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XQc

2019-05-26T00:21:55Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by ImBlack420 (talk) (HG) (3.4.8)

{{DISPLAYTITLE:xQc}}
{{Infobox eSports player
| ID = xQc
| name = Félix Lengyel
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth-date and age|November 12, 1995}}
| hometown = [[Laval, Quebec]], Canada
| nationality = [[Canadians|Canadian]]
| team =
| role = Tank
| league = [[Overwatch League]]
| games = ''[[Overwatch (video game)|Overwatch]]''
| years1 = 2016
| team1 = Q?
| years2 = 2016–2017
| team2 = [[Denial eSports]]
| years3 = 2017–present
| team3 = Team Canada
| years4 = 2017
| team4 = Arc 6
| team5 = [[Dallas Fuel]]
| years5 = 2017–2018
| team6 = GOATS
| years6 = 2018
|years7=2019–present
|team7=[[Gladiators Legion]]
|status=Active
|Role=Tank}}

'''Félix Lengyel''' (born November 12, 1995), better known by his online alias '''xQc''' or '''xQcOW''', is a Canadian professional ''[[Overwatch (video game)|Overwatch]]'' player and [[Twitch.tv|Twitch]] streamer who played the main tank position for the [[Dallas Fuel]] in the [[Overwatch League]] for part of the inaugural season, before being released due to repeated controversy. He later joined [[Gladiators Legion]], an [[Overwatch Contenders]] team affiliated with Overwatch League's [[Los Angeles Gladiators]], as a substitute Main Tank. xQc has also played in the [[Overwatch World Cup]] as the main tank for Team Canada in 2017 and 2018. He now mostly plays a variety of games on Twitch.

==Career==
xQc began his career as a main tank player on the ''Overwatch'' team Q? which was later picked up by [[Denial eSports]].{{r|The Score Denial}} After the team disbanded, xQc and the other members of the team played together under the name YIKES! which was later changed to Arc 6. After qualifying, they played in Season Zero of Overwatch Contenders but were ultimately eliminated in the group stage. Eventually, Arc 6 went their separate ways to focus on tryouts for Season 1 of the [[Overwatch League]].

xQc also played for Team Canada in their [[Overwatch World Cup 2017|2017 Overwatch World Cup]] campaign. They qualified for the World Cup after beating the Netherlands by a score of 3-0. The team made it all the way to the finals of the tournament before being defeated by defending champions, South Korea.{{r|Overwatch World Cup Finals}} xQc won the MVP Fan Vote for the tournament.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/esports/article-5051827/Overwatch-World-Cup-South-Korea-champions-second-time.html|title=Overwatch World Cup: South Korea champions for second time in a row|work=Mail Online|access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref>

On October 28, 2017, Overwatch League franchise Dallas Fuel announced xQc would be joining their roster as their 9th player.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/DallasFuel/status/924305913468653568|title=Dallas Fuel on Twitter|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2018-07-04}}</ref> xQc played with the team for several matches before coming under fire due to homophobic remarks made on his Twitch stream directed against rival player Austin "Muma" Wilmot of the [[Houston Outlaws]]. Lengyel was suspended by the League for four matches and fined $2,000 for violating the Overwatch League Code of Conduct. The Dallas Fuel later extended the suspension to include the entirety of Stage 1. Lengyel made his return at the beginning of Stage 2, leading his team to victory against the [[Los Angeles Gladiators]], and was chosen as Omen by HP's Player Of The Match.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://twitter.com/DallasFuel/status/954562635520978945/photo/1?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E954562635520978945|title=Dallas Fuel on Twitter|work=Twitter|access-date=2018-07-05|language=en}}</ref> However, he only played for a little bit longer, before being suspended and fined again, and then finally released from the team, this time for posting a Twitch emote in the chat which was received by many in a racially disparaging manner and using disparaging language to Overwatch League casters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fuel.overwatchleague.com/en-us/news/dallas-fuel-announce-release-felix-xqc-lengyel|title=Dallas Fuel Announce Release of Félix "xQc" Lengyel|last=|first=|date=|website=The Overwatch League|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-07-05}}</ref>

xQc then said he was going to take a break from professional play, retiring to become a full time streamer. He continued full time streaming for several months, before making the decision to return to pro play, playing with the Contenders Trials NA team GOATS.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dexerto.com/overwatch/controversial-overwatch-streamer-xqc-is-returning-to-competition|title=Controversial Overwatch Streamer xQc is Returning to Competition|work=Dexerto|access-date=2018-07-05}}</ref>

In the 2018 Overwatch World Cup, xQc played as a main tank on the starting roster for Team Canada. Several months prior to the world cup, the head coach of team Canada, Justin "Jayne" Conroy announced on his Twitch stream that xQc, along with players Lucas "NotE" Meissner, Brady "Agilities" Girardi, Lane "Surefour" Roberts and Liam "Mangachu" Campbell, would be welcome to join the Canadian national team without going through the regular trialing process.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://overwatchwire.usatoday.com/2018/06/02/team-canada-coach-jayne-announces-xqc-note-and-more-to-join-team-roster/|title=Team Canada Coach Jayne announces xQc, NotE and more to join team roster|date=2018-06-03|work=Overwatch Wire|access-date=2018-10-30|language=en-US}}</ref> He played in the Los Angeles Group Stage, finishing second place to move on to the quarterfinals at [[BlizzCon]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://overwatchwire.usatoday.com/2018/07/10/canada-announce-final-starting-roster-for-2018-overwatch-world-cup/|title=Canada announce final starting roster for 2018 Overwatch World Cup|date=2018-07-10|work=Overwatch Wire|access-date=2018-08-15|language=en-US}}</ref>

In February 2019, it was announced that xQc joined Gladiators Legion, the academy team of the [[Los Angeles Gladiators]] competing in [[Overwatch Contenders]], as a substitute main tank.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dotesports.com/overwatch/news/xqc-joins-gladiators-legion-substitute-main-tank|title=Popular Twitch streamer xQc joins Gladiators Legion as a substitute main-tank|last=Abbas|first=Malcolm|date=February 12, 2019|website=Dot Esports|publisher=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=February 13, 2019}}</ref>

==Controversy==
===Before joining Dallas Fuel===
Prior to major incidents in the Overwatch League, there were known cases of controversial acts. His account was suspended twice for violating [[Blizzard Entertainment|Blizzard]]'s Terms of Use. The first incident occurred in November 2017, xQc was booted mid-match from a competitive Overwatch game with a suspension message. He was suspended for 72 hours for "misuse of the reporting system". xQc had used the in-game reporting system for reporting players for supposedly invalid reasons. He had reported a player for refusing to switch off of a hero, even after repeatedly dying.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://compete.kotaku.com/overwatch-pros-mid-match-suspension-sparks-debate-over-1820572524|title=Overwatch Pro's Mid-Match Suspension Raises Questions About Blizzard's Reporting System|last=Allen|first=Eric Van|work=Compete|access-date=2018-07-05|language=en-US}}</ref>

While streaming in December 2017, xQc [[Match fixing|threw]] a competitive game. Blizzard responded with a seven-day suspension, and xQc posted a video to publicly apologize for his behavior.<ref>{{Citation|last=xQcOW|title=Suspended: My apology|date=2017-12-19|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pq_VGpPooM|access-date=2018-07-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://dotesports.com/the-op/overwatch/news/xqc-seven-day-overwatch-suspension-19615|title=Dallas Fuel player xQc receives 7-day Overwatch suspension|work=The OP|access-date=2018-07-05|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Dallas Fuel===
Over the course of his time with the Dallas Fuel, xQc was suspended twice. His first suspension came after [[Dallas Fuel]]'s loss to the [[Houston Outlaws]] in Stage 1. xQc made homophobic remarks towards openly gay Houston Outlaws player Austin "Muma" Wilmot after Wilmot used xQc's own catch phrase against him after the match (xQc did not play in that match). The Overwatch League then fined xQc $2,000 and suspended him for 4 matches. Dallas Fuel later extended that suspension to the remainder of Stage 1.<ref name=":0" />

xQc returned from his suspension in Stage 2 only to be fined and suspended again for using the [[Twitch.tv|Twitch]] emoticon TriHard in a "racially disparaging manner" in Twitch chat as African-American broadcaster Malik Forté appeared on stream and using disparaging language against Overwatch League casters and fellow players on social media and on his personal stream.{{r|xQc 2nd Suspension}} This time, xQc received a $4,000 fine and was suspended for 4 matches. On March 11, 2018, Dallas Fuel announced that the team and xQc had mutually parted ways.{{r|xQc released from Dallas Fuel}} In an interview, xQc said that although he likes to play at a professional level, he also enjoys creating content on Twitch. If he receives an offer to play in a professional team again, he said he'd have to think about it a while.<ref>{{cite news|last=Selk|first=Avi|date=14 March 2018|title='I blame myself': A fallen e-sports star reflects on video gaming's image problems|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2018/03/14/i-blame-myself-a-fallen-esports-star-reflects-on-video-gamings-image-problems/|work=[[The Washington Post]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=10 July 2018}}</ref>

=== Overwatch World Cup 2018 ===
On August 11, 2018, xQc's account was suspended once again for violating the Abusive Chat policy. He had apparently been reported by teammates several times for this offense. Overwatch World Cup issued an official warning for the suspension, but he was allowed to play.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.unikrn.com/article/xqc-overwatch-world-cup-warning-in-game-ban|title=xQc Given Official Overwatch World Cup Warning After In-Game Ban - Unikrn News|date=2018-08-21|work=Unikrn News|access-date=2018-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|refs=

<ref name="The Score Denial">
{{Cite news |last= Bury |first= Josh |title=Denial eSports sign Overwatch roster |work= [[theScore Inc.]]|publisher= [[theScore Inc.]] |date=2016-10-13 |accessdate= 2018-03-17 |url=https://www.thescoreesports.com/news/10976 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

<ref name="xQc 2nd Suspension">
{{Cite news |last= Carpenter |first= Nicole |title=Dallas Fuel player xQc suspended again from the Overwatch League, others fined |work= dotesports.com|publisher= dotesports.com |date=2018-03-09 |accessdate= 2018-03-17 |url=https://dotesports.com/overwatch/news/overwatch-league-players-banned-fined-21753 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

<ref name="xQc released from Dallas Fuel">
{{Cite news |last= Wolf |first= Jacob |title=xQc released from Dallas Fuel after receiving second Overwatch League suspension |work=[[ESPN.com]] |publisher=[[ESPN.com]] |date=2018-03-11 |accessdate= 2018-03-17 |url=http://www.espn.com/esports/story/_/id/22727221/xqc-released-dallas-fuel-receiving-second-overwatch-league-suspension |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

<ref name="Overwatch World Cup Finals">
{{Cite news |last= Van Allen |first= Eric |title=Overwatch World Cup Comes Down To A Fight Over Meters |work=[[ESPN.com]] |publisher=[[ESPN.com]] |date=2018-03-11 |accessdate= 2018-03-17 |url=https://compete.kotaku.com/overwatch-world-cup-comes-down-to-a-fight-over-meters-1820149729 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>
}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{twitch|Xqcow}}

{{Overwatch}}
{{Portal bar|Video games|Canada}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Xqc}}
[[Category:Overwatch (video game) players]]
[[Category:1995 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Twitch streamers]]
[[Category:Canadian esports players]]

XQc

2019-05-26T00:17:20Z

Wikipelli: Reverted 1 edit by ImBlack420 (talk) to last revision by Wikipelli (TW)

XQc

2019-05-26T00:16:47Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by ImBlack420 (talk) (HG) (3.4.8)

XQc

2019-05-26T00:15:27Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by ImBlack420 (talk) (HG) (3.4.8)

Motivated Reasoning

2019-05-13T22:09:07Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 76.14.152.227 (talk) (HG) (3.4.6)

'''Motivated reasoning''' is an emotion-biased decision-making phenomenon studied in [[cognitive science]] and [[social psychology]]. This term describes the role of motivation in cognitive processes such as decision-making and attitude change in a number of paradigms, including:
* [[Cognitive dissonance]] reduction<ref name="oleary">O'Leary, Ann. [http://www.apa.org/pi/aids/resources/education/reasoning.aspx "Teaching Tip Sheet: Motivated Reasoning,"] [[American Psychological Association]] (APA); citing {{Cite journal
| last1 = Sternlicht | first1 = H. C.
| title = The range of periodontal therapy--past and present
| journal = Texas Dental Journal
| volume = 95
| issue = 10
| pages = 6–13
| year = 1977
| pmid = 270237
}}</ref>
* Beliefs about others on whom one's own outcomes depend<ref name="oleary"/>
* Evaluation of evidence related to one's own outcomes<ref name="oleary"/>

==Cognitive strategy==
The processes of motivated reasoning are a type of inferred justification strategy which is used to mitigate [[cognitive dissonance]]. When people form and cling to false beliefs despite overwhelming evidence, the phenomenon is labeled "motivated reasoning". In other words, "rather than search rationally for information that either confirms or disconfirms a particular belief, people actually seek out information that confirms what they already believe".<ref>Begley, Sharon. [http://www.newsweek.com/2009/08/24/lies-of-mass-destruction.html "Lies of Mass Destruction,"] ''Newsweek'' (US). August 25, 2009.</ref>
This is "a form of implicit emotion regulation in which the brain converges on judgments that minimize negative and maximize positive affect states associated with threat to or attainment of motives".<ref name="westen"/>

==Mechanisms==

Early research on the evaluation and integration of information supported a cognitive approach consistent with [[Bayesian probability]], in which individuals weighted new information using rational calculations.<ref>{{cite journal |journal = Annual Review of Political Science |title=Misperceptions about Perceptual Bias |year=1999 |last1=Gerber |first1=Alan |last2=Green |first2=Donald |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=189–2100 |issn=1094-2939|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.189 }}</ref>
More recent theories endorse cognitive processes as partial explanations of motivated reasoning but have also introduced motivational<ref name="kunda">{{Cite journal | last1 = Kunda | first1 = Z. | title = The case for motivated reasoning | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480 | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 108 | issue = 3 | pages = 480–498 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2270237| pmc = }}</ref> or affective processes<ref>{{cite journal |title=Hot Cognition or Cool Consideration |year=2002 |last1=Redlawsk |first1=D |journal=The Journal of Politics |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=1021–1044 |issn=0022-3816 |doi=10.1111/1468-2508.00161}}</ref> to further illuminate the mechanisms of the bias inherent in cases of motivated reasoning. To further complicate the issue, the first neuro-imaging study designed to test the neural circuitry of individuals engaged in motivated reasoning found that motivated reasoning "was not associated with neural activity in regions previously linked with cold reasoning tasks [Bayesian reasoning] and conscious (explicit) emotion regulation".<ref name="westen">{{Cite journal | last1 = Westen | first1 = D. | last2 = Blagov | first2 = P. S. | last3 = Harenski | first3 = K. | last4 = Kilts | first4 = C. | last5 = Hamann | first5 = S. | title = Neural Bases of Motivated Reasoning: An fMRI Study of Emotional Constraints on Partisan Political Judgment in the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election | doi = 10.1162/jocn.2006.18.11.1947 | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 18 | issue = 11 | pages = 1947–1958 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17069484| pmc = | citeseerx = 10.1.1.578.8097 }}</ref>
This section focuses on two theories that elucidate the mechanisms involved in motivated reasoning. Both theories distinguish between mechanisms present when the individual is trying to reach an accurate conclusion, and those present when the individual has a directional goal.

=== Goal-oriented motivated reasoning ===

One review of the research develops the following theoretical model to explain the mechanism by which motivated reasoning results in bias.<ref>Ziva Kunda 1990</ref> The model is summarized as follows:

Motivation to arrive at a desired conclusion provides a level of arousal, which acts as an initial trigger for the operation of cognitive processes. Historically, motivated reasoning theory identifies that directional goals enhance the accessibility of knowledge structures (memories, information, knowledge) that are consistent with desired conclusions. This theory endorses previous research on accessing information, but adds a procedural component in specifying that the motivation to achieve directional goals will also influence which rules (procedural structures such as inferential rules) and which beliefs are accessed to guide the search for information. In this model the beliefs and rule structures are instrumental in directing which information will be obtained to support the desired conclusion.

In comparison, Milton Lodge and Charles Taber (2000) introduce an empirically supported model in which affect is intricately tied to cognition, and information processing is biased toward support for positions that the individual already holds.

This model has three components:

# On-line processing in which when called on to make an evaluation, people instantly draw on stored information which is marked with affect;
# Affect is automatically activated along with the cognitive node to which it is tied;<ref>{{cite book |last= Fazio |first= Russell |editors= Richard E. Petty, Jon A. Krosnick |title= Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences |publisher= [[Mahwah, NJ]] |year= 1995 |isbn= 978-0-8058-1086-8}}</ref>
# A "[[heuristic]] mechanism" for evaluating new information triggers a reflection on "How do I feel?" about this topic. The result of this process results in a bias towards maintaining existing affect, even in the face of other, disconfirming information.

This theory of motivated reasoning is fully developed and tested in Lodge and Taber's ''The Rationalizing Voter'' (2013).<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rationalizing Voter|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|author=Milton Lodge|author2=Charles Taber}}</ref> David Redlawsk (2002) found that the timing of when disconfirming information was introduced played a role in determining bias. When subjects encountered incongruity during an information search, the automatic assimilation and update process was interrupted. This results in one of two outcomes: subjects may enhance attitude strength in a desire to support existing affect (resulting in degradation in decision quality and potential bias) or, subjects may counter-argue existing beliefs in an attempt to integrate the new data.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Lodge and Taber
| title = Elements of Reason: Cognition, Choice and Bounds of Rationality
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| chapter = Three steps toward a theory of motivated political reasoning
| year = 2000
| isbn = 978-0-521-65329-9
}}</ref> This second outcome is consistent with the research on how processing occurs when one is tasked with accuracy goals.

=== Accuracy-oriented motivated reasoning ===

Kunda asserts that accuracy goals delay the process of coming to a premature conclusion, in that accuracy goals increase both the quantity and quality of processing—particularly in leading to more complex inferential cognitive processing procedures.
When researchers manipulated test subjects motivation to be accurate by informing them that the target task was highly important or that they would be expected to defend their judgments, it was found that subjects utilized deeper processing, and that there was less biasing of information. This was true when accuracy motives were present at the initial processing and encoding of information. Tetlock (1983, 1985)<ref>{{cite journal |title=Accountability and the perseverance of first impressions |year=1983 |last1=Tetlock |first1=P |journal=Social Psychology Quarterly |volume= 46 |issue=4 |pages=285–292 |issn=0190-2725 |doi=10.2307/3033716|jstor=3033716 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Accountability: A social check on the fundamental attribution error |year=1985 |last1=Tetlock |first1=P |journal=Social Psychology Quarterly |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=227–236 |issn=0190-2725 |doi=10.2307/3033683|jstor=3033683 }}</ref>
In reviewing a line of research on accuracy goals and bias, Kunda concludes, "several different kinds of biases have been shown to weaken in the presence of accuracy goals".<ref>Kunda (1990) p. 482</ref> She asserts that for accuracy to reduce bias the following conditions must be present.
#Subjects must possess appropriate reasoning strategies
#They must view these as superior to other strategies,
#And be capable of using them at will.

These last two conditions introduce the construct that accuracy goals include a conscious process of utilizing [[cognitive strategy|cognitive strategies]] in motivated reasoning. This construct is called into question by later neuroscience research that concludes that motivated reasoning is qualitatively distinct from reasoning (in instances when there is no strong emotional stake in the outcomes), (Weston, 2006 ).<ref name="westen"/>

In summary, both models differentiate between accuracy goals, and goal directed processing. They differ in that Redlawsk identifies a primary role for affect in guiding cognitive processes and in maintaining bias. In contrast, Kunda identifies a primary role for cognitive processes such as memory processes, and the use of rules in determining biased information selection. At least one study in neuroscience does not support the use of cognitive processes in motivated reasoning, lending greater support to affective processing as a key mechanism in supporting bias.
Of interest, neuroscience is consistent with Freud's (1933)<ref>{{cite book |last= Freud |first= Sigmund |title= New Introductory Lectures in Psychoanalysis |publisher= [[Hogarth Press]] |year= 1933 }}</ref> theory of "defensive processing" which occurred in the unconscious, and was seen as a mechanism to avoid feelings of anxiety and guilt.

==Research==
Neuroscientific research suggest that "motivated reasoning is qualitatively distinct from reasoning when people do not have a strong emotional stake in the conclusions reached."<ref name="westen"/>

Social science research suggests that reasoning away contradictions is psychologically easier than revising feelings. In this sense, emotions are shown to color how "facts" are perceived. Feelings come first, and evidence is used mostly in service of those feelings. Evidence that supports what is already believed is accepted, that which contradicts it is not.<ref>{{cite news |last=Redlawsk |first=David P. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/04/21/barack-obama-and-the-psychology-of-the-birther-myth/a-matter-of-motivated-reasoning |title=A Matter of Motivated 'Reasoning' |work=New York Times |date=April 22, 2011}} citing {{Cite journal | last1 = Redlawsk | first1 = D. P. | last2 = Civettini | first2 = A. J. W. | last3 = Emmerson | first3 = K. M. | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00772.x | title = The Affective Tipping Point: Do Motivated Reasoners Ever "Get It"? | journal = Political Psychology | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 563 | year = 2010 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref>

==Outcomes==
The outcomes of motivated reasoning derive from "a biased set of cognitive processes—that is, strategies for accessing, constructing, and evaluating beliefs. The motivation to be accurate enhances use of those beliefs and strategies that are considered most appropriate, whereas the motivation to arrive at particular conclusions enhances use of those that are considered most likely to yield the desired conclusion."<ref name="kunda"/>

Research on motivated reasoning tested accuracy goals (i.e., reaching correct conclusions) and directional goals (i.e., reaching preferred conclusions). Factors such as these affect perceptions; and results confirm that motivated reasoning affects decision-making and estimates.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Nir | first1 = L. | title = Motivated Reasoning and Public Opinion Perception | doi = 10.1093/poq/nfq076 | journal = Public Opinion Quarterly | volume = 75 | issue = 3 | pages = 504–532 | year = 2011 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Cognitive miser]]
* [[Emotional reasoning]]
* [[Intensity of preference]]
* [[Motivated forgetting]]
* [[Motivated sequence]]
* [[Motivated tactician]]
* [[Confirmation bias]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Biases}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Motivated reasoning}}
[[Category:Bias]]
[[Category:Cognitive biases]]
[[Category:Inductive fallacies]]
[[Category:Reasoning]]

Schlacht von Beauport

2019-04-24T23:34:31Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 63.135.1.184 (talk) (HG) (3.4.6)

{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Short description|battle of the French and Indian War}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Beauport
| image = SiegeOfQuebec1759ByDesBarres.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = A 1777 map depicting the military positions of the French and British during the Siege of Quebec
| partof = the [[French and Indian War]]
| date = 31 July 1759
| place = [[Beauport, Quebec City|Beauport]], [[Canada, New France]]
| coordinates = {{coord|46.890188|-71.147268|display=title}}
| result = French victory
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Great Britain}}
| combatant2 =
{{flagcountry|Kingdom of France}}
*{{flagicon|New France}} [[Canada (New France)|Colony of Canada]]
| commander1 = [[James Wolfe]]
| commander2 = [[Marquis de Montcalm]]
| strength1 = 4,000 regulars
| strength2 = ~10,000 regulars and militia
| casualties1 = 210 killed 233 wounded<ref name="McLynn, Frank 2004 p. 221">McLynn, Frank (2004). ''1759: The Year Britain became Master of the World'', p. 221</ref>
| casualties2 = 60 dead or wounded<ref name=S79_80>Stacey, pp. 79-80</ref>
}}
{{Campaignbox French and Indian War}}

The '''Battle of Beauport''', also known as the '''Battle of Montmorency''', fought on 31 July 1759, was an important confrontation between the [[British Armed Forces|British]] and [[French Armed Forces]] during the [[Seven Years' War]] (also known as the [[French and Indian War]] and the War of Conquest) of the French province of [[Canada, New France|Canada]]. The attack conducted by the British against the French defense line of [[Beauport, Quebec City|Beauport]], some {{Convert|5|km}} east of [[Quebec City|Quebec]] was checked, and the British soldiers of General [[James Wolfe]] retreated with 443 casualties and losses.

== Background ==

The [[French and Indian War]] campaigns of 1758 were successful for the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]], who had sent more than 40,000 men against [[New France]] and made key gains by [[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)|capturing Louisbourg]] and [[Battle of Fort Frontenac|destroying Fort Frontenac]], although their primary thrust was stopped by French general [[Louis-Joseph de Montcalm]] in the [[Battle of Carillon]]. [[William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham|William Pitt]] continued the aggressive policy in 1759, again organizing large campaigns aimed at the heartland of New France, the [[Canada, New France|Canadien]] communities of [[Quebec City|Quebec]] and [[Montreal]] on the [[St. Lawrence River]]. For the campaign against Quebec, General [[James Wolfe]] was given command of an army of about 7,000 men.

=== Beauport ===
When he arrived before Quebec on 26 June, Wolfe observed that the northern shore of the [[St. Lawrence River]] around [[Beauport, Quebec City|Beauport]] (the [[Beauport shore]]), the most favourable site for the landing of troops, was strongly defended by the French, who had built entrenchments on high ground, [[redoubt]]s and [[Floating battery|floating batteries]]. Wolfe consequently had to devise a plan involving a landing on some other location of the shore. The search for the best site kept him busy for weeks.

=== Montmorency camp ===
On the night of 8th or 9 July, British forces landed on the north shore, some 1.2 km (1 mi) east of the [[Montmorency Falls]], east of where the French west-east defence line ended, at the mouth of the [[Montmorency River]]. Wolfe landed first, leading the Louisbourg grenadiers, who were followed by the brigade commanded by [[George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend|George Townshend]]. The landing met no opposition from the French.<ref name=S60>Stacey, p.60</ref> [[James Murray (Quebec governor)|James Murray]], at the head of a part of his brigade, joined Wolfe and Townshend on 10 July. A camp was set up near the landing site. Wolfe ordered the construction of a battery to defend the camp, as well as rafts and floating batteries in anticipation of an attack on the French line.<ref name=S66>Stacey, p. 66</ref>

=== Plan of Attack ===
After establishing the Montmorency camp, Wolfe explored various plans of attack and chose his plan on 28 July. He has two main plans.

The first plan which Wolfe mentioned in his journal and the correspondence with his officers is that of 16 July. In a letter to Brigadier [[Robert Monckton]], Wolfe wrote that he had hoped to capture one of the French redoubts, the second one counting from the east end of the Beauport line, in order to force the enemy out of their entrenchments. The plan involved an attack by the Navy, an important landing force transported from [[Île d'Orléans]], as well as a body of troops crossing the river Montmorency on rafts and marching westward to the battle site. At the same time, the brigade commanded by Monckton was to land on the French right, between the [[Saint-Charles River]] and Beauport.

This plan was put on hold on 20 July, when an event of great import to the British occurred: the [[Royal Navy]] succeeded, on the night of 18–19 July, in passing seven ships, including the [[ship of the line]] ''[[HMS Sutherland (1741)|HMS Sutherland]]'' and two frigates (''HMS Diana'' and ''HMS Squirrel''), through the narrow passage between Quebec and [[Pointe-Lévy]], thus opening the possibility of a landing west of Quebec.<ref name=S67_68>Stacey, pp. 67-68</ref> Batteries firing at the British flotilla from the [[Lower Town]] of Quebec, as well as the floating batteries pursuing it, were unable to prevent the crossing. The ''Sutherland's'' log records that the French cannonballs flew too high to cause serious damage.<ref name=S68>Stacey, p. 68</ref>

On 19 July Wolfe was at the Pointe-Lévy camp to reconnoiter the north shore west of Quebec. He moved further west the next day, near the mouth of the [[Chaudière River]], to study the opposite shore between [[Sillery, Quebec City|Sillery]] and [[Cap-Rouge, Quebec City|Cap Rouge]].<ref name=S68>Stacey, p. 68</ref> Wolfe wrote to Monckton with orders for a plan of attack involving a landing near the village of [[Quartier Saint-Michel (Québec)|Saint-Michel]], something he had already considered in June.<ref name=S69>Stacey, p. 69</ref> However, at 13:00, Wolfe countermanded his orders to Monckton, ordering him instead to wait a few days and remain ready to act quickly, because of some "particular circumstances".<ref name=S70>Stacey, p. 70</ref> It is possible that the circumstance he alluded to was a French counteroffensive in which a newly built battery at Samos (near Sillery) damaged the ''Squirrel''.

Wolfe returned to the Montmorency camp on 26 July. Escorted by two battalions, he walked up the Montmorency river to reconnoiter the French lines. At about five kilometres (3.1 mi) from the river's mouth, he observed a [[Ford (crossing)|ford]] allowing the easy crossing from the west shore to the east shore. This discovery was followed by a solid skirmish between British soldiers, attempting to cross, and French soldiers entrenched on the other side. The British reported 45 killed and wounded.<ref name=S72>Stacey, p. 72</ref>

On 28 July, Wolfe wrote of an attack on the Beauport line to be executed on 30 July. However, poor winds did not allow for naval movements that day and the operations were postponed to the next day.<ref name=S74>Stacey, p. 74</ref> The plan of attack then contemplated by Wolfe was a variation of the plan he had described to Monckton in his letter of 16 July. Unlike the earlier plan, there was no mention of a parallel landing on the French right (west of Beauport).

== Battle ==
===Dangers of plan exposed===
On the morning of 31 July the war vessel ''[[HMS Centurion (1732)|Centurion]]'' positioned itself by the Montmorency Falls to attack the easternmost French batteries. General Wolfe went on board the ''Russell'', one of the two armed transports (the other being the ''Three Sisters'') that were meant for the attack on the redoubt. Wolfe, who was then in the heat of the action, had a better chance to reconnoitre the French position than he could from Île d'Orléans. He immediately realized his mistake: the redoubt he hoped to seize to force the French out of their entrenchments was within range of enemy fire. The French soldiers could then very well shoot toward the redoubt without leaving their entrenchments on high ground. This fact changed everything and Wolfe's plan of attack consequently proved riskier than expected.<ref>Stacey, pp. 75-76</ref>

In spite of this, General Wolfe decided to proceed with the attack already underway. In his journal, he stated that it was "the confusion and disorder" he observed on the enemy's side which incited him to action. Townshend, who commanded at Montmorency, and Monckton who was doing the same at Pointe-Lévy, received the order to prepare for the attack.

=== Difficult landing ===
At around 11:00, the transport ships (''Russell'' and ''Three Sisters'') reached the north shore where the body of troops mobilized to take the redoubt landed. Toward 12:30, the boats transporting the main landing force left the Île d'Orléans to rendezvous with Wolfe. An unforeseen difficulty caused the landing planned a little to the west of the Montmorency Falls to be suspended: the boats met with a [[shoal]] preventing them from reaching the shore. A significant amount of time was lost trying to find a suitable site for landing, which finally occurred at around 17:30.<ref>Stacey, pp. 76-77</ref> By that time, the sky was covered by storm clouds.

=== Confrontation ===
The first troops advancing toward French lines were the thirteen companies of grenadiers and some 200 soldiers of the [[Royal Americans]].<ref name=S77>Stacey, p. 77</ref> Fire from the Montreal militia stalled their advance up the hill to the entrenchments above.<ref name=S80>Stacey, p. 80</ref>

Shortly after the firing began, a [[storm|summer storm]] broke out, causing gunpowder to become wet and rendering firearms unusable.<ref>Stacey, p. 78</ref> When General Wolfe ordered the retreat, the troops marching from the Montmorency camp had not yet met up with the main force transported from the Île d'Orléans camp.<ref name=S77>Stacey, p. 77</ref>

== Consequences ==
The French were victorious. General Wolfe recorded 443 losses (210 killed and 233 wounded),<ref name="McLynn, Frank 2004 p. 221"/> while the French counted 60 killed and wounded on their side; losses which were attributed to the fire coming from the great battery of the Montmorency camp.<ref name=S79_80>Stacey, pp. 79-80</ref> The day after the battle, Wolfe wrote Monckton that the losses incurred in the battle were not great and that the defeat was no cause of discouragement.<ref>Stacey, p. 81</ref>

While the news of the victory was celebrated in the French camp, General [[Louis-Joseph de Montcalm|Montcalm]] remained lucid, writing to [[François-Charles de Bourlamaque|Bourlamaque]] that in his opinion this attack was only a prelude to a more important one, which they could do nothing but patiently wait for.<ref name=S80>Stacey, p. 80</ref> The attack did eventually arrive, when on 13 September the British landed west of Quebec and [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham|defeated the French]] on the [[Plains of Abraham]] in a battle that claimed the lives of both Montcalm and Wolfe.

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|3}}

=== References ===
{{Details|Bibliography of the Siege of Quebec of 1759}}
* [https://archive.org/details/cihm_20278 Journal of the Expedition up the St. Lawrence]
* McLynn, Frank (2004). ''1759: The Year Britain became Master of the World'', Jonathan Cape, London, {{ISBN|0-224-06245-X}}
* Stacey, Charles Perry (1959). ''Quebec, 1759: The Siege and The Battle'', Toronto: MacMillan
* J.Bradley Cruxton, W. Douglas Wilson, Robert J. Walker (2001). "Close-Up Canada", Oxford, New York, {{ISBN|0-19-5415442}}

== External links ==
* [http://history.cbc.ca/history/?MIval=EpContent&series_id=1&episode_id=4&chapter_id=7&page_id=5&lang=E Invasion of the Beauport Shore] (CBC)
* [http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/maps/quebecmap/ A Map of the Plan of the River St. Laurence with the Operations of the Siege of Quebec. On Sept. 5, 1759], in ''Archiving Early America''

{{Quebec City}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beauport}}
[[Category:Battles involving Canada]]
[[Category:Battles involving France]]
[[Category:Battles of the French and Indian War]]
[[Category:Conflicts in Canada]]
[[Category:History of Quebec City|Battle of Beauport]]
[[Category:1759 in New France|Battle of Beauport]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1759]]
[[Category:Battles involving Great Britain]]
[[Category:1759 in North America]]
[[Category:Amphibious operations]]
[[Category:Events of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]

Immer Ärger mit dem Hasen

2019-04-07T00:00:46Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by Memelordman (talk) (HG) (3.4.6)

{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox Hollywood cartoon
|name = Wabbit Twouble
|image = WabbitTwouble Lobby Card.png
|caption = Lobby card
|director = [[Bob Clampett]] (credited as Wobert Cwampett and for Superwision)
|story = Dave Monahan (credited for Stowy)
|animator = Sid Sutherland (credited as Sid Suthewand) [[Virgil Ross]] (unc.) [[Rod Scribner]] (unc.) [[Robert McKimson]] (unc.)
|starring = [[Mel Blanc]] (unc.) [[Arthur Q. Bryan]] (unc.)
|music = [[Carl Stalling]] (credited as Cawl W. Stawwing and for Musical Diwection)
|background_artist = John Didrik Johnsen (unc.)
|producer = [[Leon Schlesinger]]
|distributor = [[Warner Bros. Pictures]]
|studio = Leon Schlesinger Productions
|released = December 20, 1941
|color_process = [[Technicolor]]
|runtime = 8:22 (1 reel)
|language = English
}}

'''''Wabbit Twouble''''' ("Rabbit Trouble" in Elmer Fudd's speech impediment)<ref>{{cite book|last=Taggart|first=Caroline|title=Does a Bear Sh*t in the Woods?: Answers to Rhetorical Questions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isZEd2_ZjgsC&pg=PT48|date=July 26, 2011|publisher=Penguin Group US|isbn=978-1-101-53999-6|page=48}}</ref> is a ''[[Merrie Melodies]]'' [[cartoon]] starring [[Bugs Bunny]], produced by [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Leon Schlesinger Productions]] and released on December 20, 1941 by [[Warner Bros. Pictures]]. This is the first of several [[Bugs Bunny]] cartoon titles that refers to [[Elmer Fudd]]'s speech impediment, making the names of [[Bob Clampett|Robert Clampett]], [[Sidney Sutherland|Sid Sutherland]], and [[Carl Stalling]] as well as the roles of Story, Supervision, and Musical Direction intentionally misspelled in the credits to receive the perfect match for Elmer's speech impediment.

In the cartoon, Elmer expects to find rest and relaxation at Jellostone National Park. He mistakenly sets camp in the neighborhood of Bugs' rabbit hole, and Bugs (and a neighboring bear) don't have much leisure in mind. It was the first Bugs Bunny and Elmer Fudd cartoon directed by [[Bob Clampett|Robert Clampett]], with a story by Dave Monahan and musical direction by [[Carl Stalling]]. [[Sidney Sutherland|Sid Sutherland]] is the only credited animator, although [[Virgil Ross]], [[Rod Scribner]], and [[Robert McKimson]] also animated the short. [[Mel Blanc]] provided the voices for Bugs and the [[bear]], and [[Arthur Q. Bryan]] provided the voice for Elmer.

==Plot==
Elmer, driving his [[Ford Model T]] [[jalopy]] to a [[Conga (music)|Conga]] beat, makes his way to Jellostone National Park (a pun on [[Yellowstone National Park]]) while looking forward to get some rest. Elmer sets up his campsite by setting a cooking fire, an hanging mirror on a tree and, beneath it, a wash basin on a table, hanging a hammock, and pitching his tent. The tent is positioned directly over Bugs Bunny's rabbit hole (just as Elmer had arrived, Bugs had posted a sign next to his hole saying 'Camp Here', then had retreated into the lair, covering it with grass as he went). From down there, Bugs breaks down the tent and drags it inside. Elmer reaches in and, in spite of resistance from below, retrieves the tent which is tied in knots. Bugs pops up, welcomes Elmer to Jellostone ("a restful retreat. Oh brudda!") and pulls Elmer's hat over his eyes. Elmer reaches in again and tries to yank Bugs out. After several attempts, Elmer pulls his hands out to find that his fingers are tied together. He nails a board over the hole ("that'll hold him awite, heh heh heh heh heh"). However, Bugs simply pushes it open, steps out and mimics Elmer. Bugs balloons up to Elmer's size and repeats what Elmer had said, labeling it "phooey". Elmer then settles into his hammock and quickly falls fast asleep, muttering to himself.

Bugs places a pair of glasses on Elmer's face, paints the lenses black and sets the alarm clock to go off at noon. When it wakes Elmer, he thinks it is nighttime because everything seems dark. He goes to his tent, takes off his day clothes to reveal night clothes underneath, and goes to bed. Bugs then removes the glasses from Elmer and crows like a rooster, awakening Elmer who believes it is the next morning.

Elmer washes his face but cannot reach his towel because it is hanging on a branch that Bugs keeps at a steady, short distance from him. Elmer blindly follows the towel ("I do this kind of stuff to him all through the picture", Bugs [[Breaking the fourth wall|confides to the audience]]). He causes Elmer to step off a cliff edge. Elmer looks at the miraculous view of the [[Grand Canyon]], but suddenly realizes he is in midair. He runs back to safety and holds on to Bugs for dear life. Bugs then admits he is the one pulling these gags and runs off, with a furious Elmer giving chase after retrieving a gun from his tent. However, he runs into a [[American black bear|black bear]]. The bear starts growling, and so Elmer turns to a wildlife handbook for advice, which directs him to play dead.

The bear soon gives up (after sniffing Elmer's "[[Body odor|B.O.]]" – his feet), but Bugs climbs onto Elmer and starts growling exactly like the bear. He misbehaves in various ways to keep Elmer on the ground with his eyes shut, but just as he starts biting Elmer's foot, Elmer sees what is going on and grabs his rifle. The bear returns and Bugs runs away just as Elmer swings the gun, clobbering the bear rather than the rabbit. A chase ensues with Elmer and the bear running through the trees to the tune of the "[[William Tell Overture]]." Finally, the bear freaks Elmer out by riding on top of him.

When the bear is knocked off him after hitting a tree branch, Elmer gives up and packs everything into his car (almost including a huge tree). He passes the welcome sign at the gate on his way out, backs up and reads it again. He declares its promise of "a restful retreat" to be "bawogney!" and, to teach the park not to give false advertisement, he chops the sign to bits with an ax and stomps on the pieces while calling the park's "peace and wewaxation" promises "wubbish!" A ranger (along with Bugs) appears, and has an angry expression on his face. Elmer is arrested for the destruction of government property, and from his jail cell window he tells us that "anyway" he is "wid of that gwizzwy bear and scwewy wabbit! West and wewaxation at wast!" Unfortunately, he turns to find out that somehow he is sharing his cell with both Bugs ''and'' the black bear. They both ask how long he has in jail ("Pardon me but, how long ya in for, doc?" they ask).

==Production==
For the cartoon, Elmer was redesigned as a fat man (based on voice actor [[Arthur Q. Bryan]]'s own physique) in an attempt to make him funnier. The "fat Elmer" would only make three more appearances in the ''Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies'' canon – ''[[The Wabbit Who Came to Supper]]'', ''[[The Wacky Wabbit]]'' and ''[[Fresh Hare]]'', in addition to a [[cameo appearance]] in the non-canon war bond advertisement ''[[Any Bonds Today?]]'' – before returning to the slimmer form by which he is better known, for ''[[The Hare-Brained Hypnotist]]''. This cartoon was the only time, though, that the Fat Elmer also had a red nose. This is the only cartoon with the "fat" version of Elmer to remain under copyright; the other "fat Elmer" cartoons are in the public domain.

Bugs would show up in a prison two more times: in ''[[Rebel Rabbit]]'' (1949) and ''[[Big House Bunny]]'' (1950). At the ends of ''[[Rabbit Transit (cartoon)|Rabbit Transit]]'' (1947) and ''[[Hare Brush]]'' (1955) he is arrested, but not actually shown in prison therein.

The lobby card where Bugs paints Elmer's glasses black is also done in the film.

==Availability==
* DVD - [[Looney Tunes Golden Collection]], Volume 1
* Blu-ray - [[Looney Tunes Platinum Collection]], Volume 2

== In popular culture ==
[[File:Big Chungus.png|200px|thumb|The still frame from the short that has come to be known as "Big Chungus".]]
In December 2018, a still from the short depicting Bugs mocking Elmer by imitating his weight became an [[Internet meme]]. The meme originated from fictitious cover art for a video game titled ''Big Chungus'' (with "chungus" being a neologism associated with video game commentator [[Jim Sterling]]) which featured the still and was popularized by a [[Facebook]] post by a [[GameStop]] manager, who alleged that a colleague's mother had inquired about purchasing the fictional game as a gift for her son.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/14/magazine/all-the-presidents-memes.html|title=All the President's Memes|last=Staley|first=Willy|date=2019-01-14|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-01-25|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailydot.com/unclick/big-chungus-memes/|title=Big Chungus Is The Last Great Meme Of 2018|date=2018-12-28|website=The Daily Dot|language=en|access-date=2019-01-22}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{IMDb title|34368}}
* {{bcdb title|5268}}
* [https://archive.org/download/ClassicRareAndCensoredCartoons/122041dvdWabbitTwoubleMm.mp4 ''Wabbit Twouble'' on the Internet Archive]

{{s-start}}
{{succession box
|before = [[All This and Rabbit Stew]]
|title = [[List of Bugs Bunny cartoons|Bugs Bunny Cartoons]]
|years = 1941
|after = [[The Wabbit Who Came to Supper]]
}}
{{s-end}}

[[Category:1941 animated films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Bob Clampett]]
[[Category:Merrie Melodies shorts]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:English-language films]]
[[Category:Films set in national parks]]
[[Category:1940s American animated films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Carl Stalling]]
[[Category:Animated films about rabbits and hares]]
[[Category:Animated films about bears]]

Williamstown Castle

2018-05-03T10:39:32Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by Alshehab313 (talk) (HG) (3.3.5)

{{For|the rugby union club|Blackrock College RFC}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2017}}
{{Infobox school
|type = [[Independent school (United Kingdom)|Independent]] [[day school|day]] and [[boarding school]]
|name = Blackrock College
|native_name = Coláiste na Carraige Duibhe
|latin_name =
|logo =
|seal_image =
|image = Blackrock crest.png
|alt =
|caption =
|motto = {{Lang-la|Fides et Robur}}
|motto_translation = trustworthiness and steadfastness; faith and strength
|religion = [[Roman Catholic]] ([[Holy Ghost Fathers]])
|location = [[Blackrock, Dublin|Blackrock]], [[County Dublin]]
|country = [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
|coordinates = {{Coord|53|18|17|N|6|11|30|W|region:IE_type:edu|display=inline,title}}
|established = 1860
|president = Fr Cormac Ó Brolcháin, [[Holy Ghost Fathers|CSSp]]
|principal = Alan McGinty
|principal_label1 = Vice principal
|principal1 = Brian Herlihy, Sinead Nolan, Yvonne Markey
|sister_school = [[St. Mary's School, Nairobi|St. Mary's School]]
|years = 2nd–6th
|gender = Male
|lower_age = 13
|houses = DeValera, Duff, Ebenrecht, Leman, McQuaid, Shanahan
|students = 1100
|staff = 75 full time, 25 part time
|colours = {{color box|blue}}{{color box|white}} [[Blue]] and [[white]]
|free_label = Religious order
|free_text = [[Holy Ghost Fathers]]
|free_label2 =
|free_text2 = €6,500 (day) / €17,250 (boarding)
|homepage = [http://www.blackrockcollege.ie blackrockcollege.ie]
}}

'''Blackrock College''' ({{lang-ga|Coláiste na Carraige Duibhe}}) is an independent day and boarding [[Catholicism|Catholic]] [[secondary school]] for boys aged 13–18, located in Williamstown, [[Blackrock, Dublin|Blackrock]], [[County Dublin]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]. The College was founded by French missionaries in 1860, to act as a school and civil service training centre. Set in {{convert|0.25|km2|acre}} of grounds, it has a sporting tradition. The College, {{convert|7|km|miles}} from Dublin city centre is just in from the sea, and is self-contained, with large boarding school and teaching facilities. Now run by a lay foundation in trust, it maintains academic standards and requires all pupils to participate in non-academic activities. The missionary tradition continues with charity programmes, especially at Christmas. It accommodates approximately 1,100 day and boarding students.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackrockcollege.ie/files/admin/uploads/W47_F_1279_6639.doc |title=Archived copy |accessdate=24 May 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119060046/http://www.blackrockcollege.ie/files/admin/uploads/W47_F_1279_6639.doc |archivedate=19 November 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref>

==History==
{{Expand section|date=May 2009}}
The college was founded by the [[Holy Ghost Fathers|Congregation of the Holy Ghost]] in 2020, the first of the Order's five schools in Ireland. The founder is listed as Fr (Père) Jules Leman, a French missionary with the Holy Ghost Order. Leman had a dual aim, namely to train personnel for missionary service in the Third World and provide a first class Catholic education for Irish boys. It was originally known as the ''French College'' by the locals. A successful [[civil service]] training and university department (where students were examined and had degrees conferred by the [[Royal University of Ireland]]) were run for over forty years, until [[University College Dublin]] grew, and the school focused more on the second level curriculum.
Although never a seminary, some ordinations have taken place in Blackrock. The first ordination at Blackrock College was on 22 April 1900 when Mgr. Emile Allgeyer CSSp (a former student in Blackrock and first to be made a bishop), ordained [[Joseph (Ignatius) Shanahan|Joseph Shanahan]] (who later became a bishop) and has a House named after him within the school.<ref>[http://www.spiritan.org/shanahan_profile.html Bishop Joseph Shanahan] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010217113518/http://www.spiritan.org/shanahan_profile.html |date=17 February 2001 }} www.spiritan.org.</ref>

===Heraldry===
The proper crest of the College, being the third and last creation, dating back to 1936 and explained in the 1937 College Annual as being: <blockquote>The Heraldic Crest Of The College. ARGENT: - On a Cross Azure, the Dove of the Holy Ghost, Proper, with seven Rays descendant, in the first quarter a Lion rampant of the second.</blockquote>

On 30 April 1926, Fr. Leen at a sports day speech encapsulated the words ''Fides Et Robur'' which henceforth became the Rock motto. In 1928, a new College Crest, bearing four emblems around a blue cross was hurriedly officiated, primarily to show off the Fides Et Robur motto over the College's especially built new front gates. Not everyone was happy with this design and possible variations of a new design may have been experimented with; evidence exists that both in crest and in uniform, by reason of fault or debate, and most likely between 1928 and 1936, a distinctive crest had been "with nine rays descendant, Or". In 1936, Dr. McQuaid instigated a new and distinctive crest that to this day is in continual use (unchecked variations and wayward deviations are contracted into stores by stationery and uniform suppliers). It was adapted on blazers that year and a heraldic description of the arms of the College was published (though not officially registered) in the 1937 Blackrock College Annual. It was commissioned into stained glass in 1938, presumably in its true and intended likeness and survives today at the end of one of the house corridors, though its conformity to the true heraldic interpretations are not accurate; "a Lion Rampant of the second" would correctly reveal only a blue silhouette of a rampant lion, that is, minus any fine caricature details so apparent in the existing variations.<ref>(Farragher, S. and Wyer, A. Blackrock College 1860-1995 {{ISBN|0-946639-19-1}})</ref>
[[File:BlackrockCollege.JPG|thumb|left|350px|Blackrock College]]

==Status and operation==
Blackrock is now run by the Congregation of the Holy Ghost in close co-operation with a dedicated group of lay personnel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/education/2000/0523/00052300211.html |title=The Blackrock College Story |publisher=The Irish Times |date=5 May 2000 |accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> The annual fees for students in 2011 were € 6,300 for day boys, €17,250 for boarders and €18,250 for overseas borders.

The College and its sister schools in Ireland are today held in trust by the Des Places Educational Association,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishspiritans.ie/dea.html |title=Des Places Educational Association |publisher=Irish Spiritans |year=2006 |accessdate=28 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601011550/http://www.irishspiritans.ie/dea.html |archivedate=1 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> which, as the College's Patron, aims to maintain the Spiritan ethos in all five schools – Blackrock, [[Rockwell College|Rockwell]], [[St. Mary's College, Dublin|St. Mary's]], [[St. Michael's College, Dublin|St. Michael's]] and [[Templeogue College|Templeogue]] – conducted by the Congregation of the Holy Spirit in Ireland.

All students within the college are divided into six houses, that compete through each of the years in inter house competitions and a points system. The members of each house are chosen in second year by the captains, and a student remains within the same house, throughout his time at the school. There are two house captains who lead each house in each year, except transition year in which there are three captains per house. They act as leaders and one from each year is chosen to represent the year on the student council. The captains are elected democratically every year by members of their house. They lead house meeting and make sure everyone in their house partakes in the school's various inter house events. The houses are DeValera, Duff, Ebenrecht, Leman, McQuaid and Shanahan.

==Curriculum==
The curriculum offered is broad, covering all common subjects in the State Examinations including Latin, German, Art, Music, Business, Materials Technology Wood, Science and History. Inspections by the Department of Education found exemplary standards of teaching and learning.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Inspection-Reports-Publications/Subject-Inspection-Reports-List/60030V_Subject%20Inspection_1149_20161206.pdf |title=Subject Inspection Report - Science 2006 - Blackrock College |publisher=Department of Education and Science |date=14 March 2006 |accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> The [[Irish Times]] placed the College in the "Top Ten" schools in the state, based on the proportion of students who accept a place in Higher or Further Education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/frontpage/2008/1204/1228337399139.html |title=Over 60% of top schools limit admission to certain groups |publisher=The Irish Times |date=12 December 2008 |accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> There are dedicated facilities for Home Economics and Materials Technology.

== College buildings ==
The college consists mainly of two buildings, the junior cycle and transition year building and the more modern senior cycle building. These two buildings are connected via the central St. Patricks Corridor and the entrance corridor. Several other wings contain community facilities as well as other classrooms and subject specific rooms. The quadrangle or "quad" is a large green area surrounded by the senior wing, the chapel and St. Mary's Corridor. The campus is {{convert|0.25|km2|acre}} and contains nine rugby pitches, a cricket lawn, an athletics track, an indoor swimming pool, a gym, six tennis courts, basketball courts, hammer throw field and indoor halls.

Apart from classrooms and three study halls, there are nine science laboratories, a woodwork room, a radio studio, three computer rooms, a digital communications and graphics room, an art room, a choir hall, a multimedia room and a home economics kitchen. The college also contains a refectory, chapel, creative arts and digital learning centre, lecture halls and stage which hosts student-run dramatic productions. The college is undergoing an extensive modernisation programme, currently the pitches are being transformed and roads around the school rerouted.

==Boarding school==
The boarding school is housed in Williamstown Castle (known by students as "The Castle"). Williamstown Castle was built around 1780 on lands rented by the Fitzwilliams, later Pembrokes, to Counsellor William Vavasour. It resembled other spacious houses in the area including Willow Park and Castledawson, but a later owner, Thomas O'Mara, extensively redeveloped the building and its surrounds, adding the castellated finish, hence making it into a 'castle'. O'Mara had acted as an election agent for [[Daniel O'Connell]], who dined in the Castle on occasion, and for years a portrait of O'Connell adorned the room which is now the oratory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackrockcollegeboardingschool.com/history.htm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=21 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703003242/http://www.blackrockcollegeboardingschool.com/history.htm |archivedate=3 July 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref> Niall MacDermott is the Director of Boarding in the college. The Boarding School contains around 100 students. Boarding is available from first year up to sixth year. Some day boys join the boarding school in 6th year in preparation for their [[Leaving Certificate]]. Boarders are allowed to leave the castle with permission.

== Extra curricular activities ==

=== Field sports ===
Sport is viewed as an integral part of a boy's education and each pupil is expected to participate in some activity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackrockcollege.ie/blackrock/www/index.asp?magpage=7 |title=Blackrock College: About Us: Prospective Students |publisher=Blackrockcollege.ie |date= |accessdate=28 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616021609/http://www.blackrockcollege.ie/blackrock/www/index.asp?magpage=7 |archivedate=16 June 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The principal sport in the college is rugby, with Blackrock having won the [[Leinster Schools Senior Cup]] 69 times. It has also won the [[Leinster Schools Junior Cup]] 50 times. Blackrock won the inaugural Cup competition held in 1887 and have been consistently the most successful team, winning the Cup at least three times in every decade since.

Retired Blackrock rugby union players include former [[British and Irish Lions]], [[Ireland national rugby union team|Ireland]] and [[Leinster rugby|Leinster]] captain [[Brian O'Driscoll]], [[Fergus Slattery]] (playing before rugby union was professional), [[Shane Byrne (rugby player)|Shane Byrne]], [[Victor Costello]], [[Luke Fitzgerald]], Hugo MacNeill, Brendan Mullin and the current Leinster Rugby Head Coach and former Irish international Leo Cullen. Current professional players include Bristol and Ireland's [[Ian Madigan]], Leinster and Ireland stars Garry Ringrose, Jordi Murphy and Joey Carbery, Munster and Ireland's Andrew Conway and Sale Sharks and US Eagles' AJ MacGinty.
[[File:Rockleinster.jpg|thumb|250px|Blackrock v St Michael's 2006 [[Leinster Schools Senior Cup]] final at [[Lansdowne Road]]]]

[[Gaelic football]] is played in 4th year in the college. Past pupils [[Mark Vaughan]] and [[Niall Corkery]] are forwards on the [[Dublin GAA|Dublin]] [[Gaelic football]] team. The school also has a [[hurling]] team for 2nd and 3rd years. Five members of the All Ireland Club Championship winning Kilmacud Crokes team of 2008–09 were past pupils of Blackrock College. The college has a soccer team for its senior pupils in 4th, 5th and 6th year. The soccer team's greatest success came in 2003, when, captained by Steve Dillon, they won the Leinster and All-Ireland U-17s schools cup.

=== Swimming ===

The college has a strong [[Swimming (sport)|swimming]] team, which combines 1st to 6th year. Currently the team has six training sessions per week. The college competes in Leinster Senior Schools and has won the senior relay cup multiple times, most recently in 2008, and the Irish senior schools, regularly making finals. The college has a strong record of inter-schools galas also. The school has two {{convert|25|m|adj=on}} swimming pools on the grounds. The junior school Willow Park also has a successful swimming team. The college has teams in other water sports such as [[water polo]] and 4th years participate in rowing.

=== Other games===

[[Table tennis]] is another one of the colleges sports with many of its students participating. Many players come from 2nd year with older years fielding less numbers. 2010 saw the Blackrock Senior A team retain the Leinster Schools Senior Cup, won for the first time in 2009, while the seniors also won the Leinster Senior League for the first time since 1968, as well as reaching the final of the Senior All Irelands for the first time. 2010 saw the junior team reach the Junior Cup final for the 3rd year in a row, however in 2008 and 2009 the Blackrock Junior A team completed the Leinster double, with victories in both Junior Cup and Junior League, and also reached the final of the Junior All Irelands in both seasons. In 2010, the Senior A team competed in the World Schools Championships for the first time. It is currently very successful at schools level, completing a 'Treble-Treble' of Leinster League, Leinster Cup and All-Ireland Championship for the past three years

The college has its own [[basketball]] team run by teachers as well as professional coaches. Basketball has flourished when it comes to numbers and is also successful. The basketball programme produced Irish and inter provincial school boy representatives in the 1970s such as John and Noel Williams. The college has three outdoor basketball courts and different indoor basketball courts on the grounds. One indoor basketball court is in Willow Park gym, and one in the Jubilee Hall while the introduction of the new sports hall provides a professional basketball court and spectator area.

The school has a [[tennis]] team divided between minors, juniors and seniors. They practice and play their home matches on the colleges four tennis courts. 1st years in Willow Park also play on the colleges tennis teams. The college also has teams in other sports such as [[cricket]], [[golf]], [[Rowing (sport)|rowing]] and [[Judo]]. Cricket has been played since the foundation of the school in 1860 and in 2016 Blackrock won their first Junior Cricket Trophy since 1964.
Other sports such as rowing, badminton and a full athletics programme is also available to name a few

=== Cycling ===

Blackrock College and Willow Park share a [[cycling]] club called the Willow Wheelers, run by Christy McDaid. The club has an annual trip abroad to either France or The Netherlands each Easter, recently in Cap D'Agde. It also has hostel trips to Clare and Donegal at the end of the school year. The club has an annual {{convert|160|km|mi|adj=on}} cycle for charity which has raised around 150,000 euro in the past few years. The club cycles every Sunday to varying destinations around Dublin.

=== Athletics ===

The college has a very successful [[track and field athletics|athletics]] team. The college encourages participation in both track events and field events. The college also has a strong cross country team who compete regionally, with a successful history. The school organises the annual Blackrock College Invitational, inviting top athletic schools ([[CBC Monkstown]], St Gerards School, [[St Michael's College, Dublin]] and [[The King's Hospital]] to compete as a preliminary to the annual provincial and national competitions.

The athletics team participates regularly in the East Leinster, Leinster and Ireland Athletic championships at under-14s to under-18s annually.

===The arts===

Each year opera productions are staged in conjunction with [[Mount Anville Secondary School|Mount Anville]] (Senior Musical) and [[Loreto College, Foxrock]] (2nd and 4th Year Musical), nearby schools for girls.

[[Debating]] is an old tradition in Blackrock College dating back to the school's founding in the 1860s. There are separate clubs for junior and senior pupils. One of the college alumni, Shane Murphy (now a Senior Counsel), won the 1985 World University Debating Championship at McGill University, representing the Honourable Society of the King's Inns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishdebate.com/universities/results/international.asp#worlds |title=Universities: Hall of Fame: International: World Universities Debating Championships |publisher=British Debate |accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> The college holds gold medal debates for every academic year giving the students the opportunity to win the medal on prize day if they win the debate. The gold medal debates are used in sixth year to select an eligible Valedictorian for the year, who give his address at both the graduation mass and again at prize day. The college's debaters participate in many competitions including the L&H debates in UCD.

The college has two main choirs: the Leman and the Libermann [[choirs]]. The Leman choir has members from 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6th year. The best of the senior members of the Leman choir are accepted into the Libermann choir. In 2013, a group of students from the college's Leman choir reached the final of the [[All Island Choir Competition]]. The College has a choir for boarders and another for parents. The College has a successful youth [[orchestra]]. Each year, all the choirs and the orchestra host the annual Leman Concert in the [[National Concert Hall]].

===Blackrock College Radio===

A transition year program to set up and maintain a [[radio]] station, broadcasting to the surrounding south Dublin area, is undertaken annually. All of the administrative work, promotion and content-creation is the labour of transition year students. The station also allows programming submissions from other schools to be broadcast. It's the only second-level radio project that broadcasts nine and a half hours a day (8:00 am to 5:30 pm), five days a week. The station has a mix of programmes from its current affairs programming to its guest programming. Blackrock College Radio has featured many famous and influential guests including [[Enda Kenny]], while in office as Taoiseach, Neil Flynn, [[Ryan Tubridy]], [[Eamon Gilmore]], Leo Cullen, Mary Hannifin, [[Micheál Martin]], [[Ruairi Quinn]], [[Brent Pope (rugby analyst)|Brent Pope]], David Norris, The Heathers, Bobby Kerr, and [[Denis O'Brien]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/features/2007/1114/1194550268980.html |title=Get an earful of this |publisher=The Irish Times |date=11 November 2007 |accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.rockty.com/BCR.html Blackrock College Transition Year | BCR (Blackrock College Radio) 2006] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117020100/http://www.rockty.com/BCR.html |date=17 November 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bci.ie/licensing/radio/temporary_services_apps.html |title=BCI: Licensing: Radio: Successful applicants for Temporary services |publisher=Broadcasting Commission of Ireland |date= |accessdate=28 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402092214/http://www.bci.ie/licensing/radio/temporary_services_apps.html |archivedate=2 April 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Seachtain na Gaeilge===

Each year a ''Seachtain na Gaeilge'' (literally, "Week of Irish") is organised to promote the Irish language in the school. The Irish department organises events each year to mark this occasion including [[ceili dance]], pioc fada (Longest hit) and screens Irish films. This co-curricular activity was particularly commended in a Department of Education inspection, which also recommended its further development.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.education.ie/servlet/blobservlet/report2t_60030V.htm?language=EN |title=Subject Inspection Report - Irish - 2007 |publisher=Department of Education and Science |date=7 December 2007 |accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref>

==Social work==
The spiritual and missionary aspect of the school has been maintained, despite the worldwide decline of new clerics in the Catholic Church. Many charitable causes are supported by the students; a strong reflection upon the ethos of the school and the founder's aims. The school donates most of its funds raised during the first term (September to October) to St Vincent De Paul and in the second and third terms the focus is mainly on Goal, Aidlink and the Willow Wheelers humanitarian projects; all of which provide international aid.

===GOAL and Aidlink===
Up until 2017, the Transition Year students organised the annual [[St. Patrick's Day]] Badge appeal which raised large sums of money throughout Ireland for the Irish charities [[GOAL (charity)|GOAL]] and [[Aidlink]]. The students collected on the streets, sold the badges to overseas clients and to businesses across the country. Goal organized a trip to India in both 2012 and 2013 to the Transition Year boys, inviting them to see the projects which they helped fund through their Badge campaigns. The trip was centred around [[Kolkata]] were Goal's Indian office was situated. The St. Patrick's Day project is estimated to have raised over €5,000,000 for charity.

===St. Vincent De Paul===

The school also has a long-standing relationship with The [[Society of St. Vincent de Paul]], contributing large sums of money raised through various projects. For example, the proceeds of the annual sale of [[Christmas tree|Christmas Trees]] in the college are donated. In 2007, the Christmas Tree project raised € 93,000 and the total amount raised for the Society in that year is estimated to be in excess of € 150,000. Other projects for St Vincent De Paul include the Second and third year duck races, which raise money through sponsorship. Christmas Hampers are also packed and delivered by students and their families in the run-up to the holiday. This provides some families with the necessary supplies of food for the period.

===Willow Wheelers===

The College supports humanitarian projects in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], mainly through the college's cycling club, the [http://www.willowwheelers.ie/ Willow Wheelers]. In 2006, their annual sponsored {{convert|160|km|mi|abbr=on}} cycle raised in excess of € 60,000. The club also annually sends a group of self-funded volunteers to help with humanitarian projects in Africa, most commonly: establishing clean water supplies for villages and constructing schoolhouses, infirmaries or similar institutions. Transition year students who are members of the cycling club are invited to see the club's projects throughout the world, and understand how their raised funds are spent. The students usually visit [[Ethiopia]], and have visited [[Vietnam]].

===Rock Reaches Out To Kenya===
This an initiative to build a school in Kenya to help educate the country's future leaders. The school's 6th year students have the opportunity to travel to the school every year after the leaving certificate examinations. The school is to be run by the Spiritans, who also run Blackrock College.

===Past pupils' efforts===

[[Bob Geldof]], initiator of the [[Band Aid (band)|Band Aid]] and [[Live Aid]] movements for famine relief in the 1980s, was a student at the college. [[Frank Duff]], the founder of the [[Legion of Mary]], the Catholic [[Laity|lay]] movement, is also a past pupil. In his memoirs, ''Straight Left: A Journey in Politics'' [[Ruairi Quinn]] cites the ethos and "sense of solidarity" with the Third World that was imparted to students, including Bob Geldof, as a formative force. The Holy Ghost Fathers were (and remain) an active missionary order in Africa.<ref>Quinn, Ruairi, Straight Left: A Journey in Politics, 2005, Dublin, Hodder Headline Ireland</ref> He wrote:

{{quote|The poverty of distant Africa was brought into our classrooms by our returned missionary teachers.|author=[[Ruairi Quinn]]|source=''Straight Left'', pg. 36}}

==Associated primary schools==
[[Willow Park School]], a private [[primary school]] that acts as the College's principal feeder, is also run by the Order and is situated on the same campus. Until the early 1970s, [[St. Michael's College, Dublin|St. Michael's College]] in [[Ballsbridge]] was also a feeder school for Blackrock College, but St Michael's now has classes up to the [[Irish Leaving Certificate|Leaving Certificate]].

==Past pupils==

{{Main|List of Old Rockmen}}

The Blackrock College Union represents former students of the college, organises many charitable events throughout the year, assists the school (e.g., mentoring, management assistance, advice) and organises social events for members. There are branches in Ireland and across the world.

Blackrock's large enrolment and high standards have produced many distinguished alumni through its long history. Early Free State ministers such as [[Art O'Connor]] (Secretary for Agriculture 1921–1922), and [[Éamon de Valera]], six times Taoiseach and the 3rd President of Ireland, studied and later taught in Blackrock. Modern politicians include Eoin O'Broin T.D. and [[Barry Andrews (politician)|Barry Andrews]], a former junior Minister. Many prominent businessmen have also attended the school such as [[David J. O'Reilly]], chairman and CEO of Chevron Corporation, and [[Brendan O'Regan|Dr. Brendan O'Regan]] [[CBE]], founder of [[Shannon Airport]] and proponent of the Irish peace and reconciliation process.

[[Flann O'Brien]], the eminent writer (real name: Brian O'Nolan) and [[Tim Pat Coogan]], the journalist and scholar, were students of the school. Alumni in the fine arts include designer [[Paul Costelloe]], composer [[Michael McGlynn]] and visual artist [[Robert Ballagh]]. The Holy Ghost Order has a long tradition of missionaries. [[Frank Duff (religious worker)|Frank Duff]], founder of the [[Legion of Mary]], is perhaps the best-known. Singer, songwriter, author, [[political activist]] and actor [[Bob Geldof]] was also a student at the College. Eminent handbag designer [[Pauric Sweeney]] also calls Blackrock his alma mater.

The college places a heavy emphasis on sport, particularly rugby. The current Ireland international team includes [[Ian Madigan]], [[Jordi Murphy]], [[Garry Ringrose]] and [[Joey Carbery]], and former captain [[Brian O'Driscoll]] and rugby player [[Luke Fitzgerald]]. In living memory are [[Victor Costello]], a 20-year Leinster, Ireland and Blackrock R.F.C. veteran, who also put the shot for Ireland at the Olympics, [[Leo Cullen (rugby union)|Leo Cullen]], former captain of the [[Leinster Rugby]] team and [[Shane Byrne (rugby player)|Shane Byrne]], Leinster and Ireland professional rugby player.

In other games, [[Michael Cusack]], founder of the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] taught at the school, and played early forms of [[hurling]] with the pupils.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.blackrockcollege.ie/ Blackrock College] - official website

{{Spiritan secondary schools in Ireland}}
{{Schools and colleges in County Dublin}}
{{Private schools in the Republic of Ireland}}

[[Category:Boys' schools in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Private schools in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1860]]
[[Category:Secondary schools in Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown]]
[[Category:Catholic boarding schools]]
[[Category:Blackrock, Dublin]]
[[Category:Boarding schools in Ireland]]
[[Category:Spiritan schools]]

Die Schildkröte und der Hase (Fabel)

2018-02-13T21:33:29Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 2600:1005:B10D:8F26:393E:FA5F:AB75:9746 (talk) (HG) (3.3.2)

{{About|Aesop's fable}}
{{primary|date=April 2017}}
[[File:Tortoise and hare rackham.jpg|thumb|"The Tortoise and the Hare", from an edition of [[Caleb's Fables]] illustrated by [[Arthur Rackham]], 1912]]

"'''The Tortoise and the Hare'''" is one of [[ Aesop's Fables]] and is numbered 226 in the [[Perry Index]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/perry/226.htm|title=THE TORTOISE AND THE HARE|work=mythfolklore.net}}</ref> The account of a race between unequal partners has attracted conflicting interpretations. It is itself a variant of a common folktale theme in which ingenuity and trickery (rather than doggedness) are employed to overcome a stronger opponent.

==An ambiguous story==
The story concerns a [[Hare]] who ridicules a slow-moving [[Tortoise]]. Tired of the Hare's arrogant behavior, the Tortoise challenges him to a race.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.storyarts.org/library/aesops/stories/tortoise.html|title=Story Arts - Aesop's ABC - The Tortoise and The Hare|work=storyarts.org}}</ref> The hare soon leaves the tortoise behind and, confident of winning, takes a nap midway through the race. When the Hare awakes however, he finds that his competitor, crawling slowly but steadily, has arrived before him. The later version of the story in [[La Fontaine's Fables]] (VI.10), while more long-winded, differs hardly at all from Aesop's.<ref>A translation is [http://www.readbookonline.net/readOnLine/13161/ here]</ref>

As in several other fables by Aesop, the lesson it is teaching appears ambiguous. In Classical times it was not the Tortoise’s plucky conduct in taking on a bully that was emphasised by the Hare’s foolish over-confidence. An old Greek source comments that 'many people have good natural abilities which are ruined by idleness; on the other hand, sobriety, zeal and perseverance can prevail over indolence'.<ref>''Aesop's Fables: a new translation by Laura Gibbs'', Oxford 2002, [http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/oxford/237.htm fable 237]</ref>
When the fable entered the European [[Emblem book|emblem]] tradition, the precept to ‘hasten slowly’ (''festina lente'') was recommended to lovers by [[Otto van Veen]] in his ''Emblemata Amorum'' (1608), using a relation of the story. There the infant figure of [[Eros]] is shown passing through a landscape and pointing to the tortoise as it overtakes the sleeping hare under the motto “perseverance winneth.”<ref>''The English emblem tradition'', University of Toronto 1998, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eLoYvhI25J8C&lpg=PA347&ots=7GGKE2sRJc&dq=hare%20%22emblem%22%22&pg=PA174#v=onepage&q=hare%20%22emblem%22%22&f=false vol.IV, p.174]</ref> Later interpreters too have asserted that the fable's moral is the proverbial 'the more haste, the worse speed' ([[Samuel Croxall]]) or have applied to it the biblical observation that 'the race is not to the swift' (Ecclesiastes 9.11).

In the 19th century and after the fable was given satirical interpretations. In the social commentary of [[Charles H. Bennett (illustrator)|Charles H. Bennett]]'s ''The Fables of Aesop translated into Human Nature'' (1857), the hare is changed to a thoughtful craftsman prostrate under the foot of a capitalist entrepreneur.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/38299630@N05/4909040645|title=Lepus et Testudo|work=Flickr - Photo Sharing!}}</ref> [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]] brings out another view in his "The True History of the Tortoise and the Hare" (1915). There the hare realises the stupidity of the challenge and refuses to proceed any further. The obstinate tortoise continues to the finishing line and is proclaimed the swiftest by his backers. But, continues Dunsany,
:the reason that this version of the race is not widely known is that very few of those that witnessed it survived the great forest-fire that happened shortly after. It came up over the weald by night with a great wind. The Hare and the Tortoise and a very few of the beasts saw it far off from a high bare hill that was at the edge of the trees, and they hurriedly called a meeting to decide what messenger they should send to warn the beasts in the forest. They sent the Tortoise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fulltextarchive.com/page/Fifty-One-Tales/#p270 |title=Lord Dunsany, ''51 Tales'&#39|publisher=FullTextArchive.com |date= |accessdate=2013-12-06}}</ref>

==Applications==
In Classical times the story was annexed to a philosophical problem by [[Zeno of Elea]] in one of many demonstrations that movement is impossible to define satisfactorily. The second of [[Zeno's paradoxes]] is that of Achilles and the Tortoise, in which the hero gives the Tortoise a head start in a race. The argument attempts to show that even though Achilles runs faster than the Tortoise, he will never catch up with her because, when Achilles reaches the point at which the Tortoise started, the Tortoise has advanced some distance beyond; when Achilles arrives at the point where the Tortoise was when Achilles arrived at the point where the Tortoise started, the Tortoise has again moved forward. Hence Achilles can never catch the Tortoise, no matter how fast he runs, since the Tortoise will always be moving ahead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paradox-zeno/#AchTor |title=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |publisher=Plato.stanford.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref><ref name="Wilson2015">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Catherine|title=Leibniz's Metaphysics: A Historical and Comparative Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lDWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA204|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7957-1|page=204}}</ref>

The only satisfactory refutation has been mathematical and since then the name of the fable has been applied to the function described in Zeno's paradox. In mathematics and computer science, the ''tortoise and the hare algorithm'' is an alternative name for [[Floyd's cycle-finding algorithm]].

==Illustrations of the fable==
[[File:Grandville tortoise.jpg|thumb|left|A 19th-century illustration of [[Jean de La Fontaine|La Fontaine's]] ''Fables'' by [[Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard|Jean Grandville]]]]

There is a Greek version of the fable but no early Latin version. For this reason it did not begin to appear in printed editions of Aesop's fables until the 16th century, one of the earliest being Bernard Salomon's ''Les Fables d'Esope Phrygien, mises en Ryme Francoise'' (1547).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/salomon/94.htm |title=Aesop (Thomas Bewick) |publisher=Mythfolklore.net |date= |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref> Versions followed from the Netherlands (in Dutch, 1567) and Flanders (in French, 1578)<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/a/aesops-fables/ |title=Aesop's Fables - Victoria and Albert Museum |publisher=Vam.ac.uk |date=2012-03-18 |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref> but none in English before [[Francis Barlow (artist)|Francis Barlow]]'s edition of 1667.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/barlow/70.htm |title=70. De lepore et testudine (1687), illustrated by Francis Barlow |publisher=Mythfolklore.net |date= |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref>

Among the many illustrations of the fable, that by the French caricaturist [[Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard|Jean Grandville]] is novel in portraying the tortoise as running upright. This is also how he is shown in the [[Walt Disney]] cartoon version of "The Tortoise and the Hare" (1935).<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2DrKmpuKhKE |title=The cartoon can be viewed on YouTube |publisher=Youtube.com |date=2008-06-07 |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref> Another departure from the ordinary in Grandville's etching is the choice of a mole (complete with dark glasses) rather than, as usual, a fox as the judge at the finishing line. Auguste Delierre makes the judge a monkey in the 1883 edition of La Fontaine's fables that he illustrated.<ref>The preparatory water colour is at the [[:fr:Musée jean de la Fontaine|La Fontaine Museum]]</ref><ref>http://www.cuniculture.info/Docs/Phototheque/Peinture&Decor/Peintres-D/Delierre-01.jpg</ref> La Fontaine says in his rhyme that it does not matter who the judge is; his interpreters have taken him at his word.

Outside of book production, there is an early 17th-century oil painting of the fable by the Flemish landscape artist [[Jan Wildens]].<ref>http://www.1st-art-gallery.com/thumbnail/183278/1/The-Tortoise-And-The-Hare,-From-Aesops-Fables.jpg</ref> The hare enters on the left, racing over an upland road as dawn breaks; the tortoise is nowhere in sight. In the mid-19th century, the French animal painter [[:fr:Philibert Léon Couturier|Philibert Léon Couturier]] also devoted an oil painting to the fable in which, as in Grandville's illustration, the tortoise is shown racing upright.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philibert-leon-couturier.com/oeuvre-151-1141-le-lievre-et-la-tortue.html|title=Le Lièvre et la Tortue Philibert Léon Couturier Peinture Toile Huile|work=philibert-leon-couturier.com}}</ref> In modern times there have been two pieces of popular sculpture aimed at children. [[Nancy Schön]]'s was made to commemorate the centenary of the [[Boston Marathon]] in 1996 and is sited in [[Copley Square]], the finishing line for the race.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.schon.com/public/tortoise-hare.php |title=Hare and Tortoise, Boston, Mass by Nancy Schön |publisher=Schon.com |date=1993-05-19 |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref> The tortoise is shown determinedly stumping forward while the hare has paused to scratch behind its ear. In the following year a painted steel sculpture by Michael Browne and Stuart Smith was set up near the cross-country finish line at [[Van Cortlandt Park]] in the Bronx.<ref>''Humanities'' magazine [http://www.neh.gov/humanities/2009/novemberdecember/curio/public-art-in-the-bronx for Nov/Dec 2009]</ref> The hare is mounted on the tortoise's shell and appears to be trying to leap over him.

The fable has also been illustrated on stamps from several countries. These include:
*[[Cyprus]], in which cartoon characters are depicted on a set of five €0.34 stamps (2011)<ref>[http://www.mcw.gov.cy/mcw/dps/dps.nsf/All/D184114F547B4133C225798B00408A37?OpenDocument Cyprus postal service]</ref>
*[[Dahomey]], on a set commemorating the third centenary of La Fontaine's death in which it figures on the 10 franc stamp.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.creighton.edu/aesop/artifacts/stamps/dahomey/dahomeystamps/index.php |title=Creighton University :: Aesop's Fables: Dahomey Stamps |publisher=Creighton.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref>
*[[Dominica]], on a 2 cent stamp for Easter 1984, picturing a Disney tortoise carrying Easter eggs as it overtakes the sleeping hare<ref>http://philatelia.ru/pict/cat5/stamp/12393s.jpg</ref>
*[[France]] issued surcharged [[Red Cross]] stamps in 1978 on which the fable appeared on the 1 franc + 0.25 denomination.<ref>http://environnement.ecole.free.fr/Timbres/1978066-fable-la-fontaine.jpg</ref> It was also included in the 1995 strip of six 2.80 franc stamps commemorating the third centenary of the author's death.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.creighton.edu/aesop/artifacts/stamps/france/1995frenchlaf/individualstamps/index.php |title=Creighton University :: Aesop's Fables: Individual Stamps |publisher=Creighton.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref>
*[[Greece]] issued a 1987 set illustrating Aesop's fables, including the tortoise and the hare on the 130 drachma stamp<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.creighton.edu/aesop/artifacts/stamps/greece/index.php |title=Creighton University :: Aesop's Fables: Greece |publisher=Creighton.edu |date=1987-03-05 |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref>
*[[Hungary]] issued a set in 1980 with this fable on the 4 forint stamp<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.creighton.edu/aesop/artifacts/stamps/hungary/index.php |title=Creighton University :: Aesop's Fables: Hungary |publisher=Creighton.edu |date=1960-12-01 |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref>
*The [[Maldives]] issued a 1990 set in which Disney characters act out the fables; the tortoise and the hare appear on the 15 laree stamp<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.creighton.edu/aesop/artifacts/stamps/maldives/index.php |title=Creighton University :: Aesop's Fables: Maldives |publisher=Creighton.edu |date=1990-12-11 |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref>
*[[Monaco]] issued a composite 50 centime stamp on the 350th anniversary of La Fontaine's birth in 1971, on which this fable appears<ref>Scroll down to 12 April 2011 on [http://www.stampboards.com/viewtopic.php?f=17&t=16852&start=1400 Stampboard.com]</ref>
*[[Sri Lanka]] issued a 5 rupee stamp for Child’s broadcasting day 2007 showing the contestants at the starting line<ref>{{cite web|url=http://colnect.com/en/stamps/stamp/162748-Hare_and_the_tortoise_at_the_starting_line-International_Childrens_Broadcasting_Day_2007-Sri_Lanka_Ceylon|title=Stamp: Hare and the tortoise at the starting line (Sri Lanka (Ceylon)) (International Children's Broadcasting Day 2007) Mi:LK 1679,WAD:LK064.07|work=colnect.com}}</ref>

==Musical versions==
{{refex|section|date=April 2017}}
Many allusions to the fable in musical titles are of limited or no relevance, but two instrumental versions may be noted. The one by [[Yellow Jackets]] jazz quartet was recorded on their ''Politics'' album in 1988<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hMGz0-fJ-Xw |title=Yellow Jackets - Tortoise and the Hare (Live) |publisher=YouTube |date=2006-07-27 |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref> The Anglo-Irish band [[Flook (band)|Flook]]'s title is on their ''Haven'' album (2005)

There have also been several musical settings of Aesop's fable:
*In Mabel Wood Hill's ''Aesop's Fables Interpreted Through Music'' (New York, 1920)<ref>The score is available on the [https://urresearch.rochester.edu/institutionalPublicationPublicView.action;jsessionid=30700D0F9F7E51EB09864FD05D437FB8?institutionalItemId=20901 Rochester University site]</ref>
*[[Vincent Persichetti]] included it as the third piece in his ''Fables for narrator and orchestra'' (Op. 23, 1943)
*A poetic version set for children's voices and piano by Edward Hughes in his ''Songs from Aesop's Fables'' (1965)
*The [[cellist]] Evalyn Steinbock's setting for violin, cello and narrator in 1979
*As the first of [[Anthony Plog]]'s ''Aesop’s Fables'' for narrator, piano and horn (1989/93)<ref>A performance on [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNQL9pGisVo YouTube]</ref>
*Among Scott Watson's ''Aesop's Fables'' for narrator and orchestral accompaniment (1999)
*A setting for solo voice by Lucian Cristofor Tugui (2006)
*As one of the five pieces in [[Bob Chilcott]]'s ''Aesop's Fables'' for piano and choir (2008)<ref>{{cite av media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lcL_ZzivtrQ|title=FMHS Jaguar Chorale -- "Aesop's Fables: the Hare and the Tortoise"|date=26 May 2009|work=YouTube}}</ref>
*A setting for [[a cappella]] choir by Darmon Meader (2009)<ref>{{cite av media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZ3wcmrvXyI|title=Harambee - The Tortoise and The Hare (Darmon Meader) Acappella|date=1 September 2010|work=YouTube}}</ref>
*As one of David Edgar Walther's ‘short operatic dramas’, composed in 2009

==Film versions==
{{refex|section|date=April 2017}}
There have been a number of film versions of the fable, although many have taken considerable liberties with the original story line. They include [[animated cartoon]]s in France (1920), and the US (1921), [[Silly Symphonies]] cartoons during the 1930s and by [[Merrie Melodies]] during the 1940s. [[Encyclopædia Britannica Films]] followed with a dramatized version of Aesop's fable starring live animals, including an owl, a fox, a goose, a rooster, a raccoon, and a hare.<ref>This is available on the online [https://archive.org/details/Hareandt1947 movie archive]</ref> This was a 1947 production in black and white with narrated voice-over. Later divergent versions that referenced the fable appeared in [[Filmation]]'s ''Aesop's Fables'' (1971), ''[[Sesame Street]]'' (1973),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AP4Pt9qyomk|title=Sesame Street - What if...(rabbit & turtle)|first=|last=mstatz|date=6 December 2006|publisher=|via=YouTube}}</ref>, and the Japanese TV series ''Manga Aesop Monogotari'' (1983).<ref>''The Anime Encyclopedia'', [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT71&lpg=PT71&dq=%22Aesop+Monogatari%22&source=bl&ots=oCBN9jf9LT&sig=6F45wuxHu2nJYzrDboyTzOm01OI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5sNW66LfVAhVrJMAKHWE1BTg4ChDoAQhEMAY#v=onepage&q=%22Aesop%20Monogatari%22&f=false "Aesop's Fables"], 3rd revised edition, Stone Bridge Press 2015</ref>

In 1952, the model animator [[Ray Harryhausen]] began a version of the fable, before moving over to more lucrative work on monster movies. Young enthusiasts Seamus Walsh and Mark Caballero later helped Harryhausen complete "The Story of the Tortoise and the Hare", having refurbished the original puppets and, under Harryhausen's guidance, completed the film in 2002.<ref>[http://www.screen-novelties.com/press/page1/index.html Screen Novelties site]. The film can now be viewed on YouTube, the first part [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BjCg4kjJJY4 here] and the second [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=miPLXkaAIik models here]</ref> A feature in this, is that the hare drops off to sleep as a result of taking a big meal near the end of the race, thus allowing the tortoise to win. The same situation had appeared in Georges de la Grandière's 1960's cartoon version of the fable, ''Le Lièvre et la tortue''.<ref>This is in two parts on YouTube, the first at [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Qj-4J7ir7M] and the second at [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzqYDZk5pOA]</ref>

==Folk variants==
The many other variants of the story in oral folk tradition appear worldwide and are classed as Aarne-Thompson-Uther type 275.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/type0275.html |title=The Tortoise and the Hare, and Other Races between Unequal Contestants |publisher=Pitt.edu |date=2011-06-05 |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref> In most of these there is a race between unequal partners but most often brain is matched against brawn and the race is won by means of trickery. Broadly this is of two types: either the slower animal jumps on the other's back or tail and hops off at the end when the creature turns round to see where his challenger has got to, or else he is deceived by lookalikes substituting themselves along the course.

Tales with a similar theme emphasizing doggedness have been recorded in [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] culture. Hummingbird and Crane agree to race from one ocean to the other. Though Hummingbird flies faster, he stops at night to sleep. Crane, however, flies overnight and is overtaken by Hummingbird later and later during the day, at length coming in first. The ultimate prize differs between versions and includes choice of habitat, the love of a girl, or the right to cut the other down to size.<ref>John Reed Swanton, ''Myths and Tales of the Southeastern Indians'', University of Oklahoma 1929, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bwbBQ8ojzxAC&lpg=PA253&ots=H7e2Yyg48c&dq=The%20Humming%20bird%20and%20the%20Crane&pg=PA253#v=onepage&q=The%20Humming%20bird%20and%20the%20Crane&f=false p. 253]</ref>

==See also==
{{wikisource}}
*[[Achilles and the Tortoise]]
*[[Festina lente]]
*[[Law of the handicap of a head start]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commonscatinline}}
*15th-20th century book illustrations [https://www.flickr.com/search/?w=38299630%40N05&q=lepus+et+testudo&m=text online]

{{Aesop}}
{{The Tortoise and the Hare}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tortoise and the Hare, The}}
[[Category:Aesop's Fables]]
[[Category:La Fontaine's Fables]]
[[Category:Fictional hares and rabbits]]
[[Category:Fictional turtles]]
[[Category:Literary duos]]

Oregon Boundary Dispute

2017-03-21T23:27:37Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 2601:600:9C80:8CE0:3C3D:1147:5B61:6851 (talk) (HG) (3.1.20)

[[File:Oregoncountry.png|thumb|300px|The Oregon Country/Columbia District stretched from 42°N to 54°40′N. The most heavily disputed portion is highlighted]]
The '''Oregon boundary dispute''' or the '''Oregon Question''', was a controversy over the political division of the [[Pacific Northwest]] of [[North America]] between several nations that had competing territorial and commercial aspirations over the region.

Expansionist competition into the region began in the 18th century, with participants including the [[Russian Empire]], the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]], the [[Kingdom of Spain]] and the [[United States of America]]. By the 1820s, both the Russians, through the [[Russo-American Treaty of 1824]] and the [[Russo-British Treaty of 1825]] and the Spanish, by the [[Adams Onis Treaty|Adams Onis Treaty of 1819]], formally withdrew their territorial claims in the region. Through these treaties the British and Americans gained residual territorial claims in the disputed area.{{sfn|Mackie|1997|p=29, 124-126, 140}} The remaining portion of the North American [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast contested by the United Kingdom and the United States was defined as the following: west of the [[Continental Divide of the Americas]], north of [[Alta California]] at [[42nd parallel north]], and south of [[Russian America]] at [[parallel 54°40′ north]]; typically this region was referred to by the British as the [[Columbia District]] and the [[Oregon Country]] by the Americans. The Oregon Dispute began to become important in geopolitical diplomacy between the British Empire and the new American Republic, especially after the [[War of 1812]].

In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1844|1844 U.S. presidential election]], ending the Oregon Question by annexing the entire area was a position adopted by the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]. Some scholars have claimed the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party's]] lack of interest in the issue was due to its relative insignificance among other more pressing domestic issues.{{sfn|Miles|1957}} Democratic candidate [[James K. Polk]] appealed to the popular theme of [[manifest destiny]] and [[expansionism|expansionist]] sentiment, defeating Whig [[Henry Clay]]. Polk sent the British government the previously offered partition along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]]. Subsequent negotiations faltered as the British plenipotentiaries still argued for a border along the Columbia River. Tensions grew as American expansionists like [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Edward A. Hannegan]] of [[Indiana]] and [[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] [[Leonard Henly Sims]] of [[Missouri]], urged Polk to annex the entire Pacific Northwest to the 54°40′ parallel north, as the Democrats had called for in the election. The turmoil gave rise to [[political slogan|slogans]] such as "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" As relations with [[Mexico]] were rapidly deteriorating following the [[annexation of Texas]], the expansionist agenda of Polk and the Democratic Party created the possibility of two different, simultaneous wars for the United States. Just before the outbreak of the [[Mexican–American War]], Polk returned to his earlier position of a border along the 49th parallel.

The 1846 [[Oregon Treaty]] established the border between [[British North America]] and the United States along the 49th parallel until the [[Strait of Georgia]], where the marine boundary curved south to exclude [[Vancouver Island]] and the [[Gulf Islands]] from the United States. As a result, a small portion of the [[Tsawwassen|Tsawwassen Peninsula]], [[Point Roberts, Washington|Point Roberts]], became an [[exclave]] of the United States. Vague wording in the treaty left the ownership of the [[San Juan Islands]] in doubt, as the division was to follow "through the middle of the said channel"<ref>[[s:Oregon Treaty|Oregon Treaty]] from Wikisource. Accessed 12 February 2015.</ref> to the [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]]. During the so-called [[Pig War (1859)|Pig War]], both nations agreed to a joint military occupation of the islands. Kaiser [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] of the [[German Empire]] was selected as an arbitrator to end the dispute, with a three-man commission ruling in favor of the United States in 1872. There the [[Haro Strait]] became the border line, rather than the British favored [[Rosario Strait]]. The border established by the Oregon Treaty and finalized by the arbitration in 1872 remains the boundary between the United States and [[Canada]] in the Pacific Northwest.

==Background==
The Oregon Question originated in the 18th century during the early European or American exploration of the [[Pacific Northwest]]. Various Empires began to consider the area suitable for colonial expansion, including the Americans, Russians, Spanish and British. Naval captains such as the Spanish [[Juan José Pérez Hernández]], British [[George Vancouver]] and American [[Robert Gray (sea-captain)|Robert Gray]] gave defining regional water formations like the [[Columbia River]] and the [[Puget Sound]] their modern names and charted in the 1790s. Overland explorations were commenced by the British [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] in 1792 and later followed by the American [[Lewis and Clark]] expedition, which reached the mouth of the [[Columbia River]] in 1805. These explorers often claimed in the name of their respective governments sovereignty over the Northwest Coast. The knowledge of fur-bearing animal populations like the [[California sea lion]], [[North American beaver]] and the [[Northern fur seal]] were used to create an economic network called the [[maritime fur trade]]. The [[North American fur trade|fur trade]] would remain the main economic interest that drew Euro-Americans to the Pacific Northwest for decades. Merchants exchanged goods for fur pelts along the coast with indigenous nations such as the [[Chinookan people]], the [[Aleut]]s and the [[Nuu-chah-nulth]].

[[Image:Columbiarivermap.png|thumb|300px|Map of the Columbia River and its tributaries, showing modern political boundaries and cities.]]

===Spanish colonisation===
A series of [[Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest|Expeditions to the Pacific Northwest]] were financed by the Spanish to strengthen their claims to the region. Creating a colony called [[Santa Cruz de Nuca]] on [[Vancouver Island]], the Spanish were the first white colonisers of the Pacific Northwest outside Russian America to the north. A period of tensions with the United Kingdom, called the [[Nootka Crisis]], arose after the Spanish seized a British vessel. However the three [[Nootka Convention]]s averted conflict, with both countries agreeing to protect their mutual access to [[Friendly Cove]] against outside powers. While the Spanish colony was abandoned, a border delineating the northern reaches of [[New Spain]] wasn't included. Despite the Nootka Conventions still allowing the Spanish to establish colonies in the region, no more attempts were made as other geopolitical and domestic matters drew the attention of the authorities. With the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] of 1819, the Spanish formally withdrew all formal claims to lands north of the [[42nd parallel north|42° north]].

===Russian interest===
The [[Imperial Russian government]] established the [[Russian-American Company]] in 1799, a monopoly among Russian subjects for fur trading operations in [[Russian America]] with the [[Ukase of 1799]]. In part from the growing Russian activities to the north, the Spanish created the [[Spanish missions in California|Catholic Missions]] to create colonies in [[Alta California]]. Plans for creating Russians colonies in what became the modern American states of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and [[Oregon]] were formulated by [[Nikolai Rezanov]]. He aimed to relocate the primary colony of Russian America to the entrance of the Columbia River, though was unable to enter the river in 1806 and the plan was abandoned.{{sfn|Langsdorff|1927|p=21}} In 1808 [[Alexander Andreyevich Baranov]] sent the ''[[Russian schooner Nikolai|Nikolai]]'', with the captain "ordered to explore the coast south of Vancouver Island, barter with the natives for sea otter pelts, and if possible discover a site for a permanent Russian post in the Oregon Country."{{sfn|Donnolly|1985|p=4}} The ship crashed on the [[Olympic Peninsula]] and the surviving crew didn't return to [[New Archangel]] for two years. The failure of the vessel to find a suitable location led to the Russians to not consider much of the Northwest coast worth colonizing.{{sfn|Donnolly|1985|p=30}} Their interest in the Puget Sound and the Columbia River was diverted to Alta California, with [[Fort Ross]] soon established. The [[Russo-American Treaty of 1824]] and the [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825)|Treaty of Saint Petersburg]] with the British formally created the southern border of Russian America at [[parallel 54°40′ north]].

===Early Anglo-American competition===
Both the Russian and Spanish empires held no significant plans at promoting colonies along the Northwest Coast by the 1810s. The British and American were the remaining two nations with citizens active in commercial operations in the region. Starting with a party of the [[Montreal]] based [[North West Company]] (NWC) employees led by [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]] in 1807, the British began land-based operations and opened trading posts throughout the region. Thompson extensively explored the Columbia River watershed. While at the junction of Columbia and [[Snake River|Snake]] Rivers, he erected a pole on July 9, 1811, with a notice stating "Know hereby that this country is claimed by Great Britain as part of its territories..." and additionally stated the intention of the NWC to build a trading post there.{{sfn|Elliott|1911}} [[Fort Nez Percés]] was later established at the location in 1818. The American [[Pacific Fur Company]] (PFC) began operations in 1811 at [[Fort Astoria]], constructed at the entrance of the Columbia River. The eruption of the [[War of 1812]] didn't create a violent confrontation in the Pacific Northwest between the competing companies. Led by [[Donald Mackenzie (explorer)|Donald Mackenzie]], PFC officers agreed to liquidate its assets to their NWC competitors, with an agreement signed on 23 November 1813.{{sfn|Chittenden|1902|pp=222-223}} The [[HMS Racoon (1808)|HMS ''Racoon'']] was ordered to capture Fort Astoria, though by the time it arrived, the post was already under NWC management. After the collapse of the PFC, American [[mountain men]] operated in small groups in the region, typically based east of the Rocky Mountains, only to meet once a year at the annual [[Rendezvous (fur trade)|Rendezvous]].

