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Bent (Theaterstück)

2004-05-18T00:20:01Z

Wik:

'''''Bent''''' is a [[1979]] play (which starred [[Richard Gere]] in its original production) by [[Martin Sherman]] that was adapted into a [[1997]] movie by director [[Sean Mathias]]. It revolves around the persecution of [[gay]]s in [[Third Reich]] [[Germany]] after the murder of [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] leader [[Ernst Röhm]].

Max ([[Clive Owen]]), a promiscuous gay man in [[1930]]s [[Berlin]], is at odds with his wealthy family because of his homosexuality. One evening, much to the resentment of his boyfriend Rudy ([[Brian Webber]]), he brings home a handsome SA man. Unfortunately, [[Hitler]] has just decided to get rid of the SA, which was noted for the same-sex inclinations among its ranks. The SA man is discovered and killed by [[SS]] men in Max's and Rudy's apartment and the two have to flee Berlin.

Max's uncle Freddie ([[Ian McKellen]]), who is also gay, but lives a more discreet life with rent boys to satisfy his desires, has organized new papers for Max, but Max does not want to leave his naive boyfriend behind. Max and Rudy are found and arrested by the [[Gestapo]] and put on a train headed for the [[Dachau concentration camp]].

On the train, Rudy is beaten to death by the guards (for wearing glasses, which interestingly, some of the Nazi officers do as well) and Max has to sleep with a dead girl to prove he is a [[Jew]], as opposed to a homosexual. His motivation for this deal is that he believes survival in the camp will be easier for him if he does not belong to the lowest-regarded (i.e., the pink triangle-wearing) group of inmates.

In the camp, Max makes friends with Horst ([[Lothaire Bluteau]]), who shows him the dignity that lies in acknowledging what one is. After Horst is shot by camp guards, Max proudly puts on Horst's jacket with the pink triangle and commits suicide in the [[electric fence]].

''Bent'' is a reminder that homosexuality always runs through all classes of society and that it would be incorrect to exclusively assign the role of victims to the homosexuals of that time. While many gay people who were too poor (like Horst) or too naive (like Rudy) ended up in concentration camps, others used their money (like Uncle Freddie) or their power (like the concentration camp commander or some of the Nazi officers) to stay out of harm's way.

Max occupies a middle spot in this spectrum between resistance and collaboration, as initially he is ''bent'' on surviving against all odds and perhaps later even escaping the camp, but during the play / movie he undergoes a transition because of Horst's influence and realizes one cannot always change one's luck through sheer willpower.

Ratu (Fidschi)

2004-04-22T23:06:34Z

Wik:

'''''Ratu''''' is a title inherited by [[Fiji|Fijians]] of chiefly rank. An equivalent title, '''''Adi''''' (pronounced ''ahndi'') is used by female chiefs.

The Fijian nobility consists of fifty-two chiefly families, each of which traditionally ruled a certain [[matagali]], or tribe, which inhabited a certain area. The chiefs are of differing rank, with some chiefs traditionally subordinate to other chiefs. The [[Cakobau family of Fiji|Cakobau clan]] is regarded as the highest chiefly clan. They are descendants of [[Seru Epenisa Cakobau]], the ''[[Tui Bau]]'' (Paramount Chief of Bau, on the eastern side of [[Viti Levu]], Fiji's most populous island), who was the first chief to unite the entire country under his authority in [[1871]], when he was proclaimed ''[[Tui Viti]]'' (King of Fiji). He subsequently ceded the islands to the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1874]]. Other prominent chiefly clans include [[Mara family of Fiji|Mara]] (the traditional rulers of the [[Lau Islands]]), and [[Ganilau]].

In its near-century of colonial rule ([[1874]]-[[1970]]), the British upheld Fiji's traditional chiefly structure and worked through it. They established what was to become the [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]], originally an advisory body, but which grew into a powerful [[Constitution of Fiji|constitutional]] institution. Constitutionally, it functions as an electoral college to choose Fiji's [[List of Presidents of Fiji|President]] (a largely honorary position, modelled on the British Monarchy), and 14 of the 32 [[Senate (Fiji)|Senators]], members of [[Parliament (Fiji)|Parliament's]] "upper house" which has a veto over most legislation. The remaining 18 Senators are appointed by the [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]] (9), the [[Leader of the Opposition (Fiji)|Leader of the Opposition]] (8), and the [[Rotuman Islands Council]] (1); these appointees may, or may not, be of chiefly rank also. (The Senate was modelled on [[United Kingdom|Britain's]] [[House of Lords]], which consists of both hereditary [[Peerage|nobles]] and [[Life Peers]]).

