [[Maja Valles]] went from Lunae Planum on the left, to [[Chryse Planitia]] on the right. Image is located in Lunae Palus quadrangle and was taken by [[Viking Orbiter]].

</gallery>

== River Valleys Observed by Viking Orbiters ==

The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars. Huge river valleys were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<ref name="Kieffer1992"/><ref name="Raeburn1998"/><ref name="Moore1990"/>

<gallery>

Image:Bahram Vallis from Viking.jpg|[[Bahram Vallis]], as seen by Viking. Valley is located in Northern Lunae Planum and the Lunae Palus quadrangle. It lies nearly midway between [[Vedra Vallis]] and lower [[Kasei Vallis]].

Image:Streamlined Islands in Maja Vallis.jpg|Streamlined Islands in [[Maja Valles]] as seen by Viking showed that large floods occurred on Mars. Image is located in Lunae Palus quadrangle.

Image:Detail of Maja Vallis Flow.jpg|Great amounts of water were required to carry out the erosion shown in this Viking image of a small part of [[Maja Valles]]. Image is located in Lunae Palus quadrangle.

</gallery>

== Mars Science Laboratory ==

[[Hypanis Vallis]], in the Lunae Palus quadrangle, is one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the [[Mars Science Laboratory]]. The aim of the Mars Science Laboratory is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12 mile wide, smooth, flat circle is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded.<ref>http://themis.asu.edu/features/ianichaos</ref> They would like to examine sediment layers.

<gallery>
Image:Hypanis Vallis.JPG|[[Hypanis Vallis]], as seen by HiRISE. Scale bar is 500 meters long.
</gallery>

== Kasei Valles ==

One of the most significant features of the Lunae Palus region, Kasei Valles, is one of the largest outflow channels on Mars. Like other outflow channels, it was carved by liquid water, probably during gigantic floods.

Kasei is about 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles) long. Some sections of Kasei Valles are 300 kilometers (200 miles) wide. It begins in [[Echus Chasma]], near [[Valles Marineris]], and empties into [[Chryse Planitia]], not far from where [[Viking 1]] landed. Sacra Mensa, a large tableland, divides Kasei into northern and southern channels. It is one of the longest continuous outflow channels on Mars. At around 20° north latitude Kasei Valles splits into two channels, called Kasei Vallis Canyon and North Kasei Channel. These branches recombine at around 63° west longitude. Some parts of Kasei Valles are 2–3 km deep.<ref>Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. University of Texas Press. Austin</ref>

Scientists suggest it was formed several episodes of flooding and maybe by some glacial activity.<ref>http://themis.asu.edu/features_kaseivalles</ref>

<gallery>

Image:Kasei Valles topolabled.JPG|Area around Northern Kasei Valles, showing relationships among [[Kasei Valles]], [[Bahram Vallis]], [[Vedra Vallis]], [[Maumee Vallis]], and [[Maja Valles]]. Map location is in Lunae Palus quadrangle and includes parts of Lunae Planum and [[Chryse Planitia]].

Image:Kasei Vallis.JPG|[[Kasei Vallis]], as seen by [[THEMIS]].
</gallery>

==Deltas ==

Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had a lot of water. Deltas often require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range.<ref>Irwin III, R. et al. 2005. An intense terminal epoch of widespread fluvial activity on early Mars: 2. Increased runoff and paleolake development. Journal of Geophysical Research: 10. E12S15</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Delta in Lunae Palus.jpg|Delta in Lunae Palus quadrangle, as seen by THEMIS.

Image:Delta as seen by HiRISE.jpg|Delta that fills a crater, as seen by HiRISE.

</gallery>

==Craters==

Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 Km in diameter) they usually have a central peak.<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/stones/</ref> The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact.<ref name="Kieffer1992"/> Sometimes craters will display layers. Craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.

<gallery>

Image:Fesenkov Crater Central Peak.JPG|[[Fesenkov Crater]] Central Peak, as seen by [[HiRISE]].

Image:Santa Fe Crater wide view.jpg|[[Santa Fe Crater]], as seen by HiRISE.

Image:Santa Fe Crater close up.jpg|Close up of gullies in previous image, as seen by HiRISE.

