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Liste der Nationalschätze von Nordkorea

2006-09-25T07:51:51Z

WinBot: BOT - Unicodifying

There are 50 designated '''national treasures of North Korea'''.

:1. [[Pyŏngyang Castle]], [[Pyongyang]]
:2. [[Pot'ongmun]], Pyongyang
:3. [[Kangsŏ Great Tomb]], [[Kangsŏ-kun]], [[South Pyongan]]
:4. [[Kangsŏ Medium Tomb]], Kangsŏ-kun, South Pyongan
:5. [[Kangsŏ Small Tomb]], Kangsŏ-kun, South Pyongan
:6. Yaksu-ri rock-paintings tomb, Kangsŏ-kun, South Pyongan
:7. Lotus-blossom tomb, Kangsŏ-kun, South Pyongan
:8. T'aesŏng-ri tomb #1, Kangsŏ-kun, South Pyongan
:9. T'aesŏng-ri tomb #2, Kangsŏ-kun, South Pyongan
:10. Ryonggang Great Tomb, Ryonggang-kun, [[Nampo]]-si, South Pyongan
:11. Taean-dong rock-paintings tomb #1, Taean-kuyŏk, Nampo-si, South Pyongan
:12. Twin Pillars Tomb, Ryonggang-kun, Nampo-si, South Pyongan
:13. Hunting Tomb, Waudo-kuyŏk, Nampo-si, South Pyongan
:14. Kansin Tomb, Onch'ŏn-kun, South Pyongan
:15. Star Tomb, Onch'ŏn-kun, South Pyongan
:16. [[Chŏmjebi]], Onch'ŏn-kun, South Pyongan, the oldest written inscription in Korea (c. 85 CE).
:17. Koguryŏ Tomb Complex of Chinp'a-ri, southeastern Pyongyang
:18. Tomb of [[Dongmyeong of Goguryeo|King Dongmyeong]]
:19. Ch'ŏnwangji Tomb, [[Sunch'on, North Korea|Sunch'ŏn-si]], South Pyongan
:20. Ryodongsŏng Tomb, [[Sunch'on, North Korea|Sunch'ŏn-si]], South Pyongan
:21. [[Pakch'ŏn Simwŏnsa]], [[Pakch'ŏn]]-ŭp, [[North Pyongan]]
:22. [[Pohyŏnsa]], Buddhist temple on [[Myohyangsan]], [[Hyangsan]]-kun, North Pyongan
:23. 13-storied octagonal stone pagoda of Pohyŏnsa
:24. Five-storied pagoda of [[Haeju]]-si, [[South Hwanghae]]
:25. [[Dharani]] monument of Haeju
:26. Anak tomb No. 1, [[Anak-kun]], South Hwanghae
:27. Anak tomb No. 2, Anak-kun, South Hwanghae
:28. [[Anak tomb No. 3]], Anak-kun, South Hwanghae
:29. Kwansan-ri dolmen, Ŭllyul-kun, South Hwanghae
:30. 5-storied pagoda of [[Hangnimsa]], [[Changyŏn-kun]], South Hwanghae
:31. [[Sŏngbulsa]], Buddhist temple in [[Pongsan-kun]], [[North Hwanghae]]
:32. 5-storied pagoda of Sŏngbulsa
:33. [[Yŏnt'an Simwŏnsa]] on [[Chŏngbangsan]]
:34. [[Namdaemun (Kaesong)|Namdaemun]], [[Kaesong]]
:35. 5-storied pagoda of [[Purilsa]], [[P'anmun-kun]], [[Kaesong]]
:36. [[Sŏnjuk Bridge]], Kaesong
:37. 5-storied pagoda of [[Ryŏngt'ongsa]] on [[Ogwansan]], Kaesong
:38. 3-storied pagoda of Ryŏngt'ongsa
:39. Tomb of [[Gongmin of Goryeo|King Kongmin]], [[Kaepung-kun]], Kaesong
:40. [[Hyŏnhwansa]] monument, [[Changpung-kun]], Kaesong
:41. 7-storied pagoda of Hyŏnhwansa
:42. [[Kahangnu]] pavilion, [[Anbyŏn]]-kun, [[Kangwon-do (North Korea)|Kangwon]]
:43. [[Sŏgwangsa]], Buddhist temple in [[Kosan-kun]], Kangwon
:44. 3-storied pagoda of [[Changyŏnsa]], [[Kŭmgang-kun]], Kangwon
:45. Lion Pagoda of Kŭmjangam, Kŭmgang-kun, Kangwon
:46. [[Myogilsang]] statue, Kŭmgang-kun, Kangwon
:47. Stone lantern of [[Myogilsa]], Kŭmgang-kun, Kangwon
:48. Monuments of [[Jinheung of Silla|King Chinhŭng]]
:49. South Gate of Ky&335;ngsŏng-ŭp, [[Kyŏngsŏng-kun]], [[North Hamgyŏng]]
:50. [[Suhangnu]] pavilion on the [[Tumen River]], [[Onsŏn-kun]], North Hamgyŏng

==See also==
*[[National treasures of South Korea]]
*[[List of Korea-related topics]]
*[[Korean culture]]

==References==
http://nk.chosun.com/tour/tour.html?ACT=TourPlace013

[[Category:National treasures of North Korea|National treasures of North Korea]]
[[Category:Korea-related lists]]

Benutzer:Reinhard Kraasch/Public holidays in Australia

2006-08-28T12:56:08Z

WinBot: BOT - Unicodifying

[[Australia]] has ten standard '''public holidays''' nationally. Public holidays have been determined through a combination of:
* Statutes, with specific gazetting of public holidays; and
* Industrial awards and agreements.

In some states an additional day such as Melbourne Cup Day is provided on a local basis.

== National holidays ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Date !! Name
|-
| [[1 January]] || [[New Year's Day]]
|-
| 26 January || [[Australia Day]]
|-
| [[Easter]] || [[Good Friday]]
|-
| Easter || [[Easter Saturday]]
|-
| Easter || [[Easter Monday]]
|-
| [[25 April]] || [[Anzac Day]]
|-
| 1st Monday on or after [[June 9]] || [[Queen's Birthday]] except [[Western Australia|WA]]
|-
| [[25 December]] || [[Christmas Day]]
|-
| [[26 December]] or [[27 December]] || [[Boxing Day]] except [[South Australia]]
|-
|}

== Other holidays ==
*The [[Labour Day]] public holiday is fixed by the various states and territories' governments, and so varies considerably.
**The first Monday in October in the [[Australian Capital Territory]], [[New South Wales]] and [[South Australia]]
**The second Monday in March in both [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[Tasmania]]
**The first Monday in March in [[Western Australia]]
**The first Monday in May in both [[Queensland]] and the [[Northern Territory]]
**Tasmania has [[Eight Hours Day]] held in March.

*[[Proclamation Day]] is in December in South Australia only.
*[[Canberra Day]] is held in March in the ACT
*[[Melbourne Cup Day]] is held on the first Tuesday of November - the day of the [[Melbourne Cup]] in the Melbourne metropolitan area.
*[[Adelaide Cup]] Day in May in South Australia
*[[Foundation Day]] in Western Australia in June
*[[Picnic Day]] in the Northern Territory in August, and also May Day
*Tasmania has [[Easter Tuesday]] as a public holiday
*[[Royal Queensland Show Day]] in Brisbane area in August

== Long weekends ==
Where New Year's Day, Australia Day, Anzac Day, Christmas Day fall on a Saturday or Sunday the standard is for another day to be gazetted as a holiday in substitution. By common law, Boxing Day automatically occurs on Monday 27 December if the 26 December is a Sunday, so a substitute holiday is only gazetted if Boxing Day falls on a Saturday.

In Victoria, however, where Christmas falls on a Saturday or Sunday no substitute holiday is given. In the event of New Year's Day falling on a Sunday the following Monday is provided as the substitute public holiday.

Australia has been traditionally known as the "land of the long weekend", both within Australia[[http://australiansatwork.com.au/shirts/shirts_so9-10.php] and by those outside Australia.[http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=14&click_id=418&art_id=vn20050722102754972C668552] However, Australians have "fewer public holidays than workers in most other industrialised countries."[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/07/04/1057179162638.html]

== Worker entitlements ==
All permanent employees including shift and part-time workers are entitled without loss of pay to public holidays. If they work on a public holiday, these workers are entitled to be paid the appropriate penalty rates. For those full-time workers who do not work the conventional hours of 9am-5pm Monday to Friday, they are entitled to public holidays even though a public holiday may fall on a non-working day. They receive either: an alternative 'day off'; an additional one day of annual leave; or an additional day's wages.