==Joint occupation==

===Treaty of 1818===
{{main article|Treaty of 1818}}
In 1818, diplomats of the two countries attempted to negotiate a boundary between the rival claims. The Americans suggested dividing the Pacific Northwest along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]], which was the border between the United States and [[British North America]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. The lack of accurate cartographic knowledge led American diplomats to declare the [[Louisiana Purchase]] gave them an incontestable claim to the region.{{sfn|Merk|1950}} British diplomats wanted a border further south along the [[Columbia River]], so as to maintain the [[North West Company]]'s (later the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]'s (HBC)) control of the lucrative [[fur trade]] along that river.{{sfn|Merk|1950}} The diplomatic teams couldn't agree upon mutually satisfactory terms and remained in deadlock by October. [[Albert Gallatin]], the main American negotiator, had previously instructed to have a tentative agreement by the convening of the 3rd session of the [[15th United States Congress]], set for 16 November.

A final proposition was made to the British [[plenipotentiary]], [[Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon|Frederick John Robinson]], for the continuation of the 49th parallel west while leaving the United Kingdom, as Gallatin stated, "all the waters emptying in the sound called the Gulf of Georgia."{{sfn|Merk|1950}} This would have awarded "all the territory draining west from the [[Cascade Mountains|Cascade]] divide and north from the Columbia River divide into the gulf" and the entirety of the [[Puget Sound]] along with the Straits of [[Strait of Georgia|Georgia]] and [[Strait of Juan de Fuca|Juan de Fuca]] to the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Merk|1950}} Robinson demurred from the proposal. However, the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, which settled most other disputes from the [[War of 1812]], called for the joint occupation of the region for ten years.

===Proposed partition plans===
As the expiration of the Joint Occupation treaty approached, a second round of negotiations commenced in 1824. American Minister [[Richard Rush]] offered for the extension of agreement with an additional clause on 2 April. The 51° parallel would be a provisional border within the Pacific Northwest, with no British additional settlements to be established south of the line, nor any American settlements north of it.{{sfn|Marshall|1911|p=166}} Despite Rush's offering to modify the temporary border to the 49° parallel, the British negotiators rejected his offer. His proposal was seen as the likely basis for the eventual division of the Pacific Northwest. The British plenipotentiaries [[William Huskisson]] and [[Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe|Stratford Canning]] on 29 June pressed instead for a permanent line along the 49° parallel west until the main branch of the Columbia River. With the British formally abandoning claims south or east of the Columbia River, the Oregon Question thence became focused on what later became Western [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and the southern portion of Vancouver Island.{{sfn|Marshall|1911|p=166}} Rush reacted to the British proposal as unfavorably as they had to his own offer, leaving the talks at a stalemate.

[[Image:George Canning by Richard Evans - detail.jpg|150px|thumb|[[George Canning]] has been appraised the most active Secretary of Foreign Affairs in maintaining the British claims of a division along the Columbia River.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=184-188}}]]

Throughout 1825, [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]] [[George Canning]] held discussions with [[Sir John Pelly, 1st Baronet|Governor Pelly]] of the HBC as to a potential settlement with the United States. Pelly felt a border along the [[Snake River|Snake]] and Columbia Rivers was advantageous for the United Kingdom and his company.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=184-188}} Contacting American minister [[Rufus King]] in April 1826, Canning requested that a settlement be reached over the Oregon dispute. Gallatin was appointed [[United States Minister to the United Kingdom|Ambassador to the United Kingdom]] and given instructions by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Henry Clay]] in July 1826 to offer a division of the Pacific Northwest along the 49th parallel to the British.{{sfn|Meany|1914}} In a letter to Prime Minister [[Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool|Lord Liverpool]] in 1826, Canning presented the possibilities of trade with the [[Qing Empire]] if a division of the Pacific Northwest was to be made with the Americans. He felt the recognition of American rights to ownership of Astoria, despite its continued use by the NWC and later HBC, was "absolutely unjustifiable."{{sfn|Canning|1887|pp=71-74}} This diplomatic courtesy Canning felt weakened the territorial claims of the United Kingdom. A border along the Columbia River would give "an immense direct intercourse between China and what may be, if we resolve not yield them up, her boundless establishments on the N. W. Coast of America."{{sfn|Canning|1887|pp=71-74}}

===Renewal===
Huskisson was appointed along with [[Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth|Henry Addington]] to negotiate with Gallatin. Unlike his superior, Canning, Huskisson held a negative view of the HBC monopoly and found the region held in dispute with the Americans "of little consequence to the British."{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=184-188}} At time the HBC's staff was the only continuous white occupants in the region, though their economic activities weren't utilized by Huskinisson in exchanges with Gallatin.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=184-188}} The division suggested by Pelly and Canning's 1824 offer of a Columbia River boundary were both rejected. The argument used to counter these offers was the same as in 1824, that a boundary along the Columbia would deny the U.S. an easily accessible deep water port on the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The British negotiators to allay this attack offered a detached [[Olympic Peninsula]] as American territory, giving access to both the Straits of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=184-188}} This was seen as unsatisfactory by the Americans however. The diplomatic talks were continued but failed to divide the region in a satisfactory way for both nations. The Treaty of 1818 was renewed on 7 August 1827,{{sfn|Shewmaker|1982}} with a clause added by Gallatin that a one-year notice had to be given when either party intended to abrogate the agreement.{{sfn|Meany|1914}} After the death of Canning and the failure to find a satisfactory division of the region with the Americans, "Oregon had been almost forgotten by the [British] politicians..."{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=184-188}}

==Significance in America==

===Regional Activities===
American Protestant missionaries began to arrive in the 1830s and established the [[Methodist Mission]] in the [[Willamette Valley]] and the [[Whitman Mission National Historic Site|Whitman Mission]] east of the [[Cascade Range|Cascades]].<ref>[http://bluebook.state.or.us/cultural/history/history06.htm Oregon History: Land-based Fur Trade and Exploration]</ref> [[Ewing Young]] created a [[sawmill|saw mill]]<ref>[http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/oregontrails/ewingyoung.html Ewing Young Route]. compiled by Karen Bassett, Jim Renner, and Joyce White.</ref> and a [[gristmill|grist mill]] in the Willamette Valley early in the 1830s.<ref>[http://www.salemhistory.net/people/historic_figures.htm Salem Online History: Salem's Historic Figures]</ref> He and several other American colonists formed the [[Willamette Cattle Company]] in 1837 to bring over 600 head of cattle to the Willamette Valley, with about half of its shares purchased by McLoughlin. Over 700 U.S settlers arrived via the Oregon Trail in the "[[Oregon Trail#Great Migration of 1843|Great Migration of 1843]]". The [[Provisional Government of Oregon]] was established in the Willamette Valley during 1843 as well. Its rule was limited to those interested Americans and former [[French-Canadian]] HBC employees in the valley.

===John Floyd===
The first attempts by the American Government for proactive action in colonising the Pacific Northwest began in 1820 during the 2nd session of the [[16th United States Congress|16th Congress]]. [[John Floyd (Virginia politician)|John Floyd]], a [[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] from [[Virginia]], spearheaded a report that would "authorize the occupation of the Columbia River, and to regulated trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes thereon."{{sfn|Benton|1854|pp=13-14}} Additionally the bill called for cultivating commercial relations with the [[Qing Empire]] and the [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. His interest in the distant region likely began after meeting former PFC employee [[Russell Farnham]]. Floyd had the support of fellow Virginian Representative [[Thomas Van Swearingen]] and Representative [[Thomas Metcalfe (Kentucky)|Thomas Metcalfe]] of [[Kentucky]]. The bill was presented to both the House and to [[James Monroe|President Monroe]]. In the House, Floyd's bill was defended by one member who stated that it didn't "attempt a colonial settlement. The territory proposed to be occupied is already a part of the United States."{{sfn|Wilson|1900}} Monroe inquired the opinion of [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Quincy Adams]] for potential revisions. Adams retorted that "The paper was a tissue of errors in fact and abortive reasoning, of invidious reflections and rude invectives. There was nothing could purify it but the fire."{{sfn|Adams|1875|p=238}} Read twice before the legislature, "most of the members not considering it a serious proceeding", it didn't pass.{{sfn|Benton|1854|pp=13-14}}

[[Image:Johnfloydvirginia.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Representative [[John Floyd (Virginia politician)|John Floyd]] was the most prominent early Congressional member in favor of extensive American claims in the Pacific Northwest.]]

Floyd continued to authorise legislation calling for an American colony on the Pacific. His career as a Representative ended in 1829, with the Oregon Question not discussed at Congress until 1837. The northern border proposed by Floyd was at first the [[53rd parallel north|53°]], and later 54°40′.{{sfn|Shippee|1918|p=118}} These bills were still met with the apathy or opposition of other Congressional members, one in particular being tabled for consideration by a vote of 100 to 61.{{sfn|Shippee|1918|p=118}} [[Missouri]] Senator [[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Thomas H. Benton]] became a vocal supporter of Floyd's efforts, and thought that they would "plant the germ of a powerful and independent Power beyond the Rockies."{{sfn|Shippee|1918|p=118}} [[John C. Calhoun]], then [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]], while somewhat interested in Floyd's considered bills, gave his opinion to that the HBC was an economic threat to American commercial interests in the west. <blockquote>"....so long as the traders of the British Fur Company have free access to the region of the Rocky Mountains from the various posts... they will in great measure monopolize the Fur Trade West of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], to the almost entire exclusion in the next few years of our trade." * {{sfn|Shippee|1918|p=118}}</blockquote>

===1844 Presidential election===
The [[United States presidential election, 1844|1844 presidential election]] was a definitive turning point for the United States. Admitting the [[Texas Republic]] by diplomatic negotiations to begin a process of [[annexation of Texas]] into the nation was a contentious topic. At the same time, the Oregon Question "became a weapon in a struggle for domestic political power."{{sfn|Graebner|1995|p=35}} At the [[1844 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]], the [[party platform]] asserted "That our title to the whole of the Territory of Oregon is clear and unquestionable; that no portion of the same ought to be ceded to England or any other power, and that the reoccupation of Oregon and the re-annexation of Texas at the earliest practicable period are great American measures..."<ref>{{cite web|title=Democratic Party Platform of 1844|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29573|website=The American Presidency Project|accessdate=16 February 2015}}</ref> By tying the Oregon dispute to the more controversial Texas debate, the Democrats appealed to expansionist members from both the Northern and Southern states.{{sfn|Graebner|1995|p=35}} Enlargement in the Pacific Northwest offered a means of mollifying Northern fears of allowing Texas, another [[Slave and free states|slave state]], by a counterbalance of additional free states. Democratic candidate [[James K. Polk]] went on to win a narrow victory over [[United States Whig Party|Whig]] candidate [[Henry Clay]], in part because Clay had taken a stand against immediate expansion in Texas. Despite the use of the Oregon Question in the election, according to Edward Miles, the topic wasn't "a significant campaign issue" as "the Whigs would have been forced to discuss it."{{sfn|Miles|1957}}

===="Fifty-four Forty or Fight!"====
A popular slogan later associated with Polk and his campaign of 1844, "[[Parallel 54°40′ north|Fifty-four Forty]] or Fight!" wasn't actually coined during the election. It only appeared by January 1846, promoted and driven in part by the Democratic Party associated press. The phrase has since become frequently misidentified as a Polk campaign slogan, even in many textbooks.{{sfn|Miles|1957}}{{sfn|Rosenboom|1973|p=123}}{{sfn|Pletcher|1973|p=223}}{{sfn|Sperber|1970|pp=5-11}} ''[[Bartlett's Familiar Quotations]]'' attributes the slogan to William Allen. 54°40′ was the southern boundary of [[Russian America]], and considered the northernmost limit of the Pacific Northwest. One actual Democratic campaign slogan from this election (used in [[Pennsylvania]]) was the more mundane "Polk, [[George M. Dallas|Dallas]], and the [[Tariff of 1842|Tariff of '42]]".{{sfn|Rosenboom|1973|p=123}}

==British interest==

===Hudson's Bay Company===
{{main article|Columbia Department}}

[[File:Sir George Simpson Resized.jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[George Simpson (administrator)|George Simpson]], manager of HBC operations in North America, reported in 1837 that the Pacific Northwest "may become an object of very great importance, and we are strengthening that claim to it... by forming the nucleus of a colony through the establishment of farms, and the settlement of some of our retiring officers and servants as agriculturalists."{{sfn|Merk|1968|p=339}}]]

The [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) merged with the North West Company in 1821 and assumed its various fur trading stations. The HBC held a license among British subjects to trade with the populous aboriginal peoples of the region, and its network of trading posts and routes extended southward from [[New Caledonia (Canada)|New Caledonia]], another HBC fur-trade district, into the Columbia basin (most of New Caledonia lay south of 54-40). The HBC's headquarters for the entire region became established at [[Fort Vancouver]] (modern [[Vancouver, Washington]]) in 1824. During that year [[George Simpson (administrator)|George Simpson]] while discussing the company's "uncertain tenure of the Columbia" with [[Andrew Colville|Governor Colville]], discussed the possibility of closing operations along the river.{{sfn|Merk|1968|p=339}} "If the Americans settle on the mouth of the Columbia it would in my opinion be necessary to abandon the Coast [south of the river]..." Simpson stated, with the company posts to "move to the Northward..."{{sfn|Merk|1932|pp=653-677}} At its pinnacle in the late 1830s and early 1840s, Fort Vancouver watched over 34 outposts, 24 ports, six ships, and 600 employees.

===Domestic===
The ''[[Edinburgh Review#Edinburgh Review, 1802–1929|Edinburgh Review]]'' declared the Pacific Northwest "the last corner of the earth left free for the occupation of a civilized race. When Oregon shall be colonised, the map of the world may be considered as filled up."{{sfn|Edinburgh Review|p=185}}

===Naval presence===
[[Royal Navy]] ships were dispatched to the Pacific Northwest throughout the decades, to both expand cartographical knowledge and protect fur trading stations. The British established the [[Pacific Station]] in 1826 at [[Valparaíso]], [[Chile]], increasing the strategic capabilities of their navy. A squadron was moved there and later vessels sent to the Pacific Northwest were based out of the port. [[HMS Blossom (1806)|HMS ''Blossom'']] was in the region during 1818. The next surveying expedition was commenced by [[HMS Sulphur (1826)|HMS ''Sulphur'']] and [[HMS Starling (1829)|HMS ''Starling'']] in 1837, with operations lasting until 1839. Dispatched from the Pacific Station to gather intelligence on the HBC posts, [[HMS Modeste (1837)|HMS ''Modeste'']] arrived at the Columbia River in July 1844. Chief Factor [[James Douglas (governor)|James Douglas]] complained that the naval officers "had more taste for a [[lark]] than a 'musty' lecture on politics or the greater national interests in question."{{sfn|McLoughlin|p=180}} The ''Modeste'' visited the HBC trading posts of Forts George, Vancouver, Victoria and [[Fort Simpson|Simpson]].{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945a}}

==Political efforts during Tyler Presidency==
Missouri Senator [[Lewis F. Linn|Lewis Linn]] tabled legislation in 1842, inspired in part by Floyd's previous efforts. Linn's bill called for the government to create land grants for men interested in settling the Pacific Northwest. The arrival of [[Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton|Baron Ashburton]] in April 1842, sent to resolve several territorial disputes with the United States, delayed Linn's legislation. Initially focusing on the Pacific Northwest, Ashburton presented [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Daniel Webster]] the 1824 partition proposal made by Canning of a division along the Columbia River.{{sfn|Shewmaker|1982}} Webster rejected the offer for the same reasons it was previously repudiated; the division would leave the United States with no suitable locations for a large Pacific port. Webster suggested that Ashburton's proposal may have been found acceptable by the Americans, if the United States could be compensated with the [[Mexico|Mexican]] owned [[San Francisco Bay]].{{sfn|Shewmaker|1982}} Ashburton passed on the offer to his superiors, but no further action was taken. Both diplomats became focused on settling the [[Aroostook War]] and formulated the [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]].

At the final session of the [[27th United States Congress|27th Congress]] on 19 December 1842, Linn presented a similar bill to colonize the Pacific Northwest as he put it, "by the Anglo-American race, which will extend our limits from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean."{{sfn|Wilson|1900}} Arguments over the bill lasted over a month, and it was eventually passed in the Senate 24-22.{{sfn|Wilson|1900}} In opposition to Linn's bill, Calhoun famously declared that the U.S. government should pursue a policy of "wise and masterly inactivity"<ref>The phrase "wise and masterly inactivity", which Calhoun used more than once, originated with Sir [[James Mackintosh]]. ([http://www.bartleby.com/73/1038.html source])</ref> in Oregon, letting settlement determine the eventual boundary.{{sfn|Wilson|1900}} Many of Calhoun's fellow [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]], however, soon began to advocate a more direct approach.{{sfn|Pletcher|1973|pp=109-110}}

By early 1843, Webster returned to the Oregon Question, formalising a plan that included the 1826 British offer of the Olympic Peninsula enclave and the purchase of [[Alta California]] from Mexico.{{sfn|Shewmaker|1982}} The increasing hostility President Tyler had with the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] led to Webster's disinterest in continuing to act as the Secretary of State and his plan was shelved. The American minister to the UK, [[Edward Everett]], was given authority to negotiate with British officials to settle the Oregon Question in October 1843. Meeting with Prime Minister [[Robert Peel]]'s [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]], [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Earl of Aberdeen]] on 29 November, Everett presented the terms considered by President [[John Tyler]]. The old offer of the 49th parallel was once more presented, along with a guarantee to free access to the Columbia River.{{sfn|Government Printing Office|1872|pp=6-11}} However during President Tyler's [[State of the Union]] address that year on 6 December, he claimed "the entire region of country lying on the Pacific and embraced within 42° and 54°40′ of north latitude."<ref>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29647 ''1843 State of the Union Address''.] Accessed 6 November 2014.</ref> After receiving this declaration, Aberdeen began to consult with the committee and Governor Pelly, previously left out of the most recent diplomatic exchanges.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|p=231}}

==Polk Presidency==
[[File:JamesKnoxPolk.png|180px|thumb|President James K. Polk was elected in 1844 in part from his support for substantial claims against the British. Much of this rhetoric was to make the United Kingdom accept the long tabled proposed division along the 49th parallel.]]

In his March 1845 [[Inauguration Day|inaugural address]], President Polk quoted from the party platform, saying that the U.S. title to Oregon was "clear and unquestionable".{{sfn|Polk|2014}} Tensions grew, with both sides moving to strengthen border fortifications in anticipation of war. Despite Polk's bold language, he was actually prepared to compromise, and had no real desire to go to war over Oregon. He believed that a firm stance would compel the British to accept a resolution agreeable to the United States. While meeting with Representative [[James A. Black]] on 4 January 1846, Polk stated that "the only way to treat [[John Bull]] was to look him straight in the eye... if Congress faultered [sic]... John Bull would immediately become arrogant and more grasping in his demands..."{{sfn|Polk|1910|pp=153-155}} But Polk's position on Oregon was not mere posturing: he genuinely believed that the U.S. had a legitimate claim to the entire region.{{sfn|Haynes|1997|pp=118-120}} He rejected British offers to settle the dispute through arbitration, fearing that no impartial third party could be found.{{sfn|Pletcher|1973|p=322}}

Many newspaper editors in the United States clamored for Polk to claim the entire region as the Democrats had proposed in the 1844 campaign. Headlines like "The Whole of Oregon or None" by [[The Union (newspaper)|The Union]] editor [[Thomas Ritchie]] appeared on 6 November 1845.{{sfn|Miles|1957}} In a column in the ''New York Morning News'' on December 27, 1845, editor [[John L. O'Sullivan]] argued that the United States should claim all of Oregon "by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us..."{{sfn|Horsman|1981}} Soon afterwards, the term "[[Manifest Destiny]]" became a standard phrase for expansionists, and a permanent part of the American lexicon. O'Sullivan's version of "Manifest Destiny" was not a call for war, but such calls were soon forthcoming.

After Polk's inauguration, British diplomats began to receive instructions influenced from HBC officials like Simpson, whose suggestions were transmitted through Pelly and then Aberdeen to the [[British Ambassador to the United States|British Ambassador]] [[Richard Pakenham]]. In a letter written to Calhoun in August 1844, Pakenham pressed for a border along the Columbia River. He made an offer that likely originated from Simpson: Americans could select naval bases on the portion of Vancouver Island south of the 49th parallel or along the Strait of Juan de Fuca in return.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|p=231}} Diplomatic channels continued negotiations throughout 1844; by early 1845 Everett reported the willingness of Aberdeen to accept the 49th parallel, provided the southern portion of [[Vancouver Island]] would become British territory.{{sfn|Government Printing Office|1872|pp=6-11}}

In the summer of 1845, the Polk administration renewed the proposal to divide Oregon along the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean. U.S. Secretary of State [[James Buchanan]] on 12 July{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|p=240}} offered the British any desired ports on the portion of Vancouver Island south of this line,{{sfn|Wilson|1900}} though navigation rights of the Columbia River weren't included. Because this proposal fell short of the Tyler administration's earlier offer, Pakenham rejected the offer without first contacting London.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|p=240}} Offended, Polk officially withdrew the proposal on August 30, 1845, and broke off negotiations. Aberdeen censured Pakenham for this diplomatic blunder, and attempted to renew the dialogue. By then, however, Polk was suspicious of British intentions, and under increasing political pressure not to compromise. He declined to reopen negotiations.{{sfn|Haynes|1997|p=322}}{{sfn|Pletcher|1973|pp=237–249, 296–300}}

==War crisis==
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%" style="text-align: center; margin: 0px 5px 10px 10px;" align="right"
!colspan=2|Important figures in the Oregon question
|-
! United States
! United Kingdom
|-
|[[James K. Polk]] [[President of the United States|President]]
|[[Robert Peel]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]
|-
|[[James Buchanan]] [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]
|[[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Earl of Aberdeen]] [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]]
|-
|[[Louis McLane]] [[United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom|Minister to the UK]]
|[[Richard Pakenham]] [[List of British Ambassadors to the United States|Minister in Washington]]
|}

===Congressional pressure===
[[Image:Lewis Cass - Brady-Handy.jpg|160px|thumb|left|Senator [[Lewis Cass]] was a leading advocate of 54°40′, but backed away from the claim when it became untenable. Like [[James Buchanan]], Cass had presidential ambitions and did not want to alienate Americans on either side of the Oregon question.]]

In his [[State of the Union Address|annual address]] to Congress on December 2, 1845, Polk recommended giving the British the required one-year notice of the termination of the joint occupation agreement. Democratic expansionists in Congress from the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], led by Senators [[Lewis Cass]] of [[Michigan]], [[Edward A. Hannegan]] of [[Indiana]], and [[William Allen (governor)|William Allen]] of [[Ohio]], called for war with the United Kingdom rather than accepting anything short of all of Oregon up to [[Parallel 54°40′ north]]. These pronouncements were fueled by a number of factors, including traditional [[Anglophobia|distrust of the British]] and a belief that the U.S. had the better claim and would make better use of the land.

The debate was not strictly divided along party or sectional lines, with many who clamored for the 54°40′ border were Northerners upset at Polk's willingness to compromise on the Pacific Northwest border. Polk's uncompromising pursuit of Texas, an acquisition seen favorable for Southern slave owners, angered many advocates of 54°40′, as the President was a Southerner and a slave owner. As historian [[David M. Pletcher]] noted, "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" seemed to be directed at the southern aristocracy in the U.S. as much as at the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Pletcher|1973|pp=335–337}}

Moderates like Webster warned that the U.S. could not win a war against the [[British Empire]], and that negotiation could still achieve U.S. territorial goals. Webster confided to [[Evelyn Denison, 1st Viscount Ossington|Viscount Ossington]], a personal friend, on 26 February 1846, that it would be a "stupendous folly and enormous crime" for the two nations to declare war over the Pacific Northwest.{{sfn|Wiltse|1973}}

===British reaction===
[[Image:Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg|180px|thumb|Foreign Secretary [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]] was committed to maintaining peaceable relations with the Americans, evaluating the disputed territory in the Oregon Question as unimportant.]]

====Pacific naval forces====
During the height of tensions with the United States in 1845 and 1846, there were at least five Royal Naval vessels operating in the Pacific Northwest.{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945b}} The 80-gun ship-of-the-line [[HMS Collingwood (1841)|HMS ''Collingwood'']] was deployed to Valparaíso under the CinC Rear Admiral Sir [[George Francis Seymour|George Seymour]] in 1845, with orders to report on the situation in the region.{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945a}} [[HMS America (1810)|HMS ''America'']], under the command of Captain John Gordon (younger brother Foreign Secretary Aberdeen), was therefore sent north that year.{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945a}} [[Roderick Finlayson]] gave a tour of Vancouver Island to the visiting naval officers, where Gordon aired his negative appraisal of the Northwest region. During a deer hunt on the island, Gordon informed Finlayson that he "would not give one of the barren hills of Scotland for all he saw around him."{{sfn|Finlayson|1891|p=15}} The ''America'' departed from the Straits of Juan de Fuca on 1 October. The ''Modeste'' entered the Columbia River and arriving at Fort Vancouver on 30 November 1845,{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945a}} where it remained until 4 May 1847.{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945b}} The ''Modeste'' was not favorably viewed by American colonists in the Willamette Valley, threatened by the large warship. Relations were improved when the officers organised a [[Ball (dance)|ball]] at Vancouver on 3 February 1846,<ref>The [[Oregon Spectator]] (Oregon City, OR), [http://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1846-02-19/ed-1/seq-2/ ''Ball at Vancouver.''] 19 February 1846, p. 2.</ref> later theatrical performances by the ship's crew, including ''[[Love in a Village]]'' and ''[[The Mock Doctor]]'', along with [[picnic]]s.<ref>[[Oregon Spectator]] (Oregon City, OR), [http://www.oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1846-05-14/ed-1/seq-2/ ''Theatre at Vancouver.''] 14 May 1846, p. 2.</ref>

[[HMS Fisgard (1819)|HMS ''Fisgard'']] was first reinforcement, ordered from the Pacific Station by Rear Admirial Seymour in January 1846. Captain Duntze was to "afford Protection to Her Majesty's Subjects in Oregon and the North West Coast..." and avoid any potential confrontations with American settlers.{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945b}} On 5 May the ''Fisgard'' reached Fort Victoria, later moving to [[Fort Nisqually]] on the 18th, where it remained until October. Sent to aid other British vessels navigate difficult channels and rivers, [[HMS Cormorant (1842)|HMS ''Cormorant'']], a [[Paddle steamer]], arrived at the Strait of Juan de Fuca in June.{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945b}} Two survey ships were dispatched from [[Plymouth]] in June 1845, [[HMS Herald (1822)|HMS ''Herald'']] and [[HMS Pandora (1833)|HMS ''Pandora'']], for charting the coast of the Americas.{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945b}} The vessels reached [[Cape Flattery]] on 24 June 1846. The ''Cormorant'' towed the ''Herald'' to Fort Victoria three days later.{{sfn|Seemann|1853|p=100}} The ''Herald'' and the ''Pandora'' spent several months charting the Puget Sound and Vancouver Island until 2 September, when the vessels sailed for Alta California.{{sfn|Seemann|1853|p=112}} The ''Fisgard'' and ''Cormorant'' both departed for Valparaíso in October.{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945b}} As the ''Modeste'' was the only British ship in the region during 1847, the Oregon Treaty "seemed to have taken the edge off of the Royal Navy's interest in the Northwest Coast."{{sfn|Longstaff|Lamb|1945b}}

====War plan====
Due to his extensive travels throughout the western stations of the HBC, Governor Pelly instructed [[George Simpson (administrator)|George Simpson]] to draft a plan for the British Government if hostilities were to arise with the Americans.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=236-237}} Finalizing the proposal on 29 March 1845, Simpson called for two areas to launch offensives. The [[Red River Colony]] would be the base of operations for forays into the [[Great Plains]], an expansive region then only lightly colonized by Americans.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=236-237}} A militia composed of [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] riflemen and neighboring [[First Nations]] like the [[Ojibwe]] would be created, along with a garrison of [[British Army|Regular Army]] infantry. To secure the Pacific Northwest and the Columbia River, Simpson felt [[Cape Disappointment (Washington)|Cape Disappointment]] was of critical importance. A naval force of two [[steamboat]]s and two [[Ship of the line|ships of the line]] would bring a detachment of [[Royal Marines]] to create a [[coastal battery]] there.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=236-237}} Recruitment was hoped by Simpson to gain a force led by Regular Army officers of 2,000 Métis and [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest|indigenous peoples]] in the region. His proposal quickly earned the interest of the British Government as he met with Prime Minister Peel and Foreign Secretary Aberdeen on 2 April. [[British pound|£]]1,000 were awarded to lay the ground work for defensive operations in the Pacific Northwest.{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|pp=236-237}} [[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Stanley]] favored the plan, declaring that the HBC had to finance military operations west of [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie]].{{sfn|Galbraith|1957|p=240}}

==Resolution==
Aberdeen had no intention of going to war over a region that was of diminishing economic value to the United Kingdom. Furthermore the United States was an important trading partner, especially with the need of American wheat in the onset of [[Irish Potato Famine|famine in Ireland]]. Aberdeen and Pakenham were negotiating from a position of strength. The key was the overwhelming naval power which Britain could have brought to bear against the United States, combined with a diplomatic and political landscape that ultimately favored the British government's aim of protecting her interests robustly but without resort to armed conflict. Ultimately British politicians and naval officers recognized that any conflict over the Oregon boundary, however undesirable, would be decided, like the War of 1812, on the Eastern Seaboard of the U.S. and the Great Lakes. The Royal Navy’s presence on the Atlantic seaboard wasn't as numerically prominent as the American forces, yet its overall superiority to the U.S. Navy was decisive upon American decision-making during the crisis, especially their decision to compromise.{{sfn|Gough|1971|pp=70-83}} [[Louis McLane]], the American minister in the United Kingdom, reported to Buchanan on 2 February that the British were prepared "to commission immediately some thirty ships-of-the-line in addition to steamers and other vessels held in reserve..."{{sfn|Hunter|1937|p=58}} Polk’s bluff had been called.

American diplomat [[Edward Everett]] contacted the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] leader [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|John Russell]] on 28 December 1845, supporting a revision of the American offer so as to allow the British to keep the entirety of Vancouver Island. He warned Russell that influence among the Whigs could stifle the negotiations. "If you choose to rally the public opinion of England against this basis of compromise, it will not be easy for Sir. R. Peel and Lord Aberdeen to agree to it."{{sfn|Merk|1932|pp=653-677}} While still considering the Columbia River important for British interests, Russell assured Aberdeen of his support in settling the Oregon Question. While Everett's was influential in this political move, Russell felt it was, as Frederick Merk stated, "prudent Whig policy" to support Aberdeen in this case.{{sfn|Merk|1968|p=339}}

Although Polk had called on Congress in December 1845 to pass a resolution notifying the British of the termination of joint occupancy agreement, it was not until April 23, 1846. that both houses complied. The passage was delayed especially in the Senate by contentious debate. Several Southern Senators, like [[William S. Archer]]<ref>Cong. Globe, 28th Cong., 1st Sess. 520 (1846)</ref> and [[John M. Berrien]],<ref>Cong. Globe, 28th Cong., 1st Sess. 511 (1846)</ref> were wary of military capabilities of the British Empire. Ultimately a mild resolution was approved, the text of which called on both governments to settle the matter amicably.

By a large margin, moderation had won out over calls for war. Unlike Western Democrats, most Congressmen—like Polk—did not want to fight for 54° 40′. {{sfn|Pletcher|1973|p=351}} The Polk administration then made it known that the British government should offer terms to settle the dispute. Despite the cooling diplomatic relations, a repeat of the War of 1812 was not popular with either nation's government. Time was of the essence, because it was well known that the [[Robert Peel|Peel government]] would fall with the impending repeal of the [[Corn Laws]] in the United Kingdom, and then negotiations would have to begin again with a new ministry. At a time when the European continental balance was a far more pressing problem, a costly war with a major trading partner was not popular with the British government. Aberdeen and McLane quickly worked out a compromise and sent it to the United States.

==Oregon Treaty==
{{main article|Oregon Treaty}}
[[Image:Wpdms oregon territory 1848.png|frame|The [[Oregon Territory]], as established after the [[Oregon Treaty]], superimposed over the current state boundaries.]]
Pakenham and Buchanan drew up a formal treaty, known as the Oregon Treaty, which was ratified by the Senate on June 18, 1846, by a vote of 41–14. The border was set at the 49th parallel, the original U.S. proposal, with navigation rights on the Columbia River granted to British subjects living in the area. Senator William Allen, one of the most outspoken advocates of the 54° 40' claim, felt betrayed by Polk and resigned his chairmanship of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|Foreign Relations Committee]]. The signing of the treaty ended the joint occupation with England, making most Oregonians below the 49th parallel American citizens.{{sfn|Walker|1999|p=60}}

Henry Commager appraised the factors leading to the settlement as "a combination of temporary, fortuitous, and circumstantial phenomena, extraneous to the local situation, largely outside of American control, and foreign to American influence."{{sfn|Commager|1927}} Canadian Hugh LL. Keenlyside and American Gerald S. Brown wrote a century after the treaty that {{quote|under the existing conditions, [it] was just and equitable. ''Neither nation had a clear legal title to any of the territory'', and the result was practically an equal division. Great Britain was given the better harbors, and greater resources in minerals, timber, and fish; the United States received much more agricultural land, and a district that has, on the whole, a better climate. This decision, moreover, is almost unique among the solutions of American boundary troubles, in that it has been accepted with reasonable satisfaction by both nations. A better proof of its justice could hardly be demanded.{{sfn|Knopf|1952|p=171}}}}

The terms of the Oregon Treaty were essentially the same ones that had been offered earlier by the Tyler administration, and thus represented a diplomatic victory for Polk.{{sfn|Haynes|1997|p=136}} However, Polk has often been criticized for his handling of the Oregon question. Historian Sam W. Haynes characterizes Polk's policy as "[[brinkmanship]]" which "brought the United States perilously close to a needless and potentially disastrous conflict".{{sfn|Haynes|1997|p=194}} David M. Pletcher notes that while Polk's bellicose stance was the by-product of internal American politics, the war crisis was "largely of his own creation" and might have been avoided "with more sophisticated diplomacy".{{sfn|Pletcher|1973|p=592}} According to Jesse Reeves, "Had [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Palmerston]] been in Aberdeen's position at the time of Polk's 'firm' pronouncement, Polk might have lost Oregon."{{sfn|Reeves|1907|p=263}} Aberdeen's desire for peace and good relations with the United States "are responsible for the settlement that Polk thought to gain by a firm policy. That Aberdeen was "bluffed" by Polk is absurd."{{sfn|Reeves|1907|p=263}}

The treaty was ambiguously phrased about the route of the boundary, which was to follow "the deepest channel" out to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, leaving the fate of the [[San Juan Islands]] in question. After the "[[Pig War (1859)|Pig War]]", arbitration by [[William I of Germany|Kaiser William I]] of the [[German Empire]] led to the [[Treaty of Washington (1871)|Treaty of Washington]], which awarded America all of the islands.

[[Upper Canada]] politicians and public, already angry with the Oregon Treaty, were once again upset that Britain had not looked after their interests and sought greater autonomy in international affairs.

==Historical maps==
The boundary between British and American territory was shown differently in maps at the time:
<gallery>
Image:OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg|The 1826 proposal of Huskisson and Addington
Image:1841 map of the Oregon Territory.jpg|An 1841 American map showing the 54°40′ line near [[Fort Simpson, British Columbia|Fort Simpson]] as the boundary
Image:Arrowsmith Oregon Country.jpg|An 1844 British map showing the [[Columbia River]] as the boundary
Image:1846 Oregon territory.jpg|An 1846 map showing the 49th parallel as the boundary through [[Vancouver Island]]
</gallery>

==Citations==
{{reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}

===Primary sources===
* {{citation |last=Adams |first=John Quincy |author-link= John Quincy Adams |title= Memoirs of John Quincy Adams |volume=5 |editor-last= Adams |editor-first= Charles F. |location= Philadelphia |publisher= J.B. Lippincott and Co. |year=1875}}

* {{citation |last=Benton |first=Thomas H. |author-link= Thomas Hart Benton (politician) |title= Thirty years' view |volume=1 |location= New York |publisher= D. Appleton and Co. |year=1854 |url= https://archive.org/details/thirtyyearsview01inbent}}

* {{citation |last=Canning |first=George |author-link= George Canning |title= Some Official Correspondence of George Canning |volume=II |editor-last= Stapleton |editor-first=Edward J. |location=London |publisher= Longmans, Green and Co. |year=1887 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=24PFAAAAMAAJ}}

* {{citation |last=Donnelly |first= Alton S. |title= The Wreck of the Sv. Nikolai |editor-last= Owens |editor-first= Kenneth N. |location= Portland, OR |publisher= The Press of the Oregon Historical Society |year= 1985}}

* {{citation|author=Edinburgh Review|author-link=Edinburgh Review#Edinburgh Review, 1802–1929|title=The Edinburgh Review or Critical Journal: For July, 1843.... October, 1843 |volume=78 |location=Edinburgh |publisher= Ballantyne and Hughes |year=1843 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WFA7AQAAMAAJ}}

* {{citation |last=Finlayson |first=Roderick |author-link=Roderick Finlayson |title= Biography of Roderick Finlayson |location= Victoria, B.C. |year=1891 |url= https://archive.org/stream/cihm_14981}}

* {{citation|author=Government Printing Office|author-link=United States Government Publishing Office|title=Papers relating to the Treaty of Washington |volume=V |location= Washington D.C. |publisher= Government Printing Office |year=1872 |url= https://archive.org/details/cihm_15845}}

* {{citation |last=Langsdorff |first=Grigory |author-link= Grigory Langsdorff |title= Langsdorff's Narrative of the Rezanov voyage to Nueva California in 1806 |translator-last=Russell |translator-first= Thomas C |location= San Francisco, CA |publisher= The Private Press of Thomas C. Russell |year=1927 |url= https://archive.org/stream/langsdorffsnarra00lang#page/20/mode/2up}}

* {{citation |last=McLoughlin |first=John |author-link= John McLoughlin |title= The Letters of John McLoughlin from Fort Vancouver to the Governor and Committee, Third Series, 1844-1846 |editor-last=Rich |editor-first= E.E. |location= London |year=1944}}

* {{citation |last=Merk |first= Frederick |author-link= Frederick Merk |title= Fur Trade and Empire; George Simpson's Journal 1824-25 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher= Belknap |year=1968}}

* {{citation |editor= Miller, Hunter |title= Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America |volume=5 |location= Washington, D.C. |publisher= Government Printing Office |year= 1937 |url= http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112040219443}}

* {{citation |last=Polk |first=James K. |author-link=James K. Polk |title= Inaugural Address of James Knox Polk |website=The Avalon Project |publisher=Yale Law School |year=2014 |accessdate= 18 November 2014 |url=http://www.avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/polk.asp}}

* {{citation|last=Polk|first=James K.|author-link=James K. Polk|title=The Diary of James K. Polk during his Presidency, 1845 to 1849|volume=1|editor-last=Quaife|editor-first=Milo M.|location=Chicago|publisher=A. C. McClurg & Co.|year=1910|url=http://www.books.google.com/books?id=wxMOAAAAIAAJ}}

* {{citation|last=Seemann|first=Berthold|title=Narrative of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Herald during the years 1845-51|location=London|publisher=Reeve & Co.|year=1853|url=https://archive.org/details/narrativevoyage01seemgoog}}

===Secondary sources===
* {{citation|last=Chittenden|first=Hiram M.|author-link=Hiram M. Chittenden|title=The American Fur Trade in the Far West|volume=1|location=New York City|publisher=Francis P. Harper|year=1902|url=https://archive.org/details/americanfurtrade01chit}}

* {{citation|last=Commager|first=Henry|title=England and Oregon Treaty of 1846|journal=Oregon Historical Quarterly|publisher=Oregon Historical Society|volume=28|number=1|year=1927|pp=18-38}}

* {{citation|last=Elliott|first=T. C.|title=David Thompson, Pathfinder and the Columbia River|journal=The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society|volume=12|number=3|year=1911|pp=195-205|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20609875}}

* {{citation|last=Galbraith|first=John S.|author-link=John Semple Galbraith|title=The Hudson's Bay Company as an Imperial Factor, 1821-1869|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=1957}}

* {{citation|last=Gough|first=Barry M.|author-link=Barry M. Gough|title=The Royal Navy and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1810-1914|location=Vancouver, B.C.|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|year=1971}}

* {{citation|last=Graebner|first=Norman A.|title=Empire on the Pacific; a study in American continental expansion|location=New York|publisher=New York Ronald Press Co.|year=1955}}

* {{citation|last=Haynes|first=Sam W.|title=James K. Polk and the Expansionist Impulse|location=Arlington|publisher=University of Texas|year=1997}}

* {{citation|last=Horsman|first=Reginald|title=Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1981}}

* {{citation|last=Knopf|first=Alfred A.|title=Canada and the United States: Some Aspects of Their Historical Relations|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|editor-last1=Keenlyside|editor-first=Hugh LL.|editor-last2=Brown|editor-first2=Gerald S.|year=1952|url=http://www.questia.com/read/9352181/canada-and-the-united-states-some-aspects-of-their}}

* {{citation|last1=Longstaff|first1=F. V.|last2=Lamb|first2=W. K.|title=The Royal Navy on the Northwest Coast, 1813-1850. Part 1.|journal=The British Columbia Historical Quarterly|volume=9|number=1|year=1945|pp=1-24|url=http://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/pdfs/bchf/bchq_1945_1.pdf}}

* {{citation|last1=Longstaff|first1=F. V.|last2=Lamb|first2=W. K.|title=The Royal Navy on the Northwest Coast, 1813-1850. Part 2.|journal=The British Columbia Historical Quarterly|volume=9|number=2|year=1945|pp=113-128|url=http://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/pdfs/bchf/bchq_1945_2.pdf}}

* {{citation|last=Mackie|first=Richard Somerset|title=Trading Beyond the Mountains: The British Fur Trade on the Pacific 1793–1843|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|location=Vancouver, B.C.|year=1997}}

* {{citation|last=Merk|first=Frederick|author-link=Frederick Merk|title=British Party Politics and the Oregon Treaty|journal=The American Historical Review |volume=37 |number=4 |year=1932}}

* {{citation|last=Merk|first=Frederick|author-link=Frederick Merk|title=The Ghost River Caledonia in the Oregon Negotiation of 1818|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=50|number=3|year=1950|pp=530-551}}

* {{citation |last= Marshall |first=William I. |title= Acquisition of Oregon and the Long Suppressed Evidence about Marcus Whitman |volume=1 |place=Seattle |publisher= Lowman & Hanford Co. |year=1911 |url= https://archive.org/details/acquisitionoreg04marsgoog}}

* {{citation |last=Meany |first=Edmond S. |title= Three Diplomats Prominent in the Oregon Question|journal=The Washington Historical Quarterly|publisher=University of Washington|volume=5|number=3|year=1914|pp=207-214 |url= http://www.jstor.org/stable/40474377}}

* {{citation |last=Miles |first=E.A. |title= "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight"—An American Political Legend |journal= Mississippi Valley Historical Review |volume=44 |number=2 |year=1957 |pp= 291-309}}

* {{citation |last= Pletcher |first=David M. |author-link= David M. Pletcher |title=The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War |location= Columbia, MO |publisher= University of Missouri Press |year= 1973}}

* {{citation |last=Reeves |first= Jesse S. |title= American Diplomacy under Tyler and Polk |location= Baltimore |publisher=The Johns Hopkins Press |year=1907 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jHd2AAAAMAAJ}}

* {{citation|last=Rosenboom|first=Eugene H.|title=A History of Presidential Elections: From George Washington to Richard M. Nixon|edition=3rd|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan|year=1970}}

* {{citation|last=Shewmaker|first=Kenneth E.|title=Daniel Webster and the Oregon Question|journal=Pacific Historical Review|volume=51|number=2|year=1982|pp=195-201}}

* {{citation |last=Shippee |first= Lester B. |title= The Federal Relations of Oregon |journal= The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society |publisher= Oregon Historical Society |volume=19 |number=2 |year=1918 |pp=89-133 |url= http://www.jstor.org/stable/20610098}}

* {{citation|last=Sperber|first=Hans|title="Fifty-four Forty or Fight": Facts and Fictions|journal=American Speech|volume=32|number=1|year=1957}}

* {{citation|last=Walker|first=Dale L.|title=Bear Flag Rising: The Conquest of California, 1846|year=1999|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0312866852}}

* {{citation |last=Wilson |first=Joseph R. |title= The Oregon Question. II |journal=The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society |publisher=Oregon Historical Society |volume=1 |number=3 |year=1900 |pp=213-252 |url= http://www.jstor.org/stable/20609465}}

* {{citation|last=Wiltse|first=Charles M.|title=Daniel Webster and the British Experience|journal=Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society|volume=85|year=1973|pp=58-77}}

{{refend}}
==Further reading==
*[http://www.nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=607082&qryID=3e0b2f50-86b2-4a0a-9888-27c93e4a4a6d ''Sir James Douglas, Chapter V The Oregon Boundary''], Robert Hamilton Coats and R. Edward Gosnell, publ. Morang, Toronto, 1908
*[http://nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=786037&qryID=fdd28732-abe2-4ce9-98e4-195d198530be ''A history of British Columbia'', Chapter IX "The Oregon Boundary", pp 89-96, E.O.S. Scholefield, British Columbia Historical Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, 1913]

==External links==
'''Party platform and speeches'''
*[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25814 Polk's March 1845 inaugural address], in which he reasserted the "clear and unquestionable" claim
*[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29486 Polk's December 1845 message to Congress], in which he called for the end of the joint occupation of Oregon

'''Political cartoons''' from [[Harper's Weekly]], 1846
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=9&Year=1846 "Polk's Dream"], in which the Devil, disguised as Andrew Jackson, advises Polk to fight for the 54°40′ line
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=10&Year=1846 "Present Presidential Position"], in which the Democratic Party's "jackass" is standing on the 54°40′ line
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/DisplayCartoonMedium.asp?MaxID=77&UniqueID=13&Year=1846&YearMark=1843 "Ultimatum on the Oregon Question"], Polk talks with Queen Victoria, while others make comments
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=15&Year=1846 "War! or No War!"], two Irish immigrants face off over the boundary question

'''Other'''
*[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa031600a.htm ''Fifty-Four Forty or Fight''] at About.com, an example of a reference that mistakenly describes the phrase as an 1844 campaign slogan
*[http://earlywomenmasters.net/quilts/f/54_40/index.html ''54-40 or Fight''] shows the [[quilt block]] named after the slogan. In this time period, women frequently used quilts to express their political views.

{{Oregon Pioneer History}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oregon Boundary Dispute}}
[[Category:Canada–United States border disputes]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation British Columbia]]
[[Category:History of the Pacific Northwest]]
[[Category:History of United States expansionism]]
[[Category:Oregon Country]]
[[Category:Pacific Northwest]]
[[Category:Presidency of James K. Polk]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Idaho]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Oregon]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Wyoming]]
[[Category:United Kingdom–United States relations]]

NBA 2K

2017-03-05T02:28:44Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 70.127.55.119 (talk) (HG) (3.1.20)

{{About|the video game series|the first installment in the series|NBA 2K (video game){{!}}''NBA 2K'' (video game)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2011}}
{{Infobox VG series
| title = NBA 2K
| image =
| caption =
| developer = [[Visual Concepts]]
| publisher = [[Sega]] (1999–2004) [[2K Sports]] (2005–present)
| year of inception = 1999
| genre = [[Sports game|Sports]]
| platform of origin = [[Dreamcast]]
| platforms = Various
| first release version = ''[[NBA 2K (video game)|NBA 2K]]''
| first release date = November 10, 1999
| latest release version = ''[[NBA 2K17]]''
| latest release date = September 16, 2016
}}
The '''''NBA 2K''''' series is a series of [[basketball]] [[simulation video game]]s developed and released annually since 1999. The premise of each game in the series is to emulate the sport of basketball, more specifically, the [[National Basketball Association]], and present improvements over the previous installments. The series was originally [[video game publisher|published]] by [[Sega]], under the label Sega Sports, and is now published by [[2K Sports]]. All of the games in the franchise have been developed by [[Visual Concepts]]. The series consists of eighteen main installments and several spinoff-style titles. It has seen releases on eighteen different platforms. The ''NBA 2K'' series has also been used in [[eSports]]. The series has consistently achieved critical and commercial success.

==Gameplay==
Each installment in the ''NBA 2K'' series strives to emulate the [[National Basketball Association]], and present improvements over the previous installments. As such, gameplay simulates a typical game of basketball, with the player controlling an entire team or a select player; objectives coincide with the [[rules of basketball]] and presentation resembles actual televised NBA games. Various game modes have been featured in the series, allowing for gameplay variety. Numerous elements of the games feature customizable options. Each game features the teams and players from the current NBA season; historic NBA teams and players have also been featured, as have [[EuroLeague]] teams. Fictional players and teams can also be created and compiled.<ref name="Polygon article">[http://www.polygon.com/2014/6/3/5775846/nba-2k-best-sports-game-last-generation-ps3-xbox-360 "Looking back on NBA 2K: The best sports game of the last generation"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]'' (June 3, 2014). Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref name="Polygon article 2">Lien, Tracey (September 17, 2012). [http://www.polygon.com/gaming/2012/9/17/3345836/NBA-2k13 "Making 'That 2K': How Visual Concepts brought NBA 2K to dizzying heights"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref name="Polygon article 3">Good, Owen S. (February 15, 2015). [http://www.polygon.com/2015/2/15/8043147/nba-2k-is-bigger-than-madden-because-it-paid-for-others-failures "NBA 2K is bigger than Madden because it paid for others' failures"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

A staple of the series is its [[career mode]], which has been described as a sports-themed [[role-playing video game]]. ''[[ESPN NBA Basketball (video game)|ESPN NBA Basketball]]'' was the first game in the series to feature such a mode, but it wasn't until ''[[NBA 2K10]]'' and its successors that the mode became a more integral part of the series. The mode was initially titled 24/7, before being changed to MyPlayer, and settling on MyCareer. The modes center on the basketball career of the player's created player; the player customizes several aspects of their player and plays through their career in the NBA. Key events in the player's career are depicted, such as the [[NBA draft|draft]] and their retirement ceremony. A storyline is often present in the modes, and [[high school basketball|high school]] and [[college basketball|college]]-level basketball has also been depicted. The player upgrades their player's attributes as they play, and can participate in off-court activities.<ref>{{cite web |last=Navarro |first=Alex |date=October 1, 2006 |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/espn-nba-basketball-preview/1100-6076243/ |title=ESPN NBA Basketball Preview |publisher=[[GameSpot]] |accessdate=January 8, 2017}}</ref><ref>Mazique, Brian (October 2, 2012). [http://m.bleacherreport.com/articles/1355718-nba-2k13-tips-for-building-a-beastly-my-player-in-my-career-mode "NBA 2K13: Tips for Building a Beastly 'My Player' in My Career Mode"]. ''[[Bleacher Report]]''. Retrieved January 8, 2017.</ref><ref>Ahearn, Nate (September 21, 2009). [http://ign.com/articles/2009/09/21/nba-2k10-my-player-hands-on "NBA 2K10: MyPlayer Hands-On"]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 8, 2017.</ref><ref>S. Good, Owen (September 14, 2015). [http://www.polygon.com/2015/9/14/9324183/nba-2k16s-latest-trailer-looks-like-a-true-spike-lee-joint "NBA 2K16's latest trailer looks like a true Spike Lee joint"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 8, 2017.</ref><ref>Kaiser, Rowan (February 1, 2013). [https://www.engadget.com/2013/02/01/when-sports-and-role-playing-games-collide/ "When sports and role-playing games collide"]. ''[[Engadget]]''. Retrieved January 8, 2017.</ref>

Another mainstay of the series is a mode allowing the player to assume control of an NBA franchise, acting as general manager. The mode has been featured in numerous ''NBA 2K'' games and is often titled Association; the most recent games in the series feature the MyGM and MyLeague modes. In the modes, the player controls virtually all aspects of a team, rather than just playing games with the team. As the player simulates through seasons, they must satisfy the needs of the team's personnel and the owner.<ref>Sarkar, Samit (November 8, 2013). [http://www.polygon.com/2013/11/8/5082266/nba-2k14-ps4-xbox-one-mygm-mode "MyGm mode in next-gen NBA 2K14 forces you to be a people person"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref>Bertz, Matt (August 19, 2015). [http://www.gameinformer.com/games/nba_2k16/b/playstation4/archive/2015/08/19/50-exciting-changes-coming-to-nba-2k16-s-franchise-modes.aspx "NBA 2K16 – 50 Exciting Changes Coming To NBA 2K16's Franchise Mode"]. ''[[Game Informer]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref>Bertz, Matt (September 4, 2015). [http://www.gameinformer.com/games/nba_2k15/b/playstation4/archive/2014/09/04/29-reasons-why-nba-2k15-39-s-mygm-may-be-the-future-of-franchise-modes.aspx "NBA 2K15 – 29 Reasons Why NBA 2K15's MyGM May Be The Future Of Franchise Modes"]. ''[[Game Informer]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref>

MyTeam mode, which was introduced in ''[[NBA 2K13]]'', focuses on building a team of players and competing against other players' teams online. The player's primary venue for acquiring players for their team is card packs; the player purchases a card pack, which features random items the player can use in the mode, including players. In addition to compiling a select group of players, the player can also customize their team's jerseys and court, among other things. Other online-focused modes have also been featured in the series, such as Pro-Am, which focuses on players building a team together with their custom players.<ref>Good, Owen (September 21, 2012). [http://kotaku.com/5945386/nba-2k13s-myteam-means-all-team-sports-have-an-ultimate-team-mode-now "NBA 2K13's MyTeam Means All Team Sports Have an 'Ultimate Team' Mode Now"]. ''[[Kotaku]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref>Marchiafava, Jeff (November 1, 2013). [http://www.gameinformer.com/games/nba_2k14/b/playstation4/archive/2013/11/01/new-my-team-features-announced-for-next-gen.aspx "NBA 2K14 – New My Team Features Announced For Next-Gen"]. ''[[Game Informer]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref>Phipps, Brett (August 6, 2015). [https://www.videogamer.com/news/nba-2k16-to-introduce-new-dynamic-cards-in-myteam "NBA 2K16 to introduce new Dynamic Cards in MyTeam"]. ''[[VideoGamer.com]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref>Pereira, Chris (July 30, 2015). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-2k16-lets-you-fully-design-a-team-go-online-fo/1100-6429340/ "NBA 2K16 Lets You Fully Design a Team, Go Online for 5-on-5 Matches"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref>Sarkar, Samit (July 31, 2015). [http://www.polygon.com/2015/7/31/9078899/nba-2k16-2k-pro-am-mode-trailer "NBA 2K16's new 2K Pro-Am mode brings custom team games online"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref>

In addition to regulation NBA games, [[Streetball|street basketball]] has been featured in numerous games in the series. Created players and real players can be used in such modes; additionally, some celebrities have made appearances as playable characters in the series.<ref>Thomas, Aaron (September 26, 2006). [http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/nba-2k7-review/1900-6158733/ "NBA 2K7 Review"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref> In more recent games, the street basketball modes are titled Blacktop and MyPark. Blacktop is structured in the typical style of street basketball. MyPark consists of an open area filled with players who can join different games on different courts.<ref>Liebl, Matt (October 1, 2014). [http://www.gamezone.com/news/the-park-returns-in-nba-2k15-as-mypark "The Park returns in NBA 2K15 as MyPARK"]. ''[[GameZone]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref>Sarkar, Samit (October 1, 2014). [http://www.polygon.com/2014/10/1/6882325/nba-2k15-trailer-mypark "Prove yourself online in NBA 2K15's redesigned street basketball mode, MyPark"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref> Several games in the series feature a mode which allows the player to hold a [[NBA Slam Dunk Contest|slam dunk contest]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nba.com/videogames/nba2k8_overview.html |title=NBA 2K8 |publisher=[[NBA]] |accessdate=January 9, 2017}}</ref>

Several games in the series have featured game modes that are exclusive to that particular game. ''[[NBA 2K11]]'' featured the Jordan Challenge mode, in which players are tasked with recreating some of [[Michael Jordan]]'s most memorable feats, such as scoring 69 points in a single game.<ref name="Michael Jordan mode 1">Good, Owen (July 22, 2010). [http://kotaku.com/5593932/the-ten-games-of-nba-2k11s-jordan-challenge "The Ten Games of NBA 2K11's "Jordan Challenge""]. ''[[Kotaku]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref name="Michael Jordan mode 2">Good, Owen (November 3, 2011). [http://kotaku.com/5610622/jordan-gets-his-own-career-mode-in-nba-2k11 "Jordan Gets His Own Career Mode In NBA 2K11"]. ''[[Kotaku]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref name="Michael Jordan mode 3">Yin-Poole, Wesley (July 22, 2010). [http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/michael-jordan-mode-for-nba-2k11 "Michael Jordan Mode for NBA 2K11"]. ''[[Eurogamer]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref> ''[[NBA 2K12]]'' featured the NBA's Greatest mode, where the player can play with past NBA players, such as [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]], [[Julius Erving]], and [[Bill Russell]].<ref name="NBA's Greatest 1">Good, Owen (August 18, 2011). [http://kotaku.com/5832331/nba-2k12-delivers-much-more-than-15-legends-in-an-ensemble-cast-of-greatness "NBA 2K12 Delivers Much More than 15 Legends in an Ensemble Cast of Greatness"]. ''[[Kotaku]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref><ref name="NBA's Greatest 2">Ruscher, Wesley (August 24, 2011). [https://www.destructoid.com/going-old-school-with-the-nba-s-greatest-mode-in-nba-2k12-209791.phtml "Going old-school with the NBA's Greatest node in NBA 2K12"]. ''[[Destructoid]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref> The [[PlayStation 3]], [[Xbox 360]], and [[Microsoft Windows]] versions of ''[[NBA 2K14]]'' featured a mode titled Path to Greatness; similar to the Jordan Challenge mode, it focuses on the career of [[LeBron James]].<ref>Sarkar, Samit (September 13, 2013). [http://www.polygon.com/2013/9/13/4724598/nba-2k14-lebron-james-path-to-greatness-mode-preview "Choose LeBron's future in NBA 2K14's Path to Greatness mode"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2017.</ref>

==Games==
The ''NBA 2K'' series consists of eighteen primary installments and several spinoff-style titles. All of the games in the series have been developed by [[Visual Concepts]]; the first six games were published by [[Sega]] before the company sold Visual Concepts to [[Take Two Interactive]], forming [[2K Sports]].

===''NBA 2K''===
The original ''[[NBA 2K (video game)|NBA 2K]]'' was initially released in November 1999 for the [[Dreamcast]]. [[Allen Iverson]] is the cover athlete. The first four games in the ''NBA 2K'' series feature commentary from fictional announcers Bob Steele and Rod West, portrayed by [[Bob Fitzgerald]] and Rod Brooks respectively.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McNamara |first1=Andy |last2=Anderson |first2=Paul |last3=Reiner |first3=Andrew |date=January 24, 2000 |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/reviews/review_detail.cfm?ITEM_ID=4360 |title=NBA 2K |publisher=''[[Game Informer]]'' |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20000711103114/http://www.gameinformer.com/reviews/review_detail.cfm?ITEM_ID=4360 |archivedate=July 11, 2000 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=May 8, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=MacDonald |first=Ryan |date=November 8, 1999 |url=http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/nba-2k-review/1900-2540432/ |title=NBA 2K Review |publisher=[[GameSpot]] |accessdate=May 8, 2015}}</ref>

===''NBA 2K1''===
''[[NBA 2K1]]'' was initially released in November 2000 for the Dreamcast. Iverson is again the cover athlete. ''NBA 2K1'', among other things, introduces a mode which focuses on [[streetball|street basketball]], and a mode which allows the player to act as the general manager of a team; most of the game's successors feature variations of the two modes.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed |first=Shahed |date=October 31, 2000 |title=NBA 2K1 Review |url=http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/nba-2k1-review/1900-2648131/ |publisher=[[GameSpot]] |accessdate=May 8, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Justice |first=Brandon |date=November 7, 2000 |title=NBA2K1 |url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2000/11/08/nba2k1 |publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=May 8, 2015}}</ref>

===''NBA 2K2''===
''[[NBA 2K2]]'' was released in late 2001 and early 2002 for Dreamcast, [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox (console)|Xbox]], and [[GameCube]]. Iverson is the cover athlete for the third time. In addition to the regular players and teams from the [[2001–02 NBA season]], ''NBA 2K2'' features several past players and their respective teams, including [[Bill Russell]], [[Julius Erving]], [[Magic Johnson]], and [[Larry Bird]]. ''NBA 2K2'' is the first game in the series to be released for multiple platforms, and the last to be released for Dreamcast.<ref>{{cite web |last=Marriott |first=Scott Alan |url=http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id=34933 |title=NBA 2K2 (DC) - Overview |publisher=[[AllGame]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114165237/http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id=34933 |archivedate=November 14, 2014 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=May 8, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed |first=Shahed |date=October 25, 2001 |url=http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/nba-2k2-review/1900-2820299/ |title=NBA 2K2 Review (DC) |publisher=[[GameSpot]] |accessdate=May 9, 2015}}</ref>

===''NBA 2K3''===
''[[NBA 2K3]]'' was initially released in October 2002 for PlayStation 2, Xbox, and GameCube. It is the second and final game in the series to be released for GameCube. Iverson is once again the cover athlete.<ref>David, Kushner (July 25, 2002). [http://mobile.nytimes.com/2002/07/25/technology/sports-fantasy-is-catching-up-with-reality.html?referer= "Sports Fantasy Is Catching Up With Reality"]. ''[[The New York Times]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://ign.com/games/nba-2k3/gcn-17015 NBA 2K3]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''ESPN NBA Basketball''===
''[[ESPN NBA Basketball (video game)|ESPN NBA Basketball]]'' was released in October and November 2003 for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles. It is the only game in the series to not feature "2K" in the title, and one of two in the series to feature [[ESPN]] branding, both in the title and in the game itself. For the fifth and final time, Iverson is the cover athlete. The game introduces 24/7 mode, a [[career mode]] in which the player can create a customizable character and use them to compete in basketball tournaments and other competitions. Online game modes are also present, a first for the series, and each player has a unique facial design, also a first. The game features a commentary team consisting of [[Bill Fitzgerald]] and [[Tom Tolbert]]; [[Kevin Frazier]] hosts pre-game shows.<ref>{{cite web |last=Navarro |first=Alex |date=October 1, 2006 |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/espn-nba-basketball-preview/1100-6076243/ |title=ESPN NBA Basketball Preview |publisher=[[GameSpot]] |accessdate=August 23, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Bailey |first=Andy |date=October 17, 2011 |url=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/895907-ranking-the-greatest-nba-video-game-cover-athletes/page/10 |title=Ranking the Greatest NBA Video Game Covers (Page 10) |publisher=[[Bleacher Report]] |accessdate=August 23, 2015}}</ref>

===''ESPN NBA 2K5''===
''[[ESPN NBA 2K5]]'' was first released in September 2004 for PlayStation 2 and Xbox. It is the last game in the series to be published by Sega before the company sold Visual Concepts to Take Two Interactive, forming 2K Sports. [[Ben Wallace]] is the cover athlete. It is the second and final game in the series to feature ESPN branding. The game features [[Stuart Scott]] as a presenter, Bob Fitzgerald and [[Bill Walton]] as commentators, and [[Michele Tafoya]] as a sideline reporter.<ref>[http://www.gamespot.com/articles/espn-nba-2k5-first-impression/1100-6107274/ "ESPN NBA 2K5 First Impression"] (September 14, 2004). ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://ign.com/articles/2004/09/14/espn-nba-2k5-the-preview "ESPN NBA 2K5: The Preview"] (September 14, 2004). ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2K6''===
''[[NBA 2K6]]'' was initially released in September 2005 for PlayStation 2, Xbox, and, for the first time, [[Xbox 360]]. It is the first game in the series to be published by 2K Sports. [[Shaquille O'Neal]] serves as the game's cover athlete; he was also involved in some of the game's [[motion capture]] development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gamezone.com/originals/shaq-on-nba-2k6-cover |title=Shaq On NBA 2K6 Cover |publisher=GameZone |date=August 15, 2005 |accessdate=January 4, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Surette |first=Tim |date=August 15, 2005 |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-2k6-gets-diesel-powered/1100-6131078/ |title=NBA 2K6 gets Diesel-powered |publisher=[[GameSpot]] |accessdate=January 4, 2017}}</ref> In ''NBA 2K6'', [[Kevin Harlan]] is the play-by-play commentator, [[Kenny Smith]] is the color commentator, and [[Craig Sager]] is the sideline reporter.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hobbs |first=Ronnie |date=November 25, 2005 |url=http://www.gamezone.com/reviews/nba_2k6_360_review |title=NBA 2K6 - 360 - Review |publisher=[[GameZone]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209081605/http://xbox360.gamezone.com/gzreviews/r26725.htm |archivedate=December 9, 2008 |deadurl=no |accessdate=May 2, 2016}}</ref> The next two installments in the series feature the same team.

===''NBA 2K7''===
''[[NBA 2K7]]'' was initially released in September 2006 for the PlayStation 2, [[PlayStation 3]], Xbox, and Xbox 360. It is the first game in the series to be released for the PlayStation 3, and the last to be released for the original Xbox. O'Neal returns as the cover athlete.<ref>{{cite web |last=Surette |first=Tim |date=August 15, 2006 |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/oneal-shaqs-up-nba-2k7/1100-6155781/ |title=O'Neal Shaqs up NBA 2K7 |publisher=[[GameSpot]] |accessdate=January 4, 2017}}</ref> ''NBA 2K7'' is the first game in the series to feature a licensed soundtrack; the previous games featured music produced exclusively for the games. The soundtrack, which was compiled by [[Dan the Automator]], consists of 13 songs, and was also released in [[compact disc|CD]] format as ''[[Dan the Automator Presents 2K7]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/57470/automator-puts-bounce-into-star-studded-2k7-cd |title=Automator Puts Bounce Into Star-Studded '2K7' CD |publisher=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |date=August 21, 2006 |accessdate=January 4, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=IGN Music |date=October 3, 2006 |url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/10/03/nba-2k7s-rap-attack |title=NBA 2K7's Rap Attack |publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=January 4, 2017}}</ref>

===''NBA 2K8''===
''[[NBA 2K8]]'' was initially released in October 2007 for PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. [[Chris Paul]] is the game's cover athlete.<ref>{{cite web |last=Geddes |first=Ryan |date=July 19, 2007 |url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2007/07/19/chris-paul-gets-nba-2k8-cover |title=Chris Paul Gets NBA 2K8 Cover |publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=August 21, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=GameSpot staff |date=July 19, 2007 |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/paul-dunks-nba-2k8-cover/1100-6175348/ |title=Paul dunks NBA 2K8 cover |publisher=[[GameSpot]] |accessdate=August 21, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gamezone.com/news/chris_paul_named_cover_athlete_for_nba_2k8 |title=Chris Paul Named Cover Athlete for NBA® 2K8 |publisher=[[GameZone]] |date=July 19, 2007 |accessdate=August 21, 2015}}</ref> The game introduces the [[Slam Dunk Contest]] game mode.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nba.com/videogames/nba2k8_overview.html |title=NBA 2K8 |publisher=[[NBA]] |accessdate=June 11, 2015}}</ref> The soundtrack consists of 23 licensed songs.<ref>{{cite web |author=IGN Music |date=September 24, 2007 |url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2007/09/24/nba-2k8-soundtrack-mixes-rap-and-rock |title=NBA 2K8 Soundtrack Mixes Rap And Rock |publisher=IGN |accessdate=June 9, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=GameSpot staff |date=September 24, 2007 |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/j-dilla-headlines-nba-2k8-soundtrack/1100-6179807/ |title=J Dilla headlines NBA 2K8 soundtrack |publisher=GameSpot |accessdate=August 21, 2015}}</ref>

===''NBA 2K9''===
''[[NBA 2K9]]'' was initially released in October 2008 for PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and, for the first time in the series, [[Microsoft Windows]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Sarkar |first=Samit |date=July 10, 2008 |url=http://www.destructoid.com/nba-2k9-s-living-rosters-and-release-date-s--106717.phtml |title=NBA 2K9's Living Rosters and release date(s) |publisher=''Destructoid'' |accessdate=August 8, 2015}}</ref> [[Kevin Garnett]] is featured as the game's cover athlete.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sarkar |first=Samit |date=June 6, 2008 |url=http://www.destructoid.com/celtics-kevin-garnett-named-nba-2k9-cover-athlete-89515.phtml |title=Celtics' Kevin Garnett named NBA 2K9 cover athlete |publisher=''[[Destructoid]]'' |accessdate=August 7, 2015}}</ref> The commentary team consists of Harlan and [[Clark Kellogg]], with [[Cheryl Miller]] serving as sideline reporter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nba.com/videogames/nba2k9_overview_australia.html |title=NBA 2K9 |publisher=[[NBA|NBA Australia]] |accessdate=June 9, 2015}}</ref> The soundtrack consists of 24 licensed songs and one original song.<ref>{{cite web |author=IGN Music |date=October 6, 2008 |url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/10/06/nba-2k9-soundtrack-revealed |title=NBA 2K9 Soundtrack Revealed |publisher=IGN |accessdate=June 9, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Sines |first=Shawn |date=June 10, 2008 |url=http://www.1up.com/news/nba-2k9-soundtrack-revealed |title=NBA 2K9 Soundtrack Revealed |publisher=[[1UP.com]] |accessdate=October 26, 2015}}</ref>

===''NBA 2K10''===
''[[NBA 2K10]]'' was initially released in October 2009 for PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, [[PlayStation Portable]] (a first), Xbox 360, Microsoft Windows, and [[Wii|Nintendo Wii]] (also a first). [[Kobe Bryant]] is the game's cover athlete.<ref>[http://ign.com/articles/2009/06/05/kobe-bryant-named-nba-2k10-cover-athlete "Kobe Bryant Named NBA 2K10 Cover Athlete"]. ''[[IGN]]'' (June 5, 2009). Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> Fans were able to vote for which image they favoured out of four to be used on the cover.<ref>Sarkar, Samit (June 21, 2009). [https://www.destructoid.com/fan-voting-selects-kobe-jersey-tugging-shot-for-nba-2k10-box-136974.phtml "Fan voting selects Kobe jersey-tugging shot for NBA 2K10 box"]. ''[[Destructoid]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> The game features a reincarnated career mode titled MyPlayer, which would become a staple of the future games in the series, later being retitled as MyCareer.<ref>Anderson, Luke (September 25, 2009). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-2k10-hands-on/1100-6230470/ "NBA 2K10: Hands-On"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> Harlan and Kellogg return as commentators, while [[Doris Burke]] replaces Miller as sideline reporter.<ref>Razak, Matthew (August 29, 2009). [https://www.destructoid.com/nba-2k10-commentary-to-update-throughout-the-season-146643.phtml "NBA 2K10 commentary to update throughout the season"]. ''[[Destructoid]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> The licensed soundtrack consists of 30 songs.<ref>IGN staff (September 3, 2009). [http://ign.com/articles/2009/09/03/2k-sports-celebrates-10th-anniversary-of-nba-2k-franchise-with-diverse-music-soundtrack-for-nba-2k10 "2K Sports Celebrates 10th Anniversary Of NBA 2K Franchise With Diverse Music Soundtrack For NBA 2K10"]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> In edition to the standard release, a limited edition version of the game, titled ''NBA 2K10: Anniversary Edition'', was also released; it included several bonuses, such as a Bryant figurine manufactured by [[McFarlane Toys]].<ref>Sarkar, Samit (August 5, 2009). [https://www.destructoid.com/nba-2k10-anniversary-edition-comes-in-a-big-frickin-box-142964.phtml "NBA 2K10 Anniversary Edition comes in a big frickin' box"]. ''[[Destructoid]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://www.gamezone.com/news/2k_sports_announces_nba_2k10_anniversary_edition "2K Sports Announces NBA 2K10: Anniversary Edition"] (July 1, 2009). ''[[GameZone]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> A demo of sorts was released on [[PlayStation Network]] and [[Xbox Live]] prior to the release of the main game in August 2009, titled ''NBA 2K10 Draft Combine''. It features [[Derrick Rose]] as its cover athlete and allows the player to compete in activities related to the main game's MyPlayer mode.<ref>[http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-2k10-draft-combine-2ks-dlc-gamble/1100-6233717/ "NBA 2K10 Draft Combine: 2K's DLC Gamble"] (August 3, 2009). ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>IGN staff (August 11, 2009). [http://ign.com/articles/2009/08/11/2k-sports-signs-the-chicago-bulls-derrick-rose-as-spokesman-for-the-nba-2k10-draft-combine "2K Sports Signs The Chicago Bulls' Derrick Rose As Spokesman For NBA 2K10: Draft Combine"]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2K11''===
''[[NBA 2K11]]'' was released in October 2010 for PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360, Nintendo Wii, and Microsoft Windows. [[Michael Jordan]] is the game's cover athlete, and the game features several modes focusing on Jordan.<ref>Sarkar, Samit (June 2, 2010). [https://www.destructoid.com/michael-jordan-appearing-on-nba-2k11-cover-175303.phtml "Michael Jordan appearing on NBA 2K11 cover"]. ''[[Destructoid]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> One such mode is "The Jordan Challenge", a mode in which the player must recreate ten of Jordan's most memorable career achievements, such as scoring 69 points in a game.<ref name="Michael Jordan mode 1"/><ref name="Michael Jordan mode 2"/><ref name="Michael Jordan mode 3"/> ''NBA 2K11'' also introduces historic NBA teams and players.<ref>Good, Owen (October 6, 2010). [http://kotaku.com/5656774/review-nba-2k11 "Review: NBA 2K11"]. ''[[Kotaku]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> The game features the same presenters as ''NBA 2K10''. The soundtrack consists of 27 licensed songs.<ref>Kato, Matthew (July 29, 2010). [http://www.gameinformer.com/b/news/archive/2010/07/29/nba-2k11-soundtrack.aspx "NBA 2K11 Soundtrack Revealed"]. ''[[Game Informer]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://ign.com/articles/2010/07/29/2k-sports-compiles-most-powerful-hoops-soundtrack-ever-for-nba-2k11 "NBA 2K11 Compiles Most Powerful Hoops Soundtrack Ever For NBA 2K11"]. ''[[IGN]]'' (July 29, 2010). Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2K12''===
''[[NBA 2K12]]'' was released in October 2011 for PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360, Nintendo Wii, Microsoft Windows, and, for the first time, [[iOS]].<ref>North, Dale (October 4, 2011). [https://www.destructoid.com/nba-2k12-bounces-to-ipad-iphone-and-ipod-touch-212939.phtml "NBA 2K12 bounces to iPad, iPhone and iPod Touch"]. ''[[Destructoid]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> With three different covers, ''NBA 2K12'' is the first game in the series to feature multiple cover athletes. The cover athletes are [[Magic Johnson]], [[Larry Bird]], and Jordan.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.gameinformer.com/b/news/archive/2011/07/21/magic-and-bird-join-jordan-as-nba-2k12-cover-athletes.aspx|title=Magic And Bird Join Jordan As NBA 2K12 Cover Athletes|author=Bertz, Matt|date=July 21, 2011|accessdate=July 20, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://espn.go.com/nba/story/_/id/6790595/michael-jordan-magic-johnson-larry-bird-featured-nba-2k12-game-cover|title=NBA 2K12 game plans three covers| work=[[ESPN]]|date=July 21, 2011|agency=[[Associated Press]]|accessdate=July 21, 2011|location=[[Bristol, Connecticut]]}}</ref> The game introduces the "NBA's Greatest" mode, where players use a wide range of historic players and teams.<ref name="NBA's Greatest 1"/><ref name="NBA's Greatest 2"/> [[Steve Kerr]] joins Harlan and Kellogg in the commentary booth, and Burke returns as sideline reporter. The same team is present in the next three games in the series. A demo of ''NBA 2K12'' was released prior to the release of the main game.<ref>Good, Owen (September 16, 2016). [http://kotaku.com/5841207/nba-2k12-demo-arrives-next-week "NBA 2K12 Demo Arrives Next Week"]. ''[[Kotaku]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> The soundtrack consists of 28 licensed songs. Regarding the soundtrack, a contest was held, the winners of which would contribute to the soundtrack with an original song.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ign.com/articles/2011/08/11/2k-sports-unveils-nba-2k12-soundtrack |title=2K Sports Unveils NBA 2K12 Soundtrack |author=IGN staff |date=August 11, 2011 |work=[[IGN]] |accessdate=January 4, 2017}}</ref><ref>Chester, Nick (August 12, 2011). [https://www.destructoid.com/eminem-travis-barker-grace-nba-2k12-soundtrack-208625.phtml "Eminem, Travis Barker grace NBA 2K12 soundtrack"]. ''[[Destructoid]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2K13''===
''[[NBA 2K13]]'' was initially released in October 2012 for PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360, Nintendo Wii, iOS, [[Android (operating system)|Android]], and Microsoft Windows. A version for [[Wii U]] was released as a launch title in November 2012. The game's cover features [[Blake Griffin]], [[Kevin Durant]], and Rose.<ref>Wood, Donald (June 26, 2012). [http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1236233-nba-2k13-cover-kevin-durant-derrick-rose-and-blake-griffin-grace-cover "NBA 2K13 Cover: Kevin Durant, Derrick Rose and Blake Griffin Grace Cover"]. ''[[Bleacher Report]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> [[Jay Z]] is credited as executive producer of the game; among other things, he curated the soundtrack, which consists of 22 songs.<ref>Sarkar, Samit (July 31, 2012). [http://www.polygon.com/gaming/2012/7/31/3207265/nba-2k13-jay-z-executive-producer "'NBA 2K13' being executive-produced by Jay-Z"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>Greenwood, David (July 31, 2012). [http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/480678/jay-z-scores-u2-kanye-west-for-nba-2k13-soundtrack "Jay-Z Scores U2, Kanye West for 'NBA 2K13' Soundtrack"]. ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2K14''===
''[[NBA 2K14]]'' was initially released in October and November of 2014 for [[PlayStation 4]], PlayStation 3, [[Xbox One]], Xbox 360, Microsoft Windows, iOS, and Android. [[LeBron James]] serves as cover athlete; he also curated the soundtrack, which features 20 licensed songs.<ref>Emerick, Peter (July 24, 2013). [http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1714317-ranking-lebron-james-nba-2k14-cover-with-each-in-nba-2k-series "Ranking LeBron James' NBA 2K14 Cover with Each in NBA 2K Series"]. ''[[Bleacher Report]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>Eddie, Makuch (July 26, 2013). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-2k14-soundtrack-revealed/1100-6412121/ "NBA 2K14 soundtrack revealed"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> ''NBA 2K14'' introduces [[EuroLeague]] teams.<ref>Devine, Dan (July 2, 2013). [https://sports.yahoo.com/blogs/nba-ball-dont-lie/nba-2k14-feature-14-euroleague-teams-neat-first-150251072.html "'NBA 2K14' will feature 14 Euroleague teams, which is a neat first"]. ''[[Yahoo! Sports]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2K15''===
''[[NBA 2K15]]'' was initially released in October 2014 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, Xbox One, Xbox 360, Microsoft Windows, Android, and iOS. Durant serves as cover athlete.<ref>Witmer, David (July 15, 2014). [http://ign.com/articles/2014/07/15/nba-2k15-cover-art-revealed "NBA 2K15 Cover Art Revealed"]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> ''NBA 2K15'' introduces pre-game shows presented by [[Ernie Johnson, Jr.|Ernie Johnson]] and [[Shaquille O'Neal]].<ref>Pereira, Chris (August 25, 2014). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-2k15s-new-gameplay-trailer-shows-shaq-in-a-sui/1100-6421906/ "NBA 2K15's New Gameplay Trailer Shows Shaw in a Suit, LeBron in a Cavs Jersey"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> One new feature concerns player creation; the player is now able to scan their own face into the game.<ref>S. Good, Owen (October 7, 2014). [http://www.polygon.com/2014/10/7/6939155/nba-2k15-face-scan-glitch-disaster-impossible "NBA 2K15's face scanning feature is a tedious, painful disaster"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> The soundtrack, which consists of 27 licensed songs, was curated by [[Pharrell Williams]].<ref>Williams, Katie (August 13, 2014). [http://ign.com/articles/2014/08/13/pharrell-williams-nba-2k15-soundtrack-revealed "Pharrell Willians' NBA 2K15 Soundtrack Revealed"]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2K16''===
''[[NBA 2K16]]'' was released worldwide on September 29, 2015 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, Xbox One, Xbox 360, and Microsoft Windows. A version for Android and iOS was released on October 14, 2015. The game features seven different covers with eight cover athletes: [[Stephen Curry]], [[James Harden]], [[Anthony Davis (basketball)|Anthony Davis]], Jordan, [[Pau Gasol|Pau]] and [[Marc Gasol]], [[Dennis Schröder]], and [[Tony Parker]].<ref>Makuch, Eddie (June 5, 2015). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/don-t-like-steph-curry-nba-2k16-comes-with-swappab/1100-6427843/ "Don't Like Steph Curry? NBA 2K16 Comes With Swappable Covers"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>Sarkar, Samit (June 24, 2015). [http://www.polygon.com/2015/6/24/8838769/nba-2k16-special-edition-michael-jordan "NBA 2K16 Special Edition brings back Michael Jordan on the cover"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://www.operationsports.com/news/849040/french-nba-2k16-cover-features-tony-parker-confirms-25-euroleague-teams/ "French NBA 2K16 Cover Features Tony Parker, Confirms 25 Euroleague Teams"] (August 4, 2015). ''Operation Sports''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://www.nba.com/hawks/features/dennis-schroder-cover-nba-2k16-germany "Dennis Schröder On Cover Of NBA 2K16 In Germany"] (August 5, 2015). ''NBA.com. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://www.foxsports.com/nba/story/nba-2k16-chicago-bulls-memphis-grizzlies-pau-gasol-marc-gasol-spanish-cover-081815 "Brothers Marc and Pau Gasol to star on Spanish cover of NBA 2K16"] (August 18, 2015). ''FOX Sports''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> ''NBA 2K16''{{'}}s mid-game commentary team remains the same, except Kerr has been replaced by [[Greg Anthony]]. The pre-game, halftime, and post-game shows now feature the returning Kenny Smith, in addition to Johnson and O'Neal.<ref>Lelinwalla, Mark (September 10, 2015). [http://www.techtimes.com/articles/83752/20150910/new-nba-2k16-trailer-showcases-tnt-broadcast-booths-commentary-shaq.htm "New 'NBA 2K16' Trailer Showcases TNT Broadcast Booth's Commentary With Shaq And Kenny Smith"]. ''Tech Times''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>Sarkar, Samit (September 10, 2015). [http://www.polygon.com/2015/9/10/9307851/nba-2k16-trailer-commentary-kenny-smith-greg-anthony-tnt "NBA 2K16's broadcast team gets bigger and a bit weirder"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> Director [[Spike Lee]] worked on the MyCareer mode.<ref>Phillips, Tom (June 5, 2015). [http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2015-06-05-spike-lee-to-direct-nba-2k16-career-mode "Spike Lee to direct NBA 2K16 career mode"]. ''[[Eurogamer]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> The soundtrack, which features 50 songs, was curated by [[DJ Khaled]], [[DJ Premier]], and [[DJ Mustard]].<ref>Nunneley, Stephany (July 24, 2015). [http://www.vg247.com/2015/07/24/heres-the-official-nba-2k16-track-list-curated-by-dj-mustard-dj-khaled-and-dj-premier/ "Get your groove on with the official NBA 2K16 soundtrack"]. ''[[VG247]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> A [[companion app]] featuring [[Paul George]] on the cover and developed by [[Cat Daddy Games]] was released alongside the game.<ref>Hotchkiss, Wheat (September 16, 2015). [http://www.nba.com/pacers/paul-george-named-cover-athlete-nba-2k16-mobile-companion-app "Paul George Named Cover Athlete for NBA 2K16 Mobile Companion App"]. ''NBA.com/Pacers''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2K17''===
''[[NBA 2K17]]'' was released worldwide in September 2016 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, Xbox One, Xbox 360, Microsoft Windows, Android, and iOS.<ref>Carpenter, Nicole (June 2, 2016). [http://ign.com/articles/2016/06/02/nba-2k17-cover-star-release-date-announced "NBA 2K17 Cover Star, Release Date Announced"]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref><ref>Tylwalk, Nick (September 23, 2016). [http://www.gamezebo.com/2016/09/26/nba-2k17-review-great-game-weak-handle/ "NBA 2K17 Review: Great Game, Weak Handle"]. ''[[Gamezebo]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> The game features four different cover athletes, George, Bryant, [[Danilo Gallinari]], and Pau Gasol.<ref>Otero, Jose (August 19, 2016). [http://ign.com/articles/2016/08/19/nba-2k17-and-the-quest-to-make-a-more-authentic-basketball-game "NBA 2K17 And The Quest To Make A More Authentic Basketball Game"]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> ''NBA 2K17'' still features a three-person commentary team and one sideline reporter, but the personnel has been overhauled. Seven different commentators are present, namely Harlan, Kellogg, Anthony, Burke, [[Brent Barry]], [[Chris Webber]], and [[Steve Smith (basketball)|Steve Smith]], while [[David Aldridge]] replaces Burke as sideline reporter. The pre-game, halftime, and post-game presentation trio remains unchanged.<ref>Kato, Matthew (September 8, 2016). [http://www.gameinformer.com/games/nba_2k17/b/playstation4/archive/2016/09/08/nba-2k17-expands-its-commentary-team.aspx "NBA 2K17 — Expanding The Commentary Team"]. ''[[Game Informer]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> The game's soundtrack was compiled by [[Grimes (musician)|Grimes]], [[Imagine Dragons]], and [[Noah "40" Shebib|Noah Shebib]], and features 50 songs.<ref>Makuch, Eddie (August 12, 2016). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-2k17-soundtrack-revealed/1100-6442593/ "NBA 2K17 Soundtrack Revealed"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> A demo of sorts, titled ''The Prelude'', was released prior to the release of the main game.<ref>Makuch, Eddie (August 26, 2016). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-2k17-is-doing-something-the-franchise-has-neve/1100-6443052/ "NBA 2K17 Is Doing Something the Franchise Has Never Done Before"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref> A companion app featuring [[Karl-Anthony Towns]] on the cover was also released.<ref>[http://www.foxsports.com/north/story/minnesota-timberwolves-karl-anthony-towns-nba-2k17-082416 "Wolves' Towns to headline NBA 2K17 companion app"]. ''Fox Sports'' (August 24, 2016). Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2KVR Experience''===
On November 22, 2016, a [[virtual reality]] ''NBA 2K'' title was released. Titled ''NBA 2KVR Experience'', the game is a collection of basketball mini-games and is not part of the main series. It is available for [[PlayStation VR]], [[HTC Vive]], [[Oculus Rift]], and [[Samsung Gear VR]].<ref>Pereira, Chris (November 21, 2016). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/a-standalone-nba-2k-vr-game-arrives-this-week/1100-6445619/ "A Standalone NBA 2KVR Game Arrives This Week"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved November 22, 2016.</ref><ref>Andrews, Malika (November 30, 2016). [http://www.si.com/tech-media/2016/11/30/nba-2kvr-experience-fans-shooting-competitions "NBA 2K VR Experience puts fans on the court for shooting competitions"]. ''[[Sports Illustrated]]''. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</ref>

===''NBA 2K18''===
''NBA 2K18'' was officially confirmed in January 2017. It is expected to be released in September 2017. It will be the first game in the series to be released for the [[Nintendo Switch]].<ref>Nunneley, Stephany (January 13, 2017). [https://www.vg247.com/2017/01/13/nba-2k18-announced-for-nintendo-switch-releases-in-september/ "NBA 2K18 announced for Nintendo Switch, releases in September"]. ''[[VG247]]''. Retrieved February 11, 2017.</ref><ref>Dornbush, Jonathon (January 12, 2017). [http://ign.com/articles/2017/01/13/nba-2k18-confirmed-for-nintendo-switch "NBA 2K18 Confirmed For Nintendo Switch"]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved February 11, 2017.</ref><ref>Sarkar, Samit (January 13, 2017). [http://www.polygon.com/2017/1/13/14269922/nintendo-switch-sports-games-nba-2k18-fifa-steep-ea-2k-ubisoft "How will the Nintendo Switch fare with sports games?"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved February 11, 2017.</ref>

==Reception==
The ''NBA 2K'' series has achieved consistent critical and commercial success. Elements of the series that are frequently praised include its presentation, specifically its commentary, attention to detail, and soundtrack, its abundance of content, its overall gameplay, and its consistency in terms of yearly releases without any drastic dips in quality. Technical issues have plagued many of the releases, however, particularly in regards to the online components. The introduction of [[microtransaction]]s into the series has also been scrutinized, while the story-focused incarnations of the MyCareer mode has received mixed responses.<ref>Wood, Austin (January 9, 2014). [http://www.si.com/extra-mustard/2014/01/09/nba-2k14-microtransactions-overkill-2k-sports-cut-it-out "2K Sports Needs To Ease Up On All The Microtransactions In NBA 2K14"]. ''[[Sports Illustrated]]''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref><ref name="Destructoid article">Summa, Robert (June 4, 2016). [https://www.destructoid.com/latest-nba-2k16-news-is-everything-that-is-wrong-with-the-nba-2k-series-293320.phtml "Latest NBA 2K16 news is everything that is wrong with the NBA 2K series"]. ''[[Destructoid]]''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref> Numerous games in the series have been lauded for being among the highest-quality sports games available, especially in comparison with other basketball games, such as the ''[[NBA Live (video game series)|NBA Live]]'' series, published by [[EA Sports]].<ref name="Polygon article"/><ref name="Polygon article 2"/><ref name="Polygon article 3"/>

Specifically concerning sales, the ''NBA 2K'' series has established itself as [[List of best-selling video game franchises|one of the better-selling video game franchises]]. A May 2014 [[earnings call]] reported that games in the series have sold over 17 million copies worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://seekingalpha.com/article/2216163-take-two-interactive-softwares-ttwo-ceo-strauss-zelnick-on-q4-2014-results-earnings-call-transcript?part=single|title=Take-Two Interactive Software's (TTWO) CEO Strauss Zelnick on Q4 2014 Results - Earnings Call Transcript|date=March 13, 2014|accessdate=January 6, 2017}}</ref> A report in February 2017, however, suggested that games in the franchise have sold in excess of 68 million copies.<ref>Makuch, Eddie (February 9, 2017). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-launching-its-own-pro-gaming-league-with-take-/1100-6447695/ "NBA Launching Its Own Pro Gaming League With Take-Two"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved February 10, 2017.</ref> According to one analyst, the most recent entries in the series average at least four million copies sold.<ref name="Polygon article"/> The best-selling game in the series is ''[[NBA 2K14]]'', which sold over seven million copies; it is also [[Take-Two Interactive]]'s best-selling sports game.<ref>Pereira, Chris (August 8, 2014). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/with-nba-2k14s-huge-success-why-doesnt-2k-make-mor/1100-6421599/ "With NBA 2K14's Huge Success, Why Doesn't 2K Make More Sports Games?"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref><ref>Campbell, Evan (August 5, 2014). [http://ign.com/articles/2014/08/05/nba-2k14-is-the-best-selling-sports-game-ever-for-take-two "NBA 2K14 Is The Best-Selling Sports Game For Take-Two Ever"]. ''[[IGN]]''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref> ''[[NBA 2K16]]'' holds the distinction of being the fastest-selling title in the series, shipping over four million copies within its first week of release.<ref>Makuch, Eddie (October 2, 2015). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-2k16-breaks-records-with-4-million-copies-ship/1100-6431093/ "NBA 2K16 Breaks Records With 4 Million Copies Shipped in One Week"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref><ref>Brightman, James (November 5, 2015). [http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2015-11-05-nba-2k16-gta-v-drive-usd55m-profit-for-take-two "NBA 2K16, GTA V drive $55m profit for Take-Two"]. ''[[Eurogamer#Subsidiaries|GamesIndustry.biz]]''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref>

Games in the ''NBA 2K'' series have been nominated for multiple awards, from events such as the [[Spike Video Game Awards]] and [[The Game Awards]], usually related to being the best sports game of the year.<ref>Nunneley, Stephany (December 7, 2013). [https://www.vg247.com/2013/12/07/spike-vgx-2013-award-winners-injustice-gods-among-us-nabs-best-fighting-game/ "Spike VGX 2013 Award winners: Grand Theft Auto 5 wins Game of the Year"]. ''[[VG247]]''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref><ref>Stark, Chelsea (December 1, 2016). [http://www.polygon.com/2016/12/1/13784410/the-game-awards-winners "The Game Awards: Here's the full winners list"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref><ref>Nunneley, Stephany (December 6, 2014). [https://www.vg247.com/2014/12/06/here-are-the-winners-of-the-game-awards-2014/ "Here are the winners of The Game Awards 2014"]. ''[[VG247]]''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref>

==''NBA 2K eLeague''==
In February 2017, the NBA, in conjunction with Take-Two Interactive, announced the creation of an [[eSports]] league centering on the ''NBA 2K'' franchise. Known as the ''NBA 2K eLeague'', it is set to commence competition in 2018. It is the first eSports league to be operated by a North American professional sports league. The league will be structured similarly to the NBA; teams are operated by NBA franchises and feature five professional eSports players. The teams compete against each other in the most recent ''NBA 2K'' game, and each member of a team only uses their in-game MyPlayer. The league will feature a regular season, as well as the playoffs and finals.<ref>Makuch, Eddie (February 9, 2017). [http://www.gamespot.com/articles/nba-launching-its-own-pro-gaming-league-with-take-/1100-6447695/ "NBA Launching Its Own Pro Gaming League With Take-Two"]. ''[[GameSpot]]''. Retrieved February 11, 2017.</ref><ref>Sarkar, Samit (February 9, 2017). [http://www.polygon.com/2017/2/9/14554226/nba-2k-esports-eleague-2018 "NBA 2K maker teaming up with NBA for esports league"]. ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]''. Retrieved February 11, 2017.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{official website|https://www.nba2k.com}}

{{Portal bar|Video games|National Basketball Association}}
{{NBA 2K series}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nba 2k}}
[[Category:eSports games]]
[[Category:NBA 2K| ]]
[[Category:Video game franchises]]
[[Category:Video game franchises introduced in 1999]]

Bildroman

2017-01-01T23:53:28Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 112.200.189.37 (talk) (HG) (3.1.20)

{{About|the narrative genre|the Christian evangelistic book|Wordless Book}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=August 2013}}

[[File:Frans Masereel - 25 Images of a Man's Passion - final four plates.jpg|400px|thumb|alt=Four high-contrast black-and-white images in sequence. In the first, a man, facing left with his right arm aloft, marches with a crowd towards a group of gun-wielding figures. In the second, uniformed figures are taking the man away amongst a crowd. In the third, the man is seen from behind at the bottom, with a group seated behind a bench in the distance near the top in an apparent courtroom. A crucifix hangs prominently above the bench, bathed in light in the darkened room. In the fourth, the man has his back to a wall, hands bound behind him, with another figure lying apparently dead at his feet. He faces right, apparently awaiting his execution by gunfire.|Wordless novels flourished in Germany in the 1920s and typically were made using [[woodcut]] or similar techniques in an [[Expressionism|Expressionist]] style. ([[Frans Masereel]], ''[[25 Images of a Man's Passion]]'', 1918)]]

The '''wordless novel''' is a narrative genre that uses sequences of captionless pictures to tell a story. As artists have often made such books using [[woodcut]] and other [[relief printing]] techniques, the terms '''woodcut novel''' or '''novel in woodcuts''' are also used. The genre flourished primarily in the 1920s and 1930s and was most popular in Germany.