The Presidency and fourteen Senate seats are the only constitutional offices reserved for ''Ratus.'' In all other capacities, they compete on an equal footing with "commoners." In the years following independence, almost all [[Fijian people|ethnic Fijian]] members of the [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]], which is elected by universal suffrage, were ''Ratus;'' in recent elections this has diminished and fewer than half of the Fijian Representatives are currently of chiefly rank. The distinction between ''Ratus'' and commoners is slowly narrowing, as commoners are becoming better educated and have begun to work their way into the power structure. The chiefs, however, retain enormous respect among the Fijian people. In times of crisis, such as the [[Fiji coups of 1987|coups of 1987]] and the [[Fiji coup of 2000|third coup of 2000]], the [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]] has often stepped in to provide leadership when the modern political institutions have broken down. Although the distinction between chiefs and commoners will inevitably continue to lessen, the chiefly institutions are unlikely to disappear any time soon.

==Notable Ratus==
*Ratu Sir [[Kamisese Mara]]
*Ratu Sir [[Penaia Ganilau]]
*Ratu Sir [[George Cakobau]]
*Ratu [[Josefa Iloilo]]
*Ratu [[Tevita Momoedonu]]

Ratu (Fidschi)

2004-04-22T23:04:46Z

Wik:

Colin Turnbull

2004-04-11T04:51:12Z

Wik:

'''Colin Macmillan Turnbull''' ([[November 23]], [[1924]] - [[July 28]], [[1994]]) was a Scottish-born [[anthropology|anthropologist]] who gained fame with his book ''The Forest People'' (1962), a detailed study of the [[Mbuti]] [[Pygmy|Pygmies]]. In 1972, he wrote his most controversial book, ''The Mountain People,'' which portrayed [[Uganda|Uganda's]] hunger-plagued Ik tribe. Turnbull was an unconventional scholar who rejected objectivity. He idealized the Mbuti and reviled the Ik.

Turnbull became an American citizen and lived in New York and Virginia with his partner of 30 years, an [[African-American]] Joseph Towles, as an openly gay and [[interracial couple]]. After his partner's death, Turnbull retreated to a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastery where he lived out his remaining years under the name Lobsong Rigdol before his death from AIDS.

Jacques II. de Chabannes

2004-03-27T22:54:24Z

Wik:

'''Jacques de la Palice''' or '''la Palisse''' was a [[France|French]] nobleman and military officer, born in [[1470]] and died in [[1525]]. His full name and titles are ''Jacques II de [[Chabannes]], Lord of [[Lapalisse|La Palice]], of [[Pacy]], of [[Chauverothe]], of [[Bort-le-Comte]] and of [[Héron]]''. In [[1511]], he received the title of [[Grand Master of France]].

As a [[Marshall]] (''Maréchal''), he fought against [[Italy|Italian]] armies, and died during the battle of [[Padua]]. His soldiers composed a [[song]] in his honor, which said "''hélas, s'il n'était pas mort, il ferait encore envie''" ("Alas, if he wasn't dead, he would still be envied"). That line inspired a burlesque song by [[Bernard de la Monnoye]], who replaced it by
:''Un quart d'heure avant sa mort, il était encore en vie.''
(A quarter hour before his death/He was still quite alive), and attributed to Jacques several other similar feats, like his custom to always go in person when eating at his neighbors. From that song came the [[French language|French]] term ''[[lapalissade]]'' meaning an utterly obvious truth—i.e. a [[truism]] or [[tautology]].