==References==
*[http://www.actu.asn.au/public/library/publicholidays.html Australian Council of Trades Unions - Library: Public Holidays]
* [http://www.oztourism.com.au/ozhols.htm Australian public holidays]

[[Category:Public holidays in Australia|*]]

[[zh:澳大利亚公共假日]]

Nestlé-Boykott

2006-08-28T09:31:51Z

WinBot: BOT - Unicodifying

The '''Nestlé boycott''' is a [[boycott]] launched on [[July 4]], [[1977]] in the [[United States]] against the Swiss based [[Nestlé]] corporation. It soon spread rapidly outside the United States, particularly in [[Europe]]. It was prompted by concern about the company's marketing of [[breast milk]] substitutes ([[infant formula]]), particularly in [[Third World]] countries, which campaigners claim contributes to the unnecessary death and suffering of babies, largely among the poor.

==The potential problems with infant formula in third world countries==
The promotion of infant formula over breast-feeding, particularly in third world countries, has reportedly led to several health problems among infants in these countries. There are three problems that are said to arise when poor mothers in third world countries switch to formula. First, because most formula is of the powdered variety, it must be mixed with water before it is ready to feed. Due to contaminated water supplies in some poor countries, the formula is often mixed with contaminated water, which can cause diseases in infants fed the formula.

Second, unlike breast-feeding, formula costs money, which poor families cannot easily spare. Therefore, many poor mothers use less formula powder than is necessary, so as to make a container of formula last longer. As a result, some infants receive inadequate nutrition from weak solutions of formula. Because of these two problems, it is recommended that poor mothers [[breast-feed]] their babies because doing so is free, and studies have shown that even mothers who suffer from inadequate nutrition can provide adequate nutrition to their babies via [[breast milk]].

Thirdly, breast-feeding is an important route of antibodies from the mother to babies - providing partial immunity to a wide variety of diseases. Breast-fed babies are protected, in varying degrees, from a number of illnesses, including pneumonia, botulism, bronchitis, staphylococcal infections, influenza, ear infections, and German measles. Breast milk is accepted as the most nutritious and appropriate food for infants, providing all the nutrients required by an infant up to 6 months of age. The composition of a woman's breast milk changes as her baby grows, ensuring it is correct for the baby's stage of development.

In addition to these direct problems, the use of infant formula also reduces rates of breastfeeding and therefore some of the other benefits of breastfeeding. There is evidence that breastfeeding reduces the incidence of [[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]] or cot death, as well as other diseases such as diabetes later in life, and promotes bonding between mother and baby. Breastfeeding also delays the return of fertility in most women, providing a natural contraceptive. This can be particularly important for women in developing countries who may not have access to alternative forms of contraception. Inadequate birth spacing (multiple pregnancies close together) can have negative consequences for women and their babies, particularly in developing countries where adequate pre- and post-natal care may not be available.

==Unethical actions of which Nestlé has been accused==
Nestlé has been accused by supporters of the boycott of unethical methods of promoting infant formula over breast-milk to poor mothers in third world countries. One major issue is passing out free powdered formula samples to mothers in hospitals. After leaving the hospital, these mothers' breasts will have ceased to produce milk due to the substitution of formula feeding for breastfeeding. This forces the continued use of formula, which can contribute to malnutrition, and under worsened sanitary conditions with contaminated water, often leading to [[diarrhea]]. [[UNICEF]] alleges this situation results in the deaths of about 1.5 million babies each year. The formula, which is no longer free after the mother leaves the hospital, can for some also put a significant strain on the family's budget.

==History of the boycott==
Nestlé's perceived marketing strategy was first written about in ''New Internationalist'' magazine in [[1973]] and in a booklet called [http://www.i-case.com/newdemo/inffeed/docs/018if.pdf#search='the%20baby%20killer' The Baby Killer] published by the British non-governmental organization [[War On Want]] in 1974. Nestlé attempted to sue the publisher of a German-language translation (Third World Action Group). After a two-year trial, the court found in favor of Nestlé and fined the group 300 Swiss francs because Nestlé could not be held responsible for the infant deaths 'in terms of criminal law'.

The widespread publicity led to the launch of the boycott in [[Minneapolis]], [[USA]]. In May [[1978]], the US Senate held a public hearing into the promotion of breast-milk substitutes in developing countries and joined calls for a Marketing Code. This was developed under the auspices of the [[World Health Organization]] and [[UNICEF]] and adopted by the [[World Health Assembly]] in [[1981]] as the ''[[International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes]]''. The Code covers infant formula and other milk products, foods and beverages, when marketed or otherwise represented to be suitable as a partial or total replacement of breast-milk. It bans the promotion of breast-milk substitutes and gives health workers the responsibility of advising parents. It limits manufacturing companies to the provision of scientific and factual information to health workers and sets out labeling requirements.

In [[1984]], boycott coordinators met with Nestlé and accepted the company's undertaking that it would abide by the Code, but the coordinators were not satisfied with Nestle's subsequent action and the boycott was relaunched in [[1988]].

In May 1999 a ruling against Nestlé was issued by the UK [[Advertising Standards Authority]] (ASA). Nestlé claimed in an anti-boycott advertisement that it markets infant formula “ethically and responsibly”. The ASA found that Nestlé could not support this nor other claims in the face of evidence provided by the campaigning group Baby Milk Action.

In November 2000, the [[European Parliament]] held a public hearing into Nestlé's alleged malpractices. Although management told shareholders months before that they welcomed the hearing, they refused to send a representative. At the time, Nestlé objected to a presence of an expert witness from the [[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF) and the [[International Baby Food Action Network]] (IBFAN). Later Nestlé claimed none of its 230,000 employees was available.

==Current status of the boycott==
The boycott is now coordinated by the International Nestlé Boycott Committee, the secretariat for which is the UK group [http://www.babymilkaction.org/ Baby Milk Action]. Company practices are monitored by the [[International Baby Food Action Network]] (IBFAN), which consists of more than 200 groups in over 100 countries.

In November 2000 the European Parliament invited IBFAN, UNICEF and Nestlé to present evidence to a Public Hearing before the Development and Cooperation Committee. Evidence was presented by the IBFAN group from Pakistan and UNICEF's legal officer commented on Nestlé's failure to bring its policies into line with the World Health Assembly Resolutions. Nestlé declined an invitation to attend, though it sent a representative of the auditing company it had commissioned to produce a report on its Pakistan operation.

In parallel with the boycott, campaigners work for implementation of the Code and Resolutions in legislation and claim that 60 countries have now introduced laws implementing most or all of the provisions.

Many hundreds of European universities, colleges and schools, including over 200 in the United Kingdom, have banned the sale of Nestlé products from their shops and vending machines.

==Other Nestlé operations targeted==
Nestlé is sometimes targeted for other aspects of its operations. A Brazilian group called Citizens for Water (Cidadania pelas Aguas) has called a boycott of Nestlé in [[Brazil]] over the company's extraction of water from an [[aquifer]] in São Lourenço. Some also boycott Nestlé [[coffee]] and [[chocolate]] products in favour of [[fair trade]] alternatives. However, ''Partners Blend'' coffee, launched by Nestlé during 2005, has obtained [[Fairtrade]] labelling status. Baby Milk Action has also condemned this development [http://www.babymilkaction.org/press/press6oct05.html].

In the Philippines, there exists a Boycott Nestle campaign due to suspected labor rights violations in a factory in Laguna province. This campaign is lead by [[Kilusang Mayo Uno]].