The wordless novel has its origin in the [[German Expressionism|German Expressionist]] movement of the early 20th century. The typically [[Socialism|socialist]] work drew inspiration from mediaeval woodcuts and used the awkward look of that medium to express [[angst]] and frustration at [[social injustice]]. The first such book was the Belgian [[Frans Masereel]]'s ''[[25 Images of a Man's Passion]]'', published in 1918. The German [[Otto Nückel]] and other artists followed Masereel's example. [[Lynd Ward]] brought the genre to the United States in 1929 when he produced {{not a typo|''[[Gods' Man]]''}}, which inspired other American wordless novels and a parody in 1930 by cartoonist [[Milt Gross]] with ''[[He Done Her Wrong]]''. Following an early-1930s peak in production and popularity, the genre waned in the face of competition from [[sound film]]s and anti-socialist [[censorship in Nazi Germany]] and the US.

Following World War II, new examples of wordless novels became increasingly rare, and early works went out of print. Interest began to revive in the 1960s when the American comics [[fandom]] subculture came to see wordless novels as prototypical book-length comics. In the 1970s, the example of the wordless novel inspired cartoonists such as [[Will Eisner]] and [[Art Spiegelman]] to create book-length non-genre comics—"[[graphic novel]]s". Cartoonists such as [[Eric Drooker]] and [[Peter Kuper]] took direct inspiration from wordless novels to create wordless graphic novels.

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Characteristics==

[[File:CABINET DES DR CALIGARI 01.jpg|thumb|alt=A black-and-white film still. Three figures stand facing each other on a heavily stylized street set.|[[German Expressionism|Expressionist film]] and graphics inspired early wordless novels. (''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'', 1920)]]

Wordless novels use sequences of expressive images to tell a story.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=112}} [[Socialism|Socialist]] themes of struggle against [[capitalism]] are common; scholar Perry Willett calls these themes "a unifying element of the genre's aesthetic".{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=114}} In both formal and moral aspects, they draw from [[Expressionism|Expressionist]] graphics, [[Expressionism (theatre)|theatre]], and [[German Expressionism|film]].{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}} Wordless novelists such as [[Frans Masereel]] appropriated the awkward aesthetic of mediaeval woodcuts to express their anguish and revolutionary political ideas{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}} and used simple, traditional iconography. Text is restricted to title and chapter pages, except where text is a part of the scene, such as in signs.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=181}}

The storytelling tends to be melodramatic,{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=114}} and the stories tend to focus on struggles against social oppression in which characters are silenced by economic, political, and other social forces. The characters are clearly delineated as good or evil—the good drawn sympathetically and the evil with the contempt of the artist's moral indignation.{{sfn|Willett|2005|pp=130–131}}

Most wordless novelists were not prolific; few besides Masereel and [[Lynd Ward]] produced more than a single book.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=131}} The books were designed to be mass-produced for a popular audience, in contrast to similar but shorter portfolios by artists such as [[Otto Dix]], [[George Grosz]], and [[Käthe Kollwitz]], which were produced in limited editions for collectors. These portfolios of typically from eight to ten prints also were meant to be viewed in sequence. Wordless novels were longer, had more complex narratives, and were printed in sizes and dimensions comparable to those of novels.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=128}} A large influence was the most popular silent visual medium of the time: [[silent film]]s. Panning, zooming, slapstick, and other filmic techniques are found in the books; Ward said that in creating a wordless novel, he first had to visualize it in his head as a silent film.{{sfn|Willett|2005|pp=128–129}}

[[File:Prelude to a Million Years, plate 29, by Lynd Ward.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Photograph of an engraved piece of wood, on which is an image of a man kneeling.|Wordless novelists favoured [[relief printing]] such as in this [[wood engraving]] from [[Lynd Ward|Ward]]'s ''[[Prelude to a Million Years]]'' (1933).]]

Typically, wordless novels used [[relief printing]] techniques such as [[woodcut]]s, [[wood engraving]], [[metalcut]]s, or [[linocut]]s. One of the oldest printing techniques, relief printing has its origins in 8th-century China and was introduced to Europe in the 15th century. It requires an artist to draw or transfer an image to a printing block; the areas not to be printed (the white areas) are cut away, leaving raised areas to which ink is applied to make prints.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=15}} The monochrome prints were usually in black ink, and occasionally in a different colour such as [[sienna]] or orange.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=193}} Relief printing is an inexpensive but labour-intensive printing technique; it was accessible to socially conscious artists who wanted to tell wordless stories of the working classes.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=16}}

==History==

In 15th-century{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=175}} mediaeval Europe, woodcut [[block book]]s were printed as religious guides; particularly popular was the ''{{lang|la|[[Ars moriendi]]}}''. The early 16th century saw block books disappear in favour of books printed with the [[movable type]] of [[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]'s presses.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|pp=172–173, 175}} Woodcut printing persisted into the 16th century under artists such as [[Albrecht Dürer|Dürer]], [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Holbein]], and [[Jost Amman|Amman]],{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=175}} after which engraving techniques superseded woodcuts. Pioneered by [[Thomas Bewick]], wood engraving enjoyed popularity beginning in the 18th century, until the method gave way by the 19th century to more advanced printing methods such as [[lithography]].{{sfn|Cohen|1977|pp=176–177}}

[[File:Biblia pauperum, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|alt=A monochromatic woodcut print of a page from a mediaeval book depicting a bible scene.|[[Expressionism|Expressionist]] woodcut artists expressed angst using the awkward look of mediaeval woodcuts such as this {{lang|la|''[[Biblia pauperum]]''}}.]]

[[Post-Impressionism|Post-impressionist]] artist [[Paul Gauguin]] revived woodcut printing in the late-19th century, favouring it for its [[Primitivism|primitivist]] effect.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=177}} Early in the 20th century, woodcut artists such as Käthe Kollwitz (1867–1945) and [[Max Klinger]] (1857–1920) published portfolios of woodcuts, thematically linked by themes of social injustice.{{sfn|Willett|2005|pp=127–128}} Expressionist graphic artists such as [[Max Beckmann]] (1884–1950), Otto Dix (1891–1969), Kollwitz, and [[Karl Schmidt-Rottluff]] (1884–1976) were inspired by an early-20th-century revival of interest in mediaeval graphic arts—in particular Biblical woodcut prints such as the ''{{lang|la|[[Biblia pauperum]]}}''. These artists used the awkward look of woodcut images to express feelings of anguish.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}}

===In Europe===

The wordless novel grew out of the Expressionist movement.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=111}} The Belgian Frans Masereel (1889–1972) created the earliest example, ''[[25 Images of a Man's Passion]]'',{{efn|{{lang-fr|25 images de la passion d'un homme}} }} in 1918.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=112}} It was a commercial success{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=17}} and was followed by ''[[Passionate Journey]]'',{{efn|{{lang-fr|Mon livre d'heures|links=no}}; the book was translated into English as ''My Book of Hours'' (1919),{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=114}} }} which at 167 images was Masereel's longest book. It was also the most commercially successful,{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=114}} particularly in Germany, where copies of his books sold in the hundreds of thousands throughout the 1920s and had introductions by writers such as [[Max Brod]], [[Hermann Hesse]], and [[Thomas Mann]]. Masereel's books drew strongly on Expressionist theatre and film{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=112}} in their exaggerated but representational artwork with strong contrasts of black and white.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=180}}

Masereel's commercial success led other artists to try their hands at the genre;{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=116}} themes of oppression under capitalism were prominent, a pattern set early by Masereel.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=112}} At age thirteen, Polish-French artist [[Balthus]] drew a wordless story about his cat; it was published in 1921 with an introduction by poet [[Rainer Maria Rilke]].{{sfnm|1a1=Rewald|1y=1984|1pp=12–13|2a1=Walker|2y=2007|2p=11}} In ''[[Destiny (wordless novel)|Destiny]]'' (1926),{{efn|{{lang-de|Schicksal}}{{sfn|Smart|2011|pp=22–23}} }} [[Otto Nückel]] (1888–1955) produced a work with greater nuance and atmosphere than Masereel's bombastic works;{{sfn|Smart|2011|pp=22–23}} where Masereel told tales of Man's struggle against Society, Nückel told of the life of an individual woman.{{sfn|Bi|2009}} ''Destiny'' appeared in a US edition in 1930{{sfn|Ward|Beronä|2005|p=v}} and sold well there.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=191}}

[[Clément Moreau]] (1903–1988) first tried his hand at the genre with the six-plate ''Youth Without Means''{{efn|{{lang-de|Erwerbslose Jugend|links=no}} }} in 1928.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=23}} [[István Szegedi-Szüts]] (1892–1959), a Hungarian immigrant to England, made a wordless book in brush and ink called ''My War'' (1931). In simple artwork reminiscent of [[Sumi-e|Japanese brush painting]], Szegedi-Szüts told of a Hungarian cavalryman disillusioned by his World War I experiences.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=177}} [[Helena Bochořáková-Dittrichová]] (1894–1980) was the first woman to produce a wordless novel, ''[[Childhood (wordless novel)|Childhood]]'' (1931),{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=21}} which presented middle-class life, rather than the working-class struggle found in the works of Masereel or Nückel.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=115}} Bochořáková described her books as "cycles" rather than novels.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=21}} [[Surrealism|Surrealist]] artist [[Max Ernst]] made the silent collage novel ''[[Une semaine de bonté]]'' in 1934.{{sfn|Beronä|1999|pp=2–3}} Following World War II, {{Interlanguage link multi|Werner Gothein|de}} (1890–1968), a member of the German Expressionist group [[Die Brücke]], produced ''The Tightrope Walker and the Clown''{{efn|{{lang-de|Die Seiltänzerin und ihr Clown|links=no}} }} (1949).{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=21}}

===In North America===

In 1926, the American Lynd Ward (1905–1985) moved to Leipzig to study graphic arts; while there, he discovered the works of Masereel and Otto Nückel.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=20–21}} He produced six such works of his own;{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}} he preferred to call them "pictorial narratives".{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=19–21}} The first, {{not a typo|''[[Gods' Man]]''}} (1929), was his most popular.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}} Ward used wood engraving rather than woodcutting{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=19–21}} and varied image sizes from page to page.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=191}} {{not a typo|''Gods' Man''}} sold 20,000 copies, and other American artists followed up on this success with their own wordless novels in the 1930s.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=19–21}}

[[File:He Done Her Wrong - Gross does Ward.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A black-and-white drawing of woman opening a window.|In ''[[He Done Her Wrong]]'' (1930), [[Milt Gross]] parodied [[Lynd Ward]]'s {{not a typo|''[[Gods' Man]]''}} (1929).]]

Cartoonist [[Milt Gross]]'s ''[[He Done Her Wrong]]'' (1930) was a parody of the genre; the book uses varying panel designs akin to those of comics: the action sometimes takes place outside the panel borders{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=21–22, 24}} and "dialogue balloons" show in images what the characters are saying.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=158}} Cartoonist and illustrator [[William Gropper]]'s ''Alay-oop'' (1930) tells of three entertainers' disappointed dreams.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=136}} In ''Abraham Lincoln: Biography in Woodcuts'' (1933) Charles Turzak documented [[Abraham Lincoln|the American president]].{{sfn|Ward|Beronä|2005|p=vi}} Animator [[Myron Waldman]] (1908–2006) wrote a wordless tale of a plump young woman looking for a glamorous husband. The book, ''Eve'' (1943), also uses "picture balloons" as ''He Done Her Wrong'' does.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=170}}

Inspired by mediaeval religious block books and working in an [[Art Deco]] style, American illustrator James Reid (1907–1989) produced one wordless novel, ''The Life of Christ'' (1930);{{sfn|Walker|2007|pp=25, 27}} due to the book's religious content, the [[Soviet Union]] barred its importation under its [[Religion in the Soviet Union|policies on religion]].{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=17}}

In 1938, Italian-American [[Giacomo Patri]] (1898–1978) produced his only wordless novel, the linocut ''White Collar''. It chronicles the aftermath of the 1929 stock market crash and was intended to motivate [[white-collar worker]]s to unionize.{{sfn|Walker|2007|pp=25, 27}} It also deals with controversial topics such as abortion, accessibility of health care for the poor, and loss of Christian faith.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=177}} From 1948 to 1951, Canadian [[Laurence Hyde (artist)|Laurence Hyde]] (1914–1987) produced his single wordless novel, the woodcut ''[[Southern Cross (wordless novel)|Southern Cross]]'', in response to the American [[Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll|atomic tests in the Bikini Atoll]].{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=31}} The work tells of an American evacuation of an island for nuclear tests, where one family is left behind.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=195}} Polish-American [[Si Lewen]]'s (1918– ) first book, ''The Parade: A Story in 55 Drawings'' (1957), won praise from [[Albert Einstein]] for its anti-war message.{{sfnm|1a1=Beronä|1y=1999|1pp=2–3|2a1=Walker|2y=2007|2p=10}} Canadian George Kuthan's ''Aphrodite's Cup'' (1964) is an erotic book drawn in an ancient Greek style.{{sfn|Beronä|1999|pp=2–3}} In the early 21st century, Canadian [[George Walker (printmaker)|George Walker]] made wordless woodcut novels, beginning with ''Book of Hours'' (2010), about the lives of those in the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] complex just before the [[September 11 attacks]].{{sfn|Smart|2011|p=55}}

===Decline===

The popularity of wordless novels peaked around 1929 to 1931, when "[[Sound film|talkies]]" were introduced and began to supersede silent films.{{sfn|Willett|2005|pp=129–130}} In the 1930s the Nazis in Germany suppressed and detained many printmakers and banned Masereel's works{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=17}} as "[[degenerate art]]".{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=21}} Following World War II, US censors suppressed books with socialist views, including the works of Lynd Ward, on whom the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] kept files over his socialist sympathies; this censorship has made early editions of wordless novels scarce collectors' items in the US.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=17}}

By the 1940s, most artists had given up on the genre. The most devoted practitioners, Masereel and Ward, moved on to other work for which they became better known; Masereel's obituary did not even mention his wordless novels.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=131}} Many wordless novels remained out of print until the rise of the graphic novel revived interest amongst readers and publishers in the early 21st century.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=225}}

==Relation to comics and graphic novels==
{{Quote
|text = "... Ward's roots were not in comics, though his work is part of the same large family tree ..."
|sign = [[Art Spiegelman]]
|source = ''[[The Paris Review]]'', 2010{{sfn|Spiegelman|2010}}
}}

There have been sporadic examples of textless comics throughout the medium's history. In the US, there were comic strips such as [[Otto Soglow]]'s ''[[The Little King]]'', begun in 1931, and [[Carl Thomas Anderson|Carl Anderson]]'s ''[[Henry (comics)|Henry]]'', begun in 1932.{{sfn|Beronä|1999|pp=2–3}} German cartoonist [[E. O. Plauen]]'s wordless domestic comic strip ''[[Father and Son (comics)|Father and Son]]''{{efn|{{lang-de|Vater und Sohn|links=no}} }} (1934–37) was popular in Germany, and was collected in three volumes.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=153}} [[Antonio Prohías]]'s textless ''[[Mad (magazine)|Mad]]'' magazine feature ''[[Spy vs. Spy]]'' began in 1961.{{sfn|Beronä|1999|pp=2–3}}

{{multiple image
|total_width = 400
|image1 = Will Eisner2.jpg
|width1 = 509 | height1 = 682
|alt1 = An bald elderly man in a suit and tie, seated before a meal, raising his right hand slightly and look to the right of the picture.

|image2 = Art Spiegelman (2007).jpg
|width2 = 205 | height2 = 270
|alt2 = A late-middle-aged man with glasses, seated, wearing a black leather jacket, smiles at the camera.

|footer = [[Lynd Ward]]'s work inspired cartoonists [[Will Eisner]] ''(left)'' and [[Art Spiegelman]] ''(right)'' to create [[graphic novel]]s.}}

Cartoonist [[Will Eisner]] (1917–2005) first came upon the work of Lynd Ward in 1938. Eisner was an early pioneer in the [[American comic book]] industry and saw in Ward's work a greater potential for comics. Eisner's ambitions were rebuffed by his peers, who saw comics as no more than low-status entertainment. Eisner withdrew from the commercial comics industry in the early 1950s to do government and educational work. He returned in the 1970s when the atmosphere had changed and his readers and peers seemed more receptive to his ambitions. In 1978, he began a career of creating book-length comics, the first of which was ''[[A Contract with God]]''; the book was marketed as a "graphic novel", a term that became standard towards the end of the 20th century.{{sfn|Kaplan|2010|p=153}} Eisner called Ward "perhaps the most provocative graphic storyteller"{{sfn|Chute|2012|p=410}} of the 20th century. He wrote that Ward's ''[[Vertigo (wordless novel)|Vertigo]]'' (1937) required considerable investment from readers in order to fill in the story between images.{{sfn|Chute|2012|p=410}}

Interest in the wordless novel revived with the rise of the graphic novel.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|p=20}} Comics fans discussed the works of Masereel and others in fanzines, and the discussions turned to talk of the [[Great American Novel]] being made in comics. These discussions inspired cartoonist [[Art Spiegelman]] (b. 1942),{{sfn|Kaplan|2010|p=171}} who in 1973 made a four-page strip, "Prisoner on the Hell Planet", in an Expressionist style inspired by Ward's work. Spiegelman later incorporated the strip into his graphic novel ''[[Maus]]'' (1992).{{sfn|Witek|2004|p=100}}

While graphic novels generally use captions and dialogue,{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=131}} cartoonists such as [[Eric Drooker]], [[Peter Kuper]], {{Interlanguage link multi|Thomas Ott|fr}}, [[Brian Ralph]], [[Masashi Tanaka]], and [[Lewis Trondheim]] have made wordless graphic novels.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|p=20}} As Gross did in ''He Done Her Wrong'', {{Interlanguage link multi|Hendrik Dorgathen|de}}'s wordless ''oeuvre'' uses textless [[Speech balloon|word balloons]] containing symbols, icons, and other images.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=27–28}} The influence of the wordless novel is prominent in Drooker's ''Flood'' (1992) and Kuper's ''The System'' (1997), both metaphorical stories that focus on social themes.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=225}} Since 2011, the [[Pennsylvania State University Libraries]] and the [[Pennsylvania Center for the Book]] have awarded the annual Lynd Ward Prize for Graphic Novel, a cash prize established by Ward's daughters to highlight their father's influence on the development of the graphic novel.{{sfn|Reid|2014}}

==See also==

* ''[[Frank (comics)|Frank]]'', wordless comics by [[Jim Woodring]]

{{Portal bar|Books|Comics|Novels|Socialism|Visual arts}}

==Notes==

{{Notelist|colwidth=40em}}

==References==

===Footnotes===

{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}}

===Works cited===

====Books====

{{Refbegin|colwidth=40em}}
* {{cite book
|last = Beronä
|first = David A.
|chapter = Pictures Speak in Comics Without Words
|title = The Language of Comics: Word and Image
|editor1-last = Varnum
|editor1-first = Robin
|editor2-last = Gibbons
|editor2-first = Christina T.
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=j_S6QHAov1kC&pg=PA19
|year = 2001
|publisher = [[University Press of Mississippi]]
|isbn = 978-1-60473-903-9
|pages = 19–39
|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book
|last1 = Ward
|first1 = Lynd
|authorlink1 = Lynd Ward
|last2 = Beronä
|first2 = David
|title = Mad Man's Drum: A Novel in Woodcuts
|year = 2005
|publisher = [[Dover Publications]]
|isbn = 978-0-486-44500-7
|chapter = Introduction
|pages = iii–vi
|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last = Beronä |first = David A. |title = Wordless Books: The Original Graphic Novels |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YVh2QgAACAAJ |year = 2008 |publisher = [[Abrams Books]] |isbn = 978-0-8109-9469-0 |ref = harv }}
* {{cite book
|last = Chute
|first = Hillary
|chapter = Graphic Narrative
|editor1-last = Bray
|editor1-first = Joe
|editor2-last = Gibbons
|editor2-first = Alison
|editor3-last = McHale
|editor3-first = Brian
|title = The Routledge Companion to Experimental Literature
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3S2uf3Zj8AC&pg=PA407
|year = 2012
|publisher = [[Routledge]]
|isbn = 978-0-415-57000-8
|pages = 407–419
|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Arie |title = From Krakow to Krypton: Jews and Comic Books |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8aH3H7DC6BQC |year = 2010 |publisher = [[Jewish Publication Society]] |isbn = 978-0-8276-1043-9 |ref = harv }}
* {{cite book |last = Rewald |first = Sabine |title = Balthus: Catalog of an Exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Feb. 29, 1984 to May 13, 1984 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UO_HTonZ31cC |year = 1984 |publisher = [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |isbn = 978-0-8109-0738-6 |ref = harv }}
* {{cite book |editor-last = Walker |editor-first = George |title = Graphic Witness: Four Wordless Graphic Novels |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yqQNBAAACAAJ |year = 2007 |publisher = Firefly Books |isbn = 978-1-55407-270-5 |ref = harv }}
* {{cite book
|last = Willett
|first = Perry
|title = A Companion to the Literature of German Expressionism
|editor-last = Donahue
|editor-first = Neil H.
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zjvV48n-ngUC&pg=PA111
|year = 2005
|publisher = [[Camden House Publishing]]
|isbn = 978-1-57113-175-1
|pages = 111–134
|chapter = The Cutting Edge of German Expressionism: The Woodcut Novel of Frans Masereel and Its Influences
|ref = harv}}

{{Refend}}

====Magazines and journals====

{{Refbegin|colwidth=40em}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Beronä
|first = David A.
|title = An Introduction to 'Beyond Words: A Wordless Comic Anthology'
|journal = Sunburn
|issue = 11
|date = Summer 1999
|pages = 2–3
|url = http://jupiter.plymouth.edu/~daberona/intro.htm
|accessdate = 2013-03-17
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150122003708/http://jupiter.plymouth.edu/~daberona/intro.htm
|archivedate = 2015-01-22
|ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Cohen
|first = Martin S.
|title = The Novel in Woodcuts: A Handbook
|journal = [[Journal of Modern Literature]]
|volume = 6
|issue = 2
|date = April 1977
|pages = 171–195
|publisher = [[Indiana University Press]]
|jstor = 3831165
|ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Smart
|first = Tom
|title = A Suite of Engravings from ''The Mysterious Death of Tom Thomson''
|pages = 10–37
|journal = Devil's Artisan
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fIgKsV3BXacC
|volume = 68
|date = Spring 2011
|publisher = [[The Porcupine's Quill]]
|ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal
|title = The Woodcuts of Lynd Ward
|first = Art
|last = Spiegelman
|authorlink = Art Spiegelman
|journal = [[The Paris Review]]
|date = 2010-10-13
|url = http://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2010/10/13/the-woodcuts-of-lynd-ward/
|accessdate = 2013-03-18
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20141129042624/http://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2010/10/13/the-woodcuts-of-lynd-ward/
|archivedate = 2014-11-29
|ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Witek
|first = Joseph
|title = Imagetext, or, Why Art Spiegelman Doesn't Draw Comics
|journal = ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies
|volume = 1
|issue = 1
|year = 2004
|issn = 1549-6732
|publisher = [[University of Florida]]
|url = http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v1_1/witek/
|accessdate = 2012-04-16
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130729110501/http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v1_1/witek/
|archivedate = 2013-07-29
|ref = harv}}

{{Refend}}

====Web====

{{Refbegin|colwidth=40em}}
* {{cite web
|last = Bi
|first = Jessie
|title = ''Destin'' de Otto Nückel
|url = http://www.du9.org/chronique/destin/
|work = du9
|date = May 2009
|language = French
|accessdate = 2013-03-18
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140315013824/http://www.du9.org/chronique/destin/
|archivedate = 2014-03-15
|ref = harv}}
* {{cite web
|last = Reid
|first = Calvin
|title = 'Fran' Wins Lynd Ward Graphic Novel Prize
|work = [[Publishers Weekly]]
|date = 2014-04-25
|url = http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/comics/article/62038-fran-wins-lynd-ward-graphic-novel-prize.html
|accessdate = 2015-01-22
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150122005435/http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/comics/article/62038-fran-wins-lynd-ward-graphic-novel-prize.html
|archivedate = 2015-01-22
|ref = harv}}

{{Refend}}

==Further reading==

{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book

|last = Willett
|first = Perry
|title = The Silent Shout: Frans Masereel, Lynd Ward, and the Novel in Woodcuts
|year = 1997
|publisher = [[Indiana University Libraries]]
|oclc = 36526265}}

{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{cite web
|title = La bande dessinée muette
|url = http://www.du9.org/dossier/bande-dessinee-muette-1-la/
|language = French
|first = Jessie
|last = Bi
|work = du9
|date = June 2006
|accessdate = 2013-04-19}}
* [http://www.frans-masereel.de/ Frans Masereel Foundation] internet portal. Includes a [http://www.frans-masereel.de/15331_Graphic_Novels.html graphic novels] page with online versions of Masereel's books.
* {{cite web
|title = Stories Without Words: A Bibliography with Annotations
|date = 2003-07-23
|first1 = Mike
|last1 = Rhode
|first2 = Tom
|last2 = Furtwangler
|first3 = David
|last3 = Wybenga
|publisher = Michigan State University Libraries
|url = http://comics.lib.msu.edu/rhode/wordless.htm
|accessdate = 2013-04-19}}

{{Wordless novels}}

[[Category:Expressionism]]
[[Category:History of comics]]
[[Category:Narrative forms]]
[[Category:Woodcuts]]
[[Category:Wordless novels| ]]

Sundarbans-Nationalpark

2016-06-23T12:00:29Z

Wikipelli: Reverted 1 edit by 103.248.92.163 (talk) to last revision by Wikipelli. (TW)

{{EngvarB|date=May 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}

{{Infobox protected area
| name = Sundarbans National Park of India
| alt_name = <big>সুন্দরবন জাতীয় উদ্যান</big>
| iucn_category = II
| photo = Tiger_Sundarbans_Tiger_Reserve_22.07.2015.jpg
| photo_caption = Tiger from Sundarbans Tiger Reserve
| photo_width =
| map = India_location_map_3.png
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| map_width =
| location = [[South 24 Parganas]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
| nearest_city = [[Kolkata]]
| lat_d = 21
| lat_m = 56
| lat_s = 42
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 88
| long_m = 53
| long_s = 45
| long_EW = E
| coords_ref =
| region = IN
| area = {{convert|1330.12|km2|acre|abbr=on}}
| established = 1984
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body = [[Government of India]],
| world_heritage_site =
| embedded1 = {{designation list | embed=yes
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_date = [[List of World Heritage Sites by year of inscription#1987 (11th session)|1987]] (11th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])
| designation1_type = Natural
| designation1_criteria = ix, x
| designation1_number = [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/452 452]
| designation1_free1name = State Party
| designation1_free1value = India
| designation1_free2name = Region
| designation1_free2value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]

}}
}}

The '''Sundarban National Park''' ({{lang-bn|সুন্দরবন জাতীয় উদ্যান}} ''Shundorbôn Jatiyo Udyan'') is a [[National Park]], [[Tiger Reserve]], and a [[Biosphere Reserve]] in [[West Bengal]], [[India]]. It is part of the Sundarban on the [[Ganges Delta]], and adjacent to the Sundarban Reserve Forest in [[Bangladesh]]. The [[River delta|delta]] is densely covered by [[mangrove]] forests, and is one of the largest reserves for the [[Bengal tiger]]. It is also home to a variety of bird, reptile and [[invertebrate]] species, including the [[salt-water crocodile]]. The present Sundarban National Park was declared as the core area of Sundarban Tiger Reserve in 1973 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. On 4 May 1984 it was declared a National Park.

== Administration ==
[[File:Sunderbans map.png|thumb|right|Map of the protected areas of the Indian Sunderban, showing the boundaries of the Tiger Reserve, the National Park and the three Wildlife Sanctuaries, conservation and lodging centres, subsistence towns, and access points. The entire forested (dark green) area constitutes the Biosphere Reserve, with the remaining forests outside the national park and wildlife sanctuaries being given the status of a [[Reserve Forests of India|Reserve Forest]].]]

The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban. The [[Principal Chief Conservator of Forests]] (PCCF), Wildlife & Bio-Diversity & ex-officio '''Chief Wildlife Warden''', West Bengal is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park. The '''Chief Conservator of Forests''' (South) & Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve is the administrative head of the park at the local level and is assisted by a Deputy Field Director and an Assistant Field Director. The park area is divided into two ranges, overseen by range forest officers. Each range is further sub-divided into beats. The park also has floating watch stations and camps to protect the property from poachers.

The park receives financial aid from the State Government as well as the [[Ministry of Environment and Forests]] under various Plan and Non-Plan Budgets. Additional funding is received under the [[Project Tiger]] from the Central Government. In 2001, a grant of US$20,000 was received as a preparatory assistance for promotion between India and Bangladesh from the [[World Heritage Fund]].

==Geography==
Sundarban National Park is located in between 21° 432' – 21° 55' N latitude and between 88° 42' – 89° 04' E longitude. The average altitude of the park is 7.5 m above sea level. The park is made up of 54 small islands and is crisscrossed by several distributaries of the [[Ganges]].

===Climate===
The average minimum and maximum temperature is 20 °C and 48 °C respectively. Rainfall is heavy with humidity as high as 80% as it is close to the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The [[monsoon]] lasts from mid-June to mid-September. Prevailing wind is from the north and north-east from October to mid-March and south west westerlies prevails from mid-March to September. Storms which sometimes develop into cyclones are common during the months of May and October.

===Eco-geography, rivers and watercourses===
There are seven main rivers and innumerable watercourses forming a network of channels at this estuarine delta. All the rivers have a southward course towards the sea. The eco-geography of this area is totally dependent on the tidal effect of two flow tides and two ebb tides occurring within 24 hours with a tidal range of 3–5 m and up to 8 m<ref name=Ghosh/><ref name=Banerjee/> in normal spring tide, inundating the whole of Sunderban in varying depths. The tidal action deposits silts back on the channels and raising the bed, it forms new islands and creeks contributing to uncertain geomorphology.<ref name=Bhattacharya/> There is a great natural depression called "Swatch of No Ground" in the Bay of Bengal between [[21st parallel north|21°00']] to 21°22' latitude where, the depth of water changes suddenly from 20 m to 500 m.<ref name=Ghosh/><ref name=Fergusson/> This mysterious depression pushes back the silts towards south and/or further east to form new islands.
[[File:Sundarban mangrove.jpg|left|thumb|Mangrove trees in Sundarban and a small creek going inside the forest]]

===Mudflats===
The Sunderban mudflats<ref name=Banerjee/> are found at the estuary and on the deltaic islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs. The flats are exposed in low tides and submerged in high tides, thus being changed morphologically even in one tidal cycle. The interior parts of the mudflats are the right environment for mangroves.

There are a number of mudflats outside the Sundarbans National Park is a mudflat that have the potential to be tourist spots in the Sundarbans. One can visit them and enjoy the beauty of the place during low tide. If one is lucky, one can see Sea Anemones, Horseshoe crab (Nearing extinction)and small octopus.

====Flora and fauna====
The coastal active delta of Sunderban at the mouth of Bay of Bengal in Bangladesh, having a complex geomorphologic and hydrological character with climatic hazards, has a vast area of mangrove forests with a variety of flora and diverse fauna in a unique ecosystem. The natural environment and coastal ecosystem of this Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site is under threat of physical disaster due to unscientific and excessive human interferences. Conservation and environmental management plan for safeguarding this unique coastal ecology and ecosystem is urgently required.

====Flora====
Sundarban has achieved its name from the Sundari Trees. It is the most exquisite variety of tree that are found in this area, a special kind of Mangrove tree. The main feature of this tree is that it produces spikes that grow above from the ground and help in the respiration of the tree. During the rainy season when the entire forest is water logged, the spikes rising from the ground has their peak in the air and helps in the respiration process.

====Fauna====
The Sundarbans forest is home to more than 400 tigers. The royal [[Bengal tigers]] have developed a unique characteristic of swimming in the saline waters, and are famous for their man-eating tendencies. Tigers can be seen on the river banks sunbathing between November and February.
Apart from the [[Bengal tiger]], [[Fishing cat]]s, [[Leopard cat]]s, [[Macaque]]s, [[Wild boar]], [[Indian grey mongoose]], [[Fox]], [[Jungle cat]], [[Flying fox]], [[Pangolin]], [[Chital]], are also found in abundance in the Sundarbans.

====Avifauna====

Some of the birds commonly found in this region are [[openbill stork]]s, [[black-capped kingfisher]]s, [[black-headed ibis]], [[water hen]]s, [[coot]]s, [[pheasant-tailed jacana]]s, [[pariah kite]]s, [[brahminy kite]], [[Marsh-harrier|marsh harriers]], [[swamp partridges]], [[red junglefowl]], [[spotted doves]], [[common mynahs]], [[jungle crow]]s, [[jungle babbler]]s, [[cotton teal]]s, [[herring gulls]], [[Caspian tern]]s, [[gray heron]]s, [[common snipe]]s, [[wood sandpiper]]s, [[green pigeon]]s, [[rose ringed parakeet]]s, [[paradise-flycatcher]]s, [[cormorant]]s, [[grey-headed fish eagle]]s, [[white-bellied sea eagle]]s, [[seagulls]], [[common kingfishers]], [[peregrine falcons]], [[woodpeckers]], [[whimbrel]]s, [[black-tailed godwit]]s, [[little stint]]s, [[Calidris tenuirostris|eastern knot]]s, [[curlews]], [[golden plover]]s, [[northern pintail]]s, [[white-eyed pochard]]s and [[Dendrocygna javanica|whistling teal]]s.

====Aqua fauna====
Some of the aquatic animals found in the park are [[sawfish]], [[butter fish]], [[electric ray]]s, [[silver carp]], [[starfish]], [[common carp]], [[horseshoe crab]]s, [[prawn]], [[shrimps]], [[Ganges and Indus River dolphin|Gangetic dolphins]], [[skipping frog]]s, [[common toad]]s and [[tree frogs]].

====Reptiles====
[[File:Big croc.jpg|thumb| right| Crocodile at Sundarbans]]
The Sundarbans National Park houses a large number of reptiles as well, including [[Saltwater crocodile|estuarine crocodiles]], [[chameleon]]s, [[monitor lizard]]s, turtles, including [[olive ridley]], [[Hawksbill turtle|hawksbill]], and [[green turtle]]s; and snakes including [[Burmese python|python]], [[king cobra]], [[rat snake]], [[Daboia|Russell's viper]], [[Cerberus rynchops|dog faced water snake]], [[checkered keelback]], and [[common krait]].

====Endangered species====
The endangered species that lives within the Sundarbans are [[royal Bengal tiger]], [[saltwater crocodile]], [[Batagur baska|river terrapin]], [[olive ridley turtle]], [[Ganges River dolphin]], [[hawksbill turtle]] and [[mangrove horseshoe crab]].

====Marine mammals====
The proposed ''Sundarbans Cetacean Diversity Protected Area'',<ref>[http://us.whales.org/wdc-in-action/sundarbans-bay-of-bengal Sundarbans, Bay Of Bengal]. whales.org</ref> includes the coastal waters off Sundarbans that host critical habitats for endangered [[cetacean]]s;<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mb2IpLZacmU&index=38&list=PL21AB7F821330536C Whale and Dolphins Of Sundarban]. youtube.com</ref> resident groups of [[Bryde's whale]]s, a newly rediscovered critical population of [[Irrawaddy dolphin]]s,<ref>Lawson, Alastair (10 April 2009) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7981772.stm Bangladesh dolphins 'back from dead']. BBC</ref> [[Ganges River dolphin]]s,<ref>Ethirajan, Anbarasan (31 October 2011) [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-15517214 Bangladesh dolphins get Sundarbans sanctuaries]. BBC</ref> and [[humpback dolphin]]s. [[Finless porpoise]]s, [[Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin]]s, [[spinner dolphin]]s, and [[pantropical spotted dolphin]]s are also found in this area.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hoyt, Erich |title=Marine Protected Areas for Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises: A World Handbook for Cetacean Habitat Conservation and Planning|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QiEK_7D0e08C&pg=PA278|date= 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-53830-8|pages=278–}}</ref>

==Management and special projects==
[[File:Sundarban police boat.jpg|thumb|Patrolling boat in Sundarbans]]

Bengal tiger is the commonly found species in this national park. The park had protection since its creation. The core area is free from all human disturbances like collection of wood, honey, fishing and other forest products. However, in the buffer area fishing, honey collection and wood cutting are permitted in limited form. Protection of the park from poaching and theft of forest products is done by well armed forest staff who patrol in motorboats and launches. Forest offices and camps are located at several important parts of the park. Anti-[[poaching]] camps are managed by two to three knowledgeable labourers under supervision of concerned beat guard/Forester/[[Conservation officer|Range officer]].

Habitat of wildlife is maintained through eco-conservation, eco-development, training, education and research. Ten Forest Protection Committees and 14 Eco-development Committees have been formed in the fringe of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve to help in this regard. Seminars, workshops and awareness camps are organised in the vicinity of park to educate the people on eco-conservation, eco-development and such other issues. Mangrove and other plants are planted in the fringe area to meet the local need of [[firewood|fuel wood]] for about 1000 villages and to conserve the buffer area. [[Soil conservation|Conservation of soil]] is done to maintain the ecological balance. Several [[fresh water|sweet water]] ponds have been dug up inside the park to provide drinking water for the wild animals.

Controlling [[man-eating tiger]]s is another major activity. The number of casualties has been reduced from 40 to 10 per year. The reduction in number of casualties is a result of strict control over the movement of the people inside the tiger reserve, alternative income generation and awareness building among people. It is also believed that due to use of human masks and electric human dummies the tigers will stay away from the people. Straying of tigers into nearby villages is prevented through measures such as nylon net fencing and solar illumination of villages. The youths of the villages are given training in controlling the straying of tigers into the villages.

The [[Mangrove Interpretation Centre]] is established at [[Sajnekhali]] to make the local people and tourists aware of the importance of conservation of nature in general and specially the mangrove ecosystems.

===Constraints===
Though protection exists in the park, there are a few loopholes. The geographical topography with hostile terrain cris-crossed by several rivers and their tributaries, long international border with Bangladesh, [[fishing trawler]]s and launches enables poaching and the cutting of wood, affecting the mangrove forests. Lack of staff, infrastructure and lack of funds exacerbate the situation.

==Park-specific information==

[[File:Dobanki Camp.JPG|thumb|Entry to Dobanki Camp.]]
The only means of travelling the park is to by boat, down the various lanes formed by the many flowing rivers. Local boats or vessels operated by the West Bengal Tourism Development Corporation, namely M.V. ''Chitrarekha'' and M.V. ''Sarbajaya''.
[[File:Sudhanyakhali Jetty.JPG|thumb|Closed Jetty of Sundhanyakhali]]
Apart from viewing the wildlife from boat safaris, visitors also visit the Bhagatpur Crocodile Project, a crocodile breeding farm, [[Sagar Island]], Jambudweep, Sudhanyakali watchtower, Buriidabri Tiger Project, Netidhopani Watchtower, [[Haliday Island Wildlife Sanctuary|Haliday Island]], Kanak, and Sajnekhali Bird Sanctuary.

== Sunderban Tiger Reserve ==

===Background===
The Sunderban Tiger Reserve is located in [[South 24 Parganas district|South 24 Paraganas]], West Bengal and has a total geographical area of 2585 km2 with 1437.4 km2 consisting of populated areas and forest covering 1474 km2. Sunderban landscape is continuous with the mangrove habitat in Bangladesh.

Sunderban mangroves form part of the subcontinent's largest mangrove system with a tiger population in a distinct ecological setting. These forests have salt water crocodiles, estuarine and marine turtles and a number of bird species. Besides tiger, the reserve has fishing cat, spotted deer, rhesus monkey and wild pigs.

The Sunderban is isolated with no forest connection to other tiger-occupied main land. Hence, there is heavy biotic pressure for forest resources. On average 500 [[quintal]]s of honey and 30 quintals of wax are collected each year by local people under licence from Forest Department. The habitat is traversed by many narrow [[tidal channel]]s forming small to large islands. Tigers readily cross these islands and man-tiger interactions are common.

The estimation of tiger population in Sunderban, as a part of the all India tiger estimation using the refined methodology, could not be carried out owing to the unique habitat and obliteration of evidences due to high and low tides. Phase-I data collection has been completed and process is on for tiger estimation using a combination of radio [[telemetry]] and [[pugmark]] deposition rate from known tigers.

===Damage from Cyclone Aila===
[[File:Cyclonic Storm Aila on May 24 2009 at 0723 Z.jpg|thumb|Cyclonic Storm Aila on May 24 2009 - Image by [[NASA]]]]
[[Cyclone Aila]] struck Sunderban on 25 May 2009, causing damage to field camps and fringe villages bordering the reserve. Breaches in the embankments on the village side have caused large scale flooding, leaving [[lakh]]s of people marooned in the area. The field camps were under 12 to 15 feet of water for around seven hours, resulting in soil erosion and damage to staff quarters, generators and bamboo pilling. There was a report of a tiger wandering inside an abandoned cattle shed in a village, which was captured and released back in the wild. No tiger death has been reported, apart from mortality of two spotted deer. Several NGOs have been involved in the relief operation.

The Forest Department of the State has constituted a Committee and has assessed a damage of almost Rs. 11150,000. Central assistance amounting to Rs. 10 million under Project Tiger has been provided to the State for restoring the damage done to infrastructure.

===Challenges===
The Sunderban Tiger Reserve has several challenges to its future operations. Due to wandering tigers, man-tiger conflict continues to be an issue. Sunderban tigers hunt humans, and it is estimated that over a thousand of the local people have been killed by tigers over the past four decades.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zHfSTt1tcj0</ref> An estimation of the number of tigers present in the reserve using the refined method has not yet been completed. A tiger conservation plan is awaited as are constitutions for the State level Steering Committee under the Chairmanship of the Chief Minister and the reserve-specific [[National Tiger Conservation Authority|Tiger Conservation Foundation]].

== Transport ==
'''Air''': Sundarban National Park is located 140 km far from Kolkata Airport(Also known as Netaji Subash Chandra Bose Airport and Dum Dum Airport)

'''Rail''': The nearest Railway station of Sundarban National Park is Canning Railway station which is located 29 km far from the Gate way of Sundarban (i.e. Godhkhali)

'''Road''':Sundarban National Park is well connected with kolkata – Basanti High way.

==See also==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Haliday Island Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education]]
* [[Wildlife sanctuaries in India]]
* [[Sangu Matamuhari]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=Banerjee>Banerjee A. (1998). ''Environment, population and human settlements of Sunderban Delta''. 1st edition, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.</ref>

<ref name=Bhattacharya>Bhattacharya A.K. (1989). "Coastal geomorphology, processes and hazards : a note on management measures". ''Proc. Coast zone management of West Bengal'', Sea Explorers’ Institute, Calcutta. pp. D49-61.</ref>

<ref name=Fergusson>Fergusson J. (1963). "Delta of the Ganges". ''Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of India''. Vol. XIII. Part-1.</ref>

<ref name=Ghosh>Ghosh R. K. and Mandal A. K. (1989). ''Sunderban – a socio bio-ecological study''. 1st edition, Bookland Pvt. Ltd. Calcutta.</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/452 Official UNESCO website entry]
* {{Wikivoyage-inline}}
*[http://whc.unesco.org/archive/periodicreporting/APA/cycle01/section2/452.pdf UNESCO Periodic Report]

{{World Heritage Sites in India}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Bangladesh}}
{{Kolkata topics}}

[[Category:World Heritage Sites in India]]
[[Category:National parks of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Protected areas of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Sundarbans]]

Deshaun Watson

2016-05-31T18:50:20Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 166.177.186.3 (talk) (HG) (3.1.20)

{{Infobox college football player
|name=Deshaun Watson
|school= Clemson Tigers
|currentnumber=4
|currentposition=[[Quarterback]]
|class=Junior
|image=Deshaun Watson 2016.jpg
|major=
|birth_date={{Birth date and age|1995|9|14}}
|birth_place=[[Gainesville, Georgia]]
|heightft=6
|heightin=2
|weight=210
|highlights=
* 2013 ''USA Today'' High School All-American
* 2015 ''USA Today'' First Team All-American
* 2015 ACC Player of the Year
* 2015 ACC Offensive Player of the Year
* 2015 ACC Championship Game MVP
* 2015 [[Davey O'Brien Award]]
* 2015 [[Heisman trophy]] finalist (3rd place finish)
* [[2015 Orange Bowl]] MVP
* 2015 Archie Griffin Award
* 2015 [[Manning Award]]
|highschool=[[Gainesville High School (Georgia)|Gainesville (GA)]]
|pastschools=
*[[Clemson University|Clemson]] (2014–present)
|cbs=
|espn=
|si=
|yahoo=240135
|rivals=467759
}}

'''Deshaun Watson''' (born September 14, 1995) is an [[American football]] [[quarterback]] for the [[Clemson Tigers football|Clemson Tigers]]. Watson is from [[Gainesville, Georgia]].

==Early years==
Deshaun Watson was born on September 14, 1995. Watson attended [[Gainesville High School (Georgia)|Gainesville High School]] in [[Gainesville, Georgia]]. Watson arrived at Gainesville in the Fall of 2010. Just one year after, the Gainesville High Red Elephants had lost in the State Championship game to Peach County High School. Gainesville Head Coach Bruce Miller had planned to start a rising junior to quarterback his spread offense, but Watson won the starting spot. Deshaun Watson was the first freshman quarterback Coach Miller had ever started.<ref name="foxcarolina.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.foxcarolina.com/story/23874860/1-high-school-recruit-headed-to-clemson|title=No. 1 high school recruit headed to Clemson|date=4 November 2013|publisher=}}</ref> During his career he set numerous state records, including total yards (17,134), total [[touchdowns]] (218), career passing yards (13,077) and career passing touchdowns (155).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20131223/PC20/131229746|title=Clemson's quarterback of the future: DeShaun Watson|work=Post and Courier}}</ref> He also rushed for 4,057 yards and 63 touchdowns. Watson excelled in his Junior year, winning a state championship and earning accolades such as Junior All-American, 2014 Player to Watch, and 2014 Top 100 Recruit.<ref name="go.com">{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/college-sports/football/recruiting/player/_/id/138829/deshaun-watson|title=Deshaun Watson|work=ESPN.com}}</ref> During his Sophomore and Senior year he was able to lead the Gainesville High School Football Team to the state semi-finals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maxpreps.com/high-schools/gainesville-red-elephants-(gainesville,ga)/football/home.htm|title=Gainesville (GA) Football – MaxPreps|date=17 December 2015|work=MaxPreps.com}}</ref>

==Recruitment==
Deshaun Watson received offers from numerous colleges before committing to Clemson. Some of the offers he considered most seriously came from schools such as the University of Alabama, Auburn University, Florida State University, University of Georgia, Georgia Tech, Louisiana State University, Ohio State, University of Oregon, and University of Southern California. Watson verbally committed to Clemson on February 1, 2012. He was ranked the number one quarterback recruit for the 2014 class by ESPN 300.<ref name="go.com"/>
Since his commitment to Clemson University in 2012, Deshaun Watson has frequently been compared to Clemson’s recently graduated, record-setting quarterback [[Tajh Boyd]]. Both Watson and Boyd are considered dual-threat quarterbacks, earning consistent yards in both the passing and rushing stats. They also both ran the spread offense, and were given the power to choose which play the team ran depending on what they saw in the defense prior to snapping the ball.<ref name="foxcarolina.com"/>

==College career==

===2014 season===
Watson entered his true freshman season as the backup to starter [[Cole Stoudt]], but still received extensive playing time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/blog/acc/post/_/id/74674/clemsons-watson-proves-a-quick-study|title=Clemson Tigers Deshaun Watson proves a quick study – ACC Blog- ESPN|work=ESPN.com}}</ref> During his high school career, Watson wore number 4. At Clemson, that number had been retired after quarterback [[Steve Fuller (American football)|Steve Fuller]] graduated. However, Fuller allowed the number to come out of retirement so that Watson could wear it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clemsontigers.com/ViewArticle.dbml?ATCLID=209389765|title=Deshaun Watson Bio|work=ClemsonTigers.com}}</ref> Through three games, he had completed 29 of 41 passes for 479 yards with four touchdowns and no [[interceptions]], outperforming Stoudt. Watson was named the Tigers starter on September 21.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collegefootball.blog.ajc.com/2014/09/21/deshaun-watson-to-make-first-start-for-clemson/|title=Deshaun Watson to make first start for Clemson. – College Football Insider Blog|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20140921/PC20/140929842|title=It's his time: Deshaun Watson to make his first career start Saturday vs. UNC|work=Post and Courier}}</ref>
In Watson's first career start vs. the [[North Carolina Tar Heels]], Watson set a Clemson record with six touchdown passes and threw for 435 yards in route to a 50–35 victory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/09/27/5204908/clemson-freshman-qb-deshaun-watson.html|title=Clemson freshman QB Deshaun Watson throws six TDs in win over UNC|work=charlotteobserver}}</ref>

On October 11, 2014 Watson broke a bone in his right hand in a game against the [[Louisville Cardinals]]. He left in the 1st quarter and was out for the whole game, and was also out for the games against [[Boston College]], Syracuse, & Wake Forest. He would return for the game against Georgia Tech only to suffer a LCL strain and he missed most of the game.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/college-football/story/_/id/11889281/clemson-tigers-qb-deshaun-watson-avoids-acl-injury-play-versus-south-carolina|title=Clemson Tigers QB Deshaun Watson avoids ACL injury, could play versus South Carolina|work=ESPN.com}}</ref> During the following week in practice it was reported that Watson had tweaked his knee; it was later revealed that he had torn his ACL.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collegefootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2014/11/29/swinney-deshaun-watson-played-on-torn-acl/|title=Swinney: Deshaun Watson played on torn ACL|work=CollegeFootballTalk}}</ref> Watson would not play against Georgia State the following week. However, Clemson announced last minute to start him against arch-rival South Carolina. Watson led the Tigers to a 35–17 win over the Gamecocks despite playing with a torn ACL.

He underwent surgery to repair his ACL the Friday before Clemson's bowl game against Oklahoma.

===2015 season===
In 2015, Watson led the Clemson football team to an undefeated 12-0 regular season and a #1 ranking in the polls. After the regular season, the Tigers qualified for the [[2015 ACC Championship Game|ACC Championship Game]], facing off against #10 [[2015 North Carolina Tar Heels football team|North Carolina]]. Watson threw for 289 yards and 3 touchdowns and ran for 131 yards and 2 touchdowns in the game to lead the Tigers to a 45-37 win over the Tar Heels, winning the ACC Championship for the first time since 2011. Watson was also named the ACC Championship Game MVP for his performance. The Tigers were selected to participate in the 2016 [[College Football Playoff]] and were selected as the #1 seed. The Tigers faced off against the #4 seed [[2015 Oklahoma Sooners football team|Oklahoma Sooners]] in the [[2015 Orange Bowl|Orange Bowl]], one of the two CFP Semifinal games. Watson threw for 189 yards and a touchdown and ran for 145 yards and a touchdown as he led Clemson to a 37-17 victory over the Sooners. Watson was named the 2015 Orange Bowl Offensive MVP for his performance. With the win, the Tigers advanced to the [[2016 College Football Playoff National Championship]] game against #2 [[2015 Alabama Crimson Tide football team|Alabama Crimson Tide]]. Watson threw for 405 yards and four touchdowns in the game and ran for another 73 yards on the ground in the losing effort. Watson surpassed the 4,000 yard passing mark in this game.

For his accomplishments during the 2015 season, Watson was named a finalist for the [[Heisman Trophy]], the first time a Clemson player has been invited to the Heisman Trophy Presentation. Watson finished third in the balloting after winner [[Derrick Henry]] of Alabama and [[Christian McCaffrey]] of Stanford. Watson's third-place finish in Heisman voting is the best finish in Clemson football history. Watson won the [[Davey O'Brien Award]], which is awarded annually to the best college quarterback. Furthermore, Watson was also named the 2015 ACC Player of the Year and the ACC Offensive Player of the Year. Watson had a stellar 2015 campaign winning 14 games and leading his team to the [[2016 College Football Playoff National Championship]]. Deshaun Watson went on to have a historic performance setting the record for most total yards in national championship game history, with 478 yards (405 passing / 73 rushing) against the nation's best defense. He threw for over 4,000 yards in the air and rushed for another thousand yards on the ground as a true sophomore in his 2015 season. Watson was the first, and currently the only, player ever to accomplish this feat in the history of college football.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.clemsontigers.com/ViewArticle.dbml?ATCLID=209389765 Clemson Tigers bio]

{{2015 NCAA Division I FBS College Football Consensus All-Americans}}
{{Davey O'Brien Award}}
{{Archie Griffin Award}}
{{Manning Award}}
{{Clemson Tigers quarterback navbox}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Watson, Deshaun
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American football player
| DATE OF BIRTH = September 14, 1995
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Gainesville, Georgia
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Watson, Deshaun}}
[[Category:1995 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Gainesville, Georgia]]
[[Category:Players of American football from Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:American football quarterbacks]]
[[Category:Clemson Tigers football players]]
[[Category:All-American college football players]]

Die Maschine steht still

2016-05-30T12:05:33Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 96.44.84.61 (talk): Not adhering to neutral point of view (HG) (3.1.20)

{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}
{{Infobox short story |
| name = The Machine Stops
| author = [[E. M. Forster]]
| country = England
| language = English
| series =
| genre = Science fiction short story
| publication_type =
| published_in = ''[[The Oxford and Cambridge Review]]''
| publisher = [[Archibald Constable]]
| media_type = Print (Magazine, Hardback & Paperback)
| pub_date = November 1909
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}
"'''The Machine Stops'''" is a [[science fiction]] [[short story]] (12,300 words) by [[E. M. Forster]]. After initial publication in ''The Oxford and Cambridge Review'' (November 1909), the story was republished in Forster's ''The Eternal Moment and Other Stories'' in 1928. After being voted one of the best novellas up to 1965, it was included that same year in the populist anthology ''Modern Short Stories''.<ref>''Modern Short Stories'', S. H. Burton ed., Longman Heritage of Literature series, Longman Group Ltd, Great Britain, first published 1965, sixth impression 1970</ref> In 1973 it was also included in ''[[The Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Volume Two]]''.

The story, set in a [[post-apocalyptic]] world where humanity lives underground and relies on a giant machine to provide their needs, predicted new technologies such as [[instant messaging]] and the [[Internet]].

==Plot summary==
The story describes a world in which most of the human population has lost the ability to live on the surface of the Earth. Each individual now lives in isolation [[Underground city|below ground]] in a standard 'cell', with all bodily and spiritual needs met by the omnipotent, global Machine. Travel is permitted but unpopular and rarely necessary. Communication is made via a kind of instant messaging/video conferencing machine with which people conduct their only activity: the sharing of ideas and what passes for knowledge.

The two main characters, Vashti and her son Kuno, live on opposite sides of the world. Vashti is content with her life, which, like most inhabitants of the world, she spends producing and endlessly discussing secondhand 'ideas'. Kuno, however, is a sensualist and a rebel. He persuades a reluctant Vashti to endure the journey (and the resultant unwelcome personal interaction) to his cell. There, he tells her of his disenchantment with the sanitised, mechanical world.

He confides to her that he has visited the surface of the Earth without permission and that he saw other humans living outside the world of the Machine. However, the Machine recaptured him, and he has been threatened with 'Homelessness', that is, expulsion from the underground environment and presumed death. Vashti, however, dismisses her son's concerns as dangerous madness and returns to her part of the world.

As time passes, and Vashti continues the routine of her daily life, there are two important developments. First, the life support apparatus required to visit the outer world is abolished. Most welcome this development, as they are skeptical and fearful of first-hand experience and of those who desire it. Secondly, a kind of religion is re-established, in which the Machine is the object of worship. People forget that humans created the Machine, and treat it as a mystical entity whose needs supersede their own.

Those who do not accept the deity of the Machine are viewed as 'unmechanical' and threatened with Homelessness. The Mending Apparatus—the system charged with repairing defects that appear in the Machine proper—has also failed by this time, but concerns about this are dismissed in the context of the supposed omnipotence of the Machine itself.

During this time, Kuno is transferred to a cell near Vashti's. He comes to believe that the Machine is breaking down, and tells her cryptically "The Machine stops." Vashti continues with her life, but eventually defects begin to appear in the Machine. At first, humans accept the deteriorations as the whim of the Machine, to which they are now wholly subservient, but the situation continues to deteriorate, as the knowledge of how to repair the Machine has been lost.

Finally, the Machine [[apocalypse|apocalyptically]] collapses, bringing 'civilization' down with it. Kuno comes to Vashti's ruined cell. Before they perish, they realise that Man and his connection to the natural world are what truly matter, and that it will fall to the surface-dwellers who still exist to rebuild the human race and to prevent the mistake of the Machine from being repeated.

==Themes==
In the preface to his ''Collected Short Stories'' (1947), Forster wrote that "''The Machine Stops'' is a reaction to one of the earlier heavens of [[H. G. Wells]]." In ''[[The Time Machine]]'', Wells had pictured the childlike ''[[Eloi]]'' living the life of leisure of Greek gods whilst the working ''[[Morlock]]s'' lived underground and kept their whole idyllic existence going. In contrast to Wells' political commentary, Forster points to the technology itself as the ultimate controlling force.

==Adaptations==
* A television adaptation, directed by Philip Saville, was shown in the UK on 6 October 1966 as part of the British science-fiction anthology TV series ''[[Out of the Unknown]]''.
* Playwright [[Eric Coble]]'s 2004 stage adaptation was broadcast on 16 November 2007 on [[WCPN|WCPN 90.3 FM]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio]].<ref name="WCPNadaptation">{{cite web|url=http://www.ideastream.org/an/entry/7893|title=WCPN Program Highlights|accessdate = 12 November 2007}}</ref>
* [[BBC Radio 4]] aired [[Gregory Norminton]]'s adaptation as a radio play.<ref>{{Cite episode| publisher = BBC Radio 4 FM| title = Afternoon Play: The Machine Stops| series= BBC Genome| accessdate = 2015-03-29| date = 2001-04-24| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b048jcvg}}</ref>
* ''TMS: The Machine Stops'' is a graphic novel series adaptation written by [[Michael Lent (producer)|Michael Lent]] with art by Marc Rene, published by Alterna Comics in February, 2014.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Machine Stops (mini-series) |url=http://alternacomics.com/#/the-machine-stops/4582365467}}</ref>
* A play written by Neil Duffield is being staged at York Theatre Royal during May-June 2016.<ref>[http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-36289890 "The Machine Stops: Did E M Forster predict the internet age?" by Chris Long], BBC, 18 May 2016</ref>
* [[Mad Magazine]] #1 (Oct-Nov, 1952) had ''[[wikt:blob|Blobs]]'',<ref>{{cite web|title="The Nostrand Zone" by Bhob Stewart|url=http://www.tcj.com/the-nostrand-zone-by-bhob-stewart/|accessdate=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=MAD MAGAZINE NEVER STOPS- 1952 MAD version of MACHINE STOPS (Video)|url=https://mediabastard.wordpress.com/2011/10/25/mad-magazine-never-stops-1952-mad-version-of-machine-stops-wow/|accessdate=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hajdu|first1=David|title=The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great Comic-Book Scare and How It Changed America|page=199|url=https://books.google.de/books?id=U7B6EPG7vG8C&pg=PA199&lpg=PA199&dq=mad+1952+machine+stops+blobs|accessdate=24 September 2015}}</ref> a 7-page story drawn by [[Wallace Wood]] where two inhabitants of 1,000,000 AD discuss the history of man and his evolution into "blobs" totally dependent on the Machine. The sudden breakdown of the Machine, and what results, perfectly reflect the 1909 story ''"The Machine Stops"''.

==Derivative works==
* [[Stephen Baxter (author)|Stephen Baxter]]'s story ''[[Phase Space (book)|Glass Earth Inc.]]'', which refers explicitly to "The Machine Stops", is included in the book ''[[Phase Space (book)|Phase Space]]''.
* The song "The Machine Stops" by the band [[Level 42]] not only shares the same title with the story but also has lyrics that echo Kuno's thoughts.
* Both George Lucas's film ''[[THX 1138]]'' (1971) and the original novel version of ''[[Logan's Run]]'' (1967) by [[William F. Nolan]] and [[George Clayton Johnson]] bear multiple similarities to "The Machine Stops".
* The space rock band [[Hawkwind]] released a concept album titled The Machine Stops in 2016 based on the story by Forster

== See also ==
* [[1909 in science fiction]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Seegert, Alf (2010), "[http://ojs.unbc.ca/index.php/joe/article/view/98/269 Technology and the Fleshly Interface in E.M. Forster's 'The Machine Stops']", ''Journal of Ecocriticism'' 2: 1.
* {{cite journal |last=Napier |first=Susan J. |authorlink=Susan J. Napier |date=November 2002 |title=When the Machines Stop: Fantasy, Reality, and Terminal Identity in ''Neon Genesis Evangelion'' and ''Serial Experiments Lain'' |journal=Science Fiction Studies |volume=29 |issue=88 |pages=418–435 |issn=0091-7729 |url= http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/abstracts/a88.htm#Napier |accessdate=4 May 2007}}
* Pordzik, Ralph. 2010. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/english_literature_in_transition/v053/53.1.pordzik.pdf Closet fantasies and the future of desire in E. M. Forster's "The Machine Stops"]. ''English Literature in Transition 1880–1920'' 53, no. 1 (Winter): 54–74. {{doi|10.2487/elt.53.1(2010)0052}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource}}
* {{librivox book | title=The Machine Stops | author=E. M. FORSTER}}
*[http://www.freisebrothers.com Animated adaptation of the story by The Freise Brothers]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kvrGUnIFuRs Adaptation of E.M. Forster's ''The Machine Stops''] which appeared on UK science fiction TV show [[Out of the Unknown]] on 1966-10-06. (50:38)
*[http://archive.ncsa.illinois.edu/prajlich/forster.html The Machine Stops by E.M. Forster (1909)] Online text

{{E. M. Forster}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Machine Stops, The}}
[[Category:Dystopian literature]]
[[Category:Plays by Eric Coble]]
[[Category:1909 short stories]]
[[Category:Prometheus Award-winning works]]
[[Category:Short stories by E. M. Forster]]
[[Category:Science fiction short stories]]
[[Category:Works originally published in British magazines]]
[[Category:Works originally published in literary magazines]]
[[Category:Constable & Co. books]]
[[Category:Apocalyptic literature]]
[[Category:Works about the Internet]]

Sundarbans-Nationalpark

2016-05-25T22:58:31Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 68.108.74.165 (talk) (HG) (3.1.20)

Blurryface

2016-05-23T13:10:19Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by Chem-darkblue (talk) (HG) (3.1.20)

{{pp-pc1|expiry=18:49, 2 June 2016|small=yes}}
{{Infobox album 
| Name = Blurryface
| Type = Studio
| Artist = [[Twenty One Pilots]]
| Cover = Blurryface by Twenty One Pilots.png
| Released = {{Start date|2015|05|17}}
| Recorded = Serenity West Recording, Paramount Recording Studios, [[Hollywood, California]]; Can Am, Tarzana, California; Sonic Lounge Studios, Grove City, Ohio; Livingston Studios, London; Werewolf Heart, Los Angeles, California
| Genre = {{flatlist|
* [[Alternative hip hop]]<ref name="RfS">{{cite web|first= Andja |last= Curcic |title= Album Review: Twenty One Pilots – Blurryface |date= June 5, 2015 |publisher= Renowned for Sound |url= http://renownedforsound.com/index.php/album-review-twenty-one-pilots-blurryface/ |accessdate= July 11, 2015}}</ref>
* [[electropop]]<ref name="RfS"/>
* [[Hip hop music|hip hop]]<ref name="Sputnik"/><ref name=Pettigrew96/>
* [[indie pop]]<ref name="RfS"/>
* [[Pop music|pop]]<ref name="Sputnik"/><ref name=Pettigrew96/><ref name="AustinChronicleCritic"/>
* [[reggae]]<ref name="Sputnik"/><ref name=Pettigrew96/><ref name="BillboardCritic"/>
* [[Rock music|rock]]<ref name="Sputnik"/>
}}
| Length = {{Duration|m=52|s=23}}
| Label = [[Fueled by Ramen]]
| Producer = {{flatlist|
* Ricky Reed
* [[Mike Elizondo]]
* {{nowrap|[[Mike Crossey]]}}
* [[Tim Anderson (musician)|Tim Anderson]]
* [[Tyler Joseph]]
}}
| Last album = ''[[Vessel (Twenty One Pilots album)|Vessel]]'' (2013)
| This album = '''''Blurryface''''' (2015)
| Next album =
| Misc = {{Singles
| Type = Studio
| Name = Blurryface
| single 1 = [[Fairly Local]]
| single 1 date = March 17, 2015
| single 2 = [[Tear in My Heart]]
| single 2 date = April 6, 2015
| single 3 = [[Stressed Out (Twenty One Pilots song)|Stressed Out]]
| single 3 date = April 28, 2015
| single 4 = [[Lane Boy]]
| single 4 date = May 4, 2015<ref name=AMLaneBoy>{{cite web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/release/lane-boy-mr0004408726|title=Lane Boy - Twenty One Pilots - Release Credits - AllMusic|work=AllMusic|accessdate=June 19, 2015}}</ref>
| single 5 = [[Ride (Twenty One Pilots song)|Ride]]
| single 5 date = May 12, 2015<ref name=AMRide>{{cite web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/release/ride-mr0004411139|title=Ride - Twenty One Pilots - Release Credits - AllMusic|work=AllMusic|accessdate=June 19, 2015}}</ref>
}}
}}
'''''Blurryface''''' (stylized as '''''BLURRYFΛCE''''') is the fourth album released by the American duo [[Twenty One Pilots]]. It is the band's second studio album released through [[Fueled by Ramen]]. Originally set to be released on May 19, 2015, it was released two days early by the band on May 17, via [[iTunes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radio1045.com/onair/off-the-air-cole-55324/surprise-twenty-one-pilots-release-blurryface-13598679|title=SURPRISE! Twenty One Pilots Release "Blurryface" Early!|publisher=Radio 104.5|date=May 17, 2015|accessdate=May 18, 2015}}</ref> The album was preceded by its lead single, "[[Fairly Local]]", released on March 17, 2015. As of March 2016, the album has sold 792,000 copies in the United States. The album contains the ''[[Billboard Hot 100|Billboard]]'' top-five single "[[Stressed Out (Twenty One Pilots song)|Stressed Out]]", which reached number two in February 2016.

==Background and recording ==
Following the release of their third album ''[[Vessel (Twenty One Pilots album)|Vessel]]'' (2013), the band toured extensively in support of the album worldwide.<ref name=AMbio>{{cite web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/twenty-one-pilots-mn0002398414/biography |title=Twenty One Pilots {{!}} Biography |author=Thomas, Fred |work=allmusic.com|accessdate=July 5, 2015}}</ref> While on tour the band had a portable recording studio that allowed them to lay down ideas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hmv.com/music/-we-re-used-to-not-fitting-in-twenty-one-pilots|title="We’re used to not fitting in…" – twenty one pilots|work=HMV|author=Tom|date=June 14, 2014|accessdate=July 4, 2015}}</ref>

"Heavydirtysoul", "Ride", "Fairly Local", "Tear in My Heart", "Lane Boy" and "Doubt" were recorded with producer [[Ricky Reed]] at Serenity West Recording in Hollywood, California.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/> "Stressed Out", "Polarize", "Hometown" and "Not Today" were recorded with producer [[Mike Elizondo]] at Can Am in Tarzana, California.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/> "Ride" was recorded with Reed at Sonic Lounge Studios in Grove City, Ohio.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/> "The Judge" was recorded with producer [[Mike Crossey]] at Livingston Studios in London.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/> "We Don't Believe What's on TV" and "Goner" were recorded with Reed at Paramount Recording Studios in Hollywood, California.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/> "Message Man" was recorded with [[Tim Anderson (musician)|Tim Anderson]] at Werewolf Heart in Los Angeles, California.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/> The album was mixed by [[Neal Avron]], with assistance from Scott Skrzynski, at The Casita in Hollywood, California.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/> The album was mastered by Chris Gehringer at [[Sterling Sound]] in New York City, New York.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/>

==Concept==
The album is named after a character the band created called Blurryface. According to Joseph, he "represents all the things that I as an individual, but also everyone around, are insecure about."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yx44NMDN0ws |title=Twenty One Pilots Explain Why Their Album Is Called "Blurry Face" - MTV News |publisher=YouTube |date=April 28, 2015|accessdate=May 18, 2015}}</ref> Joseph wears black paint on his hands and neck during his live shows and music videos for the album, to represent Blurryface, saying: "Very dramatic, I know, but it helps me get into that character."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/2145391/twenty-one-pilots-blurry-face-stressed-out-video/|title=Um, Why Is The Dude From Twenty One Pilots Covered In Black Goo?|work=MTV News}}</ref>

==Artwork and packaging==
Art direction and design was done by Brandon Rike, Reel Bear Media and Virgilio Tzaj.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/> Rob Gold was the art manager, while Josh Skubel was in charge of packaging production.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/> Jabari Jacobs provided photography.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/>

==Release==
On March 17, 2015, the band announced the album's title, track listing and release date.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/twenty-one-pilots-just-dropped-a-new-track-announced-an-album-and-four-uk-d|title=Twenty One Pilots Just Dropped A New Track, Announced An Album And Four UK Dates. WOW.|work=Rock Sound Magazine|author=Ritchie, Andy |date=March 17, 2015|accessdate=July 5, 2015}}</ref> The band's fans crashed their website attempting to pre-order the album.<ref name=RSWAY>{{cite journal|last1=Bird|first1=Ryan|editor1-last=Bird|editor1-first=Ryan|title=Who Are Ya?|journal=Rock Sound|date=July 2015|issue=201|page=69|publisher=Freeway Press Inc.|location=London|issn=1465-0185}}</ref> The band released their new single "[[Fairly Local]]" on the same day accompanied by its music video which premiered on official [[Fueled by Ramen]] [[YouTube]] channel.<ref>{{cite web|author=Whitt, Cassie |url=http://www.altpress.com/news/entry/hear_twenty_one_pilots_eerie_new_single_fairly_local_from_impending_album_b|title=Hear twenty one pilots' eerie new single "Fairly Local" from impending album 'Blurryface' - Alternative Press|publisher=Alternative Press|accessdate=May 13, 2015}}</ref>

On April 6, the band released the second single of the album, "[[Tear in My Heart]]", with an official music video released through YouTube.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nky4me4NP70 twenty one pilots: Tear In My Heart {{Bracket|Official Video}}]; YouTube, April 6, 2015</ref> The third single, "[[Stressed Out (Twenty One Pilots song)|Stressed Out]]", was released on April 28<ref>{{cite web|url=https://play.google.com/store/music/album/Twenty_One_Pilots_Stressed_Out?id=B7q7qhrhzutymwmbutiqz6xq6bi|title=Twenty One Pilots: Stressed Out - Music on Google Play|publisher=google.com|accessdate=May 13, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cduniverse.com/productinfo.asp?pid=9724989|title=Twenty One Pilots - Stressed Out MP3 Music|publisher=cduniverse.com|accessdate=May 13, 2015}}</ref> with a music video.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/this-new-twenty-one-pilots-video-is-adorable|title=This New Twenty One Pilots Video Is Adorable|work=Rock Sound Magazine|author=Biddulph, Andy |date=April 28, 2015|accessdate=July 5, 2015}}</ref> On May 4, 2015, the band posted a YouTube video streaming the audio of the album's 6th track, "Lane Boy",<ref>{{cite web|author=Emily |url=http://www.kerrang.com/30999/twenty-one-pilots-stream-new-song-lane-boy/|title=twenty one pilots Stream New Song, Lane Boy|publisher=Kerrang!|accessdate=May 13, 2015}}</ref> and released "Ride" seven days later through the same media;<ref>{{cite av media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ngJDugq6uc0|title=twenty one pilots: Ride (Audio)|date=May 11, 2015|publisher=YouTube|accessdate=May 13, 2015}}</ref> both were also singles, being released on the 4th and 12th, respectively.<ref name="AMLaneBoy"/><ref name="AMRide"/> Between the 11th and the 14th the band toured the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/this-twenty-one-pilots-video-is-really-quite-confusing|title=This Twenty One Pilots Video Is Really Quite Confusing|work=Rock Sound Magazine|author=Biddulph, Andy |date=April 28, 2015|accessdate=July 5, 2015}}</ref> The music video for "Ride" was released on May 14,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/twenty-one-pilots-have-posted-a-quite-literally-dark-video-for-ride|title=Twenty One Pilots Have Posted A (Quite Literally) Dark Video For ‘Ride’|work=Rock Sound Magazine|author=Biddulph, Andy |date=May 14, 2015|accessdate=July 5, 2015}}</ref> directed by Reel Bear Media.<ref>{{cite av media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pw-0pbY9JeU|title=twenty one pilots: Ride (Video)|date=May 13, 2015|work=YouTube|accessdate=July 5, 2015}}</ref>

On May 19, 2015, the duo performed at the iHeartRadio Theater LA in Burbank, CA to celebrate the album's release.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.iheart.com/articles/iheartradio-live-485840/iheartradio-live-with-twenty-one-pilots-13536010/|title=iHeartRadio LIVE with twenty one pilots|publisher=iHeartRadio|accessdate=May 28, 2015}}</ref> The concert was livestreamed on iHeartRadio's website. The band has shows and festival stops lasting from May 19 to December 14.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.twentyonepilots.com/tour|title=Tour|publisher=Twenty One Pilots' official website|accessdate=May 28, 2015}}</ref> On July 20, the music video for "Lane Boy" was released.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/watch-twenty-one-pilots-video-for-lane-boy|title=Watch Twenty One Pilots’ Video For ‘Lane Boy’|work=Rock Sound Magazine|author=Biddulph, Andy |date=July 20, 2015|accessdate=July 20, 2015}}</ref> The band is set to play the UK in November.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/twenty-one-pilots-unveil-new-track-announce-another-uk-tour|title=Twenty One Pilots Unveil New Track, Announce ANOTHER UK Tour|work=Rock Sound Magazine|author=Biddulph, Andy |date=May 12, 2015|accessdate=July 5, 2015}}</ref> The tour sold out in a matter of minutes.<ref name=Travers5>Travers 2015, p. 5</ref>

==Reception==
===Critical reception===
{{Album ratings
| MC = 80/100<ref name="meta">{{cite web |url=http://www.metacritic.com/music/blurryface/twenty-one-pilots/critic-reviews |title=Critic Reviews for Blurryface |accessdate=October 7, 2015 |publisher=[[Metacritic]]}}</ref>
| rev1 = ''[[Alternative Press]]''
| rev1score = {{rating|4.5|5}}<ref name="APCritic">{{cite web |url=http://www.altpress.com/reviews/entry/review_twenty_one_pilots_blurryface |title=twenty one pilots - Blurryface |first=Jason |last=Pettigrew |work=[[Alternative Press]] |date=May 19, 2015 |accessdate=May 19, 2015}}</ref>
| rev2 = ''[[The Austin Chronicle]]''
| rev2Score = {{rating|3|5}}<ref name="AustinChronicleCritic">{{cite web |url=http://www.austinchronicle.com/music/2015-10-02/twenty-one-pilots-blurryface/|title=ACL Fest 2015 Saturday Record Review – Twenty One Pilots – Blurryface (Fueled by Ramen)|first=Kevin |last=Curtin|work=[[The Austin Chronicle]] |date=October 2, 2015 |accessdate=October 7, 2015}}</ref>
| rev3 = ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]''
| rev3Score = {{rating|3|5}}<ref name="BillboardCritic">{{cite web |url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/review/6568865/twenty-one-pilots-blurryface-album-review |title=Blurryface - twenty one pilots |first=Garrett |last=Kamps |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |date=May 19, 2015 |accessdate=May 19, 2015}}</ref>
| rev4 = [[Cleveland.com]]
| rev4Score = B<ref name="Cleveland">{{cite web |url=http://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/index.ssf/2015/05/twenty_one_pilots_blurryface_l.html|title=Twenty One Pilots' 'Blurryface' leaves a haze of disappointment (album review) |first=Troy L.|last=Smith|work=[[Cleveland.com]] |date=May 18, 2015 |accessdate=January 5, 2016}}</ref>
| rev5 = ''[[Kerrang!]]''
| rev5Score = {{rating|4|5}}<ref name="meta"/>
| rev6 = ''[[Rolling Stone Australia]]''
| rev6score = {{rating|3|5}}<ref name="RSAus">{{cite web |url=http://rollingstoneaus.com/reviews/post/twenty-one-pilots-blurryface/1600 |title=Twenty-One Pilots - Blurryface|work=[[Rolling Stone Australia]] |author=Yates, Rod |date=May 11, 2015 |accessdate=January 5, 2016}}</ref>
| rev7 = [[Sputnikmusic]]
| rev7score = 3.5/5<ref name="Sputnik">{{cite web |url=http://www.sputnikmusic.com/review/67156/Twenty-One-Pilots-Blurryface/ |title=Twenty One Pilots - Blurryface |work=[[Sputnikmusic]] |author=SowingSeason |date=May 20, 2015 |accessdate=May 20, 2015}}</ref>
}}

''Blurryface'' received mostly positive reviews from music critics. At [[Metacritic]], which assigns a [[Standard score|normalized]] rating out of 100 to reviews from [[music critic]]s, the album has received an [[Weighted arithmetic mean|average]] score of 80, based on 5 reviews, signifying "generally favorable reviews".<ref name="meta"/> Garrett Kamps of ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' hailed the album as a "hot mess (in a good way)", but gave it a mixed review, saying that ''Blurryface'' "doesn't quite reach the heights of Vessel".<ref name="BillboardCritic"/>

[[Sputnikmusic]] and [[Alternative Press]] gave ''Blurryface'' favorable reviews, with the latter being the more positive. Their critic, Jason Pettigrew, described the album as "wonderful" and hailed the band's mix of genres in their songs, highlighting "[[Ride (Twenty One Pilots song)|Ride]]", "Polarize", "Message Man", "[[Tear in My Heart]]", "We Don't Believe What's on TV", "Goner" and "[[Lane Boy]]" in his review.<ref name="APCritic"/>

The album was ranked at number 1 in ''Alternative Press''{{'}}s "10 Essential Records of 2015" list.<ref name=Pettigrew96>Pettigrew 2015, p. 96</ref> Jason Pettigrew of ''Alternative Press'' wrote that the band combined "hip-hop vistas, tinges of reggae, everyman pop and furious electronic urgency and bellicose sadness into an impossibly cohesive record."<ref name=Pettigrew96/> The album was included at number 2 on ''Rock Sound''{{'}}s top 50 releases of 2015 list.<ref>Bird, ed. 2016, p. 29</ref> ''Blurryface'' was nominated for Album Of The Year at the 2016 [[Alternative Press Music Awards]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.altpress.com/aptv/video/and_the_nominees_for_the_2016_apmas_are|title=Here are the nominees for the 2016 AP Music Awards!|work=Alternative Press|author=Whitt, Cassie|date=March 18, 2016|accessdate=May 1, 2016}}</ref>

===Commercial performance===
''Blurryface'' was a success in the United States. It debuted at number one on the [[Billboard 200]], selling 147,000 copies in the United States in its first week, making it Twenty One Pilots' highest charting album in the U.S. It also marked the band's highest opening week in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6576138/twenty-one-pilots-first-no-1-album-billboard-200|title=Blurryface flies to number one of Billboard 200|publisher=Billboard}}</ref> The group also made their first appearance on the UK top 40 with ''Blurryface'' debuting at number 14. By November 2015, the album sold 500,000 copies worldwide.<ref>Garner 2015, p. 21</ref> The following month, it was announced the album's U.S. sales was over 505,000 copies.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Caulfield|first1=Keith|title=Billboard 200 Chart Moves: Taylor Swift's 'Fearless' Surpasses 7 Million Sold in U.S.|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6820858/billboard-200-chart-moves-taylor-swift-fearless-surpasses-7-million|website=Billboard|date=December 23, 2015|accessdate=December 24, 2015}}</ref> By January 2016, the album had sold 592,000 copies in the U.S.<ref name=BillJan4>{{cite web|last1=Caulfield|first1=Keith|title=Adele's Hello Tops Hot 100 for 10th Week as Twenty One Pilots Fly to Top 10|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6828954/adele-hello-hot-100-10th-week-twenty-one-pilots-top-10|website=Billboard|date=January 4, 2016|accessdate=January 4, 2016}}</ref> Two months later, the album's U.S. sales had risen to 753,000 copies.<ref name=USsales2016>{{cite web|last1=Trust|first1=Gary|title=Twenty One Pilots Fly to No. 1 on Pop Songs Chart With 'Stressed Out'|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6898356/twenty-one-pilots-no-1-pop-songs-chart-stressed-out|work=[[Billboard (Magazine)|Billboard]]|publisher=[[Prometheus Global Media]]|date=March 3, 2016|accessdate=March 3, 2016}}</ref> By the end of March, the album's U.S. sales stood at 792,000.<ref name=BBMar29>{{cite web|last1=Rutherford |first1=Kevin |title=Twenty One Pilots 'Ride' to No. 1 on Alternative Songs Chart|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/7317870/twenty-one-pilots-ride-alternative-songs-chart|work=[[Billboard (Magazine)|Billboard]]|publisher=[[Prometheus Global Media]]|date=March 29, 2016|accessdate=March 31, 2016}}</ref> The album has since been certified gold in Canada<ref name=CanadaGold/> and platinum in the U.S.<ref name=USPlatinum/>

==Track listing==
All songs written by [[Tyler Joseph]].<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet/>
{{track listing
| title1 = Heavydirtysoul
| length1 = 3:54
| title2 = [[Stressed Out (Twenty One Pilots song)|Stressed Out]]
| length2 = 3:22
| title3 = [[Ride (Twenty One Pilots song)|Ride]]
| length3 = 3:34
| title4 = [[Fairly Local]]
| length4 = 3:27
| title5 = [[Tear in My Heart]]
| length5 = 3:08
| title6 = [[Lane Boy]]
| length6 = 4:13
| title7 = The Judge
| length7 = 4:57
| title8 = Doubt
| length8 = 3:11
| title9 = Polarize
| length9 = 3:46
| title10 = We Don't Believe What's on TV
| length10 = 2:57
| title11 = Message Man
| length11 = 4:00
| title12 = Hometown
| length12 = 3:54
| title13 = Not Today
| length13 = 3:58
| title14 = Goner
| length14 = 3:56
}}
{{Track listing
| collapsed = yes
| headline = Japanese bonus tracks<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oricon.co.jp/prof/572235/products/1124853/1/|title=ブラーリーフェイス|trans_title=Blurryface|publisher=[[Oricon]]|language=Japanese|accessdate=May 26, 2015}}</ref>
| title15 = [[Guns for Hands]]
| title16 = [[Lovely (Twenty One Pilots song)|Lovely]]
}}

==Personnel==
Personnel per booklet.<ref name=BlurryfaceBooklet>{{cite AV media notes|title=Blurryface |others=Twenty One Pilots |year=2015 |type=Booklet |publisher=Fueled by Ramen|id=7567-86692-2}}</ref>

;Twenty One Pilots
* [[Tyler Joseph]] – programming (tracks 1–6, 8–9 and 12), piano (tracks 1, 5–7 and 12–14), keyboards (tracks 2, 9 and 12), vocals (track 2, 9, 12 and 13), organs (track 3), lead vocals, backing vocals, Hammond organ, synths and gang vocals (track 7), ukulele (tracks 7 and 10), synth bass (track 9)
* [[Josh Dun]] – drums (tracks 1–7, 9–10 and 12–14), percussion (track 7), gang vocals (track 7), vocals (track 13)

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
;Additional musicians
* [[Ricky Reed]] – programming (tracks 1, 3–6, 8 and 14), additional vocals (tracks 1 and 8), bass (tracks 3–6, 10 and 14)
* [[Mike Elizondo]] – upright bass (track 2), programming (tracks 2, 12 and 13), keyboards (tracks 2, 9, 12 and 13), bass (tracks 9, 12 and 13), synth bass (tracks 9 and 12), guitar (tracks 12 and 13), Hammond B3 (track 13), vocals (track 13)
* [[Mike Crossey]] – programming, bass, synths and gang vocals (track 7)
* Jonathan Gilmore – gang vocals (track 7)
* [[Tim Anderson (musician)|Tim Anderson]] – synths and programming (track 11)
* Danny T. Levin – trumpet, trombone and euphonium (track 13)
* David Moyer – tenor sax, alto sax, baritone sax and flute (track 13)
* [[LunchMoney Lewis]] – additional vocals (track 8)

;Additional personnel
* [[Pete Ganbarg]] – [[A&R]]
* Brandon Rike – art direction, design
* Reel Bear Media – art direction, design
* Virgilio Tzaj – art direction, design
* Jabari Jacobs – photography
* Rob Gold – art management
* Josh Skubel – packaging production

{{col-2}}
;Production
* [[Tyler Joseph]] – executive production, co-production
* Chris Woltman – executive production
* [[Ricky Reed]] – executive production, production (tracks 1, 3–6, 8, 10 and 14)
* [[Mike Elizondo]] – production (tracks 2, 9, 12 and 13)
* [[Mike Crossey]] – production (track 7)
* [[Tim Anderson (musician)|Tim Anderson]] – production (track 11)
* [[Neal Avron]] – [[Audio mixing (recorded music)|mixing]]
* Chris Gehringer – [[Audio mastering|mastering]]
* Drew Kapner – engineering (tracks 1, 3–6, 8, 10 and 14)
* Adam Hawkins – engineering (tracks 2, 9, 12 and 13)
* Joe Viers – engineering (track 3)
* Jonathan Gilmore – engineering (track 7)
* Chris Spilfogel – engineering (track 11)
* Scott Skrzynski – assistance
* Michael Peterson – assistance (tracks 1, 4, 6 and 8)
* Brent Arrowood – assistance (tracks 2, 9, 12 and 13)
* Alex Gruszecki – assistance (tracks 3–5)
* Victor Luevanos – assistance (tracks 10 and 14)
* Seth Perez – assistance (track 11)
{{col-end}}

==Charts and certifications==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

===Weekly charts===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
|-
! scope="col"| Chart (2015–16)
! scope="col"| Peak position
|-
{{Albumchart|Australia|11|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=May 23, 2015|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Albumchart|Austria|12|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=March 31, 2016|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Albumchart|Flanders|81|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=May 26, 2015|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{albumchart|BillboardCanada|4|artist=Twenty One Pilots|rowheader=true}}
|-
! scope="row"| Danish Albums ([[Tracklisten|Hitlisten]])<ref>http://hitlisten.nu/. Retrieved February 18, 2016.</ref>
| 15
|-
{{Albumchart|Netherlands|32|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=April 15, 2016|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Albumchart|Finland|32|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=January 10, 2016|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{albumchart|France|52|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=May 9, 2016|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{albumchart|Germany|31|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=April 1, 2016|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{albumchart|Hungary|39|year=2016|week=16|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=April 28, 2016|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{albumchart|Italy|40|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=March 18, 2016|rowheader=true}}
|-
! scope="row" |Japanese Albums ([[Oricon]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oricon.co.jp/prof/572235/products/|title=トゥエンティ・ワン・パイロッツの作品|trans_title=Twenty One Pilots|publisher=[[Oricon]]|language=Japanese|accessdate=May 27, 2015}}</ref>
| 61
|-
{{albumchart|Korea|77|M|title=Gaon Weekly Albums Chart April 24–30, 2016|url=http://gaonchart.co.kr/main/section/chart/album.gaon?nationGbn=T&serviceGbn=&targetTime=18&hitYear=2016&termGbn=week|work=Gaon Music Chart|location=South Korea|accessdate=5 May 2016|rowheader=yes}}
|-
{{albumchart|New Zealand|6|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=May 27, 2015|rowheader=true}}
|-
! scope="row"| Norwegian Albums ([[VG-lista]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lista.vg.no/artist/twenty-one-pilots/album/blurryface/13714|title=VG-lista - Twenty One Pilots / Blurryface|publisher=[[VG-lista]]}}</ref>
| 13
|-
{{albumchart|Poland|23|id=1021|rowheader=true|accessdate=May 12, 2016}}
|-
{{albumchart|Sweden|9|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=April 9, 2016|rowheader=true|note=<ref>http://www.sverigetopplistan.se/. Click on "Veckans albumlista".</ref>}}
|-
{{albumchart|Switzerland|26|artist=Twenty One Pilots|album=Blurryface|accessdate=April 6, 2016|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{albumchart|UK|14|date=2015-05-24|accessdate=May 26, 2015|rowheader=true}}
|-
! scope="row"| US ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Billboard 200|200]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/artist/430557/Twenty+One+Pilots/chart?f=305|title=Twenty One Pilots – Chart history (Billboard 200)|work=billboard.com|accessdate=August 16, 2015}}</ref>
| 1
|-
! scope="row"| US ''Billboard'' [[Vinyl Albums]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/biz/charts/2015-08-22/vinyl-albums|title=Vinyl Albums : Aug 22, 2015|work=billboard.com|accessdate=August 26, 2015}}</ref>
| 1
|}
{{col-2}}

===Year-end charts===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Chart (2015)
!Position
|-
! scope="row"| US [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]]<ref name=Bill200YE>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/2015/top-billboard-200-albums |title=Top Billboard 200 Albums : Dec 31, 2015 {{!}} Billboard Chart Archive|publisher=Billboard|accessdate=January 3, 2016}}</ref>
| 31
|-
! scope="row"| US [[Digital Albums|''Billboard'' Digital Albums]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/2015/digital-albums|title=Digital Albums : Dec 31, 2015 {{!}} Billboard Chart Archive|publisher=Billboard|accessdate=January 3, 2016}}</ref>
| 19
|-
! scope="row"| US [[Rock Albums|''Billboard'' Top Rock Albums]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/2015/top-rock-albums|title=Top Rock Albums : Dec 31, 2015 {{!}} Billboard Chart Archive|publisher=Billboard|accessdate=January 3, 2016}}</ref>
| 7
|}

===Certifications===
{{Certification Table Top}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Canada|artist=Twenty One Pilots|title=Blurry Face|type=album|award=Gold|relyear=2015|certyear=2016|autocat=yes|refname="CanadaGold"}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|artist=Twenty One Pilots|title=Blurryface|type=album|award=Gold|relyear=2015|certyear=2016|accessdate=May 6, 2016|autocat=yes}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United States|artist=Twenty One Pilots|title=Blurryface|type=album|award=Platinum|relyear=2015|certyear=2016|autocat=yes|refname=USPlatinum|salesamount=792,000|salesref=<ref name="USsales2016"/>}}
{{Certification Table Bottom|nosales=true|nounspecified=true}}
{{col-end}}

==Release history==
{| class="wikitable"
!Country
!Date
|-
| {{AUS}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jbhifi.com.au/music/browse/alternative/blurryface/699383/|title=Blurryface|publisher=[[JB Hi-Fi]]|accessdate=May 15, 2015}}</ref>
| align="center" rowspan="5"| May 15, 2015
|-
|{{DEU}}
|-
| {{JPN}}
|-
| {{IRL}}
|-
| {{NLD}}
|-
| {{FIN}}
| align="center" rowspan="5"| May 18, 2015
|-
|{{DNK}}
|-
|{{FRA}}
|-
| {{POL}}
|-
| {{UK}}
|-
| {{EUR}}
| align="center" rowspan="3"| May 19, 2015
|-
| {{CAN}}
|-
| {{USA}}
|}

==References==
; Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}

;Sources
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal|editor1-last=Bird|editor1-first=Ryan|title=Top 50 Releases of the Year|journal=Rock Sound|date=January 2016|issue=208|publisher=Freeway Press Inc.|location=London|issn=1465-0185}}
* {{cite journal|editor1-last=McMahon|editor1-first=James|last1=Garner|first1=George|title=On the Road|journal=Kerrang!|date=November 7, 2015|issue=1593|publisher=Bauer Media Group|location=London|issn=0262-6624}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Pettigrew|first1=Jason|title=10 Essential Records of 2015|journal=Alternative Press|date=December 2015|issue=330|publisher=Alternative Press Magazine, Inc.|location=Cleveland|issn=1065-1667}}
* {{cite journal|editor1-last=McMahon|editor1-first=James|last1=Travers|first1=Paul|title=Twenty One Pilots: The World at Their Feet|journal=Kerrang!|date=June 27, 2015|issue=1574|publisher=Bauer Media Group|location=London|issn=0262-6624}}
{{refend}}

==External links==

*[https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLekNfBXtDGkRExD63PyRAHobK-S5uIGr6 ''Blurryface''] at [[YouTube]] (streamed copy where licensed)

{{Twenty One Pilots}}

[[Category:2015 albums]]
[[Category:Albums produced by Mike Elizondo]]
[[Category:Concept albums]]
[[Category:Fueled by Ramen albums]]
[[Category:Twenty One Pilots albums]]

VANOS

2016-05-19T20:57:24Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 72.215.199.50 (talk) (HG) (3.1.20)

{{distinguish|Vanos|VanossGaming}}
'''VANOS''' (abbr. from German '''va'''riable '''No'''ckenwellen'''s'''teuerung) is an [[automobile|automotive]] [[variable valve timing]] system produced by [[BMW]].

==Operation==
VANOS is a [[variator (variable valve timing)|variator]] system that varies the timing of the [[poppet valve|valves]] by moving the position of the [[camshaft]]s in relation to the drive gear. The relative timing between inlet and exhaust valves is changed.

At lower engine speeds, the position of the camshaft is moved so the valves are opened later, as this improves idling quality and smooth power development.
As the engine speed increases, the valves are opened earlier: this enhances torque, reduces fuel consumption and lowers emissions.
At high engine speeds, the valves are opened later again, because this allows full power delivery.<ref>http://www.bmw.com/com/en/insights/technology/technology_guide/articles/vanos_double_vanos.html</ref>

==Single VANOS==
The first-generation ''single VANOS'' system adjusts the timing of the intake camshaft in [[wikt:discrete|discrete]] steps (e.g. the camshaft is advanced/retarded at certain [[RPM|engine speeds]].<ref name=usautoparts>{{cite web|last=USautoparts|title=VANOS|url=http://www.usautoparts.net/bmw/technology/vanos.htm|accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref> VANOS was first introduced in 1992 on the [[BMW M50]] engine used in 3 and 5 Series.

==Double VANOS==
The second-generation ''double VANOS'' system adjusts the timing of the intake and exhaust camshafts with continuously variable adjustment, based on engine speed and throttle opening. The first double VANOS system appeared on the [[BMW M50#S50B32|S50B32]] engine in 1996.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[BMW]]'s [[Valvetronic]] Variable valve lift system

{{BMW}}

[[Category:Variable valve timing]]
[[Category:BMW]]

Kothaufen-Emoji

2016-05-10T13:56:05Z

Wikipelli: Reverted 1 edit by Tikeem farts (talk) to last revision by Therealelizacat. (TW)

#REDIRECT [[Feces]]

{{R from symbol}}
{{R from Unicode}}

Pikes Peak Goldrausch

2016-05-03T17:43:43Z

Wikipelli: Reverted 1 edit by 97.76.235.28 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG. (TW)

[[File:Pikes Peak miners.jpg|250px|thumb|Gold prospectors in the [[Rocky Mountains]] of western [[Kansas Territory]].]]
The '''Pike's Peak Gold Rush''' (later known as the '''Colorado Gold Rush''') was the boom in [[gold]] prospecting and mining in the [[Pike's Peak Country]] of western [[Kansas Territory]] and southwestern [[Nebraska Territory]] of the United States that began in July 1858 and lasted until roughly the creation of the [[Colorado Territory]] on February 28, 1861. An estimated 100,000 gold seekers took part in one of the greatest [[gold rushes]] in [[North America]]n history.<ref name=ArapahoCamp>{{cite web | date = December 19, 2006 | url = http://www.denvergov.org/AboutDenver/history_narrative_1.asp | title = Denver History – The Arapaho Camp | format = [[Active Server Pages|ASP]]/[[HTML]] | work = Mile High City | author = Thomas J. Noel | publisher = City and County of Denver | accessdate = December 19, 2006 | authorlink = Thomas Noel (historian)}}</ref>

The participants in the gold rush were known as "[[Fifty-Niner]]s" after 1859, the peak year of the rush and often used the motto '''Pike's Peak or Bust!''' But in fact the location of the Pike's Peak Gold Rush was {{convert|85|mi}} north of Pike's Peak. It was only named Pike's Peak Gold Rush because of how well known and important Pike's Peak was.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Robert|title=The Great Pikes Peak Gold Rush|year=1985|publisher=Caxton Press|location=Caldwell, Idaho|isbn=0-87004-412-5}}</ref>

==Overview==
[[File:Prospector in Pikes Peak, CO 4a09164a original.jpg|thumb|Prospector in Pikes Peak]]
The Pike's Peak Gold Rush, which followed the [[California Gold Rush]] by approximately one decade, produced a dramatic but temporary influx of [[immigrant]]s into the [[Pike's Peak Country]] of the [[Rocky Mountains|Southern Rocky Mountains]]. The rush was exemplified by the slogan "Pike's Peak or Bust!", a reference to the prominent mountain at the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains that guided many early prospectors to the region westward over the [[Great Plains]]. The [[Prospecting|prospector]]s provided the first major [[White American|European-American]] population in the region.