== Chanson de La Palisse / Song of La Palice ==

''From the [http://fr.wikipedia.org/ French Wikipedia]''

<table>
<tr>
<td>Messieurs, vous plaît-il d'ouïr</td>
<td>Gentlemen, hear if you please</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>l'air du fameux La Palisse,</td>
<td>the song of famous La Palisse,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Il pourra vous réjouir</td>
<td>You may indeed enjoy it</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>pourvu qu'il vous divertisse.</td>
<td>as long as you find it fun.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>La Palisse eut peu de biens</td>
<td>La Palisse didn't have the means</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>pour soutenir sa naissance,</td>
<td>to pay for his own birth,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Mais il ne manqua de rien</td>
<td>But he did not lack anything</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>tant qu'il fut dans l'abondance.</td>
<td>once his riches were plenty.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Il voyageait volontiers,</td>
<td>He was quite fond of travel,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>courant par tout le royaume,</td>
<td>going all over the [[kingdom]],</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Quand il était à Poitiers,</td>
<td>When he was in [[Poitiers]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>il n'était pas à Vendôme !</td>
<td>You would not find him in Vendôme!</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Il se plaisait en bateau</td>
<td>He enjoyed a boat ride</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>et, soit en paix soit en guerre,</td>
<td>and, whether in peace or in war,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Il allait toujours par eau</td>
<td>He would always go by water</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>quand il n'allait pas par terre.</td>
<td>when he didn't go by land.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Il buvait tous les matins</td>
<td>He drank every morning</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>du vin tiré de la tonne,</td>
<td>some [[wine]] from a [[barrel]],</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Pour manger chez les voisins</td>
<td>For eating at his neighbors</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>il s'y rendait en personne.</td>
<td>he would always go in person.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Il voulait aux bons repas</td>
<td>He preferred at good meals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>des mets exquis et forts tendres</td>
<td>his dishes to be good and tender</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Et faisait son mardi gras</td>
<td>And had his ''[[Mardi Gras]]''</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>toujours la veille des cendres.</td>
<td>always on the ewe of [[Ash Wednesday|Ashes]].</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Il brillait comme un soleil,</td>
<td>He shone like a sun,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>sa chevelure était blonde,</td>
<td>his hair was blonde,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Il n'eût pas eu son pareil,</td>
<td>He would have had no equals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>s'il eût été seul au monde.</td>
<td>had he been the only one.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Il eut des talents divers,</td>
<td>He had diverse talents,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>même on assure une chose : </td>
<td>some even claimed this:</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Quand il écrivait en vers,</td>
<td>Whenever he wrote in [[verse]],</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>il n'écrivait pas en prose.</td>
<td>he did not write in [[prose]].</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Il fut, à la vérité,</td>
<td>He was, to tell the truth</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>un danseur assez vulgaire,</td>
<td>a rather mediocre [[dancer]],</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Mais il n'eût pas mal chanté</td>
<td>But he did not sing so bad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>s'il avait voulu se taire.</td>
<td>if he chose to shut up.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>On raconte que jamais</td>
<td>They tell that he would never</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>il ne pouvait se résoudre</td>
<td>have taken the decision</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>À charger ses pistolets</td>
<td>of loading his two [[pistols]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>quand il n'avait pas de poudre.</td>
<td>when he had no [[ammunition]].</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Monsieur d'la Palisse est mort,</td>
<td>Monsieur d'la Palisse is dead,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>il est mort devant Pavie,</td>
<td>he died before Padua,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Un quart d'heure avant sa mort,  </td>
<td>A quarter hour before his death,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>il était encore en vie.</td>
<td>he was still quite alive.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Il fut par un triste sort</td>
<td>He was by sorry fate</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>blessé d'une main cruelle,</td>
<td>wounded by a cruel hand</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>On croit, puisqu'il en est mort,  </td>
<td>Since he died of it, we fear</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>que la plaie était mortelle.</td>
<td>that the wound was a mortal one.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Regretté de ses soldats,</td>
<td>Lamented by his soldiers,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>il mourut digne d'envie,</td>
<td>his death is to be envied,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Et le jour de son trépas</td>
<td>And the day of his passing away</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>fut le dernier de sa vie.</td>
<td>was the last day of his life.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Il mourut le vendredi,</td>
<td>He died on a [[Friday]],</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>le dernier jour de son âge,</td>
<td>the last day of his age,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>S'il fût mort le samedi,</td>
<td>Had he died on the [[Saturday]],</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>il eût vécu davantage.</td>
<td>he would have lived longer.</td>
</tr>
</table>

{{msg:stub}}

[[fr:Jacques de la Palice]]

Endowment (Mormonentum)

2004-03-26T07:23:54Z

Wik:

In [[Mormonism]], the '''Endowment''', also known historically as the '''Holy Order''', is a sacred ritual usually performed in [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]]s. Instituted by [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] in [[1842]], the ritual consists of highly symbolic acts and covenants relating to what Mormons view as humanity's relation to God and the earth. Today, the Endowment is practiced mainly by the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and its offshoots; for many other sects of [[Mormonism]], such as the [[Community of Christ]], the ceremony is of historical interest only.