==External links==
*[http://www.ibfan.org/english/gateenglish.html International Baby Food Action Network (IBFAN)]
*[http://www.babymilkaction.org/ Baby Milk Action]
*[http://www.ibfan.org/english/pdfs/btr04/btr04nestle.pdf Nestlé marketing profile], from Breaking the Rules Stretching the Rules, IBFAN, 2004
*[http://babymilk.8k.com/ Edinburgh University Néstle Boycott Campaign]

[[Category:Boycotts]]
[[Category:Nestlé]]

Kevin B. MacDonald

2006-08-28T03:27:55Z

WinBot: BOT - Unicodifying

[[Image:Kmacdonald.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Kevin B. MacDonald]]
'''Kevin B. MacDonald''', (born [[January 24]], [[1944]]) is a professor of [[psychology]] at [[California State University, Long Beach]], best known for claiming to use [[evolutionary psychology]] to inform his study of [[Judaism]]. MacDonald's most controversial idea is that a suite of Jewish psychological traits, including higher-than-average verbal intelligence and [[ethnocentricism]], enhances the ability of [[Jew]]s to out-compete non-Jews for resources while undermining the power and self-confidence of the white majority in Europe and America. Some leading scholars have rejected MacDonald's work as contradicting "basic principles of contemporary evolutionary psychology" and failing "basic tests of scientific credibility," though other scholars find merit in his work. Some [[white supremacist]]s support MacDonald because of his opinions about Jews, but MacDonald denies having any affiliation or contact with extremist groups.

==Early years==
MacDonald was born in [[Oshkosh, Wisconsin]]. His father was a [[policeman]], his mother a secretary. He went to [[Roman Catholic]] schools and played basketball in high school. He entered the [[University of Wisconsin]] and became an activist in the [[anti-war movement]] from about [[1965]] to [[1975]]. During this period, he perceived the East Coast Jewish origins of the majority of the movement there (''[[Culture of Critique]]'', p 104), which motivated his interest in Jewish intellectual movements.

He became a [[philosophy]] major, lost his religion, and became very sympathetic to [[psychoanalysis]]. He embarked on a career as a [[Jazz piano|Jazz pianist]], but by the late [[1970s]] had abandoned it in favour of academia. He has two adult children from his first marriage.

==Professional background==
MacDonald is the author of seven books on evolutionary psychology and child development and is the author or editor of over thirty academic articles in refereed journals. He received his B.A. from the [[University of Wisconsin]] in [[1966]], and M.S. in biology from the [[University of Connecticut]] in 1976. He earned a Ph.D. in 1981 (Biobehavioral Sciences) from the University of Connecticut where he studied under Professor [[Benson E. Ginsburg]], one of the founders and leaders of modern behavior genetics, as his advisor. His thesis was on the behavioral development of wolves and resulted in two publications:
MacDonald, K. B., and Ginsburg, B. E. (1981). Induction of normal behavior in wolves with restricted rearing. Behavioral and Neural Biology, 33, 133-162;
MacDonald, K. B. (1983). Development and stability of personality characteristics in prepubertal wolves. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 97, 99-106, 1983.

He completed a post-doctoral fellowship with Ross Parke at the psychology department of the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] in [[1983]]. His work there concerned rough and tumble play in children (he had two small boys at home at the time as well) and resulted in three publications:
MacDonald, K. B., & Parke, R. D. (1984). Bridging the gap: Parent-child play interactions and peer interactive competence. Child Development, 55, 1265-1277;
MacDonald, K. B., & Parke, R. D. (1986). Parent-child physical play: The effects of sex and age of children and parents. Sex Roles, 15, 367-378, 1986;
MacDonald, K. B. (1987). Parent-child physical play with rejected, neglected and popular boys. Developmental Psychology, 23, 705-711.

He served as Secretary-Archivist of the [[Human Behavior and Evolution Society]] and was elected as a member of the executive board from 1995 to 2001, much to the embarrassment of the organization. He was an editor of ''[[Population and Environment]]'' and is an associate editor of the journal ''[[Sexuality & Culture]]''. He serves on the Advisory Board of ''The [[Occidental Quarterly]]'' and makes occasional contributions to ''[[VDARE]].com'', an [[immigration reduction]]ist [[weblog]].

He has been with the Department of Psychology at California State University--Long Beach since 1985 and as a full professor since 1995.

==Academic works addressing Judaism as a Collective Evolutionary Strategy==
[[Image:KMtrilogy.JPG|250px|right|thumb]]
:''For the main article, see'' [[The Culture of Critique series]].
MacDonald is best known for his trilogy that analyzes [[Judaism]] and [[Secular Jewish culture|Jewish culture]] from the perspective of [[Evolutionary psychology|Evolutionary Psychology]], comprising ''A People That Shall Dwell Alone'' ([[1994]]), ''Separation and Its Discontents'' ([[1998]]), and ''The Culture of Critique'' ([[1998]]). He proposes that Judaism is a [[Group selection|group evolutionary strategy]] to enhance the ability of [[Jew]]s to out-compete non-Jews for resources. Using the term ''Jewish ethnocentrism'', he argues that Judaism fosters in Jews a series of marked genetic traits, including above-average verbal intelligence and a strong tendency toward collectivist behavior.

===Jewish role in facilitating mass immigration===
Extreme right-wing groups and some members of the [[immigration reductionism]] movement have long argued that there has been a significant or central Jewish role in facilitating mass immigration into the United States and other western nations. MacDonald offers support for their claims, arguing that "the organized Jewish community" has been the single most important and powerful group in favor of unrestricted immigration to the United States, and that the community has been acting in its "own perceived collective interests", regardless of whether these are in conflict with the interests of other Americans.[http://www.vdare.com/misc/macdonald_1924_immigration.htm]

MacDonald's main thesis centers on the period preceding the all-important [[1965 Immigration Act]] when strict, country-of-origin based quotas existed, mostly favoring immigration from Europe. According to MacDonald, while most of the ethnic communities in that period were somewhat active in trying to affect the increase of immigration quotas from their own countries of origin (i.e. the Irish for immigration from Ireland, Greeks for immigration from Greece etc.), only the Jewish community activists were requesting (and ultimately obtained in 1965) the dismantling of country-of-origin quotas and an increase in immigration across the board. This policy shift benefitted primarily non-European immigration and had a profound impact on the US demographics in the following decades. He also contrasts U.S. immigration policy with the more restrictive immigration policies of Israel. [http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/books-immigration.html]

He cites [[Leonard S. Glickman]] of the [[Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society]], who stated to an on-line Jewish journal that "The more diverse American society is the safer [Jews] are."[http://www.forward.com/issues/2002/02.11.29/news3.html][http://theoccidentalquarterly.com/vol3no2/km-understanding.html] MacDonald expresses his opinions on immigration on the ''[[VDARE]]'' website:

<blockquote>Why members of the Jewish community, which over so many centuries demonstrated such determination to preserve its distinctiveness, should have been so demonstrably active in preventing the preservation of the nation in which they find themselves, is an interesting question... Much of the effort was done more or less surreptitiously so as not to fan the flames of anti-Jewish sentiment.[http://www.vdare.com/misc/macdonald_1924_immigration.htm]</blockquote>

MacDonald also points out that even the Jewish activist [[Stephen Steinlight]], who argues against mass immigration, does so on explicitly ethnocentric grounds: "Our present privilege, success, and power do not inure us from the effect of historical processes, and history has not come to an end, even in America."[http://www.cis.org/articles/2001/back1301.html]

[[John Derbyshire]], who has himself been accused of anti-Semitism,[http://olimu.com/WebJournalism/Texts/Commentary/JewsAndI.htm] criticizes this thesis in his review of ''The Culture of Critique'' in ''[[The American Conservative]]''. He cites MacDonald's statement that it is in “the ethnic interests of white Americans to develop an ethnically and culturally homogeneous society.” and states:
<blockquote>And on the point of Israel having something very much like the old American dispensation, I am unimpressed by MacDonald’s oft-repeated argument—it is a favorite with both Israelophobes and anti-Semites—that it is hypocritical for Jews to promote multiculturalism in the U.S. while wishing to maintain Jewish ethnic dominance in Israel. Unless you think that ethnic dominance, under appropriate restraining laws, is immoral per se—and I don’t, and Kevin MacDonald plainly doesn’t either—it can be the foundation of a stable and successful nation. A nation that can establish it and maintain it would be wise to do so. The USA was not able to maintain it because too many Americans—far more than three percent—came to think it violated Constitutional principles.[http://www.amconmag.com/03_10_03/review.html]</blockquote>

In his reply to the review, MacDonald noted that Derbyshire explicitly acknowledged the fact that careers could be ended or severely harmed by criticism of the role of the Jewish community in American public life, and suggested that Derbyshire himself was frightened of running foul of "the Jew thing". He further claimed that Derbyshire

:lives in a sort of childlike world in which Jewish interests are legitimate and where Jewish attempts to pursue their interests, though they may occasionally be irritating, are not really a cause for concern, much less malice.[http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/books-derbyshire.html]

===Race, culture, and intelligence===
Like his fellow contributors to ''[[Vdare]]'', MacDonald questions claims that racial differences are unimportant or illusory and that racial and cultural assimilation will be an easy process. He points to the phenomenon of popular scientists such as [[Stephen Jay Gould]], [[Richard Lewontin]], [[Leon Kamin]], [[Steven Rose]], and [[Jared Diamond]], who were all born to Jewish parents, and who have been leading proponents of the view that there is no biological basis for race, and that variance between races in mean [[IQ]] is caused by environmental rather than hereditary factors.
:''See also: [[Race and intelligence]].''