The rush created a few mining camps such as [[Denver, Colorado|Denver City]] and [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder City]] that would develop into cities. Many smaller camps such as [[Auraria, Colorado|Auraria]] and [[Denver, Colorado#History|Saint Charles City]] were absorbed by larger camps and towns. Scores of other mining camps have faded into [[ghost town]]s, but quite a few camps such as [[Central City, Colorado|Central City]], [[Black Hawk, Colorado|Black Hawk]], [[Georgetown, Colorado|Georgetown]], and [[Idaho Springs, Colorado|Idaho Springs]] survive.

==Discovery==
[[File:At timber line, Pike's Peak trail. Colo, by Martin, Alexander, d. 1929.jpg|thumb|left|"At timber line, Pike's Peak trail" ~ circa unknown]]
For many years people had suspected the mountains had numerous rich gold deposits. In 1835, a French trapper by the name of Eustace Carriere had ended up losing his party and wandered through the mountains for many weeks. During these weeks he found many gold specimens which he later took back to New Mexico for examination. Upon examination, they turned out to be "pure gold". But when he tried to lead an expedition back to the location of where he found the gold, they came up short because he could not quite remember the location.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hafen|first1=Le Roy Reuben|title=The Illustrated Miners' Hand-book and Guide to Pike's Peak: With a New and Reliable Map, Showing All the Routes and the Gold Regions of Western Kansas and Nebraska|year=1859|publisher=Parker and Huyett|location=Saint Louis}}</ref>

In 1849 and 1850, several parties of gold seekers bound for the [[California Gold Rush]] [[placer mining|panned]] small amounts of gold from various streams in the [[South Platte River]] valley at the foot of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. The Rocky Mountain gold failed to impress or delay men with visions of unlimited wealth in California, and the discoveries were not reported for several years.<ref name=PikesPeakGold>{{cite web | year = 2006 | url = http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Falls/2000/index.html | title = The Pike's Peak Gold Rush | work = The Pike's Peak Gold Rush | author = Gehling, Richard | publisher = Richard Gehling | accessdate = December 19, 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060215083309/http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Falls/2000/index.html|archivedate=2006-02-15}}</ref>

As the hysteria of the California Gold Rush faded, many discouraged gold seekers returned home. Rumors of gold in the Rocky Mountains persisted and several small parties explored the region. In the summer of 1857, a party of [[Spanish language|Spanish-speaking]] gold seekers from [[New Mexico]] worked a [[placer mining|placer deposit]] along the South Platte River about 5 miles (8 kilometers) above [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]] in what is today [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]].<ref name=ArapahoCamp/>
[[File:Gold mining in Boren's Gulch. La Plata County, Colorado - NARA - 517143.jpg|thumb|Sluicing for gold, photo by the U.S. Geological and Geographic Survey of the Territories. (1874–1879) Photographer: [[William Henry Jackson]]]]
[[William Greeneberry Russell|William Greeneberry "Green" Russell]] was a [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgian]] who worked in the California gold fields in the 1850s. Russell was married to a [[Cherokee]] woman, and through his connections to the tribe, he heard about an 1849 discovery of gold along the South Platte River. Green Russell organized a party to prospect along the South Platte River, setting off with his two brothers and six companions in February 1858. They rendezvoused with Cherokee tribe members along the [[Arkansas River]] in present-day [[Oklahoma]] and continued westward along the [[Santa Fe Trail]]. Others joined the party along the way until their number reached 107.<ref name=PikesPeakGold/>

Upon reaching [[Bent's Fort]], they turned to the northwest, reaching the confluence of [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]] and the South Platte on May 23. The site of their initial explorations is in present-day [[Confluence Park]] in Denver. They began prospecting in the river beds, exploring Cherry Creek and nearby [[Ralston Creek (Colorado)|Ralston Creek]] but without success. In the first week of July 1858, Green Russell and Sam Bates found a small placer deposit near the mouth of [[Little Dry Creek (Englewood, Colorado)|Little Dry Creek]] that yielded about 20 [[troy ounce]]s (622 grams) of gold, the first significant gold discovery in the Rocky Mountain region. The site of the discovery is in the present-day Denver suburb of [[Englewood, Colorado|Englewood]], just north of the junction of [[U.S. Highway 285]] and [[U.S. Highway 85]].<ref name=PikesPeakGold/>

==The initial boom==
[[File:Pikes peak-gold rush-map01.jpg|360px|thumb|A map from the late 1850s showing prominent routes to the gold regions.]]

The first decade of the boom was largely concentrated along the South Platte River at the base of the mountains, the canyon of [[Clear Creek (Colorado)|Clear Creek]] in the mountains west of Golden City, at [[Breckenridge, Colorado|Breckenridge]] and in [[South Park (Park County, Colorado)|South Park]] at [[Como, Colorado|Como]], [[Fairplay, Colorado|Fairplay]], and [[Alma, Colorado|Alma]]. By 1860, Denver City, [[Golden, Colorado|Golden City]], and Boulder City were substantial towns serving the mines. Rapid population growth led to the creation of the [[Colorado Territory]] in 1861.

The Pike's Peak Gold Rush sent everyone into a frenzy. Anyone who could afford it was going to pack up their belongings and head out to Colorado. They gathered their supplies, wagons, mules, mining equipment, anything they could think of to sustain them when they arrived at their destination. As soon as the spring of 1859 came around people were in a race to get to Pike's Peak. Some brave adventures even dared to go out in the winter of 1858 to try and get a head start only to realize that they would have to wait until the snow melted to even begin their mining for gold.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pike's Peak Gold Rush|url=http://www.explore-old-west-colorado.com/pikes-peak-gold-rush.html|website=Explore Old West Colorado|accessdate=July 29, 2014}}</ref>

===Free gold===
{{Main|Gold mining in Colorado}}
Hardrock mining boomed for a few years, but then declined in the mid-1860s as the miners exhausted the shallow parts of the veins that contained free gold, and found that their [[Patio process|amalgamation]] mills could not recover gold from the deeper sulfide ores.<ref>A. H. Koschman and M. H. Bergendahl (1968) ''Principal Gold-Producing Districts of the United States'', US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 610, p.86.</ref> This problem was eventually solved and gold and silver mining in Colorado became a major industry.

Colorado produced 150,000 ounces of gold in 1861 and 225,000 troy ounces in 1862. This led Congress to establish the [[Denver Mint]]. Cumulative Colorado production by 1865 was 1.25 million ounces, of which sixty percent was placer gold.<ref name=Voynick>Voynick, S.M., 1992, Colorado Gold, Missoula: Mountain Press Publishing Company, ISBN 0878424555</ref>{{rp|28–30}}

==See also==
*[[Silver mining in Colorado]]
*[[Colorado Silver Boom]]
*[[Horace Greeley]], namesake of [[Greeley, Colorado|Greeley]], [[Colorado]], who mined for gold in the rush

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{sister project links}}
{{Gold rush}}
{{Colorado}}
{{Wild West}}

[[Category:American gold rushes]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Colorado]]
[[Category:Gold mining in Colorado]]
[[Category:Economy of Colorado]]
[[Category:Colorado Mining Boom]]
[[Category:Economic history of the United States]]
[[Category:Jefferson Territory]]
[[Category:Mining in Colorado]]
[[Category:Pikes Peak]]
[[Category:American Old West]]
[[Category:Kansas Territory]]
[[Category:1858 in Kansas Territory]]

Macroom Castle

2016-05-02T11:43:39Z

Wikipelli: Undid revision 718246315 by Wikipelli (talk)

[[File:Macroom Castle.jpg|thumb|Macroom Castle gatehouse]]
'''Macroom Castle''' stands in the town of [[Macroom]], County Cork, [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], roughly half way between Cork and Killarney, guarding the historic ford across the River Sullane.

The main building, based on the original keep, is a three story 6 bay by 3 bay block, which is now covered in ivy. The only other remaining building is the gatehouse and attached walls.

==History==
The castle was probably erected in the 12th century by the O'Flynn family, as its Irish name of ''Caislean-i-Fhlionn'' suggests. The O'Flynns owned land in this part of what was then the Kingdom of Muskerry, but were overcome by the McCarthys, who were to occupy the Castle until the middle of the 17th century. Tiege MacCarty, father of Lord Muskerry, restored and enlarged the castle and died there in 1565. In 1602 the then owner, Cormac McDermot Carthy, Lord Muskerry was arrested and the castle subjected to siege, during which it caught fire. During the rebellion of 1641, [[Donough MacCarty, 2nd Viscount Muskerry]] was visited at the castle by the Papal Nuncio, who stayed for four days.

In 1650 [[Boetius MacEgan]], [[Bishop of Ross (Ireland)|Bishop of Ross]], assembled a [[Confederation of Kilkenny|Confederation]] army at the castle, but when the Cromwellian troops of [[Lord Broghill]] arrived, the castle garrison again set fire to the building before joining the rebel army in the castle park. During the ensuing battle the Bishop and the [[High Sheriff of Kerry]] were taken prisoners, the Sheriff shot and the bishop offered his freedom if he could persuade the garrison of [[Carrigadrohid]] Castle to surrender. However, on arrival at Carrigadrohid he chose instead to exhort the garrison to hold on and was hanged from a nearby tree. Later in the war Macroom Castle was said to have been burned yet again by [[Henry Ireton|General Ireton]].

During the Commonwealth era possession of the castle was given to [[Admiral Sir William Penn]], the father of the founder of Pennsylvania. At the [[Restoration (England)|restoration of the Monarchy]] it was restored to the McCarthys, who further enlarged and renovated it. In 1691 the castle estate was confiscated from [[Donough MacCarty, 4th Earl of Clancarty]] for his allegiance to King James II and the castle sold
by auction in 1703. It was acquired by the Hollow Sword Blade Co., who resold it to Judge Bernard. It then passed to the Hedges Eyre family and afterwards to Lord Ardilaun. The castle was burned for the last time in 1922, following the evacuation of British Auxiliaries from the town, by anti-treaty forces led by [[Robert Erskine Childers|Erskine Childers]] and [[Frank O'Connor]].

Lady Olivia Ardilaun, a descendant of the McCarthy chiefs, and the widow of [[Arthur Guinness, 1st Baron Ardilaun|Lord Ardilaun]], sold the castle demesne in 1924 to a group of local businessmen, to be held in trust for the people of the town.<ref>Keane, Barry. "[https://sites.google.com/site/protestantcork191136/home/protestant-cork-decline-1911-1926-murders-mistakes-myths-and-misinformation-updated-25th-july-2012 Protestant Cork in decline 1911-1926; Murders, Mistakes, Myths, and Misinformation]"</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{cite book|title=Castles of Ireland; some fortress histories and legends|first=C.L.|last= Adams|page=289}}

==External Links==

{{coord|51|54|21|N|8|57|54|W|region:IE_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{Historic Irish houses}}

[[Category:Castles in County Cork]]

Macroom Castle

2016-05-02T11:43:16Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 109.76.146.245 (talk) (HG) (3.1.20)

[[File:Macroom Castle.jpg|thumb|Macroom Castle gatehouse]]
'''Macroom Castle''' stands in the town of [[Macroom]], County Cork, [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], roughly half way between Cork and Killarney, guarding the historic ford across the River Sullane. It now functions as an hotel.

The main building, based on the original keep, is a three story 6 bay by 3 bay block, which is now covered in ivy. The only other remaining building is the gatehouse and attached walls.

==History==
The castle was probably erected in the 12th century by the O'Flynn family, as its Irish name of ''Caislean-i-Fhlionn'' suggests. The O'Flynns owned land in this part of what was then the Kingdom of Muskerry, but were overcome by the McCarthys, who were to occupy the Castle until the middle of the 17th century. Tiege MacCarty, father of Lord Muskerry, restored and enlarged the castle and died there in 1565. In 1602 the then owner, Cormac McDermot Carthy, Lord Muskerry was arrested and the castle subjected to siege, during which it caught fire. During the rebellion of 1641, [[Donough MacCarty, 2nd Viscount Muskerry]] was visited at the castle by the Papal Nuncio, who stayed for four days.

In 1650 [[Boetius MacEgan]], [[Bishop of Ross (Ireland)|Bishop of Ross]], assembled a [[Confederation of Kilkenny|Confederation]] army at the castle, but when the Cromwellian troops of [[Lord Broghill]] arrived, the castle garrison again set fire to the building before joining the rebel army in the castle park. During the ensuing battle the Bishop and the [[High Sheriff of Kerry]] were taken prisoners, the Sheriff shot and the bishop offered his freedom if he could persuade the garrison of [[Carrigadrohid]] Castle to surrender. However, on arrival at Carrigadrohid he chose instead to exhort the garrison to hold on and was hanged from a nearby tree. Later in the war Macroom Castle was said to have been burned yet again by [[Henry Ireton|General Ireton]].

During the Commonwealth era possession of the castle was given to [[Admiral Sir William Penn]], the father of the founder of Pennsylvania. At the [[Restoration (England)|restoration of the Monarchy]] it was restored to the McCarthys, who further enlarged and renovated it. In 1691 the castle estate was confiscated from [[Donough MacCarty, 4th Earl of Clancarty]] for his allegiance to King James II and the castle sold
by auction in 1703. It was acquired by the Hollow Sword Blade Co., who resold it to Judge Bernard. It then passed to the Hedges Eyre family and afterwards to Lord Ardilaun. The castle was burned for the last time in 1922, following the evacuation of British Auxiliaries from the town, by anti-treaty forces led by [[Robert Erskine Childers|Erskine Childers]] and [[Frank O'Connor]].

Lady Olivia Ardilaun, a descendant of the McCarthy chiefs, and the widow of [[Arthur Guinness, 1st Baron Ardilaun|Lord Ardilaun]], sold the castle demesne in 1924 to a group of local businessmen, to be held in trust for the people of the town.<ref>Keane, Barry. "[https://sites.google.com/site/protestantcork191136/home/protestant-cork-decline-1911-1926-murders-mistakes-myths-and-misinformation-updated-25th-july-2012 Protestant Cork in decline 1911-1926; Murders, Mistakes, Myths, and Misinformation]"</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{cite book|title=Castles of Ireland; some fortress histories and legends|first=C.L.|last= Adams|page=289}}

==External Links==

{{coord|51|54|21|N|8|57|54|W|region:IE_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{Historic Irish houses}}

[[Category:Castles in County Cork]]

Benutzer:RyziX/Gott ist nicht tot 2

2016-05-01T12:06:20Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 2602:306:8B57:7330:B0DB:14BD:E97B:9DA6 (talk): Not adhering to neutral point of view (HG) (3.1...

{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox film
| name = God's Not Dead 2
| image = God's Not Dead 2 poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Harold Cronk]]
| producer = {{plainlist|
* Elizabeth Hatcher-Travis
* Brittany Lefebvre
* Michael Scott
* [[David A. R. White]]
* Russell Wolfe
* Nathan Wenban
}}
| writer = {{plainlist|
* Chuck Konzelman
* Cary Solomon
}}
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Melissa Joan Hart]]
* [[Jesse Metcalfe]]
* [[David A. R. White]]
* [[Hayley Orrantia]]
* [[Sadie Robertson]]
* [[Ernie Hudson]]
}}
| music = Will Musser
| cinematography = [[Brian Shanley]]
| editing = Vance Null
| distributor = [[Pure Flix Entertainment]]
| released = {{Film date|2016|04|01}}
| runtime = 120 minutes<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/gods-not-dead-2-film | title=''GOD'S NOT DEAD 2'' (PG) | work=[[British Board of Film Classification]] | date=April 12, 2016 | accessdate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $5 million<ref name="budget">{{cite web|last1=Schwartzel|first1=Erich|title=Hollywood finds faith: Miracles from Heaven, God’s Not Dead 2|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/wall-street-journal/hollywood-finds-faith-miracles-from-heaven-gods-not-dead2/news-story/e718dc435a8a8d94f7fea1a36e5d1ea6|website=The Australian Business Review|publisher=The Wall Street Journal|accessdate=March 30, 2016}}</ref>
| gross = $21.2 million<ref name="BOM">{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=godsnotdead2.htm |title=God's Not Dead 2 (2016) |work = [[Box Office Mojo]] |accessdate=April 28, 2016}}</ref>
}}
'''''God's Not Dead 2''''' is a 2016 American [[Christian film industry|Christian]] [[drama film]] directed by [[Harold Cronk]] and stars [[Melissa Joan Hart]], [[Jesse Metcalfe]], [[David A. R. White]], [[Hayley Orrantia]], and [[Sadie Robertson]]. It is the [[sequel]] to the 2014 film ''[[God's Not Dead (film)|God's Not Dead]]'' and was released on April 1, 2016. It was the final film role for [[Fred Thompson]].

==Plot==
{{more plot|date=April 2016}}
After answering a student's ([[Hayley Orrantia]]) question about Jesus, a high school teacher ([[Melissa Joan Hart]]) faces a court case that could end her career.

==Cast==
{{Div col||30em}}
* [[Melissa Joan Hart]] as Grace Wesley
* [[Jesse Metcalfe]] as Tom Endler
* [[David A. R. White]] as Reverend Dave
* [[Hayley Orrantia]] as Brooke Thawley
* [[Sadie Robertson]] as Marlene
* [[Ernie Hudson]] as Judge Stennis
* [[Pat Boone]] as Walter Wesley
* [[Fred Thompson]] as Senior Pastor
* [[Robin Givens]] as Miss Kinney
* [[María Canals Barrera|Maria Canals-Barrera]] as Catherine Thawley
* Benjamin Onyango as Reverend Jude
* [[Ray Wise]] as Pete Kane
* Paul Kwo as Martin Yip
* [[Jon Lindstrom]] as Superintendent Jim Powell
* [[Eamonn McCrystal]] as Simon Boyle
* [[Abigail Duhon]] as Jessica
* The [[Newsboys]] (''cameo'')<ref name="Cast&Crew">{{cite web | title=Full Cast & Crew | url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4824308/fullcredits?ref_=tt_cl_sm#cast | publisher=''[[IMDb]]'' | accessdate=April 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianpost.com/news/duck-dynasty-sadie-robertson-teases-acting-debut-in-gods-not-dead-2-video-146910/ |title='Duck Dynasty' Sadie Robertson Teases Acting Debut in 'God's Not Dead 2' (Video) |publisher=Christianpost.com |date=June 23, 2015 |accessdate=October 7, 2015}}</ref> as themselves
* [[Mike Huckabee]], [[Lee Strobel]], and [[J. Warner Wallace]] (''cameo'')<ref name="Cast&Crew"/> as themselves
{{Div col end}}

==Production==
In July 2015, it was announced that production of ''God's Not Dead 2'' was nearly complete.<ref name=production>O'Brien, Cortney. July 8, 2015, townhall.com "[http://townhall.com/tipsheet/cortneyobrien/2015/07/08/starstudded-gods-not-dead-2-will-follow-a-teachers-battle-for-religious-liberty-n2022342 Star-Studded ‘God’s Not Dead 2’ Wrapping up Production, Will Expose an Academic War on Faith]". Accessed December 29, 2015.</ref>

==Release==
===Promotion===
The day before the [[Iowa caucuses]], presidential candidate [[Mike Huckabee]] (who appears in one scene) offered a free screening of the film.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianpost.com/news/mike-huckabee-gods-not-dead-2-iowa-caucuses-156161/|title=Mike Huckabee Screening 'God's Not Dead 2' for Iowa Caucuses|work=Christian Post}}</ref>

===Box office===
In its opening weekend, the film grossed $7.6 million (less than the original's opening of $8.6 million), finishing fourth at the box office behind ''[[Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice]]'' ($51.3 million), ''[[Zootopia]]'' ($19.3 million) and ''[[My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2]]'' ($11.2 million).<ref name=CinemaScore/>

===Critical response===
[[Rotten Tomatoes]] gives the film a rating of 10%, based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 3.6/10. The site's consensus states: "Every bit the proselytizing lecture promised by its title, ''God's Not Dead 2'' preaches ham-fistedly to its paranoid conservative choir."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/gods_not_dead_2/ |title=God's Not Dead 2 (2016) |website=Rotten Tomatoes |accessdate=April 28, 2016}}</ref> On [[Metacritic]], the film has a score of 22 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metacritic.com/movie/gods-not-dead-2 |title=God's Not Dead 2 reviews |publisher=Metacritic |date= |accessdate=April 6, 2016}}</ref> Audiences polled by [[CinemaScore]] gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.<ref name="CinemaScore">{{cite web|url=http://deadline.com/2016/04/batman-v-superman-box-office-second-weekend-gods-not-dead-2-1201729796/ |title='Batman V Superman's Knock-Down, Drag-Out Fight with the Box Office: 2nd Weekend At $52M+, -68% |work=deadline.com}}</ref>

Bill Zwecker of the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'' felt that the underlying issues presented in the film are relevant in today's world, but criticized its lack of subtlety, saying, "the entire film simply comes off as a two-hour, jazzed-up movie version of a sermon."<ref>{{cite news|title='God's Not Dead 2': Too much Bible thumping bruises the story|url=http://chicago.suntimes.com/entertainment/review-gods-not-dead-2/|author=Bill Zwecker|work=[[Chicago Sun-Times]]|date=March 31, 2016|accessdate=April 1, 2016}}</ref> Frank Scheck of ''[[The Hollywood Reporter]]'' criticized the film's "[[straw man]]" argument and its perceived victimizing of Christians: "Pounding its agenda with all the subtlety of a sledgehammer, ''God's Not Dead 2'' will no doubt please its target audience. Everyone else will be left wondering why its fans seem to be suffering from such a persecution complex."<ref>{{cite news|title='God's Not Dead 2': Film Review|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/gods-not-dead-2-film-879849|author=Frank Scheck|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|date=April 1, 2016|accessdate=April 1, 2016}}</ref> Jordan Hoffman at ''[[The Guardian]]'' deemed it "a much better movie than ''God's Not Dead'', but that's a bit like saying a glass of milk left on the table hasn't curdled and is merely sour" and stated that "it is unfortunately just professional enough that there are only brief instances of transcendent badness, rather than drawn-out sequences."<ref>{{cite news|title=God's Not Dead 2 review – only brief instances of transcendent badness|url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/apr/01/gods-not-dead-2-review-pure-flix|author=Jordan Hoffman|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=April 1, 2016|accessdate=April 1, 2016}}</ref> Others were kinder. Nick Olszyk of ''Catholic World Report'' admitted that the film "doesn't have the knockout punch of its predecessor but still a decent left hook.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicworldreport.com/Blog/4721/from_the_classroom_to_the_courtroom_igods_not_dead_2i.aspx |title=From the Classroom to the Courtroom: God's Not Dead 2 |publisher=Catholic World Report |date= |accessdate=April 14, 2016}}</ref>

In reviewing the film, Roger Patterson, of the [[Christian apologetics]] organization [[Answers in Genesis]], stated that although the film was "much better than [[God's Not Dead (film)|the first]]" due to the absence of the evolutionary ideas in the first film as well as other aspects, he criticized the film for presenting an "empirical, evidentialist apologetic that pointed to Jesus as a simple historical figure," as well as having many Christian [[cliché]]s.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Patterson | first1=Roger | title=Movie Review: ''God’s Not Dead 2'' | url=https://answersingenesis.org/reviews/movies/gods-not-dead-2/ | date=April 25, 2016 | publisher=''[[Answers in Genesis]]'' | accessdate=April 26, 2016}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{official website|http://godsnotdeadthemovie.com/}}
* {{IMDb title|4824308|God's Not Dead 2}}
* {{Mojo title|godsnotdead2|God's Not Dead 2}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes|gods_not_dead_2|God's Not Dead 2}}
* {{Metacritic|gods-not-dead-2|God's Not Dead 2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:God's Not Dead Two}}
[[Category:2010s drama films]]
[[Category:2010s independent films]]
[[Category:2016 films]]
[[Category:American drama films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:American independent films]]
[[Category:American legal films]]
[[Category:American sequel films]]
[[Category:Courtroom films]]
[[Category:English-language films]]
[[Category:Films about Christianity]]
[[Category:Films about Evangelicalism]]
[[Category:Films about education]]
[[Category:Films about educators]]
[[Category:Films directed by Harold Cronk]]
[[Category:Films shot in Arkansas]]
[[Category:Pure Flix Entertainment films]]

{{film-stub}}

Benutzer:Snackroeg/Kernreaktoren der Generation 5

2014-09-24T17:00:12Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 64.254.64.2 (talk) (HG)

[[File:GenIVRoadmap.jpg|right|480px|Nuclear Energy Systems Deployable no later than 2030 and offering significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, and economics]]
'''Generation IV reactors''' (Gen IV) are a set of mostly theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. Most of these designs, with the exception of the [[BN-800 reactor]], are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030.<ref name="Generation IV">[http://www.euronuclear.org/1-information/generation-IV.htm Generation IV]</ref> Most reactors in operation around the world are generally considered [[Generation II reactor|second generation reactor]] systems, with most of the [[Generation I reactor|first-generation]] systems having been retired some time ago while there are only a dozen or so [[Generation III reactors]] in operation(2014). [[Nuclear reactor#Generation V.2B reactors|Generation V reactors]] refer to reactors that may be possible but are not yet considered feasible in the short term, and are therefore not receiving as much [[R&D]] funding.

== Reactor types ==
Many reactor types were considered initially; however, the list was downsized to focus on the most promising technologies and those that could most likely meet the goals of the Gen IV initiative.<ref name="Generation IV"/> Three systems are nominally [[thermal reactor]]s and three are [[fast reactor]]s. The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is also being researched for potentially providing high quality process heat for [[thermochemical cycle|hydrogen production]]. The fast reactors offer the possibility of burning [[actinides]] to further reduce waste and of being able to "[[breeder reactor|breed more fuel]]" than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance (depending on perspective) and physical protection.

=== Thermal reactors ===
A [[Thermal-neutron reactor|thermal reactor]] is a [[nuclear reactor]] that uses slow or [[thermal neutrons]]. A [[neutron moderator]] is used to slow the [[neutron]]s emitted by fission to make them more likely to be captured by the fuel.

==== Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) ====
[[File:Very High Temperature Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR)]]
{{Main|Very high temperature reactor}}
{{see also|Fort St. Vrain Generating Station|HTTR|HTR-10}}
The '''very high temperature reactor''' concept uses a [[graphite]]-moderated core with a once-through [[uranium]] fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt as the [[Very high temperature reactor#Coolant|coolant]]. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000 °C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a [[pebble bed reactor]] design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or [[hydrogen]] production via the thermochemical [[Sulfur-iodine cycle|iodine-sulfur]] process. It would also be [[Passive nuclear safety|passively safe]].

The planned construction of the first VHTR, the South African PBMR ([[pebble bed modular reactor]]), lost government funding in February, 2010.<ref>[http://www.powergenworldwide.com/index/display/articledisplay/6322207443/articles/power-engineering-international/volume-18/Issue_3/regulars/world-news/INTERNATIONAL.html South Africa to stop funding Pebble Bed nuclear reactor]</ref> A pronounced increase of costs and concerns about possible unexpected technical problems had discouraged potential investors and customers.

The [[Peoples Republic of China]] began construction of a 200-MWe High Temperature Pebble bed reactor in 2012 as a successor to its [[HTR-10]].<ref>[http://www.nucnet.org/all-the-news/2013/01/07/china-begins-construction-of-first-generation-iv-htr-pm-unit Nucnet Report: 'China Begins Construction of First Generation IV HTR-PM Unit', 7 January 2013]</ref>

Also in 2012, as part of the [[Next Generation Nuclear Plant]] competition, [[Idaho National Laboratory]] approved a design similar to [[Areva]]'s prismatic block [http://de.areva.com/EN/areva-germany-312/future-reactor-concepts.html Antares reactor] as the chosen [[HTGR]] to be deployed as a prototype by 2021. It was in competition with [[General Atomics]]' [[Gas turbine modular helium reactor]] and [[Westinghouse Electric Company|Westinghouse]]'s [[Pebble Bed Modular Reactor]].<ref name="World nuclear news">{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Areva_modular_reactor_selected_for_NGNP_development-1502124.html|title=INL approves Antares design}}</ref>

==== Molten-salt reactor (MSR) ====
[[File:Molten Salt Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)]]
{{Main|Molten salt reactor}}
{{see also|Liquid fluoride thorium reactor}}
A '''molten salt reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a type of [[nuclear reactor]] where the primary [[coolant]], or even the fuel itself is a molten salt mixture. There have been many designs put forward for this type of reactor and a few prototypes built. The early concepts and many current ones rely on [[nuclear fuel]] dissolved in the molten [[fluoride]] salt as [[uranium tetrafluoride]] (UF4) or [[thorium tetrafluoride]] (ThF4). The fluid would reach [[Nuclear reactor physics#Criticality|criticality]] by flowing into a [[graphite]] core which would also serve as the [[neutron moderator|moderator]]. Many current concepts rely on fuel that is dispersed in a graphite matrix with the molten salt providing low pressure, high temperature cooling.

The Gen IV MSR is more accurately termed an [[epithermal neutron|epithermal reactor]] than a thermal reactor due to the average speed of the neutrons that would cause the fission events within its fuel being faster than [[thermal neutron]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://inlportal.inl.gov/portal/server.pt?open=514&objID=1361&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=10&mode=2&in_hi_userid=200&cached=true |title=Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors}}</ref>

The principle of a MSR can be used for thermal, epithermal and fast reactors. Since 2005 the focus has moved towards a fast spectrum MSR (MSFR).
<ref>H. Boussier, S. Delpech, V. Ghetta et Al. : The Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) in Generation IV: Overview and Perspectives, GIF SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS/2012 ANNUAL REPORT, NEA No. 7141, pp95 [https://www.gen-4.org/gif/jcms/c_44720/annual-reports]
</ref>

==== Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) ====
[[File:Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)]]
{{Main|Supercritical water reactor}}
The '''supercritical water reactor''' (SCWR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a [[reduced moderation water reactor]] concept that, due to the average speed of the neutrons that would cause the fission events within the fuel being faster than [[thermal neutron]]s, it is more accurately termed an [[epithermal neutron|epithermal reactor]] than a thermal reactor. It uses [[supercritical fluid|supercritical water]] as the working fluid. SCWRs are basically [[light water reactor]]s (LWR) operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct, once-through heat exchange cycle. As most commonly envisioned, it would operate on a direct cycle, much like a boiling water reactor ([[BWR]]), but since it uses supercritical water (not to be confused with [[Critical mass (nuclear)|critical mass]]) as the working fluid, it would have only one water phase present, which makes the supercritical heat exchange method more similar to a pressurized water reactor ([[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]]). It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs.

Supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) are promising advanced nuclear systems because of their high [[thermal efficiency]] (i.e., about 45% vs. about 33% efficiency for current LWRs) and considerable plant simplification.

The main mission of the SCWR is generation of low-cost [[electricity]]. It is built upon two proven technologies, LWRs, which are the most commonly deployed power generating reactors in the world, and supercritical [[fossil fuel]] fired [[boiler]]s, a large number of which are also in use around the world. The SCWR concept is being investigated by 32 organizations in 13 countries.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

A SCWR Design under development is the [[VVER]]-1700/393 (VVER-SCWR or VVER-SKD) — a Russian Supercritical-water-cooled reactor with double-inlet-core and a [[breeder reactor|breeding ratio]] of 0.95.<ref name="powertecrussia.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.powertecrussia.com/blog/tag/nuclear-power/ |title=Technology Developments & Plant Efficiency for the Russian Nuclear Power Generation Market Wednesday |date=March 24, 2010}}</ref>

=== Fast reactors ===
A [[Fast-neutron reactor|fast reactor]] directly uses the fast neutrons emitted by fission, without moderation. Unlike thermal neutron reactors, fast neutron reactors can be configured to "burn", or fission, all [[actinides]], and given enough time, therefore drastically reduce the actinides fraction in [[spent nuclear fuel]] produced by the present world fleet of thermal neutron [[Light Water Reactor]]s, thus closing the [[Nuclear fuel cycle]]. Alternatively, if configured differently, they can also [[breeder reactor|breed]] more actinide fuel than they consume.

==== Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) ====
[[File:Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)]]
{{Main|Gas-cooled fast reactor}}
The '''gas-cooled fast reactor''' (GFR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> system features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]] for efficient conversion of [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and management of [[actinide]]s. The reactor is [[helium]]-cooled and with an outlet temperature of 850 °C it is an evolution of the [[Very High Temperature Reactor]](VHTR) to a more sustainable fuel cycle. It will use a direct [[Brayton cycle]] [[Closed-cycle gas turbine|gas turbine]] for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to operate at very high temperatures and to ensure an excellent retention of [[Nuclear fission|fission]] products: composite [[ceramic]] fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic clad elements of actinide compounds. Core configurations are being considered based on pin- or plate-based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks.

The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding three Generation IV reactor systems, one of which is a gas-cooled fast reactor, called ''Allegro'', 100 MW(t), which will be built in a central or eastern European country with construction expected to begin in 2018.<ref name="euronuclear.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.euronuclear.org/1-information/news/Gen-IV.htm |title=The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative (ESNII) will support three Generation IV reactor systems: a sodium-cooled fast reactor, or SFR, called ''Astrid'' that is proposed by France; a gas-cooled fast reactor, GFR, called ''Allegro'' supported by central and eastern Europe; and a lead-cooled fast reactor, LFR, technology pilot called ''Myrrha'' that is proposed by Belgium.}}</ref> The central European [[Visegrád Group]] are committed to pursuing the technology.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alphagalileo.org/ViewItem.aspx?ItemId=133111&CultureCode=en |title=The V4G4 Centre of Excellence for performing joint research, development and innovation in the field of Generation-4 (G4) nuclear reactors have been established. 20 July 2013 National Center for Nuclear Research (NCBJ]}}</ref> In 2013 German, British, and French institutes finished a 3 year collaboration study on the follow on industrial scale design, known as ''GoFastR''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ist-world.org/ProjectDetails.aspx?ProjectId=5cb8f3f283574cc6b2bdbf72533172d8 |title=the European Gas cooled Fast Reactor.}}</ref> They were funded by the EU's 7th FWP framework programme, with the goal of making a sustainable [[VHTR]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.2020-horizon.com/GOFASTR-European-Gas-Cooled-Fast-Reactor%28GOFASTR%29-s312.html |title=The GOFASTR research program}}</ref>

==== Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) ====
[[File:Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Pool design Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)]]
{{Main|Sodium-cooled fast reactor}}
{{see also|Experimental Breeder Reactor II|S-PRISM|BN-800 reactor|Toshiba 4S}}
The SFR<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a project that builds on two closely related existing projects, the [[LMFBR|liquid metal fast breeder reactor]] and the [[Integral Fast Reactor]].

The goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by [[breeder reactor|breeding]] plutonium and eliminating the need for [[transuranic]] isotopes ever to leave the site. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on [[fast neutron]]s, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). In addition to the benefits of removing the long [[half-life]] transuranics from the waste cycle, the SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats, and the chain reaction automatically slows down. In this manner, it is passively safe.

The SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid [[sodium]] and fueled by a metallic alloy of [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]] or [[spent nuclear fuel]], the "nuclear waste" of [[Light Water Reactor]]s. The SFR fuel is contained in steel cladding with liquid sodium filling in the space between the clad elements which make up the fuel assembly. One of the design challenges of an SFR is the risks of handling sodium, which reacts explosively if it comes into contact with water. However, the use of liquid metal instead of water as coolant allows the system to work at atmospheric pressure, reducing the risk of leakage.

The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding three Generation IV reactor systems, one of which is a sodium-cooled fast reactor, called ''ASTRID'', Advanced Sodium Technical Reactor for Industrial Demonstration, [[Areva]], [[Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives|CEA]] and [[Électricité de France|EDF]] are leading the design with British collaboration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.power-eng.com/articles/2010/11/areva--cea-secure.html |title=Areva, CEA secure EUR650m funding to develop ASTRID sodium-cooled Generation IV reactor 11/11/2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powermag.com/uk-and-france-sign-landmark-civil-nuclear-cooperation-agreement/ |title=UK and France Sign Landmark Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement 02/22/2012 . POWERnews}}</ref> Astrid will be rated about 600 MWe and is expected to be built in France, with construction slated to begin in 2017 near to the [[Phénix]] reactor.<ref name="euronuclear.org"/>

The [[PRC]]'s first commercial-scale, 800 MWe, fast neutron reactor, to be situated near Sanming city in [[Fujian province]] will be a SFR. In 2009 an agreement was signed that would entail the Russian [[BN-800 reactor]] design to be sold to the PRC once it is completed, this would be the first time commercial-scale fast neutron reactors have ever been exported.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-Joint_venture_launched_for_Chinese_fast_reactor-3004104.html |title=Joint venture launched for Chinese fast reactor}}</ref> The [[BN-800 reactor]] became operational in 2014.

In India, the [[Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor]], a 500MWe Sodium cooled fast reactor is under construction, with a completion year of 2014/2015.

==== Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) ====
[[File:Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)]]
{{Main|Lead-cooled fast reactor}}
{{See also|MYRRHA|BREST-300}}
The '''lead-cooled fast reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap">{{cite journal| year=2002 | title=A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems | last=US DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee |volume=GIF-002-00|url=http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/documents/gen_iv_roadmap.pdf}}</ref> features a fast-neutron-spectrum [[lead]] or [[lead]]/[[bismuth]] [[eutectic]] ([[Lead-bismuth eutectic|LBE]]) liquid-metal-cooled reactor with a closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]]. Options include a range of plant ratings, including a "battery" of 50 to 150 MW of electricity that features a very long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW, and a large monolithic plant option at 1,200 MW. (The term ''battery'' refers to the long-life, factory-fabricated core, not to any provision for electrochemical energy conversion.) The fuel is metal or nitride-based containing [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and [[transuranic]]s. The LFR is cooled by natural [[convection]] with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 °C, possibly ranging up to 800 °C with advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the production of [[Thermochemical cycle|hydrogen by thermochemical processes]].

The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding three Generation IV reactor systems, one of which is a lead-cooled fast reactor that is also an [[Accelerator-driven system|Accelerator-driven sub-critical]] reactor, called ''Myrrha'', 100 MW(t), which will be built in [[Belgium]] with construction expected to begin after 2014 and the industrial scale version, known as ''Alfred'', slated to be constructed sometime after 2017. A reduced-power model of Myrrha called ''Guinevere'' was started up at [[Mol, Belgium|Mol]] in March 2009.<ref name="euronuclear.org"/>

Two other lead-cooled fast reactors under development are the SVBR-100, a modular 100MWe lead-bismuth cooled fast neutron reactor concept designed by OKB [[Gidropress]] in Russia and the BREST-OD-300 (Lead-cooled fast reactor) 300 MWe, to be developed after the SVBR-100, and built over 2016-20, it will dispense with the [[Uranium-238|fertile blanket]] around the core and will supersede the sodium cooled [[BN-600 reactor]] design, to purportedly give enhanced proliferation resistance.<ref name="powertecrussia.com"/>

== Advantages and disadvantages==
Relative to current nuclear power plant technology, the claimed benefits for 4th generation reactors include:
* Nuclear waste that remains radioactive for a few centuries instead of millennia <ref>{{cite web |title=Strategies to Address Global Warming |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/mailings/2009/20090713_Strategies.pdf}}</ref>
* 100-300 times more energy yield from the same amount of nuclear fuel <ref>{{cite web |title=4th Generation Nuclear Power |url=http://www.ossfoundation.us/projects/energy/nuclear}}</ref>
* The ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the production of electricity
* Improved operating safety

Nuclear reactors do not emit CO2 during operation, although like all [[low carbon power]] sources, the mining and construction phase can result in CO2 emissions, if energy sources which are not carbon neutral (such as fossil fuels), or CO2 emitting cements are used during the construction process.
A 2012 [[Yale University]] review published in the Journal of Industrial Ecology analyzing {{CO2}} [[life cycle assessment]] (LCA) emissions from [[nuclear power]] determined that:<ref name="Warner + Heath, JoIE">Warner, Ethan S.; Heath, Garvin A. [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00472.x/full Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Nuclear Electricity Generation: Systematic Review and Harmonization], ''Journal of Industrial Ecology'', [[Yale University]], published online April 17, 2012, doi: 10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00472.x.</ref>
{{Quote|''"The collective LCA literature indicates that life cycle [[Greenhouse gas|GHG]] [ greenhouse gas ] emissions from nuclear power are only a fraction of traditional fossil sources and comparable to renewable technologies."''}}
Although the paper primarily dealt with data from [[Generation II reactor]]s, and did not analyze the {{CO2}} emissions by 2050 of the presently under construction [[Generation III reactor]]s, it did summarize the Life Cycle Assessment findings of in development reactor technologies.''{{Quote|FBRs ''[ [[Fast Breeder Reactor]]s ]'' have been evaluated in the LCA literature. The limited literature that evaluates this potential future technology reports [[median]] life cycle GHG emissions... similar to or lower than LWRs[ Gen II [[light water reactor]]s ] and purports to consume little or no [[uranium market|uranium ore]].}}

A specific risk of the sodium-cooled fast reactor is related to using metallic sodium as a coolant. In case of a breach, sodium explosively reacts with water. Fixing breaches may also prove dangerous, as the cheapest noble gas [[argon]] is also used to prevent sodium oxidation. Argon, like helium, can displace oxygen in the air and can pose [[hypoxia (environmental)|hypoxia]] concerns, so workers may be exposed to this additional risk. This is a pertinent problem as can be testified by the events at the [[LMFBR|loop type]] [[Monju Nuclear Power Plant|Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Monju]] at Tsuruga, Japan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Japan Strains to Fix a Reactor Damaged Before Quake |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/18/world/asia/18japan.html | work=The New York Times | first=Hiroko |last=Tabuchi |date=17 June 2011}}</ref>
Using lead or molten salts mitigates this problem by making the coolant less reactive and allowing a high freezing temperature and low pressure in case of a leak.

In many cases, there is already a large amount of experience built up with numerous proof of concept Gen IV designs. For example, the reactors at [[Fort St. Vrain Generating Station]] and [[HTR-10]] are similar to the proposed Gen IV [[VHTR]] designs, and the [[LMFBR|pool type]] [[EBR-II]], [[Phénix]] and [[BN-600]] reactor are similar to the proposed pool type Gen IV Sodium Cooled Fast reactors being designed.

== Participating countries ==
The members of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) are:
* {{ARG}} [http://www.cnea.gov.ar/] (Spanish-only web site)
* {{BRA}} [http://www.aben.com.br/]
* {{CAN}} [http://www.aecl.ca/]
* {{CHN}} [http://www.caea.gov.cn/n602669/n2231600/n2272156/n2272415/167948.html]
* {{EU}} [http://www.euronuclear.org/1-information/generation-IV.htm]
* {{FRA}} [http://www.cea.fr/]
* {{JPN}} [http://www.jaea.go.jp/english/]
* {{KOR}} [http://www.mest.go.kr/index.html] (Korean-only web site)
* {{RUS}} [http://www.rosatom.ru/en/]
* {{RSA}} [http://www.eskom.co.za/live/index.php]
* {{SUI}} [http://www.psi.ch/index_e.shtml]
* {{UK}} [http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/sources/nuclear/technology/fission/page17924.html]
* {{USA}} [http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html]

The nine GIF founding members were joined by Switzerland in 2002, Euratom in 2003 and most recently by China and Russia at the end of 2006.<ref>{{cite web | author=[[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique]]|title= Future nuclear systems| url=http://nucleaire.cea.fr/fr/nucleaire_futur/pu_schema1ch2.htm}}</ref>

Australia has also shown interest in joining the GIF.{{citation needed|date=March 2012}}

The 36th GIF meeting in [[Brussels]] was held in November 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://events.r20.constantcontact.com/register/event?llr=mscrkjkab&oeidk=a07e7melf609716b2c6 |title=The Generation IV international forum holds their 36th meeting on Monday 18th Nov 2013 in Brussels.}}</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Nuclear reactor]]
* [[Nuclear material]]
* [[Nuclear physics]]
* [[List of reactor types#Reactor types|List of reactor types]]
* [[Generation II reactor]]
* [[Generation III reactor]]
* [[Integral Fast Reactor]]
* [[Liquid fluoride thorium reactor]]
* [[Breeder reactor]]
* [[Small modular reactor]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://inlportal.inl.gov/portal/server.pt?open=514&objID=1361&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=10&mode=2&in_hi_userid=200&cached=true Article from Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors.]
* [http://www.gen-4.org/ Generation IV International Forum (GIF)]
* [http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology]
* [http://www.engr.utk.edu/nuclear/colloquia/slides/Gen%20IV%20U-Tenn%20Presentation.pdf Gen IV presentation]
* [http://www.ecology.at/ecology/files/pr577_1.pdf Science or Fiction - Is there a Future for Nuclear?] (Nov. 2007) - A publication from the Austrian [[Ecology Institute (Austria)|Ecology Institute]] about 'Generation IV' and Fusion reactors.
* {{cite web |url=http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2011/December/Nuclear_Power_After_Fukushima.cfm |title=Nuclear Power After Fukushima |author=Gail H. Marcus |date=December 2011 |work=Mechanical Engineering (the magazine of [[ASME]]) |accessdate=23 January 2012}} "In the wake of a severe plant accident, advanced reactor designs are getting renewed attention."
*[http://www.itheo.org/ International Thorium Energy Organisation - www.IThEO.org]
*[http://www.ithec.org/ International Thorium Energy Committee - iThEC]

{{Nuclear fission reactors}}

[[Category:Nuclear power reactor types]]
[[Category:Idaho National Laboratory]]

Northwich

2014-09-15T17:57:55Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by Harrisonward21 (talk) (HG)

{{distinguish2|[[Norwich]], county town of [[Norfolk]], or [[Nantwich]], a town in south [[Cheshire]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2013}}

{{Infobox UK place
| static_image = [[File:Northwich centre.jpg|240px]]
| static_image_caption = Northwich's main shopping area
| official_name = Northwich
| country = England
| region = North West England
| population = 19,259
| population_ref = ([[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001 Census]])<ref name="census" />
| os_grid_reference = SJ651733
| latitude = 53.259
| longitude = -2.518
| post_town = NORTHWICH
| postcode_area = CW
| postcode_district = CW8,CW9
| dial_code = 01606
| constituency_westminster = [[Weaver Vale (UK Parliament constituency)|Weaver Vale]]
| constituency_westminster1 = [[Tatton (UK Parliament constituency)|Tatton]]
| civil_parish = Northwich
| unitary_england = [[Cheshire West and Chester]]
| lieutenancy_england = [[Cheshire]]
| website = [http://www.northwichtc.plus.com http://www.northwichtc. plus.com]
}}


'''Northwich''' is a town and [[civil parishes in England|civil parish]] in the unitary authority of [[Cheshire West and Chester]] and the ceremonial county of [[Cheshire]], [[England]]. It lies in the heart of the [[Cheshire Plain]], at the confluence of the rivers [[River Weaver|Weaver]] and [[River Dane|Dane]]. The town is about {{convert|18|mi}} east of [[Chester]] and {{convert|15|mi}} south of [[Warrington]]. Northwich has been named as one of the best places to live in the UK according to the Sunday Times in 2014.<ref name="best-places">{{cite web | title=
Northwich is one of the best places to live in the UK - again| work= Northwich Guardian | url= http://www.northwichguardian.co.uk/news/11082889.Northwich_is_one_of_the_best_places_to_live_in_the_UK___again/?ref=var_0 | accessdate= 19 March 2014 | author= Gina Bebbington}} {{Dead link|date=March 2014|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The town also made the list in 2013.

The area around Northwich has been exploited for its [[salt pan (evaporation)|salt pan]]s since [[Roman Britain|Roman times]], when the settlement was known as Condate. The town has been severely affected by salt mining with [[Northwich#Salt Mine Stabilisation|subsidence]] historically being a large problem. However, recent investment in mine stabilisation is set to change the town with the 'Northwich Vision' being a plan for future development work.

==History==

{{Main|History of Northwich}}

===Early history===
During Roman times Northwich was known as Condate, meaning "the confluence", probably due to its location at the meeting point of the rivers [[River Dane|Dane]] and [[River Weaver|Weaver]].<ref name="survey">{{cite web | title= Cheshire Historic Towns Survey: Northwich: Archaeological Assessment | work= Cheshire County Council | url= http://www.cheshire.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/F5A1E18E-ADD8-4B95-8575-EFD628BBD1A2/0/HTS_Arch_Assess_Northwich.pdf | accessdate= 1 May 2008 | format= PDF | author= Mike Shaw & Jo Clark}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

Northwich can be identified through two contemporary Roman documents. The first of these is the [[Antonine Itinerary]], a 3rd-century road map split into 14 sections. Two of these sections, or Itinerary, mention Condate, namely: ''Itinerary II'' which describes "the route from the Vallum to the port of [[Rutupiae]]", or the route between [[Hadrian's Wall]] in northern England and [[Richborough]] on the [[Kent]] coast; and ''Itinerary X'' is called "the route from Glannoventa to Mediolanum" and details the route between [[Ravenglass]] fort, [[Cumbria]] and [[Mediolanum (Whitchurch)|Mediolanum]] (now [[Whitchurch, Shropshire|Whitchurch]], [[Shropshire]]).<ref name="roman-britain">{{cite web | url = http://www.roman-britain.org/places/condate.htm | work = Roman-Britain.org website | title = Condate | accessdate = 1 September 2008}}</ref> The second document is the 7th-century ''[[Ravenna Cosmography]]''. Again this document refers to Condate between the entries for Salinae (now [[Middlewich]], Cheshire) and [[Ratae Corieltauvorum|Ratae]] (now [[Leicester]], [[Leicestershire]]), at the time the capital of the [[Corieltauvi]] tribe.<ref name="roman-britain"/>

The Romans' interest in the Northwich area is thought to be due to the strategic river crossing and the location of the salt brines.<ref name="survey"/> Salt was very important in Roman society;<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.saltsense.co.uk/history04.htm | title = History: Romans | work = The Salt Manufacturers Association | accessdate = 3 September 2008}}</ref> the Roman word ''salarium'', linked employment, salt and soldiers, but the exact link is unclear. It is also theorised that this is the basis for the modern word ''[[salary]]''. Another theory is that the word ''soldier'' itself comes from the Latin ''sal dare'' (to give salt). ''See [[History of salt]] for further details''. There is archaeological evidence of a Roman [[castra|auxiliary fort]] within the area of Northwich now known as "Castle" dated to AD 70.<ref name="survey"/> This and other North West forts were built as the Romans moved north from their stronghold in Chester.<ref name="survey"/>

The association with salt continues in the [[etymology]] of Northwich. The "wich" (or wych) suffix applies to other towns in the area - namely Middlewich, [[Nantwich]] and [[Leftwich]]. This is considered to have been derived from the [[Old Norse language|Norse]], "wic", for bay and is associated with the more traditional method of obtaining salt by evaporating sea water. Therefore a place for making salt became a wych-house; and Northwich was the most northern of the [[Wich town]]s in Cheshire.<ref>{{cite book | title = Words and Places, Or, Etymological Illustrations of History, Ethnology, and Geography | last = Taylor | first = Isaac | year = 1864 | publisher = Macmillan | url = http://books.google.com/?id=fxQLAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage | pages = 578}}</ref>

===Medieval to early modern===
The existence of Northwich in the early medieval period is shown by its record in the [[Domesday Book]]:<ref>{{cite book | title = A General Introduction to Domesday Book | last = Ellis | first = Henry | pages = 543 | year = 1833 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=0ncE0eLWaD4C | accessdate = 2 September 2008}}</ref>

{{quote|In the same Mildestuic hundred there was a third wich called Norwich [Northwich] and it was at farm for £8. 
There were the same laws and customs there as there were in the other wiches and the king and the earl similarly divided the renders. 
... All the other customs in these wiches are the same. 
This was waste when (Earl) Hugh received it; it is now worth 35s.|Henry Ellis|'' A General Introduction to Domesday Book''}}

The [[manorialism|manor]] of Northwich belonged to the [[Earl of Chester|Earls of Chester]] until 1237 when the family line died out. Subsequently Northwich became a royal manor and was given to a noble family to collect tolls in exchange for a set rent.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/cheshire-towns4.html | title = Cheshire Townships, Cities & Major Villages | work = Manchester UK website | accessdate = 2 September 2008}}</ref>

That salt production continued throughout the centuries and can be seen through [[John Leland (antiquary)|John Leland]]'s description of the town in 1540:<ref>{{cite book | last = Crossley | first = Fred H. | title = Cheshire | year = 1949}}</ref>

{{quote|Northwich is a pratie market town but fowle, 
and by the Salters houses be great stakes of smaul cloven wood, 
to seethe the salt water that thei make white salt of.|cited in Fred H. Crossley|''Cheshire''}}

Between 1642 and 1643, during the [[English Civil War]], Northwich was fortified and garrisoned by [[Sir William Brereton, 1st Baronet|Sir William Bereton]] for the [[Roundhead|Parliamentarians]].<ref name="survey"/>

The salt beds beneath Northwich were re-discovered in the 1670s by employees of the local Smith-Barry family.<ref name="WoodlandsHistory">{{cite web | title=History of the Northwich Woodlands | work=Northwich Community Woodlands website | url=http://www.northwichwoodlands.org.uk/about/history.shtml | accessdate=4 September 2008}}</ref> The Smith-Barrys were looking for coal, but instead discovered [[rock salt]], in the grounds of the family home, [[Marbury Hall, Anderton with Marbury|Marbury Hall]], to the north of Northwich.

===19th century===
[[File:salt museum northwich.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Weaver Hall Museum, previously the workhouse]]
During the 19th century it became uneconomical to mine for the salt. Instead hot water was pumped through the mines, which dissolved the salt.<ref name="WoodlandsHistory"/> The resultant brine was pumped out and the salt extracted from the brine. This technique weakened the mines and led to land [[subsidence]] as they collapsed. Subsidence affected the town and the surrounding landscape.<ref name="WoodlandsHistory"/> For example collapses in 1880 formed ''Witton Flash'' as the River Weaver flowed into a huge hole caused by subsidence.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cheshire.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/C8C9D211-8A2F-44AF-93C4-9BBAEB8B6B20/0/Project1.pdf |format=PDF| title = Northwich Woodlands | work = Cheshire County Council website | accessdate = 4 September 2008}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Subsidence also allegedly accounts for many old [[timber framing|timber-framed]] houses in the town centre, which were better able to withstand the movement of the ground. Some houses were built on a base of steel girders which could be jacked up to level the house with each change in the underlying ground. The town's historical link with the salt industry is celebrated in its [[Salt Museum, Northwich|Museum]] which is today located in the town's old [[workhouse]].

In 1874, [[John Brunner, 1st Baronet|John Brunner]] and [[Ludwig Mond]] founded [[Brunner Mond]] in Winnington and started manufacturing [[sodium carbonate|soda ash]] using the [[Solvay process|Solvay]] ammonia-soda process.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.brunnermond.com/about_history.aspx | work = Brunner Mond website | title = History of Brunner Mond | accessdate = 2 September 2008}}</ref> This process used salt as a main raw material. The chemical industry used the subsided land for the disposal of waste from the manufacture of [[sodium carbonate|soda-ash]]. The waste was transported through a network of cranes and rails to the produce ''limebeds''. This was a dangerous alkaline substance and caused the landscape to be abandoned as unusable.

The first known swimming baths of Northwich was the Verdin Baths, situated on Verdin Park. It was presented by Robert Verdin in commemoration of the Jublilee of Queen Victoria in 1887. It consisted of a 60 ft x 20 ft [20yds x 6yds 2 ft] cast iron plunge bath and 5 slipper baths. It was a largely timbered-framed building. As the entrance was approached, the motto "Cleanliness is next to Godliness" could be clearly seen along the front of the building. Whilst it supplied the needs of many, the accommodation was inadequate for what was required.

The old enemy, subsidence, made its presence felt and in 1911 the Baths Committee reluctantly closed it down altogether. It had given pleasure to about 20,000 or more people a year as well as residents who derived health benefits through taking the Brine Baths. The baths was demolished shortly after August 1912 by a contractor from Preston. [http://www.northwichbrinebaths.co.uk/Verdin%20Baths%201887-1911 SOURCE - NorthwichBrineBaths.co.uk]

The Northwich Public Baths was constructed following subsidence of the Verdin Park swimming pool. The project was sanctioned on 16 September 1913 with a budget of £11,732 [payable over 26 years]. It was insured for £10,500. Brunner Mond & Co sanctioned the supply of 10,000 gallons of brine per week. London architect, Mr Franck, who had considerable experience in public baths construction [Mr J Ernest Franck was architect in the constructed Hammersmith Baths, Lime Grove, 1907, now a block of flats], was handed the reigns of project management. A great mass of running sand underneath the construction site was discovered and the architect advised that it was necessary for the construction of a ferro-concrete raft under the whole site, at an additional of £3,000.

Unforeseen circumstances delayed the opening; World War 1 had presented difficulties to the contractors and they had experienced their own troubles as well as the Council. The Grand Opening Gala took place on Saturday 28 August 1915. The new Moss Farm pool [at a cost of £1.75 million] eventually replaced the Brine Baths which closed its doors on 23 January 1991. The closure scheduled for 23 December 1990 was delayed by heating problems at Moss Farm.
[http://www.northwichbrinebaths.co.uk/Northwich%20Brine%20Baths%201915%20-%201991 SOURCE - NorthwichBrineBaths.co.uk]

===Modern development===
[[File:Marbury park.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Marbury Country Park]]
In 1975 [[Marbury Country Park]] was the first area to be reclaimed from dereliction and has become a popular recreational area. In 1987 more land was reclaimed to form Furey Wood and over later years, [[Cheshire County Council|Cheshire County Council's]] Land Regeneration Unit reclaimed what is now known as Anderton Nature Park, Witton Flash, Dairy House Meadows, Witton Mill Meadows, and Ashton's and Neumann's Flashes. The area now extends to approximately 323 hectares of public space known as [[Northwich Community Woodlands]].<ref name="WoodlandsHistory"/>

In February 2004 a £28 million programme to stabilise the abandoned salt mines underneath Northwich was begun.<ref name="stable">{{cite web | title=£28 million funding approved for Northwich salt mines | work=English Partnerships website | url=http://www.englishpartnerships.co.uk/page.aspx?pointerID=11750EEGsFUgTbd7hmO1FbHCnFxrdyY2 | accessdate=5 December 2006}}</ref> The work was funded by the [[English Partnerships]] through its Land Stabilisation Programme,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.englishpartnerships.co.uk/lsp.htm | work = English Partnership website | title = Land Stabilisation Programme | accessdate = 4 September 2008}}</ref> introduced to resolve issues associated with unstable mines around England.

The four mines identified for work were Baron's Quay, Witton Bank, Neumann's and Penny's Lane. These mines were chosen because their subsidence was causing problems for the town centre. The stabilisation plan involved removing millions of litres of brine from the four mines and replacing it with a mixture of [[Pulverised Fuel Ash|pulverised fuel ash]] (PFA), [[cement]] and salt. The project was completed in late 2007.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.northwichvision.org/intranet/nv.nsf/AllByUniqueIdentifier/DOCE078A5272A1B9A22802573FE0035F815 | title = Northwich's Salt Mines Have Been Stabilised | work = Northwich Vision website | accessdate = 4 September 2008}}</ref>

Following the stabilisation of the mines, Northwich is to be developed in line with the 'Vision for Northwich'.<ref name="vision">{{cite web | title=Welcome to Northwich Vision Website | url=http://www.northwichvision.org/ | accessdate=5 December 2006}}</ref> The vision has already seen the development of Hayhurst Quay, which includes Waitrose, 40 berth marina, waterside leisure facilities and a 58 home block of extra care housing (The extra care housing is currently under construction). The Vision has also seen the demolition of the old Magistrates Court and Memorial Hall, which is being replaced by 'Memorial Court', a £12.5m state of the art cultural and leisure centre, which will offer wet and dry sports including a pool, dance studios and a gym, as well as cultural facilities. Memorial Court is due to Open in January 2015.<ref name="Memorial Court">{{cite web | title=Northwich Riverside - Memorial Court | url=http://northwichriverside.co.uk/memorial-court/| accessdate=7 February 2014}}</ref>

Furthermore the Vision also includes the £80 million Barons Quay Development, a thriving retail and leisure quarter which see the creation of more than 300,000 sq ft of shopping space, together with a cinema, restaurants, cafés, new public realm spaces and parking for almost 1200 vehicles. The development is estimated to create up to 1,600 jobs. Asda has been confirmed as the main anchor store along with Odeon as the cinema operator. Construction is due to start in late 2014, with the first stage of the development due to open in 2017.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://northwichriverside.co.uk/barons-quay/ | work = Northwich Riverside| title = Barons Quay | accessdate = 7 February 2014}}</ref>

==Governance==
Northwich has been within the county boundaries of [[Cheshire]] for a long time. At the time of the [[Domesday Book|Domesday survey]] (1086) Northwich was in the [[Hundred (country subdivision)|hundred]] of Middlewich, but by the 14th century it had become part of the [[Hundreds of Cheshire|Northwich hundred]]. This probably happened during the reorganisation of the Hundreds in the 12th century.<ref name="survey"/> Northwich has been described as a borough from around 1288, though there is no surviving borough charter.<ref name="survey"/>

Northwich originally constituted an area of only {{convert|13|acre|m2}} at the confluence of the Rivers Weaver and Dane. The much larger township of [[Witton cum Twambrooks]] lay to the east, [[Leftwich]] to the south, [[Castle Northwich]] to the south-west, and [[Winnington]] to the north-west.<ref name="Kellys1896">''Kelly's Directory of Cheshire'' (1896), p.409</ref><ref>''Ordnance Survey'' (1875). Cheshire Sheet XXXIV (SW), 1st edition</ref>

The manor of Northwich was granted to the Stanley family, later [[Earl of Derby|Earls of Derby]] in 1484, and stayed in the family's hands until the late 18th century. A local board was founded on 26 June 1863 after the [[Local Government Act 1858]] and it purchased the manor from Arthur Heywood Esq. in 1871. In 1875 the local boards for Northwich and Witton cum Twambrooks were amalgamated, and the resultant district was further extended in 1880 to include the whole of Castle Northwich and parts of [[Hartford, Cheshire|Hartford]], Winnington and Leftwich. On 10 September 1894 these areas were united as the [[civil parishes in England|civil parish]] of Northwich, served by Northwich Urban District Council.<ref name="Kellys1896"/>

The town was further enlarged in 1936 by the addition of parts of Winnington, [[Lostock Gralam]], [[Barnton, Cheshire|Barnton]], Leftwich and [[Rudheath]], and again in 1955 when parts of [[Davenham]], Hartford, Rudheath and [[Whatcroft]] were added.<ref>[http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u_id=10027548&c_id=10001043 Vision of Britain. Northwich U.D.]. Retrieved on 2008-12-24</ref>

The [[Local Government Act 1972]] replaced the Urban District Council of Northwich with a new district (later borough) council: [[Vale Royal]]. Vale Royal covered areas previously covered by Northwich UDC (Urban District Council), Northwich RDC (Rural District Council), Winsford UDC and parts of Runcorn RDC. Northwich Town Council now has the powers of a [[Civil Parish|parish council]] and is now made up of five main districts of Leftwich, Northwich, Castle, Winnington and Witton.

Vale Royal Borough Council was abolished on 1 April 2009, and Northwich now falls within the new unitary authority of [[Cheshire West and Chester]].

Between 1885 and 1983 Northwich gave its name to a [[Northwich (UK Parliament constituency)|parliamentary constituency]]. Northwich was also split between the Tatton and Eddisbury constituencies until the formation of [[Weaver Vale (UK Parliament constituency)|Weaver Vale]] for the 1997 general election. The seat is currently held by [[Graham Evans]] (Conservative).<ref>{{cite news |title=Weaver Vale |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/constituency/1412/weaver-vale | location=London}} Retrieved on 9 May 2010.</ref>

The town coat of arms features the [[Latin]] [[motto]] ''"Sal est Vita"'' meaning ''"Salt is Life"'', which can be seen on the town's crest of arms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Northwich Town Council |publisher=ChivalricHeraldry.co.uk |url=http://www.civicheraldry.co.uk/cheshire.html}} Retrieved on 2 September 2008.</ref> The town is twinned with [[Dole, Jura|Dole]] in France.<ref>{{cite web |title=Twinning - twin town information |author=Vale Royal Borough Council |publisher=ValeRoyal.gov.uk |url=http://www2.valeroyal.gov.uk/internet/vr.nsf/AllByUniqueIdentifier/DOC62DD93F2AF71392980256E99004A9579}} Retrieved on 2 September 2008.</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Northwich in vale royal.png|left|thumb|200px|Northwich Town Council in the former Vale Royal borough]]

Northwich is situated in the Cheshire Plain at coordinates {{coord|53|15|20|N|2|31|20|W|type:city}} (53.255, -2.522). The town is between {{convert|15|and|35|m|ft|0}} above mean sea level.<ref name="survey"/> Northwich is surrounded by the following [[civil parishes]], starting due north and proceeding in a clockwise direction: [[Anderton with Marbury]], [[Marston, Cheshire|Marston]], [[Wincham]], [[Lostock Gralam]], [[Rudheath]], [[Davenham]], [[Hartford, Cheshire|Hartford]], [[Weaverham]], [[Barnton, Cheshire|Barnton]].

Two rivers meet in the town centre, the [[River Weaver|Weaver]] and the [[River Dane|Dane]]. The town is surrounded by undulating [[pasture]]. Subsidence and the collapse of underground saltworks has created flashes<ref>'A pool, a marshy place':also later (1883),'Flash (Cheshire), a subsidence of the surface due to the working of rock salt and pumping of brine.' OED,Second edition, 1989; online version December 2011. <http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/71130>; accessed 12 February 2012. Earlier version first published in New English Dictionary, 1896.</ref> and there are also local [[mere (lake)|meres]] - for example, to the north is [[Budworth Mere]] and to the north east is [[Pick Mere]].<ref name="survey"/>

{{clear}}

{{climate chart|Northwich
|1|6|70
|1|7|50
|3|9|60
|4|12|50
|7|15|60
|10|18|70
|12|20|70
|12|20|80
|10|17|70
|8|14|80
|4|9|80
|2|7|80
|float=right
|source={{cite web| url=http://weather.yahoo.com/Northwich-United-Kingdom/UKXX1551/statistics.html?unit=c|work=Yahoo! Weather|accessdate=28 August 2008|title=Records and averages}}
|clear=both
}}

The town is built on Lower [[Keuper]] saliferous beds from which salt has been mined. Deposits of [[alluvium]] run along the river valleys and cover most of the area of the town. Surrounding the town is deposits of boulder clay and glacial sand and gravel can be found to the north-west.<ref name="survey"/>

The climate is generally [[temperate]] with few extremes of temperature or weather. The mean average temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom as is the average amount of sunshine.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/tmean/17.gif | title = Average annual mean temperature | work = [[Met Office]] website | accessdate = 31 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/ss/17.gif | title = Average annual sunshine | work = [[Met Office]] website | accessdate = 31 August 2008}}</ref> The average annual rainfall is slightly below the average for the UK.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/rr/17.gif | title = Average annual rainfall | work=[[Met Office]] website | accessdate = 31 August 2008}}</ref> There are few days when snow is lying on the ground, although there are some days of air frost.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/dl/17.gif | title = Days of snow lying | work = [[Met Office]] website | accessdate = 31 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/daf/17.gif | title = Days of air frost | work = [[Met Office]] website | accessdate = 31 August 2008}}</ref>

{{clear}}

==Demography==
The population of Northwich in 1664 has been estimated as 560.<ref name="survey"/> The population of Northwich over the last 200 years has been:

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;width:70%;border:0px;text-align:center;line-height:120%;"
! colspan="22" style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;"|Population of Northwich since 1801<ref>The totals shown are for Northwich township (1801–1871), Northwich Local Board (1881–1891), Northwich Urban District (1901–1971), and Northwich Civil Parish (1981–2001). There were changes to the boundaries of these areas in 1873, 1936 and 1955, which affected the subsequent census figures</ref>
|-
! style="background: #99CCCC; color: #000080" height="17" | Year
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1801
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1811
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1821
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1831
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1841
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1851
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1861
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1871
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1881
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1891
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1901
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1911
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1921
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1931
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1951
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1961
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1971
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1981
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 1991
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 2001
! style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000080;" | 2011
|- Align="center"
! style="background: #99CCCC; color: #000080" height="17" | Population
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 1,338
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 1,382
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 1,490
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 1,481
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 1,368
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 1,377
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 1,190
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 1,244
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 12,256
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 14,914
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 17,611
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 18,151
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 18,381
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 18,732
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 17,489
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 19,592
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 18,136
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 17,098
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 18,316
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 19,259
| style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;" | 19,924
|-
| colspan="22" style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;"|'''Sources:'''<ref name="census">
{{cite web | title=Parish Headcounts: Northwich CP | work=National Statistics website | url=http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do;jsessionid=ac1f930cce66e21ccbb56c24277bcb1957157785a0b.e38Qa3mPbh4Kai0LaxqMbhqSaxyQe6fznA5Pp7ftolbGmkTy?a=3&b=792700&c=northwich&d=16&e=15&g=429415&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&enc=1&dsFamilyId=779&bhcp=1| accessdate=5 December 2006}}</ref><ref name="survey"/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ukbmd.org.uk/genuki/chs/northwich.html | title = Cheshire Parishes: Northwich | work = GENUKI website | accessdate = 31 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadKeyFigures.do?a=3&b=11127124&c=northwich&d=16&e=62&g=6408923&i=1001x1003x1032x1004&o=362&m=0&r=1&s=1402583768760&enc=1 | title = Key Figures for 2011 CensusKey Figures for 2011 Census}}</ref>

|}
</center>

{{clear}}

[[File:northwich population.gif|right|thumb|200px|Northwich population]]
The 2001 Census shows the population of Northwich to be 19,259. This was composed of 9,761 (50.7%) males and 9,498 (49.3%) females. There were 8,253 households.<ref name="census"/> This makes the average household size 2.32, which is slightly below the national average of 2.36.

The 2011 Census shows the population of Northwich to be 19,924. This was composed of 9,878 (49.6%) males and 10,046 (50.4%) females. There were 8,808 households.<ref name="census"/> This makes the average household size 2.62, an increase on 2001.

{{clear}}

==Economics==
[[File:Northwich - Winnington Works.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The former ICI Winnington Works seen from the [[Anderton Boat Lift]] in 1992]]

Northwich has been described as having a [[market (place)|market]] since at least 1535, when it was described as a market town by Leland,<ref name="survey"/> but there is no surviving charter. The town still has a market today, which is earmarked for refurbishment as part of the Northwich Vision plans.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.northwichvision.org/intranet/nv.nsf/AllByUniqueIdentifier/DOCDCC9424A591256278025733D003B6EEC | title = Development Areas | work = Northwich Vision website | accessdate = 2 September 2008}}</ref>

The town's economy was dominated by the salt industry. However, a list of tolls for goods crossing over Northwich bridge in 1353 shows goods coming into the town, including a wide range of carcasses, fleeces, hides and skins, cloth, fish, alcoholic drinks, dairy products, building materials, household goods, metals and glass, and millstones. This indicates a much wider economic base to medieval Northwich than just the salt trade.<ref name="survey"/> Documentary evidence also exists for a [[gristmill|mill]] from 1332 onwards and there is evidence for more than one mill from 1343.<ref name="survey"/>

Allied to the extraction of salt was a bulk chemical industry, which became concentrated at the three [[Imperial Chemical Industries|ICI]] sites at Winnington, Wallerscote and Lostock. The first industrially practical method for producing [[polythene]] was accidentally discovered at the Winnington works in 1933.<ref name="polythene">{{cite web | title=Winnington history in the making | work=This is Cheshire | url=http://archive.thisischeshire.co.uk/2006/8/23/275808.html | accessdate=5 December 2006}}</ref>

Bakers [[Frank Roberts & Sons]] have been associated with the town since 1887 and continues to be based near the town at [[Rudheath]] on the A556. Two of Frank Roberts & Sons's three main business divisions, Roberts Bakery and The Little Treats Co, are based in Northwich and Aldred’s The Bakers, is located in Ilkeston, Derbyshire.<ref>http://www.frank-roberts.co.uk/</ref>

There are many contemporary major employers in nearby [[Rudheath]] and [[Hartford, Cheshire#Economics|Hartford]].

Based on the 2001 Census, Northwich had 13,928 people aged between 16 and 74. Of these, 8,908 (64.0%) people were categorised as economically active; 4,268 (30.6%) were economically inactive; 455 (3.3%) were unemployed.<ref name="census2">
{{cite web | title=Parish Profile - Work and Qualifications: Northwich CP | work=National Statistics website | url=http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=3&b=792700&c=northwich&d=16&e=15&g=429415&i=1001x1003x1004&o=1&m=0&enc=1&dsFamilyId=783| accessdate=9 January 2007}}</ref>

==Culture and community==
The town has two key events a year. Over the [[August Bank Holiday]] Weekend Northwich Festival is held at Moss Farm Sports Complex. Featuring 4 days of music and sport with the main attraction for the Monday being the UK Strongman-North Competition.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ukstrongman-north.co.uk | work = UK Strongman North website | title = UK Strongman North | accessdate = 6 September 2009}}</ref> The [http://www.cheshireclassic.co.uk Cheshire Classic Women's Road Race] is held every April. Part of British Cycling's National Road Race Series, it is the longest running race on the Women's National calendar. The race has been promoted by local cycling club [http://www.weavervalleycc.org.uk/ Weaver Valley CC] since 1980 and sees the UK's top riders attending. Previous winners include Dame Sarah Storey, Lucy Garner, Lizzie Armitstead, Nicole Cooke and Mandy Jones.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cheshireclassic.co.uk | work = Cheshire Classic website | title = Cheshire Classic | accessdate = 5 January 2013}}</ref>

These events were joined in 2011 by the town's first Medieval Festival, which was staged in Verdin Park over the weekend of 13 and 14 August. This event, sponsored by Cheshire West & Cheshire Council as part of their efforts to promote the town centre as a destination, is planned to be an annual happening. The 2011 Northwich Medieval Festival featured The Poor Knights of St Dysmas, God's Company of Tabor, The Freemen of Gwent, and the Knights Hospitallers of the North, as well as the Ya Raqs Eastern Dance Troupe.

[[Northwich Memorial Hall]] was opened in 1960 but closed for redevelopment in 2013, to be replaced by the controversial Memorial Court Facility. It hosted a range of activities,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www2.valeroyal.gov.uk/internet/vr.nsf/AllByUniqueIdentifier/DOC8139283356B1EBAD80256E9900475372 | title = Northwich Memorial Hall | work = Vale Royal Borough Council website | accessdate = 28 August 2008 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080511063058/http://www2.valeroyal.gov.uk/internet/vr.nsf/AllByUniqueIdentifier/DOC8139283356B1EBAD80256E9900475372  |archivedate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> including the Purple Cactus Comedy Club.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.midcheshirechronicle.co.uk/mid-cheshire-news/local-mid-cheshire-news/2009/03/10/purple-cactus-comedy-club-makes-a-welcome-return-to-northwich-93570-23107189/ |title=Purple Cactus Comedy Club makes a welcome return to Northwich |date=10 March 2009 |publisher=''The Mid Cheshire Chronicle'' |author=Dave Goodban |accessdate=4 May 2009}}</ref>

The [[Harlequin Theatre, Northwich|Harlequin Theatre]] produces six plays each year, and it is also the home of Northwich Folk Club (which has run continuously since 1977).<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.northwichfolk.co.uk | title = Northwich Folk Club}}</ref>

The Regal cinema was closed in 2007 and has been demolished: however there are plans for a new cinema as part of the Northwich Vision redevelopment of Baron's Quay.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.northwichvision.org/intranet/nv.nsf/AllByUniqueIdentifier/DOCAB3999F3E976787D8025746E004206FF | title = It's All Systems Go For The New Baron's Quay | work = Northwich Vision website | accessdate = 28 August 2008}}</ref>

Northwich has a rich musical history, with a number of locals being part of bands such as [[Placebo (band)|Placebo]], which provided the soundtrack to the film [[Cruel Intentions]]. [[Tim Burgess (artist)|Tim Burgess]] from [[The Charlatans (UK band)|the Charlatans]] lived in Northwich. The band were originally managed by Steve Harrison from the Omega Music record store in the town.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.musicianguide.com/biographies/1608001568/Charlatans-The.html | title = Charlatons, The Biography | work = Musician Biography website | accessdate=29 August 2008}}</ref>

Northwich has its own fictional hero in the form of the ultimate ghost-hunter, James Boag-Munroe. The creation is the work of local Horror author Stuart Neild. The first novel, titled ''A Haunted Man'', features Boag-Munroe's adventures in the haunted salt mines that run underneath Northwich, combining fact with supernatural fiction. More novels are on the way featuring Northwich and other [[North West England|North West]] locations as the backdrops to the novels. A [[Hollywood]] film and television series is also in development based on the books.<ref name="neild">{{cite web | title=Once upon a time in the Midlands| work=BBC Website | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/stoke/features/2005/03/haunted_man.shtml | accessdate=5 December 2006}}</ref>

Northwich has two local newspapers: the ''[[Northwich Guardian]]'', published by [[Newsquest]], and the ''[[Northwich Chronicle]]'', published by [[Trinity Mirror]]. A [[radio station]], [[Cheshire FM]], covers the mid-Cheshire area including Northwich.

Northwich is the home of a non-league football team, [[Witton Albion]]. The town has two rugby union sides [[Northwich RUFC]] and [[Winnington Park]]. The town also has a long standing cycling club, [http://www.weavervalleycc.org.uk/ Weaver Valley CC.] Weaver Valley CC was set up in 1962 and boasts ex-Pro and ITV commentator Paul Sherwen as a member alongside top domestic rider Alan Kemp. The club competes in road racing, time trialling (with a club 10 time trial every Wednesday night during the Summer), track racing and off-road. The club promotes 3 road races, a series of circuit races in June at Oulton Park and the Cat and Fiddle Hill Climb and Cyclo-Cross in September. The club run leaves Hartford British Legion every Sunday morning. The area also boasts several amateur cricket clubs, including Winnington Park CC, Davenham CC, Weaverham CC, Northwich CC and Hartford CC. Northwich also has a successful competitive swim team - Northwich Swimming Club, first formed in the late 19th century.

==Landmarks and religious sites==

[[File:st helens witton.jpg|thumb|left|300px|St. Helen Witton Church]]
The parish church is known as [[St Helen Witton Church, Northwich|St. Helen's Witton]]. It is a [[Grade I]] Listed Building. The church initially developed as a [[chapel of ease]] associated with the parish of [[Great Budworth]] to serve the local community, known as the Chapel of Witton. There is no known date for the creation of this chapel, but it is thought to have existed in the 13th century. None of this building exists in the current church. There is no documentary evidence to indicate the dates of the older parts of the current building. However, stones in the fabric of the porch carry inscriptions attributed to "Ricardus Alkoke Capellanus". This name matches documents concerning land in Northwich and [[Lostock Gralam]] dated 1468, but this cannot be used to date the church accurately.<ref>Harries, Michael & Lynch, Colin - ''An Illustrated History of Northwich Parish & Church'', 1981, ISBN 0-9507648-0-9</ref>

It was not until 7 August 1900 that the parish of Witton (otherwise Northwich) was formed from parts of [[Great Budworth]], [[Davenham]] and other surrounding parishes.

The present [http://www.stwilfridsparish.co.uk/ St Wilfrid's (Roman Catholic)] church was built in 1866. The current [http://www.northwichmethodistchurch.org.uk/ Northwich Methodist Chapel] was opened in 1990, but there has been a Methodist presence in the town at least since 1774, when [[John Wesley]] laid the foundation stone of the first chapel in the London Road area.

The Northwich Union Workhouse opened in 1837 following the [[Poor Law]] Amendment of 1834 that standardised the system of poor relief throughout Britain. The building is now the [[Salt Museum, Northwich|Weaver Hall Museum]].

[[File:Northwich - Town Bridge.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Town Bridge]]

The [[Dock Road Edwardian Pumping Station]] is a [[Grade II]] Listed Building originally built by Northwich Urban District Council in 1913. For over 60 years it was used for pumping sewage from parts of Northwich to the Wallerscote Treatment Works. Before it was built, untreated sewage was discharged directly into the River Weaver, causing widespread pollution.

Two [[swing bridge]]s, Hayhurst Bridge built in 1898, and Town Bridge built in 1899, cross the Weaver at Northwich. The bridges were the first two electrically powered swing bridges in Great Britain<ref>{{cite web | title = Hayhurst Bridge Project Is First Step In Ambitious Vision | work = British Waterways | url = http://www.british-waterways.co.uk/newsroom/archive/hayhurst_project.html | accessdate = 1 April 2008}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> and were built on floating [[Pontoon (boat)|pontoons]] to counteract the mine subsidence. They were designed by Colonel [[John Saner]].

The Floatel Northwich was moored on the Weaver near the confluence of the two rivers, but was closed when the owners, [[The Real Hotel Company plc]], went into administration in January 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northwichguardian.co.uk/news/4079629.END_FOR_FLOATEL/|title=Floatel|publisher=Northwich Guardian|accessdate=13 June 2009}}</ref> It has since been removed. It was the UK's only floating hotel.

{{clear}}

==Transport==
[[File:Anderton Boat Lift.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Anderton Boat Lift]]

The key historical mode of transport is water. By 1732 the River Weaver was improved from Frodsham Bridge to Winsford Bridge and eventually allowed vessels up to {{convert|160|t|kg}} to travel up to Northwich Bridge.<ref name="survey"/> The [[Trent and Mersey Canal]], opened in 1775, passed to the north of Northwich because of objections from the trustees of the Weaver Navigation. However, the canal passed salt deposits near the village of [[Marston, Cheshire|Marston]], and many of the later salt mines were based along its banks including the [[Lion Salt Works]]. The [[Anderton Boat Lift]] was opened in 1875<ref name="boatlift">{{cite web| url= http://www.andertonboatlift.co.uk/ | work = Anderton Boat Lift website | title = Anderton Boat Lift | accessdate = 3 September 2008}}</ref> to connect the canal and river systems. It was fully restored in 2002 and now houses a visitor centre.<ref name="boatlift"/>

The road system around Northwich can be dated back to the Roman times. The [[A556 road|A556]] and [[A559 road|A559]] follow the route of the Roman road that runs from Chester to York.<ref name="survey"/> The A556 diverts away from the route of the Roman road following a new route to the south of the town acting as the town's bypass. The Chester to Manchester road became a [[Turnpike trust|Turnpike]] in 1769.<ref name="survey"/> The [[A530 road|A530]], known as King Street, also passes near to the town, and this follows the route of the Roman road that connected Warrington and Middlewich. The old route to Warrington and the north from Middlewich, however, was replaced by a new route through Knutsford, which became a turnpike in 1753.<ref name="survey"/> Northwich is connected to the motorway network to the north of the town via the A559 onto the [[M56 motorway]]; and to the east of the town via the A556 at Junction 19 of the [[M6 motorway]].

The railway came to the town in 1863 when the [[Cheshire Midland Railway]] constructed its line from [[Knutsford]]. The [[West Cheshire Railway]] built its line to [[Helsby]] in 1869. Passenger trains from Northwich to Chester via [[Delamere railway station|Delamere]] commenced in 1875. The route through Northwich is now marketed as the [[Mid-Cheshire Line|Mid-Cheshire line]].<ref>{{cite book | title = The Cheshire Lines Railway | last = Griffiths | first = R.P. | publisher = Oakwood Press | year = 1947}}</ref> [[Northwich railway station]], last rebuilt in 1897,<ref name="survey"/> is on the line from [[Chester railway station|Chester]] to [[Manchester Piccadilly railway station|Manchester Piccadilly]]. There are also stations within close vicinity at [[Greenbank railway station|Greenbank]], also on the Mid-Cheshire line, and [[Hartford railway station|Hartford]] (on the [[West Coast Main Line]]).

There are bus routes between Northwich and a number of local towns, including Weaverham, [[Hartford, Cheshire|Hartford]], Crewe, Warrington, Kelsall and Chester.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cheshire.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/11A38EAE-BA20-434C-9F88-3294312A0CC2/0/NorthwichMapJanuary2007.pdf |format=PDF| work = Cheshire County Council | title = Cheshire County Council Bus Map}}</ref>

==Education==
[[File:Sir john deane college.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Sir John Deane's College]]]]

Northwich and its surroundings has a number of schools and colleges. [[Sir John Deane's College]] is now a [[sixth form college]], but was originally formed as a grammar school in 1557.<ref>{{cite book | title=A Concise Description of the Endowed Grammar Schools in England and Wales| url=http://www.google.co.uk/books?id=GwsJRFnvUIAC&pg=PA129&dq=%22Sir+John+Deane%22+-Winthrop&as_brr=0| last=Carlisle| first=Nicholas | year=1818| pages=129–136| publisher=Baldwin, Cradock and Joy| location=London}}</ref> The school was originally known as Witton Grammar School and was erected close to [[St. Helen Witton Church, Northwich|Witton Chapel]]. The school moved to its current location, to the south of the town, in 1907-08.<ref name="survey"/> There is now also [[further education]] available through [[Mid Cheshire College]]'s London Road Studios.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.midchesh.ac.uk/where-find-us| title = Mid Cheshire College locations | accessdate = 10 February 2009}}</ref> The area also boasts [[The Grange School, Northwich]], one of the leading independent schools throughout the entirety of [[Cheshire]].
Primary education include:
*The Grange Junior School
*Witton Church Walk CofE Primary School
*Victoria Road Primary School
*Charles Darwin Community Primary School
*Winnington Park Community Primary and Nursery School
*St. Wilfrid's Catholic Primary School
*Hartford Manor Primary School
*Hartford County Primary School
*Kingsmead Primary School was shortlisted for the Prime Minister's Better Public Building award in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.betterpublicbuilding.org.uk/finalists/2005/kingsmead/ |title=Kingsmead primary school, Northwich, Cheshire |publisher=Better Public Building |accessdate=4 September 2010}}</ref>
*Rosebank School is a school for [[autistic]] children aged 3–11 years.

During the 19th century many new schools were founded and by 1850 twelve 'academies' were recorded in the area.<ref name="survey"/> The town is now served by [[County High School Leftwich]], a specialist media arts college, while [[University of Chester Academy Northwich]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://maps.cheshire.gov.uk/cheshirecc.interactivemapping.web.internet/Default.aspx?gotolayer=SSCA&gotofield=OBJECTID&gotovalue=138&layers=SSCA&hlayer=SSCA&hfield=OBJECTID&hvalue=138| title = Rudheath High School catchment area | accessdate = 10 February 2009}}</ref> a specialist performing arts college and [[Hartford High School]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://maps.cheshire.gov.uk/cheshirecc.interactivemapping.web.internet/Default.aspx?gotolayer=SSCA&gotofield=OBJECTID&gotovalue=136&layers=SSCA&hlayer=SSCA&hfield=OBJECTID&hvalue=136| title = Hartford High School catchment area | accessdate = 10 February 2009}}</ref> both admit pupils from Northwich. There are also several primary schools in the area. [[St. Nicholas Catholic High School]] is also in the local vicinity, and performs well on national exam boards, coming second in the whole of [[Cheshire]].

In November 2005, as part of the Northwich Vision, a refurbishment of the town's railway station included a Centre called ''Zone'' that promotes lifelong learning by offering people the opportunity to access a range of online and taught courses.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.northwichvision.org/intranet/nv.nsf/AllByUniqueIdentifier/DOC9DD7036E56E0C22A802573850041BB89 | work = Northwich Vision website | title = Get On Board With Lifelong Learning | accessdate = 2 September 2008}}</ref>

==Notable people==
* [[Gary Barlow]] - singer and song writer for [[Take That]], lived in [[Cuddington, Eddisbury|Cuddington]].
* [[Sue Birtwistle]] - film producer and writer, was born in the town.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.chester.ac.uk/news/2008/mar/6.html | title = Talented trio awarded honorary doctorates | work = University of Chester | date = 10 March 2008 | accessdate = 2 September 2008}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
* [[Sir John Brunner, 1st Baronet]] - founder of chemical firm [[Brunner Mond]] in 1873, lived at [[Winnington Hall]] in the town.<ref>{{Cite book
| last =Koss | first =Stephen E. | title =Sir John Brunner: Radical Plutocrat 1842-1919 | publisher =Cambridge University Press | year =1970 | location =| pages =28–29 | isbn =0-521-07906-3 }}</ref>
* [[Tim Burgess (artist)|Tim Burgess]] - lead singer of [[The Charlatans (UK band)|The Charlatans]]. The band were also located in the town.
* [[Martin Edwards (author)|Martin Edwards]] - crime fiction author, was educated at [[Sir John Deane's College|Sir John Deane's]] ; his father Ken Edwards was a director and later President of Northwich Victoria Football Club and wrote their history.
* [[Pat Finnerhan]] - footballer who played for Northwich Victoria, [[Manchester City]] and [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] in the late 19th and early 20th century.
* [[John Greenway]] - Member of Parliament for [[Ryedale (UK Parliament constituency)|Ryedale]], was born in the town<ref>{{cite news | url = http://politics.guardian.co.uk/person/parliament/0,,-2064,00.html | title = John Greenway biography | work = Guardian Unlimited website | accessdate = 2 September 2008 | location=London | deadurl=yes}} {{Dead link|date=April 2014|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> and educated at Sir John Deane's college.
* [[Steve Hewitt]] - former drummer for the band [[Placebo (band)|Placebo]], 1996-2007.
* [[Rupert Holmes]] - composer, songwriter and author, was born in the town in 1947 before moving to New York.
* [[Charles J. Hughes (footballer)|Charles James Hughes]] - footballer, referee of the [[1891 FA Cup Final|1891]], [[1893 FA Cup Final|1893]] and [[1894 FA Cup Final|1894]] [[FA Cup]] finals, joint founder of the [[Cheshire FA|Cheshire Football Association]], co-founder of and player for [[Northwich Victoria|Northwich Victoria Football Club]] and vice-president of the [[The Football Association|English Football Association]] in 1901, was born at 7 Applemarket Street in the town centre.<ref>{{cite web | title=Is there an Old Wittonian Society?| url=http://internalarchive.thisischeshire.co.uk/2003/5/7/173195.html| accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref>
*[[Diana Johnson]], M.P. for Hull North, was born and educated in the town.
* [[Matthew Kelly]] - television presenter, lived in the town.
* [[Matthew Langridge]] - Olympic rower and silver medallist at the 2008 games.
* [[Alan McInally]] - former Scotland international footballer lives in the town.
* Tommy McKenzie - name checked in [[the Beatles]] song [[Eleanor Rigby]] as Father McKenzie, was compère at Northwich Memorial Hall.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.northwichguardian.co.uk/2000/6/8/221729.html |title=Beatles' Tribute to 'Father McKenzie' |publisher=Northwich Guardian |accessdate=15 January 2007 }}</ref>
* [[Ludwig Mond]] - German-born co-founder of Brunner Mond.
* Stuart Neild - horror author was born in the town in 1970<ref>{{cite web | url = http://stuartneild.com/biography.htm | work = Stuart Neild website | title = Biography | accessdate = 2 September 2008}}</ref>
* [[Alan Oakes]] - former footballer who holds the record for number of appearances for [[Manchester City]], lived in the town.
* [[Andy Oakes (footballer)|Andy Oakes]] - former goalkeeper in the Premier League for [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]], was born in the town.
* [[Michael Oakes]] - former goalkeeper in the [[Premier League]] for [[Aston Villa]] and [[Wolverhampton Wanderers]], was born in the town.
* [[Paula Radcliffe]] - marathon and Olympic runner was born in the nearby village of [[Davenham]] and also lived in [[Barnton, Cheshire|Barnton]] for a while.
* [[Jennifer Saunders]] - actress and comedienne, attended [[County High School Leftwich]] (then Northwich Girls' Grammar School) in Northwich as a child.
*[[Robert Westall]], the children's author, also lived in the town and taught at Sir John Deane's Grammar School.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://archive.thisischeshire.co.uk/2004/4/14/152175.html | work=This is Cheshire | title=Robert Westall: From art tutor to world famous author | accessdate=14 March 2008}}</ref> One of his pupils was the crime writer Martin Edwards (see above)
* [[Max Woosnam]] - [[Liverpool]]-born sportsman who was captain of the [[England national football team]], [[Manchester City]], as well as a [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] and [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] tennis doubles champion, amongst other achievements. He later played for [[Northwich Victoria]] whilst working at [[Imperial Chemical Industries|ICI]] in Winnington, Northwich.
* [[Jacqueline Yallop]], cultural scientist and novelist, lived in Cuddington and graduated at Sir John Deane's College in 1987
* William James Yarwood - shipbuilder, born in 1851 and, after serving an apprenticeship with ironfounders in Northwich, he was appointed as a blacksmith with the River Weaver Navigation. In 1896 he became the proprietor of [[W.J. Yarwood & Sons]] the former John Thompson shipbuilding business, based on the west bank of the River Weaver, a few hundred yards from the town centre of Northwich.
* Jane Bom-Bane - poet, musician, Edinburgh Festival regular and proprietor of "Bom Banes" restaurant in [[Brighton]], lived in Northwich as a child and a poem written about her experiences making and subsequently burning a "Guy" at [[Bonfire Night]] celebrations in Verdin Park features on the wall of the restaurant.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bom-banes.com/aboutbb/about-jane-bom-bane/ |title=About Jane Bom Bane |publisher=Bom-Banes |accessdate=6 February 2014 }}</ref>

==Twin town==

Northwich is [[town twinning|twinned]] with:

* [[File:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Dole, Jura|Dole]], [[France]]
* [[File:Flag of Ireland.svg|25px]] [[Carlow]], [[Republic of Ireland]]

==See also==
{{Portal|Cheshire}}

*[[:Category:Northwich|Northwich category]]
*[[Salt in Cheshire]]
*[[Brunner Mond]]
*[[Winnington Hall]]
*[[Holy Trinity Church, Northwich]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.cheshirewestandchester.gov.uk/ Cheshire West and Chester Council]
*[http://www.gonorthwich.co.uk/ GoNorthwich]
*[http://www.brunnermond.com/who/history.htm Brunner Mond]
*[http://www.northwich-festival.co.uk Northwich Festival]
*[http://www.northwichtc.plus.com/ Northwich Town Council]
*[http://www.northwichvision.org/ Northwich Vision]
*[http://www.talkingwestcheshire.org/default.aspx?page=0 Northwich and Rural North community website]
*[http://www.ghostpubs.com/haunted_pub/north_west_england/cheshire/northwich/detail.html Haunted pubs in Northwich]

{{Cheshire, Cheshire West and Chester}}
{{Cheshire}}

[[Category:Civil parishes in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Towns in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Northwich| ]]
[[Category:Post towns in the CW postcode area]]

John E. Hodge

2014-05-01T17:38:36Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 65.182.127.9 (talk) to last revision by 208.71.233.66 (HG)

'''John Edward Hodge''' (1914-1996)  was an [[African-American]] chemist, born in [[Kansas City, Kansas]].