Image:Canso crater.jpg|Canso Crater

Image:Canso Crater.JPG|[[Canso Crater]] North Wall and Floor, as seen by HiRISE.

Image:Montevallo Crater.jpg|[[Montevallo Crater]], as seen by THEMIS. Image shows a landslide on the north rim.

</gallery>

==Fossa==

Large troughs (long narrow depressions) are called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. This term is derived from Latin; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural.<ref>http://www.marsartgallery.com/marsnames.html</ref> Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks. The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano. Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes.<ref>Skinner, J., L. Skinner, and J. Kargel. 2007. Re-assessment of Hydrovolcanism-based Resurfacing within the Galaxias Fossae Region of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII (2007)</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Labeatis Fossae.jpg|[[Labeatis Fossae]], as seen by THEMIS.

Image:Labeatis Fossae Close-up.JPG|Close-up view of Labeatis Fossae, as seen by THEMIS.

</gallery>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Echus Montes.JPG|[[Echus Montes]], as seen [[CTX (camera)|CTX]]. Click on image to see a semi-cicular deposit (in the upper right) that is a landslide.

Image:Layers in Monument Valley.jpg|Layers in Monument Valley. These are accepted as being formed, at least in part, by water deposition. Since Mars contains similar layers, water remains as a major cause of layering on Mars.

Image:Ister Chaos.jpg|[[Ister Chaos]], as seen by HiRISE.

Image:Ister Chaos Close-up.JPG|Close-up of Ister Chaos, as seen by HiRISE.

</gallery>

==See also==

* [[Climate of Mars]]
* [[Water on Mars]]
* [[Geology of Mars]]
* [[Impact crater]]
* [[Vallis]]
* [[Fossa (geology)]]
* [[Viking program]]
* [[Chaos terrain]]
* [[River delta]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Mars quadrangle layout}}

[[Category:Lunae Palus quadrangle|*]]

[[fr:Quadrangle de Lunae Palus]]
[[pt:Quadrângulo de Lunae Palus]]

Cebrenia (Gradfeld)

2011-04-06T22:57:50Z

Wingman4l7: /* Search for Life */ -- fixed broken link

The '''Cebrenia [[quadrangle (geography)|quadrangle]]''' is one of a series of [[list of quadrangles on Mars|30 quadrangle maps of Mars]] used by the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) [[Astrogeology Research Program]]. The quadrangle is located in the northeastern portion of Mars’ eastern hemisphere and covers 120° to 180° east longitude (180° to 240° west longitude) and 30° to 65° north latitude. The quadrangle uses a [[Lambert conformal conic projection]] at a nominal scale of 1:5,000,000 (1:5M). The Cebrenia quadrangle is also referred to as MC-7 (Mars Chart-7).<ref>Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. “Geodesy and Cartography” in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.</ref>

The southern and northern borders of the Cebrenia quadrangle are approximately 3,065 km and 1,500 km wide, respectively. The north to south distance is about 2,050 km (slightly less than the length of Greenland).<ref>Distances calculated using NASA World Wind measuring tool. http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/.</ref> The quadrangle covers an approximate area of 4.9 million square km, or a little over 3% of Mars’ surface area.<ref>Approximated by integrating latitudinal strips with area of R^2 (L1-L2)(cos(A)dA) from 30° to 65° latitude; where R = 3889 km, A is latitude, and angles expressed in radians. See: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/1340223/calculating-area-enclosed-by-arbitrary-polygon-on-earths-surface.</ref>

== Origin of Name==

Cebrenia is a [[classical albedo features on Mars|telescopic albedo feature]] located at 50° N and 150° E on Mars. The feature is named after the plains around ancient Troy. The name was approved by the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) in 1958.<ref>USGS Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Mars. http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/.</ref>

==Physiography and Geology==

The quadrangle's prominent features are the large craters [[Mie]] and Stokes, a [[volcano]], [[Hecates Tholus]], and a group of mountains, Phlegra Montes. This area is a flat, smooth plain for the most part, so the relatively large craters Mie and Stokes really stand out.
[[Image:Viking2lander1.jpg|thumb|right|Image from Mars taken by Viking 2]]

Viking II (part of [[Viking program]]) landed near Mie on September 3, 1976. It's landing coordinates were 48° N and 226° W.<ref>www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/Histroy/SP-4212/ch10.html</ref>