===Neoconservatism===
MacDonald published an article in [[Occidental Quarterly|''The Occidental Quarterly'']], a journal of opinion, on the alleged similarities between [[neoconservatism]] and several other possibly Jewish-dominated influential intellectual and political movements. He argues that "[t]aken as a whole, neoconservatism is an excellent illustration of the key traits behind the success of Jewish activism: [[ethnocentrism]], intelligence and wealth, psychological intensity, and aggressiveness."[http://theoccidentalquarterly.com/vol4no2/km-understandIII.html] His general conclusions are that neoconservatism fits into a general pattern of twentieth-century Jewish intellectual and political activism. Since [[Leo Strauss]], a philosophy professor, taught several of the putative founders of the neoconservatism, MacDonald concludes he is a central figure in the neo-conservative movement and sees him as "the quintessential rabbinical guru with devoted disciples". [http://www.vdare.com/misc/macdonald_neoconservatism.htm]

MacDonald contends that, like [[Sigmund Freud|Freudian]] [[psychoanalysis]] and [[Marxism]], neoconservatism uses arguments that appeal to non-Jews, rather than appealing explicitly to Jewish interests. MacDonald argues that non-Jewish neo-conservatives like [[Jeanne Kirkpatrick]] and [[Donald Rumsfeld]] are examples of an ability to recruit prominent non-Jews while nevertheless preserving a Jewish core and an intense commitment to Jewish interests: "it makes excellent psychological sense to have the spokespeople for any movement resemble the people they are trying to convince."[http://www.vdare.com/misc/macdonald_neoconservatism.htm] He considers it significant that neoconservatism's commitment to mass immigration is uncharacteristic of past conservative thought and is identical to [[liberalism in the United States|liberal]] Jewish opinion.

==Criticism==

Academic [[Jaff Schatz]] has accused MacDonald of misrepresenting and misusing his work [http://www.h-net.org/~antis/papers/dl/macdonald_schatz_02.html]. David Lieberman, who has a PhD in [[musicology]] from [[Brandeis University]], has published a paper alleging that MacDonald has distorted evidence and chosen evidence selectively for rhetorical purposes [http://www.h-net.org/~antis/papers/dl/macdonald_schatz_01.html].

Academic [[John Tooby]], the president of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society and a professor of [[anthropology]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]], notes that MacDonald bases his work on the notion of [[group selection|group selection theory]], which Tooby considers discredited. Tooby also argues that there is no basis for the premise that Jews are a genetically distinct group.

MacDonald has been accused of [[anti-Semitism]] by other scholars and has developed an extensive following among [[white supremacist]]s and [[neo-Nazi]]s. In October 2004 he accepted a literary prize from ''[[The Occidental Quarterly]]'', using the award ceremony as an occasion to argue for the need for a "white ethnostate" to maintain high racial birthrates.

Journalist Mark Potok of the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]], a controversial [[civil rights]] advocacy and [[anti-racism]] organization, has said of MacDonald that "he put the anti-Semitism under the guise of scholarly work... Kevin MacDonald’s work is nothing but gussied-up anti-Semitism. At base it says that Jews are out to get us through their agenda ... His work is bandied about by just about every neo-Nazi group in America.” [http://www.csulb.edu/~d49er/archives/2004/spring/news/volLIVno119-civil.shtml]

World-famous [[Harvard]] psychology professor [[Steven Pinker]] has written of the ability of MacDonald's theses to pass the threshold of attention-worthiness and/or peer-approval:

<blockquote>MacDonald's ideas, as presented in summaries that would serve as a basis for further examination, do not pass that threshold, for many reasons:

1. By stating that Jews promulgate scientific hypotheses because they are Jewish, he is engaging in [[ad hominem]] argumentation that is outside the bounds of normal scientific discourse and an obvious waste of time to engage. MacDonald has already announced that I will reject his ideas because I am Jewish, so what's the point of replying to them?

2. MacDonald's main axioms - group selection of behavioral adaptations, and behaviorally relevant genetic cohesiveness of ethnic groups -- are opposed by powerful bodies of data and theory, which Tooby, Cosmides, and many other evolutionary psychologists have written about in detail. Of course any assumption can be questioned, but there are no signs that MacDonald has taken on the burden of proof of showing that the majority view is wrong.

3. MacDonald's various theses, even if worthy of scientifically debate individually, collectively add up to a consistently invidious portrayal of Jews, couched in value-laden, disparaging language. It is impossible to avoid the impression that this is not an ordinary scientific hypothesis.

4. The argument, as presented in the summaries, fail two basic tests of scientific credibility: a control group (in this case, other minority ethnic groups), and a comparison with alternative hypotheses (such as [[Thomas Sowell]]'s convincing analysis of "middlemen minorities" such as the Jews, presented in his magisterial study of migration, race, conquest, and culture).
[http://slate.msn.com/id/74139/entry/74452/],

[http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/slatedialog.html]
</blockquote>
MacDonald has replied to Tooby, Pinker, Schatz, and Lieberman on his website.[http://www.kevinmacdonald.net/replies.htm] In May, 2006, MacDonald responded in FrontPage Magazine to charges of anti-Semitism [http://frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=22517].

==MacDonald and David Irving==

MacDonald testified on behalf of the [[history|historian]] [[David Irving]] in the unsuccessful lawsuit he brought against [[Deborah Lipstadt]] over her description of him as a [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust denier]]. The testimony drew on MacDonald's theories of inter-group conflict and questioned whether Irving's book should have been dropped by St. Martin's Press. MacDonald alleged Irving's book on Goebbels was rescinded by St. Martin's Press not because of its scientific merit but because of pressure from "certain Jewish ethnic activist organizations," "newspaper columnists," and "people like Deborah Lipstadt." MacDonald has defended himself against criticism of his action by arguing that he acted from a concern for academic freedom and that he would willingly testify on behalf of any Jewish scholar subject to similar pressures for his views.

[http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/Irving.html Discussion of the Irving case on MacDonald's website]

==Books and monographs==

''Main article: [[The Culture of Critique series]]''

*MacDonald, K. B. ''Understanding Jewish Influence: A Study in Ethnic Activism'', with an Introduction by [[Samuel Francis]], (''[[Occidental Quarterly]]'' November, 2004) ISBN 1-59368-017-1 [http://theoccidentalquarterly.com/vol3no2/km-understanding.html Introduction online]
*[[Robert L. Burgess|Burgess, R. L.]] & MacDonald, K. B. (Eds.) ''Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Development,'' 2nd ed., (Sage 2004) ISBN 0-7619-2790-5
*MacDonald, K. B. ''The Culture of Critique: An Evolutionary Analysis of Jewish Involvement in Twentieth-Century Intellectual and Political Movements'', (Praeger 1998) ISBN 0-275-96113-3 ([http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/books-Preface.html Preface online])
*MacDonald, K. B. ''Separation and Its Discontents Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Anti-Semitism'', (Praeger 1998) ISBN 0-275-94870-6
*MacDonald, K. B. ''A People That Shall Dwell Alone: Judaism As a Group Evolutionary Strategy, With Diaspora Peoples'', (Praeger 1994) ISBN 0-595-22838-0
*MacDonald, K. B. (Ed.), ''Parent-child Play: Descriptions and Implications'',. (State University of New York Press 1993)
*MacDonald, K. B. (Ed.) ''Sociobiological Perspectives on Human Development'', (Springer-Verlag 1988)
*MacDonald, K. B. ''Social and Personality Development: An Evolutionary Synthesis'' (Plenum 1988)