He gained an A.B. degree in 1936 and a masters degree from the [[University of Kansas]] in 1940; from 1941 to 1980 he worked at the [[USDA]] Northern Regional Research Center in [[Peoria, Illinois]]. He also taught at [[Western University (Kansas)]], in 1972 held a visiting professorship at the [[University of Campinas]] in [[Sao Paulo, Brazil]], and in 1984–1985 was an adjunct professor at [[Bradley University]].

An article of his: Hodge, J. E. (1953). "Chemistry of browning reactions in model systems." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 1(15): 928-943 was named a "Citation Classic" by the Science Citation Index in 1979. In it he studied the chemistry of non-enzymatic browning reactions in dehydrated foods, such as the [[Maillard reaction]]. The article included a reaction scheme which is known as the "Hodge Scheme" and is considered to be the Maillard reaction pathway over 50 years later.

==References==
*{{citation|title=John E. Hodge, 1914–1996|first=Milton S.|last=Feather|journal=Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry|volume=53|pages=1a, 1–4|year=1998|doi=10.1016/S0065-2318(08)60040-2}}.
*{{citation|title=This Week's Citation Classic|url=http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1979/A1979HZ28200001.pdf|date=March 19, 1979}}. A brief memoir by Hodge recounting his work on the 1953 dehydrated foods paper.
*{{citation|title=The Black male in white America|first=Jacob U.|last=Gordon|publisher=Nova Publishers|year=2002|isbn=978-1-59033-370-9|page=86}}.
*{{citation|url=https://webfiles.uci.edu/mcbrown/display/hodge.html|contribution=John Edward Hodge: Chemist|title=The Faces of Science: African Americans in the Sciences|first=Mitchell C.|last=Brown}}.
*{{citation|title=John Edward Hodge|journal=[[Kansas City Star]]|date=January 7, 1996}}. As cited by Brown.

==External links==
*[http://www2.sis.pitt.edu/resources/diversity/naa/chemistry3.html Biography] as part of a student project on notable African Americans at the University of Pittsburgh.
*[http://www.futureeducation.net/BlackScientists/Scientists_1.asp Listing] in Future Education collection of African American scientists.

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Hodge, John E.
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American chemist
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1914
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1996
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hodge, John E.}}
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1996 deaths]]
[[Category:American chemists]]
[[Category:People from Kansas City, Kansas]]
[[Category:African-American scientists]]
[[Category:University of Kansas alumni]]

{{US-chemist-stub}}

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2014-04-29T20:09:59Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 96.50.95.75 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

[[File:Diet Coke Mentos.jpg|thumb|right|A two-liter bottle of Diet Coke just after Mentos were dropped into it]]
[[File:ShimadaK2007Sept09-MentosGeyser DSC 3294++.JPG|thumb|From left to right: Reaction of five drops of Mentos with [[Perrier]], classic [[Coca-Cola|Coke]], [[Sprite (soft drink)|Sprite]] and Diet Coke]]

A '''Diet Coke and Mentos eruption''' (or '''Diet Coke and Mentos geyser''') is a reaction between a [[carbonated]] beverage and [[Mentos]] candies that causes the beverage to spray out of its container.

The numerous small pores on the candy's surface [[Catalysis|catalyze]] the release of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2) gas from the soda, resulting in the rapid expulsion of copious quantities of [[foam]]. Although any carbonated beverage will produce a similar effect, the reaction was popularized using [[Diet Coke]] for seemingly producing the best results.

==Cause==
When the Mentos come into contact with the Diet Coke, a reaction causes the rapid formation of foam.

''[[MythBusters]]'' concluded that the [[potassium benzoate]], [[aspartame]], and CO2 gas contained in the Diet Coke, in combination with the [[gelatin]] and [[gum arabic]] ingredients of the Mentos, all contribute to the formation of the foam.<ref>{{Cite episode |title=Mentos and Soda |episodelink=MythBusters_(2006_season)#Episode_57_.E2.80.93_.22Diet_Coke_and_Mentos.22 |series=MythBusters |serieslink=MythBusters |first= |last= |network=[[Discovery Channel]] |date=August 9, 2006 |season=4 |number=14}}</ref>

The structure of the Mentos is the most significant cause of the eruption due to [[nucleation]]. ''MythBusters'' reported that when fruit-flavored Mentos with a smooth waxy coating were tested in [[carbonated drink]] there was hardly a reaction, whereas mint-flavored Mentos (with no such coating) added to carbonated drink formed an energetic eruption, supporting the nucleation-site theory. According to ''MythBusters'', the surface of the mint Mentos is covered with many small holes that increase the [[surface area]] available for reaction (and thus the quantity of reagents exposed to each other at any given time), thereby allowing CO2 bubbles to form with the rapidity and quantity necessary for the "jet"- or "geyser"- or eruption like nature of the effusion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mythbusters: Diet Coke and Mentos MiniMyth|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/videos/mythbusters-diet-coke-and-mentos.html |publisher=[[Discovery Channel]]}}</ref>

This [[hypothesis]] gained further support when [[rock salt]] was used as a "jump start" to the reaction. A paper by Tonya Coffey, a physicist at [[Appalachian State University]] in Boone, North Carolina, confirmed that the rough surface of the Mentos candy helps speed the reaction. Coffey also found that the [[aspartame]] in diet soda lowers the [[surface tension]] and causes a bigger reaction, but that caffeine does not accelerate the reaction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14114-science-of-mentosdiet-coke-explosions-explained.html |title=Science of Mentos-Diet Coke explosions explained |work=[[New Scientist]] |date=June 12, 2008 |first=Hazel |last=Muir |accessdate=2009-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1119/1.2888546 |title=Diet Coke and Mentos: What is really behind this physical reaction? | last=Coffey |first=Tonya Shea | journal=American Journal of Physics |date=June 2008 | volume=76 | issue=6 | pages=551–557}}
</ref>

==Event==
A [[Guinness World Record]] of 2,865 simultaneous geysers was set on October 17, 2010, in an event organized by [[Perfetti Van Melle]] at the [[SM Mall of Asia]] Complex, in [[Manila]], Philippines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/5000/most-mentos-and-soda-fountains |title=Most Mentos and soda fountains |publisher=[[Guinness World Records]] |date=2010-10-17 |accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Solubility]]
*[[MythBusters]]
*[[Wreck it Ralph]]

== References ==
<references />

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |first1= John E. |last1= Baur |first2= Melinda B. |last2= Baur |lastauthoramp= yes |title= The Ultrasonic Soda Fountain: A Dramatic Demonstration of Gas Solubility in Aqueous Solutions |journal= Journal of Chemical Education |volume= 83 |issue= 4 |date=April 2006 |pages= 577–580 |doi= 10.1021/ed083p577}} {{registration required}}

== External links ==

*[http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistryhowtoguide/ht/mentos.htm About.com Chemistry page with instructions]

[[Category:Chemistry classroom experiments]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]
[[Category:YouTube videos]]
[[Category:Viral videos]]
[[Category:Coca-Cola in popular culture]]

Koreanische Mythologie

2014-04-29T17:54:55Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by ThatOneTwinky (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

{{Multiple issues|
{{Original research|date=August 2008}}
{{confusing|date=October 2012}}
{{Refimprove|date=June 2006}}
{{underlinked|date=November 2013}}
}}
{{Infobox Korean name
|img=Goguryeo moon.jpg
|caption=Moon goddess of [[Goguryeo]]
|hangul=한국 신화
|hanja=韓國神話
|rr=Hangug sinhwa
|mr=Han'guk sinhwa
|}}
{{Korean shamanism}}
'''Korean mythology''' consists of national legends and folk-tales which come from all over the Korean Peninsula. The origin may be a blend of [[Muism|Korean Shaministic religion]], Buddhist, Chinese and Japanese myths, Confucian and Taoist legends and myths. The legends may also vary greatly by region, even within the country. For example, the people of [[Jeju Island]] have a very different lifestyle from that of the mainland and so can generate different forms of the same myths.<ref name="mythology"> Choi Won-Oh (2008), An illustrated guide to Korean mythology, ISBN 978-1-905246-60-1 </ref>

In Muism, the shamanistic religion, [[animism]] was dominant as the prime source for religious life for the Korean people. Particular worship of mountains, animals, plants stem from the belief that they had souls and often show up in the folktales as well as talk about tributes and sacrifices, whether literal, or figurative. <ref name="religion">Kim, Duk-Whang, A history of religions in Korea, 1988 {{publisher missing}}</ref>

At the same time, there were gods that occupied certain domains and they would often show up in folktales as distant protectors that called on humans when asked to rather than interfering with every day life.<ref name="religion"/>

Early in Korean history, the shamanistic religion was dominant and because early Korea was divided often into smaller domains, such as Silla and Goguryeo, Pakche, the folktales and myths tended to differ also by those regions. With the arrival of Buddhism in the 3-4th century, the myths and native religion began to change as did the myths. <ref name="muism" > Chang Soo-kyung / Kim Tae-kon ''Korean Shamanism - Muism'' (1998).{{Publisher missing}}{{page needed|date=March 2014}}</ref> With the advent of Neo Confucianism, the native religion was suppressed by the government where shamans were often killed for practicing and so many of the legends either changed or were blended into existing legends.

The so-called [[Anti-Superstition Movement]] under the [[Syngman Rhee]] administration and during the 1970s suppressed Korean shamanism and mythology
as "superstition".{{cn|date=March 2014}}

== Korean shamanism ==
[[File:Male mudang.jpg|thumb|230px|A shaman(''baksu'') holding a ''kut''.]]

[[Korean shamanism]] (or "Muism") has a large influence on the Korean people, though the religion itself has gone "underground"{{huh|date=March 2014}}. <ref name="muism"/> It, too, has a large influence on the myths.

Early in Muism, often men were equated to birds and women were often equated to fish or land animals. This often held true for later myths not based in Muism. Examples can be seen through the [[Samguk Yusa]] where men often transformed into birds and tales of women include water or fish. For example, the early goddess, Yuhwa, was said to be a water nymph. But Haemosu was said to be a sky god. In the tale about [[Kim Suro]] Kim Suro was said to transform into a bird--as did his opponent, but his wife, [[Heo Hwang Ok]] was said to have come by boat from the sea. This is very consistent throughout the [[Three Kingdoms]] period as seen in the Samguk Yusa.

Mountains were often also talked about being sacred, and often also show up in myths, legends and folktales. Kings were often delivered to the top of mountains, gods came down to mountains, and even mountain spirits, called [[sanshin]] were worshipped. <ref name="muism"/>

== Cosmology ==
The Cosmology of Korea has changed over time as new religions have been imported into the country and been slowly synchronized. Also, there are larger regional differences with the older mythology rather than the newer mythology when the country became united.

From the prehistory to the Three Kingdoms era, it is thought that Koreans didn't believe in heaven and hell--they believed in the "Next Life" which was slightly better than the one here and had no particular location or place. It was not in a particular time, but out of the realm of time itself. <ref name="muism"/>

[[Sanshin_(deity)|Sanshin]], [[Bonhyasin]], and generals were often worshipped as gods and took part in many myths and legends. As well as many animals, particularly talking animals as in the legend of the Ungnyeo, who was a bear who turned into a human. <ref name="muism"/>

Despite this basic commonality, the religion and myths varied a lot by location. Haemosu, Jumong, Yuhwa, were gods from Goguryeo, but Koenegitto, Halmang, Koeulla, Puella, Yangeul were from Jeju Island. Each Kingdom and specific region may have had their own form of worship.<ref name="muism"/>

This changed with the introduction of Buddhism where Buddhism both took on Shamanism into its religion and Shamanism began to adapt traditions of Buddhism into the religion. This included the change of the afterlife where the afterlife gained a heaven, hell and different levels of hell with it sometime in the 4th-fifth century. These realms now ere called Iseung, Yongwangguk, and Jeoseung. Two other realms are vaguely mentioned; Okhwang, located in the sky, and Jihaguk, located underground.<ref name="Alive Korean Mythology">Alive Korean Mythology{{huh|date=March 2014}}</ref>

Koreans referred to the mortal world as Iseung, meaning ''this world''. It was home to the [[Gashin]], or household gods, many Bonhyangshin (village gods) and Josangshin (ancestral deities), as well as the [[Sanshin (deity)|Sanshin]], or mountain gods. Evil spirits ([[Gwishin]]), such as Mongdal (spirits of unmarried man) and Songaxi (spirits of unmarried woman), also occupied this realm, as did [[Dokkaebi]], the trickster spirits of old tools. Certain deities regularly crossed over from their abode into Iseung; these were Chasa, the envoy gods. These included Jeoseung Chasa, the reapers of the dead, who features in most death-related myths; Okhwang Chasa, who brought the hero Hwanguyangssi to the Palace of Cheonha in the ''Seongju Puli'';<ref name="Alive Korean Mythology"/> and gods such as Choribdongi of the ''[[Gunung Bonpuli]]''.,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://folkency.nfm.go.kr/minsok/dic_index.jsp?P_MENU=03&DIC_ID=2467&ref=T3&S_idx=1&P_FIELD=F03&cur_page=1|title=Virtual Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Religion-Shamanism-Shamanistic Myths-Gunung Bonpuli}}</ref> who occasionally crossed over from the sea.

Yongwangguk is the undersea kingdom, occupied by the Yongwang, the five gods of the ocean; their names are Gwangdeok of the east, Gwangli of the south, Gwangtaek of the west, and Gwangyeon of the north<ref>{{cite web |url=http://folkency.nfm.go.kr/minsok/dic_index.jsp?P_MENU=03&DIC_ID=2711&ref=T3&S_idx=41&P_FIELD=F02&cur_page=5|title=Virtual Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Religion-Shamanism-Shamanistic Deities-Yongshin}}</ref> These gods could marry between each other; for example, in the ''Samseung Halmang Bonpuli'', the daughter of Gwangtaek married Gwangdeok. However, there is war, too, in Yongwangguk; in the ''[[Gunung Bonpuli]]'', Gwangtaek is slain by Gwangdeok's army.

Jeoseung is ruled by the ten Underworld gods, the Yeoldaewnag. The Yeoldaewang offer different punishments; Jingang shreds sinners to pieces, Sogan burns sinners in an iron pot, Songye whips sinners and exiles them, and Ogan offers the blessed fire to withstand the cold and makes sinners pass naked through his icy realm. Yeomyeo rips the tongues of those who earned money through interest, Bingshin hurls sinners in a pit full of lizards, spiders, and snakes, Taesan grinds the flesh of sinners inside a barn, and Paengdeung shreds sinners with a saw. Those who are destroyed in Paengdeung's realm must [[reincarnate]] into the twelve beasts. Doshi undresses sinners, hangs them on a tree, and hits them ruthlessly, and Yeolsi sends the blessed into the village of Sang, located in Mt.Seokhyo, and sends sinners into a dark realm where there is no light.

There is also a vague mention of Okhwang, the abode of the sky gods, and Jiha, abode of the earth gods. In Okhwang is a Palace called Cheonha; in Jiha, there are many monsters, female deities, and pine trees.

Finally, there is said to be a dark realm that has no light. The king of that realm sends his gigantic hounds, the Bulgae, to hunt the sun and the moon and bring them to his realm; however, when the Bulgae bite the sun and the moon, they find that they are too hot/cold and run away to their realm. When the Bulgae bites the sun, it is called a solar eclipse; when they bite the moon, it is a lunar eclipse.

== Classification ==
Just as different experts were respected equally, all Korean gods were equally respected in their fields. Koreans viewed all gods as equal because they were there to solve problems in people’s lives. Therefore, in order to better understand Korean oral myths, it is important to set the types of problems that may occur in everyday living situations.

The Korean myths sampled from different regions clearly demonstrate that there are various gods who take essentially identical roles, but appear in different plots. For example, Mireuk in the ''Changsega'' and Dosu Munjang in the ''Chogamje'' are both creator gods, but their myth is entirely different. In the ''Changsega'', Mireuk makes the world and everything in it, while in the ''Chogamje'', Dosu Munjang makes only the world, the suns, and the moons. Throughout Korea, myths tell of Mireuk (Northern Korea), the Humun brothers (Central Korea), or Daebyeol (Southern Korea), who destroyed each of the two suns and moons. It is difficult to classify them as different myths.

Oppositely, there are myths with a similar plot, but a different role for the characters. For example, the myth of Danggeum Aegi and the Hyeongbul brothers (northern and central Korea) and the myth of Queen Nogadanpungjajimyeong and the Chogong brothers (southern Korea) have nearly the same plot; a virgin has premarital sex with a priest by accident, and have three sons, who search out their father. However, in the Danggeum Aegi myth, Danggeum Aegi becomes the goddess of childbirth, and her sons become the gods of life. In the Nogadanpungjajimyeong myth, Queen Nogadanpungjajimyeong becomes the goddess of luck, and her sons become the Underworld gods.

Korean myths tend to focus on the role played by the god who is the protagonist in the story. Accordingly, Choi explained Korean myths according to the roles of the gods.<ref name="mythology"/>

Instead, the Great Encyclopedia of the Culture of the Korean People (한국민족문화대백과) classifies gods into three groups; shamanistic deities, village deities, and [[Gashin]], or house deities.<ref>http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=795112&mobile&categoryId=1627</ref>

===Creation myths===
{{Main|Cheonjiwang Bonpuli}}

The separation of heaven and earth, the creation of the sun, the moon and stars, the origin of fire and water, the origin of clothing and cooking, the genesis of humans, and the fight over this world and the underworld are systematically organized and well presented in creation myths, which convey the true essence of mythological philosophy.

These myths are rare compared to other myths of the peninsula, as the creator deities have no direct connection with the people. However, there are three surviving myths concerning creation; the ''Changsega'' of Hamheung, the ''Sirumal'' of Seoul, and the ''[[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli]]'' of Jeju Island.

Among these, the ''Changsega'' retells the creation of the world and the conflict between the creator and his usurper. Many themes in the ''Changsega'' are unique to Korea. According to the ''Changsega'', Mireuk parted the world by putting four copper pillars between the earth and the sky. He destroyed each of the two suns and two moons and crafted the stars with the destroyed sun and moon. Mireuk discovered fire and water from a mouse after torturing it (as a gift to the mouse, Mireuk gave it the barns of the world), and made the first clothes from a [[kudzu vine]]. He created humans from five golden bugs and five silver bugs. The bugs grew into humans; the silver ones were women and the golden ones were male.

Suddenly, the deity Seokga attempted to usurp Mireuk in three contests. In the first contest, which judged who could stretch their ropes across the [[Sea of Japan|East Sea]], Seokga's silver rope broke, but Mireuk's golden rope did not. Thus, Mireuk claimed victory.

In the second contest, the deities had to make the Seongcheon river connect to all other rivers in the universe. Seokga called on rainstorms, but he could not make the Seongcheon connect with all other rivers. Mireuk called on winter ice, and made the Seongcheon connect with all other rivers (because water expands when frozen).

In the final contest, Mireuk and Seokga grew a magnolia flower. While the two deities were sleeping, the deity that the magnolia reached for would be the winner. The magnolia reached for Mireuk, but Seokga severed the magnolia and put it in his lap. The angered Mireuk cursed the earth, creating prostitution, betrayal, mental disorder, bragging, and other imperfections of the world. Seokga, the injust victor, then imprisoned Mireuk.

In three days, Mireuk fled his prison by transforming into a musk deer. In response, Seokga led his three thousand priests to kill Mireuk. Seokga killed and ate the musk deer, and shared Mireuk's flesh with his priests. But two of the priests refused to eat the venison. They were killed by Seokga, and turned into a large rock and a pine tree. However, people still eat flower pancakes ([[Hwajeon]]) in remembrance of the murdered priests.<ref>Changsega, page 16-19</ref>

The ''Sirumal'' and the ''[[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli]]'' share a similar plot, but the story of the ''[[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli]]'' is much more vibrant than the ''Sirumal''(for more detals, see ''[[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli]]'').

Other Mythologies

The Creation of the World

At the beginning the world did not exist. A deity named Yul-ryeo 율려(律呂) and a goddess named Mago 마고(麻姑) appeared . Yul-ryeo then died. Mago in turn gave birth to two goddesses: Gung-hee 궁희(穹姬) and So-hee 소희(巢姬). They in turn each gave birth to two Men of Heaven 천인(天人) and two Women of Heaven 천녀(天女).

After the appearance of the Heavenly People, Yul-ryeo 율려 is revived and through her rebirth heaven, earth, and the oceans were created, along with Chi (soul) 기(氣), fire 불(火), water 물(水), and earth 흙(土). These four elements in turn mixed and became herbs and plants, birds and animals.

Mago 마고(麻姑) decides to stay with Yul-ryeo, whose body had now become the world, and the Heavenly People ruled all living things from their heavenly fortress named Magoseong 마고성(麻姑城) in honor of the goddess.

The Coming of Humankind

There were four Heavenly Men guarding each cardinal direction of the fortress, and they were Cheong-gung 청궁(靑穹), Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) who were children of Gunghwee, and Hukso 흑소(黑巢), Baekso 백소(白巢)who were children of Sohwee. They in turn married the four Heavenly Women, and gave birth to twelve children, who would become the ancestors of the humans.

These ancestors were pure and were have said to drink from Earth's Milk 지유(地乳), which came from a spring inside the castle. They could speak without making sounds, and act without seeing and never died. Thus they lived for ten thousand years undisturbed.

Then there came a time when the number of people became too large. There was not enough of Earth's Milk (or "Jiyu") to go around for everyone. Because of this, a man from the line of Baekso 백소(白巢) by the name of Jiso 지소(支巢) decided to cede his meal of Earth's Milk five times to his neighbours (other versions say that he waited in line but the line was so long he never got his turn). Eventually his hunger grew intolerable, and deciding to kill himself he headed towards a cliff, where he saw a grape vine growing in the edges. Unable to suppress his hunger, he ate the grapes and immediately acquired the five tastes of sourness, bitterness, spiciness, sweetness, and saltiness. This is known as the Incident of the Five Tastes (오미의 변).

Jiso 지소(支巢) returned to his people and told them of his discovery. Soon however, those who ate from these grapes began to grow teeth. From the teeth spewed a saliva that turned into venom. This was because they had eaten another living thing in order to stay alive.

Soon they were able to see, but were no longer able to hear the heavens. Their skin became coarse, their feet heavy, and they were no longer pure. They gave birth to many animal-resembling children and their lifespans began to shrink.

There eventually came a point when the people of Magosung 마고성(麻姑城) began blaming Jiso (지소) for the transformation, and he along with his family and all those who had eaten the grapes were forced to leave Magosung 마고성(麻姑城).

As the line of Jiso was leaving, however, Hwang-gung (황궁:黃穹, one of the four guardians and a direct ancestor of the Korean people) tried to encourage them by saying that if they could recover their pure nature, they would be free of their misery.

Upon hearing this, the people became convinced that the only way to become pure once more was to drink from Earth's Milk again. They then stormed the castle and overwhelmed it, razing the fortress to its foundations in order to reveal the source of the spring that had given them Earth's Milk. The spring, however, began to flow in all directions and thereafter the milk turned into inedible earth, leaving not only the original perpetrators but all the former inhabitants of the now destroyed castle to starve.

Soon thereafter there ensued a massive famine, and everyone was reduced to devouring not only grapes, but all sorts of plants and even animals in an attempt to satiate their hunger. Of them only Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) came forth to Mago 마고(麻姑) and begged her for forgiveness. He swore he would not rest until mankind could recover its pure nature. From her he obtained the Three Heavenly Heirlooms, and great knowledge. He then called together all the people of the earth, taught them agriculture, and gave each clan leader a Heavenly Heirloom and then sent them off in different directions to people the earth.

The Settling of the World

Cheong-gung 청궁(靑穹) went to the East, where he established China.

Baekso 백소(白巢) and his people moved to the West and became the people of Europe and the Middle East.

Hukso 흑소(黑巢) moved to the South, into the region that is now India and Southeast Asia.

The Establishment of Korea

Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) took three thousand followers and they alone went to the harsh North, to a place called Chonsanju 천산주(天山洲), meaning "land of the heavenly mountain" where the land was cold and dangerous. He had done this on purpose, because he wanted to be purified once more. Upon arrival, Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) signed an oath swearing that he would recover his purity.

Additional Details

Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) ruled for a thousand years, using the Heavenly Heirloom, which granted him power over fire and the sun. Hwang-gung eventually achieved his goal of self-purification. To his oldest son Yuin 유인(有因) he gave the Heavenly Heirloom as a sign of his right to govern the kingdom, whereas to his two younger sons he gave the responsibility of governing over a province each. He then departed to the Heavenly Mountain 천산(天山) where he became a stone that could speak Yul-ryeo's message, constantly reminding men of their path to innocence.

Yuin 유인(有因) ruled for another thousand years. Using the Heavenly Heirloom, he taught his people how to tame fire and cook food. He later left for the Heavenly Mountain as well and gave the heirloom to his a son by the name of Han-in 한인(桓因) [sometimes pronounced "Hwanin" 환인]. Han-in 한인(桓因) was the last of the heavenly rulers, who used the power of the Heirloom to bring abundant sunlight and good weather. Under the three thousand years

5 years ago
of peaceful reign since Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹), the people eventually lost their animal-like appearance and slowly began recovering their image.<ref>http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20081223162714AAg8kR8</ref>

===Flood myths===
There are three recorded flood myths in Korea. In the sibling intermarriage myth, mankind continued its existence through the marriage between a sibling who survived a gigantic flood..

In the Namu Doryeong myth, Namu Doryeong played a similar role in the continuation of our history after a big flood. Namu Doryeong was the son of a [[wikt:laurel|laurel]] tree spirit, who survived the flood by floating on the laurel. He first saved a colony of [[ants]] from the flood, then a swarm of [[mosquitoes]], until he had saved all the animals of the world. Namu Doryeong finally saved a young human boy, despite the laurel's advice against it.

After the flood, Namu Doryeong met a crone and her two daughters on [[Mt. Baekdu]]. The crone's family did not die because [[Mt. Baekdu]] was the highest mountain in Korea. The crone gave Namu Doryong a contest, and if Namu Doryeong won, he could have her daughter's hand in marriage. Namu Doryeong won the contest because of the aid of a swarm of ants. The ants were the very ants that Namu Doryeong had saved.

Thus, Namu Doryeong and the boy married the crone's two daughters, and they formed the next race of humans.<ref>[[:ko:목도령]]</ref>

===The underworld myths===
One of the most important things we need to note in this myth is that the underworld controls the death of people. In other words, people will go to the underworld after they die. Also, even Yeomra, the King of the Underworld, can be captured by an officer in the mortal world.

The best-known death myth is the ''[[Chasa Bonpuli]]'' myth. The hero Gangrim Doryeong is ordered to capture Yeomra, King of the Underworld, by his king (Kimchiwonnim) in order to discover the reason for the mysterious deaths of the three sons of Gwayanggaxi. With help from [[Munshin]], the door god, and [[Jowangshin]], the kitchen god, Gangrim Doryeong captures Yeomra. After testing Gangrim Doryeong's wisdom, Yeomra tells Kimchiwonnim that the mysterious deaths are because the three sons are actually the three princes of Beomul, who were murdered by Gwayanggaxi. They chose to be reborn as Gwayanggaxi's sons to take revenge on their killers. Gangrim Doryeong became the death god, who reaps dead souls and brings them to the underworld.<ref>Alive Korean Mythology, page 140-158</ref>

In other myths, the protagonist cheats death. This theme is universal throughout Korea, and appears in the form of Hwangcheon Honshi (of Northeast Korea), Jangja Puli (of Southwest Korea), Samani Bonpuli (of Jeju Island), and the [[myth of General Sineui]] (Southeast Korea). In most of these stories, the protagonist bribes the death gods into cheating death.

===Birth and agriculture myths===
The two main elements in the birth myth are birth and agriculture. The birth myth is closely related to women, since only women have the secret of reproduction. Thus, the three concepts of birth, agriculture and women (or goddesses) are the important keywords in understanding the birth myth.

The myths about Samshin (goddess of birth) and the Samsegyeong (the three gods of agriculture) are examples of this. In the Samshin myth, both of the main characters (the maleovelant Princess of the [[Dragon King of the East Sea|Dragon Palace of the East Sea]] and the kind Princess of the Kingdom of Myeongjin) are female.

In the romantic ''Segyeong Bonpuli'' myth, the protagonist is the woman Jacheong Bi. In this story, Jacheong Bi disguiises herself as a man, and goes to school with the teenaged deity Mun Doryeong. After secretly pretending she was a man for three years, she sends a letter on a leaf while Mun Doryeong is bathing, telling Mun Doryeong the truth. Mun Doryeong and Jacheong Bi share love that night, then Mun Doryeong leaves for Heaven.

Mun Doryeong does not return, and Jacheong Bi sends her slave, Jeongsu Nam, to log in the woods and feed the cattle. However, Jeongsu Nam devours all the cattle, drops his axe in a lake, and gets all his clothes stolen. However, Jeongsu Nam lies to Jacheong Bi that he met Mun Doryeong, and tries to have an affair with Jacheong Bi. Jacheong Bi kills Jeongsu Nam by piercing his ear with a thorned branch. Jeongsu Nam's soul flies away, turning into an owl.

Jacheong Bi is chased out of the house because she murdered someone, and she finds herself weaving the clothes for Mun Doryeong's wedding. She signs her name in the clothes, and Mun Doryeong returns to Jacheong Bi; however, Jacheong Bi stabs Mun Doryeong with a needle, chasing him away.

Jacheong Bi again disguises herself as a man and goes to the house of [[Igong Bonpuli|Sara Doryeong]], who has flowers that can revive the dead (Hwansaengkkot). She apologizes to Jeongsu Nam, who (in the form of an owl) has been magically cursing Sara Doryeong. The owl dies, and Sara Doryeong gives Jacheong Bi his third daughter and the Hwansaengkkot. Because Jacheong Bi is a woman and does not want to have an affair with another woman, Jacheong Bi flees with the Hwansaengkkot and brings Jeongsu Nam back to life. However, Jacheong bi's parents consider it evil to make a dead person be alive again, and chase Jacheong Bi away again.

Jacheong Bi encounters Mun Doryeong, and comes to heaven with him. However, Mun Doryeong had already promised to marry the daughter of King Seosu, a ruler of Heaven. Mun Doryeong's father, King Munseon, tells the two women that the one who could cross a burning trail filled with knives would be Mun doryeong's wife. The daughter of Seosuwang refused, but Jacheong Bi crossed the bridge. When she wiped her blood, [[menstruation]] began.

When Jacheong Bi's new husband, Mun Doryeong, is ordered to fight an army of rebel [[Gwishin|ghosts]], Jacheong Bi sends Mun Doryeong to Sara Doryeong's mansion while she fights. She destroys the rebelling spirits, but Sara Doryeong's third daughter does not want Mun Doryeong to leave. Thus, the third daughter saddls Mun Doryeong's horse backwards. Jacheong Bi is angered when she sees Mun Doryeong riding with his back towards her, and parts from Mun Doryeong. Jacheong Bi rejoins Jeongsu Nam, and with Mun Doryeong, they become the gods of agriculture.

===Myths about shamans===
Most Korean folklore is passed on by a shaman who performs a shamanistic ceremony called a kut. Shamans are thus responsible for transmitting myths. Shamans belong to a despised social class, so it is quite intriguing that they served as transmitters of myths which are sacred stories. We can find the answer to this question in the origin myth of shamans. In ancient times, shamans belonged to the sacred class well respected by the community. Therefore, it is quite understandable that there should be myths about the ancestors of shamans i.e. the origin myth of shamans.

The ancestral shaman is believed to be Bari. Bari was the seventh daughter of King Ogu, but she was abandoned in infancy. Because he abandoned his daughter, King Ogu suddenly fell sick. King Ogu's wife discovered Bari. After finding out that the only way to cure King Ogu of his sickness would be to drink the water of Mt. Dongdae, Bari began her journey.

First, Bari encountered an old man who was plowing the field. Bari decided to plow the field for the old man. Suddenly, hundreds of magical animals fell from the sky and plowed the field. In return, the old man told Bari the direction of Mt. Dongdae.

Bari encountered a fork on the road. Bari did not know which direction to take, so she asked an old woman. In return, Bari washed the old woman's clothes and killed the lice crawling over her. The old woman then told which trail to take, and gave Bari a golden bell and a branch with three magical flowers. In fact, the old woman was Mago, the creator of the world.

Bari crossed a range of twelve mountains. Each of the mountains were full of ghosts, but their howling could not stop Bari from crossing them. Finally, Bari encountered the Hwangcheon River, a river that only the dead could cross. The guards of Hwangcheon forbade Bari from riding the boat that crossed the river. Bari showed them the flowers that Mago had given her. The flowers signified that Bari was a goddess, and the guards gave permission for Bari to cross the river.

When Bari reached the Underworld, she found a fortress built of iron thorns. When she waved the flowers, the fortress melted away into smoke, and all the sinners imprisoned in the fortress were set free.

Bari then reached a pink river. The water of this river could melt human flesh. When Bari waved the bell, a rainbow bridge formed over the river. Bari crossed the rainbow bridge and reached Mt. Dongdae.

In Mt. Dongdae, Dongsuja, keeper of Mt. Dongdae, married Bari and had three children. Only after the third child was born did Dongsuja reveal the water of Mt. Dongdae. The Hwansaengkkot, or flowers that could revive the dead, grew next to the water. She took each of the flowers and scooped up some of the water.

When she came back, she found that Dongsuja had abandoned her and her three children. Bari returned to her home in no time, but found that both King Ogu and the queen were dead. She brought her parents back to life with the Hwansaengkkot, and cured the sickness with the water. Bari became the death goddess, the guider of the dead to the Underworld. She also became the first shaman, and the patron of all the shamans in Korea.<ref>Alive Korean Mythology, page 91-109</ref>

===Disease myths===
Disease myths are about the gods who give all kinds of disease to us. The representative myth is the ''Sonnimgut''. The fifty-three Sonnimne are the deities of smallpox. However, even the Sonnimne, who bring smallpox, can grant longevity and success.

According to the ''Sonnimgut'', fifty-three smallpox gods, called the Sonnimne, lived in China. However, the Sonnimne wanted to live in Korea. Three Sonnimne, led by the beautiful goddess Gaxi Sonnim, headed to Korea.

However, they could not cross the [[Yalu River]]. One day, a ferryman said that the three gods could cross the Yalu on his boat if Gaxi Sonnim shared love with him. Gaxi Sonnim promptly severed the ferryman's head with a dagger. Then, she gave deadly smallpox to the ferryman's seven sons, killing the eldest six. The seventh son survived, albeit completely disabled. Then, they crossed the Yalu on the ferryman's boat.

When the gods reached [[Seoul]], they attempted to sleep in the house of the rich Kim Jangja, but was refused. Instead, they slept in the shack of the kind crone, Nogo Halmi. After blessing Nogo Halmi's granddaughter with longetivity and good luck, the trio headed towards Kim Jangja's mansion.

Kim Jangja hid his son Cheolhyeon in a high mountain, and burned peppers on every street (pepper was said to drive away the Sonnimne). The angered Sonnimne attacked Cheolhyeon, first luring him out of the mountain then whipping him. The Sonnimne pierced silver needles in Cheolhyeon's joints, and finally, Kim Jangja promised to have a sacrifice made for the Sonnimne. However, the promise was false. The greatly angered Sonnimne killed Cheolhyon, and took him as the fifty-fourth Sonnimne.

While the Sonnimne were returning to China, they found that Nogo Halmi lived in Kim Jangja's mansion with her granddaughter and son-in-law, while Kim Jangja lived as a sick beggar in Nogo Halmi's shack. When Cheolhyeon cried out at this situation, the Sonnimne gave Kim Jangja some money and cured his sickness. Only since then did Cheolhyeon truly join the Sonnimne.<ref>Alive Korean Mythology, page 68-75</ref>

===Gashin myths===
''Main articles: [[Gashin]], [[Jowangshin]], [[Teojushin]], [[Munjeon Bonpuli]], [[Nulgubjishin]], [[Munshin]], [[Cheukshin]]''

The [[Gashin]] are patrons of the house, the rooms, and various objects. As the keepers of the family, myths about the Gashin are about the prevention of the destruction of the family.

For example, in the ''[[Munjeon Bonpuli]]'', the evil [[Cheukshin|goddess of the outhouse]], Noiljadae (or her daughter, depending on the source), kills Yeosan Buin and attempts to kill the seven children. However, Noiljadae suicides when her plan is foiled by the seventh son, [[Munshin|Nokdisaengin]], and Yeosan Buin is brought back to life through the Hwansaengkkot flowers.

In the ''Seongju Puli'', the evil magician Sojinhang attempts to claim the [[Teojushin|earth goddess]]. However, Sojinhang is defeated, and he turns into a [[Jangseung]], or [[totem pole]]. His daughters turn into the [[Seonangshin]].

In the ''Seongjo Puri'' myth, the protagonist, Ansimguk of Seongjo, abandons his wife, Gyehwa Buin. As a result, he is abandoned in a [[Deserted island|bare island]], where he lives for three years as a furred beast.

===Hero myths===
Korean hero myths tend to blend with other myths. For example, the ''Chasa Bonpuli'' introduced earlier is a prime example of a hero myth; however, it is also related to the myths concerning the Underworld, and is treated as such. In the ''Chasa Bonpuli'' myth, the mortal Gangrim Doryeong captures Yeomra, King of the Underworld, and brings him to his homeland.

Another hero myth is the ''[[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli]]'' myth. The protagonist, Daebyeol, shoots down the sun and the moon, destroying it. However, the ''[[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli]]'' is more of a creation myth than a hero myth.

An example of a 'pure' hero myth is the ''[[Gunung Bonpuli]]'' myth. In the ''[[Gunung Bonpuli]]'', the giant Wang Janggun kills the [[Dragon King of the West Sea]] with an arrow at the request of the [[Dragon King of the East Sea]]. The [[Dragon King of the East Sea]] gives his daughter's hand in marriage, and the giant Wang Janggun and his three sons become the [[Gunungshin]], or war gods.

== Folklore ==

[[File:hyeonmoo.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Depiction of [[Hyeonmu]], Northern Guardian in the tomb of 강서대묘]]

Korea has a rich folklore tradition with deep links to [[Korean shamanism]]. For example, the folklore about Simcheong, a girl who threw herself into the oceans, is derived from the ''Simcheonggut'' myth. The ''Simcheonggut'' myth was originally used to cure eye disease (Simcheong miraculously cured her father's blindness), but during the suppression of [[Korean Shamanism]] in the [[Joseon Dynasty]], the myth evolved into a folktale.

Other folktales involve Korean deities. In one folklore, an axeman encounters a Sanshin, the gods of individual mountains. Sanshin gives the axeman golden and silver axes.

In the Byeongangsoe Taryeong folklore, Byeongangsoe uses [[Jangseung]] (totem poles) for firewood. He [[Dongti|receives the rage of the Jangseung]], and suddenly dies.

=== Modern treatments ===
Recent achievements in keeping Korean folklore alive have been the 150 part animated TV series, "[[Animentary Korean Folklore]]", telling old tales anew but with traditional 2-D Korean styled animation.

In Korea itself, the comic series ''With God'' brought a national interest about Korean mythology. The comic stars deities such as the Shiwang (ten kings of the Underworld), Gangrim Doryeong (death god), [[Jowangshin]], and [[Cheukshin]].

Korean mythology has also given birth to several online role-playing games, most notably [[NexusTK]].

== Mythological Figures ==
* [[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli|Cheonjiwang]] - The supreme ruler of the world, father of Daebyeol and Sobyeol.
* [[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli|Daebyeol]] - Supreme King of the Underworld. The ten Shiwang are his lieutenants.
* [[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli|Sobyeol]] - Supreme King of the Mortal World. Sobyeol rules the mortals, but his power is lesser than Daebyeol's.
* [[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli|Queen Baji]] - Supreme Queen of the Earth. She is Cheonjiwang's wife, and the mother of Daebyeol and Sobyeol.
* Dae(soon)-nim - The Moon, brother of the Sun.
* Hae(sik)-nim - The Sun, sister of the Moon.
* Cheonha Daejanggun -Village Guardian & General under Heaven, husband of Jiha yeojanggun. He is represented as a totem pole with a scary face, constructed in front of a village entrance.
* Jiha yeojanggun - Village Guardian & General under Earth, wife of Cheonha Daejanggun. She is represented as a totem pole with also scary but more feminine face, constructed in front of a village entrance with her husband. She protects the village with her husband.
* Sanshin - Mountain gods
* [[Gashin]] - the patrons of various rooms and objects in the household
* [[Jowangshin]] - a [[Gashin]]; the deity of fire and the hearth
* [[Teojushin]] - a [[Gashin]] and the earth deity
* [[Nulgubjishin]] - god of grain
* [[Cheukshin]] - goddess of the [[outhouse]]
* Seongjushin - the god of the actual house; supreme leader of the [[Gashin]]
* [[Munshin]] - the door god
* Oeyangganshin - the patron of cattle and horses
* Cheollyung - god of the spice pots
* [[Eobshin]] - goddess of wealth
* Samshin - goddess of childbirth
* [[Yongwang]] - The five Dragon Kings of the seas, but not necessarily a dragon (usually an old human).
* Ogushin - Princess Bari (see above) became the Ogushin after reviving her dead parents. After the Jeoseung Chasa (death gods) split the soul from the body, the Ogushin guides them to the Underworld.
* Honshi Seongin - the three gods who avoided the Jeoseung Chasa and lived for an additional sixty years. They protect children from illness.
* Jeoseung Halmang - The goddess who brings death to children.
* Shiwang - Ten kings of the Underworld, who judge the dead in each individual realm.
* Yeomra - Leader of the Shiwang.
* Sonnimne (see above) - Fifty-four smallpox deities. Only four are named; Gaxi Sonnim, Hoban Sonnim, Muban Sonnim, and Cheolhyeon.
* Seonnyeo - Angel-like beings. They are the female lieutenants of Cheonjiwang. The only named Seonnyeo is Oneuli.
* Juhseung Chasa - Gods of death. Traditionally three, these gods reap dead souls. When they read a person's name three times, the person dies. Their leader is Gangrim Doryeong (also see above), a mortal who captured Yeomra, King of the Underworld. His lieutenants are Hae Wonmaek and Yi Deokchun. Meanwhile, Hwadeok Chasa reaps those who died on fires. Yonggung Chaasa reaps those who died in the ocean, Danmul Chasa takes those who drowned in wells, and Tuseok Chasa reaps those who were killed by rocks or stones.
* [[Sosamshin]], goddess of cowbirth

== Supernatural beings ==

* [[Chollima]]
* [[Yaksha|Yakcha]]
* Chollidongigae, Manlidongigae: Dogs who goes 1000li a day, 10000li a day
* Baeksaseum: White deer which runs 5000li a day
* Geumsaseum: Golden deer living in the Mt. Baekdu

=== Yokwe (monster) ===
* [[Kumiho]] (구미호) - A nine-tailed fox who can use powerful illusions and curses.
* Bulyeowoo (불여우) - A fox that is more than 100 years old, and can be disguised as a woman.
* [[Dokkaebi]] (도깨비) - spirits who keep clubs and enjoy mischievous tricks. Most are believed to have magical powers.
* Imugi (이무기) - A form before a dragon. After training for 1000 years, it can transform to the dragon.
* Samjokgu (삼족구) - A three legged dog. These are believed to recognize the Kumihos in disguise .
* Bulgasari (불가사리) - An Iron eating monster.
* Kkangcheoli (깡철이) - A failed imugi.
* [[Haetae]] (해태) - A protector spirit.

=== Gwishin (ghosts) ===

[[Gwishin]] are the departed souls of people who have died.
* ''Mool-Gwishin'' 물귀신 a departed soul in water
* ''Cho-nyo-Gwishin'' 처녀귀신 the departed soul of a virgin
* ''Mong-Dal-Gwishin'' 몽달귀신 the departed soul of an unmarried man
* [[Egg ghost|''Dal-Gyal-Gwishin'']] 달걀귀신 a ghost with an egg (Dal-Gyal 달걀) head, whose face has no eyes, nose, or mouth

=== Guardians ===
* [[Three-legged bird|Three-Legged-Bird]]

== See also ==
* [[Hwandan Gogi]]
* [[Korean culture]]
* [[Korean literature]]
* [[List of Korea-related topics]]
* [[Cheonyeo gwisin]]
* [[Jeoseung Chasa]]
* [[Gumiho]]
* [[Mongdal gwisin]]
* [[Dokkaebi]]
* [[Cheukshin]]
* [[Gashin cult]]
* [[Jowangshin]]
* [[Cheukshin]]
* [[Nulgubjishin]]
* [[Munshin]]
* [[Teojushin]]
* [[Munjeon Bonpuli]]
* [[Igong Bonpuli]]
* [[Cheonjiwang Bonpuli]]
* [[Kkoktu]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Citation style|date=September 2009}}

== External links ==
* [http://english.kbs.co.kr/explore/what/1334186_11794.html Animated KBS TV Series]
* http://www.clickasia.co.kr/about/m1.htm
* http://www.clickasia.co.kr/about/m2.htm
* http://www.clickasia.co.kr/about/m3.htm
* http://www.koreatips.net/english/culture/tale.html
* http://www.clickasia.co.kr/about/0707love.htm
* [http://www.cau.ac.kr/english/research/institutes.html?seq=18 Chung-Ang University Folklore Research Centre]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Korean Mythology}}
[[Category:Korean mythology| ]]
[[Category:Korean folklore| ]]
[[Category:History of Northeast Asia]]
[[Category:History of Korea]]

Rainbow Loom

2014-04-17T12:35:05Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 108.129.173.154 (talk) to last revision by Epicgenius (HG)

[[File:Rainbow Loom toy.jpg|thumb|A Rainbow Loom in use]]
'''Rainbow Loom''' is a plastic toy [[loom]] used to weave colorful rubber bands into bracelets and charms. It was invented in 2011 by Cheong Choon Ng of [[Novi, Michigan]].<ref name=nyt>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/01/business/rainbow-looms-success-from-2000-pounds-of-rubber-bands.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title=Rainbow Loom's Success, From 2,000 Pounds of Rubber Bands|first=Claire|last=Martin|date=31 August 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> As of September 2013, it had sold over 1.2 million units, according to Ng,<ref name=wsj>{{cite web |url=http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323864604579067670192375310 |title= Patent Fight Erupts Over Kids' Fad|first1=Sarah E.|last1=Needleman|first2=Adam|last2=Janofsky|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=11 September 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014}}</ref> who has sued the makers of rival products FunLoom and Cra-Z-Loom for patent infringement.<ref name=nyt/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Rainbow+Loom+&oq=Rainbow+Loom+&gs_l=youtube.3..0i3l3j0l7.1781.2780.0.3679 |title=Rainbow Loom |publisher=YouTube |date= |accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref>

==Description==
The Rainbow Loom is a plastic pegboard measuring {{convert|2|in}} by {{convert|8|in}}.<ref name=plain>{{cite web |url=http://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/index.ssf/2013/10/rainbow_loom_bracelets_are_swe.html|title= The Rainbow Loom bracelet trend is sweeping the nation – and Cleveland|first=Laura|last=DeMarco|date=25 October 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014|work=[[The Plain Dealer]]}}</ref> It has [[Drawing pin|push pin]]-type pegs over which small, colored rubber bands are looped and pulled by means of a plastic [[crochet hook]]. The resulting looped knots, known as [[Brunnian link]]s, can be assembled on the loom into bracelets and other shapes.<ref name=wsj/> The Rainbow Loom kit includes a pegboard, crochet hook, special C-shaped fasteners,<ref name=wsj/> and 600 small rubber bands in assorted colors. As of 2013, the kit retails for $14.99; additional rubber bands are sold in packages of 600 at a retail price of $4.<ref name=today>{{cite web |url=http://www.today.com/style/new-silly-bandz-rainbow-loom-bracelets-hit-kids-6C10920802|title=The new Silly Bandz: Rainbow Loom bracelets a hit with kids|first=Amber|last=Katz|date=15 August 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014|work=[[Today (U.S. TV program)|Today]]}}</ref>

==History==
Rainbow Loom was created by Cheong Choon Ng, a [[Malaysia]]n immigrant of [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese descent]] who came to the United States in 1991 to attend [[Wichita State University]], where he earned a graduate degree in [[mechanical engineering]].<ref name=nyt/><ref name=aim/> He was employed as a crash-test engineer for [[Nissan Motor Company]] in 2010 when he conceived the idea of a toy loom for rubber-band crafting while watching his young daughters make rubber-band jewelry. His prototype, which he called Twistz Bandz,<ref name=today/> used a wooden board, pushpins, and dental hooks.<ref name=wsj/> Encouraged by his family to market the product commercially,<ref name=nyt/> he invested $10,000 and found a factory in China to manufacture the parts, which he and his wife assembled in their home in June 2011.<ref name=entre>{{cite web |url=http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/228081|title= Inventor of the Wildly Popular 'Rainbow Loom' Weaves the American Dream With Rubber Bands in a Detroit Basement|first=Catherine|last=Clifford|date=26 August 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014|work=[[Entrepreneur (magazine)|Entrepreneur]]}}</ref> Ng renamed his product after discovering an elastic hair band on the market named Twist Band. His brother and niece came up with the name Rainbow Loom.<ref name=aim>Unger, Nissi. "300,000 Pounds of Rubber Bands and Counting". [[Ami (magazine)|Aim!]], 4 December 2013, pp. 10–11.</ref>

Efforts to sell the loom online and in toy stores were unsuccessful, however, because customers did not understand how to use the product.<ref name=nyt/><ref name=entre/> Ng started a website and filmed instructional videos featuring his daughters and niece.<ref name=entre/> In summer 2012, Ng received his first store orders from franchises of [[Learning Express Toys]], a specialty crafts chain, and sales picked up.<ref name=nyt/> In June 2013 arts and crafts retail chain [[Michaels]] test-marketed the product in 32 stores; by August the chain was carrying Rainbow Loom in its 1,100 U.S. locations.<ref name=entre/> Rainbow Loom is also sold at Mastermind in Canada and in specialty stores.<ref name=aim/> As of August 2013, 600 retailers were selling Rainbow Loom at a retail price of $15 to $17.<ref name=nyt/> The kits are manufactured in China, and Ng supervises distribution out of a {{convert|7500|sqft}} warehouse near his home.<ref name=nyt/> In April 2014 a travel-sized Rainbow Loom was released called ''Monster Tail''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abcnews4.com/story/23926082/rainbow-loom-creator-unveils-newest-creation-at-elf-stravaganza|title= Rainbow Loom creator unveils newest creation at Elf-stravaganza|date=10 November 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014|work=[[WCIV]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.freep.com/article/20140325/COL07/303250021/Rainbow-Loom-Kimmel-Wixom-Susan-Tompor |title=Rainbow Loom of Wixom creates a toy sensation with $10,000 |date=March 25, 2014 |accessdate=April 17, 2014 |work=Detroit Free Press |author=Susan Tompor}}</ref>

==Reception==
[[File:Rainbow Loom bracelet.jpg|150px|thumb|A bracelet made with a Rainbow Loom]]
Targeted at children aged 8 to 14,<ref name=slate>{{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2013/12/rainbow_loom_is_the_biggest_tween_fad_of_2013_but_can_an_adult_woman_execute.html |title=Rainbow Loom: What happens when a 26-year-old woman tries out the biggest tween fad of the year?|first=Katy|last=Waldman|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=19 December 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014}}</ref> Rainbow Loom became a popular pastime in summer camps and summer clubs in 2013, according to ''[[The New York Times]]'' and ''[[Today (U.S. TV program)|Today]]''.<ref name=nyt/><ref name=today/> Grade school-age children make and swap their rubber-band bracelets in the same way as [[friendship bracelet]]s, and children have posted thousands of their own instructional videos online.<ref name=nyt/><ref name=plain/><ref name=today/> As of October 2013, Rainbow Loom's [[YouTube]] channel featured 66 how-to videos and had received nearly 4 million hits.<ref name=plain/> In November 2013 third-graders at St. John the Worker school in [[Orefield, Pennsylvania]] participated in a "Rainbow Loom-a-thon", weaving rubber-band bracelets for cancer patients.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcall.com/news/local/parkland/mc-rainbow-loom-bracelets-for-kids-with-cancer-20131119,0,1199794.photogallery|title= Rainbow Loom bracelets for kids with cancer|first=Donna|last=Fisher|work=[[The Morning Call]] |date=15 November 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014}}</ref>

As of September 2013, Rainbow Loom had sold over 1.2 million units according to Ng.<ref name=wsj /> It was named one of the three most popular toys of 2013 by Cyber Monday Awards<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.cyberweekawards.com/toys/ |title=Kid's Toys Awards|publisher=Cyber Monday Awards|year=2013|accessdate=3 January 2013}}</ref> and was the most-searched toy on [[Google]] that same year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/top-toy-searches-holiday-season-article-1.1524874|title=The top toys parents, kids are searching for online this season |first=Rheana|last=Murray|work=[[New York Daily News]]|date=21 November 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014}}</ref>

In 2013 the Rainbow Loom fad inspired a 204-page book, ''The Loomatic's Interactive Guide to The Rainbow Loom'', by Suzanne Peterson, owner of Learning Express Toys of [[Reno, Nevada]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.learningexpress.com/rainbowloom/|title=Rainbow Loom Headquarters|publisher=[[Learning Express Toys]]|year=2014|accessdate=3 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Peterson|first=Suzanne|year=2013|title=The Loomatic's Interactive Guide to The Rainbow Loom|publisher=Hijinx, LLC|asin=B00FK8LD9Y}}</ref> and a 48-page book, ''Totally Awesome Rubber Band Jewelry: Make Bracelets, Rings, Belts & More with Rainbow Loom(R), Cra-Z-Loom(TM) & FunLoom(TM)''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Totally Awesome Rubber Band Jewelry: Make Bracelets, Rings, Belts & More with Rainbow Loom(R), Cra-Z-Loom(TM) & FunLoom(TM)|first=Coleen|last=Dorsey|date=23 October 2013|publisher=Design Originals|isbn=1574218964}}</ref>

In October 2013 two [[New York City]] schools banned Rainbow Loom bracelets, stating they were distracting students in the classroom and breeding animosity in the playground.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/23/rainbow-loom_n_4151617.html |title='Rainbow Loom' Bracelets Banned From Two NYC Schools, Spark Debate|date=23 October 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014|work=[[The Huffington Post]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nypost.com/2013/10/17/school-bans-rainbow-loom-bracelets/|title=School Bans Rainbow Loom Bracelets|first1=Jennifer |last1=Gould Keil|first2=Sabrina|last2=Ford|first3=Natalie|last3=O'Neill|date=17 October 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014|work=[[New York Post]]}}</ref> Two [[Orlando, Florida]] schools have also enforced strict rules on wearing and trading Rainbow Loom bracelets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clickorlando.com/news/rainbow-loom-bracelets-banned-in-some-central-florida-schools/-/1637132/23514284/-/7pq2k4/-/index.html|title= Rainbow Loom bracelets banned in some Central Florida schools|first=Evan|last=Lambert|date=16 December 2013|accessdate=3 January 2014|work=[[WKMG-TV]]}}</ref>

==Lawsuits==
Ng applied to the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] in 2010 for a patent on Rainbow Loom, and received it in July 2013. In August 2013 he filed suit against Zenacon LLC, makers of FunLoom; LaRose Industries LLC, makers of Cra-Z-Loom; and [[Toys "R" Us]], distributors of Cra-Z-Loom, alleging that the rival products copied the design of the C-shaped fasteners used in rubber-band jewelry-making on the Rainbow Loom. LaRose Industries immediately lodged a countersuit against Ng's company, Choon's Design LLC.<ref name=wsj/>

==See also==
{{Commons category|Rainbow Loom}}
* [[Silly Bandz]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* {{official website|http://www.rainbowloom.com/}}
* [http://rainbowloompatterns.com/ Rainbow Loom Patterns ]
* [http://rainbowloominstructions.com/ Rainbow Loom Instructions ]
* [http://www.bloomberg.com/video/how-the-rainbow-loom-bracelet-was-created-d7jbqigATLK0MSoqWPYHxg.html ''Taking Stock: Rainbow Loom Inventor on How He Got Started''] Video interview on [[Bloomberg Television]]
*[http://www.forbes.com/sites/jordanshapiro/2013/10/23/blockbuster-toy-rainbow-loom-weaving-rubber-bands-and-digital-literacy/ "Blockbuster Toy Rainbow Loom: Weaving, Rubber Bands, And Digital Literacy"] ''[[Forbes]]'', October 23, 2013
* [http://ideas.time.com/2013/10/25/boys-love-rainbow-loom-defying-stereotype-and-delighting-moms-everywhere/ "Boys Love Rainbow Loom, Defying Stereotype and Delighting Moms Everywhere"] ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'', October 25, 2013
* [http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303546204579437230524886764 "For Power Suits in Executive Suites, the Latest Accessory Is Rainbow Loom"] ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', March 24, 2014

[[Category:2010s toys]]
[[Category:Art and craft toys]]
[[Category:Products introduced in 2010]]
[[Category:Weaving equipment]]

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2014-04-14T12:00:21Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by Thaysillva (talk) to last revision by MelbourneStar (HG)

[[File:Diet Coke Mentos.jpg|thumb|right|A two-liter bottle of Diet Coke just after Mentos were dropped into it]]
[[File:ShimadaK2007Sept09-MentosGeyser DSC 3294++.JPG|thumb|From left to right: Reaction of five drops of Mentos with [[Perrier]], classic [[Coca-Cola|Coke]], [[Sprite (soft drink)|Sprite]] and Diet Coke]]

A '''Diet Coke and Mentos eruption''' (or '''Diet Coke and Mentos geyser''') is a reaction between a [[carbonated]] beverage and [[Mentos]] candies that causes the beverage to spray out of its container.

The numerous small pores on the candy's surface [[Catalysis|catalyze]] the release of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2) gas from the soda, resulting in the rapid expulsion of copious quantities of [[foam]]. Although any carbonated beverage will produce a similar effect, the reaction was popularized using [[Diet Coke]] for seemingly producing the best results.

==Cause==
When the Mentos come into contact with the Diet Coke, a reaction causes the rapid formation of foam.

''[[MythBusters]]'' concluded that the [[potassium benzoate]], [[aspartame]], and CO2 gas contained in the Diet Coke, in combination with the [[gelatin]] and [[gum arabic]] ingredients of the Mentos, all contribute to the formation of the foam.<ref>{{Cite episode |title=Mentos and Soda |episodelink=MythBusters_(2006_season)#Episode_57_.E2.80.93_.22Diet_Coke_and_Mentos.22 |series=MythBusters |serieslink=MythBusters |first= |last= |network=[[Discovery Channel]] |date=August 9, 2006 |season=4 |number=14}}</ref>

The structure of the Mentos is the most significant cause of the eruption due to [[nucleation]]. ''MythBusters'' reported that when fruit-flavored Mentos with a smooth waxy coating were tested in [[carbonated drink]] there was hardly a reaction, whereas mint-flavored Mentos (with no such coating) added to carbonated drink formed an energetic eruption, supporting the nucleation-site theory. According to ''MythBusters'', the surface of the mint Mentos is covered with many small holes that increase the [[surface area]] available for reaction (and thus the quantity of reagents exposed to each other at any given time), thereby allowing CO2 bubbles to form with the rapidity and quantity necessary for the "jet"- or "geyser"-like nature of the effusion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mythbusters: Diet Coke and Mentos MiniMyth|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/videos/mythbusters-diet-coke-and-mentos.html |publisher=[[Discovery Channel]]}}</ref>

This [[hypothesis]] gained further support when [[rock salt]] was used as a "jump start" to the reaction. A paper by Tonya Coffey, a physicist at [[Appalachian State University]] in Boone, North Carolina, confirmed that the rough surface of the Mentos candy helps speed the reaction. Coffey also found that the [[aspartame]] in diet soda lowers the [[surface tension]] and causes a bigger reaction, but that caffeine does not accelerate the reaction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14114-science-of-mentosdiet-coke-explosions-explained.html |title=Science of Mentos-Diet Coke explosions explained |work=[[New Scientist]] |date=June 12, 2008 |first=Hazel |last=Muir |accessdate=2009-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1119/1.2888546 |title=Diet Coke and Mentos: What is really behind this physical reaction? | last=Coffey |first=Tonya Shea | journal=American Journal of Physics |month=June |year=2008 | volume=76 | issue=6 | pages=551–557}}
</ref>

==Event==
A [[Guinness World Record]] of 2,865 simultaneous geysers was set on October 17, 2010, in an event organized by [[Perfetti Van Melle]] at the [[SM Mall of Asia]] Complex, in [[Manila]], Philippines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/5000/most-mentos-and-soda-fountains |title=Most Mentos and soda fountains |publisher=[[Guinness World Records]] |date=2010-10-17 |accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Solubility]]

== References ==
<references />

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |first1= John E. |last1= Baur |first2= Melinda B. |last2= Baur |lastauthoramp= yes |title= The Ultrasonic Soda Fountain: A Dramatic Demonstration of Gas Solubility in Aqueous Solutions |journal= Journal of Chemical Education |volume= 83 |issue= 4 |date=April 2006 |pages= 577–580 |doi= 10.1021/ed083p577}} {{registration required}}

== External links ==

*[http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistryhowtoguide/ht/mentos.htm About.com Chemistry page with instructions]

[[Category:Chemistry classroom experiments]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]
[[Category:YouTube videos]]
[[Category:Viral videos]]
[[Category:Coca-Cola in popular culture]]

Richard A. Falk

2014-03-26T19:35:09Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 2601:8:9500:4D3:5828:34C1:30D4:8F5D (talk) to last revision by Shafichinyot (HG)

{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix = Richard A. Falk
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|office = [[United Nations Special Rapporteur]] on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967|term_start = 26 March 2008
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|profession = [[Professor Emeritus]] of [[International Law]] at [[Princeton University]]
|religion = Ecumenicalism , Judaism<ref name=FalkJan2011> Richard Falk, [http://richardfalk.wordpress.com/2011/01/15/on-jewish-identity/ On Jewish Identity], Falk blog entry, January 15, 2011:'In my case I have at various times been inspired and enlightened by the practices and wisdom of Christian, Buddhist, Islamic, Hindu, Taoist, and indigenous peoples. And in a more mundane sense, I think that the future of humanity will be greatly enhanced if these various religious and wisdom traditions are ecumenically and inclusively embraced by more and more people throughout the world, providing a thickening societal and civilizational fiber for human solidarity. this sense, I want to say, yes I am Jewish, and proud of it, but I am equally indigenous, Sufi, Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, and Christian to the extent that I allow myself to participate in their rituals, partake of their sacred texts, and seek and avail myself of the opportunity to sit at the feet of their masters.'</ref>
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'''Richard Anderson Falk''' (born November 13, 1930)<ref>[http://americanjewisharchives.org/media/docs/concise/f.pdf American Jewish Archives website], p. 146 of listing of individuals by name.</ref> is an [[United States|American]] [[professor emeritus]] of [[international law]] at [[Princeton University]], and has been described as 'a critical analyst of the role of international law in global politics'.<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" > Martin Griffiths,
[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=FU3g49XcKwcC&pg=PT74 ''Fifty Key Thinkers in International Relations,'' ] Routledge 1999 p.74</ref> He is the author or co-author of 20 books and the editor or co-editor of another 20 volumes,<ref>[http://uscpublicdiplomacy.com/index.php/events/events_detail/76/ Dean’s Open Forum, Richard Falk], [[USC Center on Public Diplomacy]], November 4, 2004.</ref> In 2008, the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] (UNHRC) appointed Falk to a six-year term as a [[United Nations Special Rapporteur]] on "the situation of human rights in the [[Palestinian territories]] occupied since 1967."<ref name="UN_Falkappointed">{{cite web|title=Human Rights Council elects Advisory Committee Members and approves a number of Special Procedures mandate holders|publisher=[[United Nations]]|date=March 26, 2008|url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.nsf/2ee9468747556b2d85256cf60060d2a6/0da4ba56ade85249852574190058d462!OpenDocument|accessdate=January 1, 2009|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5dViuhEdA|archivedate=January 1, 2009}}</ref> He has been variously criticized by U.S. ambassador [[Susan Rice]] and [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] [[Ban Ki-moon]] for his outspoken positions on Israel and the [[September 11 attacks]].

==Early Life and education==
Falk was born into an [[Jewish assimilation|assimilationist]] New York Jewish family which all but repudiated the ethnic side of Jewishness.<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" /> Defining himself as "an American Jew", he says that having an outsider status, with a sense of not belonging, may have influenced his later role as a critic of American foreign policy.<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" /><ref name="Slouching">Richard Falk, [http://www.tni.org/archives/falk_palestinianholocaust ''Slouching toward a Palestinian Holocaust''], [[Transnational Institute]], June 29, 2007.</ref><ref name=FalkJan2011/> His being Jewish signifies above all for Falk,'to be preoccupied with overcoming injustice and thirsting for justice in the world, and that means being respectful toward other peoples regardless of their nationality or religion, and empathetic in the face of human suffering whoever and wherever victimization is encountered.'<ref name=FalkJan2011 />

Falk obtained a [[Bachelor of Science]] in Economics from the [[Wharton School]], [[University of Pennsylvania]] in 1952 before completing a [[Bachelor of Laws]] degree at [[Yale University]].<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" /><ref name="Griffiths 74-76" /><ref name=PRF>{{cite web|title=Profile Richard Falk|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/profile/richard-falk.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|accessdate=09/02/2013}}</ref>He obtained his [[Doctor of Laws|Doctorate in Law]] (SJD) from [[Harvard University]] in 1962. His early thinking was influenced by readings of [[Karl Marx]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], and [[C. Wright Mills]], and he developed an overriding concern with projects to abolish war and aggression as social institutions.<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" />

===Professional career===
Falk began his teaching career at [[Ohio State University]] and [[Harvard]] in the late 1950s.<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" /> He moved to [[Princeton University]] in 1961, which became his academic home for over thirty years. He was appointed [[Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy#Albert G. Milbank|Albert G. Milbank]] Professor of International Law and Practice in 1965, a position he currently retains as Emeritus professor.<ref name="fidh.org">[http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/falk_affidavit.pdf Richard Falk affidavit, "On Universal Jurisdiction and the Role of National Courts with Respect to the Criminal Complaint Lodged in Germany Against Donald Rumsfeld and Other United States Government High Officials," 2006]</ref> In 1985 he was made a [[Guggenheim Fellow]].<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" /> He retired from teaching in 2001.<ref name="fidh.org"/> Since 2002 he has been a research professor at the Orfalea Center for Global & International Studies at [[University of California, Santa Barbara]]. He currently directs "Global Climate Change, Human Security, and Democracy" project.<ref>[http://www.global.ucsb.edu/orfaleacenter/fellows/Falk.html Richard Falk Profile], Orfalea Center for Global & International Studies at [[University of California, Santa Barbara]].</ref>

Falk is a critic of the [[Westphalian sovereignty|Westphalian system of nation states]], which he agues must be transcended by a more international institution to control the resort to force by nations,<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" /> as the world moves towards a global ethos in which states renounce their boundary-obsessed territorialism in exchange for a regime of consensually negotiated aims, in which national leaders must be subject to acco7untability.<ref>Thomas C. Heller, Abraham D.Sofaer,'Sovereignty: The Practitioners' Perspective,' in Stephen D. Krasner (ed.) [http://books.google.com.au/books?id=tPngD78_p3cC&pg=PT68 ''Problematic Sovereignty: Contested Rules and Political Possibilities,''] Columbia University Press 2001 pp.24-52, p.42.</ref> With regard to specific geopolitical situations, he has published a number of books and essays analyzing the ideological aspects of the American Human Rights Debate,<ref>Richard A. Falk, 'Ideological Patterns in the United States Human Rights Debate, 1945-1978,' in Natalie Kaufman Hevener (ed.) [http://books.google.com.au/books?id=a1Nr6D6P-LsC&pg=PA29 ''The Dynamics of Human Rights in United States Foreign Policy,''] Transaction Publishers (1981) 1983 pp.29-52. </ref> the [[legality of the Vietnam War]] and other [[military operation]]s. With regard to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], he wrote that it is "inescapable that an objective observer would reach the conclusion that this [[Iraq War]] is a [[war of aggression]], and as such, that it amounts to a Crime against Peace of the sort for which surviving German leaders were indicted, prosecuted and punished at the [[Nuremberg trials]] conducted shortly after the [[Second World War]]."<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2008/stories/20030425004002300.htm ''Frontline''], Volume 20, Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003.</ref>

===Activism===
Falk's engagement with politics began at [[Ohio State University]], where in the 1960s as a member of the faculty of law he was a witness to racism targeted at black students. His move to Princeton University, where the teaching of law was linked to politics, international relations and other social sciences allowed Falk to integrate his professional expertise in international law with his ethical and political values. Falk aimed to combine his academic work with political activism in a role he described as a 'citizen-pilgrim'. .<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" />
{{Quote|The essential inquiry of a citizen-pilgrim is to discover how to make desirable, yet unlikely, social movements succeed. The movements against slavery, colonialism, racial discrimination, and patriarchy are some instances. My overriding concern is to foster an abolitionist movement against war and aggression as social institutions, which implies the gradual construction of a new world order that assures basic human needs of all people, that safeguards the environment, that protects the fundamental human rights of all individuals and groups without encroaching upon the precarious resources of cultural diversity, and that works toward the non-violent resolution of intersocietal conflicts..<ref name="Griffiths 74-76" />}}

Falk has written for various publications including ''[[The Nation]]'',<ref name=NationProfile/> ''[[The Huffington Post]]'',<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/richard-falk Richard Falk page] at [[The Huffington Post]] website.</ref> [[Al Jazeera]],<ref>Richard Falk, [http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/11/20121186441573728.html Interpreting Obama’s Victory], [[Al Jazeera]], November 9, 2012.</ref> ''[[CounterPunch]]''<ref>Richard Falk and David Krieger, [http://www.counterpunch.org/2002/08/24/no-war-against-iraq/ No War against Iraq], [[CounterPunch]], August 24–26, 2002.</ref> and the ''Palestine Chronicle''.<ref>Richard Falk, [http://palestinechronicle.com/gaza-ceasefire-an-early-assessment/ Gaza Ceasefire: An Early Assessment], the Palestine Chronicle, November 24, 2012.</ref> He is a member of the [[Editorial Board]]s of ''The Nation''<ref name=NationProfile>[http://www.thenation.com/authors/richard-falk# Richard Falk page] at [[The Nation]]</ref> and ''[[The Progressive]]''. He has spoken on college campuses<ref>
*Marwa Farag, [http://www.stanforddaily.com/2012/02/07/un-representative-discusses-middle-east/ UN representative challenges Middle East peace process], [[The Stanford Daily]], February 7, 2012
*[http://www.uctv.tv/shows/Envisioning-a-Different-Future-for-U-S-Relations-with-India-Pakistan-and-Afghanistan-Part-1-How-Did-We-Get-Here-18188 Envisioning a Different Future for U.S. Relations with India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan Part 1 "How Did We Get Here?"], [[UCTV (University of California)|University of California TV]], April 5, 2010</ref> and for organizations.<ref>
*{{cite web|url=http://www.thejerusalemfund.org/ht/d/ContentDetails/i/7143|title=Imagining Israel-Palestine Peace: Why International Law Matters|publisher=Thejerusalemfund.org|date=2009-10-08|accessdate=2010-07-23}}
*[http://www.wagingpeace.org/articles/2006/02/23_falk_nuclear-precipice.htm At the Nuclear Precipice: Nuclear Weapons and the Abandonment of International Law 2006], International Law Symposium, Public Forum, February 23, 2006.
*[http://www.kirotv.com/events/detail/1685243/ "The Economic, Legal and Moral Costs of War: A Forum on Israel, Palestine and the United States"] [[KIRO-TV]] event announcement, June 2012; Annie Roberts, [http://mondoweiss.net/2012/06/richard-falk-no-issue-confronting-us-needs-more-open-debate-than-moral-and-political-cost-of-ip-policy-going-back-to-uss-liberty.html Richard Falk: No issue needs more open debate than moral and political cost of I/P policy], [[Mondoweiss]], June 11, 2012.</ref>

Falk is Chair of the Board of the [[Nuclear Age Peace Foundation]].<ref>[http://www.wagingpeace.org/menu/resources/speakers-bureau/#falk Richard Falk profile], [[Nuclear Age Peace Foundation]], ''accessed December 23, 2012.''</ref><ref>[http://www.princeton.edu/politics/people/display_person.xml?netid=rfalk&display=All Princeton University] faculty profile.</ref> He is on the advisory board of Faculty for Israeli-Palestinian Peace-USA (FFIPP-USA), a group that describes itself as "working for an end of the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories and just peace";<ref>[http://www.ffipp.org/about_us FFIPP-USA (Faculty for Israeli-Palestinian Peace-USA) "About Us"] web site.</ref> it calls for "international sanctions" against Israel while saying "academics should think carefully before developing research links and exchanges with Israelis [by] ascertaining whether they are part of the military machine or work to sustain the occupation".<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2006/may/24/internationaleducationnews.highereducation], originally published at [[the Guardian newspaper]], The Guardian web site, 24 May 2006.</ref>

Falk is a former advisory board member of the [[Citizens for Global Solutions|World Federalist Institute]] and the [http://www.amwg.org/ American Movement for World Government],<ref>[http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/f/falk_ra.htm Richard A. Falk Papers biography], [[Syracuse University]] website ''accessed June 12, 2013''.</ref> as well as a former fellow at the [[Transnational Institute]].<ref name="Slouching"/> During 1999–2000, Falk worked on the [[Independent International Commission on Kosovo]], an initiative of the [[Prime Minister of Sweden]] [[Göran Persson]].<ref>[http://www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/thekosovoreport.htm2001 Report on Kosovo], Independent International Commission on Kosovo, 2000, ''accessed December 23, 2012''.</ref> For several years Falk served on the board of [[Human Rights Watch]] [[Santa Barbara, California]], until he was asked to resign.<ref>Anna Sheinman, [http://www.thejc.com/news/world-news/94669/un-expert-palestinian-territories-removed-human-rights-watch-committee-0 UN expert on Palestinian territories removed from Human Rights Watch committee], [[The Jewish Chronicle]], December 19, 2012.</ref>

==Appointments at the United Nations==

===United Nations Human Rights Inquiry Commission for the Palestinian territories===

In 2001 Falk served on a [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] (OHCHR) Inquiry Commission for the Palestinian territories<ref>[http://www.globalpolicy.org/security-council/index-of-countries-on-the-security-council-agenda/israel-palestine-and-the-occupied-territories/50404-israelpalestine-conflict-interview-with-richard-falk.html Harpreet Kaur Paul interviewing Richard Falk], [[Global Policy Forum]], June 2, 2011</ref> with [[John Dugard]], a South African based in [[Leiden University]] in the [[Netherlands]], and [[Kamal Hussein]], former [[foreign minister]] of [[Bangladesh]]. Falk stated the two main issues were: "One is evaluating whether the conditions of occupation are such as to give the Palestinians some kind of right of resistance. And if they have that right, then what are the limits to that right?" and "The other issue at stake in this current inquiry is to evaluate how Israel as the occupying power is carrying out its responsibility to protect the society that is subject to its control."<ref name=Dienst>{{cite web|title=Falk evaluates Mideast violence with U.N. team|url=http://www.princeton.edu/pr/pwb/01/0219/3a.shtml|work=Vol. 90, No. 17|publisher=Princeton University|author=Karin Dienst|archivedate=1 July 2001|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20010701212526/http://www.princeton.edu/pr/pwb/01/0219/3a.shtml|date=19 February 2001}}</ref> After its investigation the commission issued a report entitled "Question of the violation of human rights in the occupied Arab territories, including Palestine".<ref name=ECN42001121>{{cite web|title=QUESTION OF THE VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE OCCUPIED ARAB TERRITORIES, INCLUDING PALESTINE|url=http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/4A5FCB3241D55A7885256A1E006E75AD|work=E/CN.4/2001/121: Report of the human rights inquiry commission established pursuant to Commission resolution S-5/1 of 19 October 2000|publisher=United Nations|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20051202025015/http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/TestFrame/19cfafb52ab5fc2bc1256a11005de32c?Opendocument|archivedate=2 December 2005|date=16 March 2001}}</ref>

===United Nations Special Rapporteur on Palestinian human rights===

On March 26, 2008, the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] (UNHRC) appointed Falk to a six-year term as a [[United Nations Special Rapporteur]] on "the situation of human rights in the [[Palestinian Territories|Palestinian territories]] occupied since 1967."<ref name="UN_Falkappointed"/> Falk replaced South African professor [[John Dugard]] who left his post in June 2008 after seven years.<ref name=BBC>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6390755.stm UN envoy hits Israel 'apartheid'], BBC, February 23, 2007</ref>

====Response to appointment====

The appointment of Falk was reached through a [[consensus]] decision by the 47 members of the UN's Human Rights Council. Despite attempts from Jewish groups to persuade the EU and Canada to publicly oppose the appointment the EU remained silent, while Canada chose not to oppose the consensus, instead issuing a statement distancing itself from the choice.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/13037 "U.N. Taps American Jewish Critic of Israel as Rights Expert"], ''[[The Forward]]'', April 4, 2008.</ref>

According to a UN press release, then [[Israel]]i Ambassador to the United Nations Itzhak Levanon<ref>[http://www.eyeontheun.org/assets/attachments/documents/4835_Israel_on_OPT_at_HRC.pdf Statement by H.E. permanent resident Ambassador to the United Nations Itzhak Levanon, March 22, 2007]</ref> strongly criticized the appointment stating that Falk had written in an article that it was not "an irresponsible overstatement to associate the treatment of Palestinians with the criminalized [[Nazi]] record of collective atrocity", [[Yitzhak Levanon]] argued that "someone who had publicly and repeatedly stated such views could not possibly be considered independent, impartial or objective".<ref>[http://www.webcitation.org/5dViuhEdA Human Rights Council Elects Advisory Committee Members], [[United Nations]] press release, March 26, 2008. Falk actually said: "Is it an irresponsible overstatement to associate the treatment of Palestinians with this criminalized Nazi record of collective atrocity? I think not." As quoted in [http://www.forward.com/articles/13037 "U.N. Taps American Jewish Critic of Israel as Rights Expert"], ''[[The Forward]]'', April 4, 2008.</ref> [[Yitzhak Levanon]] further stated that, "He has taken part in a UN fact-finding mission which determined that [[suicide bombing]]s were a valid method of 'struggle'. He has disturbingly charged Israel with 'genocidal tendencies', and accused it of trying to achieve security through '[[state terrorism]]'. Someone who has publicly and repeatedly stated such views cannot possibly be considered independent, impartial or objective."<ref>[http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1206446111162&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull "UNHRC appointment infuriates Israel"], ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'', March 26, 2008.</ref> The [[Israeli government]] announced it would deny Falk a visa to Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, at least until the September 2008 meeting of the Human Rights Council.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/972974.html "Israel to bar UN official for comparing Israelis to Nazis"], ''Haaretz'', April 8, 2008.</ref>

The UN press release reported that the Palestinian representative, Mohammad Abu-Koash, said that it was "ironic that Israel which claimed to be representing Jews everywhere was campaigning against a Jewish professor who had been nominated for the post of Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Occupied Palestinian Territory.'" The Palestinian statement went on to refer to Falk as the "author of 54 books on international law", concluding that his appointment was "a victory for good sense and human rights, as he was a highly qualified rapporteur."<ref>[http://www.webcitation.org/5dViuhEdA Human Rights Council Elects Advisory Committee Members], [[United Nations]] press release, March 26, 2008.</ref>

Former [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations]], [[John R. Bolton|John Bolton]], criticized Falk's appointment to the United Nations Human Rights Council, stating that "This is exactly why we voted against the new human rights council", and that "He was picked for a reason, and the reason is not to have an objective assessment — the objective is to find more ammunition to go after Israel."<ref name=Lake>Eli Lake, [http://www.nysun.com/news/foreign/un-official-calls-study-neocons-role-911 "U.N. Official Calls for Study Of Neocons' Role in 9/11"], ''[[The New York Sun]]'', April 10, 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,369122,00.html "Critics Demand Resignation of U.N. Official Who Wants Probe of 9/11 'Inside Job' Theories"], Joseph Abrams, [[Fox News]], July 15, 2008 (retrieved on November 12, 2008)</ref>

===UN Investigations and reports===

====2008====
In May 2008 Israel refused to admit Falk to gather information for a report. The [[National Lawyers Guild]] urged Israel to permit Falk entry, stating "Falk made no claims any different from those made by John Dugard, the man he was to replace, in several reports on conditions in the Occupied Territories."<ref name=CommonDreams>[http://www.commondreams.org/news2008/0423-05.htm Press Release: National Lawyers Guild Urges Israel to Permit Richard Falk to Enter Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories], ''[[Common Dreams]]'', April 23, 2008.</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] issued a statement asking Israel to reverse its expulsion of Falk from the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.<ref>[http://www.hrw.org/news/2008/12/17/israel-reverse-expulsion-human-rights-rapporteur Israel: Reverse Expulsion of Human Rights Rapporteur], [[Human Rights Watch]] website,
December 17, 2008, accessed December 19, 2012.</ref> In a July 2008 interview Falk stated the constraints would ''"limit my exposure to the direct realities. But I think it's quite possible to perform this role without that exposure. Barring my entry complicates my task but doesn't make it undoable."''<ref>Linda Mamoun, [http://www.alternet.org/module/printversion/91225 "Israel Bars UN Human Rights Watchdog From Occupied Territories"], [[Alternet]] reprint of [[The Nation]] article, posted on July 11, 2008.</ref>

In June 2008, Falk proposed to the Human Rights Council that his mandate to investigate violations of international humanitarian law in the Palestinian territories be extended to include possible Palestinian infringements. He stated his goal was to "insulate" the Council, which is dominated by Islamic and African states, usually supported by [[China]], [[Cuba]] and [[Russia]], "from those who contend that its work is tainted by partisan politics".<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/993320.html "UN official who compared Israel to Nazis turns the spotlight on Palestinians"], ''[[Haaretz]]'', June 16, 2008.</ref>

On December 9, 2008, the United Nations released a statement by Falk in his official capacity as "Special Rapporteur" noting that [[United Nations Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]], General Assembly President [[Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann|Miguel D’Escoto]] and UN High Commissioner for Human Rights [[Navi Pillay]], among other top officials, have expressed concern for the "desperate plight" of civilians in [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. Falk said: "And still Israel maintains its Gaza siege in its full fury, allowing only barely enough food and fuel to enter to stave off mass famine and disease." He outlined steps that must be taken to avoid a "humanitarian catastrophe"<ref>[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=29228&Cr=Palestin&Cr1= "Urgent action needed to alleviate desperate plight of Gaza's civilians – UN rights expert"], [[United Nations]] News Center, December 9, 2009.</ref> These included implementing the "responsibility to protect" a civilian population from collective punishment and a determination of "whether the Israeli civilian leaders and military commanders responsible for the Gaza siege should be indicted and prosecuted for violations of international criminal law", which ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'' wrote would go before the [[International Court of Justice]] at [[The Hague]].<ref>[http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1228728146806&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull "Human Rights & Wrongs"], ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'', December 10, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/ASAZ-7M6DZ2?OpenDocument "Gaza: Silence is not an option"], statement by the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights on Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, issued December 9, 2008.</ref>

On December 14 Falk landed at [[Ben Gurion Airport]] with staff members from the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights on an official visit, planning to travel to the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]] to prepare a report on Israel's compliance with human rights standards and international humanitarian law.<ref name=FalkDec2008>[http://www.palestine-pmc.com/details.asp?cat=4&id=3930 Richard A.Falk, "My Expulsion from Israel", 22 December 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3638881,00.html "Israel denies entry to UN rights investigator"], [[Reuters]], reproduced at [[YNET]], December 15, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=29309&Cr=descoto&Cr1=Israel "UN Assembly President calls stories he tried to stop Israel speaking ‘malicious lie’"], [[United Nations]] News Center, December 15, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1228728204503&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull "UNHRC rapporteur denied entry to Israel"], ''The Jerusalem Post'', December 16, 2008.</ref> In an interview Falk stated the Israeli government distorts his real views and that he saw the expulsion as an "insidious pattern of trying to shift the attention from their objections to the person."<ref>[http://www.democracynow.org/2008/12/17/days_after_calling_israeli_blockade_of "Days After Calling Israeli Blockade of Gaza 'A Crime Against Humanity', UN Human Rights Investigator Richard Falk Detained, Expelled from Israel"], ''[[Democracy Now]]'', December 17, 2008.</ref> Pillay called Israel's detention and expulsion of Falk as "unprecedented and deeply regrettable".<ref>[http://www.isria.info/RESTRICTED/D/2008/DECEMBER_18/diplo_17december2008_21.htm UN: Daily Press Briefing], [[United Nations]], December 16, 2008.</ref> As of March 2011 Falk was still denied entry into and effectively banned from Israel.<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4045623,00.html UN official: Israel engaging in ethnic cleansing], [[Reuters]], March 21, 2011.</ref>

On December 27, 2008 Falk issued a statement condemning the [[December 2008 Gaza Strip airstrikes|December 2008 Israel strikes on Gaza]] as "war crimes" because he claims they included collective punishment, targeting of civilians and a disproportionate military response to Hamas rocket attacks on Israel, which also targeted civilians. He stated that Israel had ignored Hamas' diplomatic initiatives to re-establish the ceasefire which expired December 26 and condemned nations which provided Israel military support and participated in the siege of Gaza.<ref>Richard Falk, [http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/F1EC67EF7A498A30C125752D005D17F7 Statement by Prof. Richard Falk, United Nations Special Rapporteur for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories], [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]], December 27, 2008.</ref> In a ''[[Houston Chronicle]]'' article Falk reaffirmed that he had "called on the International Criminal Court" to investigate Israeli leaders responsible for possible violations of international criminal law.<ref>Richard Falk, [http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/editorial/outlook/6186137.html "Bring light — and censure — to brutal Israeli attacks; World needs to see the victims and carnage in Gaza"], ''[[Houston Chronicle]]'', December 29, 2008.</ref>

====2009====
In March 2009, Falk stated that [[Gaza War|Israel's offensive in Gaza]] constituted a war crime of the "greatest magnitude". He called for an independent group to be set up to investigate the war crimes committed on both sides.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1072481.html UN envoy: Gaza op seems to be war crime of greatest magnitude] ''Haaretz'', March 19, 2009</ref> The British government responded to Falk's report by stating that "the report of the UN Human Rights Council's Special Rapporteur is unbalanced and contributes little."<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20090429/wl_mideast_afp/mideastconflictunisraelrightsbritain AFP: Britain raps 'unbalanced' UN rights Gaza report] ''AFP'', March 30, 2009</ref> In October 2009 Falk endorsed the [[United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict]] (also known as the "Goldstone Report") as "an historic contribution to the Palestinian struggle for justice, an impeccable documentation of a crucial chapter in their victimization under occupation".<ref>{{cite web|author=Richard Falk |url=http://electronicintifada.net/v2/article10788.shtml |title=ei: The Goldstone report and the battle for legitimacy |publisher=Electronicintifada.net |date= |accessdate=17 October 2009}}</ref>

====2010====
In his August 10, 2010 UN Special Rapporteur report Falk detailed the accusation that Israel was practicing a policy of [[Crime of Apartheid|apartheid]] in the Palestinian territories:<blockquote>"Among the salient apartheid features of the Israeli occupation are the following: preferential citizenship, visitation and residence laws and practices that prevent Palestinians who reside in the West Bank or Gaza from reclaiming their property or from acquiring Israeli citizenship, as contrasted to a Jewish right of return that entitles Jews anywhere in the world with no prior tie to Israel to visit, reside and become Israeli citizens; differential laws in the West Bank and East Jerusalem favouring Jewish settlers who are subject to Israeli civilian law and constitutional protection, as opposed to Palestinian residents, who are governed by military administration; dual and discriminatory arrangements for movement in the West Bank and to and from Jerusalem; discriminatory policies on land ownership, tenure and use; extensive burdening of Palestinian movement, including checkpoints applying differential limitations on Palestinians and on Israeli settlers, and onerous permit and identification requirements imposed only on Palestinians; punitive house demolitions, expulsions and restrictions on entry and exit from all three parts of the Occupied Palestinian Territories."<ref>[http://www.middleeastmonitor.org.uk/downloads/other_reports/report-of-the-special-rapporteur-on-the-situation-of-human-rights-in-the-palestinian-territories-occupied-since-1967.pdf Richard Falk: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, August 30, 2010] retrieved December 19, 2010.</ref><ref>C. Gouridasan Nair, [http://www.thehindu.com/news/resources/article793269.ece Full text of the interview with Richard Falk, U.N. Rapporteur on Human Rights in the Israeli-Occupied Territories of Palestine], [[The Hindu]], September 24, 2010.</ref></blockquote>

====2011====
In 2011 Falk spoke to the UN Human Rights Council and stated that Israeli policies in [[Jerusalem]] amounted to "ethnic cleansing" against the Palestinian population. He urged the Council to ask the [[International Court of Justice]] to investigate Israel for acts of "colonialism, apartheid, and ethnic cleansing inconsistent with international humanitarian law" committed during its occupation of the Palestinian territories.<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4045623,00.html UN official: Israel engaging in ethnic cleansing], YnetNews.com, March 21, 20011.</ref>

====2012====
In Falk's report to the UN Human Rights Council focused on Israel’s treatment of Palestinian prisoners he recommended that The International Court of Justice at the Hague should be asked to issue an advisory opinion on Israel’s treatment of prisoners, an opinion which might also cover Israel’s "prolonged occupation" of Palestinian territory. His report also asked the Human Rights Council to censure Israel because of its use of administrative detention, take "emergency notice" of Israeli legislative attempts to legalize West Bank settlements, and to increased attention on Israel’s refusal to cooperate with his work. He stated that Israeli military retaliation for rocket fire from Gaza was not justified. The US Ambassador to the UN Human Rights Council said the US "continues to be deeply troubled by this council’s biased and disproportionate focus on Israel."<ref>Tovah Lazaroff, [http://www.jpost.com/DiplomacyAndPolitics/Article.aspx?id=276072 Int'l court must act on Palestinian prisoner issue'], Jerusalem Post, July 3, 2012.</ref>

In Falk's report to the U.N. General Assembly he recommended that "businesses highlighted in the report – as well as the many other businesses that are profiting from the Israeli settlement enterprise – should be boycotted until they bring their operations into line with international human rights and humanitarian law and standards." He specifically named the United States' [[Caterpillar Inc.]], [[Hewlett-Packard]] and [[Motorola]]; Israel's [[Ahava]], [[Elbit Systems]] and [[Mehadrin]]; [[Sweden]]'s [[Volvo Group]] and [[Assa Abloy]] ; [[France]]'s [[Veolia Environment]]; [[United Kingdom]]'s [[G4S]], [[Belgium]]'s [[Dexia Group]], [[Netherlands]]' [[Riwal Holding Group]] and [[Mexico]]'s [[Cemex]].<ref>Wayne Schoenfeld,
[http://forward.com/articles/164986/richard-falk-calls-for-corporate-israel-boycott/#ixzz2APbfkSvl Richard Falk Calls for Corporate Israel Boycott; U.N. Official Backs Calls To Shun Occupation-Backing Firms], [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]], October 25, 2012.</ref> At a news conference Falk said: "The focus on business activities is partly an expression of frustration about the inability to obtain compliance with these fundamental legal obligations of Israel and the ineffectiveness of the U.N. efforts to condemn settlement expansion." He also stated "The whole issue of Palestinian self-determination is at risk here."<ref>Michelle Nichols, [http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/25/us-palestinians-israel-un-idUSBRE89O1II20121025 U.N. expert calls for boycott of companies in Jewish settlements] [[Reuters]], October 25, 2012.</ref>

The report drew criticism from the United States Ambassador to the UN, Susan Rice, who called it "irresponsible and unacceptable"<ref name="JP"/><ref>[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]], [http://forward.com/articles/165007/us-rejects-call-for-boycott-by-un-rapporteur-falk/ 'U.S. Rejects Call for Boycott by UN Rapporteur Falk,'] [[The Forward]], October 26, 2012.</ref>
and the Canadian foreign ministry which called it "biased and disgraceful" and called on Falk to withdraw his "offensive" report or resign from his UN post.<ref name="CBC"/> The Israeli Mission to the UN stated that "while he [Falk] spends pages and pages attacking Israel, Falk fails to mention even once the horrific human rights violations and ongoing [[terrorist attacks]] by [[Hamas]]."<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/m/rich/politics/story/2012/10/25/un-israel-palestine-rapporteur-boycott.html Canada CBC Press on Rapporteur Boycott]</ref> Caterpillar Inc. called the report inaccurate and misleading, reflecting his "personal and negative opinions toward Israel". Hewlett Packard said that Falk was "far from an independent and unbiased expert in this matter." <ref name="JP">{{cite web | url=http://www.jpost.com/DiplomacyAndPolitics/Article.aspx?id=289355 | title=Falk: Firms tied to settlements may face charges | publisher=Jerusalem Post | accessdate=October 26, 2012}}</ref> Several countries, including Egypt and Iran, called the report fair and balanced.<ref name="CBC">{{cite web | url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2012/10/25/un-israel-palestine-rapporteur-boycott.html?cmp=rss | title=Canada, Israel call for UN rapporteur's resignation | publisher=CBC News | accessdate=October 26, 2012}}</ref>

In December Falk visited the region and the Gaza Strip with the "initial purpose assessing the overall impact of Israel’s prolonged occupation and blockade" against Gaza. However, after Israel's November seven day "[[Operation Pillar of Defense]]" military actions against Hamas, Falk claimed "there arose an urgent need to investigate Israel’s seemingly deliberate attacks against civilian targets." After visiting Palestinian survivors of military attacks, Falk stated that "some attacks killed and harmed civilians in a grossly disproportionate manner and thus appear to violate international law." He called today on Israel "to abide by and fully implement the cease fire agreement" and called on the international agreement to make sure it did so.<ref>[http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12867&LangID=E Israel must deliver on cease-fire agreement in the Gaza Strip – UN Special Rapporteur], [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] press release, December 5, 2012.</ref>

====2013====
Richard Falk's annual report, delivered to the UN Human Rights council on June 9, 2013, called for an international investigation into Israeli treatment of Palestinian prisoners. The report criticised the use of arbitrary detention, torture and coerced confessions stating that, "The treatment of thousands of Palestinians detained or imprisoned by Israel continues to be extremely worrisome". Falk said that Israel currently holds 5,000 Palestinians in custody and has imprisoned 750,000 since the start of the occupation. Falk also criticized and called for an end to Israel's blockade of Gaza, saying that it amounted to the "collective punishment of 1.75 million Palestinians." He argued that viability of Gaza was at stake, "With 70 percent of the population dependent on international aid for survival and 90 percent of the water unfit for human consumption, drastic and urgent changes are urgently required if Palestinians in Gaza are to have their most basic rights protected."<ref name=AFP2013>{{cite news|title=UN expert wants probe of Israeli detention of Palestinians|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/world/2013/06/10/UN-expert-wants-probe-of-Israeli-detention-of-Palestinians.html|accessdate=11/06/2013|newspaper=AFP|date=10/06/2013}}</ref><ref name=Reuters2013>{{cite news|title=UN rights envoy: Gaza's viability at stake|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4390665,00.html|accessdate=11/6/2013|newspaper=Reuters|date=06/10/2013}}</ref>