The Endowment consists of two phases: (1) an initiatory phase, and (2) an instructional phase. The initiatory phase consists of [[washing and anointing]] by a male or female officiator (depending on the sex of the patron), culminating in the clothing of the patron in a "[[Temple garment|Garment of the Holy Priesthood]]." In addition, as part of the initiatory phase, the patron is given a "New Name" which signifies their new life as a disciple of Christ.

The instructional phase of the Endowment consists of an instructional script (usually recorded but sometimes performed by live actors), punctuated with covenants between the patron and God, and highly symbolic acts. The instruction and the acts relate to what Mormons view as humanity's relation to God and God's creation, and the role of Jesus Christ.

==Secret, Sacred and Symbolic==
In the Endowment ceremony, there are certain "tokens" and "signs" that [[Latter-day Saint]]s promise never to reveal to outsiders. Although technically the remainder of the Endowment ceremony is not under any such stricture, [[Latter-day Saint]]s are rarely willing to discuss the details of the ceremony. Saints commonly state that the rituals are "sacred" but not "secret"; however, [[Latter-day Saint]] [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] Boyd K. Packer has encouraged members not to "discuss the temple ordinances outside the temples". ''See'' ''Preparing to Enter the Holy Temple''.

In practice, [[Latter-day Saint]]s keep silent about the ceremony for numerous reasons. Some argue that the ceremony should be kept from those who are nor properly prepared or worthy, because once they are exposed to the ceremony, they will suffer a greater damnation if they do not accept it. Many Saints believe that [[Jesus Christ]] taught in often obscure parables for the same reason.

Second, many Saints keep silent about the ceremony because they believe that it its meaning cannot be properly conveyed without the actual experience in the temple. [[Brigham Young]] once stated that "there are but few, very few of the Elders of Israel, [and members of the church] now on earth, who know the meaning of the word endowment [the primary temple ordinance]. To know, they must experience...." —''Discourses of Brigham Young'', page 416. Moreover, some Saints believe that the ceremony may not be understood without revelation from [[God]], and that this revelation can only come in the [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]]. LDS President [[Ezra Taft Benson]] taught that "When I have been weighed down by a problem or a difficulty, I have gone to the House of the Lord with a prayer in my heart for answers. These answers have come in clear and unmistakable ways" (''[[Ensign (magazine)|Ensign]] 8'', August [[1985]]).

However, other [[Mormon]]s have suggested that the [[Latter-day Saint]] reticence to discuss the Endowment encourages attacks and unauthorized exposés by [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Christianity|Christians]], and therefore advocate a more open and transparent attitude toward the ceremony. ''See, e.g.'', Michael W. Homer, "'Similarity of Priesthood in Masonry': The Relationship between Freemasonry and Mormonism," 27(3) ''Dialogue'' (Fall 1994) 42.

==The Initiatory==
The "Initiatory" is a prelude to the Endowment proper, and consists of (1) [[Washing and anointing]], (2) Clothing in the [[temple garment]], and (3) receiving a "[[new name]]".

[[Washing and anointing]] are perhaps the earliest practiced temple ordinances for the living since the organization of the LDS Church. There is evidence that these ordinances were performed in part since 1832. They were first practiced in the Whitney Store as part of the School of the Prophets.

As part of the Endowment ceremony, the ordinance of [[washing and anointing]] symbolizes the ritual cleansing of priests that took place at Israel's Tabernacle, the temple of Solomon, and later temples in Jerusalem (See Exodus 28:40-42, Exodus 29:4-9, 20-21 29-30, 30:18-21). The washing symbolizes being "cleansed from the blood of this generation", and being anointed to become "clean from the blood and sins of this generation". The anointing represents the ritual anointing of a king or queen, and is thought to be "preparatory" to the recipient "becoming a king and a priest unto the most high God, hereafter to rule and reign in the house of Israel forever".