== External links ==
===MacDonald's website===
*[http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/ Official website]; see also [http://www.kevinmacdonald.net/]
**[http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/reviews.html Summaries and Reviews of MacDonald's books] as collected by Kevin MacDonald
**[http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/Irving.html MacDonald's reasons for testifying for David Irving] as given by Kevin MacDonald
**[http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/lieberman.html MacDonald replies to Lieberman, December 13, 2003 on Evolutionary Psychology email list and to Jaff Schatz, h-antisemitism, Dec. 10, 1999]
**[http://www.kevinmacdonald.net/Tooby&Pinker.htm Replies to Tooby and Pinker]
**[http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/newtimes.html Newspaper article on MacDonald and Irving, and MacDonald and Evolutionary Psychology]
**[http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/books-immigration.html Jewish Involvement in Shaping American Immigration Policy, 1881-1965: A Historical Review]

===Criticisms of MacDonald's work===
*[http://slate.msn.com/id/1004446/ Slate:"Evolutionary Psychology's Anti-Semite"]
*[http://slate.msn.com/id/74139/entry/74419/#ContinueArticle Open letter by Judith Shulevitz to John Tooby about MacDonald]
*[http://www.h-net.org/~antis/papers/dl/macdonald_schatz_01.html Scholarship as an Exercise in Rhetorical Strategy: A Case Study of Kevin MacDonald's Research Techniques]

===Libel case===

*[http://www.fpp.co.uk/Legal/Penguin/experts/MacDonald/report1.html MacDonald's testimony in Irving libel case]

[[Category:Anti-Semitism|MacDonald, Kevin]]
[[Category:American academics|MacDonald, Kevin]]
[[Category:Evolutionary psychologists|MacDonald, Kevin]]
[[Category:1944 births|MacDonald, Kevin]]
[[Category:Living people|MacDonald, Kevin]]
[[Category:People from Oshkosh, Wisconsin|MacDonald, Kevin]]
[[Category:California State University, Long Beach|MacDonald, Kevin]]

[[ru:МакДональд, Кевин]]

Jerrie Cobb

2006-08-26T19:03:20Z

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[[Image:JerrieCobb_MercuryCapsule.jpg|thumb|Jerrie Cobb poses next to a Mercury spaceship capsule.]]
'''Geraldyn ("Jerrie") M. Cobb''' (b. [[1931]] in [[Norman, Oklahoma]]) is an [[United States|American]] aviator who became [[NASA]]'s first female astronaut candidate in [[1960]]. She was selected as part of the [[Mercury 13]], a group of female astronaut candidates who trained in secret along with the original [[Mercury Seven]] astronauts.

As a child growing up in Oklahoma, Cobb took to aviation at an early age, with her father's encouragement. Cobb first flew in a plane at age 12, in her father's open-cockpit biplane. By the age of 17, Cobb had earned her private pilots license, and received her commercial pilots license a year later.

Though in the top 2 percent of her [[Mercury program]] graduating class, she could not be an astronaut because [[NASA]] had not determined that space travel was safe for women. She fought, along with fellow astronaut candidates, to be allowed to train alongside the men, but was finally turned away for good when then-Vice President Johnson added his response to a memo outlining the situation and the women's impressive qualifications: "Let's stop this. Now."

At the time, Cobb had already flown 64 types of aircraft, including a jet fighter. She had set records for speed, distance and absolute altitude.

After retiring from [[NASA]], Cobb began missionary work in [[South America]], performing humanitarian flying and surveying new air routes to remote areas.

She has recently been the subject of a [[National Organization for Women]] campaign to send her to space (like Senator [[John Glenn]]) to investigate the effects of aging on women.

She has received numerous honors, including the [[Harmon Trophy]].

AWARDS:

* Amelia Earhart Gold Medal of Achievement
* Named Woman of the Year in Aviation
* Amelia Earhart Memorial Award
* Named Pilot of the Year by the National Pilots Association
* Fourth American to be awarded Gold Wings of the Federacion Aeronautique International, Paris, France
* Named Captain of Achievement by International Academy of Achievement
* Served 5 years as a Consultant to the Federal Aviation Administration
* Selected by the Mercury Astronaut Selection Team to be the first, and only, woman to undergo and successfully pass all 3 phases of Mercury astronaut tests (1960)
* Appointed consultant to NASA
* Honored by the government of Ecuador for pioneering new air routes over the Andes Mountains and Andes jungle
* Awarded the Harmon International Trophy for "The Worlds Best Woman Pilot" by President Nixon at a White House ceremony
* Inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame as "the Most Outstanding Aviatrix in the US
* Received Pioneer Woman Award for her "courageous frontier spirit" flying all over the Amazon jungle serving primitive Indian tribes
* Nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize

== Notes ==
{{note|ackmann}} Ackmann, Martha, ''The Mercury 13''.

== References ==
{{cite book|author=Ackmann, Martha|title=The Mercury 13: The Untold Story of Thirteen American Women and the Dream of Space Flight|Pubilsher=Random House|year=2003|id=ISBN 0-375-50744-2}}
[[Category:1931 births|Cobb, Jerrie]]
[[Category:People from Oklahoma|Cobb, Jerrie]]
[[Category:American aviators|Cobb, Jerrie]]
[[Category:Harmon Trophy winners|Cobb, Jerrie]]
[[Category:Living people|Cobb, Jerrie]]

[[ja:ジェリー・コッブ]]

Benutzer:DerSpezialist/Ganzzahlige Quadratwurzel

2006-07-26T22:38:29Z

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In [[number theory]] (a branch of [[mathematics]]), the '''integer square root''' (isqrt) of a
[[Negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] [[integer]] ''n'' is the positive integer ''m'' which is the greatest integer less than or equal to the square root of ''n'',

: <math>\mbox{isqrt}( n ) = \lfloor \sqrt n \rfloor.</math>

For example, <math>\mbox{isqrt}(27) = 5</math> because <math>5*5=25<27</math> and <math>6*6=36>27</math>.

==Algorithm==

To calculate √''n'', and in particular, isqrt(''n''), one can use [[Newton's method]] for the equation ''x''2 - ''n'' = 0, which gives us the [[Recursion|recursive]] formula
: <math>{x}_{k+1} = \frac{1}{2}\left(x_k + \frac{ n }{x_k}\right), \ k \ge 0.</math>
One can choose for example ''x''0 = ''n'' as initial guess.

The [[sequence]] {''x k''} [[Limit (mathematics)|converges]] [[Rate of convergence|quadratically]] to √''n'' as
''k''→∞. It can be proved (the proof is not trivial) that one can stop as soon as
:| ''x''''k'' + 1 − ''x''''k'' | < 1
to ensure that <math>\lfloor x_{k+1} \rfloor=\lfloor \sqrt n \rfloor.</math>

==Domain of computation==
Let us note that even if √n is [[irrational number|irrational]] for most ''n'', the sequence {''x'' ''k''} contains only [[rational number|rational]] terms. Thus, with Newton's method one never needs to exit the
[[field (mathematics)|field]] of rational numbers in order to calculate
isqrt(''n''), a fact which has some theoretical advantages in number theory.

==Stopping criterion==
One can prove that <math>c=1</math> is the largest possible number for which
the stopping criterion
:| ''x''''k''+1 − ''x''''k'' | < ''c''
ensures
<math>\lfloor x_{k+1} \rfloor=\lfloor \sqrt n \rfloor</math>
in the algorithm above.

Since actual computer calculations involve roundoff errors, one needs to use ''c'' < 1 in the stopping criterion, e.g.,
:| ''x''''k''+1 − ''x''''k'' | < 0.5.

== See also ==
* [[Newton's method]]
* [[Methods of computing square roots]]

[[Category:Number theoretic algorithms]]
[[Category:Number theory]]
[[Category:Root-finding algorithms]]

[[fr:Racine carrée entière]]

Kordilleren-Eisschild

2006-07-16T16:23:17Z

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The '''Cordilleran ice sheet''' was a major [[ice sheet]] that covered, during glacial periods of the [[Quaternary]], a large area of [[North America]]. This area included:

* - [[Western Montana]]
* - the [[Idaho Panhandle]]
* - northern [[Washington|Washington state]] down to about [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and [[Spokane, Washington]]
* - all of [[British Columbia]]
* - the southwestern third or so of [[Yukon|Yukon territory]]
* - all of the [[Alaska Panhandle]]
* - [[South Central Alaska]]
* - the [[Alaska Peninsula]]
* - and all or almost all of the [[continental shelf]] north of the [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]]

The ice sheet covered up to two and a half million square kilometres at the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] and probably more than that in some previous periods such as the [[Kansan Glaciation]], when it may have extended into the northeast extremity of [[Oregon]] and the Salmon River Mountains in Idaho. It is probable, though, that its ''northern'' margin was ''further south'' due to the influence of [[starvation (glaciology)|starvation]] caused by very low levels of precipitation.