==Results From Viking II Mission ==
=== What would it look like walking around the landing site ===
The sky would be a light pink. The dirt would also appear pink. The surface would be uneven; the soil would be formed into troughs. Large rocks would be spread about. Most of the rocks are similar in size. Many of the rocks would have small holes or bubbles on their surfaces caused by gas escaping after the rocks came to the surface. Some boulders would show erosion due to the wind. Many rocks would appear to be perched, as if wind removed much of the soil at their bases.<ref>Mutch, T. et al. 1976. The Surface of Mars: The View from the Viking 2 Lander. Science: 194. 1277-1283.</ref><ref>Hartmann, W. 2003. A Traveler's Guide to Mars. Workman Publishing. NY NY.</ref> In the winter snow or frost would cover most of the ground. There would be many small sand dunes that are still active. The wind speed would typically be 7 meters per second (16 miles per hour). There would be a hard crust on the top of the soil similar to a deposit, called caliche which is common in the U.S. Southwest. Such crusts are formed by solutions of minerals moving up through soil and evaporating at the surface.<ref>Arvidson, R. A. Binder, and K. Jones. 1976. The Surface of Mars. Scientific American: 238. 76-89.</ref> Scientists, in a September, 2009 article in the journal Science, have asserted that if Viking II only dug four (4) inches deeper, it would have reached a layer of almost pure ice.<ref>http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/090924-mars-crater-ice.html</ref ref>http://news.aol.com/article/nasa-spacecraft-sees-ice-on-mars-exposed/686020</ref><ref>http://nasa.gov/mission/MRO/news/mro20090924.html</ref>

=== Analysis of Soil ===
The soil resembled those produced from the weathering of basaltic [[lava]]s. The tested soil contained abundant [[silicon]] and [[iron]], along with significant amounts of [[magnesium]], [[aluminum]], [[sulfur]], [[calcium]], and [[titanium]]. Trace elements, [[strontium]] and [[yttrium]], were detected. The amount of [[potassium]] was 5 times lower than the average for the Earth's crust. Some chemicals in the soil contained sulfur and [[chlorine]] that were like typical compounds remaining after the evaporation of sea water. Sulfur was more concentrated in the crust on top of the soil then in the bulk soil beneath. The sulfur may be present as [[sulfates]] of [[sodium]], magnesium, calcium, or iron. A [[sulfide]] of iron is also possible.<ref>Clark, B. et al. 1976. Inorganic Analysis of Martian Samples at the Viking Landing Sites. Science: 194. 1283-1288.</ref> The [[Spirit Rover]] and the [[Opportunity Rover]] both found sulfates on Mars.<ref>http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040625a.html</ref> The Opportunity Rover (landed in 2004 with advanced instruments) found magnesium sulfate and calcium sulfate at [[Meridiani Planum]].<ref>Christensen, P. et al. 2004. Mineralogy at Meridiani Planum from the Mini-TES Experiment on the Opportunity Rover. Science: 306. 1733-1739</ref> Using results from the chemical measurements, mineral models suggest that the soil could be a mixture of about 90% iron-rich [[clay]], about 10% [[magnesium sulfate]] ([[kieserite]]?), about 5% [[carbonate]] ([[calcite]]), and about 5% [[iron oxides]] ([[hematite]], [[magnetite]], [[goethite]]?). These minerals are typical weathering products of mafic [[igneous rocks]].<ref>Baird, A. et al. 1976. Mineralogic and Petrologic Implications of Viking Geochemical Results From Mars: Interim Report. Science: 194. 1288-1293.</ref><ref>Toulmin III, P. et al. 1977. Geochemical and Mineralogical Interpretation of the Viking Inorganic Chemical Results. Journal of Geophysical Research: 82. 4625-4634.</ref><ref>Clark, B. et al. 1982. Chemical Composition of Martian Fines. Journal of Geophysical Research: 87. 10059-10097</ref> Studies with [[magnets]] aboard the landers indicated that the soil is between 3 and 7 percent magnetic materials by weight. The magnetic chemicals could be [[magnetite]] and [[maghemite]]. These could come from the weathering of [[basalt]] rock.<ref>Hargraves, R. et al. 1976. Viking Magnetic Properties Investigation: Further Results. Science: 194. 1303-1309.</ref><ref>Arvidson, R, A. Binder, and K. Jones. The Surface of Mars. Scientific American</ref> Experiments carried out by the Mars Spirit Rover (landed in 2004) indicated that magnetite could explain the magnetic nature of the dust and soil on Mars. Magnetite was found in the soil and that the most magnetic part of the soil was dark. Magnetite is very dark.<ref>Bertelsen, P. et al. 2004. Magnetic Properties Experiments on the Mars Exploration rover Spirit at Gusev Crater. Science: 305. 827-829.</ref>