''See [[Washing and anointing]].''

After the [[washing and anointing]], the patron is given the [[temple garment]] (Garment of the Holy Priesthood). This garment represents the "coats of skins" given to [[Adam and Eve]] in the [[Garden of Eden]]. ''See'' [[Temple garment]].

Similar ordinances are performed for the living and the dead in LDS temples where priesthood holders are:
*Washed with water
*Clothed in holy garments
*Anointed with oil
*Ordained or consecrated

As the final part of the Initiatory, the patron is given a [[New Name]], as part of their new life as a disciple of [[Jesus Christ]]. In general, this name is only known to the person to whom it is given; however, an endowed LDS woman may reveal her name to her endowed husband (but not vice-versa). The "new name" is based in part on [[Book of Revelations|Rev.]] 2:17 and 3:12, referring to a "white stone" with a "new name written" thereon. See also LDS [[Doctrine and Covenants]] 130:11 ("And a white stone is given to each of those who come into the celestial kingdom, whereon is a new name written, which no man knoweth save he that receiveth it. The new name is the key word.")

==The instructional portion of the Endowment==
The LDS church does not publish information about the Endowment, and members do not usually discuss it openly. Many feel that the most important ceremony performed by members of the church is the Temple Endowment. 


Brigham Young taught that “Your endowment is, to receive all those ordinances in the house of the Lord, which are necessary for you, after you have departed this life, to enable you to walk back to the presence of the Father, passing the angels who stand as sentinels, being enabled to give them the key words, the signs and tokens, pertaining to the holy Priesthood, and gain your eternal exaltation" (Discourses of Brigham Young, sel. John A. Widtsoe [1954], 416).

Another LDS Church President, [[Harold B. Lee]], stated that the teachings of the temple are "designed by a wise Heavenly Father who has revealed them to us in these last days as a guide and a protection throughout our lives, that you and I might not fail to merit exaltation in the celestial kingdom where God and Christ dwell" (''[[Improvement Era]]'', June [[1967]], page 144).

Most Latter-day Saints that attend the temple believe that the Endowment focuses heavily on the plan of salvation and the atonement of Jesus Christ. Parts of the Plan of salvation explained include:

*The Eternal Nature of God, Jesus Christ and their divinity;
*The preexistence and eternal nature of man (mankind lived with God before mortal life);
*The reality of Satan;
*The fall of Adam and the reasons for mortality, trials and blessings;
*The Atonement of Jesus Christ and the need for the Atonement;
*The relationship of grace, faith and works;
*Death, the literal Resurrection and assignment to the various kingdoms of glory;
*The need for personal righteousness, covenant keeping, and love of God and fellow man;
*The sanctity and eternal nature of the family.

The following description is given in a Church publication of what to expect when one enters the temple:

:"[During the endowment] you will receive instructions and learn the important events of our eternal journey. You'll learn about the creation of this world and about our first parents being placed in the Garden of Eden. You'll learn how Satan tempted Adam and Eve and how they were cast out of the garden and out of the presence of God into our world, with its opposition in all things. Here they learned about the joys as well as the discomforts of life.

:"After Adam and Eve were cast out of the Garden of Eden and placed in the world where we now live, they were taught the gospel, and they entered into covenants of obedience with God, just as you will in the temple. How we keep these covenants determines the nature of the life we will enjoy after this mortal experience.

:"In the eternal world there are kingdoms of glory. You will inherit one of these, depending on your performance in this life. The aim of the gospel and the purpose of temple marriage are not only to keep us together, but also to make us eligible for Heavenly Father's highest reward for us-exaltation in the celestial kingdom. This kingdom is symbolized by the celestial room." -- New Era, June 1975 page 20.

The Endowment is often thought of as a series of lectures where Latter-day Saints are taught about the creation of the world, the events in the garden of eden, what happened after Adam and Even were cast out of the Garden into the Telestrial World, and the progression of righteous individuals through Terrestrial laws to the Celestial Kingdom and exaltation.

During the ceremony, Latter-day Saints are dressed in temple clothes or robes, are taught about various gospel laws (including obedience, chastity, sacrifice and consecration) and covenant to keep them. They are given various "key words, the signs and tokens, pertaining to the holy Priesthood," to remind them of these covenants. At the end of the ceremony, the participant is "tested" on his knowledge of what he was taught and covenated to do and then admitted into the Celestial room, where he may meditate and pray.