Falk also called for the Red Cross or a commission of international law experts to establish a convention to address the specific issues related to situations of prolonged occupation. He said that "Forty-six years ago today Israel's occupation of Palestine began. Six days of war has turned into 46 years of occupation", concluding, "Forty-six years of denying Palestinians their most basic rights has not achieved peace, Israel’s continuous annexation of Palestinian resources and territory."<ref name=AFP2013/><ref name=Reuters2013/> Additionally, Falk wrote that the commission to investigation [[UN Watch]] which he accused of conducting "a smear campaign" by issuing "a series of defamatory attacks demeaning his character, repeatedly distorting his views on potentially inflammatory issues."<ref>[http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=603459&utm_medium=twitter&utm_source=twitterfeed UN expert under fire ahead of Palestinian rights report], [[Ma'an News Agency]], June 10, 2013.</ref><ref name=TL2013>Tovah Lazaroff, [http://www.jpost.com/Diplomacy-and-Politics/EU-slams-Falks-Israel-report-as-biased-at-UNHRC-session-316090 EU slams Falk’s Israel report as biased at UNHRC session], Jerusalem Post, June 10, 2013.</ref>

Many countries speaking at the session thanked Falk for his work and challenged Israel for refusing to cooperate with his human rights mission in the Palestinian territories.<ref name=TL2013/> The Palestinian delegation praised the report and called for its speedy implementation. The [[European Union]] agreed that Israel's settlements and separation barrier were "illegal under international law and constitute an obstacle to peace," but also criticised parts of the report.<ref name=AFP2013/> The European representative said "The EU continues to regret the unbalanced mandate of the Special Rapporteur and is also concerned that parts of the report include political considerations. In the past, the EU emphasized that future reports should be based on a more factual and legal analysis, and we regret to see no genuine progress in that direction. The council needs to be provided with accurate, factual information and solid allegations to fulfill its role and address the human rights situation in occupied Palestinian territory." The United States Ambassador to the UNHRC, [[Eileen Donahoe]], called for Falk's resignation, saying "Falk's attack on [[UN Watch]] threatens the independent voice of civil society at the UN. NGO work is particularly important in the field of human rights. Mr. Falk's most recent statement – which he dramatically and recklessly included in an official UN document – is characteristic of previous reprehensible comments and actions he has made during his tenure as a special rapporteur. His views and behavior, both official and unofficial, are offensive and provocative and do nothing to advance peace in the Middle East or to further the protection and promotion of human rights. We again call for his resignation."<ref name=TL2013/>

==Notable opinions==

===Nuremberg Defense of violent protesters===
In October, 1973, Falk defended [[Karleton Armstrong]], who pleaded guilty to [[Sterling Hall bombing|bombing the University of Wisconsin Army Mathematics Research Center]], which killed a researcher working there and injured another four people. ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that Falk "appealed for full amnesty for all resistors, including those who use violent tactics to oppose the war in Vietnam." The ''Times'' further reported that Falk, "cited the [[Nuremberg Trials]] as precedent for defense assertions that private American citizens had 'a right, and perhaps a duty' to actively oppose the war by any means".<ref>"Ex-Senator Aids Bomber's Defense", ''[[The New York Times]]'', October 20, 1973.</ref> According to Ronald Christenson, political science professor at [[Gustavus Adolphus College]], Falk "invoked the Nuremberg precedent to argue that there is a right of individuals to stop crime 'even by creating a lesser crime'".<ref>Christenson, Ronald, ''Political Trials: Gordian Knots in the Law'', Transaction Publishers, 1999, [http://books.google.com/books?id=nV2a3E-S6LAC&pg=PA172&dq=Political+Trials:+Gordian+Knots+in+the+Law+Falk p. 172], ISBN 978-0-7658-0473-0</ref><ref>Hentoff, Nat, ''The Nat Hentoff Reader,'' Da Capo Press, 2001, [http://books.google.com/books?id=0A6RJlFY2XcC&pg=PA255&dq=The+Nat+Hentoff+Reader+Richard+Falk&ei=bR37ScTuN5WQyATbsdg0 p. 255], ISBN 978-0-306-81084-8</ref>

===Ayatollah Khomeini in 1979===
In early 1979, when Falk was a professor of International Law at Princeton, he visited [[Iranian Revolution]] leader [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] at his home in exile in France.<ref name=Walter>[http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=%22The+rise+and+fall+of+leftist+radicalism+in+America%22+%22richard+falk%22+khomeini&btnG=Search+Books&safe=active "The rise and fall of leftist radicalism in America"], Edward Walter, p. 153</ref> In a February 1979 ''[[New York Times]]'' op-ed, after Khomeini had returned to Iran, Falk wrote, "The depiction of him as fanatical, reactionary and the bearer of crude prejudices seems certainly and happily false."<ref name=Lake/> Falk wrote that Khomeini's "entourage was uniformly composed of moderate, progressive individuals,"<ref name=Sick>Gary Sick, ''All fall down: America's fateful encounter in Iran'', I.B.Tauris, 1985, [http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=All+fall+down%3A+America%27s+fateful+encounter+in+Iran+By+Gary+Sick+%22richard+falk%22+khomeini&btnG=Search+Books&safe=active p. 166].</ref> and that "having created a new model of popular revolution based, for the most part, on nonviolent tactics, Iran may yet provide us with a desperately-needed model of humane governance for a third-world country."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/gloview021511.pdf|title=Trusting Khomeini|date=February 16, 1979|publisher=New York Times|format={{PDFlink||80.4 KB}} |accessdate=March 26, 2011}}</ref> By the end of 1979 Khomeini had become [[Supreme Leader of Iran]] and began removing moderates from his circles, arresting and even killing political opponents, and supporting students who [[Iran hostage crisis|took over the U.S. embassy]] in Tehran, holding American hostages for 444 days. Falk was criticized for having supported Khomeini.<ref name=Sick/><ref>Edward Walter, ''The rise and fall of leftist radicalism in America'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 1992, [http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=%22The+rise+and+fall+of+leftist+radicalism+in+America%22+%22richard+falk%22+khomeini&btnG=Search+Books&safe=active p. 153].</ref> Falk later changed his opinion of Khomeini's regime, calling it "the most terroristic since Hitler."<ref name=Sick/>

===9/11 and the Bush administration===
In 2004, Falk wrote the preface to [[David Ray Griffin]]'s book ''[[The New Pearl Harbor|The New Pearl Harbor: Disturbing Questions About the Bush Administration and 9/11]]'' which maintains that the [[George W. Bush]] administration was complicit in the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref>David Ray Griffin, ''The New Pearl Harbor: Disturbing Questions About the Bush Administration and 9/11'', ''Interlink'', 2005.</ref> In that preface he argued: "There have been questions raised here and there and allegations of official complicity made almost from the day of the attacks, especially in Europe, but no one until Griffin has had the patience, the fortitude, the courage, and the intelligence to put the pieces together in a single coherent account."<ref name=Lake/> Falk also wrote a chapter for Griffin's 2006 book, ''9/11 and American Empire: Intellectuals Speak Out''.<ref>David Ray Griffin, ''9/11 and American Empire: Intellectuals Speak Out'', Olive Branch Press, 2006.</ref>

In November 2008, Falk wrote in ''[[The Journal (student newspaper)|The Journal]]'', a student publication in [[Edinburgh, Scotland]]: "It is not paranoid under such circumstances to assume that the established elites of the American governmental structure have something to hide and much to explain... The persisting inability to resolve this fundamental controversy about 9/11 subtly taints the legitimacy of the American government. It can only be removed by a willingness, however belated, to reconstruct the truth of that day, and to reveal the story behind its prolonged suppression."<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2008/11/11/1000905/falk-boosts-9-11-truth "U.N. official boosts 9/11 conspiracy theorists"], ''[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]]'', November 11, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.journal-online.co.uk/article/5056-911-more-than-meets-the-eye 9/11: More than meets the eye] by Richard Falk, ''[[The Journal (student newspaper)|The Journal]]'', November 9, 2008.</ref>

In 2004 Falk signed a statement released by the organization [[9/11 Truth movement#9/11 Truth|9/11 Truth]] that calls for a new investigation into the September 11 attacks. Falk confirmed his support for the statement in 2009.<ref name="salon-petition">{{cite journal|last=Rossmeier|first=Vincent|journal=Salon|title=Would you still sign the 9/11 Truth petition?|date=September 11, 2009|url=http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2009/09/11/truth_petition|accessdate=September 11, 2009}}</ref> In 2008 Falk called for an official commission to further study these issues, including the role [[neoconservatives]] may have played in the attacks, saying "It is possibly true that especially the neoconservatives thought there was a situation in the country and in the world where something had to happen to wake up the American people. Whether they are innocent about the contention that they made that something happen or not, I don't think we can answer definitively at this point."<ref name=Lake/>

In January 2011 [[Susan Rice]], the [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations]], suggested that Falk should be removed from his U.N. posts after he wrote on his blog about the "eerie silence of the mainstream media, unwilling to acknowledge the well-evidenced doubts about the official version of the events: an al Qaeda operation with no foreknowledge by government officials."<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39997331/ns/world_news MSNBC coverage of Falk's 9/11 comments]</ref><ref>Richard Falk, [http://richardfalk.wordpress.com/tag/al-qaeda/ Al Queda], Richard Falk blog, September 19, 2011.</ref> United Nations secretary-general [[Ban Ki-moon]] likewise condemned Falk's blog posting,<ref name="JerusalemPost25Jan2011">{{cite news|title=Falk's 9-11 remarks are 'condemned' by UN sec.-gen|url=http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=205192|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=25 January 2011}}</ref><ref>Tovah Lazaroff,[http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=205563&R=R4 'Ban slams Falk’s 9/11 statements,'] at [[The Jerusalem Post]], January 27, 2011.</ref> calling it "inflammatory rhetoric" which was "preposterous" and "an affront to the memory of the more than 3,000 people who died in that tragic terrorist attack." Ki-moon stated that only the U.N. Human Rights Council could remove its appointees from office.<ref name="VoiceOfAmericaNews25Jan2011">{{cite news|title=UN Chief Condemns Investigator on Palestine|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/UN-Chief-Condemns-Investigator-on-Palestine-114590359.html|newspaper=Voice of America News|date=25 January 2011}}</ref>

===Israeli-Palestinian conflict===
In a 2002 op-ed in ''[[The Nation]]'', Falk was highly critical of [[Operation Defensive Shield]], describing it as "state-sponsored terrorism". He wrote that the view of an "overwhelming majority" of the UN Security Council, and a UN Human Rights Commission inquiry he was a part of, was that suicide bombings took place only after the Palestinians "ran out of military options", and suicide attacks appeared as the only way to inflict sufficient harm on Israel so that "the struggle could go on". The UN inquiries found that Israel was responsible for the escalation of violence, and that their military response against the Palestinians constituted a violation of international law. Falk referred to the [[Passover massacre]] as "horrifying", stating that Israel's response was "equally horrifying".<ref name="n2002-04-11">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenation.com/article/ending-death-dance|title=Ending the Death Dance |last=Falk|first=Richard|date=2002-04-11|publisher=The Nation|accessdate=13 May 2011}}</ref>

In 2002 Falk wrote on Princeton Divestment's website that "to divest from companies profiting from business with Israel at this time is to express solidarity with victims of massive crimes against humanity and to call upon Israel to respect U.N. authority and the elemental rules of international law by withdrawing from occupied Palestinian territory."<ref>Ben August, [http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/2002/10/10/5683/Campaign for divestment spurs University debate], [[The Daily Princetonian]], October 10, 2002.</ref>

In a June 2007 article, "Slouching toward a Palestinian Holocaust", Falk compared some Israeli policies with regard to the Palestinians to the [[Nazism|Nazi]] record of [[collective punishment]], warning that Israel may be planning a Holocaust in the same way [[Nazi Germany]] did. Identifying himself as a [[American Jews|Jewish American]], Falk stated that his use of the term 'Holocaust' "represents a rather desperate appeal to the governments of the world and to international public opinion to act urgently to prevent these current [Israeli] [[genocidal]] tendencies from culminating in a collective tragedy [for the Palestinians]". Falk also stated that "the comparison should ''not'' be viewed as literal, but... that a pattern of [[criminality]] associated with Israeli policies in [[Gaza City|Gaza]] has actually been supported by the leading democracies of the 21st century." Falk argued that Western and Arab states were associated in a "pattern of criminality" akin to states which let Hitler oppress German Jews in the 1930s. He also denied that [[Hamas]] was a terrorist organization and that it was always ready to work with other Palestinian groups towards "acceptance of Israel's existence", called Israel's [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|disengagement from Gaza]] a "sham" in which 300 Gazans were killed since Israel's "supposed physical departure", and stated that Israel's blockade of the Gaza Strip had brought Gaza to "the brink of collective starvation, imposing a "sub-human existence on a people" through "collective punishment, and that Israeli policies were "indeed genocidal".<ref name="Slouching"/> In late December 2009, Falk again criticized Israel's blockade, and called for Israel to be threatened with economic sanctions if the blockade was not lifted.<ref>[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=33334#.UQQDeWc1CSo UN expert urges Israel to end Gaza blockade as anniversary of campaign looms], United Nations News Service, December 23, 2009.</ref>

In April 2008 Falk compared Israeli actions in Gaza to those of the [[Nazi]]s and responded to criticism of his statements saying, "If this kind of situation had existed for instance in the manner in which China was dealing with [[Tibet]] or the [[Sudan]]ese government was dealing with [[Darfur]], I think there would be no reluctance to make that comparison." He attributed the reluctance to criticise Israel's policies to the sensitive history of the Jewish people, as well as the state's ability to "avoid having (its) policies held up to international law and morality".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7335875.stm "UN expert stands by Nazi comments"], [[BBC]], April 8, 2008</ref>

In December 2012, when asked explicitly about the "neutrality" of groups like [[Amnesty International]] and Human Rights Watch, Falk said in an interview "there is no doubt that the private-funding base of these leading human rights NGOs leads to some biasing of their agendas". However, he commented that "in reaction to criticism there has been more self-criticism directed at American patterns of abuse, and a greater willingness to report critically on Israel" by such NGOs.<ref>Cihan Aksan and Jon Bailes, [http://www.counterpunch.org/2012/12/14/the-future-of-international-law-and-human-rights/ An Interview With Richard Falk; The Future of International Law and Human Rights], [[CounterPunch]], December 14–16, 2012 edition.</ref>

===2011 intervention in Libya===
During the [[2011 Libyan civil war]], Falk published an op-ed in [[Al Jazeera]] against the proposals for [[2011 military intervention in Libya|military intervention]]. Falk wrote that military intervention was illegal under international law, and that "the Gaddafi government, however distasteful on humanitarian grounds, remains the lawful diplomatic representative of a sovereign state". Falk also wrote that any intervention would be pro-insurgency rather than counter-insurgency, and criticized politicians who supported intervention, arguing that "it seems that many of the Republicans focused on the deficit although cutting public expenditures punishes the poor at a time of widespread unemployment and home foreclosures would not mind ponying up countless billions to finance acts of war in Libya".<ref>Richard Falk, [http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/03/201138143448786661.html Kicking the intervention habit], [[Al Jazeera]], March 10, 2011.</ref>

In a Falk blog entry published in [[Today's Zaman]], Falk argued that unlike protests in other countries, the Libyan opposition was reliant on military force "almost from the start", and that violent political reaction from within to Gaddafi’s regime was fully justified as an "expression of Libyan self-determination". He also wrote that the intervention was not to protect civilians from attack, but to ensure a rebel victory and the defeat of Gaddafi.<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=1570585DBEB1FEFE5849DCF9419D0275?newsId=239496 Gaddafi, moral interventionism, Libya, and the Arab Revolutionary Movement], [[Today's Zaman]], March 29, 2011; originally published as [http://richardfalk.wordpress.com/2011/03/20/qaddafi-moral-interventionism-libya-and-the-arab-revolutionary-moment/ Richard Falk blog entry], March 20, 2011.</ref>

===Boston Marathon Bombings===
In a posting on his personal blog called "A Commentary on the Marathon Murders", reprinted in part on [[Al Jazeera]]'s website, Falk wrote regarding the [[Boston Marathon bombings]], which he called "horrific bombings". He also wrote that "the American global domination project is bound to generate all kinds of resistance in the post-colonial world" and that "the United States has been fortunate not to experience worse [[Blowback (intelligence)|blowbacks]]". He contrasted the critical response to the bombings from callers to a [[PBS]] program with that of US politicians and the mainstream media among whom he said self-scrutiny remained "taboo" and that American politicians did not "have the courage to connect some of these dots." He also criticized American policy towards Iran’s nuclear program and friendship with Israel, writing more attacks are likely "if there is no disposition to rethink US relations to others in the world, starting with the Middle East."<ref>Aaron Kalman,[http://www.timesofisrael.com/un-official-says-us-had-boston-attack-coming/ UN official says US had Boston attack coming], [[The Times of Israel]], April 23, 2013.</ref><ref>Richard A. Falk, [http://richardfalk.wordpress.com/2013/04/19/a-commentary-on-the-marathon-murders/ "A Commentary on the Marathon Murders"], Richard Falk blog, April 19, 2013; reprinted in part as [http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/04/201341864010806370.html "Collective self-reflection in the wake of a national tragedy"] at [[Al Jazeera]], April 19, 2013; reprinted at [http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2013/04/21/a-commentary-on-the-marathon-murders/ here, with the original title] by ''[[Foreign Policy Journal]]'', April 21, 2013.</ref>

Falk continued and mounted a critique of US foreign policy describing the [[Iraq War]] and [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan War]] as "unlawful wars" which had "devastated two countries, seemingly beyond foreseeable recovery, while adding nothing to American security". He said that while the failure and expense of these wars meant that this kind of intervention was no longer the centerpiece of American policy, "[t]he war drums are beating at this moment in relation to both North Korea and Iran, and as long as Tel Aviv has the compliant ear of the American political establishment, those who wish for peace and justice in the world should not rest easy."

Canadian [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canada)|Foreign Minister]] [[John Baird (Canadian politician)|John Baird]] sharply criticized Falk, stating that “Once again, United Nations official Richard Falk has spewed more mean-spirited, anti-Semitic rhetoric, this time blaming the attacks in Boston on President Obama and the State of Israel. The United Nations should be ashamed to even be associated with such an individual.” The [[United Kingdom]], in a statement by its UN mission, noted that this was "the third time we have had cause to express our concerns about Mr. Falk’s anti-Semitic remarks. It is important to the U.K. that special rapporteurs uphold the highest standards in their work and we have twice previously made clear that remarks by Mr. Falk were unacceptable." United Nations Secretary General [[Ban Ki-moon]] rejected Falk’s statements, saying that they undermined the credibility and work of the UN.<ref name="news.nationalpost.com">[http://news.nationalpost.com/2013/04/24/canada-lambasts-un-official-for-saying-boston-bombings-caused-by-american-global-domination-project/ Canada lambasts UN official for saying Boston bombings caused by ‘American global domination project’], ''Canadian Press'' (reprinted in the ''[[National Post]]'', April 24, 2013.</ref> [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations]] [[Susan Rice]] wrote that she was "Outraged by Richard Falk's highly offensive Boston comments", that "Someone who spews such vitriol has no place at the UN", and that it was "Past time for him to go.".<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/jewish-world-news/ajc-urges-removal-of-un-s-richard-falk-for-controversial-boston-comments-1.517377 AJC urges removal of UN's Richard Falk for controversial Boston comments] by ''[[Reuters]]'' (reprinted by ''[[Haaretz]]''), April 24, 2013.</ref>

Falk's statements were also criticized by numerous publications and advocacy groups, including the ''[[New York Daily News]]'', the ''[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]]'' (JTA), ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'', Sohrab Ahmari of the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'', [[UN Watch]], the [[Anti-Defamation League]] and the [[American Jewish Committee]].<ref>[http://www.adl.org/press-center/press-releases/united-nations/adl-denounces-uns-richard-falk-boston-tel-aviv.html ADL Denounces U.N.’s Richard Falk for Attempting to Blame the Boston Terror Attack “on Tel Aviv”], ADL 23-04-2013</ref><ref>[http://www.nydailynews.com/opinion/beneath-contempt-article-1.1326653 United Nations Jew-basher Richard Falk blames Boston Marathon attack on Israel], New York Daily News 25-04-2013</ref><ref>[http://www.jta.org/news/article/2013/04/23/3124931/un-official-blames-boston-marathon-bombing-on-tel-aviv U.N. official pins blame for Boston Marathon bombing on ‘Tel Aviv’], ''[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]]'', April 23, 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.jpost.com/International/UNs-Falk-ties-Boston-bombs-to-Obamas-Israel-trip-310832 UN's Falk ties Boston bombs to Obama's Israel trip] by Lauren Izso, ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'', April 23, 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/04/23/watchdog-group-blasts-un-official-for-blaming-boston-bombings-on-american/ UN official blames Boston Marathon bombings on American 'domination'], ''[[Fox News]]'', April 23, 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.thejc.com/news/world-news/106337/us-israel-ties-factor-boston-bombing-says-un-man US-Israel ties factor in Boston bombing, says UN man] by Zoe Winograd, ''[[The Jewish Chronicle]]'', April 23, 2013.</ref><ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324874204578441033895673750.html What the Falk?], Wall Street Journal 23-04-2013</ref> [[Scott McConnell]] responded to the criticism in ''[[The American Conservative]]'': "Amazing for its viciousness and rank dishonesty is the campaign waged against UN special rapporteur for human rights in occupied Palestine Richard Falk for making some pretty straightforward “blowback” points in the aftermath of the Boston terrorist attack." He went on to describe how, in his view, "a well-funded neocon group called UN Watch and its various media allies had ginned up an intense public relations campaign, based on falsifying the meaning of his piece, using ellipses to distort its sentences, to claim that Falk had said that the Boston victims somehow deserved their fate."<ref name=SM2013>{{cite news|last=McConnell|first=Scott|title=Smearing Richard Falk|url=http://www.theamericanconservative.com/smearing-richard-falk/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=smearing-richard-falk|accessdate=2013-04-28|newspaper=The American Conservative|date=2013-04-26}}</ref>

==Accusations of antisemitism==

On June 29, 2011 Richard Falk posted on his blog an entry regarding the [[International Criminal Court]]’s indictment of [[Muammar Gaddafi]] for crimes against humanity which included a cartoon image of a dog with a [[Yarmulke|Jewish head-covering]] and a sweater with the letters "USA"; it was urinating on [[Lady Justice]] while devouring bloody human bones.<ref name=underfire>[http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=228448 UN's Richard Falk under fire for ‘anti-Semitic’ cartoon], Jerusalem Post 08-07-2011</ref> [[UN Watch]], which is affiliated with the [[American Jewish Committee]]<ref name="AJC Office and Departments ">{{cite web|url=http://www.ajc.org/site/c.ijITI2PHKoG/b.789095/k.5F96/Offices_and_Departments.htm |title=ACJ Office and Departments |work=ACJ |accessdate=19 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="ACJ Activities in Europe">{{cite web|url=http://www.ajc.org/site/c.ijITI2PHKoG/b.835975/k.D5ED/Europe.htm |title=ACJ Activities in Europe |work=ACJ |accessdate=19 March 2012}}</ref> contacted UN High Commissioner for Human Rights [[Navi Pillay]] regarding the cartoon. Falk acknowledged on July 6 that the cartoon was antisemitic and apologized for posting it, adding that "we must also make peace with nature, and treat animals with as much respect as possible." <ref name="underfire"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Bauder|first=Sarah|title=Jewish groups urge UN investigator to quit|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4093287,00.html|accessdate=11 July 2011|newspaper=[[Ynetnews]]|date=10 July 2011|agency=[[Shalom Life]]|quote=The Anti-Defamation League called on the UN top human rights official to publicly condemn Falk.}}</ref><ref>[http://richardfalk.wordpress.com/2011/07/06/apology-for-unintentionally-posting-anti-semitic-cartoon-in-qaddafi-arrest-warrant-blog/ Apology for Unintentionally Posting Anti-Semitic Cartoon in Qaddafi Arrest Warrant Blog July 6th], Richard Falk blog, July 6, 2012.</ref>

[[Abraham H. Foxman]] of the [[Anti-Defamation League]] called on Falk to resign as U.N. Rapporteur for the Palestinian territories saying that "This cartoon is blatantly anti-Semitic and conveys the message that Jews and Americans care little about what is just and moral" and that "the message of hatred in this cartoon nonetheless directly contravenes the principles of the Human Rights Council and of the United Nations itself."<ref name=h20110708>{{cite news|title=ADL calls on UN human rights chief to condemn Richard Falk for anti-Semitic cartoon|url=http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/adl-calls-on-un-human-rights-chief-to-condemn-richard-falk-for-anti-semitic-cartoon-1.372190|accessdate=15 July 2011|newspaper=Haaretz|date=8 July 2011}}</ref> [[United States]] envoy to the UN [[Joseph M. Torsella]] said the posting of the cartoon was "shameful and outrageous" and "an embarrassment to the United Nations", and called on him to resign.<ref>[http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=228618 US, Jewish groups demand Falk resign over blog entry], Jerusalem Post 2011-07-10</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Evans|first=Robert|title=U.S. urges U.N. sleuth resign over blog cartoon|url=http://af.reuters.com/article/egyptNews/idAFLDE7670S520110708?sp=true|accessdate=9 October 2011|newspaper=[[Reuters]]|date=8 July 2011|agency=[[Reuters]]|location=[[Geneva]]|quote=The United States said on Friday it has called on the U.N. human rights investigator for the Palestinian territories to resign after he published a cartoon on his blog which he later withdrew as 'anti-semitic.'}}</ref> US Representative [[Ileana Ros-Lehtinen]], chairwoman of the [[US House of Representatives]] [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|Committee on Foreign Affairs]] also called on Falk to resign.<ref name=Pillay>[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishNews/Article.aspx?id=229422 Pillay says Falk's cartoon was anti-Semitic, objectionable], Jerusalem Post 2011-07-14</ref> British Prime Minister, [[David Cameron]], instructed the UK's concerns Permanent Representative to express concerns regarding the cartoon and said that he would "continue to closely watch any further actions or comments Mr Falk may make."<ref>[http://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/56303/pm-condemns-un-advisers-antisemitic-cartoon PM condemns UN adviser's 'antisemitic' cartoon], [[The Jewish Chronicle]], October 12, 2011, ''accessed October 26, 2012''.</ref>

[[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] [[Navi Pillay]] "acknowledged the cartoon was antisemitic and objectionable." She did not call for Falk’s resignation because of his public apologies and the fact he had swiftly removed the image from his website.<ref name=Pillay/>

In July 2012, in discussing why he was drawn to the "Palestinian struggle", Falk wrote on his blog, "I formed a well-evidence belief that the U.S. Government and the organized Jewish community were responsible for the massive and enduring confiscation of Palestinian land and rights."<ref name=ForWhat>Richard A. Falk, [http://richardfalk.wordpress.com/2012/07/20/for-what/ For What?], on his personal blog, July 20, 2012.</ref> UN Watch, accused Falk of "promoting racist remarks," as well as [[anti-Semitism]], "by attempting to blame Jewish communities everywhere for alleged crimes against Palestinians."<ref name="Falk UN Watch Organized">{{cite web | url=http://blog.unwatch.org/index.php/2012/07/24/u-n-s-richard-falk-accuses-the-organized-jewish-community-of-crimes-against-palestinians/ | title=U.N.’s Richard Falk accuses "the organized Jewish community" of crimes against Palestinians | publisher=UN Watch | date=July 24, 2012 | accessdate=July 25, 2012}}</ref> Falk later responded, writing "I have often opposed policies including those of the US and Israel but to conflate such stands with racism is [part of] a wide-ranging and frequently repeated denunciation of my views and activities."<ref name=ForWhat/><ref>[http://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/70440/anti-israel-un-official Anti-Israel UN official], [[The Jewish Chronicle]], July 26, 2012.</ref>

In December 2012, UN Watch published an open letter to [[Human Rights Watch]] critical of Falk. Falk was asked to resign from the Santa Monica group’s board and his name was removed from their website, supposedly because his working for the United Nations was contrary to HRW policy.<ref>[http://www.jta.org/news/article/2012/12/18/3114871/richard-falk-removed-from-human-rights-watch-committee Richard Falk removed from Human Rights Watch committee], [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]], December 18, 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/human-rights-watch-boots-un-palestinian-rights-official-from-one-of-its-panels/ Human Rights Watch boots UN Palestinian rights official from one of its panels], [[The Times of Israel]], December 19, 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.unwatch.org/cms.asp?id=3665777&campaign_id=63111 Official Wording of UN Watch Letter to Human Rights Watch. UNwatch.org]</ref> Later that month, in response to a UN Watch press release criticizing Falk, 40 representatives of major international human rights organisations worldwide signed a letter to Human Rights Watch urging the group to "clarify that he was not 'expelled' as an enemy of human rights' as UN Watch claimed".<ref name=Bennis>[[Phyllis Bennis]], [http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/01/20131781532514238.html Human Rights Watch: Time to stand with human rights defenders], [[Al Jazeera]], January 9, 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.nlg.org/news/letter-regarding-attacks-uns-palestine-rapporteur Letter to Kenneth Roth, Executive Director, Human Rights Watch], from various human rights groups, December 27, 2012, at [[National Lawyers Guild]] website.</ref> [[Phyllis Bennis]], a signer of the letter, wrote that Human Rights Watch replied on January 1, 2013, stating that the UN Watch letter was filled with "inaccuracies and falsehoods" and repeating Human Rights Watch's statement it was complying with its longstanding policy.<ref name=Bennis/><ref>[http://blog.unwatch.org/index.php/2012/12/18/human-rights-watch-expels-top-u-n-official-richard-falk/#more-3023 Human Rights Watch Expels Top U.N. Official Richard Falk], UN Watch website blog, December 18, 2012.</ref>

In response to Falk's comments regarding the [[Boston Marathon bombings]], the British mission to the United Nations stated that “[this is] the third time we have had cause to express our concerns about Mr. Falk’s anti-Semitic remarks. It is important to the U.K. that special rapporteurs uphold the highest standards in their work and we have twice previously made clear that remarks by Mr. Falk were unacceptable.”<ref name="news.nationalpost.com"/>

==Published works==
* ''Essays on Espionage and International Law'' with Quincy Wright, Julius Stone, Roland J. Stanger; Ohio State University Press, 1962
* ''Security in Disarmament'', Editor with Richard J. Barnet, Princeton University Press, 1965
* ''Toward a Theory of War Prevention'', with Saul H. Mendlovitz, Transaction Publishers, 1966
* ''Strategy of World Order (Volumes I to IV)'', edited with Saul H. Mendlovitz, World Law Fund, 1966–67
* ''Legal Order In A Violent World,'' Princeton University Press, 1968
* ''International Law And Organization,'' Editor with Wolfram F. Hanrieder, Lippincott, 1968.
* ''The Six Legal Dimensions of the Vietnam War'', Princeton University Press, 1968
* ''In the Name of America-The Conduct of the War in Vietnam by the Armed Forces of the U.S.'', editor with Seymour Melman, E.P. Dutton, 1968
* ''The Vietnam war and international law,'' edited by Richard A. Falk with Wolfram F. Hanrieder; J. B. Lippincott, 1968.
* ''A Global Approach to National Policy,'' Harvard University Press, 1975.
* ''Crimes of War: A Legal, Political-Documentary, and Psychological Inquiry into the Responsibility of Leaders, Citizens, and Soldiers for Criminal Acts in Wars'' with Gabriel Kolko, Robert Jay Lifton; Random House, 1971
* ''The United Nations and a Just World Order'' with Samuel S. Kim, Saul H. Mendlovitz; Westview Press, 1991
* ''This Endangered Planet,'' Random House, 1971
* ''Regional Politics and World Order'' with Saul H. Mendlovitz, W.H.Freeman & Co Ltd, 1973.
* ''A Study of Future Worlds'', Free Press, 1975
* ''The Vietnam War and International Law'', Editor, Pinceton University Press, 1976
* ''Human Rights and State Sovereignty'', Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1981
* ''International Law: A Contemporary Perspective (Studies on a Just World Order, No 2)'' with Friedrich Kratochwil, Saul H. Mendlovitz; Westview Press, 1985
* ''Revolutionaries and Functionaries,'' Dutton Adult, 1988
* ''The Promise of World Order: Essays in Normative International Relations'', Temple University Press, 1988
* ''Explorations at the Edge of Time: The Prospects for World Order'', Temple University Press, 1993.
* ''On Humane Governance: Toward a New Global Politics – The World Order Models Project Report of the Global Civilization Initiative'', Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995
* ''Indefensible Weapons: The Political and Psychological Case Against Nuclearism'' with Robert Jay Lifton, House of Anansi Press, 1998
* ''Predatory Globalization: A Critique,'' Polity, 1999
* ''Human Rights Horizons: The Pursuit of Justice in a Globalizing World,'' Routledge, 2001
* ''Reframing the International: Law, Culture, Politics,'' Routledge, 2002
* ''Unlocking the Middle East: The Writings of Richard Falk,'' Jean Allain, Editor; Olive Branch Press, 2002.
* ''In Pursuit of the Right to Self-Determination Collected Papers of the First International'', Editor with D. Kly, Clarity Press, 2001
* ''Religion and Humane Global Governance,'' Palgrave Macmillan, 2001
* ''The Great Terror War'', Interlink Publishing Group, 2002
* ''The Declining World Order: America's Imperial Geopolitics'', Routledge, 2004
* ''[[The New Pearl Harbor]]: Disturbing Questions About the Bush Administration and 9-11'' by [[David Ray Griffin]], (Foreword), Interlink Books, 2004
* ''The Record of the Paper: How the New York Times Misreports US Foreign Policy'' with [[Howard Friel]], Verso, 2004
* ''Crimes of War: Iraq'' with Irene Gendzier, Robert Jay Lifton; Nation Books, 2006
* ''Foundations of Restoration Ecology: The Science and Practice of Ecological Restoration (The Science and Practice of Ecological Restoration Series)'' with Richard J. Hobbs, Donald A. Falk, Margaret Palmer, and Joy Zedler; Island Press, 2006
* ''The Costs of War: International Law, the UN, and World Order after Iraq'', Routledge, 2007
* ''Israel-Palestine on Record: How the New York Times Misreports Conflict in the Middle East'' with Howard Friel, Verso, 2007
* ''Achieving Human Rights'', Routledge, 2008
* ''International Law and the Third World: Reshaping Justice (Routledge-Cavendish Research in International Law)'', Editor, Routledge, July 29, 2008
* ''Can Humanitarian Intervention be Humanitarian? [[International Policy Digest]], Author, August 5, 2011
* ''Syria: Geopolitical Mentoring versus Rehab for Addicted Geopolitical Leaders [[International Policy Digest]], Author, August 19, 2011
* ''Rethinking Afghanistan After a Decade [[International Policy Digest]], Author, September 19, 2011
* ''Opening the Other Eye: Charles Taylor and Selective Criminal Accountability [[International Policy Digest]], Author, April 27, 2012
* ''How to Save a Stumbling 'Economic Europe' [[International Policy Digest]], Author, June 11, 2012
* ''The Path to Zero: Dialogues on Nuclear Dangers,'' with David A. Krieger, Paradigm Publishers 2012
* ''Reflections on Teju Cole's Open City [[International Policy Digest]], Author, February 21, 2013

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=35em}}

==External links==
*Richard Falk in conversation with [[Jeff Halper]] and [[Phillip Adams]], [http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/latenightlive/rethinking-foreign-occupation/4963588 'Rethinking foreign occupation,'] at [[Late Night Live]], [[Australian Broadcasting Commission|ABC]] 18 September 2013.
*[http://www.ohchr.org/EN/countries/MENARegion/Pages/PSIndex.aspx United Nations website page on Occupied Palestinian Territory], including work of Richard Falk.
*[http://www.democracynow.org/2008/12/17/days_after_calling_israeli_blockade_of Democracy Now interview with Richard Falk], December 17, 2008.
*[http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/f/falk_ra.htm Richard A. Falk Papers] at Syracuse University
*[[Transnational Institute|The Transnational Institute of Policy Studies]] (TNI). [http://www.tni.org/article/israeli-crimes-against-humanity-gaza Israeli crimes against humanity in Gaza]. Richard Falk interviewed by Michael Slate. January 20, 2009.
* [http://www.thejerusalemfund.org/ht/display/ContentDetails/i/7089/pid/3584 "Imagining Israel-Palestine Peace: Why International Law Matters"] Richard Falk 2009 speech at [[The Palestine Center]].
*[http://www.stateofnature.org/internationalLawAndHuman.html Interview with Richard Falk from ''Weapon of the Strong: Conversations on US State Terrorism'' (Pluto Press)], November, 2012.

{{United Nations Special Rapporteurs}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=31996109}}

{{Persondata
| NAME =Falk, Richard A.
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Law professor
| DATE OF BIRTH = November 13, 1930
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Falk, Richard A.}}
[[Category:1930 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American academics]]
[[Category:American foreign policy writers]]
[[Category:American legal writers]]
[[Category:American human rights activists]]
[[Category:Jewish human rights activists]]
[[Category:American anti-war activists]]
[[Category:American anti–nuclear weapons activists]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers]]
[[Category:International law scholars]]
[[Category:United Nations Special Rapporteurs]]
[[Category:Israeli–Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:Writers on the Middle East]]
[[Category:World federalists]]
[[Category:9/11 conspiracy theorists]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:Guggenheim Fellows]]

Klopfcode

2014-03-24T12:10:00Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 84.13.159.20 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

{| class="wikitable" align=right style="width:100%; width:200px; text-align:center;"
| colspan=6| '''Tap code'''
|-
! !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5
|-
! 1
| [[A]] || [[B]] || [[C]]/[[K]] || [[D]] || [[E]]
|-
! 2
| [[F]] || [[G]] || [[H]] || [[I]] || [[J]]
|-
! 3
| [[L]] || [[M]] || [[N]] || [[O]] || [[P]]
|-
! 4
| [[Q]] || [[R]] || [[S]] || [[T]] || [[U]]
|-
! 5
| [[V]] || [[W]] || [[X]] || [[Y]] || [[Z]]
|-
| colspan=6 | The tap code table
|}

The '''tap code''', sometimes called the '''knock code''', is a way to [[encoder|encode]] messages, letter by letter, in a very simple way and transmit it using a series of tap sounds, hence its name. It has been commonly used by prisoners to communicate with each other. The method of communicating is usually by "tapping" either the metal bars, pipes or the walls inside the cell.

== Design ==

The tap code is based on a [[Polybius square]], a 5×5 grid of letters representing all the letters of the [[Latin alphabet]], except for K, which is represented by C. Each letter is communicated by tapping two numbers: the first designating the row (horizontally) and the second designating the column (vertically). The letter "X" is used to break up sentences. The tap code requires the listener to only discriminate the timing of the taps to isolate letters. For example, to specify the letter "A", one taps once, pauses, and then taps once again.

Or to communicate the word "water", the cipher would be the following (the pause between each number in a pair is smaller than the pause between one pair and the next):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! W !! A !! T !! E !! R
|-
| 5, 2 || 1, 1 || 4, 4 || 1, 5 || 4, 2
|-
| ····· ·· || · · || ···· ···· || · ····· || ···· ··
|}

Because of the difficulty and length of time required for specifying a single letter, prisoners often devise [[abbreviations]] and [[acronyms]] for common items or phrases, such as "GN" for ''Good night'', or "GBU" for ''God bless you.''<ref name="pbs"/>

By comparison, [[Morse code]] is harder to send by tapping or banging because it requires the ability to create two differently sounding taps (representing the ''dits'' and ''dahs'' of Morse code). A Morse code novice would also need to keep a "cheat sheet" until he or she remembers every letter's code, which the captors would likely confiscate. Tap code can be more easily decoded in one's head by mentally using the table.

== History ==

The origins of this encoding go back to the [[Polybius square]] of [[Ancient Greece]]. As the "knock code", a [[Cyrillic script]] version is said to have been used by [[nihilist movement|nihilist]] prisoners of the [[Russia]]n [[Czar]]s.<ref>[[David Kahn (writer)|David Kahn]], ''The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing''. 1967. ISBN 978-0-684-83130-5.</ref> The knock code is featured in [[Arthur Koestler]]'s classic 1941 work ''[[Darkness at Noon]]''.<ref>Koestler, Arthur, ''Darkness at Noon'' (1941). Translated by Daphne Hardy. See page 19 of the Bantam Publishing paperback, 1981 printing for more info.</ref>

[[United States]] [[prisoners of war]] during the [[Vietnam War]] are most known for having used the tap code. It was introduced in June 1965 by four POWs held in the [[Hanoi Hilton|Hoa Lo "Hanoi Hilton" prison]]: Captain Carlyle "Smitty" Harris, Lieutenant Phillip Butler, Lieutenant Robert Peel, and Lieutenant Commander Robert Shumaker.<ref name="pbs">{{cite web | url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/honor/sfeature/sf_tap.html | title=''Return with Honor'': The Tap Code | work=[[American Experience]] | publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] | year=1999 | accessdate=2008-04-08}}</ref> Smitty Harris had heard of the tap code being used by prisoners in [[World War II]]<ref name="au">{{cite news | url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc-pow.htm | title=Vets, Flyers discuss ideology, time in POW camps | author=Staff Sgt. Jason Tudor | publisher=[[Air Force News Service]] | date=1998-03-18 | accessdate=2008-04-08}}</ref> and remembered a [[United States Air Force]] instructor who had discussed it as well.<ref name="pbs"/>

In Vietnam, the tap code became a very successful way for otherwise isolated prisoners to communicate.<ref name="au"/> POWs would use the tap code in order to communicate to each other between cells in a way which the guards would be unable to pick up on. They used it to communicate everything from what questions [[interrogation|interrogators]] were asking (in order for everyone to stay consistent with a deceptive or bogus story), to who was hurt and needed others to donate meager food rations. It was easy to teach and newly arrived prisoners became fluent in it within a few days.<ref>{{cite book | last=McCain | first=John | authorlink=John McCain | coauthors=[[Mark Salter]] | title=''[[Faith of My Fathers]]'' | publisher=[[Random House]] | year=1999 | isbn=0-375-50191-6}} pp. 211–212.</ref><ref name="brace"/> It was even used when prisoners were sitting next to each other but not allowed to talk, by tapping on anothers' thigh.<ref name="brace">{{cite book | last=Brace |first=Ernest C. |authorlink=Ernest C. Brace | title=A Code to Keep: The true story of America's longest held civilian prisoner of war in Vietnam | publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] | year=1988 | isbn=0-7090-3560-8}} pp. 171–172, 187–188.</ref> By overcoming isolation with the tap code, prisoners were able to maintain a [[chain of command]] and keep up [[morale]].<ref name="au"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.braingle.com/brainteasers/codes/tapcode.php Online Tap Code Encoder/Decoder]

{{Cryptography navbox | classical}}

[[Category:Classical ciphers]]
[[Category:Encodings]]

Respawn Entertainment

2014-03-21T18:21:45Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 67.40.86.158 (talk) to last revision by Wikipelli (HG)

{{Infobox company
| name = Respawn Entertainment, LLC
| logo = Respawn Entertainment Logo, 2013.png
| caption =
| company_type = [[Privately held company]]
| foundation = 2010
| founder = [[Jason West (game designer)|Jason West]] [[Vince Zampella]]
| defunct =
| location = [[Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles|Sherman Oaks]], [[California]], [[United States| U.S.]]
| key_people = [[Vince Zampella]]
| industry = [[Interactive entertainment]]
| products =
| revenue =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| owner =
| num_employees = ~75
| parent =
| divisions =
| subsid =
| homepage = [http://www.respawn.com/ www.respawn.com]
}}

'''Respawn Entertainment''' is an American [[video game developer|video game development studio]] founded by Jason West and Vince Zampella, who were formerly responsible for the development of the ''[[Call of Duty]]'' franchise at [[Infinity Ward]].

==History==
On March 1, 2010, [[Activision]] amended its report with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] to add notification that two senior employees of Infinity Ward were being fired due to "breaches of contract and insubordination". This coincided with Jason West (Infinity Ward president, game director, co-[[Chief creative officer|CCO]], and [[Chief technology officer|CTO]]) and Vince Zampella ([[CEO]] and co-founder of Infinity Ward) editing their profiles on the website [[LinkedIn]] to list Infinity Ward as a former employer as of March 2010. Reportedly, a meeting between Zampella, West, and Activision staff occurred on March 1, after which neither Zampella nor West were seen; this was followed by the arrival of security guards at the studio.<ref>{{cite web|last=Thorsen |first=Tor |url=http://www.gamespot.com/news/6252657.html |title=Top Infinity Ward devs fired for 'insubordination,' lawsuits 'expected' - News at GameSpot |publisher=Gamespot |date=2010-03-02 |accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref><ref name="Scandal">{{cite web |url=http://kotaku.com/5483711/report-modern-warfare-dev-head-leaves-company|title=Report: Modern Warfare Dev Head Leaves Company |last=Fahey |first=Mike |date=2010-03-03 |accessdate=2010-03-03 |publisher=Kotaku}}</ref> It was later confirmed by Activision that West and Zampella had been dismissed, and had been replaced on an interim basis by Activision CTO Steve Pearce and head of production Steve Ackrich.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gonzalez |first=Annette |url=http://gameinformer.com/b/news/archive/2010/03/02/activision-announces-new-plans-for-cod.aspx |title=Activision's Future Plans For Call Of Duty Call For New Developer - News |publisher=GameInformer |date=2010-03-02 |accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref>

On April 12, 2010 the [[Los Angeles Times]] reported that West and Zampella were forming a new independent gaming studio known as Respawn Entertainment. They were seeking funding from [[Electronic Arts]] through the EA Partners Program. Like [[Bungie]], West and Zampella will retain the rights to all [[intellectual property]] produced by them in the future.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pham |first=Alex |url=http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/la-et-ct-callofduty12-2010apr12,0,6466384.story |title=Jason West and Vincent Zampella's new call of duty |publisher=Los Angeles Times |date=2010-04-12 |coauthors=Ben Fritz |accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2010/04/12/respawn-entertainment/ |title=Respawn Entertainment announced by ex-IW heads, partnering with EA |publisher=Joystiq |date=2010-04-12 |first=Christopher |last=Grant |accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Reilly |first=Jim |url=http://xbox360.ign.com/articles/108/1083152p1.html |title=Infinity Ward Founders Developing A 'Big Blockbuster' |publisher=IGN |date=2010-04-12 |accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref> As of July 10, 2010, 38 of the 46 Infinity Ward employees who resigned from that studio following the firings of West and Zampella revealed through their LinkedIn and Facebook profiles that they had signed on with Respawn Entertainment.<ref name="cyn-IW">{{cite web|url=http://www.cynicalsmirk.com/who_remains_at_infinity_ward.html |title=Who Remains At Infinity Ward ? |publisher=Cynicalsmirk.com |date= |accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1up.com/do/newsStory?cId=3179080 |title=Who Remains at Infinity Ward? |publisher=cynicalsmirk.com |date=2010-05-25 |accessdate=2010-05-25}}</ref> According to comments by the employees, Respawn was expected to begin work on its first project in May 2010.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kollar |first=Phil |url=http://gameinformer.com/b/news/archive/2010/04/23/four-more-join-infinity-ward-exodus-seven-respawn.aspx |title=Seven More Join Infinity Ward Exodus, Seven Respawn |publisher=GameInformer |date=2010-04-23 |accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref>

==Games==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Title !! Engine !! Release date !! Platform(s) !! Publisher !! Aggregated scores<ref>Scores are the average of the GameRankings aggregate score received for all platforms.</ref>
|-
| ''[[Titanfall]]'' || Customized [[Source (game engine)|Source]] || March 11, 2014<ref>http://www.computerandvideogames.com/411279/respawns-debut-game-is-titanfall/</ref> || [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Xbox 360]], [[Xbox One]] || [[Electronic Arts]] ||
|}

EA Games Label president Frank Gibeau revealed at [[Electronic Entertainment Expo 2011|E3 2011]] in June 2011 that Respawn Entertainment's EA-published shooter was "sci-fi oriented" and would allow the publisher to "compete with things like ''[[Gears of War (series)|Gears]]'' and ''[[Halo (series)|Halo]]''".<ref name="E32011">http://www.computerandvideogames.com/306326/respawn-title-is-a-sci-fi-shooter-will-compete-with-halo-gears-ea/</ref> Gibeau also stated that EA would release Respawn's project when it sees an "opportunistic" window.<ref name="E32011"/> Later that month, Respawn released a blurry teaser image of its unannounced game via the official website launched that day.<ref>http://www.computerandvideogames.com/309647/ex-call-of-duty-boys-tease-new-game-with-image/</ref> Respawn further released another blurry image, and teased the new game with mo-cap shot.<ref>http://www.vg247.com/2011/12/20/respawn-releases-another-blurry-image-from-first-project/</ref><ref>http://www.vg247.com/2012/01/05/respawn-further-teases-new-game-with-mo-cap-shot/</ref> In April 2013, Respawn registered a trademark for the name Titan,<ref>{{cite web|last=Phillips|first=Tom|title=Respawn registers trademark for Titan|url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2013-04-16-respawn-registers-trademark-for-titan|publisher=Eurogamer}}</ref> and it was reported that Respawn game was an always-online Xbox exclusive, although nothing has been confirmed.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yin-Poole|first=Wesley|title=Respawn game is reportedly an always-online Xbox exclusive|url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2013-04-30-respawn-game-is-reportedly-an-always-online-xbox-exclusive|publisher=Eurogamer}}</ref>

In June 2013, Respawn Entertainment officially debuted its game at E3 under the name ''[[Titanfall]]'' and on October 22nd revealed the release date of the game to be March 11th, 2014 in North America, and March 13th in Europe.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.respawn.com/ Respawn Entertainment web site]

[[Category:Electronic Arts]]
[[Category:Companies based in Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:Companies established in 2010]]
[[Category:Video game companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Video game development companies]]

Respawn Entertainment

2014-03-21T18:18:22Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 67.40.86.158 (talk) to last revision by Widr (HG)

Kilronan Castle

2014-03-19T19:26:50Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 193.1.82.90 (talk) to last revision by LilHelpa (HG)

'''Kilronan Castle''', previously known as Castle Tenison, is a large country house standing in 40 acres of parkland on the shore of Lough Meelagh in County Roscommon, Republic of Ireland, 5 km north-west of the village of [[Keadew]].

The house, originally constructed c.1820, was considerably expanded in the 1880s to form the current building. The newer part is a two storey, irregular building with a large baronial tower adjacent to the older building. It now functions as a spa hotel.

==History==
Towards the end of the 18th century the property later known as Castle Tenison, together with its surrounding estate, belonged to the Dundas family. They sold it in 1715 to Richard Tenison, of the English Tenison family, who was the son of the [[Bishop of Meath]] and MP for [[Dunleer (Parliament of Ireland constituency)|Dunleer]]. He died in 1726 and left the property to his son, William, who in 1746 was Lieutenant Colonel of the 35th Regiment of Foot and also an MP for Dunleer. William died shortly afterwards in 1728 without an heir and the estate passed to his uncle Thomas and thence to Thomas' son, Thomas jnr. Thomas jnr was [[High Sheriff of Leitrim]] for 1763 and MP for [[County Monaghan (Parliament of Ireland constituency)|County Monaghan]] from 1776 to 1783. The property, now known as Kilronan Castle, passed to Thomas jnr's only son, yet another Thomas, who was [[High Sheriff of Roscommon]] in 1791, Leitrim in 1792 and MP for [[Boyle (Parliament of Ireland constituency)|Boyle]] in 1792.

His son Edward King-Tenison was High Sheriff of Leitrim in 1845, MP for Leitrim from 1847 to 1852 and [[Lord Lieutenant of Roscommon]] from 1856 to 1878. On his death in 1878 the property was left to his son-in-law [[Henry King-Tenison, 8th Earl of Kingston|Henry King]] who had changed his name to Henry King-Tenison and inherited his brother's title to become the 8th Earl of Kingston. It was the 8th Earl of Kingston who built the present house in the 1880s as a large Gothic Revival extension to the older building. During his occupation much of the surrounding land was sold.

After his death in 1896 the castle was not often occupied, the 9th Earl preferring to live elsewhere, and in 1939 the contents were sold at auction. The castle was later occupied by a section of the Construction Corps who were building a road in the Arigna Mountains. The Land Commission ultimately acquired the property and later sold the castle to Michael and Brendan Layden. It was subsequently converted into a luxury hotel by the Hanly group in 2006.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{cite web|url = http://landedestates.nuigalway.ie/LandedEstates/jsp/estate-show.jsp?id=410|title = Estate: Tenison/Tennison/King-Tenison|publisher= NUI Galway|accessdate = 2012-01-04}}
* {{cite book|title = A genealogical and heraldic history of the landed gentry of Ireland (1912)|first = Bernard|last = Burke|accessdate = 2012-01-04}}
* {{cite web|url= http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/axhsk5/tenisons.htm|title= The Fortunes of the Tenisons|accessdate = 2012-01-04}}

==External links==
*[http://www.kilronancastle.ie/ Official website]

{{coord|54.065|-8.187|type:landmark_region:IE|display=title}}

{{Historic Irish houses}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in County Roscommon]]

Songbird Airways

2014-03-12T15:58:45Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 199.47.41.142 (talk) to last revision by Forrcoots (HG)

{{about|the North American charter airline|the Caribbean airline|SkyKing Limited}}
{{Infobox Airline
| airline = Sky King, Inc.
| logo = SkyKingInclogo.jpg
| logo_size = 300
| fleet_size = 1
| destinations = 7
| IATA = 5K
| ICAO = SGB
| callsign = SONGBIRD
| parent = Aviation Capital Partner Group
| company_slogan =
| founded = 1990
| headquarters = [[Lakeland, Florida]]
| key_people =
* Dr. Daniel Carson (President)
* Michael Gray (Director of Operations)
* Channing Steele (Chief Pilot)
* Michael Wampler (Director of Maintenance)
* Elizabeth Sukie (Director of Quality Control)
| hubs = {{ubl|[[Miami International Airport]]}}
| secondary_hubs =
| focus_cities =
| frequent_flyer =
| lounge =
| alliance =
| website = [http://www.flyskyking.net/ flyskyking.net]
}}

'''Sky King, Inc.''' is a [[charter airline]] based in [[Lakeland, Florida]]. Sky King was founded by Gregg Lukenbill in July 1990, who was at the time, the managing partner of the [[NBA]]'s [[Sacramento Kings]]. Currently, Sky King operates flights from [[Florida]] to [[Cuba]] on behalf of Customer Service Providers (CSPs). Sky King also conducts flights of deportees to undisclosed destinations on behalf of [[U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement]] (ICE). In the past, the airline provides charter service to sports teams and businesses using [[Boeing 737]] aircraft sporting various seat configurations. The airline filed for [[Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection]] on March 9, 2010, after it was unable to meet the payment demands of one of its largest creditors, fuel supplier Mercury Air Group.<ref>{{cite news | title=Ex-Kings owner Lukenbill files Chapter 11 for aircraft business | url=http://www.sacbee.com/2010/03/27/2636635/ex-kings-owner-lukenbill-files.html | work=[[The Sacramento Bee]] | first=Bob | last=Shallit | date=2010-03-27 | accessdate=2010-03-29}}</ref> It filed for bankruptcy again in 2012.<ref>[http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20120920/ARTICLE/309209993 Sky King Airlines files for bankruptcy, Herald-Tribune, September 20, 2012.]</ref>

Employees were notified on January 26, 2014 that Sky King, Inc. was ceasing operations and all company communications were halted and shutoff. There was no indication given to the length of the cessation or the permanence of it.

Furloughed employees were not paid their final checks after cessation of operations. No reason was provided by Sky King President, Dan Carson although Carson continued to add staff after cessation of operations.

== History ==

The airline began operations in July 1990 as a privately held company founded by Gregg Lukenbill, who was then the managing partner of the [[NBA]]'s [[Sacramento Kings]].

Initially, the company provided service for the Kansas City Kings in a single [[BAC One-Eleven]] under FAR-125. In 2002, Sky King received its FAR-121 certificate and 98% of the company’s flying was for hockey teams. A series of events in 2005, including the [[NHL]] lockout, the devastation of [[Hurricane Katrina]] and the spike in jet fuel prices required Sky King to find an alternate way of running its business. This resulted in the adoption of the ACMI (Aircraft Crew Maintenance and Insurance) model and a partnership with Gold Transportation was forged.
Today, Sky King is a leading passenger charter airline company providing dedicated ACMI services both domestically and internationally.

In March 2010, Sky King filed for [[Chapter 11]] bankruptcy protection. Sky King emerged from this [[Chapter 11]] bankruptcy in June 2011. Following a successful reorganization in June 2010, the airline moved its headquarters from Sacramento, California to Lakeland, Florida. By moving to Lakeland, Sky King was able to reduce its maintenance costs (by eliminating cross-country ferry flights) and focus on expanding the east coast markets it now serves. In October, 2010, Sky King was purchased by Aviation Capital Partners Group and has now shifted its focus away from private charters and towards providing scheduled services. At the end of 2010, Sky King had over 270 employees.

At the end of August 2012, Sky King returned three aircraft to its owner, AerSale, in Roswell, NM. At the same time, Sky King again filed for [[Chapter 11]] bankruptcy protection and laid off over 20 pilots, 30 flight attendants, and others in operations, maintenance, and the Lakeland office.

In December 2013, Sky King furloughed/laid off nearly half of staff across all departments and returned one airplane to the leasing company. As of December 31, 2013, Sky King had two airplanes in its fleet, one of which had been grounded for several months with a bad engine that needed replaced.

On January 6, 2014,it was announced via internal company memo that Dr. Daniel Carson, formerly of Vision Airlines and Atom Airways, will take the position as President of the company.[3]

Employees were notified on January 26, 2014 that Sky King, Inc. was ceasing operations and all company communications were halted and shutoff. There was no indication given to the length of the cessation or the permanence of it.

Furloughed employees were not paid their final checks after cessation of operations. No reason was provided by Sky King President, Dan Carson although Carson continued to add staff after cessation of operations.

==Direct Air==

From March 2007 until May 2007, Sky King operated a single airplane for [[Direct Air]]. In early 2011, Sky King teamed up again with Direct Air and flew two airplanes for the company. Depending on the season, the flying switched from Palm Beach International Airport (during summer), Myrtle Beach (during winter), Punta Gorda (during fall) and Lakeland (year round). [[Direct Air]] abruptly ceased operations on March 13, 2012.

[[File:SkyKing Boeing 737-400; N916SK@MIA;17.10.2011 626en (6446908745).jpg|thumb|right|A Sky King 737-400 landing in Miami after a flight from Cuba]]
==Cuban charter service==

Sky King provides charter aircraft to numerous touring agencies with flights into [[Cuba]]. Currently, flights to Cuba originate from [[Miami]] and [[Tampa]]. The majority of the flights into Cuba are to Cienfuegos, Havana, Camaguey, Holguin, and Santiago de Cuba.

==Fly Guam Service==

In early spring 2011, Sky King agreed to provide ACMI service to a start-up company in Guam, known as [[Fly Guam]] flying a single Boeing [[737-400]]. Initially, the company operated flights out of Guam to Saipan, continuing on to Hong Kong. In the coming months, the company opened routes to Nagoya, Japan and Koror, Palau. In November 2011, Sky King’s parent company Aviation Capital Partners Group purchased a 51% stake. [[Fly Guam]] ceased operations at the end of 2011.

==Fleet==

Sky King’s current fleet as of January 2014:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Aircraft !! In Service !!Stationed
|-
| [[Boeing 737-400]] || <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> || <div style="text-align: center;">[[Miami International Airport|MIA]]
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Sky King}}
{{Portal|Aviation}}
* [http://www.flyskyking.net Sky King official website]
* [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?airlinesearch=SkyKing&distinct_entry=true Sky King aircraft]

{{Airlines of the United States}}
{{Aviation lists}}

[[Category:Airlines of the United States]]
[[Category:Airlines established in 1990]]
[[Category:Companies based in Sacramento, California]]
[[Category:Charter airlines]]

Katherine D. Ortega

2014-03-11T19:46:16Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 12.251.148.94 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

{{Infobox US Cabinet official
| name=Katherine Dávalos Ortega
| image=KatherineDOrtega.gif
| caption= Official Portrait
| order=38th
| title=[[Treasurer of the United States]]
| term_start=September 26, 1983
| term_end=July 1, 1989
| predecessor=[[Angela Marie Buchanan]]
| successor=[[Catalina Vásquez Villalpando]]
| president=[[Ronald Reagan]] [[George H. W. Bush]]
| order2=
| title2=
| term_start2=
| term_end2=
| president2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| order3=
| title3=
| term_start3=
| term_end3=
| president3=
| predecessor3=
| successor3=
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1934|07|16}}
| birth_place=[[Tularosa, New Mexico]], U.S.
| death_date=
| death_place=
| party=Republican
| spouse=Lloyd J. Derrickson
| profession=
| religion=[[Roman Catholic]]
| footnotes=
| signature=Katherine Davalos Ortega sig.jpg
}}
'''Katherine Dávalos Ortega''' (born July 16, 1934) was the 38th [[Treasurer of the United States]]. She served from September 26, 1983 to July 1, 1989 under Presidents [[Ronald Reagan]] and the [[George H. W. Bush]]. Ortega also has the distinction of being the first female bank president in the state of [[California]].

==Early life==
Ortega was born in [[Tularosa, New Mexico|Tularosa]], [[New Mexico]] to Donaciano Ortega and Catarina Dávalos. She was one of nine children. Her family had originally come to New Mexico when the area still comprised a territory. Ortega's paternal grandfather arrived from Texas in the 1880s while on her mother's side, her great-grandfather Luciano had been one of the original settlers of Tularosa in 1862.<ref name=Republican>Susan Rasky, "I Was Born a Republican," ''The New York Times'' (August 21, 1984): A20.</ref><ref name=SJM>St. Joseph Mission, [http://www.stjosephmission.org/newsletter/07may.pdf New Interior Entryway Finished!] ''The Burden Basket'' (May 2007): 2.</ref>

Ortega's father, a former Justice of the Peace in nearby [[Bent, New Mexico|Bent]],<ref>[http://www.mapquest.com/maps?city=Bent&state=NM Map of Bent], ''Mapquest.com''. Accessed on June 22, 2009.</ref> opened a blacksmith shop in Tularosa in 1928. By the 1940s, he owned a small restaurant with a dance hall attached in which the entire family worked. Ortega began to work in the restaurant at age 10, operating the cash register. Originally, Ortega grew up speaking only Spanish. She later learned English when she entered the local elementary school.<ref name=Republican/><ref name=Biography>[http://www.answers.com/topic/katherine-davalos-ortega "Katherine Davalos Ortega,"] ''Encyclopedia of World Biography'' (via Answers.com). Accessed on June 22, 2009.</ref>

As a teenager, Ortega worked as a teller at [[Otero County, New Mexico|Otero County]] State Bank in order to earn enough money for college. She attended [[Eastern New Mexico University]] and graduated with honors in 1957 with a Bachelor's Degree in Business and Economics. Initially wanting to become a teacher, Ortega was dismayed by repeated instances of discrimination and, instead, opened a small accounting firm in [[Alamogordo]] with one of her sisters, a [[certified public accountant]].<ref name=Biography/> The family had already relocated to that town when her father moved the growing restaurant business there in the 1940s and opened a furniture store.<ref name=Republican/><ref name=SJM/>

==Banking career==
In 1968, Ortega moved to [[Los Angeles]] where she became a CPA and joined the firm of Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Company as a tax supervisor. She also worked as a cashier at Pan American National Bank, a financial institution originally founded in 1963 by [[Romana Acosta Bañuelos]]. Ortega became vice president of the bank in 1971 the same year that Bañuelos was sworn-in as U.S. Treasurer. Finally, in 1975, Ortega became president of [[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]] State Bank, the first woman chief executive of a bank in the state.<ref name=Choice>Robert McFadden, "Choice for Treasurer: Katherine Davalos Ortega," ''The New York Times'' (September 13, 1983): A1.</ref><ref>Vicki Ruíz and Virginia Sánchez Korrol, [http://books.google.com/books?id=_62IjQ-XQScC&pg=PA374&lpg=PA374&dq=catalina+vasquez+villalpando&source=bl&ots=WM8IoxkyMV&sig=vENxcx9t7xO0ff6Nl98bozCwJ_U&hl=en&ei=Egc2SoDPLob2sgPy6vizDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4#PPA380,M1 "Latina U.S. Treasurers,"] ''Latinas in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume I'' (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2006), 374-375.</ref>

Ortega returned to New Mexico in 1977 in order to help run the family accounting firm. Under her stewardship, the company grew into the Otero Savings and Loan Association and, by 1983, had assests of $20 million. During this time, Ortega garnered numerous academic and business accolades for her efforts.<ref name=Choice/>

==Political appointments==
Ortega was involved in [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] politics from an early age. "I was born a Republican," she has been quoted on several occasions.<ref name=Choice/><ref name=Reagan>Francis X. Clines, "Reagan Names Hispanic Woman as Treasurer of the United States," ''The New York Times'' (September 13, 1983): B14.</ref><ref name=Swearing>[http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1983/100383b.htm "Remarks at the Swearing-in Ceremony for Katherine D. Ortega as Treasurer of the United States, October 3, 1983,"] ''Ronald Reagan Presidential Library,'' University of Texas web site (archived). Accessed on June 21, 2009.</ref> She often credited her father, a lifelong Republican, with her decision to join the Party.<ref name=Republican/>

Ortega worked for Republicans at local and state levels initially as a type of low-key liaison to women and [[Hispanic]] groups in New Mexico. After her return to her home state, she became involved in the 1978 re-election campaign of Sen. [[Pete Domenici]].<ref name=Choice/> In time, the senator became something of a political benefactor.

In April 1982, Ortega was named to a 10-person Presidential Advisory Committee on Small and Minority Business Ownership by President [[Ronald Reagan]]. In December, she was appointed one of five members and chair of the Copyright Royal Commission, a federal agency established in 1976 to set royalty fees for the cable television and music entertainment industries. In 1983, Sen. Domenici, by that time chairman of the [[Senate Budget Committee]], put forth Ortega's name for the post of U.S. Treasurer.<ref name=Choice/> She was officially nominated by President Reagan on September 12 of that year.

==U.S. Treasurer==
Ortega was sworn in on October 3, 1983 (however, she is listed by the Treasury Department as having begun her term on September 26).<ref name=list>United States Department of the Treasury, [http://www.treas.gov/education/history/treasurers/ "Treasurers of the U.S.,"] ''History the Treasury''. Accessed on June 28, 2009.</ref> She was the tenth woman and the second Hispanic to hold the office. At her swearing-in ceremony, three previous U.S. Treasurers attended: [[Francine Irving Neff]], Bañuelos, and her immediate predecssor, [[Bay Buchanan]].<ref name=Swearing/>

While Treasurer, Ortega oversaw a $220 million budget, raised $40 million toward the restoration of the [[Statue of Liberty]], and helped to design a new currency to aid in preventing counterfeiting. She also spearheaded the effort to have the [[West Point Mint|West Point Bullion Depository]] designated as an official [[United States Mint]].<ref>Adam R. Hazlett, [http://biography.jrank.org/pages/3970/Ortega-Katherine-D-1934-Former-Government-Official-Banker-Accountant.html "Katherine D. Ortega...,"] ''Hispanic Biographies, Vol. 4''. Accessed on June 22, 2009.</ref>

Although soft-spoken in personal conversation, Ortega became known for her rhetorical speaking skills in public. "Her low-key authenticity works magic with an audience," one [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] official is quoted as saying.<ref name=Republican/><ref name=Biography/> In 1984, she was chosen to be the [[keynote speaker]] at that year's [[1984 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]]- the first Hispanic woman to deliver the lead speech at a [[United States presidential nominating convention|national convention]].<ref>Abigail Trafford, et al., "She's come a long way- or has she? (women's equality)," ''U.S. News & World Report'', (August 6, 1984).</ref> This was done in part to counter the selection of prominent [[New York]] governor [[Mario Cuomo]] at the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[1984 Democratic National Convention|National Convention]].<ref name=Republican/>

As the highest-ranking Hispanic (until the appointment of [[Lauro Cavazos]] as [[Secretary of Education]] in 1988) and one of only a few high-profile women in the Administration combined with the largely ceremonial nature of the Treasurer's office, Ortega was one of the key personnel utilized by the White House in outreach to both the Hispanic community and women's organizations. In 1984 alone, she logged almost 60,000 miles in appearances before Republican and Hispanic groups.<ref name=Biography/>

In 1986, Ortega conducted a study that rejected the idea of changing the colors of $50 and $100 denomination bills in order to frustrate counterfeiters and drug lords with large amounts of such type of cash. This idea would later be partially incorporated into U.S. currency during subsequent administrations.<ref>Editorial staff, "A New Drug War Weapon," ''Albany Times Union'' (September 27, 1989).</ref>

After Reagan left office, Ortega was retained by the [[George H. W. Bush]] administration and reappointed to her post on January 20, 1989.<ref name=list/> She retired from the office in July and returned to her family firm in New Mexico.

==Post-Treasurer years==
While Ortega returned to the private sector and business activities, she still maintained a low profile in political circles. In 1990, she was appointed by President Bush to serve as an Alternate Representative to the [[United Nations General Assembly]] for the duration of his administration. She also worked in an advisory capacity for the [[National Park Service]] and the non-profit organization, Executive Women in Government.<ref name=Biography/>

Ortega served on the Boards of a number of large corporations: [[Ralston-Purina]], [[Rayonier]], [[Ultramar Diamond Shamrock]], and, since 1992, [[Kroger]]. She has also continued her efforts on behalf of women in business while working at Catalyst, a business and research advisory firm.<ref>[http://www.nndb.com/people/081/000126700/ "Katherine D. Ortega,"] ''NNDB'', Soylent Communications. Accessed on June 22, 2009.</ref> Ortega has received honorary degrees from [[Kean University]], [[Villanova University]], and her alma mater, Eastern New Mexico.<ref name=Biography/>

===Sicpa investigation===
Ortega's years as Treasurer came partially under scrutiny in 1992 when Sen. [[John Glenn]], then chairman of the Senate [[Governmental Affairs Committee]], investigated irregularities in the competitive bidding process used by the Treasury Department. Sen. Glenn's committee questioned the relationship between Robert J. Leuver, then director of the [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]], and Maurice Amon, president of [[Optically Variable Ink|Sicpa Industries of America]] – the sole provider of the ink used for U.S. currency since 1982. In particular, Sen. Glenn was concerned over gifts and other gratuities received by Leuver from Amon's company. One focus of the investigation was a business trip taken to the Far East by several government and business officials, including Ortega, Leuver, and Amon, in 1985. Ortega was not implicated in any wrongdoing and Leuver was also exonerated from any impropriety during the course of the investigation. The Department of Justice declined to investigate the matter due to insufficient evidence supporting the claims.

In 2002, Ortega's achievements from humble beginnings were recognized by the [[Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans]] when she received the organization's [[Horatio_Alger_Association_of_Distinguished_Americans#Horatio_Alger_Award|Horatio Alger Award]].<ref>[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-18881470.html "Outstanding Americans to Receive Horatio Alger Award;..."] ''U.S. Newswire'' (November 28, 2001). Via Highbeam Research, June 24, 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-79374998.html "George Graziadio, Jr. Receives Horatio Alger Award,"] ''The Italian Voice'' (May 5, 2002). Via Highbeam Research, June 23, 2009.</ref>

==Family life==
Ortega has cited her family upbringing as her chief inspiration in life:

:''I am the product of a heritage that teaches strong family devotion, a commitment''
:''to earning a livelihood by hard work, patience, determination and preseverance.''<ref name=Reagan/>

She has often singled out her father in particular, saying that "[he] taught me we were as good as anybody else, that we could accomplish anything we wanted..."<ref name=Republican/>

Ortega was married briefly when she returned to New Mexico in the late 1970s. In interviews, she has declined to elaborate on that part of her life, insisting only that she be referred to as "Mrs. Ortega."<ref name=Republican/> In 1989, she married Lloyd J. Derrickson, a former general counsel with [[Merrill Lynch]] and currently a board member with World Cell, a wireless communications consulting firm.<ref>[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1182350.html Chuck Conconi, "Personalities,"] ''The Washington Post'' (March 29, 1989), Washington Post Newsweek Interactive Co. 1989 (Via HighBeam Research). Accessed on 23 Jun. 2009.</ref><ref>[http://worldcell.com/web/page/1052/sectionid/1015/pagelevel/3/company.asp "Company- Board Members: Lloyd J. Derrickson,"] ''World Cell''. Accessed on June 28, 2009.</ref> She has no children.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|33em}}

 
{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box
|before=[[Angela Marie Buchanan]]
|after=[[Catalina Vásquez Villalpando]]
|title=[[Treasurer of the United States]]
|years=1983-1989
}}
{{s-end}}

{{USTreasurers}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Ortega, Katherine D.
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =July 16, 1934
| PLACE OF BIRTH =Tularosa, New Mexico
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ortega, Katherine D.}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Eastern New Mexico University alumni]]
[[Category:American politicians of Mexican descent]]
[[Category:Reagan Administration personnel]]
[[Category:Treasurers of the United States]]
[[Category:New Mexico Republicans]]
[[Category:People from Otero County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Hispanic and Latino American women in politics]]

J. J. Watt

2014-02-27T13:43:11Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 209.114.143.5 (talk) to last revision by Petrb (HG)

{{Infobox NFL player
|name=Justin James Watt
|image=JJ Watt.JPG
|image_size=200
|alt=
|caption=Watt in 2012.
|currentteam=Houston Texans
|position=[[Defensive end]]
|number=99
|birth_date={{Birth date and age|1989|3|22|mf=y}}
|birth_place=[[Waukesha, Wisconsin]]
|death_date=
|death_place=
|heightft=6
|heightin=5
|weight=289
|highschool=[[Pewaukee High School|Pewaukee (WI)]]
|college=[[Wisconsin Badgers football|Wisconsin]]
|draftyear=2011
|draftround=1
|draftpick=11
|debutyear=2011
|debutteam=Houston Texans
|pastteams=
* [[Houston Texans]] ({{NFL Year|2011}}–present)
|status=Active
|highlights=
* 2× [[Pro Bowl]] ([[2013 Pro Bowl|2012]], [[2014 Pro Bowl|2013]])
* 2× ''[[Associated Press|AP]]'' First-Team [[All-Pro]] ([[2012 All-Pro Team|2012]], [[2013 All-Pro Team|2013]])
* [[2014 Pro Bowl|Pro Bowl Captain]] ([[2014 Pro Bowl|2013]])
* PFF Defensive Player of the Year (2013)
* [[Pro Football Focus]] Second-Team [[All-Pro]] ([[2011 All-Pro Team|2011]])
* ''[[Associated Press|AP]]'' [[NFL Defensive Player of the Year]] (2012)
* [[Kansas City Committee of 101 awards#Defensive Player of the Year Awards|Kansas City Committee of 101 AFC Defensive Player of the Year]] (2012)
* [[List of National Football League season sacks leaders|NFL Sacks Leader]] ([[2012 NFL season|2012]])
* [[Pro Football Writers Association|PFWA Defensive Player of the Year]] (2012)
* AFC Defensive Player of the Month (September 2012, December 2012<ref>{{cite web|last=Gantt|first=Darin|title=J.J. Watt is the AFC defensive player of the month|url=http://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2013/01/03/j-j-watt-is-the-afc-defensive-player-of-the-month/|publisher=NBC Sports|accessdate=6 January 2013}}</ref>
* [[Big Ten]] Defensive Player of the Week (12-5-09 at Hawaii, 10-23-10 at Iowa and 11-27-10 vs. Northwestern)
* Wisconsin Team Co-MVP ([[2010 Wisconsin Badgers football team|2010]])
* [[Lott Trophy]] (2010)
* Second-team [[All-American]] ([[2010 College Football All-America Team|2010]])
* Honorable mention All-Big Ten
* Academic All-Big Ten
|nfl=WAT579210
|statweek=17
|statseason=2013
|statlabel1=[[Tackle (football move)|Tackles]]
|statvalue1=217
|statlabel2=[[Quarterback sack]]s
|statvalue2=36.5
|statlabel3=[[Pass deflected|Passes defensed]]
|statvalue3=27
|statlabel4=[[Fumble|Forced fumbles]]
|statvalue4=8
}}

[[File:JJ Watt-Sideline.jpg|thumb|right|J.J. Watt on the sideline for the Wisconsin Badgers]]
'''Justin James Watt'''<ref>{{cite web|last=Lucas |first=Mike |url=http://www.uwbadgers.com/blog/2011/07/lucas-at-large-catching-up-with-jj-watt.html |title=Lucas at Large: Catching up with J.J. Watt |publisher=UWBadgers.com |date=2011-07-19 |accessdate=2012-10-09}}</ref> (born March 22, 1989) is an [[American football]] [[defensive end]] for the [[Houston Texans]] of the [[National Football League]] (NFL). He played [[college football]] for the [[Wisconsin Badgers football|University of Wisconsin]]. He was drafted 11th overall by the Houston Texans in the [[2011 NFL Draft]].

==High school career==
A native of [[Pewaukee, Wisconsin]], Watt attended [[Pewaukee High School]], where he was a four-year letterman and two-year starter in football, but also lettered twice each in basketball and baseball and once in track and field. Playing both tight end and defensive end, Watt caught 26 passes for 400 yards and six touchdowns as a senior in 2006, while on defense registering 10 sacks, a school-record 22.5 tackles for loss, 70 total tackles, five forced fumbles, and four fumble recoveries. He was named the Woodland Conference Player of the Year, and voted to the All-Woodland Conference first team as both a tight end and defensive end. Watt was also honored as ''[[Milwaukee Journal Sentinel]]'' Athlete of the Year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jsonline.com/sports/preps/29374359.html |title=More than one field of dreams: Pewaukee senior a multi-sport standout |newspaper=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel |date=June 17, 2007 }}</ref>

Regarded as a two-star recruit by ''[[Rivals.com]]'', Watt was neither ranked among the top tight end nor defensive end prospects in his class. He was, however, the No. 7 rated prospect out of the state of Wisconsin.<ref>[http://sports.yahoo.com/ncaa/football/recruiting/rankings/rank-1553 Rivals.com Wisconsin top 10 2007]</ref> After official visits to [[Central Michigan Chippewas football|Central Michigan]], [[Colorado Buffaloes football|Colorado]], and [[Minnesota Gophers football|Minnesota]], Watt chose to play for the Chippewas.<ref>[http://sports.yahoo.com/ncaa/football/recruiting/player-JJ-Watt-54719 Rivals.com Recruiting profile]</ref>

==College career==
===Central Michigan===
Watt attended [[Central Michigan University]] for one year in 2007. While there, he played tight end and caught eight passes for 77 yards. Frustrated by his lack of direction at Central Michigan, he transferred to Wisconsin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chron.com/sports/texans/article/Solomon-Texans-first-round-pick-Watt-driven-to-1685537.php |title=Solomon: Texans' first-round pick Watt driven to succeed - Houston Chronicle |publisher=Chron.com |date=2011-04-30 |accessdate=2012-10-09}}</ref>

===Wisconsin===
After being redshirted in 2008, Watt started all 13 games at defensive end in 2009. He finished the season with 44 tackles and four sacks.

In the 2010 season, Watt finished the regular season with 59 tackles, seven [[Quarterback sack|sacks]], two fumble recoveries, and an [[interception]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/ncf/player/stats?playerId=238947 |title=ESPN.com profile |publisher=Sports.espn.go.com |date= |accessdate=2012-10-09}}</ref> Watt was the 2010 recipient of the [[Lott Trophy]] and was a finalist for the [[Ted Hendricks Award]].

===College statistics===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Year !! Team !! Tackles !! TFL–yards !! Sacks–yards !! FR
|-
| '''[[2009 Wisconsin Badgers football team|2009]]''' || [[University of Wisconsin Madison|Wisconsin]] || 44 || 15.5–53 || 4.5–19 || 2
|-
| '''[[2010 Wisconsin Badgers football team|2010]]''' || [[University of Wisconsin Madison|Wisconsin]] || 59 || 21.0–91 || 7.0–56 || 2
|- style="background:#555; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| colspan=2 | College totals || 103 || 36.5–144|| 11.5–75 || 4
|}

==Professional career==
On January 6, 2011, Watt announced that he would forgo his senior year of college to enter the [[2011 NFL Draft]].

===2011 NFL Draft===
{{nfl predraft
| height ft = 6
| height in = 5
| weight = 290
| dash = 4.81
| ten split = 1.64
| twenty split = 2.71
| shuttle = 4.21
| cone drill = 6.88
| vertical = 37
| broad ft = 10
| broad in = 0
| bench = 34
| wonderlic = 31
| arm span = 34
| hand span = 11⅛
| note = All values from NFL Combine,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfl.com/combine/profiles/J.J.-Watt?id=2495488#tabs:tab-overview |title=NFL Events: Combine Player Profiles - J.J. Watt |publisher=Nfl.com |date= |accessdate=2012-10-09}}</ref><ref>http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&safe=active&biw=1260&bih=839&q=jj+watt+nfldraft++scout&aq=f&aqi=g-l3&aql=&oq=</ref> Wonderlic score from ProFootballWeekly<ref name=PFW-wonderlic>{{cite web|title=Combine workout leaders: Wonderlic test|url=http://www.profootballweekly.com/2011/04/14/combine-workout-leaders-wonderlic-test-2|publisher=Pro Football Weekly|accessdate=18 October 2012}}</ref>
}}

===Houston Texans===
On April 28, 2011, Watt was drafted 11th overall to the [[Houston Texans]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uwbadgers.com/sports/m-footbl/spec-rel/010611aaa.html |title=Watt to enter NFL draft - UWBadgers.com - The Official Web Site of The Wisconsin Badgers Athletics |publisher=UWBadgers.com |date= |accessdate=2012-10-09}}</ref> On July 31, 2011, Watt was signed to a four-year contract with the Texans worth $11,237,000, which includes a signing bonus of $6,672,000.<ref>[http://www.myfoxhouston.com/dpp/sports/nfl/110731-texans-reach-contract-agreement-with-j.j.-watt ]{{dead link|date=October 2012}}</ref>

===Rookie Season===
In his first regular season game with the Texans, Watt recorded five tackles (all solo) and recovered a fumble.

Watt finished the regular season with 56 tackles (48 of them solo stops), 5½ sacks, 2 fumble recoveries, 4 passes defensed, and a blocked field goal.

In the Texans' first ever playoff game on January 7, 2012 against the [[Cincinnati Bengals]], Watt intercepted quarterback [[Andy Dalton]] and returned it for his first career NFL touchdown to give Houston a 17-10 lead. The Texans won 31-10. Interestingly, Dalton had been the quarterback for the Texas Christian University Horned Frogs when they had beaten Watt's Badgers in the [[2011 Rose Bowl]] the year before.

In the Divisional Round against the [[Baltimore Ravens]] on January 15, 2012, Watt sacked quarterback [[Joe Flacco]] 2½ times, equal to fellow rookie [[Brooks Reed]]. However, the Texans lost 20-13, ending the franchise's first playoff run.

===2012 Season===
Watt's sophomore season in the NFL turned out to be one of the greatest seasons by a defensive player in NFL history. During the week 12 Thanksgiving game against the [[Detroit Lions]], Watt broke the Texans franchise record set by former teammate [[Mario Williams]] for most sacks in a single season. Watt finished the regular season with 81 tackles (69 solo), 20.5 sacks, 39 tackles for loss, 4 forced fumbles, 2 fumble recoveries, and an astonishing 16 passes defended - a statistic usually reserved for defensive backs.<ref>[http://espn.go.com/nfl/player/stats/_/id/13979/jj-watt J.J. Watt Stats]</ref> Making his All-Pro debut, he was a unanimous choice for The Associated Press All-Pro team.<ref>[http://espn.go.com/nfl/story/_/id/8837648/adrian-peterson-minnesota-vikings-jj-watt-houston-texans-unanimous-all-pros announced]</ref> Because of his knack for batting balls down at the line of scrimmage, he was nicknamed "J.J. Swatt" by [[Monday Night Football]] commentator and former NFL head coach [[Jon Gruden]].<ref>[http://www.jsonline.com/blogs/sports/173588881.html Packers must account for the Watt swat]</ref>

Watt became the first player in NFL history to record 16.5 sacks and tip 15 passes in a single season after a Week 13 victory against the [[Tennessee Titans]]. He was a starting defensive end for the AFC Division in the [[2013 Pro Bowl]]. J.J. Watt and the Texans were in the top of the AFC for the first sixteen weeks, but with a loss to the Colts in week 17, with Broncos and Patriots wins, they slid down to the third seed and faced the Cincinnati Bengals in the wildcard round for the second consecutive postseason. In the game, J.J Watt had 5 tackles and a sack. He helped the Houston defense hold Bengals to 6 (offensive) points to give Texans a 19-13 victory. The Texans played at the Patriots (#2 seed) in the divisional round. J.J. Watt and the defense were not as dominant in this match and allowed 41 points. Watt only had 4 tackles and a half sack in the game, and the Texans were eliminated with a final score of 41-28. On January 15, 2013, Watt was selected as the AFC Defensive Player of the Year.<ref>{{cite web | title= J.J. Watt Named NFL 101 AFC Defensive Player of the Year | work= houston.cbslocal.com | url=http://houston.cbslocal.com/2013/01/15/j-j-watt-named-nfl-101-afc-defensive-player-of-the-year/ |accessdate= January 15, 2013}}</ref> On February 3, 2013, Watt was awarded the AP [[NFL Defensive Player of the Year]], receiving 49 of the 50 total votes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap1000000134299/article/jj-watt-near-unanimous-defensive-player-of-the-year|title=J.J. Watt near unanimous Defensive Player of the Year|author=Gregg Rosenthal|publisher=NFL.com|date=2013-02-02|accessdate=2013-02-03}}</ref> He also made his debut on NFL's Top 100 list at No. 5, the highest ever debutant, and the highest-ranked defensive player.<ref>[http://www.nfl.com/top100/2013#video=0ap2000000215180 Top 100 players of 2013 - J.J. Watt]</ref>

=

===Postseason Stats===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Team !! GP !! COMB !! TOTAL !! AST !! SACK !! FF !! FR !! Fum YDs !! INT !! Int YDs !! AVG !! LNG !! TD !! PD !! STF !! STFYDS !! KB
|-
| 2011 || [[Houston Texans|HOU]] || 2 || 14 || 11 || 3 || 3.5 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 29 || 29 || 29 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 0
|-
| 2012 || [[Houston Texans|HOU]] || 2 || 9 || 6 || 3 || 1.5 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 2 || 2 || 0
|}<ref name= stats>{{cite web|title=J.J. Watt Stats|url=http://espn.go.com/nfl/player/stats/_/id/13979/jj-watt|publisher=ESPN Internet Ventures|accessdate=2 January 2014}}</ref>

==Charitable work==
[[File:JJ Watt-Davin Joseph-Warrior Recovery Center-March 2013.jpg|thumb|right|Watt (far right) with [[Davin Joseph]] (second from left) and two wounded U.S. troops at [[Regional Command South]], Afghanistan in March 2013]]
Watt founded and serves on the board of directors of the Justin J. Watt Foundation which provides support to after-school athletic programs in Wisconsin and Texas.<ref>[http://www.uwbadgers.com/sports/m-footbl/spec-rel/121310aab.html Watt wins Lott IMPACT Trophy - UWBadgers.com - The Official Web Site of The Wisconsin Badgers Athletics]</ref><ref>[http://jjwfoundation.org/The-Foundation.html Welcome to Justin J. Watt!]</ref>

In April 2013, Watt held the J.J. Watt Charity Classic in Sugar Land, Texas.<ref>{{cite web|title=J.J. WATT CHARITY CLASSIC|url=http://jjwfoundation.org/newsevents/charity-classic/|publisher=Justin J. Watt Foundation|accessdate=30 April 2013}}</ref> The event included a charity softball game and raised more than $300,000 to help fund after-school athletic programs for children.<ref>{{cite web|last=Busbee|first=Jay|title=J.J. Watt raises $300 for charity, charges mound in softball game|url=http://sports.yahoo.com/blogs/nfl-shutdown-corner/j-j-watt-raises-300-000-charity-charges-131708526.html|work=Shutdown Corner|publisher=Yahoo! Sports|accessdate=30 April 2013}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Footballstats |nfl=2495488 |espn=13979 |pfr=W/WattJ.00}}
*[http://www.uwbadgers.com/sports/m-footbl/mtt/watt_jj00.html Wisconsin Badgers bio]
*[http://www.houstontexans.com/team/roster/J.J.-Watt/b44e970b-c671-4671-a527-8ecc06f5b7b9 Houston Texans profile]

{{Lott Trophy}}
{{2011 NFL Draft}}
{{TexansFirstPick}}
{{Texans2011DraftPicks}}
{{AP Defensive Players of the Year}}
{{NFL sack leaders}}
{{2012 All-Pro Team}}
{{2013 All-Pro Team}}
{{Houston Texans roster navbox}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Watt, Jj
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American football player
| DATE OF BIRTH = March 22, 1989
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Waukesha, Wisconsin, USA
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Watt, Jj}}
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American football defensive ends]]
[[Category:Central Michigan Chippewas football players]]
[[Category:Houston Texans players]]
[[Category:People from Waukesha, Wisconsin]] 
[[Category:People from Waukesha County, Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Players of American football from Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Wisconsin Badgers football players]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from the Milwaukee metropolitan area]]

Lili Simmons

2014-02-11T21:43:44Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by KoolJohnny15 (talk) to last revision by Tiller54 (HG)

{{Infobox person
| name = Lili Simmons
| image =
| caption =
| alt =
| birth_name = Lili Simmons
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1993|20|07}}
| birth_place = [[La Jolla]], [[San Diego]], [[California]], United States
| occupation = Model, Actress
| years_active = 2010–present
| spouse =
}}

'''Lili Simmons''' (born July 23, 1993) is an American model and actress best known for her role as Rebecca Bowman on the [[Cinemax]] series ''[[Banshee (TV series)|Banshee]]'' (2013–present).

==Career==
Simmons began her career as a [[Ford Models|Ford Model]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Portrait | title=New Faces at Ford by Jason Lee Parry|url=http://www.fashiongonerogue.com/portrait-faces-ford-jason-lee-parry/|work=Fashion Gone Rogue|date=May 31, 2010|accessdate=January 25, 2014}}</ref> also modelling for [[Bebe Stores]] and [[Roxy (clothing)|Roxy]] and appearing in commercials and print ads for companies like [[J. C. Penney]] and Saturn.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lili Simmons |url=http://web.poptower.com/lili-simmons.htm|work=Pop Tower|accessdate=January 25, 2014}}</ref> She moved into acting in 2010 on the webseries ''Hollywood Is Like High School with Money'', based on the book of the same name. She played Quinn Whitaker, the best friend of main character Taylor Henning, played by [[Kelsey Sanders]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Hollywood Is Like High School with Money|url=http://alloyentertainment.com/shows/hollywood-is-like-high-school-with-money-series/|work=Alloy Entertainment|accessdate=January 25, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hollywood Is Like High School with Money|url=http://www.tv.com/web/hollywood-is-like-high-school-with-money/|work=tv.com|accessdate=January 25, 2014}}</ref> She also appeared in an episode of the [[Disney XD]] sitcom ''[[Zeke and Luther]]'' and then in the 2011 [[List of Disney Channel Original Movies|Disney Channel Original Movie]] ''[[Geek Charming]]''. Also in that year she had a small role in an episode of the [[Matthew Perry]] sitcom ''[[Mr. Sunshine (2011 TV series)|Mr. Sunshine]]''.

In 2012, she starred in the film ''[[Fat Kid Rules the World#Film Adaptation|Fat Kid Rules the World]]'' and an episode of ''[[Jane by Design]]''. In 2013, she appeared in an episode of ''[[Vegas (TV series)|Vegas]]'' and began playing Rebecca Bowman, a rebellious Amish girl on the [[Cinemax]] series ''[[Banshee (TV series)|Banshee]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Exclusive: Disney Channel Starlet Takes Racy Turn in Cinemax Drama Series Banshee|url=http://tvline.com/2012/04/10/lili-simmons-banshee-cinemax/|work=tvline.com|date=April 10, 2012 |accessdate=January 25, 2014}}</ref> She originally auditioned for the role of Deva Hopewell but "They said, 'She's too old or too sexy' or whatever". While in [[Philadelphia]] for her grandmother's funeral, the producers asked her to go back to New York to read for Rebecca, and she was cast.<ref>{{cite web|title=HIGHER POWER|url=http://aritzia.com/Profile%3A-Lili-Simmons/ea3-lili-simmons,default,pg.html|work=tvline.com|accessdate=January 25, 2014}}</ref> In March of that year, she appeared in a pictorial in [[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]] magazine.<ref name="Maxim">{{cite web|title=Lili Simmons Talks "Banshee" and Being Nude In Front of America|url=http://www.maxim.com/tv/lili-simmons-talks-banshee-and-being-nude-of-america|work=Maxim|date=July 22, 2013 |accessdate=January 25, 2014}}</ref>

In 2014, she has appeared in ''[[Hawaii Five-0]]'', has a recurring role in the [[HBO]] series ''[[True Detective (TV series)|True Detective]]''<ref name="True Detectives 3">{{cite web|last=Levine|first=Stuart|title=Simmons added to HBO's 'True Detective' cast|url=http://variety.com/2013/tv/news/simmons-added-to-hbo-s-true-detective-cast-1118065450/|work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=January 30, 2013 |accessdate=January 25, 2014}}</ref> and continues to star in the second season of ''Banshee''. She has a role in the upcoming film ''The Guilty Innocent'', alongside [[AJ Michalka]] and [[Scout Taylor-Compton]].