=== Search for Life ===
Viking did three experiments to look for life. The results were surprising and interesting. Most scientists now believe that the data were due to inorganic chemical reactions of the soil, although a few scientists still believe the results were due to living reactions. No organic chemicals were found in the soil. However, dry areas of [[Antarctica]] do not have detectable organic compounds either, but they have organisms living in the rocks.<ref>Friedmann, E. 1982. Endolithic Microorganisms in the Antarctic Cold Desert. Science: 215. 1045-1052.</ref> Mars has almost no ozone layer, like the Earth, so UV light sterilizes the surface and produces highly reactive chemicals such as peroxides that would oxidize any organic chemicals.<ref>Hartmann, W. 2003. A Traveler's Guide to Mars. Workman Publishing. NY NY.</ref> The [[Phoenix Lander]] discovered the chemical [[perchlorate]] in the Martian Soil. Perchlorate is a strong oxidant so it may have destroyed any organic matter on the surface.<ref>[http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0806_Alien_Rumors_Quelled_as_NASA_Announces.html Alien Rumors Quelled as NASA Announces Phoenix Perchlorate Discovery.] A.J.S. Rayl, August 6, 2008.</ref> If it is widespread on Mars, carbon-based life would be difficult at the soil surface.

Research, published in the Journal of Geophysical Research in September 2010, proposed that organic compounds were actually present in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and 2. NASA's Phoenix lander in 2008 detected perchlorate which can break down organic compounds. The study's authors found that perchlorate will destroy organics when heated and will produce chloromethane and dichloromethane, the identical chlorine compounds discovered by both Viking landers when they performed the same tests on Mars. Because perchlorate would have broken down any Martian organics, the question of whether or not Viking found life is still wide open.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/100904081050.htm</ref>

== Ice Exposed in New Craters==

Impressive research, reported in the journal Science in September 2009,<ref>Byrne, S. et al. 2009. Distribution of Mid-Latitude Ground Ice on Mars from New Impact Craters: 329.1674-1676</ref> has showed that some new craters on Mars show exposed, pure, water ice. After a time, the ice disappears, evaporating into the atmosphere. The ice is only a few feet deep. The ice was confirmed with the Compact Imaging Spectrometer (CRISM)] onboard the [[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]] (MRO). The ice was found in a total of 5 locations. Three of the locations are in the Cebrenia quadrangle. These locations are 55.57° N, 150.62° E; 43.28° N, 176.9° E; and 45° N, 164.5° E. .<ref>http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/090924-mars-crater-ice.html</ref><ref>http://news.aol.com/article/nasa-spacecraft-sees-ice-on-mars-exposed/686020</ref><ref>http://nasa.gov/mission/MRO/news/mro20090924.html</ref>
This discovery proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, then taken apart to provide fresh [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]] for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the powerful fuel used by the [[space shuttle]] main engines

<gallery>
Image:Ice exposed by impact.jpg|Bright part is water ice that has been exposed by impact. The ice was identified using CRISM on the MRO.

</gallery>

==Other Craters==

Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits.<ref name="Kieffer1992">{{cite book|author=Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=9780816512577}}</ref> Sometimes craters will display layers. Since the collision that produces a crater is like a powerful explosion, rocks from deep underground are tossed onto the surface. Hence, craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.

<gallery>
Image:Kufra Crater Floor.JPG|[[Kufra Crater]] Floor, as seen by HiRISE. Pits are thought to be caused by escaping water.

Image:Fenagh Crater Ejecta.JPG|[[Fenagh Crater]] Ejecta, as seen by HiRISE.

Image:Chincoteague_Crater.jpg|[[Chincoteague Crater]], as seen by HiRISE.