One important part of the Endowment ceremony is instruction teaching the "[[Prayer circle|True order of Prayer]]", which involves several couples encircling an altar while repeating an antiphonic prayer. ''See'' [[Prayer circle]].

==History of the Endowment==
Beginning as far back as 1831, Smith taught that tempes needed to be built so the saints could receive the fullness of the priesthood. When the Saints left the temple in Kirtland, he mentioned that the "fullness of the priesthood" had not yet been given. The "fullness of the priesthood" later became another name for the [[Second Anointing]], which is today a rarely-performed extention of the Endowment ceremony. ''See [[Second Anointing]].''

The full Endowment ritual was apparently first introduced in the [[Nauvoo, Illinois]] temple in [[1842]] by Joseph Smith, very shortly after Smith was initiated as a [[Freemason]]. Some claim that there are similiarities between portions of LDS temple ceremones and initiation into [[Freemasonry]]. The LDS church does not deny these similarities, and many within the Church claim Masons use corrupted forms of the rituals that were originally given by God at the [[Temple of Solomon]], and the LDS ritual is a reintroduction of those original forms. Apostle John A. Widstoe said of the similarities, "these similarities, however, do not deal with the basic matters but rather with the mechanism of the ritual."

Concerning the first endowment in 1842 at the Red Brick store in Nauvoo, Joseph Smith recorded:
:...the communications I made to this council [the twelve] were of things spititual, and to be receive only by the spiritual minded: and there was nothing made known to these men but what will be made known to all the Saints of the last days, so soon as they are prepared to receive, and a proper place is prepared to communicate them, even to the weakest of Saints: therefor let the Saints be diligent in building the Temple. - History of the Church 5: 1-2

After the event above, Smith said to Brigham Young, "Brother Brigham, this is not arranged perfectly; however we have done the best we could under the circumstances in which we are placed. I wish you to take this matter in hand: organize and systematize all these ceremonies."

By the time of Smith's death more than 50 persons had receieve the Endowment. A 1996 estimate by Richard Cowan states that only around 150 million Endowments have been performed.

After the Nauvoo Temple was dedicated in 1846, and under the direction of Brigham Young, The Endowment ceremony was introduced to the Church at large. Potted plants were used in areas representing the Garden of Eden, and other "rooms" were furnished appropriately, including a room representing the Celestial Kingdom.

==Reference==
*Michael W. Homer, "'Similarity of Priesthood in Masonry': The Relationship between Freemasonry and Mormonism," 27(3) ''Dialogue'' (Fall 1994) 42.

==External link==
*[http://home.comcast.net/~lrglmear/ldsendowment/index.html The LDS Endowment (a detailed, but respectful, source of information about the Endowment ceremony)]

==Related articles==
*[[Temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
*[[Temple (Mormonism)]]
*[[Washing and anointing]]
*[[Temple garment]]
*[[Second Anointing]]
*[[Prayer circle]]

Unterschwelliger Reiz

2004-03-24T06:49:15Z

Wik:

A '''subliminal message''' is a signal or message designed to pass below (sub) the normal limits of perception. For example it might be inaudible to the conscious mind (but audible to the unconscious or deeper mind) or might be an image transmitted briefly and unperceived consciously and yet perceived unconsciously. This definition assumes a division between conscious and unconscious which may be misleading; it may be more true to suggest that the subliminal message (sound or image) is perceived by deeper parts of what is a single integrated mind.

In the everyday world, it has often been suggested that subliminal techniques are used in advertising and for propaganda purposes (e.g. party political broadcasts).

==Origin of the Term==

The term ''subliminal message'' was popularized in a [[1957]] book entitled ''[[The Hidden Persuaders]]'' by [[Vance Packard]]. This book detailed a study of movie theaters that supposedly used subliminal commands to increase the sales of [[popcorn]] and [[Coca-Cola]] at their concession stands. However, the study was fabricated, as the author of the study [[James Vicary]] later admitted.