At its eastern end the Cordilleran ice sheet merged with the [[Laurentide ice sheet]] at the [[Continental Divide]], forming an area of ice that contained one and a half times as much water as the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] does today. At its western end it is believed nowadays that several small glacial refugia existed during the last glacial maximum below present [[sea level]] in now-submerged [[Hecate Strait]] and on the [[Brooks Peninsula]] in northern [[Vancouver Island]]. However, evidence of ice-free refugia ''above'' present sea level north of the [[Olympic Peninsula]] has been refuted by genetic and geological studies since the middle 1990s. The ice sheet faded north of the [[Alaska Range]] because the climate was too dry to form [[glaciers]].

Unlike the Laurentide ice sheet, which is believed to have taken ''as much as eleven thousand years to fully melt'', it is believed the Cordilleran ice sheet, except for areas that remain glaciated today, melted ''very quickly, probably in four thousand years or less''. This rapid melting caused such [[floods]] as the overflow of [[Lake Missoula]] and shaped the topography of the extremely fertile [[Inland Empire (Pacific Northwest)|Inland Empire]] of [[Eastern Washington]].

==Sea levels during glaciation==

Because of the weight of the ice, the mainland of northwest North America was so depressed that sea levels at the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] were over a hundred metres higher than they are today (measured by the level of [[bedrock]]).

However, on the western edge at the [[Queen Charlotte Islands]] (which, contrary to "popular" myths of ice-free [[refuge|refugia]], were ''entirely glaciated'' during the LGM) the lower thickness of the ice sheet meant that sea levels were as much as ''170 metres lower'' than they are today, forming a large [[lake]] in the deepest parts of the strait. This was because the thickness of the centre of the ice sheet actually served to push upwards areas at the edge of the continental shelf which, ''even though glaciated'', were displaced and lifted by the pressing of the crust further inland. The effect of this during deglaciation was that sea levels on the edge of the ice sheet, which naturally deglaciated first, initially rose due to an increase in the volume of water, but later fell due to rebound after deglaciation.

These effects are important because they have been used to explain how migrants to North America from [[Beringia]] were able to travel southward during the deglaciation process due purely to the exposure of submerged land between the mainland and numerous continental islands. They are also important for understanding the direction [[evolution]] has taken since the ice retreated.

Even today, the region is notable for its rapid changes in sea level, which, however, have little effect on most of the coast due to the numerous [[fjords]].

== See also ==

* [[Geography of Canada]]
* [[Ice sheet]]

==References==

* [http://web.unbc.ca/~menounos/GEOG411/Fraser.pdf Fraser Glaciation]
* [http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/bc/gwaiihaanas/natcul/index_e.asp Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site]
* [http://web.uvic.ca/~reimlab/nebria.pdf Clarke, T.E., D.B. Levin, D.H. Kavanaugh and T.E. Reimchen. 2001. Rapid Evolution in the ''Nebria Gregaria'' Group (''Coleoptera'': ''Carabidae'') and the Paleogeography of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Evolution 51:1408–1418]
* Brown, A. S., and H. Nasmith. 1962. ''The glaciation of the Queen Charlotte Islands''. '''Canadian Field-Naturalist''' 76:209–219.
* Byun, S. A., B. F. Koop, and T. E. Reimchen. 1997. ''North American black bear mtDNA phylogeography: implications for morphology and the Haida Gwaii glacial refugium controversy''. '''Evolution''' 51:1647–1653.

[[Category:Glaciology]]
[[Category:Historical geography]]

Chand Raat

2006-07-16T15:00:57Z

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In [[Pakistan]]i [[Islam]]ic culture, '''Chand Raat''', that is, the ''night of the moon'' as it translates from [[Urdu]], marks the end of [[Ramadan]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''رمضان''' ) and the start of [[Eid ul-Fitr]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عيد الفطر). Since the [[Islamic Calendar]] is lunar, Eid ul-Fitr is on the first of Shawwal, the tenth month of the [[Islamic]] year. Since this custom is dependent on the sighting of the moon, it can often happen on different days in different parts of the world. It is believed by many that anything wished for right after the sighting of the moon will be granted. After the moon is seen, celebrations often involve [[Mehndi]] ([[henna]]), food, and dancing begin.

==External links==
*[http://moonsighting.com/ Moon sighting curves]

{{Islam-stub}}

[[Category:Sawm]]
[[Category:Festivals in Pakistan]]

Neville Francis Fitzgerald Chamberlain

2006-07-15T02:36:34Z

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Sir '''Neville Francis Fitzgerald Chamberlain''' [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath|KCB]] [[Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order|KCVO]] ([[1856]]-[[1944]]) was a British soldier who is credited with the invention of the game of [[snooker]].

He was born into a military family, the son of [[Charles Francis Falcon Chamberlain]] and nephew of [[Neville Bowles Chamberlain]].

{{sports-bio-stub}}
{{military-bio-stub}}

{{{11856|[[Category:1856 births|Chamberlain, Neville Francis Fitzgerald]]}}}
{{Ifndef|1856|[[Category:Year of birth unknown|Chamberlain, Neville Francis Fitzgerald]]}}
{{{21944|[[Category:1944 deaths|Chamberlain, Neville Francis Fitzgerald]]}}}
{{Ifndef|1944|[[Category:Living people|Chamberlain, Neville Francis Fitzgerald]]}}
[[category:Knights Commander of the Bath|Chamberlain, Neville Francis Fitzgerald]]
[[category:Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order|Chamberlain, Neville Francis Fitzgerald]]

Laamu

2006-07-14T09:35:16Z

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{{MaldiveAtoll|
ImageExists=Yes|
atollimage=Laamu Atoll.jpg|
admin_name=Laamu Atoll|
atoll_name=Haddhunmathi|
location=2° 08' N and 1° 47' N|
letter=O|
abbreviation=L (ލ)|
capital=[[Fonadhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Fonadhoo]]|
population=14313|
noofislands=82|
inhabited_islands=12|
atoll_chief= Mohamed Naeem [http://www.atolls.gov.mv/atollchiefs.asp]|
islands=[[Dhanbidhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Dhanbidhoo]] '''[[Fonadhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Fonadhoo]]''' [[Gaadhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Gaadhoo]] [[Gan (Laamu Atoll)|Gan]] [[Hithadhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Hithadhoo]] [[Isdhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Isdhoo]] [[Kalaidhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Kalaidhoo]] [[Kunahandhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Kunahandhoo]] [[Maabaidhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Maabaidhoo]] [[Maamendhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Maamendhoo]] [[Maavah (Laamu Atoll)|Maavah]] [[Mundoo (Laamu Atoll)|Mundoo]]|
unislands=Athahédha, Berasdhoo, Bileitheyrahaa, Bodufenrahaa, Bodufinolhu, Boduhuraa, Bodumaabulhali, Bokaiffushi, Dhekunu Vinagandu, Faés, Fonagaadhoo, Fushi, Gasfinolhu, Guraidhoo, Hanhushi, Hedha, Holhurahaa, Hulhimendhoo, Hulhisdhoo, Hulhiyandhoo, Kaddhoo, Kalhuhuraa, Kandaru, Kudafares, Kudafushi, Kudahuraa, Kudakalhaidhoo, Kukurahaa, Maakaulhuveli, Maandhoo, Maaveshi, Mahakanfushi, Medhafushi, Medhoo, Medhufinolhu, Medhuvinagandu, Munyafushi, Olhutholhu, Olhuveli, Thunburi, Thundudhoshufushi Nolhoo, Uthuruvinagandu, Uvadhevifushi, Vadinolhu, Veligandufinolhu, Ziyaaraiffushi|
}}

'''Laamu Atoll''' is an atoll from the [[Maldives]].