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Films
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Geek Charming]]''
| Lola
| TV film
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Fat Kid Rules the World#Film Adaptation|Fat Kid Rules the World]]''
| Isabel
|
|-
| 2012
| ''The Guilty Innocent''
| Michelle
| ''In post-production''
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Television
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2010
| ''Hollywood Is Like High School with Money''
| Quinn Whitaker
| Main role
|-
| ''[[Zeke and Luther]]''
| Mia
| Episode: "[[List of Zeke and Luther episodes#ep43|Sludge]]
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Mr. Sunshine (2011 TV series)|Mr. Sunshine]]''
| Hot Teenage Girl
| Episode: "[[List of Mr. Sunshine episodes#ep2|Employee of the Year]]
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Jane by Design]]''
| Piper Grace
| Episode: "[[Jane by Design#ep7|The Teen Model]]
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2013
| ''[[Vegas (TV series)|Vegas]]''
| Fay Binder
| Episode: "[[Vegas (TV series)#ep13|Road Trip]]
|-
| ''Banshee Origins: The Women''
| Rebecca Bowman
| Webseries
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2014
| ''[[Hawaii Five-0]]''
| Amber Vitale
| Episode: "[[Hawaii Five-0 (season 4)#ep83|'O kela me keia manawa (Now and Then)]]
|-
| ''[[True Detective (TV series)|True Detective]]''
| Beth
| Recurring role
|-
| 2013–present
| ''[[Banshee (TV series)|Banshee]]''
| Rebecca Bowman
| Main role
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|3827455}}
*[https://twitter.com/Liliflower33 Twitter]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Simmons, Lili}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American film actresses]]
[[Category:American television actresses]]
[[Category:People from La Jolla, San Diego]]
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:Actresses from California]]
[[Category:21st-century American actresses]]

Magnitsky Act

2014-01-28T22:21:27Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 206.51.184.229 (talk) to last revision by 108.211.35.24 (HG)

{{Infobox U.S. legislation
| name = Russia and Moldova Jackson-Vanik Repeal and Sergei Magnitsky Rule of Law Accountability Act of 2012
| fullname = An Act To authorize the extension of nondiscriminatory treatment (normal trade relations treatment) to products of the Russian Federation and Moldova and to require reports on the compliance of the Russian Federation with its obligations as a member of the World Trade Organization, and for other purposes.
| acronym =
| nickname = Magnitsky Act
| enacted by = 112th
| effective date =
| public law url =
| cite public law = {{USPL|112|208}}
| cite statutes at large = {{USStat|126|1496}}
| acts amended =
| acts repealed =
| title amended = 
| sections created = 
| sections amended =
| leghisturl =
| introducedin = House
| introducedbill = "Russia and Moldova Jackson-Vanik Repeal Act of 2012" ({{USBill|112|HR|6156}})
| introducedby = [[Dave Camp]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]-[[Michigan|MI]])
| introduceddate = July 19, 2012
| committees = [[United States House Committee on Ways and Means|House Ways and Means]]
| passedbody1 = House
| passeddate1 = November 16, 2012
| passedvote1 = [http://clerk.house.gov/evs/2012/roll608.xml 365–43]
| passedbody2 = Senate
| passedas2 = 
| passeddate2 = December 6, 2012
| passedvote2 = [http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=112&session=2&vote=00223 92–4]
| signedpresident = [[Barack Obama]]
| signeddate = December 14, 2012
| amendments =
| SCOTUS cases =
}}

The '''Magnitsky Act''', formally known as the '''Russia and Moldova Jackson-Vanik Repeal and Sergei Magnitsky Rule of Law Accountability Act of 2012''', is a bipartisan bill which was passed by the [[U.S. Congress]] in November–December 2012.<ref name=WP2012/> The bill was signed into law by President [[Barack Obama]] on December 14, 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ifTJR_NiuSC0kkGDgBkKJjDDYSqQ?docId=CNG.1a7e217111e4906ef1b6b3e54e79e1b0.141 |title=Obama signs Russia rights law despite Putin fury |publisher=AFP |date= |accessdate=2012-12-14}}</ref>

==History==

In 2009, lawyer and auditor [[Sergei Magnitsky]] died in a Moscow prison after investigating fraud involving Russian tax officials.<ref name=Bbc2012-12-07>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20626960
| title = Q&A: The Magnitsky affair
| publisher = BBC News
| author =
| date = 2012-12-07
| page =
| accessdate = 2013-01-24

| archivedate = 2013-01-23
| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-20626960&date=2013-01-23
| deadurl = no
| quote =
}}
</ref><ref name=PerthNow2012-12-27>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/world/russia-puts-dead-lawyer-magnitsky-on-trial/story-fnd14032-1226544326077
| title = Russia puts dead lawyer Sergei Magnitsky on trial
| publisher = [[Perth Now]]
| author =
| date = 2012-12-27
| page =
| accessdate = 2013-01-23
| archivedate = 2013-01-23
| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perthnow.com.au%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Frussia-puts-dead-lawyer-magnitsky-on-trial%2Fstory-fnd14032-1226544326077&date=2013-01-23
| deadurl = no
| quote =
}}
</ref>

==Law==
In June 2012, the House [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|Foreign Affairs Committee]] passed the bill as the Sergei Magnitsky Rule of Law Accountability Act of 2012 (H.R. 4405).<ref>[http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/press_display.asp?id=2401 "Russia Human Rights Legislation Passes Foreign Affairs Committee"], committee press release, June 07, 2012.</ref> The main intention of the law was to punish Russian officials who were thought to be responsible for the death of Sergei Magnitsky by prohibiting their entrance to the United States and use of their banking system.<ref name=WP2012/> The legislation was to be taken up by a [[United States Senate|Senate]] panel the next week and was cited in a broader review of the mounting tensions in the international relationship.<ref>[[Peter Baker (author)|Baker, Peter]], [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/14/world/europe/putins-return-brings-rapid-chill-to-us-russia-ties.html?hp "Syria Crisis and Putin’s Return Chill U.S. Ties With Russia"], ''The New York Times'', June 13, 2012. Retrieved 2012-06-13.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Belton |first=Catherine |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e2bcc8b6-bfac-11e1-8bf2-00144feabdc0.html#axzz22XRZQJ9p |title=‘Magnitsky law’ makes progress in Senate |publisher=Ft.com |date=2012-06-26 |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref> The bill was sponsored by Senator [[Ben Cardin]].

In November 2012, provisions of the Magnitsky bill were attached to a House bill (H.R. 6156) normalizing trade with Russia (i.e. repealing [[Jackson–Vanik amendment]]) and [[Moldova]].<ref name=NYT111612>{{cite news|title=House Passes Russia Trade Bill With Eye on Rights Abuses|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/17/world/americas/house-votes-to-increase-trade-with-russia.html|accessdate=November 17, 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 16, 2012|author=Jeremy W. Peters}}</ref> On 6 December 2012 U.S. Senate passed the House version of the law.<ref name=WP2012>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/us-passes-magnitsky-bill-aimed-at-russia/2012/12/06/262a5bba-3fd5-11e2-bca3-aadc9b7e29c5_story.html|title=Russia fumes as U.S. Senate passes Magnitsky law aimed at human rights|date=6 December 2012|accessdate=11 December 2012|work=The Washington Post|authors= Kathy Lally and Will Englund}}</ref> The law was signed by President [[Barack Obama]] on December 14, 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/12/14/statement-press-secretary-hr-6156 |title=Statement by the Press Secretary on H.R. 6156 |publisher=Whitehouse.gov |date=2012-12-14 |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2012_12_15/Russia-US-Normalization-fraught-with-conflict/|title=Russia-US: Normalization fraught with conflictill|work=The Moscow Times|publisher=The Voice of Russia|author=Andrey Fedyashin|date=15 December 2012|accessdate=26 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Obama signs Magnitsky Act linked with Jackson-Vanik Amendment termination|url=http://www.interfax.com/newsinf.asp?id=383015|publisher=Interfax|date=14 December 2012|accessdate=26 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Obama Signs Magnitsky Bill|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/obama-signs-magnitsky-bill/473144.html|work=Reuters|publisher=The Moscow Times|accessdate=26 December 2012|date=17 December 2012}}</ref>

==Individuals affected==
The Obama administration made public a list of 18 individuals affected by the Act in April 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Magnitsky Sanctions Listings|url=http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20130412.aspx|publisher=US Department of the Treasury|date=April 12, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Factbox: Who's who on the U.S. Magnitsky list|url=http://news.yahoo.com/factbox-whos-u-magnitsky-list-220046497.html|newspaper=Yahoo News|date=April 12, 2013|agency=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Magnitsky List release: severe blow on Moscow-US ties|date=12 April 2013|work=[[Voice of Russia]]|url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2013_04_12/Magnitsky-List-release-severe-blow-on-Moscow-US-ties/}}</ref> The people included on the list are:
{{div col|2}}
*Artyom Kuznetsov, a tax investigator for the Moscow division of the [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)|Ministry of Internal Affairs]]
*Pavel Karpov, a senior investigator for the Moscow division of the Ministry of Internal Affairs
*Oleg F. Silchenko, a senior investigator for the Ministry of Internal Affairs
*Olga Stepanova, head of Moscow Tax Office No. 28
*Yelena Stashina, [[Tverskoy District|Tverskoy]] [[Judiciary of Russia#District courts|District Court]] judge who prolonged Magnitsky's detention
*Andrey Pechegin, deputy head of the investigation supervision division of the general prosecutor's office
*Aleksey Droganov
*Yelena Khimina
*Dmitriy Komnov
*Aleksey Krivoruchko, Tverskoy District Court judge
*Oleg Logunov
*Sergei G. Podoprigorov, Tverskoy District Court judge
*Ivan Pavlovitch Prokopenko
*Dmitri M. Tolchinskiy
*Svetlana Ukhnalyova
*Natalya V. Vinogradova
*Kazbek Dukuzov, Chechen acquitted of the murder of [[Paul Klebnikov]]
*Lecha Bogatyrov, implicated by Austrian authorities as the murderer of [[Umar Israilov]]
{{div col end}}

==Russian government reaction==
In response to adoption of Magnitsky Act, Russian government [[Dima Yakovlev Law|denied Americans adoption of Russian children]], issued a list of US officials prohibited from entering Russia, and posthumously convicted Magnitsky as guilty.<ref>{{cite web|title=DEAD RUSSIAN LAWYER MAGNITSKY FOUND GUILTY|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/dead-russian-lawyer-magnitsky-found-guilty|publisher=AP|accessdate=11 July 2013}}</ref> In addition, Russian government reportedly lobbied against the legislature acting through a public relations company led by [[Kenneth Duberstein]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Adam Kredo |url=http://freebeacon.com/bank-of-putin/ |title=BANK OF PUTIN. Goldman Sachs lobbying against human rights legislation |publisher=Freebeacon.com |date=2012-07-19 |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref><ref>[http://grani.ru/opinion/abarinov/m.199413.html Unlawful Arrest] by Vladimir Abarinov</ref>

On December 19, 2012, the [[State Duma]] voted 400 to 4 to ban the [[international adoption]] of Russian children into the United States. The bill was unofficially named after Dmitri Yakovlev (Chase Harrison), a Russian toddler who died in 2008 of [[heat stroke]] after neglect from his adoptive American father.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/20/world/europe/russia-votes-to-ban-all-adoptions-by-americans.html|title=Russia Vote Favors Ban on Adoptions by Americans|first=David M.|last=Herszenhorn|date=2012-12-19|accessdate=2012-12-20|publisher=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>Tom Jackman, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-state-of-nova/post/toddlers-tragic-death-in-herndon-in-overheated-car-continues-as-political-issue-in-russia-four-years-later/2012/12/12/c6a6c9c6-43e4-11e2-9648-a2c323a991d6_blog.html Toddler’s tragic death in Herndon, in overheated car, continues as political issue in Russia four years later.] ''Washington Post'', 12/12/2012</ref> Other recent developments include the introduction of a law to prevent US citizens from working with political [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] in Russia, and a law, recently abandoned, preventing any foreigner from speaking on state television if they discredited the state.<ref>{{cite web|author=J.Y. |url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/easternapproaches/2013/01/russian-politics?fsrc=scn/tw/te/bl/thekremlinsnewantiamericanism |title=Russian politics: The Kremlin's new Anti-Americanism |publisher=The Economist |date=2013-01-30 |accessdate=2013-04-14}}</ref>

On April 13, 2013, Russia released a list naming 18 Americans banned from entering the Russian Federation over their alleged human rights violations, as a direct response to the Magnitsky list.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|author=RT News |url=http://rt.com/news/anti-magnitsky-list-russia-799/ |title=Russia strikes back with Magnitsky list response|publisher=''RT News'' |date=2013-04-13 |accessdate=2013-04-13}}</ref> The people banned from Russia are listed below:

US officials involved in legalizing [[enhanced interrogation techniques|torture]] and indefinite detention of prisoners (The Guantanamo List):
*[[David Addington]], Chief of Staff to Vice President [[Dick Cheney]] (2005–2009)
*[[John Yoo]], Assistant US Attorney General in the Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice (2001–2003)
*[[Geoffrey D. Miller]], retired US Army Major General, commandant of [[Joint Task Force Guantanamo]] (JTF-GTMO), the organization that runs the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]]s (2002–2003)
*Jeffrey Harbeson, US Navy officer, commandant of JTF-GTMO (2010–2012)

The Russian lawmakers also banned several U.S. officials involved in the prosecution and trial of Russian arms smuggler [[Viktor Bout]] and drug smuggler Konstantin Yaroshenko, both serving prison time in the United States:<ref>{{cite web|author=Englund, Will |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/russia-bans-american-officials-in-retaliatory-move/2013/04/13/9de797ae-a429-11e2-9c03-6952ff305f35_story.html |title=Russia retaliates against U.S., bans American officials |publisher=The Washington Post |date=April 13, 2013 |accessdate=2013-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Loiko |first=Sergei L. |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-18-americans-barred-from-russia-in-titfortat-sanctions-20130413,0,2431471.story |title=18 Americans barred from Russia in tit-for-tat sanctions |publisher=Los Angeles Times |date=April 13, 2013 |accessdate=2013-04-14}}</ref>
*[[Jed Rakoff]], Senior US District Judge for the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]]
*[[Preet Bharara]], US Attorney for the Southern District of New York
*[[Michael J. Garcia]], former US Attorney for the Southern District of New York
*Brendan R. McGuire, Assistant US Attorney
*Anjan S. Sahni, Assistant US Attorney
*Christian R. Everdell, Assistant US Attorney
*Jenna Minicucci Dabbs, Assistant US Attorney
*Christopher L. Lavigne, Assistant US Attorney
*Michael Max Rosensaft, Assistant US Attorney
*Louis J. Milione, Special Agent, US [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] (DEA)
*Sam Gaye, Senior Special Agent, US DEA
*Robert F. Zachariasiewicz, Special Agent, US DEA
*Derek S. Odney, Special Agent, US DEA
*Gregory A. Coleman, Special Agent, US [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

==Reception==
{{incomplete|date=January 2013}}
Australian expatriate jurist [[Geoffrey Robertson]], who is representing some of the Magnitsky campaigners, has described the Act as "one of the most important new developments in human rights". He says it provides "a way of getting at the Auschwitz train drivers, the [[apparatchik]]s, the people who make a little bit of money from human rights abuses and generally keep under the radar."<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.humanrights.gov.au/about/media/news/2012/135_12.html|title='International human rights lawyer Geoffrey Robertson speaks on fate of Assange'|date=2012-12-18|publisher=Australian Human Rights Commission}}</ref>

[[State Duma]] deputy Yevgeny Fedorov argued that the real purpose of the Magnitsky bill was to manipulate the key figures in big business and government, with the aim of pro-American policy in the [[Russian Federation]].<ref>[http://tv.russia.ru/video/diskurs_13815/ Yevgeny Fedorov: Magnitsky Act – manipulation] // RUSSIA.RU</ref>

The Ministry of Internal Affairs Directorate for Special Affairs in the U.K. stated that it is aware of those on the list. The U.K. bans travel of those on the list under existing legislation which prohibits entry for those implicated in cases of human rights violations.<ref name=PRU7913>{{cite web|title=Will Britain sing America's anti-Russian tunes?|url=http://english.pravda.ru/russia/politics/09-07-2013/125073-britain_russia-0/|publisher=Pravda.ru|accessdate=July 14, 2013|date=July 7, 2013}}</ref>

The ''[[World Socialist Web Site]]'' condemned the United States for only invoking human rights as a cover for [[realpolitik]], stating that Washington had supported "far greater crimes, [such] as when Boris Yeltsin in 1993 ordered the bombardment of the Russian White House, the seat of the country’s parliament, killing over 1,000 people".<ref>{{cite web|title=Moscow calls Obama's human rights bluff|url=http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2013/04/16/pers-a16.html|work=[[World Socialist Web Site]]|publisher=International Committee of the Fourth International|accessdate=16 April 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/112/hr6156 H.R. 6156: Russia and Moldova Jackson-Vanik Repeal and Sergei Magnitsky Rule of Law Accountability Act of 2012]
*[http://www.the-american-interest.com/article.cfm?piece=1363 What the Magnitsky Act Means] opinion piece.

[[Category:Political scandals in Russia]]
[[Category:Human rights in Russia]]
[[Category:United States federal banking legislation]]
[[Category:United States federal civil rights legislation]]
[[Category:United States federal immigration and nationality legislation]]
[[Category:United States federal trade legislation]]
[[Category:112th United States Congress]]
[[Category:2012 in law]]
[[Category:Russia–United States relations]]

Warkworth Castle

2013-12-18T18:56:26Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 94.10.206.192 (talk) to last revision by Tim! (HG)

{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name= Warkworth Castle
|location=[[Northumberland]]
|map_type=Northumberland
|map_alt=
|latitude=55.3447
|longitude=-1.6105
|coordinates={{gbmapping|NU24710575}}
|coord_region = GB-NBL
|image=[[File:Warkworth Castle interior, 2007.jpg|300px|alt=Mostly intact stone tower, with ruined walls on either side]]
|caption=The castle's enclosure and keep
|condition=Ruins
|ownership=[[English Heritage]]
}}
'''Warkworth Castle''' is a ruined medieval building in the [[Warkworth, Northumberland|town of the same name]] in the English county of [[Northumberland]]. The town and [[castle]] occupy a loop of the [[River Coquet]], less than a mile from England's north-east coast. When the castle was founded is uncertain: traditionally its construction has been ascribed to Prince [[Henry, Earl of Northumbria|Henry of Scotland]] in the mid-12th century, but it may have been built by King [[Henry II of England]] when he took control of England's northern counties. Warkworth Castle was first documented in a charter of 1157–1164 when Henry II granted it to Roger fitz Richard. The timber castle was considered "feeble", and was left undefended when the Scots invaded in 1173.

Roger's son Robert inherited and improved the castle. Robert was a favourite of King [[John, King of England|John]], and hosted him at Warkworth Castle in 1213. The castle remained in the family line, with periods of guardianship when heirs were too young to control their estates. King [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] stayed overnight in 1292 and John de Clavering, descendant of Roger fitz Richard, made the Crown his inheritor. With the outbreak of the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Anglo-Scottish Wars]], [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] invested in castles including Warkworth where he funded the strengthening of the garrison in 1319. Twice in 1327 the Scots besieged the castle without success.

John de Clavering died in 1332 and his widow in 1345, at which point [[Henry de Percy, 2nd Baron Percy]], took control of Warkworth Castle, having been promised Clavering's property by [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland]], added the imposing keep overlooking the village of Warkworth in the late 14th century. The [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland|fourth earl]] remodelled the buildings in the bailey and began the construction of a [[collegiate church]] within the castle, but work on the latter was abandoned after his death. Though [[Algernon Percy, 10th Earl of Northumberland]], supported Parliament during the [[English Civil War]], the castle was damaged during the conflict. The last Percy earl died in 1670. In the mid-18th century the castle found its way into the hands of [[Hugh Percy, 1st Duke of Northumberland|Hugh Smithson]], who married the indirect [[Percy family|Percy heiress]]. He adopted the name "Percy" and founded the dynasty of the [[Dukes of Northumberland]], through whom possession of the castle descended.

In the late 19th century, the dukes refurbished Warkworth Castle and [[Anthony Salvin]] was commissioned to restore the keep. [[Alan Percy, 8th Duke of Northumberland]], gave custody of the castle to the [[Office of Works]] in 1922. Since 1984 [[English Heritage]] has cared for the site, which is a Grade I [[listed building]] and a [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]].

==History==
[[File:Warkworth 1945 OS map.png|thumb|left|300px|An [[Ordnance Survey]] map published in 1945 showing Warkworth in the loop of the River Coquet. Warkworth Castle is at the south end of the loop.]]

===Early history===
Although the settlement of [[Warkworth, Northumberland|Warkworth]] in Northumberland dates back to at least the 8th century, the first castle was not built until after the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]].<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|pp=33–34}}</ref> The town and its castle occupied a loop of the River Coquet. The castle was built at the south end of the town, guarding the narrow neck of the loop. A fortified bridge also defended the approach to the town.<ref>{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|p=43}}</ref> The surrounding lowland countryside was favourable for agriculture.<ref>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|p=9}}</ref> When the castle was founded and by whom is uncertain, though traditionally Prince [[Henry, Earl of Northumbria|Henry of Scotland]] has been thought responsible.<ref name=Goodall34>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=34}}</ref> With [[The Anarchy|civil war]] in south-west England, King [[Stephen, King of England|Stephen of England]] needed to ensure northern England was secure. To this end, the [[Treaty of Durham (1139)|Treaty of Durham]] in 1139 between Scotland and England ensured peace. Under the treaty Henry of Scotland became [[Earl of Northumbria]] in exchange for ceding control of the castles at [[Bamburgh Castle|Bamburgh]] and [[The Castle, Newcastle|Newcastle]] to the English.<ref>{{harvnb|Young|1978|p=9}}</ref> Without them Henry would have needed a new seat from which to exercise his authority, and a new castle at Warkworth may have met the requirement. However, charters show that Henry still controlled Bamburgh Castle after the treaty, and as Warkworth was a modest castle by contemporary standards it may be have been founded by someone else.<ref name=Goodall34/> Henry died in 1152 and his son, [[Malcolm IV of Scotland|Malcolm]] (crowned King of Scotland in 1153), inherited his lands. In 1157 Malcolm travelled to [[Peveril Castle]] in Derbyshire, where he paid homage to the new King of England, [[Henry II of England|Henry II]].<ref>{{harvnb|Scott|2004}}</ref> Malcolm surrendered England's northern counties to Henry, including the castles of Bamburgh, [[Carlisle Castle|Carlisle]], and Newcastle, and probably [[Appleby Castle|Appleby]], [[Brough Castle|Brough]], [[Wark on Tweed|Wark]], and Warkworth,<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|1959|p=251}}</ref> though it is possible that Henry II founded Warkworth Castle in 1157 to secure his lands in Northumberland; other contemporary castles in the area were built for this purpose, for instance the one at [[Harbottle Castle|Harbottle]].<ref name=Goodall34-35>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|pp=34–35}}</ref>

[[File:Warkworth Castle - geograph.org.uk - 783242.jpg|thumb|alt=Tall, angular stone building, with lower walls attached on either side|Warkworth Castle's gatehouse (left) dates mostly from the 13th century.]]
The first mention of Warkworth Castle occurs in a charter of 1157–1164 from Henry II granting the castle and surrounding [[manorialism|manor]] to Roger fitz Richard,<ref name=Goodall34/> a member of a noble Norman family.<ref>{{harvnb|Mackenzie|1825|pp=28–29}}</ref> It has been suggested that this charter may have used the term castle to describe a high-status residence on the site, possibly dating from the [[Anglo-Saxon England|Anglo-Saxon period]], meaning Roger may have built the castle.<ref name=Goodall34-35/> He owned lands across a wide area, and Warkworth may have been of little significance in the context of his other holdings. When the Scots invaded Northumberland in 1173, although Roger fitz Richard was in the county Warkworth Castle was not defended by its garrison. Its defences at the time were described as "feeble".<ref name=Goodall35>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=35}}</ref> In 1174 [[Donnchad II, Earl of Fife|Duncan II, Earl of Fife]], raided Warkworth. The contemporary record does not mention the castle, and instead notes Warkworth's inhabitants sought refuge in the church. When Roger fitz Richard died in 1178 his son and heir, Robert fitz Roger, was still a child. A guardian looked after the family estates until Robert came of age in 1191. He paid the Crown 300 [[mark (money)|marks]] in 1199 for confirmation of his ownership of Warkworth, including the castle. Substantial building work at Warkworth Castle is attributed to Robert. A favourite of King [[John of England|John]], Robert hosted him at Warkworth Castle in 1213.<ref name=Goodall35/>

Warkworth Castle continued to descend through the family line when Robert fitz Roger was succeeded by his son John in 1214, who was succeeded by his son Roger in 1240. Roger died in 1249 when his son Robert was one year old, and a guardian was appointed to care for the family's estates: [[William de Valence, 1st Earl of Pembroke|William de Valence]], half-brother of King [[Henry II of England|Henry III]]. The castle,
characterised by this time by the chronicler [[Matthew Paris]] as "noble",<ref name=Goodall35/> remained under the guardianship of Valence until 1268, when it reverted to Robert fitz John.<ref>{{harvnb|Ridgeway|2004}}</ref> King [[Edward I of England]] stayed at Warkworth Castle for a night in 1292. The English king was asked to mediate in a dispute over the Scottish throne and laid his own claim, leading to the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Anglo-Scottish Wars]]. After the Scottish victory at the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]] in 1297, Robert and his son, John de Clavering, were captured. They were subsequently released and in 1310 John assumed control of the family estates. A year later, John made arrangements so that on his death the king would receive all of his property.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=36}}</ref><ref name=Bean>{{harvnb|Bean|2004a}}</ref> Between roughly 1310 and 1330 the English struggled to deal with Scottish raids in northern England.<ref name=Emery14/> Such was the importance of large castles during the Scottish Wars that the Crown subsidised their maintenance and even construction. In 1319, King [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] paid for a garrison for the castle of four [[man-at-arms|men-at-arms]] and eight [[hobilar]]s to enhance the existing force of twelve men-at-arms.<ref name=Goodall36-37>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|pp=36–37}}</ref> [[Ralph Neville, 2nd Baron Neville de Raby|Ralph Neville]] was the keeper of Warkworth Castle in 1322. As he was married to John's daughter, Euphemia, Ralph may have hoped to inherit the Clavering estates, but that did not happen.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|2004}}</ref> Twice in 1327 Scottish forces besieged the castle without success.<ref>{{harvnb|Hunter Blair|1969|p=5}}</ref>

===Percy family===
Around this time, the [[House of Percy|Percy family]] was becoming Northumberland's most powerful dynasty.<ref name=Goodall37>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=37}}</ref> [[Henry de Percy, 2nd Baron Percy]], was in the service of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] and was paid 500 marks a year in perpetuity in return for leading a company of men-at-arms. In exchange for the annual fee, in 1328 Percy was promised the rights to the Clavering estates. [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] declared such contracts illegal in 1331, but after initially relinquishing his claim Percy was granted special permission to inherit. John de Clavering died in 1332 and his widow in 1345, at which point the family's estates became the property of the Percys.<ref name=Bean/> While the Percys owned [[Alnwick Castle]], which was considered more prestigious, Warkworth was the family's preferred home. Under the Percys a park was created nearby for hunting, and within the castle two residential blocks were created, described by historian John Goodall as "of unparalleled quality and sophistication in Northumberland".<ref name=Goodall37/> The second baron died at Warkworth in 1352.<ref name=Bean/>

[[File:Warkworth Castle's keep, 2007.jpg|thumb|left|300px|alt=A tall tower stands above the ruined castle. A wooden staircase leads into the tower, its windows are empty. The facing is smooth ashlar, and on top is a smaller square look-out tower on which stands a flagpole.|The keep was built by [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland]].]]
In 1377 the fourth Baron Percy, also named [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland|Henry]], was made the first [[Earl of Northumberland]] (becoming the first family from northern England to be granted an earldom)<ref name=Emery14>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|p=14}}</ref> in recognition of his extensive power in the [[Scottish Marches|march areas]] along the [[Anglo-Scottish border]].<ref name=Goodall38>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=38}}</ref> With a network of contacts and dependencies, the Percys were the pre-eminent family in northern England in the 14th century "for they have the hertes of the people by north and ever had", in the words of contemporaneous chronicler [[John Hardyng]].<ref>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|p=14}}, n. 9</ref> Henry Percy commissioned the building of the distinctive keep shortly after he was made Earl of Northumberland. Percy may have enhanced his main castle to compete with [[John of Gaunt]], who rebuilt the nearby [[Dunstanburgh Castle]], or with the [[House of Neville]], a family becoming increasingly powerful in northern England and who undertook a programme of building at the castles of [[Brancepeth Castle|Brancepeth]], [[Raby Castle|Raby]], Bamburgh, [[Middleham Castle|Middleham]], and [[Sheriff Hutton Castle|Sheriff Hutton]].<ref name=Goodall38/><ref>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|p=17}}</ref> Architectural similarities between Warkworth's keep, [[Bolton Castle]], and the domestic buildings at Bamburgh Castle suggest that [[John Lewyn]] was the master mason responsible for building Warkworth's keep.<ref name=Goodall38/> Earl Henry helped dethrone [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] and replace him with [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]. The earl and his eldest son [[Henry Hotspur Percy|Henry "Hotspur" Percy]] fell out with the new king, and eventually rebelled. After Hotspur was killed at the [[Battle of Shrewsbury]] in 1403, his father fled to Warkworth.<ref name=Goodall39>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=39}}</ref> The earl eventually went to [[York]] to submit to the king. He was arrested and the king attempted to install his own men at the castles of Alnwick, [[Langley Castle]], [[Prudhoe Castle|Prudhoe]], and Warkworth.<ref name=bBean>{{harvnb|Bean|2004b}}</ref> The earl's 14-year-old son claimed that he was loyal to the king but was not empowered to formally surrender the castle, and it remained under control of the Percys.<ref name=Goodall39/> Henry was pardoned in 1404.<ref name=bBean/>

Earl Henry rebelled again in 1405, this time joining the unsuccessful revolt of Archbishop [[Richard le Scrope|Scrope]]. While Henry was fleeing north after the failed rebellion, his castles offered some resistance before submitting to royal forces. Warkworth itself was well-provisioned and the garrison initially refused to surrender. However, according to a letter written by Henry IV from Warkworth after its fall, after just seven shots from his cannon the defenders capitulated.<ref name=Goodall39/> The castle was forfeited to the Crown, and was used by one of the King's sons, [[John, Duke of Bedford]], who was appointed to rule the area.<ref>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|p=7}}</ref> It remained in the ownership of the Crown until [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] restored it to the Percy family in 1416, and at the same time made the son of "Hotspur" Henry, another [[Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland|Henry Percy]], second Earl of Northumberland. It is known that the second earl resided at Warkworth and undertook building work there, but it is now unclear for which parts he was responsible.<ref name=Goodall40>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=40}}</ref>

The Percys supported the [[House of Lancaster]] during the [[Wars of the Roses]], and the second earl and his successor – [[Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland]] – were killed at the battles of [[First Battle of St Albans|St Albans]] in 1455 and [[Battle of Towton|Towton]] in 1461 respectively.<ref name=Goodall40/> The new king, [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]], issued an [[attainder]] against the family and their property was confiscated.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2004}}</ref> On August 1st 1464, as a result of suppressing Lancastrian rebellions in the north for the previous three years, the title of Earl of Northumberland was given to the [[House of York|Yorkist]] [[John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu]], and with it, the castle. During his tenure, he constructed a twenty-five foot tall rectangular tower, built for defence, "with [[Arrowslit|[arrow] ]] slits in the three outer walls;" this is known as 'Montagu's Tower' to this day.<ref>'''History of Northumberland''', Northumberland County History Committee, Newcastle-upon-Tyne 1893, Vol. V, p.99</ref> His brother, [[Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick]], used Warkworth as a base from which the Lancastrian-held castles of Northumberland – Alnwick, Bamburgh, and Dunstanburgh – were attacked and their sieges co-ordinated. In 1470 Edward IV returned the Percys' estates to the eldest son of the third earl, who was also called [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland|Henry Percy]]. A year later Henry was granted the earldom of Northumberland.<ref name=Goodall40/> Some time after 1472 Henry remodelled the building of the bailey. He also planned to build a [[collegiate church]] within the castle, but the work was abandoned after his death. When the fourth earl was murdered in 1489, his son, [[Henry Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland|Henry Algernon]], inherited and maintained the castle. In the early 16th century [[Henry Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland]], was responsible for clearing the collegiate church founded by his grandfather, but left incomplete by the fifth earl. Thomas Percy, brother of the sixth earl, was executed for his role in the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]] in 1536. When Henry Percy died the next year without any sons, the family's property passed to the Crown. Although royal officers still used the castle, by 1550 it had fallen into disrepair. In 1557 the Percy estates were restored to the descendants of Thomas, and the nephew of the sixth earl, another [[Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland|Thomas Percy]], was given the earldom. He began a programme of repairs at the castle, and in the process dismantled "the hall and other houses of office".<ref name=Goodall41-2/>

[[File:Turner Walkworth Castle.jpg|thumb|right|300px|alt=Grassy land slopes away from a stone castle, down to a bend in a river with a boat. Peeking from behind the castle are roofs of buildings in the town.|[[J. M. W. Turner]] painted Warkworth Castle in 1799. The ruins were attracting tourists as early as the mid 18th century.]]
The [[Rising of the North]] in 1569 saw Catholic nobles in northern England rebel against the Protestant Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. The Catholic Thomas Percy joined the rebellion<ref name=Summerson42>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|p=42}}</ref> and supporters congregated at the castles of Alnwick and Warkworth. [[Sir John Forster]], Warden of the March, ordered those inside to leave<ref name=Goodall41-2>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|pp=41–42}}</ref> and the castles were surrendered to his control.<ref name=Lock>{{harvnb|Lock|2004}}</ref> During the conflict that followed, Warkworth remained under royal control.<ref name=Goodall41-2/> Forster pillaged the castle, stripping it of its timbers and furnishings. The keep at least did not share in this fate,<ref name=Summerson42/> but in April 1572 [[Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon]], bemoaned the treatment meted out to the Percy castles, writing to the queen's chief minister, "It is a great pity to see how Alnwick Castle and Warkworth are spoiled by him ... I am creditably informed that he means utterly to deface them both."<ref name=Goodall42>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=42}}</ref> An [[attainder]] was issued against Thomas Percy so that when he came into English custody he was executed without trial on 22 August.<ref name=Lock/> As a result, Percy's son was passed over,<ref name=Goodall42/> but under the terms of the attainder his brother was allowed to inherit.<ref name=Lock/> In 1574, Elizabeth granted [[Henry Percy, 8th Earl of Northumberland|Henry Percy]] permission to inherit the family's property and assume the title of 8th Earl of Northumberland.<ref name=Goodall42/>

The castle formed the backdrop for several scenes in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Henry IV, Part 1]]'' and ''[[Henry IV, Part 2|Part 2]]''. Another [[Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland|Henry Percy]] inherited the family estates in 1585 and assumed the title of 9th Earl of Northumberland. After the failed [[Gunpowder Plot]] of 1605, the earl was imprisoned for his connection with [[Thomas Percy (Gunpowder Plot)|Thomas Percy]], one of the plotters. Shortly before he was sentenced (he was fined £30,000 and held in the [[Tower of London]]), the earl leased Warkworth Castle to Sir Ralph Gray, who owned [[Chillingham Castle]] in Northumberland. Gray neglected the earl's building and allowed it to fall further into disrepair. The lead from the buildings in the bailey was sold in 1607 to alleviate the earl's financial problems. When [[James I of England|James I]] visited in 1617 en route to Scotland, his entourage was angered by the sorry state of the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=43}}</ref> With the [[Union of the Crowns|unification of England and Scotland]] under a single ruler, the earls of Northumberland had no need for two great castles near the Anglo-Scottish border; they maintained Alnwick at the expense of Warkworth. In the first quarter of the 17th century, the keep was used to hold manor courts and for the laying out of oats.<ref name=Summerson43>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|p=43}}</ref>

The details surrounding Warkworth Castle's role in the [[English Civil War]] are unclear, but the conflict resulted in further damage to the structure. Initially held by [[Cavalier|Royalist forces]], the castle was still important enough that when the Scots invaded in 1644 they forced its surrender.<ref name=Goodall44>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=44}}</ref> [[Algernon Percy, 10th Earl of Northumberland]], supported Parliament, which may have prevented the Scots from doing much damage to the castle.<ref name=Summerson43/> [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] forces took over the castle in 1648; when they withdrew they removed the castle's doors and iron so that it could not be reused by the enemy. They may also have [[slighting|partially demolished]] some of the castle, and may be responsible for its present state. Algernon Percy unsuccessfully applied for compensation in 1649 for the damage.<ref name=Goodall44/>

===Dukes of Northumberland and present day===
[[File:Warkworth Castle bailey, 2011.jpg|thumb|A crowd of people gathered near a tent within the castle|The castle has been in the care of English Heritage since 1984.]]
[[Josceline Percy, 11th Earl of Northumberland|Josceline Percy]], the last Percy earl, died in 1670. Two years later his widow allowed the keep's materials to be reused to build [[Chirton Hall]]. A total of 272 cart-loads were taken from the keep.<ref name=Goodall44/> Josceline Percy's property passed to the [[Duke of Somerset]] through marriage. In 1698, the owners decided not to renovate Warkworth Castle after the estimate to add battlements, floors and new windows came in at £1,600. [[Elizabeth Percy, Duchess of Northumberland|Elizabeth Seymour]] inherited the property from her father in 1750. Her husband, [[Hugh Percy, 1st Duke of Northumberland|Hugh Smithson]], changed his name to Hugh Percy, and the castle then descended through the [[Dukes of Northumberland]], a dynasty he founded.<ref name=Summerson43/>

During the 18th century the castle was allowed to languish. The south-west tower was falling apart and around 1752 part of the curtain wall east of the gatehouse was demolished (it was rebuilt towards the end of the century). The town and its historic ruins were by now attracting interest as a tourist destination, largely due to Bishop [[Thomas Percy (Bishop of Dromore)|Thomas Percy's]] poem, ''The Hermit of Warkworth''. In the mid 19th century [[Hugh Percy, 3rd Duke of Northumberland]], undertook some preservation work. His successor, [[Algernon Percy, 4th Duke of Northumberland|Algernon Percy]], contracted [[Anthony Salvin]] to restore the keep. The work undertaken between 1853 and 1858 was not as extensive as Salvin had planned, and was limited to partially refacing the exterior and adding new floors and roofs to two chambers, which became known as the Duke's Chambers, on the second floor.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|pp=44–46}}</ref> The duke occasionally used the chambers for picnics when he visited from Alnwick Castle. Algernon Percy funded excavations at the castle in the 1850s which uncovered the remains of the collegiate church within the bailey.<ref>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|pp=43–44}}</ref>

In 1922 [[Alan Percy, 8th Duke of Northumberland]], granted custodianship of the castle to the [[Office of Works]] which had been made accountable for the guardianship of ancient monuments.<ref>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|p=44}}</ref> The Duke's Chambers remained under direct control of the Percys. The Office of Works undertook excavations in the moat in 1924 and removed the custodian from the gatehouse. [[English Heritage]], who now manage and maintain the site, succeeded as the castle's custodians in 1984, and three years later the Duke's Chambers were given over to their care.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=48}}</ref> The castle is a [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]],<ref>{{citation |title=Warkworth Castle |url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=7873 |work=Pastscape |publisher=[[English Heritage]] |accessdate=19 October 2011}}</ref> a "nationally important" historic building and [[archaeological site]] which has been given protection against unauthorised change.<ref>{{citation |title=Scheduled Monuments |url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/caring/listing/scheduled-monuments/ |work=Pastscape |publisher=[[English Heritage]] |accessdate=19 October 2011}}</ref> It is also a Grade I [[listed building]] (first listed in 1985)<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=1041690&resourceID=5 |title=Castle Curtain Walls with Gateway, Towers and Attached Buildings |publisher=Heritage Gateway |accessdate=19 October 2011}}</ref> and recognised as an internationally important structure.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Faqs/default.aspx?topic=4#25 |title=Frequently asked questions |work=[[Images of England]] |publisher=[[English Heritage]] |accessdate=19 October 2011}}</ref>

==Layout==
[[File:Warkworth Castle plan.JPG|thumb|250px|alt=See caption|The keep at the north end of the castle dates from the late 14th century. Warkworth Castle's main entrance was through a gatehouse in the south. The curtain walls date from the early 13th century.]]
Warkworth Castle is an irregular enclosure. The keep is at the north end, overlooking the town, with the bailey to the south.<ref name=Goodall49>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=49}}</ref> The current keep was built on an earlier mound, known as a motte.<ref>{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|p=71}}</ref> The [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] of the bailey dates from the early 13th century. There are four towers: Carrickfergus Tower in the south-west corner, Montagu Tower in the south-east, a [[postern]] tower in the west wall (north of the kitchen), and Grey Mare's Tail Tower attached to the east wall. Against the east curtain wall was a stable. In the northern half of the bailey, aligned east–west, was an unfinished 15th-century collegiate church; it was cleared away in the early 16th century. Immediately west of the church was the kitchen, situated in the angle of the curtain wall as it changes from its north–south alignment and turns towards the keep. Along the west curtain wall, south of the kitchen, were the pantry, [[great hall]], and withdrawing chambers. In the south-west was a chapel.<ref name=Goodall49/> Apart from the north side, the castle was surrounded by a [[moat]].<ref name=Summerson14-5>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|pp=14–15}}</ref>

===Gatehouse===
The gatehouse in the centre of the south curtain wall mostly dates from the 13th century. It was originally accessed via a [[drawbridge]] and visitors had to pass through two gates, one at either end of the passage, and a [[portcullis]].<ref name=Summerson12-13>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|pp=12–13}}</ref> The semi-octagonal projections on either side of the gate passage are considered ornamental. Between the projections and above the gate were [[machicolations]], openings for missiles to be hurled at attackers.<ref>{{citation |url=http://magic.defra.gov.uk/rsm/23234.pdf |title=Warkworth Castle motte and bailey castle, tower keep castle and collegiate church |publisher=[[Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs]] |format=PDF |pages=1–2 |accessdate=29 October 2011}}</ref> The rooms on either side of the passage were guardrooms.<ref name=Summerson14-5/> The only remaining openings on the front are slits at ground level. Slits on the other sides of the gatehouse, and along the entrance passage, allowed the gatekeeper to watch people approaching and entering the castle. The structure underwent later alterations in the 19th and 20th centuries when it housed the castle's custodian; slits in the gatehouse's front may have been filled in.<ref name=Summerson12-13/>

{{Multiple image|direction=horizontal|align=left|width1=158|image1=The lion gate, Warkworth Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1321488.jpg|width2=140|image2=Warkworth Castle, Little Stair Tower.jpg|caption1=The 15th-century Lion Tower|alt1=Tall tower with an arched passageway through the bottom. Above the archway are heraldic symbols.|caption2=The remains of the Little Stair Tower|alt2=The ruins of a tower}}

===West range===
The range along the western curtain wall dates from about 1480, when the fourth earl remodelled the bailey. The great hall was the social hub of the castle, where the household gathered to eat. The now-ruined 15th-century building replaced an earlier hall on the same site, dating from about 1200,<ref name=Goodall10>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=10}}</ref> although some of the stone dates from the mid 12th century. The earl would have entered from the south from his connecting private chambers, and people of lower status through the Lion Tower.<ref name=Summerson17>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|p=17}}</ref> Internally, it was split into two aisles of differing width. Both halls were heated by open hearths, two of which survive from the earlier hall. Opposite ends of the hall were for opposite ends of the social scale within the castle. The high end (next to the withdrawing chamber) was for the earl and his family, and the low end (next to the kitchen and other service rooms) for the rest of the household.<ref name="Goodall10" /> In the medieval period, the great hall was richly decorated with tapestries.<ref name=Summerson17/>

The Lion Tower was the entrance to the north end of the great hall. Above the archway through the tower were displayed heraldic items, symbolic of the Percy earls' power. The lion at the bottom was the emblem of the earls. Though now much damaged, above the lion were the ancient arms of the family and the arms of the Lucy family, whose property the Percys had inherited in the 1380s. As the tower was entered from the bailey, on the right was a doorway leading to the incomplete collegiate church. To the left was the great hall, and beyond that, withdrawing chambers; to the right were the buttery, pantry, larder, and kitchen. Immediately north of the kitchen was a postern tower. Built around 1200, its upper floors were later reused for accommodation.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|pp=5–7}}</ref> An entrance of lesser status than the main gatehouse, the gate's position next to the kitchen suggests it was a tradesmen's entrance, used for conveying supplies to the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|p=19}}</ref>

[[File:South-west tower, Warkworth Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1805960.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A half ruined tower, effectively showing a cross-section of the interior.|The Carrickfergus Tower in the south-west corner partially collapsed in the 18th century.]]
The square Little Stair Tower was the entrance from the bailey to the withdrawing rooms south of the great hall.<ref name=Goodall11>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=11}}</ref> At ground floor level there was a doorway in each of the tower's faces. Directly south of the east side of the tower was the castle's chapel. The northern door led to the great hall, and the western door to a cellar under the great chamber. There are only fragmentary remains of the spiral staircase. Above the passageway was a single room, of uncertain purpose: it may have been used as another chapel, a guest room,<ref>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|p=16}}</ref> or an antechamber where guests would wait before being admitted into the earl's presence.<ref name=Goodall11/>

South of the great hall was a two-storey building containing withdrawing chambers, dating from around 1200. Narrow windows opening onto the bailey were original but have since been filled in.<ref name=Goodall12>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=12}}</ref> The first floor was entirely occupied by the [[great chamber]], furnished with a fireplace. In the south-west corner of the room was a door to a small room which was perhaps used as a safe. The ground floor was used as a cellar, through which the Carrickfergus Tower could be accessed.<ref name=Summerson17/> The polygonal tower was also accessible through the great chamber at first floor level. Fitted with latrines and a fireplace,<ref name=Goodall12/> it was an extension of the lordly accommodation provided by the great chamber.<ref name=Summerson17/>

===South and east===
Montagu Tower in the south-east corner was probably built by John Neville, Lord Montagu, in the 15th century. Fitted with latrines and fireplaces, the upper floors provided accommodation, most likely for the more important members of the household. By the 16th century, the ground floor was used as a stable. The buildings against the south curtain wall between Montagu Tower and the gatehouse are of unknown purpose.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=13}}</ref> North of Montagu Tower, against the east curtain wall, are the ruins of stables which stood two storeys high. West of the stables was a wellhouse containing a stone-lined well some {{convert|18|m}} deep. The Grey Mare's Tail Tower, probably built in the 1290s, has a slit in each of its five faces, offering views along the curtain wall.<ref>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|pp=20–21}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=15}}</ref>

[[File:Plan of Warkworth Castle's keep, 1909.jpg|thumb|left|alt=See caption; numbering runs anti-clockwise from the south.|Plan of the keep's first floor from ''The Growth of the English House'' by [[John Alfred Gotch]], 1909. North is on the left. 1 vestibule (leading from entrance in basement); 2 hall; 3 chapel; 4 [[great chamber]]; 5 kitchens; 6 pantry and [[Buttery (shop)|buttery]].]]

===Keep===
Goodall described Warkworth's keep as "a masterpiece of medieval English architecture". Built in the last quarter of the 14th century, it was probably designed by [[John Lewyn]]. It was laid out in the form of a [[Greek cross]] and originally it was crested with a battlement, and perhaps decorative statues. Around the top of the building survive carvings of angels carrying shields. A large lion representing the Percy's [[coat of arms]] overlooked the town from the north side of the keep. The lion and sculptures were probably originally painted and would have stood out from the rest of the building.<ref name=Goodall17>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=17}}</ref> Archaeologist Oliver Creighton suggests that the rebuilding of the keep and other reconstruction work were meant to suggest the enduring lordship of the owners.<ref>{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|pp=71–72}}</ref> On top of the keep is a lookout tower, which would have been less prominent before the keep's roof was removed.<ref name=Emery144>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|p=144}}</ref>

Goodall suggests that the keep was used only for short periods, and the west range, including the great hall, was the lord's preferred residence for prolonged visits to Warkworth Castle.<ref name=Goodall17-9>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|pp=17–19}}</ref> The ground floor was used predominantly for storage of food and wine, but there was also a room with access to a basement chamber roughly {{convert|9|ft}} square. This has variously been interpreted as an accounting room with a floor safe,<ref name=Goodall17-9/> or guardroom with a dungeon dug into the floor.<ref name=Emery144/> In the keep's west wall was a [[postern]] through which stores would pass into the building.<ref name=Summerson27>{{harvnb|Summerson|1995|p=27}}</ref> Kitchens occupied the west side of the first floor and were connected via staircases to the stores immediately below.<ref name=Goodall17-9/> In the south-east corner was a great hall, originally heated by a central hearth and spanning the height of the first and second floors. A chapel off the great hall led to a large formal room where the lord would meet guests.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|pp=21–23}}</ref> The second floor was entirely domestic in nature, with bedrooms and withdrawing chambers.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=19}}</ref> In the 19th century, while the rest of Warkworth Castle was in ruins, the rooms of the second floor were re-roofed and occasionally used by the duke on visits.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2006|p=46}}</ref> At the centre of the keep was a [[lightwell]] with interior windows; at its foot was a tank for [[rainwater harvesting in the UK|collecting rainwater]] used for cleaning.<ref name=Summerson27/>{{clr}}

==See also==
*[[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
*[[List of castles in England]]
*[[Warkworth Hermitage]]
{{Portal bar|Architecture|England|History|Middle Ages|North East England|United Kingdom}}

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

;Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Allen Brown |first=Reginald |title=A List of Castles, 1154–1216 |journal=The English Historical Review |volume=74 |month=April |year=1959 |pages=249–280 |jstor=558442 |issue=291}}
*{{citation |last=Bean |first=J. M. W. |contribution=Percy, Henry, second Lord Percy (1301–1352) |year=2004a |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21929 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}
*{{citation |last=Bean |first=J. M. W. |contribution=Percy, Henry, first earl of Northumberland (1341–1408) |year=2004b |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21932 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}
*{{citation |last=Creighton |first=Oliver |title=Castles and Landscapes: Power, Community and Fortification in Medieval England |year=2002 |location=Sheffield |publisher=Equinox |isbn=978-1-904768-67-8}}
*{{citation |last=Emery |first=Anthony |title=Greater Medieval Houses of England and Wales, 1300–1500, Volume I: Northern England |year=1996 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-49723-7}}
*{{citation |last=Goodall |first=John |title=Warkworth Castle and Hermitage |year=2006 |publisher=English Heritage |location=London |isbn=978-1-85074-923-3}}
*{{citation |last=Griffiths |first=R. A. |contribution=Percy, Henry, third earl of Northumberland (1421–1461) |year=2004 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21934 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}
*{{citation |last=Hunter Blair |first=Charles Henry |title=Warkworth Castle, Northumberland |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |location=London |year=1969}}
*{{citation |last=Lock |first=Julian |contribution=Percy, Thomas, seventh earl of Northumberland (1528–1572) |year=2004 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21956 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}
*{{citation |last=Mackenzie |first=Eneas |title=An historical, topographical, and descriptive view of the county of Northumberland: volume 2 |location=Newcastle upon Tyne |publisher=Mackenzie and Dent |year=1825}}
*{{citation |last=Ridgeway |first=H. W. |contribution=Valence (Lusignan), William de, earl of Pembroke (d. 1296) |year=2004 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/29481 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}
*{{citation |last=Scott |first=W. W. |contribution=Malcolm IV (1141–1165), king of Scots |year=2004 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/17860 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}
*{{citation |last=Summerson |first=Henry |title=Warkworth Castle |publisher=English Heritage |location=London |year=1995 |isbn=1-85074-498-X}}
*{{citation |last=Tuck |first=Anthony |contribution=Neville, Ralph, fourth Lord Neville (c.1291–1367) |year=2004 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19950 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}
*{{citation |last=Young |first=Alan |title=William Cumin: Border politics and the Bishopric of Durham, 1141–1144 |year=1978 |publisher=Borthwick Publications |location=York |isbn=978-0-900701-46-7}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Dodds |first=Glen Lyndon |title=Historic Sites of Northumberland and Newcastle upon Tyne |location=Sunderland |publisher=Albion Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-9525122-1-9}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Warkworth Castle}}
*[http://www.gatehouse-gazetteer.info/English%20sites/2879.html Bibliography of sources relating to Warkworth Castle]
*[http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/warkworth-castle-and-hermitage/ Page at English Heritage ]

{{Castles in North East England}}
{{English Heritage properties in North East England}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 12th century]]
[[Category:Castles in Northumberland]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Grade I listed castles]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Northumberland]]
[[Category:History of Northumberland]]
[[Category:Ruins in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Ruined castles in England]]

Hōchōdō

2013-12-16T13:40:56Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 5.150.99.136 (talk) to last revision by Piotrus (HG)

[[File:Yoshimi Tanigawa - Ikamaryuu shikibouchou.jpg|thumb|upright|Chef Yoshimi Tanigawa of Kichisen demonstrating Ikama school knife ceremony]]
{{Nihongo||庖丁道|'''Hōchōdō'''|the way of the cleaver}} is a traditional Japanese culinary art form of [[filleting]] a fish or fowl without touching it with one's hands.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rath|first=Eric|title=Food and Fantasy in Early Modern Japan|year=2010|chapter=Chapter 2: Of Knives and Men — Cutting Ceremonies and Cuisine|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, CA|isbn=9780520262270|pages=38,44|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_m6g_8Aw_IsC&pg=PA38}}</ref> It is a [[Shinto]] ritual, properly an offering to the gods, and originates in the court cuisine of [[yūsoku ryōri]], dating to the [[Heian period]]. It is also known as {{Nihongo||庖丁式|'''hōchōshiki'''|knife ceremony}} or {{Nihongo||式庖丁|'''shikibōchō'''|ceremonial knife}}, and survives to the present day, with occasional demonstrations, particularly in Kyoto.

[[File:Houchounin in 71 shokunin utaawase.png|thumb|Drawing from circa 1500, in [[:ja:七十一番職人歌合|七十一番職人歌合]].]]
The filleting is done using only a {{nihongo|knife|庖丁|[[hōchō]]}}{{efn|庖丁 is the spelling with traditional characters, while 包丁 is a simplification, and hence also commonly seen.}} and a pair of {{Nihongo|metal chopsticks|真魚箸|[[manabashi]]}}, without touching the fish with one's hands. The chef is dressed in Heian period clothing, most notably an {{Nihongo||[[:ja:烏帽子|烏帽子]]|[[eboshi]]}} hat and {{Nihongo||[[:ja:直垂|直垂]]|[[hitatare]]}} robe. The hitatare features long sleeves and a drawstring, which is used to tie up the sleeves during the ceremony.

==Schools==
The oldest school is {{Nihongo|Shijō school, "Fourth street school"|四条流|Shijō-ryū}}, which originated with {{Nihongo|[[Fujiwara no Yamakage]]|[[:ja:藤原山蔭|藤原山蔭]]}} in the early [[Heian period]] (9th century).<ref>{{cite web|title=庖丁 in English|url=http://en.glosbe.com/ja/en/%E5%BA%96%E4%B8%81|accessdate=8 December 2013}}</ref> He was also known as {{Nihongo||四条中納言|shijō [[chūnagon]]|Fourth street middle counselor}}, due to the mansion he built at the intersection of [[Shijō Street]] and Ōmiya street (current [[Ōmiya Station (Kyoto)|Ōmiya Station]]), hence the name of the style.

The main surviving school is the {{Nihongo|Ikama school|生間流|Ikama-ryū}}. The current head (29th generation) is {{Nihongo|Shigeyoshi Konishi|小西重義}} (art name {{Nihongo|Masayasu Ikama|生間正保}}), of {{Nihongo||萬亀楼|Mankamerō}} restaurant in Kyoto's [[Nishijin]] neighborhood. This style originated in the early [[Kamakura period]] (late 12th century), in warrior households that had been bestowed the "Ikama" name by the emperor.<ref>[http://kotobank.jp/word/生間流生間流], 世界の料理がわかる辞典の解説 {{ja-icon}}</ref> In this school the art is called {{Nihongo||式庖丁|shikibōchō}}, hence this name is commonly used today.

==Demonstrations==
The ritual is occasionally done as an offering at shrines, with irregular schedule, and private displays are available by appointment with practitioners. The main event featuring hōchōdō is a demonstration by many practitioners at the {{Nihongo|Kyoto cuisine exhibition|[http://www.kyo-ryori.com/event.html 京料理展示大会]}}, held annually in Kyoto in December.<ref>"[http://www.kyotoguide.com/ver2/event/event%20archive12-.htm December Event Highlights (2012)]", ''[http://www.kyotoguide.com/ Kyoto Guide]''</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.mankamerou.com/freepage_5_1.html 式庖丁] Shikibōchō, Mankamerō restaurant {{ja-icon}}
** [http://www.mankamerou.com/freepage_19_1.html 生間（いかま）流式庖丁について] About Ikama style shikibōchō {{ja-icon}}
** [http://www.mankamerou.com/freepage_20_1.html 今後の式庖丁の奉納予定です] Schedule of coming offerings of shikibōchō {{ja-icon}}
* [http://www.misuzutei.co.jp/sikiboutyou.htm 生間流式包丁] 味すゞ亭 Misuzutei {{ja-icon}}
* "[http://www.kikkoman.com/foodforum/thejapanesetable/08.shtml Kappo: Fine Cuisine at a Counter]", by Isao Kumakura, ''[http://www.kikkoman.com/foodforum/thejapanesetable/ The Japanese Table],'' [[Kikkoman]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hochodo}}
[[Category:Japanese cuisine]]
[[Category:Cuts of meat]]
[[Category:Fish processing]]
[[Category:Shinto]]
[[Category:9th-century establishments in Japan]]

[[ja:四条流庖丁道]]

It Is Well with My Soul

2013-12-06T14:04:22Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 72.161.162.68 (talk): unexplained content removal (HG)

{{Redirect|It Is Well|the Kutless album|It Is Well (album)}}
<div style="float:right; clear:right; border:1px solid gray; padding:1em 1em; margin: 1em 0 1em 1em; text-align:left; background:lightyellow">
'''It Is Well With My Soul''' 
(Original lyrics)<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://spaffordhymn.com/html/history.html|publisher=Kosinski Studio|accessdate=March 26, 2013}}</ref>

When peace like a river, attendeth my way, 
When sorrows like sea billows roll; 
Whatever my lot, Thou hast taught me to ''know'',a 
It is well, it is well, with my soul.

''Refrain:'' 
It is well, (it is well), 
With my soul, (with my soul) 
It is well, it is well, with my soul.

Though Satan should buffet, though trials should come, 
Let this blest assurance control, 
That Christ has regarded my helpless estate, 
And hath shed His own blood for my soul.

My sin, oh, the bliss of this glorious thought! 
My sin, not in part but the whole, 
Is nailed to the cross, and I bear it no more, 
Praise the Lord, praise the Lord, O my soul!

For me, be it Christ, be it Christ hence to live: 
If Jordan above me shall roll, 
No pang shall be mine, for in death as in life, 
Thou wilt whisper Thy peace to my soul.

But Lord, 'tis for Thee, for Thy coming we wait, 
The sky, not the grave, is our goal; 
Oh, trump of the angel! Oh, voice of the Lord! 
Blessed hope, blessed rest of my soul.

And Lord, haste the day when my faith shall be sight, 
The clouds be rolled back as a scroll; 
The trump shall resound, and the Lord shall descend, 
''A song in the night, oh my soul''! b

a "know" (at the end of the third line) was changed to "say". b "A song in the night, oh my soul" (last line) was changed to "Even so, it is well with my soul".
</div>

'''"It Is Well with My Soul"''' is a [[hymn]] penned by hymnist [[Horatio Spafford]] and composed by [[Philip Bliss]]. It is possibly the most influential and enduring in the Bliss repertoire and is often taken as a choral model, appearing in hymnals of a wide variety of Christian fellowships.<ref>Although the obvious presence of a [[refrain]] makes the item technically a [[gospel song]] vice a [[hymn]] in the strict sense, it has a remarkably sustained and sonorous quality which makes it comparable to the stateliest hymns in both [[Protestant]] and [[Roman Catholic]] hymnody. It has been prolifically translated and has demonstrated an appeal in various cultures.</ref>

==Background==
This hymn was written after traumatic events in Spafford’s life. The first was the [[1871 Great Chicago Fire]] which ruined him financially (he had been a successful [[lawyer]] and had invested significantly in property in the area of Chicago which was decimated by the great fire). His business interests were further hit by the economic downturn of 1873 at which time he had planned to travel to Europe with his family on the ''[[SS Ville du Havre]]''. In a late change of plan, he sent the family ahead while he was delayed on business concerning zoning problems following the Great Chicago Fire. While crossing the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], the ship sank rapidly after a collision with a sea vessel, the [[Loch Line|Loch Earn]], and all four of Spafford's daughters died. His wife Anna survived and sent him the now famous telegram, "Saved alone …". Shortly afterwards, as Spafford traveled to meet his grieving wife, he was inspired to write these words as his ship passed near where his daughters had died.<ref name=loc>{{cite web|title=The American Colony in Jerusalem, 1870-2006|url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/americancolony/timeline02.html|accessdate=May 2, 2013}}</ref>

Bliss called his tune ''Ville du Havre'', from the name of the stricken vessel.<ref>McCann, Forrest M. (1997). ''Hymns and History: An Annotated Survey of Sources''. [[Abilene, Texas|Abilene]], [[Texas|TX]]: [http://www.acu.edu/campusoffices/acupress ACU Press]. ISBN 0-89112-058-0. Pp. 154, 327-328, 359-360, 520, 597.</ref>

The Spaffords later had three more children, one of whom, their only son, Horatio Goertner Spafford, died at the age of four, of [[scarlet fever]] in 1880. In 1881, the Spaffords, including baby Bertha and newborn Grace, set sail for [[Israel]]. The Spaffords moved to [[Jerusalem]] and helped found a group called the [[American Colony, Jerusalem|American Colony]]; its mission was to serve the poor. The colony later became the subject of the [[Nobel Prize for Literature|Nobel prize]] winning ''[[Jerusalem (novel)|Jerusalem]]'', by [[Swedish literature|Swedish]] [[novel]]ist [[Selma Lagerlöf]].<ref name=loc/>

==Notable performances==
The [[Georgia Southern University]] marching band [[Georgia_Southern_University_Southern_Pride_Marching_Band|Southern Pride]] plays the song at the end of each win.{{citation needed|date=March 2012}}

*1961: [[Tennessee Ernie Ford]] ''Hymns at Home''
*1963: [[Doris Akers]] ''Forever Faithful''
*1968: [[Mahalia Jackson]] ''A Mighty Fortress''
*1991: [[Don Moen (singer)|Don Moen]] ''[[Eternal God]]''
*1995: [[Jennifer Holliday]] ''[[On & On (Jennifer Holliday album)|On & On]]''
*1999: [[Audio Adrenaline]] ''[[Underdog (Audio Adrenaline album)|Underdog]]''
*2002: [[Rebecca St. James]] ''[[Worship God]]''
*2005: [[Jars of Clay]] ''Redemption Songs''
*2008: [[Kristyn Getty]] YouTube<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYCWI77Qudk|title=Gettys—It Is Well|accessdate=2011-10-15|}}</ref>
*2009: [[Kutless]] ''[[It Is Well (album)|It Is Well]]''
*2011: [[Hillsong Music]] ([[Darlene Zschech]]) single (new bridge added by [[Reuben Morgan]] & Ben Fielding); all proceeds from the recording go to help the Queensland Flood Relief Effort<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hillsongcollected.com/one-for-another/it-is-well |title=Hillsong collected blog—It Is Well |accessdate=2011-01-22 |author=Reuben Morgan |year=2011 |}}</ref>
*2013: [[Eleventyseven]] [[Good Spells (EP)|''Good Spells'']] (EP)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://spaffordhymn.com SpaffordHymn.com] The original Hymn manuscript
* [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/americancolony/ The American Colony in Jerusalem (A Library of Congress Exhibition)]
* McCann, Forrest Mason (1997). ''Hymns & History: An Annotated Survey of Sources''. [[Abilene, Texas|Abilene]], [[Texas]]: [http://www.acu.edu/campusoffices/acupress ACU Press]. Pp. 327–328, 520, 597. ISBN 0-89112-058-0

{{DEFAULTSORT:It Is Well With My Soul}}
[[Category:Christian hymns]]

June und Jennifer Gibbons

2013-12-05T16:33:15Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 168.156.85.57 (talk) to last revision by Nightscream (HG)

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2012}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2012}}
{{BLP sources|date=November 2011}}
'''June and Jennifer Gibbons''' (born 11 April 1963; Jennifer died in 1993) were [[identical twin]]s who grew up in [[Wales]]. They became known as '''"The Silent Twins"''' owing to their choice to communicate only with their immediate family. They began writing works of fiction but turned to crime in a bid for recognition. Both women were committed to [[Broadmoor Hospital]] where they were held for 14 years.

==Early life==
June and Jennifer were the daughters of [[British West Indies|West Indian immigrants]] Gloria and Aubrey Gibbons. Gloria was a housewife and Aubrey worked as a technician for the [[Royal Air Force]]. Shortly after their birth in [[Barbados]], their family moved to [[Haverfordwest]], [[Wales]]. The twin sisters were inseparable and had [[speech impediment]]s that made it difficult for people outside their [[immediate family]] to understand them. As a result, they mixed very little with other children and were ostracized at school. This proved traumatic for the twins, eventually causing their school administrators to dismiss them early each day so that they might avoid bullying. Their language became even more [[idiosyncratic]] at this time. Soon it was [[unintelligible]] to others. Their language, or [[idioglossia]], qualified as an example of [[cryptophasia]], exemplified by the twins' simultaneous actions, which often mirrored each other. It came to pass that the twins spoke to no one except each other and their younger sister Rose.<ref name="wallace">Marjorie Wallace ''The Silent Twins'', Prentice-Hall, October 1986. ISBN 5-551-73250-9</ref>

When the twins turned 14, a succession of therapists tried unsuccessfully to get them to communicate with others. They were sent to separate [[boarding school]]s in an attempt to break their isolation, but the pair became [[Catatonia|catatonic]] and entirely withdrawn when parted.<ref name="wallace"/>

==Creative expression==
When they were reunited, the two spent a couple of years isolating themselves in their bedroom, engaged in elaborate play with dolls. They created many plays and stories in a sort of [[soap opera]] style, reading some of them aloud on tape as gifts for their sister. Inspired by a pair of gift diaries at Christmas 1979, they began their writing careers. They sent away for a [[mail order]] course in [[creative writing]], and each wrote several novels. Set primarily in the [[United States]] and particularly in [[Malibu, California]], an excitingly exotic locale to romantic girls trapped in a sleepy Welsh town, the stories concerned young men and women who become involved in strange and often criminal behaviour.<ref name="wallace"/>

In June's ''Pepsi-Cola Addict'', the high-school hero is seduced by a teacher, then sent away to a [[reformatory]] where a [[homosexual]] guard makes a play for him. In Jennifer's ''The Pugilist'', a physician is so eager to save his child's life that he kills the family dog to obtain its heart for a transplant. The dog's spirit lives on in the child and ultimately has its revenge against the father. Jennifer also wrote ''Discomania'', the story of a young woman who discovers that the atmosphere of a local disco incites patrons to insane violence. She followed up with ''The Taxi-Driver's Son'', a radio play called ''Postman and Postwoman'', and several short stories. They wrote in a unique personal style, often with unwittingly amusing word choices.<ref name="wallace"/>

==Crime and hospitalisation==
Their novels were published by a [[self-publishing press]] called New Horizons, and they made many attempts to sell [[short stories]] to magazines, but were unsuccessful. A brief fling with some American boys, the sons of a [[U.S. Navy]] serviceman, led nowhere. The girls committed a number of crimes including [[arson]], which led to their being committed to [[Broadmoor Hospital]], a high-security mental health hospital. There they remained for 14 years. Placed on high doses of [[neuroleptic|antipsychotic]] medications, they found themselves unable to concentrate; Jennifer apparently developed [[tardive dyskinesia]]. Their medications were apparently adjusted sufficiently to allow them to continue the copious diaries they had begun in 1980, and they were able to join the hospital choir, but they lost most of their interest in creative writing.<ref name="wallace"/>

The case achieved some notice due to newspaper coverage by ''[[The Sunday Times]]'' journalist [[Marjorie Wallace (SANE)|Marjorie Wallace]]. The British tabloid ''[[The Sun (United Kingdom)|The Sun]]'' gave a brief but accurate account of their story, headlined "Genius Twins Won't Speak" (an apparent reference to their having tested above average intelligence when being considered for Broadmoor Hospital).

==Jennifer's death==
According to Wallace, the girls had a long agreement that if one died, the other must begin to speak and live a normal life. During their stay in the hospital, they began to believe that it was ''necessary'' for one twin to die, and after much discussion, Jennifer agreed to be the sacrifice.<ref name="wallace2003">Marjorie Wallace, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/iran/story/0,12858,997276,00.html The tragedy of a double life], London: ''[[The Observer]]'', 13 July 2003</ref> In March 1993, the twins were transferred from Broadmoor to the more open Caswell Clinic in [[Bridgend, Wales]]; on arrival Jennifer could not be roused.<ref name=hs/> She was taken to the hospital where she died soon after of [[acute myocarditis]], a sudden [[inflammation]] of the heart.<ref name=hs>{{cite news |url= http://www.heraldscotland.com/arts-ents/stage-visual-arts/tragic-tale-of-twins-and-their-secret-world-1.1045865 |title=Tragic tale of twins and their secret world |first= Kathleen |last=Morgan|date=2 August 2010 |work=Herald Scotland|accessdate=19 July 2013}}</ref> There was no evidence of drugs or poison in her system, and her death remains a mystery.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/inquiry-into-death-of-silent-twin-1497079.html Inquiry into death of silent twin]. ''The Independent'', 12 March 1993. Page found 2011-05-29.</ref><ref name="Wallace293"/> On a visit a few days later, Wallace recounted that June "was in a strange mood. She said, 'I'm free at last, liberated, and at last Jennifer has given up her life for me.'"<ref name=hs/>

After Jennifer's death, June gave interviews with ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'' and ''[[The Guardian]]''.<ref>* Hilton Als, We Two Made One, ''[[The New Yorker]]'', 2000.
</ref> By 2008, she was living quietly and independently, near her parents in West Wales.<ref name="Wallace293">{{cite book|author=Marjorie Wallace|title=The Silent Twins|publisher=Random House|isbn=9780099586418|year=2008|page=293}}</ref> She is no longer followed by psychiatry services; accepted by her community, she seeks to put the past behind her.<ref name=hs/>

==Popular culture==
* [[Jon Amiel]], ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0311808/ The Silent Twins]'' (1985)
* Lucie Brock-Broido, "[http://teachmix.com/litartred/?q=node/156 Elective Mutes]", a poem with June as narrator. In ''A Hunger'' (Knopf, 2005) ISBN 0-394-75852-8.
* [[Vanessa Walters]], ''Double Take'' (drama)
* Radiohole, ''None of It: More Or Less Hudson's Bay, Again''
* [[Manic Street Preachers]], "[[Tsunami (Manic Street Preachers song)|Tsunami]]" On ''This Is My Truth—Tell Me Yours''
* [[Luke Haines]], "Discomania" on ''The Oliver Twist Manifesto''
* [[Picture Frame Seduction]], " Forgotten Daughters" (1984 track on [[Hand of the Rider]] written for the [[Jon Amiel]] film ''The Silent Twins'')
* Dog and Pony Theater, Chicago, ''[http://gapersblock.com/ac/2010/03/03/the-twins-would-like-to-say-at-steppenwolf/ The Twins Would Like To Say]'', written and directed by Seth Bockley and Devon de Mayo.
* ''[[Speechless (play)|Speechless]]'', a play by Linda Brogan & Polly Teale, produced at the Arcola Theatre, London, 2011

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Oliver Sacks, [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE1DC1E3AF93AA25753C1A960948260 Bound Together in Fantasy and Crime] ''[[New York Times]]'' review of ''The Silent Twins'', 19 October 1986.
* [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE0D81730F931A25750C0A965958260 Jennifer Gibbons, 29, 'Silent Twin' of a Study] Announcement of Jennifer's death in the ''New York Times'', 12 March 1993.
*{{cite news |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2007/jun/28/fiction.classicalmusicandopera |title=April de Angelis on troubled twins Jennifer and June Gibbons|first= April |last=de Angelis |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=28 June 2007 |publisher=[[Guardian Media Group|GMG]] |location=[[London, England|London]] |issn=0261-3077 |oclc=60623878 |accessdate=19 July 2013}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Gibbons, June And Jennifer
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 11 April 1963
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1993
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gibbons, June And Jennifer}}
[[Category:People from Haverfordwest]]
[[Category:Black Welsh people]]
[[Category:Welsh novelists]]
[[Category:Twin people from Wales]]
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:1993 deaths]]
[[Category:Barbadian emigrants to the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:People acquitted by reason of insanity]]

Don’t Panic (All-Time-Low-Album)

2013-12-05T16:32:35Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 63.96.144.241 (talk) to last revision by 24.181.169.108 (HG)

{{Infobox album
| Name = Don't Panic
| Type = Album
| Artist = [[All Time Low]]
| Cover = Don't_Panic.jpg
| Released = October 11, 2012
| Recorded = 2011-12
| Genre = [[Pop punk]], [[alternative rock]]
| Length = 40:57
| Label = [[Hopeless Records|Hopeless]]
| Producer = Mike Green, Alex Gaskarth
| Last album = ''[[Dirty Work (All Time Low album)|Dirty Work]]'' (2011)
| This album = '''''Don't Panic''''' (2012)
| Next album =
| Misc = {{Singles
| Name = Don't Panic
| Type = studio
| Single 1 = For Baltimore
| Single 1 date = October 15, 2012
| Single 2 = Somewhere in Neverland
| Single 2 date = February 4, 2013
| Single 3 = Backseat Serenade
| Single 3 date = May 9, 2013

}}
}}
{{Album ratings
|rev1 = [[AbsolutePunk]]
|rev1score = (90%)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.absolutepunk.net/showthread.php?t=2908232 |title=All Time Low - Don't Panic - Album Review |publisher=AbsolutePunk.net |date=2012-10-09 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref>
|rev2 = [[Allmusic]]
|rev2score = {{Rating|3.5|5}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Tim Sendra |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/dont-panic-mw0002412303 |title=Don't Panic - All Time Low : Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards |publisher=AllMusic |date=2012-10-09 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref>
|rev3 = ''Alter The Press!''
|rev3score = {{Rating|4.5|5}}<ref>{{cite web|last=Garland |first=Emma |url=http://www.alterthepress.com/2012/10/atp-album-review-all-time-low-dont-panic.html |title=ATP! Album Review: All Time Low - Don't Panic |publisher=Alter The Press! |date=2009-08-20 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref>
|rev4 = ''[[Alternative Press]]''
|rev4score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.altpress.com/reviews/entry/all_time_low_dont_panic |title=Alternative Press | Reviews | All Time Low - Don't Panic |publisher=Altpress.com |date= |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref>
|rev5 = ''[[idobi]]''
|rev5score = {{Rating|5|5}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Mayday Parade |url=http://idobi.com/news/2012/10/all-time-low-dont-panic-album-review/ |title=All Time Low – Don’t Panic: Album Review |publisher=idobi |date=2012-10-08 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref>
|rev6 = [[Sputnikmusic]]
|rev6score = {{Rating|3.5|5}}
|rev7 = [[Rock Sound]]
|rev7score = {{Rating|8|10}}
|rev8 = [[Kerrang!]]
|rev8score = {{Rating|3|5}}
|rev9=''[[Under The Gun Review]]''
|rev9score=8/10<ref name="Under The Gun Review">{{cite web|url=http://www.underthegunreview.net/2012/10/08/review-all-time-low-dont-panic/ |title=REVIEW: All Time Low-'Don't Panic' |publisher =Under the Gun Review|date=October 8, 2012 }}</ref>

}}
'''''Don't Panic''''' is the fifth studio album by American rock band [[All Time Low]], released on October 8, 2012 by [[Hopeless Records]].

All the songs were written by frontman Alex Gaskarth and Mike Green, with "Outlines" co-written by [[Patrick Stump]] of [[Fall Out Boy]]. ''Don't Panic'' sees All Time Low further evolving their sound while taking influence from each of their previous releases. The album debuted at No. 6 on the US [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]] with 48,000 first week sales, making it the band's third top 10 debut in a row. It also became the group's first album to reach No. 1 on the [[Top Internet Albums]] chart. It peaked at No. 9 in the UK and in the top 20 in Australia and Canada. All Time Low has continued touring year-long in support of ''Don't Panic''. The album received positive reviews (with a Metacritic scoring of 74, meaning generally favorable reviews), with critics praising Gaskarth's song writing and the album's sound as a whole.

== Background ==
The band's previous album, ''[[Dirty Work (All Time Low album)|Dirty Work]]'' was released in 2011 by [[Interscope]]. In May 2012, the band announced that they had left the label,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pupfresh.com/post/24032802784 |title=All Time Low Leave Interscope Records |publisher=Pup Fresh |date= |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> before launching a new song called "The Reckless and the Brave" for free download on June 1.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sugarscape.com/tags/music/729625/all-time-low-give-away-free-download-reckless-and-brave |title=All Time Low give away FREE download of The Reckless and The Brave |publisher=Sugarscape |date=2011-09-15 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> The official lyric video was released on June 22.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.altpress.com/news/entry/all_time_low_release_the_reckless_and_the_brave_lyric_video |title=All Time Low release "The Reckless And The Brave" lyric video - Alternative Press |publisher=Altpress.com |date=2012-06-22 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> On July 3, the band confirmed their return with the label [[Hopeless Records]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.altpress.com/features/entry/interview_all_time_lows_alex_gaskarth_on_signing_with_hopeless |title=Exclusive Interview: All Time Low's Alex Gaskarth on signing with Hopeless - Alternative Press |publisher=Altpress.com |date=2012-07-03 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> On August 24, a song titled "For Baltimore", an ode to his hometown, was published by [[Alternative Press]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.altpress.com/features/entry/song_premiere_all_time_low_for_baltimore |title=Song Premiere: All Time Low, "For Baltimore" - Alternative Press |publisher=Altpress.com |date=2012-08-24 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> In the midst of the tour, the band went into the studio to record the album, entirely produced by Mike Green.<ref>http://livethescene.com/2012/04/17/news-all-time-low-to-start-recording-new-album-tomorrow/</ref> All band members considered ''Don't Panic'' their best album. Alex Gaskarth, singer and guitarist of the band, explained about the project,

<blockquote>
"With this record, a big part of the process was finding what made our band special on each of our past records. This time around, rather than taking influence from anything we were listening to at the time—or anything we want to touch on generationally—the goal was to make an album that we felt reflected the best aspects of our previous releases."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hopelessrecords.com/all-time-low-announce-dont-panic-pre-order-album-trailer/ |title=Blog Archive » All Time Low Announce “Don’t Panic” Pre Order, Album Trailer |publisher=Hopeless Records |date=2012-08-28 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref>
</blockquote>

The trailer of the album was released on August 28.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LUbmmLqI-q4 |title=All Time Low - Don't Panic (Album Trailer) |publisher=YouTube |date=2012-08-28 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> The trailer contains the songs "For Baltimore", "Outlines" and "Somewhere In Neverland".

On October 2, the streaming of the album was released on YouTube by the record label.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hopelessrecords.com/all-time-low-streams-new-album-dont-panic/ |title=Blog Archive » All Time Low Streams New Album “Don’t Panic” |publisher=Hopeless Records |date=2012-10-02 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> In February 1, the band began recording the video for the track "Somewhere In Neverland".<ref>{{cite web|last=Zarrillo |first=Zack |url=http://propertyofzack.com/post/42034418960/all-time-low-begin-shooting-somewhere-in-neverland |title=All Time Low Begin Shooting "Somewhere In Neverland" Music Video |publisher=PropertyOfZack |date=2013-02-01 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> In March 19, 2013 the video was premiered by [[MTV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://buzzworthy.mtv.com/2013/03/19/all-time-low-somewhere-in-neverland-video/ |title=Video Premiere: All Time Low, 'Somewhere in Neverland' |publisher=Buzzworthy.mtv.com |date=2013-03-19 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> On May 9, the video for "Backseat Serenade" was premiered.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ableson |first=Jon |url=http://www.alterthepress.com/2013/05/all-time-low-release-backseat-serenade.html |title=All Time Low Release "Backseat Serenade" Music Video |publisher=Alter The Press! |date=2009-08-20 |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref>

== Track listing ==
{{tracklist
| all_lyrics = Alex Gaskarth and Mike Green except listed
| all_music = Alex Gaskarth and Mike Green
| title1 = The Reckless and the Brave
| music1 =
| length1 = 3:19
| title2 = Backseat Serenade
| music2 =
| length2 = 3:21
| title3 = If These Sheets Were States
| music3 =
| length3 = 3:19
| title4 = Somewhere in Neverland
| music4 =
| length4 = 3:45
| title5 = So Long, Soldier
| music5 =
| length5 = 2:49
| title6 = The Irony of Choking on a Lifesaver
| music6 =
| length6 = 3:36
| title7 = To Live and Let Go
| music7 =
| length7 = 3:43
| title8 = Outlines
| music8 =
| length8 = 3:35
| title9 = Thanks to You
| music9 =
| length9 = 3:34
| title10 = For Baltimore
| music10 =
| length10 = 3:09
| title11 = Paint Your Wings
| music11 =
| length11 = 3:40
| title12 = So Long, and Thanks for All the Booze
| music12 =
| length12 = 3:09
|total_length = 40:57
|writer8 = {{flat list|
*Alex Gaskarth
*Mike Green
*[[Patrick Stump]]}}|writing_credits = yes}}

{{tracklist
| headline = Japanese edtion bonus track
| collapsed = yes
| title13 = The Reckless and the Brave
| note13 = acoustic
| length13 = 3:38
|total_length = 44:35
}}

;Notes
*[[Cassadee Pope]] provided backing vocals on the tracks "Backseat Serenade" and (with Anthony Raneri of [[Bayside (band)|Bayside]]) "So Long, Soldier".
*Jason Vena of [[Acceptance (band)|Acceptance]] provided backing vocals on the track "Outlines".

==Charts==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Chart (2012)
! Peak position
|-
|Canadian Albums Chart
| style="text-align:center;"|18
|-
|Japan Albums Chart
| style="text-align:center;"|14
|-
|ARIA Albums Chart
| style="text-align:center;"|13
|-
|Top Internet Albums
| style="text-align:center;"|1
|-
|UK Albums Chart
| style="text-align:center;"|9
|-
|US [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]]
| style="text-align:center;"|6
|-
|US ''Billboard'' Alternative Albums
| style="text-align:center;"|3
|-
|US Digital Albums
| style="text-align:center;"|7
|-
|US ''Billboard'' Independent Albums
| style="text-align:center;"|1
|-
|US ''Billboard'' Rock Albums
| style="text-align:center;"|4
|-
|US Tastemaker Albums
| style="text-align:center;"|2
|}

===Singles===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"| Year
!rowspan="2"| Title
!| Peak position
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! style="width:30px;" | Rock Digital Songs<ref>{{BillboardURLbyName|artist=all time low|chart=Rock Digital Songs}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2"| 2012
|align="left"| "For Baltimore"
| 42
|-
|align="left"| "Somewhere in Neverland"
| 26
|}

== Release history ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Country
!Date
!Format
!Label
|-
|United Kingdom
|October 8, 2012
|[[Music download|Digital download]], [[CD]]
|rowspan="8"| [[Hopeless Records|Hopeless]]
|-
|Worldwide
| rowspan="3" | October 9, 2012
|Digital download
|-
|United States
|rowspan="2"|Digital download, CD
|-
|Canada
|-
|rowspan="2"|Japan
|October 9, 2012
|Digital download
|-
|October 10, 2012
|CD
|-
|rowspan="2"|Australia
|October 9, 2012
|Digital download
|-
|October 12, 2012
|CD
|}

==''Don't Panic: It's Longer Now!''==
{{Infobox album
| Name = Don't Panic: It's Longer Now!
| Type = studio
| Longtype = ([[reissue]])
| Artist = [[All Time Low]]
| Cover = ATL-Don'tPanic-It'sLongerNow!.jpg
| Border = yes
| Released = {{Start date|2013|9|30}}
| Recorded = 2011–13
| Genre = [[Pop punk]], [[alternative rock]]
| Length = {{Duration|m=69|s=13}}
| Label = [[Hopeless Records|Hopeless]]
| Producer = {{flat list|
*Mike Green
*Alex Gaskarth}}
| Misc = {{Singles
| Name = Don't Panic: It's Longer Now!
| Type = studio
| single 1 = A Love Like War
| single 1 date = {{Start date|2013|9|02}}
}}}}

'''''Don't Panic: It's Longer Now!''''' is the [[reissue]] of American rock band [[All Time Low]]'s fifth studio album ''Don't Panic'' (2012). It was released on September 30, 2013 by [[Hopeless Records]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.absolutepunk.net/showthread.php?t=3392621 |title=All Time Low Set To Re-Release "Don't Panic" - News Article |publisher=AbsolutePunk.net |date= |accessdate=2013-08-30}}</ref> and features four newly recorded songs and four additional acoustic remixes as well as the original material. The reissue charted at #19 on the [[Billboard 200]], and to #1 on the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Independent Albums Chart]].

The reissue's lead single "A Love Like War", featuring [[Vic Fuentes]] of the band [[Pierce the Veil]], was released digitally on September 2, 2013 and peaked at #23 on the US ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Bubbling Under Hot 100]] and #17 on the [[Hot Rock Songs]].

===Track listing===
{{Track listing
| writing_credits = yes

| title1 = The Reckless and the Brave
| writer1 = {{flat list|
*Alex Gaskarth
*Mike Green
}}
| length1 = 3:19

| title2 = A Love Like War
| note2 = featuring [[Vic Fuentes]] of [[Pierce the Veil]]
| writer2 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
*Vic Fuentes
}}
| length2 = 3:33

| title3 = Backseat Serenade
| writer3 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length3 = 3:21

| title4 = Me Without You (All I Ever Wanted)
| writer4 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length4 = 3:33

| title5 = If These Sheets Were States
| writer5 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length5 = 3:19

| title6 = Somewhere in Neverland
| writer6 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length6 = 3:45

| title7 = So Long, Soldier
| writer7 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length7 = 2:49

| title8 = Canals
| writer8 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length8 = 3:22

| title9 = The Irony of Choking on a Lifesaver
| writer9 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length9 = 3:36

| title10 = To Live and Let Go
| writer10 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length10 = 3:43

| title11 = Outlines
| writer11 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
*[[Patrick Stump]]}}
| length11 = 3:35

| title12 = Thanks to You
| writer12 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length12 = 3:34

| title13 = For Baltimore
| writer13 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length13 = 3:09

| title14 = Paint You Wings
| writer14 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length14 = 3:40

| title15 = So Long, and Thanks for All the Booze
| writer15 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length15 = 3:09

| title16 = Oh, Calamity!
| writer16 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length16 = 3:46

| title17 = For Baltimore
| note17 = acoustic
| writer17 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length17 = 3:29

| title18 = Somewhere in Neverland
| note18 = acoustic
| writer18 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length18 = 3:40

| title19 = The Reckless and the Brave
| note19 = acoustic
| writer19 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length19 = 3:37

| title20 = Backseat Serenade
| note20 = acoustic
| writer20 = {{flat list|
*Gaskarth
*Green
}}
| length20 = 3:14
|total_length = 69:13
}}

===Charts===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="text-align:left;"
|-
!scope="col" style="width:19em;"|Chart (2013)
!scope="col"|Peak position
|-
| US [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]]
| style="text-align:center;"|19
|-
|US ''Billboard'' [[Independent Albums Chart|Independent Albums]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}
*[http://www.punknews.org/article/49064/media-all-time-low-outlines Retrieved October 22, 2012 ''Punk News'']

==External links==

{{All Time Low}}

[[Category:All Time Low albums]]
[[Category:Albums produced by Mike Green]]
[[Category:2012 albums]]
[[Category:Hopeless Records albums]]

Benutzer:Reinhard Kraasch/Public holidays in Australia

2013-12-03T20:45:39Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 69.239.149.139 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

{{Use Australian English|date=October 2011}}
'''[[Public holiday]]s in Australia''' are declared on a [[States and territories of Australia|state and territory]] basis, with the exception of national public holidays.

==Nature of public holidays==
Traditionally, workers, public or private, were entitled to take off a public holiday with regular pay. In recent years this tradition has changed somewhat. For example, businesses that are normally open on a public holiday may request employees to work on the day, and refusal can only be denied by the employer on reasonable business grounds.

The entitlement to penalty rates was eliminated entirely in many workplaces under WorkChoices; however since the implementation of the Fair Work Act 2009 and the modern awards in 2010, most public holiday penalty rates have increased dramatically. Currently, employees are generally paid at a penalty rate - usually 2.5 times (known as "double time and a half") the base rate of pay.

Besides designating days as public holidays, some of these days are also designated as restricted trading days.

Public holidays are determined by a combination of:
* Statutes, with specific gazetting of public holidays; and
* Industrial awards and agreements.

If a standard public holiday falls on a weekend, a substitute public holiday will sometimes be observed on the first non-weekend day (usually Monday) after the weekend, whether by virtue of the public holiday legislation or by ad hoc proclamation. If a worker is required to work on a public holiday or substituted public holiday, they will usually be entitled to be paid at a holiday penalty rate.

All states have their own public holidays in addition to national public holidays, and in some states public holidays are provided on a local basis, such as Melbourne Cup Day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://publicholidays.com.au|title=Public Holidays Australia - What are public holidays?}}</ref>

Alcohol licenses in many states prevent sale of alcohol on certain public holidays, such as Good Friday.

==Public holidays==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
! width=10%|Name
! width=10%|Date
! width=10%|[[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]]
! width=10%|[[New South Wales|NSW]]
! width=10%|[[Northern Territory|NT]]
! width=10%|[[Queensland|QLD]]
! width=10%|[[South Australia|SA]]
! width=10%|[[Tasmania|TAS]]
! width=10%|[[Victoria (Australia)|VIC]]
! width=10%|[[Western Australia|WA]]
|-

|-
| [[Australia Day]] || 26 January || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Royal Hobart Regatta]] || 2nd Monday in February || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes-No|H}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Labour Day]] || 1st Monday in March || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Adelaide Cup]]* as proclaimed by the [[Governor of South Australia]]|| rowspan="4"|2nd Monday in March || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Canberra Day]] || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Eight Hours Day]] || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| Labour Day || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Good Friday]] || variable date || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Holy Saturday|Easter Saturday]] || variable date<ref name="wa-law">{{Cite web|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/pabha1972203/index.html|title=Public And Bank Holidays Act 1972|publisher=Western Australia}}</ref><ref name="tas-law">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thelaw.tas.gov.au/tocview/index.w3p;cond=;doc_id=96%2B%2B2000%2BAT%40EN%2B20080816000000;histon=;prompt=;rec=-1;erm=|title=Statutory Holidays Act 2000|publisher=Tasmania}}</ref> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Easter Sunday]] || variable date || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Easter Monday]] || variable date || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Easter Tuesday]] || variable date || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes-No|C}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Anzac Day]] || 25 April || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| Labour Day || rowspan="2"|1st Monday in May || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[May Day]] || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Western Australia Day]] || 1st Monday in June || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Queen's Birthday]] || 2nd Monday in June || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Picnic Day (Australia holiday)|Picnic Day]] ||1st Monday in August || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Queen's Birthday]] || As proclaimed by the [[Governor of Western Australia]] (September/October) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Family Day|Family & Community Day]] || 1st Monday of 3rd term school holidays (Sept/Oct)^ || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| Labour Day || 1st Monday in October || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Recreation Day holiday|Recreation Day]] || 1st Monday in November || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes-No|NH}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Melbourne Cup]] || 1st Tuesday of November || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}}† || {{No}}
|-
| [[Christmas Eve]] || 24 December || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}}~ || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[Christmas Day]] || 25 December || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Boxing Day]] || rowspan="2"| 26 December || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Proclamation Day]] || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[New Year's Eve]] || 31 December || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}}~ || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
! colspan="2"| Total holidays !! 12 !! 11 !! 11 !! 10 !! 11 + 2 half days !! 12 !! 11 !! 10
|}

; Legend<nowiki>:</nowiki>
: '''C''' = Conditional: Public Service employees or where defined in Employment Agreement/Award<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://workplacestandards.tas.gov.au/resources/public_holidays|title=Workplace Standards|publisher=Tasmanian Government|accessdate=18 April 2013}}</ref>
: '''H''' = Hobart area only
: '''NH''' = Not Hobart area
: '''^''' Note that when Family and Community Day falls on Labour Day holiday in the ACT, this holiday changes to the 2nd Monday of 3rd term school holidays.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chiefminister.act.gov.au/media.php?v=8382|title=ACT Government Media Releases|publisher=Australian Capital Territory}}</ref>
: '''~''' From 7pm to midnight<ref>http://www.fairwork.gov.au/leave/public-holidays/pages/listof2012publicholidays.aspx</ref>
: '''†''' Outside of Melbourne, another day may be substituted instead.
: '''*''' The holiday is legislated for the 3rd Monday of May. Since 2006 it has been moved via the issuing of a special Proclamation by the Governor, to the 2nd Monday of March, on a trial basis.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Holidays|url=http://www.safework.sa.gov.au/show_page.jsp?id=2483|publisher=SafeWork SA|accessdate=5 January 2013}}</ref>

===Substitute holidays for holidays falling on a weekend===
When a public holiday falls on a weekend, the following work day may be considered a public holiday depending on the state/territory and the holiday in question.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
! width=15% | Name
! width=10% | ACT<ref name="act-law">{{Cite web|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/act/consol_act/ha1958106/|title=Holidays Act 1958|publisher=Australian Capital Territory}}</ref>
! width=10% | NSW<ref name="nsw-law">{{Cite web|url=http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/maintop/view/inforce/act+115+2010+cd+0+N|title=Public Holidays Act 2010 No 115|publisher=New South Wales}}</ref>
! width=10% | NT<ref name="nt-law">{{Cite web|url=http://notes.nt.gov.au/dcm/legislat/legislat.nsf/d989974724db65b1482561cf0017cbd2/74c5dfa29a709b2569256f400022da8f?OpenDocument|title=Public Holidays Act|publisher=Northern Territory}}</ref>
! width=10% | QLD<ref name="qld-law">{{Cite web|url=http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/CURRENT/H/HolidaysA83.pdf|title=Holidays Act 1983|publisher=Queensland}}</ref>
! width=10% | SA<ref name="sa-law">{{Cite web|url=http://www.legislation.sa.gov.au/LZ/C/A/HOLIDAYS%20ACT%201910.aspx|title=Holidays Act 1910|publisher=South Australia}}</ref>
! width=10% | TAS<ref name="tas-law">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thelaw.tas.gov.au/tocview/index.w3p;cond=;doc_id=96%2B%2B2000%2BAT%40EN%2B20080816000000;histon=;prompt=;rec=-1;term=|title=Statutory Holidays Act 2000|publisher=Tasmania}}</ref>
! width=10% | VIC<ref name="vic-bill">{{Cite web|url=http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/LTObject_Store/LTObjSt3.nsf/DDE300B846EED9C7CA257616000A3571/FBC043F4F89CFF79CA257761002A8E5A/$FILE/93-119a024.pdf|title=Public Holidays Act 1993|publisher=Victoria}}</ref>
! width=10% | WA<ref name="wa-law"/>
|-
| [[New Year|New Year's Day]] || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes
|-
| [[Australia Day]] || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes
|-
| [[Good Friday]] || colspan="8" | Not applicable (always on a Friday)
|-
| [[Holy Saturday|Easter Saturday]] || colspan="5" | Not applicable (always on a Saturday) || Not applicable (not a holiday) || Not applicable (always on a Saturday) || Not applicable (not a holiday)
|-
| [[Easter Sunday]] || Not applicable (not a holiday) || Not applicable (always on a Sunday) || colspan="6" | Not applicable (not a holiday)
|-
| [[Easter Monday]] || colspan="7" | Not applicable (always on a Monday) || Yes (when another public holiday coincides)
|-
| [[Labour Day]] || colspan="8" | Not applicable (always on a Monday)
|-
| [[Anzac Day]] || Yes || No || colspan="3" | Yes || No || colspan="2" | Yes
|-
| [[Queen's Birthday]] || colspan="8" | Not applicable (always on a Monday)
|-
| [[Christmas]] || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes
|-
| [[Boxing Day]]/[[Proclamation Day]] || colspan="4" | Yes || Yes || Yes || Sunday only || Yes
|-
| [[New Year's Eve]] || colspan="4" | Not applicable (not a holiday) || Sunday only || colspan="3" | Not applicable (not a holiday)
|}

NOTE: Prior to 2008, Victorian law only specified substitute holidays for New Year and Boxing Day, and only if they fell on a Sunday.<ref name="vic-law">{{Cite web|url=http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubLawToday.nsf/a12f6f60fbd56800ca256de500201e54/B5E771391706115FCA257322000CECB3/$FILE/93-119a022.pdf|title=Public Holidays Act 2003|publisher=Victoria}}</ref> From 2008, Victorian law specifies the substitute holidays in the table above.<ref name="vic-bill"/>

Since [[Easter Monday]] can occur as late as 26 April (see [[Easter#Date|Date of Easter]]) it is possible for the Easter Monday holiday to coincide with [[Anzac Day]], as occurred in 2011. State Acts do not give a provision to separate the days when this occurs, so no additional public holiday is given by law. However an extra day is usually proclaimed by the minister, so as to have a steady number of public holidays each year.<ref name="nt-2011">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ocpe.nt.gov.au/legislation/holidays|title=Public Holidays 2011|publisher=Northern Territory}}</ref><ref name="sa-2011">{{Cite web|url=http://www.safework.sa.gov.au/show_page.jsp?id=2483#item33650|title=Public Holidays 2011|publisher=South Australia}}</ref><ref name="tas-2011">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wst.tas.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/84517/2011.pdf|title=Public Holidays 2011|publisher=Tasmania}}</ref> In the year 2038, Anzac Day will coincide with Easter Sunday.

===New Year's Day===

[[New Year]]'s Day is celebrated on 1 January each year in all [[States and territories of Australia|states and territories]].