Image:Chincoteague_Crater_close_up.jpg|Close up of Chincoteague Crater, as seen by HiRISE. Image close up view of previous image. Note the gullies and associated landforms.
</gallery>

== Hecates ==
Recent research leads scientists to believe that Hecates erupted explosively about 350 million years ago which is a not that long ago for Mars. The eruptions created depressions on the flanks of the volcano. And just five million years ago, glacial deposits formed inside these depressions.<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn/id/7209308/</ref> Some valleys on Hecates show a parallel drainage pattern.<ref name="Kieffer1992">{{cite book|author=Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=9780816512577}}</ref>

<gallery>

Image:Hecates Tholus.gif|[[Hecates Tholus]], as seen by Mars Global Surveyor.

Image:MOLA hecates tholus.jpg|Hecates Tholus topography.

Image:Hecates Tholus Ridges.JPG|[[Hecates Tholus]] Ridges, as seen by [[HiRISE]]. Ridges are to the west-northwest of Hecates Tholus.

Image:Buvinda Vallis.jpg|[[Buvinda Vallis]], as seen by THEMIS. Buvinda Vallis is associated with Hecates Tholus; it lies just east of Hecates Tholus.

</gallery>

== Volcano ice interactions ==
Large amounts of water ice are believed to be present under the surface of Mars. Some channels lie near volcanic areas. When hot subsurface molten rock comes close to this ice, large amounts of liquid water and mud may be formed. [[Hrad Valles]] in the Cebrenia quadrangle is close to [[Elysium Mons]], a large [[volcano]], and may have supplied water to create the channel. Hrad Valles is pictured below.<ref>http://themis.asu.edu/zoom-20020715a.html</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Hrad Valles in Cebrenia.JPG|[[Hrad Valles]] may have been formed when the large Elysium Mons volcanic complex melted ground ice, as seen by [[THEMIS]].

Image:Hrad Vallis.JPG|Streamlined islands in [[Hrad Valles]], as seen by [[HiRISE]].
</gallery>

== Galaxias Region ==

<gallery>

Image:Galaxius Mons.JPG|[[Galaxius Mons]], as seen by HiRISE. The black line was a section that was not imaged. There are many more details visible on the original image.

Image:Galaxias Fossae Trough.JPG|[[Galaxias Fossae]] Trough, as seen by HiRISE.

Image:Galaxiaschaosctx.jpg|[[Galaxias Chaos]] as seen by CTX. The scene in the next image is a part of this picture.

Image:Galaxiaschaoshirist.jpg|Galaxias Chaos as seen by HiRISE.

</gallery>

== Additional Images in Cebrenia quadrangle ==

<gallery>
Image:Cebrenia map.JPG|Map of Cebrenia. [[Viking II]] landed near Mie crater. The volcano Hecates probably has [[glaciers]] on its slopes.

Image:Apsus Vallis.JPG|[[Apsus Vallis]], as seen by THEMIS. Apsus is near the Elysium volcanic system; it may have been partially formed by the action of lava.

Image:Phlegra Montes.JPG|Material moving down slope in [[Phlegra Montes]], as seen by HiRISE. Movement is probably aided by water/ice.

Image:Lobate Debris Apron in Phlegra Montes.JPG|[[Lobate Debris Apron]] in [[Phlegra Montes]], as seen by HiRISE. The debris apron is probably mostly ice with a thin covering of rock debris, so it could be a source of water for future Martian colonists. Scale bar is 500 meters long.

Image:Hephaestus Fossae Two Vews.JPG|[[Hephaestus Fossae]] Two Views, as seen by HiRISE. Picture on right lies to the top (north) of other picture. [[Fossa (geology)]] often form by material moving into an underground void.

Image:Lycus Sulci from HiRISE.JPG|Surface features of [[Lycus Sulci]], as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.

</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==

* [[Climate of Mars]]
* [[Water on Mars]]
* [[Geology of Mars]]
* [[Impact crater]]
* [[Vallis]]
* [[Volcanism on Mars]]
* [[Glacier]]

{{Mars quadrangle layout}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cebrenia Quadrangle}}
[[Category:Cebrenia quadrangle|*]]

[[fr:Quadrangle de Cebrenia]]
[[pt:Quadrângulo de Cebrenia]]