{{Maldives-geo-stub}}

{{Atolls of the Maldives}}

[[Category:Atolls of the Maldives]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean atolls]]

[[dv:ހައްދުންމަތި]]
[[it:Atollo Laamu]]

Knappogue Castle

2006-07-14T07:27:11Z

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The '''Knappogue Castle''' & Walled Garden, built in [[1467]], is located in [[County Clare]], [[Ireland]]. It was built by [[Sean MacNamara]], and is a good example of a medieval tower house. It has a long and varied history, from a battlefield to a dwelling place. In [[1571]] the castle became the seat of the MacNamara Clan ~ Earls of [[West Clancullen]]. [[Donagh MacNamara]] was a leader of the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]] and then Knappogue remained in MacNamara hands until the 1650s when it was confiscated by Cromwell's parliament and granted to a ‘Roundhead’, Arthur Smith.

However, after the monarchy was restored in [[1660]], Knappogue was returned to its MacNamara owners. The MacNamara Clan sold the castle to the Scotts in 1800; the latter carried out major restoration and extension work.

In [[1855]], the castle was acquired by Lord Dunboyne, who continued the restoration work. The castle’s history is imaginatively related on colourful panels throughout its rooms.

In the 1920s, Knappogue passed into the hands of a local farmer and fell into disrepair. Luckily, it was purchased in 1966 by the Hon. Mark Edwin Andrews of Houston Texas. He and his wife (a prominent American architect), in collaboration with [[Shannon Development]], carried out an extensive and sensitive restoration. Their work returned the castle to its former [[15th century]] glory while encompassing and retaining later additions that chronicle the continuous occupation of the Castle.

The Andrews were the last occupants of the Castle. Shannon Development purchased the castle in 1996 with the intention of preserving the building for future generations.

Dating from 1817, the beautiful 1.248 acre (5,000 m²) garden is now restored to its former splendour. The tall and imposing walls of the garden have now been refurnished with climbing roses, grapevines and many varieties of [[clematis]].

Source: http://www.shannonheritage.com/Knappogue_Day.htm

[[Category:Castles in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[category:Buildings and structures in Clare]]
{{Historic Irish houses}}

Chinatown (Singapur)

2006-07-10T13:39:11Z

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{{SG neighbourhood
| imagemap=
| englishname=Chinatown
| chinesename=牛车水
| poj=
| pinyin=Niúchēshuǐ
| malayname=Kreta Ayer
| tamilname=சைனாடவுன
}}
[[Image:Pagoda Street, Chinatown Heritage Centre, Dec 05.JPG|thumb|right|230px|The Chinatown Heritage Centre at Pagoda Street occupies three shophouses in Chinatown, newly restored to house memories and untold stories of Singapore’s early forefathers.]]
[[Singapore]]'s '''Chinatown''' is an [[Culture of Singapore|ethnic neighbourhood]] featuring distinctly [[Chinese culture|Chinese]] cultural elements and a historically concentrated [[overseas Chinese|ethnic Chinese population]]. Chinatown is located within the larger district of [[Outram, Singapore|Outram]].

As the largest ethnic group in Singapore is Chinese, [[demographics of Singapore|composing]] about approximately 75% of the population, Chinatown is considerably less of an enclave than it once was. However, the district does retain significant historical and cultural significance. Large sections of it have been declared national [[heritage tourism|heritage sites]] officially designated for [[Architectural conservation|conservation]] by the [[Urban Redevelopment Authority]].

==Geography==
Singapore's Chinatown is composed of several sub-districts. Kreta Ayer [http://www.visitsingapore.com/publish/stbportal/en/home/what_to_see/ethnic_quarters/chinatown/kreta_ayer.html] is but one section within the larger Chinatown area. Other sections include Bukit Pasoh [http://www.visitsingapore.com/publish/stbportal/en/home/what_to_see/ethnic_quarters/chinatown/bukit_pasoh.html], (known also as the "Street of Clans") in which can be found several [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]] cultural and clan associations, and [[Tanjong Pagar]] [http://www.visitsingapore.com/publish/stbportal/en/home/what_to_see/ethnic_quarters/chinatown/tanjong_pagar__ethnic.html], with many preserved pre-World War II shophouses. Finally, [[Telok Ayer]] [http://www.visitsingapore.com/publish/stbportal/en/home/what_to_see/ethnic_quarters/chinatown/telok_ayer.html] was the original focal point of settlement in Chinatown, and is home to many [[Religion in China|Chinese temple]]s as well as [[Muslim]] [[mosque]]s.

There also exist a Chinatown Heritage Centre, Chinatown Food Street, and Chinatown Night Market, today largely maintained for heritage and tourism.

==Etymology==
In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], Chinatown is known as ''Niu che shui'' (牛车水; [[pinyin]]: Niúchēshuǐ), literally, "ox-cart water," as a result of the fact that, because of its location, Chinatown's water supply was principally transported by animal-driven carts in the [[19th century]]. The name is also echoed in the [[Malay language|Malay]] name, ''Kreta Ayer'', with the same meaning.

===Street name origins===
[[Image:Bukit Pasoh Road, Dec 05.JPG|thumb|right|230px|Bukit Pasoh Road is located on a hill that in the 1830s marked the western boundary of the colonial town.]]
* '''''Mosque Street''''' is named after [[Masjid Jamae|Jamae Mosque]], located on the South Bridge Road end of the street. The mosque was completed in [[1830]] by the Chulia Muslims from the [[Coromandel coast]] of [[South India]]. In the early years, Mosque Street was the site of ten [[stable]]s.
* '''''Pagoda Street''''' takes its name from the [[Sri Mariamman Temple]]. During the [[1850s]] and [[1880s]], the street was one of the centres of slave traffic. It also had its share of [[coolie]] quarters and [[opium]] smoking dens. One of the traders was Kwong Hup Yuen who, it is thought, occupied No. 37, and after whom Pagoda Street is often referred to today.
* '''''Sago Lane''''' and '''''Sago Street''''' got their name because in the [[1840s]] there were a number of [[sago]] factories located there. Sago is taken from the [[pith]] of the rumbia [[Arecaceae|palm]] and made into [[flour]] that is used for making cakes both sweet and savoury.
* '''''[[Smith Street, Singapore|Smith Street]]''''' was probably named after Sir Cecil Clementi Smith, who was the [[Governor of the Straits Settlements]] between [[1887]] and [[1893]].
* '''''Temple Street''''' refers to the [[Sri Mariamman Temple]], which is located at the South Bridge Road end of the street. It was formerly known as Almeida Street after Joaquim d'Almeida, son of José D'Almeida, who owned some land at the junction of Temple Street and Trengganu Street. In [[1908]], the Municipal Commissioners changed its name to Temple Street to avoid confusion with other streets in Singapore which were also named after D'Almeida.
* '''''Trengganu Street''''', described as "the [[Piccadilly]] of Chinese Singapore" in the past, now forms the heart of the [[tourist]] belt in Chinatown. In Chinese, it is called ''gu chia chui wah koi'', or "the cross street of Kreta Ayer". The crossing of streets refers to Smith Street and Sago streets.

==History==
[[Image:Keong Saik Road, Dec 05.JPG|thumb|right|230px|Keong Saik Road was once a red light area in Chinatown in the 1960s, but has since been transformed into a street with many boutique hotels.]]
Under the [[Raffles Plan of Singapore]], the area originally was a division of [[History of Singapore#Early growth (1819 - 1826)|colonial Singapore]] where Chinese immigrants tended to reside. Although as Singapore grew, Chinese immigrants settled in other areas of the island-city, Chinatown became overcrowded within decades of Singapore's founding in [[1819]] and remained such until many residents were relocated at the initiation of Singapore's governmental [[Housing Development Board]] in the [[1960s]].

In [[1822]], [[Sir Stamford Raffles]] wrote to Captain C.E. Davis, President of the Town Committee, and George Bonham and Alex L. Johnson, Esquires, and members, charging them with the task of "''suggesting and carrying into effect such arrangements on this head, as may on the whole be most conducive to the comfort and security of the different classes of inhabitants and the general interests and welfare of the place...''"