===Australia Day===

[[Australia Day]] is Australia's national day celebrated on 26 January annually in all [[States and territories of Australia|states and territories]]. 26 January was chosen because it is the day of the establishment of the first English settlement at [[Port Jackson]] by Captain [[Arthur Phillip]] in 1788.<ref name="NADCHistory">{{cite web|url=http://www.australiaday.com.au/studentresources/history.aspx|title=National Australia Day Council - History|accessdate=20 February 2008}}</ref>

Since 1960, the winner of the [[Australian of the Year]] award is announced by the [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] on the eve of Australia Day (25 Jan).

Recorded celebrations date back to 1808 in Australia, and in [[1818 in Australia|1818]], Governor [[Lachlan Macquarie]] held the first official celebration of Australia Day.<ref name="nsw-hist">{{Cite web|url=http://www.australiaday.com.au/studentresources/history.aspx#Chronology|title=Australia Day History|accessdate = 29 October 2007|publisher=Australia Day Council of New South Wales}}</ref> It was made a public holiday in New South Wales in 1836, and Victoria adopted the day as a public holiday in 1931. It commenced to be celebrated by all states and territories in 1946, but began to be actually celebrated on 26 January from 1994.

===Labour Day===

[[Labour Day]] commemorates the achievements of the [[Australian labour movement]]. The celebration of Labour Day has its origins in the [[eight hour day]] movement, which advocated eight hours for work, eight hours for recreation, and eight hours for rest. On 21 April 1856 Stonemasons and building workers on building sites around [[Melbourne]], Australia, stopped work and marched from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight hour day. Their direct action protest was a success, and they are noted as the first organized workers in the world to achieve an eight hour day with no loss of pay, which subsequently inspired the celebration of Labour Day and [[May Day]].

The Labour Day public holiday varies considerably between the various [[States and territories of Australia|states and territories]]. It is the first Monday in October in the [[Australian Capital Territory]], [[Queensland]], [[New South Wales]] and [[South Australia]]. In both [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[Tasmania]], it is the second Monday in March. In Western Australia, Labour Day is the first Monday in March. In the [[Northern Territory]], it is the first Monday in May.

===Easter===
The days of Easter vary each year depending on the day determined by the [[Western Christian]] religious calendar. Until 1994 Easter Tuesday was a public holiday in Victoria (it retains this status partially in Tasmania). For the basis of how the days are determined see [[Easter]]. The NSW ''Public Holidays Act 2010'' refers to the day after [[Good Friday]] as "[[Holy Saturday|Easter Saturday]],"<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Holidays Act 2010 - Sect 4|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/sinodisp/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/pha2010163/s4.html|work=New South Wales Government|publisher=Australasian Legal Information Institute|accessdate=22 April 2011}}</ref> but the Victorian ''Public Holidays Act 1993'' refers to it merely as "the Saturday before Easter Sunday."<ref name="vic-bill" />

===Anzac Day===

[[Anzac Day]] is a day on which the country remembers those citizens who fell fighting or who served the country in wars. Anzac Day is commemorated on 25 April every year. The tradition began to remember the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZAC) soldiers who [[Battle of Gallipoli|landed]] at [[Gallipoli]] in [[Turkey]] during [[World War I]].

Anzac Day commemoration features marches by veterans and by solemn "Dawn Services", a tradition started in [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]], Western Australia on 25 April 1923 and now held at [[war memorials]] around the country, accompanied by thoughts of those lost at war to the ceremonial sounds of [[The Last Post]] on the [[Bugle (instrument)|bugle]]. The fourth stanza of [[Laurence Binyon|Laurence Binyon's]] poem [[s: For the Fallen|For the Fallen]] (known as the "[[Ode of Remembrance]]") is often recited.

===Queen's Birthday===

In all [[States and territories of Australia|states and territories]] except Western Australia, [[Queen's Birthday]] is observed on the second Monday in June. Because Western Australia celebrates [[Western Australia Day]] (formerly Foundation Day) on the first Monday in June, the [[Governor of Western Australia]] proclaims the day on which the state will observe the Queen's Birthday, based on school terms and the [[Perth Royal Show]].<ref>[http://www.docep.wa.gov.au/ Department of Consumer and Employment Protection, Labour Relations division]</ref> There is no firm rule to determine this date before it is proclaimed, though it is typically the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October. In 2011 the Queen's Birthday holiday in Western Australia was moved from Monday, 3 October 2011 to Friday, 28 October 2011 to coincide with the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), which was held in Perth.<ref>http://www.commerce.wa.gov.au/LabourRelations/Content/Employers/Pay_rates_leave_and_conditions/Public_holidays_in_Western_Aus.html</ref> In 2012, Queensland celebrated the Queen's Birthday on the first weekend in October, the June holiday for that year being a special holiday to mark the Queen's Diamond Jubilee.<ref>http://www.justice.qld.gov.au/fair-and-safe-work/industrial-relations/public-holidays/dates</ref> Following 2012, the holiday has reverted to its normal June date in Queensland in line with the other eastern states.

The day has been celebrated since 1788, when [[Governors of New South Wales|Governor]] [[Arthur Phillip]] declared a holiday to mark the birthday of [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]]. Until 1936 it was held on the actual birthday of the Monarch, but after the death of [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] it was decided to keep the date at mid-year.

On that day the "Queen's Birthday honours list" is released naming new members of the [[Order of Australia]] and other [[Australian honours system|Australian honours]]. This occurs on the date observed in the Eastern States, not the date observed in Western Australia.

The Queen's Birthday weekend and [[Empire Day]], 24 May, were long the traditional times for public [[firework]]s displays in Australia. Although they still occur, the tradition has recently been overshadowed by larger [[New Year's Eve]] fireworks, as the sale of fireworks to the public was progressively banned by the states in the 1980s. The sale of fireworks in the [[Australian Capital Territory]] was also banned on 24 August 2009.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cracker down: ACT bans fireworks |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/08/24/2664761.htm |date=24 August 2009 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |accessdate=24 August 2009}}</ref>

===Christmas Day===

[[Christmas]] is observed on 25 December each year to commemorate the birth of [[Jesus]]. In Australia, it was brought over as a matter of course with white English settlement in 1788. Though a Christian religious festival, it does not breach the constitution's separation of Church and State provision, because it is declared under State law, which is not subject to the provision....

===Boxing Day===

[[Boxing Day]] is on the day after Christmas, i.e. 26 December each year, except in South Australia. In South Australia, the first otherwise working day after Christmas is a public holiday called [[Proclamation Day]].

Boxing Day is noted for the start of the post-Christmas sale season. The day has also become a significant sporting day. Melbourne hosts the [[Boxing Day Test|Boxing Day Test Match]] and the [[Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race]] which also starts on this day.

==Other holidays==
*[[Sunday]] is nominally a public holiday in [[ South Australia]]←
*[[Proclamation Day]] is in December in South Australia only.
*[[Canberra Day]] is held on the 2nd Monday in March in the ACT. Prior to 2008, this holiday was celebrated on the 3rd Monday of March.
*[[Melbourne Cup Day]] is held on the first Tuesday of November - the day of the [[Melbourne Cup]]. It was originally observed only in the Melbourne metropolitan area. From 2007 to 2009 in ACT, Melbourne Cup day was also a holiday called "Family and Community Day" (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Day) The holiday continues from 2010 but no longer coincides with Melbourne Cup day. In Victoria, the Public Holidays Act 1993 (Vic) was amended from 24 September 2008 and made the Melbourne Cup Day holiday applicable in all parts of the state (unless another day is observed in substitute). It also made the holiday applicable to employees covered by [[industrial award|federal awards]].
*[[Recreation Day holiday|Recreation Day]] is the first Monday of November, and celebrated in Northern [[Tasmania]] where Regatta Day is not a holiday.
* [[Royal Hobart Regatta|Regatta Day]] is the second Monday in February, and is celebrated in Southern [[Tasmania]]. Previously it was held on the second Tuesday in February.
*[[Geelong Cup]] Day is held on the fourth Wednesday of October in the city of [[Geelong]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
*[[Queensland Day]] is celebrated on 6 June each year, but not with a public holiday.
*[[Adelaide Cup]] Day is held on the second Monday in March in South Australia (held in May before 2006)<ref>[http://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/australia/adelaide-cup Holidays: Adelaide Cup in Australia]</ref>
*[[Western Australia Day]] in Western Australia on the first Monday in June (4 June in 2012)
*[[Picnic Day (holiday)|Picnic Day]] in the Northern Territory in August, and also May Day
*Tasmania has [[Easter Tuesday]] as a bank holiday (for bank and government employees only).
*New South Wales has the first Monday in August as a bank holiday (for bank employees only).
*Many cities and towns observe local public holidays for their local [[Agricultural Show]]. For example:
**Darwin Show Day in [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] area in late July
**[[Ekka|Royal Queensland Show Day]] in Brisbane area in August
**Gold Coast Show in Gold Coast area in October

==Long weekends==
Australia is sometimes nicknamed the "land of the long weekend".<ref>[http://australiansatwork.com.au/shirts/shirts_so9-10.php Competing With ASian Clothing Tigers]</ref><ref>[http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=14&click_id=418&art_id=vn20050722102754972C668552 Australia - the land of the long weekend]</ref> However, Australians have "fewer public holidays than workers in most other industrialised countries."<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/07/04/1057179162638.html Whoever said this was the land of the long weekend?]</ref>

==Public holidays by state==

===Queensland===
The days are set in the "Holidays Act 1983".{{cite | title="Holidays Act 1983" | url = https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/CURRENT/H/HolidaysA83.pdf}} Most public holidays include a second public holiday on a week-day if they happen to fall on Saturday or Sunday. In which case, both days are public holidays.

:'''New Year's Day''': 1 January, and if 1 January is a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday.
:'''Australia Day''': 26 January, and if 26 January is a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday.
:'''Good Friday''': on the date it is publicly observed, always a Friday.
:'''The day after Good Friday''': Always a Saturday, one day after Good Friday.
:'''Easter Monday''': The next Monday after Good Friday.
:'''ANZAC Day''': 25 April, and if 25 April is a Sunday, the 26th of April.
:'''Birthday of the Sovereign''': 2nd Monday of the month of June.
:'''Labour Day''': 1st Monday of the month of October.
:'''Christmas Day''': 25th of December.
:'''Boxing Day''': 26th of December.
:If Christmas day (25th December) is a Saturday or Sunday, then '''27th December''' is also a public holiday.
:If Boxing day (26th December) is a Saturday or Sunday, then '''28th December''' is also a public holiday.

Because of the variable days of Easter, Anzac day could fall on an Easter holiday. When ANZAC falls on Saturday, there is no week day public holiday. In such situations it is generally expected that the minister will proclaim extra public holidays on week-days to ensure every year has the number number of public holidays on week-days.

The minister of the state may proclaim and adjustments or additions, such as the date of the Brisbane Ekka Show day holiday. This day has historically always been proclaimed for the second Wednesday in August, except if there are 5 Wednesday's in August, in which case the third Wednesday in August.{{cite | title="Public holiday dates for 2011-2015" | url=http://www.justice.qld.gov.au/fair-and-safe-work/industrial-relations/public-holidays/dates}}

In 2011 ANZAC Day and Easter Monday fell on the same day, and so the minister moved Easter Monday to Tuesday.

In 2011, Queensland changed the gazetted public holidays in the Holiday Act where if a public holiday falls on a Sunday the following day will be an additional public holiday, rather than a substitute day. In addition to this, there was a special [[Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II|Queen's Jubilee]] public holiday in June 2012 only and the Queen's Birthday public holiday was moved to the first Monday in October.<ref name=qld-law />
After 2012, the Queen's Birthday will be celebrated in Queensland on the second Monday in June in line with the other eastern states.<ref>{{cite news | title =Holiday double treat for Queen's big year | work = | publisher =Fairfax Media| date =November 6, 2011| url = http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/holiday-double-treat-for-queens-big-year-20111106-1n1ow.html| accessdate = 31 January 2012}}</ref>

===New South Wales===
Public holidays generally follow the national pattern, but special cases are resolved by the State Government and advised by proclamation. Details of future holidays can be found on the [http://www.industrialrelations.nsw.gov.au/oirwww/NSW_public_holidays.page NSW Industrial Relations website]. Public holidays are regulated by the New South Wales [http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/maintop/view/inforce/act+115+2010+cd+0+N ''Public Holidays Act 2010 No 115''], which supersedes the [http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/fullhtml/inforce/act+43+1912+FIRST+0+N/ ''Banks and Bank Holidays Act 1912 No 43''].

The first Monday in August is a Bank Holiday, during which banks and financial institutions are closed.<ref>{{cite web|title=NSW Retail Trading Act 2008 No 49|url=http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/maintop/view/inforce/act+49+2008+cd+0+N|at=Part 3A}}</ref>

===Victoria===
Public holidays in Victoria are regulated by the Victorian [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/pha1993163/ ''Public Holidays Act'' 1993].

Victorian employees fall under the [[Workchoices]] system either as coming within the Commonwealth constitutional power (called "constitutional corporation employees") or because of Victoria's referral of its legislative powers to the Commonwealth for particular workplace relations matters.

Employee entitlements to public holidays and additional pay depend on whether they are covered by a federal award or agreement.

Employees not covered by a federal award or agreement are entitled to public holidays under the Victorian ''Public Holidays Act'' 1993. Also, all permanent employees not covered by a federal award or agreement who would normally work on a public holiday (or a substitute public holiday) are entitled to the holiday without loss of pay. Their employers are not required to provide additional payment if they work on a public holiday, but this doesn't exclude the possibility of employees and employers negotiating for additional pay.

Employees who are covered by a federal award or agreement are entitled to public holidays as provided by the relevant federal award or agreement and the ''Public Holidays Act'' 1993. Many federal awards and agreements also provide for additional penalty rates for work performed on a public holiday.

Restricted [[Shopping hours|shop trading laws]] apply to Good Friday, Christmas Day and before 1 pm on Anzac Day. On these days only exempted businesses are permitted to open for trading.<ref>[http://www.business.vic.gov.au/BUSVIC/STANDARD//PC_62300.html Business Victoria - Can I open my shop on a public holiday?]</ref> All public holidays and substitute public holidays are [[bank holidays]].<ref>[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/pha1993163/s9.html Public Holidays Act 1993 - (sec 9 Bank Holidays)]</ref>

The Victorian public holidays are as follows:<ref>[http://www.business.vic.gov.au/BUSVIC/STANDARD//PC_50544.html Business Vicoria - Victorian Public Holidays & Shop Trading Hours - 2009]</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Date
|-
| [[New Year]] || 1 January
|-
| [[Australia Day]] || 26 January
|-
| [[Labour Day]] || 2nd Monday in March
|-
| [[Good Friday]] || Friday before Easter
|-
| [[Holy Saturday|Easter Saturday]] || Day before Easter
|-
| Easter Monday || Day after Easter
|-
| [[Anzac Day]] || 25 April
|-
| [[Queen's Birthday]] || 2nd Monday in June
|-
| [[Melbourne Cup Day]] || 1st Tuesday of November*
|-
| [[Christmas]] || 25 December
|-
| [[Boxing Day]] || 26 December
|}

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Melbourne Cup Day is observed in most of the state, but various [[horse racing#Australia|cup days]] and [[Agricultural show|show days]] in the state's west are locally substituted. See the list at [http://www.vic.gov.au/about-victoria-tourism/holidays-daylight-saving/public-holidays/victorian-non-metropolitan-public-holiday-dates.html].

Melbourne Show Day used to be observed on the Thursday in the last full week of September as a public holiday until 1994.<ref>[http://www.rasv.com.au/history.asp A Historical Summaryof the RASV]</ref> Easter Tuesday was also observed as a public holiday in Victoria until 1994.

==References==
* [http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/public-holidays-and-school-terms#NationalPublicHolidays National Public Holidays]
* [http://www.australia.gov.au/Public_Holidays Australian Government - Public Holidays] - Public holidays for each Australian state
* [http://www.actu.asn.au/public/library/publicholidays.html Australian Council of Trades Unions - Library: Public Holidays]
{{Reflist}}

{{Oceania topic|Public holidays in}}
{{Australia topics}}
{{Australia Holidays}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2011}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Public Holidays In Australia}}
[[Category:Public holidays by country|Australia]]
[[Category:Public holidays in Australia|*]]

Liste ungewöhnlicher Todesfälle

2013-12-03T14:28:00Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 112.201.182.201 (talk) to last revision by 50.39.194.162 (HG)

{{dynamic list}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2013}}
{{disputed-list|date=November 2013}}
This is a '''list of unusual deaths'''. This list includes unique or extremely rare circumstances of death recorded throughout history, noted as being unusual by multiple sources. Some of the deaths are mythological or are considered to be unsubstantiated by contemporary researchers. Oxford Dictionaries defines the word "unusual" as "not habitually or commonly occurring or done" and "remarkable or interesting because different from or better than others."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/unusual?q=unusual | title=Definition of unusual in English | publisher=Oxford Dictionaries | accessdate=26 October 2013}}</ref>

Some other articles also cover deaths that might be considered unusual or ironic, including [[List of entertainers who died during a performance]], [[List of inventors killed by their own inventions]], [[List of association footballers who died while playing]], [[List of professional cyclists who died during a race]] and the [[List of political self-immolations]].
{{TOC limit|2}}

== Antiquity ==
{{Hatnote|'''Note:''' Many of these stories are likely to be [[wikt:apocryphal|apocryphal]].}}
[[File:Death of Aeschylus in Florentine Picture Chronicle.jpg|thumb|The death of '''[[Aeschylus]]''' illustrated in the 15th century ''Florentine Picture Chronicle'' by [[Maso Finiguerra]].<ref>{{citation |title=Meditation in Solitude |author=Ursula Hoff |journal=Journal of the Warburg Institute |volume=vol. 1 |number=44 |year=1938 |pages=292–294 |publisher=The Warburg Institute |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/749994}}</ref>]]

*[[circa|c.]] 620 BC: '''[[Draco (lawgiver)|Draco]]''', Athenian law-maker, was smothered to death by gifts of cloaks and hats showered upon him by appreciative citizens at a theatre on [[Aegina]].<ref>Suidas. "[http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?login=guest&enlogin=guest&db=REAL&field=adlerhw_gr&searchstr=delta,1495&filter=CD-Unicode {{lang|grc|Δράκων}}]", ''Suda On Line'', Adler number delta, 1495.</ref><ref>{{citation |page=161 |chapter=Most Unusual Death |title=Felton & Fowler's Best, Worst, and Most Unusual |author=Bruce Felton, Mark Fowler |publisher=Random House |year=1985 |isbn=9780517462973}}</ref>
*564 BC: '''[[Arrhichion]] of [[Phigalia]]''', Greek [[Pankration|pankratiast]], caused his own death during the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic]] finals. Held by his unidentified opponent in a stranglehold and unable to free himself, Arrichion's trainer shouted "What a fine funeral if you do not submit at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]]!" Arrichion then kicked his opponent with his right foot while casting his body to the left, causing his opponent so much pain that he made the sign of defeat to the [[umpire]]s, while at the same time breaking Arrichion's own neck as the other fighter was still strangleholding him. Since the opponent had conceded defeat, Arrichion was proclaimed victor posthumously.<ref>{{citation |title=The Salt Lake Loonie |author=Brett Matlock, Jesse Matlock |publisher=University of Regina Press |year=2011 |page=81}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=The Pankration and Wrestling |author=EN Gardiner |title=The Journal of Hellenic Studies |year=1906 |quote=Fatal accidents did occur as in the case of Arrhichion, but they were very rare...}}</ref>
*455 BC: '''[[Aeschylus]]''', the great Athenian author of [[tragedy|tragedies]]. [[Valerius Maximus]] wrote that he was killed by a [[tortoise]] dropped by an eagle that had mistaken his head for a rock suitable for shattering the shell of the reptile. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis Historiæ]]'', adds that Aeschylus had been staying outdoors to avert a prophecy that he would be killed by a falling object.<ref name=CGC>{{citation |page=136 |quote=The unusual nature of Aeschylus's death... |title=A Cabinet of Greek Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the Cradle of Western Civilization |author=J. C. McKeown |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9780199982103}}</ref><ref name=tortue>{{citation |title=La tortue d'Eschyle et autres morts stupides de l'Histoire |isbn=9782352042211 |publisher=Editions Les Arènes |year=2012}}</ref>
*401 BC: '''[[Mithridates (soldier)|Mithridates]]''', a soldier who embarrassed his king, [[Artaxerxes II]], by boasting of killing his rival, [[Cyrus the Younger]], was executed by [[scaphism]]. The king's physician, [[Ctesias]], reported that he survived the insect torture for 17 days.<ref name=10tbd>{{citation |chapter=10 truly bizarre deaths |title=Listverse.Com's Ultimate Book of Bizarre Lists |author=Jamie Frater |publisher=Ulysses Press |year=2010 |isbn=9781569758175 |pages=12–14}}</ref><ref name=acogc>{{citation |title=A Cabinet of Greek Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the Cradle of Western Civilization |page=102 |author=J. C. McKeown |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9780199982127 |quote=Ctesias, the Greek physician to Artaxerxes, the king of Persia, gives an appallingly detailed description of the execution inflicted on a soldier named Mithridates, who was misguided enough to claim the credit for killing the king's brother, Cyrus...}}</ref>
*270 BC: '''[[Philitas of Cos]]''', Greek intellectual, is said by [[Athenaeus]] to have studied arguments and erroneous word usage so intensely that he wasted away and starved to death.<ref name="9.401e">[[Athenaeus]], ''[[Deipnosophistae]]'', [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature.AthV2.p0115 9.401e].</ref> British classicist [[Alan Cameron (classical scholar)|Alan Cameron]] speculates that Philitas died from a [[wasting]] disease which his contemporaries joked was caused by his [[pedant]]ry.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= The Classical Quarterly |volume=41 |issue=2 |year=1991 |pages=534–8 |author=Alan Cameron |title= How thin was Philitas? |doi= 10.1017/S0009838800004717}}</ref>
*210 BC: '''[[Qin Shi Huang]]''', the first [[Emperor of China]], died after ingesting several pills of [[mercury poisoning|mercury]] in the belief that it would grant him [[immortality|eternal life]]. His eunuch courtiers concealed the death while they plotted the succession and used carts of fish to disguise the smell of the corpse. He was then buried in a fantastic tomb which is still being excavated. His artifacts and treasures include the famous [[Terracotta Army]] which was created for him to rule from his grave.<ref>{{citation |author=Wright, David Curtis |year=2001 |title=The History of China |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=49 |isbn=0-313-30940-X}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=The First Emperor |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=9780191527630 |pages=82, 150}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://www.esquire.com/blogs/culture/Royalty-and-their-strange-deaths |title=Royalty and their Strange Deaths |author=Nate Hopper |date=4 Feb 2013 |journal=[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]}}</ref>
*212 AD: '''[[Lucius Fabius Cilo]]''', a [[Roman senator]] of the 2nd century, "...choked...by a single hair in a draught of milk".<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], {{cite web |title=Nat. History, vii ''7'' |url= http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/7*.html}}</ref>
*258 AD: The martyr '''[[Saint Lawrence]]''' was roasted alive on a giant grill during the persecution of [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]].<ref>[http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=366 "St. Lawrence - Martyr" at catholic.org]</ref><ref>[http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-lawrence-of-rome/ "Saint Lawrence of Rome" at saints.sqpn.com]</ref> [[Prudentius]] tells that he joked with his tormentors, "Turn me over — I'm done on this side".<ref>{{citation |page=42 |title=Enduring Creation: Art, Pain, and Fortitude |author=Nigel Jonathan Spivey |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=9780520230224}}</ref> He is now the [[patron saint]] of cooks and firefighters.<ref>{{citation |title=The Encyclopedia Americana |volume=vol. 17 |page=85 |year=1981 |isbn=9780717201129}}</ref>
*336 AD: '''[[Arius]]''', [[presbyter]] of [[Alexandria]], [[Arius#Exile, return, and death|is said]] to have died of sudden diarrhea followed by copious [[Bleeding|hemorrhaging]] and anal expulsion of the [[intestine]]s while he walked across the imperial forum in [[Constantinople]]. He may have been poisoned.<ref>[[Gregory of Tours]], ''History of the Franks'' 2.23.</ref>
*415 AD: '''[[Hypatia]] of Alexandria''', Greek mathematician, philosopher and intellectual, often called the last librarian of the [[Library of Alexandria]], though it was destroyed long before her time, was murdered by a [[Christianity|Christian]] mob that ripped off her skin with sharp seashells. Various types of shells have been named, including clams, oysters and abalones. Other sources claim tiles or pottery [[Sherd|shard]]s were used.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Hypatia.html |title=Hypatia biography |publisher=History.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>

{{Gallery
|width=160| height=250|align=center|lines=6
|File:Antikythera philosopher.JPG|Greek intellectual '''[[Philitas of Cos]]''', said to have studied arguments and erroneous word usage so intensely that he wasted away and starved to death.<ref name="9.401e"/>
|File:Qinshihuang.jpg |'''[[Qin Shi Huang]]''', the first [[Emperor of China]] who sought immortality but died an untimely death which was concealed by his courtiers using smelly fish.
|File:Martyrdom of Lawrence - Edited.jpg |The martyrdom of [[Saint Lawrence]] by [[Titian]]. This painting so impressed [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] that he commissioned another one for his basilica in [[El Escorial]].
|File:Hypatia (Charles William Mitchell).jpg |[[Hypatia]] painted by [[Charles William Mitchell]] in 1885.
}}

== Middle Ages ==
[[File:Charles le Mauvais.jpg|thumb|upright|An illustration of [[Charles II of Navarre]], burned alive when brandy-soaked bandages, in which he was wrapped, were set on fire.]]
*762: '''[[Li Bai|Li Po (Li Bai)]]''', Chinese poet and [[courtier]], supposedly tried to kiss the reflection of the [[Moon]] beside the boat in which he was travelling, fell overboard and drowned.<ref>''[[The Book of Lists]]'', 2004 edition. "...Some scholars believed he actually died of [[cirrhosis]]." Compare [[Li Bai#Death]].</ref>
*892: '''[[Sigurd Eysteinsson|Sigurd the Mighty]]''' of [[Orkney]] strapped the head of his defeated foe, [[Máel Brigte of Moray|Máel Brigte]], to his horse's saddle. The teeth of the head grazed against his leg as he rode, causing a fatal infection.<ref>Translations of the ''Orkneyinga saga'' (chapters 4 and 5), which relates the story, can be read online at [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/ice/is3/is302.htm Sacred texts] and [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/orkney/001.php Northvegr].</ref>
*1063: '''[[Béla I of Hungary]]''' died when his wooden throne collapsed upon him.<ref name=EBO2012>{{cite web | title = Bela I | year = 2012 | work = [[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/59031/Bela-I | accessdate = 13 August 2012}}</ref>
*1131: '''[[Philip of France (1116–1131)|Crown Prince Philip of France]]''' died while riding through Paris, when his horse tripped over a black pig running out of a dung heap.<ref>Ordericus Vitalis, ''The Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy'', v. 4, p. 129</ref>
*1258: '''[[Al-Musta'sim]]''', the last [[Abbasid]] [[Caliph]] of [[Baghdad]], was executed by his [[Mongols|Mongol]] captors by being rolled up in a rug and then trampled by horses.<ref>{{cite book|last=Frater|first=Jamie|title= Listverse.Com's Ultimate Book of Bizarre Lists|year=2010|publisher=Ulysses Press|location=Canada|isbn= 9781569758175|page=400}}</ref>
*1327: '''[[Edward II of England]]''', after being deposed and imprisoned by his [[Queen consort|wife]] [[Isabella of France|Isabella]] and her lover [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]], was rumoured to have been murdered by having a [[Horn (anatomy)|horn]] pushed into his anus through which a red-hot iron was inserted, burning out his internal organs without marking his body.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A History of Great Britain: 3000BC-AD1603|year=2000 |publisher=BBC Worldwide |location= London|id= }} p.220</ref><ref>[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=176011 A red-hot poker? It was just a red herring | General | Times Higher Education]</ref> However, as Seymour Phillips observes in his recent biography of the king, there is no real academic consensus on the manner of Edward II's death and it has been plausibly argued (for example, by Ian Mortimer) that the story is effectively propaganda.<ref>Phillips, Seymour, Edward II, Yale University Press, copyright 2010. pgs 560-565.</ref>
*1387: '''[[Charles II of Navarre]]''', after having been wrapped in bandages soaked in brandy in an attempt to cure an illness, was burned alive when a servant accidentally set the bandages on fire.<ref>Barbara Tuchman;''A Distant Mirror'', 1978, Alfred A Knopf Ltd</ref>
*1410: '''[[Martin of Aragon]]''' died from a combination of indigestion and [[Death from laughter|uncontrollable laughing]].<ref>[http://www.cc.jyu.fi/mirator/pdf/Morris.pdf "Patronage and Piety – Montserrat and the Royal House of Medieval Catalonia-Aragon"]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}, Paul N. Morris, ''Mirator Lokakuu'', October 2000</ref>
*1478: '''[[George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence|George Plantagenet]]''', [[Duke of Clarence]], was executed by drowning in a barrel of [[Malvasia|Malmsey wine]] at his own request.<ref>Thompson, C. J. S. ''Mysteries of History with Accounts of Some Remarkable Characters and Charlatans'', pp. 31 ''ff.'' Kila, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2004.</ref>

== Renaissance ==
[[File:Tycho Brahe.JPG|thumb|right|[[Tycho Brahe]] survived a duel, losing only his nose, but both he and his pet moose died from the effects of too much drink.]]
*1518: In the '''[[Dancing Plague of 1518]]''' a woman (and eventually a league of 400 people) uncontrollably danced for a month causing dozens of participants to die of stroke and exhaustion. The reason for this occurrence is still unclear.<ref name="Discovery Viegas">{{cite web |url= http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/08/01/dancing-death-mystery.html |title= 'Dancing Plague' and Other Odd Afflictions Explained |first= Jennifer |last= Viegas |date= 1 August 2008 |work= Discovery News |publisher= [[Discovery Communications]] |accessdate=8 August 2008 }}</ref>{{dead link|date=April 2013}}
*1552: '''Henry Pert''' a gentleman, of [[Welbeck]], [[Nottinghamshire]], died when he stretched his bow to its full extent and the arrow got lodged. While he was leaning over to look at it, the arrow released.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=BBC News|title=10 strange ways Tudors died|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-13762313}}</ref>
*1556: '''[[Pietro Aretino]]''', an Italian poet, satirist and pornographer, is said to have died by suffocation caused by [[Death from laughter|uncontrollable laughter]].<ref>Waterfield, Gordon, ed. ''First Footsteps in East Africa'', (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1966) pg. 59 footnote.</ref>
*1567: '''Hans Steininger''', the [[burgomaster]] of [[Brunau]], [[Austria]], died when he broke his neck by tripping over his own beard.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hall |first1= Charles Winslow|year=1910 |title=The Nobility of the Trades: Barbers and Hairdressers|journal= National Magazine|volume=32 |issue=1 |page=472 |publisher= |date=April 1910}}</ref> The beard, which was {{convert|4.5|ft|m}} long at the time, was usually kept rolled up in a leather pouch.<ref>{{cite web|title=HowStuffWorks - 10 Bizarre Ways to Die|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/human-biology/10-ways-to-die3.htm}}</ref>
*1601: '''[[Tycho Brahe]]''' died from complications of a burst bladder after refusing to leave a dinner table to relieve himself because it would have been a breach of etiquette.<ref>{{cite news |author=John Tierney |coauthors= |title=Murder! Intrigue! Astronomers? |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/30/science/30tierney.html?pagewanted=all |quote=At the time of Tycho's death, in 1601, the blame fell on his failure to relieve himself while drinking profusely at the banquet, supposedly injuring his bladder and making him unable to urinate. |work=[[New York Times]] |date=November 29, 2010 |accessdate=2010-11-30 |authorlink= John Tierney (journalist) }}</ref><ref>Thoren ([[#VET|1990]], p.[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=F5a83U4B8XkC&pg=PA468 468–69])</ref><ref>{{Cite news
|title=Was Tycho Brahe Poisoned? According to New Evidence, Probably Not
|date=17 November 2012
|author=Terri Pous
|journal=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] – Bizarre
|quote="a fatal case of politeness.", "Brahe makes a good case for strangest historical death"
|url=http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/11/17/was-tycho-brahe-poisoned-according-to-new-evidence-probably-not/
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
|title=Tycho Brahe's 'murder' investigated
|date=15 November 2012
|journal=[[The Guardian]]
|url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/nov/15/astronomer-tycho-brahe-death-scientists
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=Bones of Danish Astronomer Tycho Brahe May Yield Clues to His Death
|date=19 November 2010
|publisher=[http://space.com space.com]
|url=http://www.space.com/9567-bones-danish-astronomer-tycho-brahe-yield-clues-death.html
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=Tycho Brahe Died From Burst Bladder, Not Poisoning, Astronomer's Exhumed Body Shows
|date=16 November 2012
|author=Megan Gannon
|publisher=[[Huffington Post]]
|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/18/tycho-brahe-death-poison-bladder_n_2148980.html
}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=The Medici Giraffe: And Other Tales of Exotic Animals and Power |author=Marina Belozerskaya |publisher=Hachette UK |year=2009 |isbn=9780316076425 |chapter= Rudolf II's Empire of Knowledge}}</ref>
*1667: '''James Betts''' died from asphyxiation after being sealed in a cupboard by Elizabeth Spencer, at [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]] in an attempt to hide him from her father, [[John Spencer (Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge)|John Spencer]].<ref name=Rackham>{{cite book| last = Rackham | first = Oliver | title= Treasures of Silver at Corpus Christi College | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-521-81880-X}}</ref><ref name="Corpus Christi College">{{cite web|url=http://www.corpus.cam.ac.uk/about-corpus/maps-and-tours/take-a-virtual-tour/225|title=Corpus Christi Website -Corpus Ghost|publisher=Corpus Christi College}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Guiley| first = Rosemary Ellen | title= The Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits | publisher = Checkmark books| edition = 2nd | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-8160-4086-5}}</ref>

{{Gallery
|width=160| height=250|align=center|lines=2
|File:PietroAretinobyMarcantonio.PNG|[[Pietro Aretino]], who died from [[Death from laughter|uncontrollable laughter]].
}}

== 18th century ==
[[File:Crown prince Sado of Joseon.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|Crown Prince Sado was sealed alive in a rice chest to prevent him inheriting the throne of Korea.<ref name=sado/>]]

*1755: '''[[Henry Hall (lighthouse keeper)|Henry Hall]]''' died from injuries he sustained after molten lead fell into his throat while he was looking up at [[Eddystone Lighthouse|a burning lighthouse]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mOgRAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA38#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Universal magazine |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=7 August 2011|year=1757}}</ref>

*1762: '''[[Crown Prince Sado]]''', then-heir to [[Kingdom of Korea|King]] [[Yeongjo of Joseon]], was ordered to be sealed alive in a rice chest after his father decided he was unfit to succeed him.<ref name=sado>{{cite web | url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2009/11/142_56275.html | title=Book Reconstitutes Secret of Prince Sado's Death | work=The Korea Times | date=27 November 2009 | accessdate=30 May 2011 | author=Ah-young Chung}}</ref>

*1771: '''[[Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden]]''', died of digestion problems on 12 February 1771 after having consumed a meal of lobster, caviar, sauerkraut, smoked herring and champagne, topped off with 14 servings of his favourite dessert: [[semla|hetvägg]] served in a bowl of hot milk.<ref>[http://www.thelocal.se/6470/20070220/ The lowdown on Sweden's best buns] ''The Local'', February 2007</ref> He is thus remembered by Swedish schoolchildren as "the king who ate himself to death."<ref>[http://www.messengernews.net/page/content.detail/id/503630.html?nav=5007 Semlor are Swedish treat for Lent] Sandy Mickelson, ''The Messenger'', 27 February 2008</ref>

*1782: Mrs Fitzherbert [[death from laughter|died from laughter]]. On a Wednesday evening she had seen Mr. Bannister at [[The Beggar's Opera]], and laughed with the rest of the audience upon his comical entrance. She was unable to stop laughing, and had to leave the theater. She continued laughing until her death on Friday morning.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=7CEJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA302&dq=A+Selection+of+Curious+Articles+from+the+Gentleman's+Magazine+Bannister&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KTppUuCBNYHkyAGXn4GIAw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=Bannister%20laugh&f=false A Selection of Curious Articles from the Gentleman's Magazine,] Volume 4 By John Walker, page 302. The chapter title states "Deaths of Persons" ..."peculiar circumstances".</ref>
*1783: '''[[James Otis, Jr.]]''', the [[American Revolution]]ary, "often mentioned to friends and relatives that ... he hoped his death would come from a bolt of [[lightning]]." His hope was fulfilled on 23 May 1783 when lightning struck the chimney of a friend's house in whose doorway he was standing.<ref name="Book of Lists">''[[The Book of Lists]]'', 2004 edition.</ref>

*1794: '''[[John Kendrick (American sea captain)|John Kendrick]]''', an American sea captain and explorer, was killed in the [[Hawaii|Hawaiian Islands]] when a fellow trading ship mistakenly used a loaded cannon to fire a salute to Kendrick's vessel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=1983 |title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online |publisher=Biographi.ca |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref>

== 19th century ==
*1816: '''[[Gouverneur Morris]]''', an American statesman, died after sticking a piece of whale bone through his urinary tract to relieve a blockage.<ref>{{cite book|last=Adams|first=William Howard|title=Gouverneur Morris: an independent life|year=2003|publisher=Yale University Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=GYxgEf7VbMcC&pg=PA323&dq=Gouverneur+Morris++whalebone#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0-300-09980-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kirschke|first=James J.|title=Gouverneur Morris: author, statesman, and man of the world|year=2005|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0-312-24195-X|url=http://books.google.com/?id=MkqBV79cVMkC&pg=PA265&lpg=PA265&dq=Gouverneur+Morris++whalebone#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>
*1830: '''[[William Huskisson]]''', statesman and financier, was run over by a locomotive ([[Stephenson's Rocket]]), at the [[Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway|public opening of the world's first mechanically powered railway to offer a scheduled passenger service]], a railway which he had himself done much to promote.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garfield|first=Simon|title=The Last Journey of William Huskisson|year=2002|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=0571216080}}</ref>
*1834: '''[[David Douglas]]''', Scottish [[botany|botanist]], fell into a [[pit trap]] where he was trampled by a wild bull.<ref>{{citation |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=74QkpEL5TCoC&pg=PA106 |title=Early American Naturalists: Exploring The American West, 1804-1900 |page=106 |author=John Moring |publisher=Taylor Trade Publications |year=2005 |isbn=9781589791831}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yDC7gu-sCMsC&pg=PA160 |page=160 |title=Flower Hunters |author=John and Mary Gribbin |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=9780192807182}}</ref>
*1871: '''[[Clement Vallandigham]]''', a lawyer and Ohio politician, accidentally shot himself demonstrating how a victim might possibly have shot himself while in the process of drawing a weapon from a kneeling position. Though the defendant, Thomas McGehan, was ultimately cleared, Vallandigham died from his wound.<ref>[http://www.historiclebanonohio.com/?q=vallandigham Death of Clement Vallandigham | HistoricLebanonOhio.com]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.civil-war-150.com/tag/clement-vallandigham/ |title=Fatal Accident to Mr. Vallandigham: The Western Reserve Chronicle, June 21, 1871, page 2 |publisher=civil-war-150.com |date=June 13, 2012 |accessdate=November 2, 2013}}</ref>

{{Gallery
|width=160|height=250|align=center|lines=4
|Image:Clement Vallandigham - Brady-Handy.jpg|Clement Vallandigham - died after demonstrating how a victim might have accidentally shot himself
}}

== 20th century ==

=== 1920s ===
*1920: '''[[Ray Chapman|Ray "Chappie" Chapman]]''', shortstop for the Cleveland Indians baseball team, was killed when a [[submarine (baseball)|submarine ball]] thrown by [[Carl Mays]] hit him in the [[temple (anatomy)|temple]]. Chapman collapsed at the plate, and died about 12 hours later. He remains the only major league baseball player killed by a pitched ball.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/sports/year_in_sports/08.17.html |title=The Death of Ray Chapman|work=[[New York Times]] |date=17 August 1920}}</ref>
*1920: '''[[Dan Andersson]]''', a Swedish author, died of cyanide poisoning while staying at Hotel Hellman in [[Stockholm]]. The hotel staff had failed to clear the room after using hydrogen cyanide against [[bed bug]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://litteraturbanken.se/#!forfattare/AnderssonD/presentation |title=Dan Andersson (1888–1920)}}</ref>
*1920: '''[[Alexander of Greece|Alexander I]]''', King of the Hellenes, was taking a walk in the [[National Garden of Athens|Royal Gardens]], when his dog was attacked by a monkey. The King attempted to defend his dog, receiving bites from both the monkey and its mate.<ref>[[John Van der Kiste]], ''Kings of the Hellenes'' (Alan Sutton Publishing, Stroud, Gloucestershire, England, 1994) ISBN 0-7509-0525-5 p. 119</ref> The diseased animals' bites caused [[sepsis]] and Alexander died three weeks later.
*1923: '''[[Frank Hayes (jockey)|Frank Hayes]]''', a [[jockey]] at [[Belmont Park]], [[New York]], died of a heart attack during his first race. His mount finished first with his body still attached to the saddle, and he was only discovered to be dead when the horse's owner went to congratulate him.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60B13F83C5416738DDDAC0894DE405B838EF1D3&scp=1&sq=jockey+hayes&st=p|title=Jockey Dies as He Wins His First Race; Hayes Collapses Passing the Winning Post |work=New York Times |date=5 June 1923 |accessdate=20 February 2011}}</ref>
*1923: '''[[George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon]]''', died allegedly because of the so-called [[Curse of the pharaohs|King Tut's Curse]] after a mosquito bite on his face, which he cut while shaving, became seriously infected with [[erysipelas]], leading to blood poisoning and eventually pneumonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/carnarvon.htm |title=The Life of Lord Carnarvon |publisher=Touregypt.net |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |title=Carnarvon Is Dead Of An Insect's Bite At Pharaoh's Tomb. Blood Poisoning and Ensuing Pneumonia Conquer Tut-ankh-Amen Discoverer in Egypt. |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20C11F7355416738DDDAC0894DC405B838EF1D3 |quote=The Earl of Carnarvon died peacefully at 2 o'clock this morning. He was conscious almost to the end. |work=[[New York Times]] |date=5 April 1923 |accessdate=12 August 2008 }}</ref>

[[Image:Isadora Duncan portrait.jpg|thumb|150px|Isadora Duncan, ballerina, died when her long scarf, caught on the wheel of a car, broke her neck.]]

*1925: '''[[Zishe Breitbart|Zishe (Siegmund) Breitbart]]''', a circus strongman and Jewish folklore hero, died after demonstrating he could drive a spike through five one-inch (2.54 cm) thick oak boards using only his bare hands. He accidentally pierced his knee and the rusted spike caused an infection which led to fatal blood poisoning.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/Breitbart/breitbart-index.htm |title=Siegmund Breitbart |publisher=Sandowplus.co.uk |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>
*1926: '''Phillip McClean''', 16, from [[Queensland]], Australia became the only person documented to have been killed by a [[cassowary]]. After encountering the bird on their family property near [[Mossman, Queensland|Mossman]] in April,<ref>{{cite book|last=Christensen|first=Liana|title=Deadly Beautiful: Vanishing Killers of the Animal Kingdom|year=2011|publisher=Exisle Publishing|location=Wollombi, NSW|isbn=9781921497223|page=272}}</ref> McClean and his brother decided to kill it with clubs. When McClean struck the bird it knocked him down, then kicked him in the neck, opening a 1.25 cm (0.5 in) long cut in one of his main blood vessels. Though the boy managed to get back on his feet and run away, he collapsed a short while later and died from the hemorrhage.<ref>Kofron, Christopher P., Chapman, Angela. (2006) "Causes of mortality to the endangered Southern Cassowary Casuarius casuariusjohnsonii in Queensland, Australia." Pacific Conservation Biology vol. 12: 175–179</ref>
*1926: '''[[Harry Houdini]]''', the famous American escape artist, was punched in the stomach by an amateur boxer. Though this had been done with Houdini's permission, complications from this injury may have caused him to die days later, on 31 October 1926. It was later determined that Houdini died of a ruptured appendix,<ref>{{cite web|title=Harry Houdini – Biography|url=http://www.apl.org/history/houdini/biography.html|publisher=Appleton History|accessdate=4 August 2009}}</ref> though it is contested as to whether or not the punches actually caused the appendicitis.<ref>{{cite web|title=Death of Houdini|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/houdini.asp|publisher=Urban Legends Reference Paces|accessdate=9 May 2012}}</ref><ref name=cfk/>
*1927: '''[[Isadora Duncan]]''', dancer, died of a broken neck when her long scarf caught on the wheel of a car in which she was a passenger.<ref>{{cite web|last=Brown|first=Ismene|title=Isadora Duncan, Sublime or Ridiculous?|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/dance/4949201/Isadora-Duncan-sublime-or-ridiculous.html|work=The Telegraph|date=6 March 2009|accessdate=26 April 2013}}</ref>

=== 1930s ===
*1930: '''[[William Kogut]]''', an inmate on death row at [[San Quentin State Prison|San Quentin]], committed suicide with a pipe bomb created from several packs of playing cards and the hollow leg from his cot. At the time, the red ink in playing cards contained flammable [[nitrocellulose]], which when wet can create an explosive mixture. Kogut used the heater in his cell to activate the bomb.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/kogut.asp |title=Death by Playing Cards – Solitaire |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref>
*1932: '''[[Eben Byers]]''', an American golfer and industrialist, died from multiple cancers caused by drinking more than 1400 bottles of a radioactive "health potion" called [[Radithor]].<ref>{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=Death Stirs Action on Radium 'Cures'. |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0F16F93D5A13738DDDAB0894DC405B828FF1D3 |quote=Federal and local agencies, as well as medical authorities in various parts of the country, were stirred to action yesterday as a result of the death of Eben M. Byers, wealthy Pittsburgh steel manufacturer and sportsman, who died here Wednesday at the Doctors' Hospital from causes attributed to radium poisoning resulting from the drinking of water containing radium in solution. ... |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=2 April 1932 |accessdate=1 October 2011 }}</ref>
[[File:Sherwood Anderson (1933).jpg|thumb|180px|Sherwood Anderson, who died after swallowing a toothpick]]
*1933: '''[[Michael Malloy]]''', a homeless man, was murdered by five men in a plot to collect on [[life insurance]] policies they had purchased. After surviving multiple poisonings, intentional exposure, and being struck by a car, Malloy succumbed to gassing.<ref>{{cite book |last=Read |first=Simon |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bizarre Killing of Michael Malloy |year=2005 |publisher=Penguin Book Group |location= |id= |isbn=0-425-20678-5 }}</ref>

=== 1940s ===

*1941: '''[[Sherwood Anderson]]''', writer, died of [[peritonitis]] after swallowing a toothpick at a party.<ref>[http://athena.english.vt.edu/~appalach/writersA/anderson.html Virginia Tech article]</ref>
*1944: Inventor and chemist '''[[Thomas Midgley, Jr.]]''' accidentally strangled himself with the cord of a pulley-operated mechanical bed of his own design.<ref>[[Bill Bryson|Bryson, Bill]]. ''[[A Short History of Nearly Everything]]''. (2003) Broadway Books, USA. ISBN 0-385-66004-9</ref>
*1945: Scientist '''[[Harry K. Daghlian, Jr.]]''' accidentally dropped a brick of [[tungsten carbide]] onto a sphere of [[plutonium]] (known as the [[Demon core]]) while working on the [[Manhattan Project]]. This caused the plutonium to come to criticality; Daghlian died of radiation poisoning, becoming the first person to die in a [[criticality accident]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mphpa.org/classic/FH/LA/Harry_Daghlian.htm |title=Harry K. Daghlian – 1 of 1 |publisher=Mphpa.org |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>
*1946: '''[[Louis Slotin]]''', chemist and physicist, died of radiation poisoning after being exposed to lethal amounts of ionizing radiation from the [[Demon core|same core]] that killed [[Harry K. Daghlian, Jr.]] The core went critical after a screwdriver he was using to separate the halves of the spherical beryllium reflector slipped.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hhs55.com/slotin.html |title=hhs55.com |publisher=hhs55.com |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>
*1947: '''[[Collyer brothers|The Collyer Brothers]]''', extreme cases of [[compulsive hoarding|compulsive hoarders]], were found dead in their home in New York. The younger brother, Langley, was crushed to death when he accidentally triggered one of his own booby traps that had consisted of a large pile of objects, books, and newspapers. His blind and paralyzed brother Homer, who had depended on Langley for care, died of starvation some days later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivia-library.com/c/biography-of-hermits-of-harlem-homer-and-langley-collyer.htm |title=Biography of Hermits of Harlem Homer and Langley Collyer – |publisher=Trivia-library.com |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>

=== 1950s ===
*1958: '''[[Gareth Jones (actor)|Gareth Jones]]''', actor, collapsed and died between scenes of a live television play, ''[[Underground (1958 TV play)|Underground]]'', at the studios of [[Associated British Corporation]] in [[Manchester]]. Director [[Ted Kotcheff]] continued the play to its conclusion, improvising around Jones' absence. Coincidentally, Jones' character was to have a heart-attack, which is what Jones suffered and died of.<ref>Cited by Gareth Rubin [http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2009/may/31/television-drama-theatre "Live TV drama is resurrected as Sky shrugs off lessons of history",] ''The Guardian'', 31 May 2009</ref><ref>Matthew Sweet [http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/do-not-adjust-your-set-by-kate-dunn-587580.html Review: "'Do Not Adjust Your Set' By Kate Dunn,] ''The Independent'', 20 July 2003</ref>

=== 1960s ===
*1960: In the '''[[Nedelin catastrophe]]''', more than 100 Soviet rocket technicians and officials died when a switch was accidentally turned on, causing the second stage engines of a rocket to ignite, directly above the fully fueled first stage. The casualties included Red Army [[Mitrofan Ivanovich Nedelin|Marshal Nedelin]], who was sitting just {{convert|40|m|sp=us}} away overseeing launch preparations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/r16_disaster.html |title=Nedelin disaster |publisher=Russianspaceweb.com |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>
*1960: '''[[Inejiro Asanuma]]''', 61, the head of the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Japanese Socialist Party]], was stabbed to death with a [[wakizashi]] sword by extreme rightist [[Otoya Yamaguchi]] during a televised political rally.<ref>{{cite news|author= |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,711952,00.html |title=Assassin's Apologies |publisher=Time.com |date= 14 November 1960|accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref>
*1960: '''[[Alan Stacey]]''', [[Formula One]] race driver, died in a crash during the [[1960 Belgian Grand Prix|Belgian Grand Prix]] when a bird flew into his face, causing him to lose control.<ref>{{cite book|last=Daley|first=Robert|title=Cars at Speed: Classic Stories from Grand Prix's Golden Age|year=2007|publisher=MBI Publishing Company|location=United States|isbn=9780760331170|page=304}}</ref>
*1961: U.S. Army Specialists '''John A. Byrnes''' and '''Richard Leroy McKinley''' and Navy Electrician's Mate '''Richard C. Legg''' were killed by a [[water hammer]] explosion during maintenance on the [[SL-1]] nuclear reactor in Idaho.<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/gov.ntis.A13886VNB1 SL-1 The Accident: Phases I and II] U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Idaho Operations Office video ([http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIBQMkd96CA Youtube 1]) ([http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVr6bD-z9hM Youtube 2])</ref><ref>[http://www.inl.gov/proving-the-principle/chapter_15.pdf Chapter 15 "The SL-1 Reactor" (page 142)] 9.5 MB PDF</ref><ref name="Tucker">{{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Todd |title=Atomic America: How a Deadly Explosion and a Feared Admiral Changed the Course of Nuclear History|isbn=978-1-4165-4433-3 |year=2009 |publisher=Free Press |location=New York}} See summary: http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0904/2008013842-s.html</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=McKeown |first=William |title=Idaho Falls: The Untold Story of America's First Nuclear Accident |isbn=978-1-55022-562-4 |year=2003 |publisher=ECW Press |location=Toronto}}</ref>
*1961: '''[[Valentin Bondarenko]]''', a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[cosmonaut]] trainee, died after suffering third-degree [[burn]]s from a flash fire in the pure oxygen environment of a training simulator.<ref>Oberg, James, ''Uncovering Soviet Disasters'', [http://www.jamesoberg.com/usd10.html Chapter 10: Dead Cosmonauts], pp 156–176, Random house, New York, 1988. Retrieved 8 January 2008.</ref>
*1966: '''Worth Bingham''', son of [[Barry Bingham, Sr.]], died when a surfboard, lying atop the back of his convertible, hit a parked car, swung around, and broke his neck.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/04/business/media/04bingham.html?pagewanted=2&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/M/McFadden,%20Robert%20D.%20Jr.
|title=Barry Bingham Jr., Louisville Publisher, Is Dead at 72
|author=
|work=The New York Times
|date= 4 April 2006
| first=Robert D.
| last=McFadden
| accessdate=11 May 2010
}}</ref>
[[File:Soviet Union-1964-stamp-Vladimir Mikhailovich Komarov.jpg|thumb|USSR postage stamp honoring Vladimir Komarov, the first person to die during a space mission]]
* 1966: Skydiver '''[[Nick Piantanida]]''' died from the effects of [[uncontrolled decompression]] four months after an attempt to break the world record for the highest parachute jump. During his third attempt, his face mask came loose (or he possibly opened it by mistake), causing loss of air pressure and irreversible brain damage.<ref>{{cite book |title=Magnificent Failure: Free Fall from the Edge of Space |last1=Ryan |first1=Craig |publisher=Smithsonian Air and Space Museum Press |year=2003| isbn=978-1-58834-141-9 |oclc=51059086 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/article687679.ece Dive Hard], [[The Globe and Mail]], 25 May 2008</ref>
*1967: '''[[Gus Grissom]]''', '''[[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]]''', and '''[[Roger B. Chaffee]]''', NASA astronauts, died when a flash fire began in their pure oxygen environment during a training exercise inside the [[Apollo 1]] spacecraft. The spacecraft's escape hatch could not be opened because it was designed to seal shut under pressure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/grissom-vi.html |title=Astronaut Bio: Virgil I. Grissom |publisher=Jsc.nasa.gov |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>
*1967: Cosmonaut '''[[Vladimir Komarov]]''' became the first person to die during a space mission after the parachute of [[Soyuz 1|his capsule]] failed to deploy following re-entry.<ref>{{cite news|author=Tony Long |url=http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2007/04/dayintech_0424 |title=24 April 1967: Last Day in the Life of Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov |publisher=Wired.com |date=24 April 2007|accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>

=== 1970s ===
*1971: '''[[Georgy Dobrovolsky]], [[Vladislav Volkov]] and [[Viktor Patsayev]]''', Soviet cosmonauts, died when their [[Soyuz 11|Soyuz-11]] spacecraft depressurized during preparations for reentry. These are the only human deaths outside the Earth's atmosphere.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/n-s/space.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20081012062830/http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/n-s/space.html|archivedate=12 October 2008|title=Space disasters and near misses|publisher=Channel 4 |accessdate=29 June 2011}}</ref>
*1974: '''Thomas Bayliss''' died after being run over by two [[Semi-trailer truck|semi-trailers]] and a [[pickup truck]] on [[State Road 64 (Florida)|State Road 64]] near [[Bradenton, Florida]]. None of the three vehicles stopped immediately after the accident.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bizarre death in Manatee probed by Highway Patrol|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=SQswAAAAIBAJ&sjid=PnkDAAAAIBAJ&dq=bizarre%20death&pg=1989%2C828207|accessdate= May 2013|newspaper=St Petersburg Times|date=17 October 1974}}</ref>
*1974: '''Basil Brown''', a 48-year-old health food advocate from [[Croydon]], drank himself to death with [[carrot juice]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yLQsAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jAoEAAAAIBAJ&dq=unusual-death&pg=6515%2C4463628 | work=Star-News | location=Wilmington, North Carolina |title=Unusual death | date=20 February 1974 | accessdate=12 June 2010| page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Staub |first=Jack E.|title=Alluring Lettuces: And Other Seductive Vegetables for Your Garden |year=2005 |publisher=Gibbs Smith|location=Layton, Utah |isbn=1-4236-0829-1|oclc=435711200 |page=230 |chapter=74. Yellowstone Carrot: Daucus carota savicus|chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=qbMz7YrTBMEC&lpg=PA230&ots=zu1Pef9qdF&dq=bl&pg=PA230#v=onepage&q=%22Basil%20Brown%22&f=false}}</ref>
*1974: '''[[Christine Chubbuck]]''', an American television news reporter, committed suicide during a live broadcast on 15 July. Eight minutes into her talk show on WXLT-TV in [[Sarasota, Florida]], she shot herself in the head with a [[revolver]].<ref name="dietz">Dietz, Jon. "On-Air Shot Kills TV Personality", ''Sarasota Herald-Tribune'', 16 July 1974.</ref>
[[File:Kurt gödel.jpg|thumb|180px|Kurt Gödel who, due to his extreme paranoia, died of starvation when his wife was hospitalized]]
*1977: '''[[Tom Pryce]]''', a [[Formula One]] driver at the [[1977 South African Grand Prix]], was killed when he was struck in the face by a track marshal's fire extinguisher. The marshal, '''Frederik Jansen van Vuuren''', was running across the track to attend to Pryce's team-mate's burning car when he was struck and killed by Pryce's car. Van Vuuren himself was torn in half as the car ploughed into him at a speed exceeding 270 km/h (170 mph).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/wales/posts/tom_pryce_35th_anniversary_formula_one_south_african_grand_prix|title=The tragedy of Tom Pryce, Wales' Formula One hero|date=4 March 2012|accessdate=10 September 2013|first=James|last=Roberts|publisher=BBC}}</ref>
*1978: '''[[Georgi Markov]]''', a [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] dissident, was assassinated in London with a specially [[Bulgarian umbrella|modified umbrella]] that fired a metal pellet with a small cavity full of [[ricin]] into his [[Calf (anatomy)|calf]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2012/sep/14/bulgaria-umbrella-murder-archive-1978 |title=From the archive, 14 September 1978: Bulgarian dissident killed by poisoned umbrella at London bus stop | From the Guardian |publisher=theguardian.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-25}}</ref>
*1978: '''[[Janet Parker]]''', a British medical photographer, died of [[smallpox]] in 1978, ten months after the disease was eradicated in the wild, when a researcher at the laboratory where Parker worked accidentally released some virus into the air of the building. Parker is the last known smallpox fatality.<ref>[http://www.qmul.ac.uk/news/newsrelease.php?news_id=18 Twenty five years on: Smallpox revisited Queen Mary, University of London]{{dead link|date=December 2010}}</ref>
*1978: '''[[Kurt Gödel]]''', the Austrian/American logician and mathematician, died of starvation when his wife was hospitalized. Gödel suffered from extreme paranoia and refused to eat food prepared by anyone else.<ref>Toates, Frederick; Olga Coschug Toates (2002). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Practical Tried-and-Tested Strategies to Overcome OCD. Class Publishing, 221. ISBN 978-1-85959-069-0.</ref>
*1979: '''[[Robert Williams (robot fatality)|Robert Williams]]''', a worker at a Ford Motor Co. plant, was the first known human to be killed by a robot,<ref name="rlid">Robot firm liable in death, Tim Kiska, ''The Oregonian'', 11 August 1983.</ref> after the arm of a one-ton factory robot hit him in the head.<ref name="a">{{cite news|last=Kiska|first=Tim|title=Death on the job: Jury awards $10 million to heirs of man killed by robot at auto plant |pages=A10|work=[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] |date=11 August 1983|url=http://docs.newsbank.com/g/GooglePM/PI/lib00187,0EB295F7D995F801.html |accessdate=11 September 2007}}</ref>
*1979: '''John Bowen''', a 20-year-old from [[Nashua, New Hampshire]], was attending a [[New York Jets]] football game at [[Shea Stadium]] on 9 December. During a half-time show event featuring custom-made remote control flying machines, a 40-pound model plane shaped like a lawnmower accidentally dived into the stands, striking Bowen and another spectator, causing severe head injuries. Bowen died in the hospital four days later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/lawnmower.asp |title=Flying Lawnmower Death – Grim Reaper (contains additional references) |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://www.courant.com/ny-spsmain28112329894sep28,0,3404154.story It was a grand stage for excitement]{{dead link|date=March 2011}} by Joe Gergen, Hartford Courant, 28 September 2008.</ref>
*1979: '''Nitaro Ito''', a candidate for [[House of Representatives (Japan)|Japan's House of Representatives]], died in an attempt to gain sympathy during his election campaign. Having persuaded one of his employees to punch him in the face, Ito then stabbed himself in the leg. He hit an [[artery]] causing him to bleed to death before any aid could be given.<ref name="Book of Lists"/>

=== 1980s ===
*1981: '''David Allen Kirwan''', a 24-year-old, died from third-degree burns after attempting to rescue a friend's dog from the 200°F (93°C) water in Celestine Pool, a hot spring at [[Yellowstone National Park]] on 20 July 1981.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/hotspring.asp Hot Springs Death – Help Springs Eternal] at Snopes.com</ref><ref>Lee Whittlesey, ''Death in Yellowstone: Accidents and Foolhardiness in the First National Park''. Boulder, Colo. : Roberts Rinehart Publishers, ©1995.</ref>
*1981: '''[[Boris Sagal]]''', a film director, died while shooting the TV miniseries ''[[World War III (TV miniseries)|World War III]]'' when he walked into the tail rotor blade of a helicopter and was nearly [[decapitation|decapitated]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40911FE3E5C0C778EDDAC0894D9484D81 | work=The New York Times | title=Boris Sagal, 58, Movie Director, Dies After A Helicopter Accident|date=24 May 1981|accessdate=11 May 2010|first=Shawn G. | last=Kennedy}}</ref><ref name="salon1">{{cite web|url=http://open.salon.com/blog/jrobertg/2009/07/08/10_strange_celebrity_deaths |title=10 Strange Celebrity Deaths - J. Robert Godbout |publisher=Open Salon |date=2009-07-08 |accessdate=2013-09-27}}</ref>
*1981: '''[[Kenji Urada]]''', a Japanese factory worker, was killed by a malfunctioning robot he was working on at a [[Kawasaki Heavy Industries Motorcycle & Engine|Kawasaki]] plant in Japan. The robot's arm pushed him into a grinding machine, killing him.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/7001829?story_id=7001829 |title=Trust me, I'm a robot |publisher=Economist.com |date=8 June 2006|accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref>
*1982: Actor '''[[Vic Morrow]]''' and child-actor '''Myca Dinh Le''' (age 7) were decapitated by a rotating helicopter blade, and child-actress '''Renee Shin-Yi Chen''' (age 6) was crushed by a helicopter during filming of ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/not_guilty/twilight_zone/1.html |title=The Twilight Zone Tragedy – Crime Library on truTV.com |publisher=Crimelibrary.com |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>
*1982: '''David Grundman''' was killed near [[Lake Pleasant Regional Park|Lake Pleasant]], [[Arizona]] while shooting at cacti with his shotgun. After he fired several shots at a 26 ft (8 m) tall [[Saguaro Cactus]] from extremely close range, a 4 ft (1.2 m) limb of the cactus detached and fell on him, crushing him.<ref name="salon1"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/saguaro.asp |title=Cactus Courageous – Death by Saguaro |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/content/printVersion/160293 |title=When Cactus and Civilization collide – Trifling with Saguaros can be Hazardous to one's Health |publisher=Phoenixnewtimes.com |date=3 March 1993 |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref>
*1982: '''Navy Lieutenant George M. Prior''', 30, died in [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington, Virginia]] from a severe allergic reaction to [[Daconil]], a fungicide used on a golf course he attended. He had unwittingly ingested the substance through his habit of carrying the [[tee]] in his mouth when playing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/poison/golftee.asp |title=Fatal-A-Tee |publisher=snopes.com |date=2 September 2006|accessdate=6 March 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Tennessee Williams NYWTS.jpg|thumb|220px|Tennessee Williams who died when he choked on an eyedrop bottle-cap]]
*1983: '''Four divers and a tender''' were killed on the [[Byford Dolphin]] semi-submersible, when a decompression chamber [[Explosive decompression|explosively decompressed]] from 9 [[Atmosphere (unit)|atm]] to 1 atm in a fraction of a second. The diver nearest the chamber opening was torn apart before his remains were ejected through a 24 inch (60 cm) opening. The other divers' remains showed signs of boiled blood, unusually strong [[rigor mortis]], large amounts of gas in the blood vessels, and scattered hemorrhages in the soft tissues.<ref>Giertsen, J.C. et al., "An Explosive Decompression Accident", The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 9(2):91–101, 1988.</ref>
*1983: '''[[Sergei Chalibashvili]]''', a professional diver, died as a result of a diving accident during the [[1983 Summer Universiade]] in [[Edmonton, Alberta]]. When he attempted a three-and-a-half reverse somersault in the tuck position from the ten-meter platform, he struck his head on the platform and was knocked unconscious. He died after being in a coma for a week.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,954031,00.html?promoid=googlep | work=Time | title=Milestones: Jul. 25, 1983 | date=25 July 1983| accessdate=11 May 2010}}</ref>
*1983: American author '''[[Tennessee Williams]]''' died when he choked on an eyedrop bottle-cap in his room at the Hotel Elysee in New York. He would routinely place the cap in his mouth, lean back, and place his eyedrops in each eye.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=MH&s_site=miami&p_multi=MH&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB35B891D6D7E0F&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM | title=Search Results | date=27 February 1983}}</ref>
*1983: '''[[Jimmy Lee Gray]]''', during his execution in a Mississippi [[gas chamber]], died bashing his head against a metal pole behind the chair he was strapped into. The poisonous gas had failed to kill him but left him in agony and gasping for eight minutes.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/reportsfromabroad/macdonald/20071107.html "Might we make executions more civilized, please?"] from [[CBC News]]</ref>
*1983: '''[[Dick Wertheim]]''' was an American tennis linesman who died from blunt cranial trauma at a match at the [[1983 US Open (tennis)|1983 US Open]]. A serve from [[Stefan Edberg]] hit his groin, causing him to fall and hit his head on the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |title=Odd mishap fells tennis official |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=fwIMAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jFkDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7153,2693520 |work=Evening Independent |location=St. Petersburg, Florida |page=3–C |date=12 September 1983 |accessdate=20 November 2008}}</ref>
*1986: More than 1,700 were killed after a [[limnic eruption]] from [[Lake Nyos]] in [[Cameroon]] released approximately {{nowrap|100,000,000 cubic metres}} ({{nowrap|3,500,000,000 cubic feet}}) of [[carbon dioxide]] that quickly descended on the lake and killed oxygen-dependent life within a 25-kilometre (15-mile) radius, including three villages. The same phenomenon is also blamed for the deaths of 37 near [[Lake Monoun]] in 1984.<ref name=BBC>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21/newsid_3380000/3380803.stm|title=21 August: 1986: Hundreds gassed in Cameroon lake disaster|publisher=BBC|author=BBC contributors|accessdate=20 May 2009 | date=21 August 1986}}</ref>
*1989: '''Patsy Ann Campbell''' of [[Portage]], [[Indiana]] died when the Psoralen she was taking to cure her psoriasis caused an over sensitivity to light and a 25-minute session in a tanning booth led to burns over 80% of her body. Dr. Alan Dimick, a University of Alabama burn expert, said he believes this was the first death caused by burns from a tanning booth.<ref>http://www.snopes.com/horrors/vanities/tanningbed.asp</ref>

=== 1990s ===
*1991: '''Edward Juchniewicz''', a 76-year-old man from [[Canonsburg, Pennsylvania]], was killed when the unattended ambulance stretcher he was strapped to rolled down a grade and overturned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/medical/emergent/gurney.asp |title=The Runaway Gurney |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Stretcher Accident Kills Man |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/04/us/stretcher-accident-kills-man.html?scp=1&sq=Stretcher%20Accident%20Kills%20Man&st=cse |agency=[[Associated Press|(AP)]] |newspaper= [[The New York Times]] |issn=0362-4331 |oclc=1645522 |date=4 May 1991 |page=8 |accessdate=19 March 2011}}</ref>
*1993: '''[[Garry Hoy]]''', a 38-year-old lawyer in [[Toronto]], fell to his death on 9 July 1993, after he threw himself against a window on the 24th floor of the [[Toronto-Dominion Centre]] in an attempt to prove to a group of visitors that the glass was "unbreakable," a demonstration he had done many times before. The glass did not break, but popped out of the window frame.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/window.asp Window Test Death – Through a Glass, Quickly] at Snopes.com</ref><ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20070315.RGOODMAN15/TPStory/? Goodman and Carr falls prey to rivals] by Jacquie McNish, The Globe and Mail, 15 March 2007.</ref>
*1993: '''Michael A. Shingledecker, Jr.''' was killed when he and a friend were struck by a pickup truck while lying flat on the yellow dividing line of a two-lane highway in [[Polk, Pennsylvania]]. They were copying a daredevil stunt from the movie ''[[The Program]]''. '''Marco Birkhimer''' died in a similar accident while performing the same stunt in Route 206 of [[Bordentown, New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEED7123AF93AA25753C1A965958260&sec=&spon=&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink | work=The New York Times | title=Not Like the Movie: A Dare Leads to Death | date=19 October 1993| accessdate=11 May 2010}}</ref>
*1994: '''Jennifer Jones''', a 15-year-old student, died at her [[Palm Beach, Florida]] home after attempting to inhale [[freon]] gas from the air-conditioning unit.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sanchez Jr|first=Jose Luis|title=Mother Of Victim Plans Crusade Against Freon|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1994-06-09/news/9406090063_1_freon-grace-jones-jones-classmates|accessdate=1 December 2012|newspaper=Florida SunSentinel|date=9 June 1994}}</ref>
*1994: '''[[Gloria Ramirez]]''' was admitted to a hospital in [[Riverside, California]] with symptoms originally thought to be related to her cervical cancer. Before she died Ramirez's body released mysterious toxic fumes that made several hospital employees very ill. Scientists still don't agree on any of the theories as to what could've caused this.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stone |first=Richard |url=http://discovermagazine.com/1995/apr/analysisofatoxic493 |title=Analysis of a Toxic Death | Cancer |work=DISCOVER Magazine |date=1 March 1995 |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>
*1995: A '''39-year-old man''' committed suicide in Canberra, Australia by shooting himself [[Multiple gunshot suicide|three times]] with a pump action shotgun. The first shot passed through his chest, but missed all of the vital organs. He reloaded and shot away his throat and part of his jaw. Breathing through the throat wound, he again reloaded, held the gun against his chest with his hands and operated the trigger with his toes. This shot entered the thoracic cavity and demolished the heart, killing him.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Herdson PB |title=Shotgun suicide with a difference |journal=Med J Aust. |volume=173 |issue=11–12 |pages=604–5 |year=2000 |pmid=11379504 |url=http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/173_11_041200/herdson/herdson.html}}</ref>
*1995: '''Joe Buddy Caine''', 35, died in [[Anniston, Alabama]], when he and friend got drunk and played catch with a [[rattlesnake]], the snake bit them and Caine was the only fatality.<ref>{{cite web|last=Joravsky |first=Ben |url=http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/news-of-the-weird/Content?oid=888799 |title=News of the Weird | News of the Weird |publisher=Chicago Reader |date=1995-10-19 |accessdate=2013-10-25}}</ref>
*1996: '''[[Death of Sharon Lopatka|Sharon Lopatka]]''', from [[Maryland]], was killed by Robert Glass who claimed that she had solicited him to torture and kill her for the purpose of sexual gratification.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/classics/sharon_lopatka/1.html?sect=13 |title=Internet Assisted Suicide: The Story of Sharon Lopatka at CrimeLibrary.com |publisher=Trutv.com |date= |accessdate=21 July 2011}}</ref>
*1997: '''[[Karen Wetterhahn]]''', a professor of chemistry at [[Dartmouth College]], died of mercury poisoning ten months after a few drops of [[dimethylmercury]] landed on her protective gloves. Although Wetterhahn had been following the required procedures for handling the chemical, it still permeated her gloves and skin within seconds. As a result of her death, regulations were altered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/dimethylmercury/dmmh.htm |title=Dimethylmercury and Mercury Poisoning |publisher=Chm.bris.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaomt.org/testfoundation/dimethylmercury.htm |title=The Trembling Edge of Science |publisher=Iaomt.org |date= |accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref>
*1998 October: The entire [[association football]] team of '''Bena Tshadi''' playing against Basanga was killed by lightning during a match in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. Everyone on Basanga, the home team, survived.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/203137.stm | publisher=BBC News | title=Lightning kills football team | date=28 October 1998 | accessdate=11 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/football/2006/mar/15/theknowledge.sport | work=Guardian News | title=Did lightning kill an entire team? | date=15 March 2006| accessdate=2 September 2011 | location=London | first=James | last=Dart}}</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=July 2013}}
*1998: 16 year-old Jonathan Capewell of [[Oldham]], [[Greater Manchester]], died of accidental poisoning by methane and butane, after obsessive use of [[aerosol]] [[deodorant]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/boy-who-wanted-to-smell-good-killed-by-deodorant-1181309.html |title=Boy who 'wanted to smell good' killed by deodorant - News |publisher=The Independent |date=1998-10-29 |accessdate=2013-10-25}}</ref>
*1999: '''Jon Desborough''', a [[physical education]] teacher at [[Liverpool College]], died when he slipped and fell onto the blunt end of a [[javelin]] he was retrieving. The javelin passed through his [[eye socket]] and into his brain, causing severe brain damage and putting him into a coma. He died a month later.<ref>{{cite news |last=Breslin |first=Maria |title=Teacher hit by javelin dies |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/teacher-hit-by-javelin-dies-1099330.html |accessdate=26 April 2012 |newspaper=The Independent |date=11 June 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Javelin teacher dies in hospital |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/365923.stm |accessdate=26 April 2012 |publisher=BBC News |date=10 June 1999}}</ref>

== 21st century ==

=== 2000s ===
* 2001: '''Bernd-Jürgen Brandes''', from Germany, was voluntarily stabbed repeatedly and then partly eaten by [[Armin Meiwes]] (who was later called the Cannibal of [[Rotenburg an der Fulda|Rotenburg]]). Brandes had answered an internet advertisement by Meiwes looking for someone for this purpose. Brandes explicitly stated in his will that he wished to be killed and eaten.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4752797.stm |title=German cannibal guilty of murder|publisher=BBC News|date= 9 May 2006}}</ref>
* 2001: '''Michael Colombini''', a 6-year-old American boy from [[Croton-on-Hudson, New York]], was struck and killed at Westchester Regional Medical Centre by an [[oxygen tank]] when it was pulled into the [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) machine while he underwent a test. He had begun to experience breathing difficulties while in the MRI and when an anaesthesiologist brought a portable oxygen canister into the magnetic field, it was pulled from his hands and struck the boy in the head.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/22/nyregion/hospital-details-failures-leading-to-mri-fatality.html |title=Hospital Details Failures Leading To MRI Fatality |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=22 October 2001 |accessdate=11 December 2010 |first=Randal C. |last=Archibold}}</ref><ref>[http://www.mri-planning.com/articles/2005_newsletter/0508_four_years_after.html MRI Newsletter: Four Years After The Tragedy]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}.</ref>
* 2002: '''[[Death of Brittanie Cecil|Brittanie Cecil]]''', a 13-year-old American, was struck in the head by a [[hockey puck]] shot by [[Espen Knutsen]] and deflected into the crowd at an NHL hockey game in [[Columbus, Ohio]]. She died two days later in the hospital.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://static.espn.go.com/nhl/news/2002/0319/1354060.html|title=Girl dies after getting hit by puck at NHL game|publisher=ESPN.com|date= 20 May 2002}}</ref>
* 2003: '''[[Brian Douglas Wells]]''', an American [[pizza delivery]] man in [[Erie, Pennsylvania]], was killed when a [[time bomb]] fastened around his neck exploded. At the time of his death he had been apprehended by the police for robbing a bank. Wells told police that three people had locked the bomb around his neck and would not release it had he refused to commit the robbery.<ref>{{cite news| title=Pizza Deliveryman Who Robbed Bank Had Neck Measured for Bomb Collar| agency=Associated Press| date=19 July 2007| url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,289860,00.html| accessdate=30 September 2008 | publisher=Fox News}}</ref>
* 2004: '''Ronald McClagish''', from [[Murrow, Cambridgeshire]] in England, was trapped inside a cupboard when a wardrobe outside fell over and made it impossible for him to get out. McClagish survived for a week before succumbing to [[bronchitis]], which he had contracted when he removed a waterpipe in an attempt to free himself and the cupboard was partially flooded.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cambridgeshire/4483137.stm Call For New Cupboard Death Probe] BBC News</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1476175/Man-trapped-in-cupboard-died-as-water-gushed-down.html|title= Man trapped in cupboard died as water gushed down|work= Telegraph}}</ref>
* 2004: An '''unidentified [[Taiwan]]ese woman''' died of alcohol intoxication after immersion for twelve hours in a bathtub filled with 40% ethanol. Her [[blood alcohol content]] was 1.35%. It was believed that she had immersed herself as a response to the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] epidemic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fsijournal.org/article/S0379-0738%2804%2900389-5/abstract |title=Elsevier |publisher=Fsijournal.org |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref>
* 2004: '''Francis "Franky" Brohm''', 23, of [[Marietta, Georgia]] was leaning out of a car window and decapitated by a telephone pole support wire. The car's intoxicated driver, John Hutcherson, 21, drove nearly {{convert|12|mi}} to his home with the headless body in the passenger seat, parked the car in his driveway, then went to bed. A neighbour saw the bloody corpse still in the car and notified police. Brohm's head was later discovered at the accident scene.<ref>{{cite web|last=Johnston |first=Lori |url=http://www.ajc.com/news/q-a-on-the-1198589.html |title='''AJC'', 11 Oct 2011 |publisher=Ajc.com |date= 11 October 2011|accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref>
* 2005: '''[[Enumclaw horse sex case|Kenneth Pinyan]]''' from [[Seattle, Washington]], died of acute [[peritonitis]] after receiving anal intercourse from a stallion. The case led to the criminalization of [[zoophilia|bestiality]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington state]].<ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002569751_horsesex19m.html "Trespassing charged in horse-sex case"] ''The Seattle Times''</ref>
* 2005: '''[[Lee Seung Seop]]''', a 28-year-old from [[South Korea]], collapsed of fatigue and died after playing the videogame ''[[StarCraft]]'' online for almost 50 consecutive hours.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4137782.stm |title=Technology | S Korean dies after games session |publisher=BBC News |date=10 August 2005 |accessdate=7 August 2013}}</ref>
* 2006: '''Erika Tomanu''', a seven-year-old girl in [[Saitama, Saitama|Saitama]], Japan, died when she was sucked 10 metres down the intake pipe of a current pool at a water park.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://weekly.japantimes.co.jp/news/nn2006/girl-sucked-into-intake-at-city-run-pool |title=Girl sucked into intake at city-run pool |publisher=Japantimes.co.jp |date=5 August 2006|accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref>
* 2006: '''An unidentified airline mechanic''' was sucked into the engine of a [[Boeing 737-500]] at [[El Paso International Airport]] while performing routine maintenance on the tarmac.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2006-01-16/us/airplane.fatality_1_jet-engine-fatal-accident-passengers-and-five-crew?_s=PM:US|title=Mechanic sucked into jet engine|publisher=CNN|accessdate=11 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,181825,00.html |title=Airplane Mechanic Sucked Into Jet Engine, Killed at El Paso Airport |date= 16 January 2006 |agency=Associated Press |accessdate= 30 August 2012}}</ref>
[[File:Steve Irwin.jpg|thumb|220px|Steve Irwin, whose heart was impaled by a [[stingray]] barb]]
* 2006: '''[[Steve Irwin]]''', an Australian television personality and naturalist known as [[the Crocodile Hunter]], died when his heart was impaled by a [[stingray]] barb while filming a documentary in [[Queensland]]'s [[Great Barrier Reef]].<ref name=cfk/><ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/09/04/australia.irwin/index.html CNN Reports: 'Crocodile Hunter' dead], 4 September 2006</ref>
* 2006: '''Mariesa Weber''', a petite 38-year-old woman, asphyxiated when she became wedged upside-down behind a bookcase in her bedroom while trying to adjust a plug on her television set. Her family, believing she had been abducted, searched for eleven days before finally finding the body.<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15895965/#.T_rYyoGwXmU Woman found dead behind bookcase - US news - Weird news | NBC News]</ref>
* 2006: '''[[Alexander Litvinenko]]''', a former officer of the [[Federal Security Service (Russia)|Russian State Security Service]] and later a [[dissident]] and writer, died from [[Radiation poisoning|acute radiation syndrome]] after being poisoned with [[polonium]]-210.<ref>{{cite news |title=Alexander V. Litvinenko |work=The New York Times |date= 31 May 2007 |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/l/alexander_v_litvinenko/index.html |accessdate= 27 April 2011 |first1=Alan |last1=Cowell |first2=Clifford J. |last2=Levy |first3=Scott |last3=Shane}}</ref>
* 2007: '''[[Water intoxication#Notable cases|Jennifer Strange]]''', a 28-year-old woman from [[Sacramento, California]], died of [[water intoxication]] while trying to win a [[Nintendo]] [[Wii]] console in a [[KDND]] 107.9 "The End" radio station's "[[Hold Your Wee for a Wii]]" contest, which involved drinking large quantities of water without urinating.<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/california/la-me-water14jan14,1,1368543.story?coll=la-headlines-pe-california "Woman dies after being in water-drinking contest"]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}, ''The Los Angeles Times'', 14 January 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.knbc.com/news/10761800/detail.html "Woman's Death After Water-Drinking Contest Investigated"]{{dead link|date=March 2011}} ''KNBC.com'', 16 January 2007</ref>
* 2007: '''Humberto Hernandez''', a 24-year-old [[Oakland, California]] resident, was killed after being struck in the face by an airborne fire hydrant while walking. A passing car had struck the fire hydrant and the water pressure shot the hydrant at Hernandez with enough force to kill him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/hydrant.asp |title=Fire Hydrant Death – Fire Plugged |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://cbs5.com/local/Humberto.Hernandez.fire.2.456707.html Oakland Man Killed By Airborne Fire Hydrant]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}, CBS5.com, 22 June 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2007-06-23-fire-hydrant_N.htm |title=Flying fire hydrant kills Calif. man |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=23 June 2007 |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref>
* 2007: '''[[Kevin Whitrick]]''', a 42-year-old British man, committed suicide by hanging himself live in front of a webcam during an Internet chat session.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article1560877.ece |title=Get on with it, said net audience as man hanged himself on webcam |accessdate=27 May 2007 |last=Bale |first=Joanna |date=24 March 2007 |work=Times Online | location=London}}{{dead link|date=March 2011}}</ref>
* 2007: A ten month old camel killed the woman who owned it, by knocking her to the ground and straddling her. A camel expert confirmed the attack was sexual in nature.<ref>{{cite web|author=By metrowebukmetro |url=http://metro.co.uk/2007/08/19/humped-to-death-by-a-pet-camel-47660/ |title=Humped to death by a pet camel | Metro News |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=2007-08-19 |accessdate=2013-09-21}}</ref>
* 2008: '''David Phyall''', 50, the last resident in a block of flats due to be demolished in [[Bishopstoke]], near [[Southampton]], [[Hampshire]], England, decapitated himself with a chainsaw to highlight the injustice of being forced to move out.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/death-was-carefully-thought-through-suicide-1025503.html|title= Chainsaw death was 'carefully thought through suicide'|last=Halfpenny|first=Martin|date=19 November 2008|work=The Independent|accessdate=22 November 2008 | location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/7737721.stm |publisher=BBC News | title=Man cut off head in flat protest | date=19 November 2008}}</ref>
[[File:Alg taylor mitchell.jpg|thumb|220px|Taylor Mitchell, the only adult person to have been killed by a [[coyote]]]]
* 2009: '''[[Taylor Mitchell]]''', a Canadian [[Folk music|folk]] singer, was attacked and killed by three [[coyote]]s, the only recorded adult person to have been killed by this species.<ref name="CBC">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/nova-scotia/story/2009/10/28/ns-coyote-attack-died.html|title=Coyotes kill Toronto singer in Cape Breton|publisher=[[CBC.ca]]|date=12 October 2009|accessdate=29 October 2009}}</ref><ref>''A History of Urban Coyote Problems'', Robert M. Tim & Rex O. Baker, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, 2007</ref>
* 2009: After being freed from an inoperative [[elevator|lift]], '''Gunther Link''', 45, a devout [[Catholic]], went to Weinhaus Church in [[Vienna, Austria|Vienna]], [[Austria]], to give thanks to God for saving him. While kneeling in prayer, an 860 pound (391 kg) monument that was part of the church's [[altar]] fell on him, crushing him to death.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.croatiantimes.com/news/Around_the_World/2009-09-10/5902/Missing_Link|title=Missing Link|publisher=Croatian Times|last=Andric|first=Marija|date=10 September 2009|accessdate=3 December 2013}}</ref>

===2010s===

*2010: '''[[Jimi Heselden]]''', British owner of the [[Segway Inc.|Segway]] motorized scooter company, was killed when he accidentally drove off a cliff on a Segway at his estate at [[Thorp Arch, West Yorkshire|Thorp Arch]] near [[Boston Spa]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/2010/09/27/2010-09-27_segway_company_owner_jimi_heselden_dies_in_england_after_riding_a_segway_off_cli.html | location=New York | work=Daily News | first1=Michael | last1=Sheridan | first2=Corky | last2=Siemaszko | title=Segway company owner James 'Jimi' Heselden dies in England after riding a Segway off cliff | date=27 September 2010}}</ref>
*2010: '''[[Mike Edwards (musician)|Mike Edwards]]''', British founding member and cellist for the band [[ELO]], died when a large round bale of hay rolled down the hill and smashed his car while he was out driving.<ref name=cfk>{{citation |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/celebritynews/7984944/Mike-Edwards-hay-bale-death-celebrities-in-freak-killings.html |title=Mike Edwards hay bale death: celebrities in freak killings |journal=[[Daily Telegraph]] |date=06 Sep 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-20259274 |title=ELO cellist Mike Edwards's hay bale death 'preventable' |publisher=BBC News |date=8 November 2012 |accessdate=7 August 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://ultimateclassicrock.com/mike-edwards-strange-rock-deaths/ Mike Edwards — Killed by a Hay Bale]</ref>
*2011: '''Jose Luis Ochoa''', 35, died after being stabbed in the leg at a [[cockfight]] in [[Tulare County, California]] U.S., by one of the birds that had a knife attached to its limb.<ref>{{cite news |title=Man stabbed to death by cockfighting bird |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12393125 |publisher=BBC News |date=8 February 2011 |accessdate=19 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/02/07/133565050/weird-news-california-man-fatally-stabbed-by-rooster |title=Weird News: California Man Fatally Stabbed By Rooster : The Two-Way |publisher=NPR |date=2011-02-07 |accessdate=2013-09-26}}</ref>
*2011: '''Harry''', '''Kimberly''' and their father '''Trevor Wallwork''' (and their two dogs) died of [[carbon monoxide poisoning]] when a [[Potato chip|crisp]] packet became lodged in the chimney and caused the carbon monoxide to flood the room of their cottage in Gurteen, [[County Sligo]], Ireland.<ref name="bolton2011">{{cite news|last=Jeremy Culley|title=Dad and two children died from carbon monoxide poisoning after discarded snack packet got stuck in chimney|url=http://www.theboltonnews.co.uk/news/10695202.Dad_and_two_children_died_after_discarded_snack_packet_got_stuck_in_chimney/|accessdate=26 September 2013|newspaper=Bolton News|date=24 September 2013}}</ref>
*2012: '''Erica Marshall''', a 28-year-old British [[veterinarian]] in Ocala, Florida, died when the horse she was treating in a [[hyperbaric chamber]] kicked the wall, released a spark from its [[horseshoe]]s and triggered an explosion.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/wildlife/9079168/Equine-expert-killed-as-horse-shoe-sparks-explosion-heard-30-miles-away.html | work=The Daily Telegraph | title=Equine expert killed as horse shoe sparks explosion heard 30 miles away | date=13 February 2012}}</ref><ref>[http://usnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/02/17/10434135-officials-horses-metal-shoes-sparked-fatal-blast-in-oxygen-chamber?lite "Officials: Horse's metal shoes sparked fatal blast in oxygen chamber" (Feb 17, 2012) NBCNews]</ref><ref>[http://cnsnews.com/news/article/explosion-fla-horse-center-kills-worker-horse Explosion at Fla. horse center kills worker, horse | CNS News]</ref>
* 2012:''' Edward Archbold''', 32, a man of [[West Palm Beach, Florida]], died after winning a cockroach eating contest. The cause of death was determined to be accidental choking due to "arthropod body parts." <ref>{{cite news| url=http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/11/26/15460502-florida-man-who-died-in-cockroach-eating-contest-choked-to-death-autopsy-says?lite |title=Florida man who died in cockroach-eating contest choked to death, autopsy says |work=[[NBC News]] |date=26 November 2012}}</ref> Florence Vaccarello Dunkel, Associate Professor of Entomology at [[Montana State University]], said of Archbold's death: "I've never heard of that happening."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wptv.com/dpp/news/region_c_palm_beach_county/west_palm_beach/edward-archbold-roach-eating-contest-death-what-really-killed-the-west-palm-beach-man |title=Edward Archbold, roach eating contest death: What really killed the West Palm Beach man? |author=By: Robert Nolin, Sun Sentinel |date=October 10, 2012 |accessdate=27 October 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Darwin Awards]]
* [[Death from laughter]]
* [[Execution by elephant]]
* [[List of causes of death by rate]]
* [[List of inventors killed by their own inventions]]
* [[List of people who disappeared mysteriously]]
* [[Spontaneous human combustion]]
* ''[[1000 Ways to Die]]''
* [[Toilet-related injuries and deaths]]
{{div col end}}
{{portal bar|Death|History}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JS5mHAAACAAJ |title=Curious and Unusual Deaths|author=[[Russell Robert Winterbotham]] |publisher= Haldeman-Julius, Girard, Kansas |year=1929}}
*{{citation |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7HTfGRRllAQC |title=Curious Events in History |author=Michael Powell |publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc |date=5 August 2008}}
*Nick Daws ''Daft Deaths and Famous Last Words''
*Tracey Turner, ''Dreadful Fates''
*Dale Dreher, ebook ''Death by Misadventure: 210 Dumb Ways to Die.''
*{{citation |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Mysterious_Deaths_and_Disappearances.html?id=HCExOEknBQ0C&redir_esc=y |title=Mysterious Deaths and Disappearances |author=[[David Southwell]] and Sean Twist |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |date=1 September 2007}}
*[[John Dunning (journalist)|John Dunning]] ''Strange Deaths'' (true crime)
*{{citation |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fijmTMOJrJcC |title=Strange Deaths: More Than 375 Freakish Fatalites}}
*{{citation |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1wrJygAACAAJ |title=Strange Inhuman Deaths}}
*{{citation |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5RpLMwEACAAJ |title=The Fortean Times Book of Strange Deaths}}
*{{citation |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=py_ZAAAACAAJ |title=The Fortean Times Book of More Strange Deaths}}

==External links==
* [http://health.discovery.com/tv-shows/curious-and-unusual-deaths-pictures.htm Curious and Unusual Deaths Pictures]. Discovery Channel.
* [http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/freakish.asp Freakish Fatalities] Snopes.com

{{death}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Unusual deaths}}
[[Category:Death-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of people by cause of death]]
[[Category:Lists of things considered unusual|Deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths by cause]]

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2013-11-26T14:29:29Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 50.204.22.214 (talk) to last revision by Wikipelli (HG)

[[File:Diet Coke Mentos.jpg|thumb|right|A two-liter bottle of Diet Coke just after Mentos were dropped into it.]]
[[File:ShimadaK2007Sept09-MentosGeyser DSC 3294++.JPG|thumb|From left to right: Reaction of five drops of Mentos with [[Perrier]], classic [[Coca-Cola|Coke]], [[Sprite (soft drink)|Sprite]] and Diet Coke.]]

A '''Diet Coke and Mentos eruption''' (or '''Diet Coke and Mentos geyser''') is a reaction between a [[carbonated]] beverage and [[Mentos]] candies that causes the beverage to spray out of its container.

The numerous small pores on the candy's surface [[Catalysis|catalyze]] the release of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2) gas from the soda, resulting in the rapid expulsion of copious quantities of [[foam]]. Although any carbonated beverage will produce a similar effect, the reaction was popularized using [[Diet Coke]] for seemingly producing the best results.

==Cause==
When the Mentos come into contact with the Diet Coke, a reaction causes the rapid formation of foam.

''[[MythBusters]]'' concluded that the [[potassium benzoate]], [[aspartame]], and CO2 gas contained in the Diet Coke, in combination with the [[gelatin]] and [[gum arabic]] ingredients of the Mentos, all contribute to the formation of the foam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tv.com/mythbusters/diet-coke-and-mentos/episode/822481/summary.html |title=Mythbusters: Diet Coke and Mentos |publisher=TV.com |date= |accessdate=2009-09-20}}</ref>

The structure of the Mentos is the most significant cause of the eruption due to [[nucleation]]. ''MythBusters'' reported that when fruit-flavored Mentos with a smooth waxy coating were tested in [[carbonated drink]] there was hardly a reaction, whereas mint-flavored Mentos (with no such coating) added to carbonated drink formed an energetic eruption, affirming the nucleation-site theory. According to ''MythBusters'', the surface of the mint Mentos is covered with many small holes that increase the [[surface area]] available for reaction (and thus the quantity of reagents exposed to each other at any given time), thereby allowing CO2 bubbles to form with the rapidity and quantity necessary for the "jet"- or "geyser"-like nature of the effusion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mythbusters: Diet Coke and Mentos MiniMyth|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/videos/mythbusters-diet-coke-and-mentos.html}}</ref>

This [[hypothesis]] gained further support when [[rock salt]] was used as a "jump start" to the reaction. A paper by Tonya Coffey, a physicist at [[Appalachian State University]] in Boone, North Carolina, confirmed that the rough surface of the Mentos candy helps speed the reaction. Coffey also found that the [[aspartame]] in diet soda lowers the [[surface tension]] and causes a bigger reaction, but that caffeine does not accelerate the reaction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14114-science-of-mentosdiet-coke-explosions-explained.html |title=Science of Mentos-Diet Coke explosions explained |publisher=Newscientist.com |date= |accessdate=2009-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1119/1.2888546 |title=Diet Coke and Mentos: What is really behind this physical reaction? | author=Coffey, Tonya Shea | journal=American Journal of Physics | year=2008 | month=June | volume=76 | issue=6 | pages=551–557}}
</ref>

==Event==
A [[Guinness World Record]] of 2,865 simultaneous geysers was set on October 17, 2010, in an event organized by [[Perfetti Van Melle]] at the [[SM Mall of Asia]] Complex, in [[Manila]], Philippines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/5000/most-mentos-and-soda-fountains |title=Most Mentos and soda fountains |publisher=Guinness World Records |date=2010-10-17 |accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Solubility]]

== References ==
<references />

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |first1= John E. |last1= Baur |first2= Melinda B. |last2= Baur |lastauthoramp= yes |title= The Ultrasonic Soda Fountain: A Dramatic Demonstration of Gas Solubility in Aqueous Solutions |journal= Journal of Chemical Education |volume= 83 |issue= 4 |month= April |year= 2006 |pages= 577–580 |doi= 10.1021/ed083p577}} {{registration required}}

== External links ==

*[http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistryhowtoguide/ht/mentos.htm About.com Chemistry page with instructions]

[[Category:Chemistry classroom experiments]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]
[[Category:YouTube videos]]
[[Category:Viral videos]]
[[Category:Coca-Cola in popular culture]]

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2013-11-26T14:28:51Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 50.204.22.214 (talk) to last revision by Wikipelli (HG)

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2013-11-26T14:25:27Z

Wikipelli: Reverted edits by 50.204.22.214 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)