In [[1973]] the book ''[[Subliminal Seduction]]'' claimed that subliminal techiques were in wide use in advertising. The book contributed to a general climate of fear with regard to [[Orwell]]ian dangers (of subliminal messaging). Public concern was enough to lead the [[Federal Communications Commission]] to hold hearings and to declare subliminal advertising "contrary to the public interest" because it involved "intentional deception" of the public.

==Discussion==

Subliminal perception or cognition is a subset of unconscious cognition (see New Look 3 below) where the forms of unconscious cognition also include attending to one signal in a noisy environment while unconsciously keeping track of other signals (e.g one voice out of many in a crowded room) and tasks done automatically (e.g. driving a car).

In all such cases there has been research into how much of the unattended or unconscious signal or message is perceived (unconsciously), i.e is the whole message sensed and fully digested or perhaps only its main and simpler features? There are at least two schools of thought about this. One of them argues that only the simpler features of unconscious signals are perceived; however please note that the majority of the research done has tended to test only for simpler features of cognition (rather than testing for complete comprehension). The second school of thought argues that the unconscious cognition is comprehensive and that much more is perceived than can be verbalized.

Various types of studies of subliminal perception have been conducted. For example, of whether anaesthetized patients are completely unaware whilst apparently completely asleep/unconscious. Although the patients themselves report no knowledge of events whilst they are anaesthetized, more indirect methods of examining what they can recall confirm that information is perceived without any conscious awareness.

Similarly, studies of patients with neurological damage show that patients who claim e.g. not to be able to see certain stimuli nevertheless respond on the basis of information received from those stimuli. For example, in the case of the syndrome known as [[blindsight]] patients can be unaware of receiving information within an area of their visual field that they believe to be damaged.

Subliminal messages might gain their potential influence/power from the fact that they may be able to cirumvent the critical functions of the conscious mind, and it has often been argued that subliminal suggestions are therefore potentially more powerful than ordinary suggestions. This route to influence or persuasion would be akin to [[auto-suggestion]] or [[hypnosis]] wherein the subject is encouraged to be (or somehow induced to be) relaxed so that suggestions are directed to deeper (more gullible) parts of the mind; some observers have argued that the unconscious mind is incapable of critical refusal of hypnotic or subliminal suggestions. Research findings do not support the conclusion that subliminal suggestions are peculiarly powerful.

The technology of subliminal messaging has been developed quite far e.g in the hemisphonic technologies of the Monroe Institute (see below) and such techniques have been used in very real world situations such as the rapid and comprehensive training of men in the armed forces to recognise foreign ships and aircraft. Research suggests that the effectiveness of such tapes or CD's is greatly affected by whether the user believes they will have an impact (placebo effect).

====Subliminal Messages in Advertising====

A form of subliminal messaging commonly believed to exist involves the insertion of "hidden" messages into [[movie]]s and [[Television|TV]] programs. The concept of "moving pictures" relies on [[persistence of vision]] to create the illusion of movement in a series of images projected at 23 to 30 frames per second; the popular theory of subliminal messages usually suggests that subliminal commands can be inserted into this sequence at the rate of perhaps 1 frame in 25 (or roughly 1 frame per second). The hidden command in a single frame will flash across the screen so quickly that it is not consciously perceived, but the command will supposedly appeal to the subconscious mind of the viewer, and thus have some measurable effect in terms of behavior.

As to the question of whether subliminal messages are widely used to influence groups of people e.g. audiences, there is no evidence to suggest that any serious or sustained attempt has been made to use the technology on a mass audience. The widely-reported reports that arose in 1957 to the effect that customers in a movie theatre in New Jersey had been induced by subliminal messages to consume more popcorn and more Coca-Cola were almost certainly false. The current consensus among marketing professionals is that subliminal advertising is counter-productive. To some this is because they believe it to be ineffective, but to most it is because they realise it would be a public relations disaster if its use was discovered. Many have misgivings about using it in marketing campaigns due to ethical considerations.

During the [[2000 U.S. presidential campaign]], a [[television]] ad [[campaign]]ing for [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[candidate]] [[George W. Bush]] showed words (and parts thereof) scaling from the foreground to the background on a television screen. When the word <tt>BUREAUCRATS</tt> flashed on the screen, one frame showed only the last part, <tt>RATS</tt>. [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] promptly asked the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] to look into the matter, but no penalties were ever assessed in the case. The effect this had on the overall presidential race was unclear; the [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] and [[Al Gore]] received ridicule for finding malicious intent in something that could have been a simple mistake; the [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]] received ridicule for the lack of attention to detail and Bush's mispronunciation of "subliminal" (it came out as "subliminable"). (It bears mentioning that the "subliminal message" is easily viewable when the ad is played at regular speed. If the message were truly subliminal, that would not be the case.)