He went on to issue instructions, as a guide to the Committee, which included a description of Singapore Town generally, the ground reserved by the government, the [[European]] town and principal [[mercantile]] establishments and the native divisions and "''campongs''". These included areas for [[Bugis]], [[Arabs]], Marine Yard, [[Chulias]], [[Malays]], Markets and [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] Campong, the present-day Chinatown. Raffles was very clear in his instructions and his guidelines were to determine the urban structure of all subsequent development. The "five-foot way", for example, the continuous covered [[passage]] on either side of the street, was one of the public requirements.

Raffles [[foresight|foresaw]] the fact that "''it may be presumed that they (the Chinese) will always form by far the largest portion of the community''". For this reason, he appropriated all of the land southwest of the [[Singapore River]] for their accommodation but, at the same time, insisted that the different classes and the different [[province]]s be concentrated in their separate quarters and that these quarters, in the event of fire, be constructed of [[masonry]] with [[tile]]d roofs.

This thus resulted in the formation of a distinct section titled Chinatown. However, only when parcels of land were [[lease]]d or granted to the public in and after [[1843]] for the building of houses and [[shophouse]]s, did Chinatown's physical development truly begin.

[[Image:Kreta Ayer Road, Dec 05.JPG|thumb|right|230px|Kreta Ayer Road is the road that defines for Chinese, the Chinatown area. In the 1880s, Kreta Ayer was the red light area in Chinatown.]]

The effects of [[diversity]] of Chinatown are still present. The [[Hokkien]]s (Fukiens) are associated with Havelock Road, Telok Ayer Street, China Street and Chulia Street, and the [[Teochew]] [[merchant]]s are mostly in Circular Road, River Valley Road, [[Boat Quay]] and South Bridge Road. The ubiquitous [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] are scattered around South Bridge Road, Upper Cross Street, New Bridge Road and Bukit Pasoh Road.

The Chinese names for China Street are ''Kiau Keng Cheng'' (front of the [[gambling]] houses) and ''Hok Kien Ghi Hin Kong Si Cheng'' (front of the Hokkien Ghi Hin Kongsi). Church Street is an extension of Pickering Street and the Chinese call it ''Kian Keng Khau'' (mouth of the gambling houses) or ''Ngo Tai Tiahn Hok Kiong Khau'' (mouth of the five generations of the Tian Hok Temple).

[[Guild]]s, [[clan]]s, [[trade union]]s and [[Voluntary association|associations]] were all referred to as ''kongsi'', a kind of Chinese [[mafia]], although the literal meaning of the word is "to share". The so-called mafia is better translated as the secret and sinister ''hui''. However, these [[secret societies]], the [[triad]]s, who themselves had suffered under the [[Manchu]]s in China, provided [[support group|support]] to the later [[immigrant]]s to Singapore by paying their passage and permitting to pay it off by working.

There were the [[letter]] writers of [[Sago Street]] -- the Chinese called this street ''Gu Chia Chwi Hi Hng Cheng'' (front of [[Kreta Ayer Theatre]]), but it was mainly associated with [[death]] -- the [[sandalwood]] idols of Club Street and the complicated and simple food of [[Mosque Street]]; all rang to the sound of the [[abacus]]. Old women could be seen early in the mornings topping and tailing [[bean sprout]]s, the skins of [[frog]]s being peeled, the newly killed [[snake]]s being skinned and the centuries-old [[panacea]]s being dispensed by women blessed with the power of curing.

Surprisingly, in the heart of this diverse Chinese community is the [[Sri Mariamman Temple|Sri Mariamman Hindu Tamil Temple]] and the Indian mosques, [[Al-Abrar Mosque]] at Telok Ayer Street and [[Masjid Jamae|Jamae Mosque]] at Mosque Street, as well as the Fukien [[Thian Hock Keng|Thian Hock Keng Chinese Temple]] of [[1830]] to [[1842]].

==Architecture==

[[Image:Mosque Street, Dec 05.JPG|thumb|right|230px|Mosque Street is named after [[Masjid Jamae|Jamae Mosque]], located on the South Bridge Road end of the street.]]

The street [[architecture]] of Chinatown's buildings, the [[shophouse]]s especially, combine different elements of [[baroque architecture]] and [[Victorian architecture]] and do not have a single classification. Many of them were built in the style of [[painted ladies]], and have been restored in that fashion. These styles result in a variety of different colours of which [[pastel]] is most dominant. Trengganu Street, Pagoda Street and Temple Street are such examples of this architecture, as well as development in Upper Cross Street and the houses in Club Street. [[Boat Quay]] was once a [[slavery|slave]] market along the Singapore River, [[Boat Quay]] has the most mixed-style shophouses on the island.

It was in [[1843]], when land [[Title (property)|title]]s were issued, that the [[terrace]]s in Pagoda Street (now with additions, mostly three-storey) were born. They were originally back to back, an arrangement which made [[night soil]] collection difficult, but lanes were developed in between following the [[Singapore Improvement Trust]] (SIT) backlane orders of [[1935]].

The architectural character of many of the terraces in Chinatown is much more [[Italianate]] in style than those of, for instance [[Emerald Hill]] or [[Petain Road]]. Windows often appear as mere [[slit]]s with narrow [[timber]] [[jalousie]]s (often with adjustable [[slat]]s). [[Fanlight]]s over the windows are usually quite decorative and the [[pilaster]]s and [[balconies]] and even the [[plasterwork]] and colours seem to be Mediterranean in flavour. The style was probably introduced by those early Chinese [[immigrant]]s (both [[China]]-born and [[Peranakan|Straits-born]]) who had knowledge of the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] architecture of [[Macao]], [[Malacca]] and [[Goa]]. The [[Chettiar]]s and [[Tamils]] from [[Southern India]] would also have been familiar with the [[European]] architecture there, although it is difficult to imagine how these people would have had a particularly strong influence on building in Chinatown.

==Transportation==
Chinatown has a [[Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)|Mass Rapid Transit]] (MRT) station, called the [[Chinatown MRT Station]], in the middle of [[Pagoda Street]] (which is closed to traffic) and services the vicinity, as well as several public [[bus]] routes which integrate it into the [[Transport in Singapore|Singapore's transportation system]].

== Gallery ==

<gallery>
Image:Pagoda Street, Dec 05.JPG|Pagoda Street is named after the Hindu temple, [[Sri Mariamman Temple]], located on the South Bridge Road end of the street.
Image:Smith Street 2, Dec 05.JPG|[[Smith Street, Singapore|Smith Street]] now has an [[alfresco]] food street.
Image:Temple Street 2, Dec 05.JPG|Temple Street refers to the [[Sri Mariamman Temple]], which is located at the South Bridge Road end of the street.
Image:Teo Hong Road, Dec 05.JPG|Three-storey shophouses along Teo Hong Road.
Image:Trengganu Street, Dec 05.JPG|Trengganu Street has been converted to a [[pedestrian mall]] with shops lining both sides of the street, which transforms into a [[night market]] after dark.
Image:Chinatown Complex, Dec 05.JPG|Chinatown Complex at Smith Street houses a food centre, a wet market and shops selling sundry goods.
Image:Duxton Plain Park, Dec 05.JPG|Duxton Plain Park extends from New Bridge Road in Chinatown to the former Yan Kit Swimming Complex in [[Tanjong Pagar]].
Image:Chinatown NEL Station, Entrance, Dec 05.JPG|Entrance to [[Chinatown MRT Station]] at Pagoda Street.

</gallery>

==References==
*Norman Edwards, Peter Keys (1996), ''Singapore - A Guide to Buildings, Streets, Places'', Times Books International, ISBN 9971652315
*Victor R Savage, Brenda S A Yeoh (2003), ''Toponymics - A Study of Singapore Street Names'', Eastern Universities Press, ISBN 9812102051

==See also==
*[[Chinatowns in Asia]]

{{commons|Chinatown, Singapore}}
==External links==
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.visitsingapore.com/publish/stbportal/en/home/what_to_see/ethnic_quarters/chinatown/kreta_ayer.html Kreta Ayer on Uniquely Singapore]
*[http://www.yawningbread.org/photo_essay/pew-01/pew-0100.htm Yawning Bread's photo essay on Chinatown]
* [http://lifestylewiki.com/Singapore/Chinatown What is available at Chinatown? - Singapore Lifestyle Wiki]
{{Singapore}}

[[Category:Chinatowns|Singapore]]
[[Category:Places in Singapore]]
[[Category:Conservation areas in Singapore]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Singapore]]

[[id:Chinatown, Singapura]]