== See also ==
*[[advertising]]
*[[marketing]]
*[[promotion]]
*[[backmasking]]

== Quotations ==
* "Over the years there have been literally hundreds of studies"..."these studies show that considerable information capable of informing decisions and guiding actions is perceived even when observers do not experience any awareness of perceiving". Philip Merikle, Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo.

==External links==
*[http://www.snopes2.com/business/hidden/popcorn.htm Urban Legends: Subliminal Advertising]
*[http://www.monroeinstitute.org/ Roberts Monroe's Institute giving access to Hemisphonic technologies]
*[http://discoverytoolsandworkshops.com/ Further information about Hemi-Sync technology that can be used when incorporating subliminal messaging]
*[http://www.noveltynet.org/content/paranormal/www.parascope.com/articles/0497/sublimdc.htm/ 1984 testimony about subliminal messages to the Federal Communications commission]
*[http://www.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/09/13/bush.ad/ CNN article on 2000 presidential campaign "rats" TV ad]

==References==
* Subliminal Perception: The nature of a controversy, N.F.Dixon, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971.
* Psychological Investigations of Unconscious Perception, Journal of Consciousness Studies, P.M Merikle and M. Daneman, 1998.
* New Look 3: Unconscious Cognition Reclaimed, American Psychologist, 47, Anthony W. Greenwald, 1992.
* Holender, D. (1986). Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9, 1-23.

Koreanische Mythologie

2004-03-22T06:42:12Z

Wik:

'''Korean mythology''' consists of national legends & folk-tales which come from the all over the Korean peninsula. Considering the size of the area there is a remarkable amount of variation which has occurred. Even so it is possible to make some generalisations.

The original religion of [[Korea]] was a form of the Eurasian [[Shamanism]], though it shows some similarity with the original religion of China & [[Taoism]]. There has been a mass conversion to [[Christianity]] amongst the population since the Korean War. After the [[Korean War]] Koreans became embarrassed about their own mythology and though many figures are still alive in the consciousness of the general population, much of the oral tradition about the relationship between the mythological figures has been lost. While [[Tangun]] is still remembered as a semi-historical dynasty, much else regarding the family of Gods he descends from has been brushed away from the national consciousness. A prime example of this was during the [[1988 Summer Olympic Games]] when there was a crack-down on the genuine local shamans out of embarrassment. There are now very few practitioners of the ancient Korean religions in [[Seoul]] and charlatans have quickly gobbled up the former shaman audience in the quest to exploit people seeking spirituality.

==Cosmology==
It seems that out of an initial chaos the world was formed and a race of giants set up the stars in the heavens, and separated them from a deepness of water. When their job was finished they fell into an eternal slumber and their bodies became the islands and mountains etc.

Of the first people to dwell on the earth, a brother and sister Haesik & Dalsoon play an important role in becoming the sun and the moon. The negative nature of the Tiger people is established in their story though over time stories concerning some of the Tiger people illustrate their redemption.

7 Hwanins ruled a country in succession from 7193-3898 BCE their country spreading 50,000-li north to south and 20,000-li east to west comprising of twelve Dongyi nations. Bak-dal Nara, the first Dongyi state of Greater Mongolia stretching from the Stanovoy mountains in the [[Lake Baikal]] vicinity from the North to the [[Chang Jiang|Yangtze]] river in the south (including present [[Jiangsu]], [[Shanghai]], and [[Anhui]]) and the Russian Maritime Provinces in the East to Dunhuang in the west is established in 3898 BCE ruled by the first of 18 Hwanungs. Tangun the son of the last Huanung recorded in Korean memory Kuh-bul-dan established Korea in 2333BC.

'''Some important mythological figures'''
* Hanle-nim -The Heavenly Emperor, Ruler of Heaven and Earth.
* Dal(soon)-nim -The moon, sister of the sun.
* Hae(sik)-nim -The sun brother of the moon.
* Chonha Dae Changgun -Village Guardian & General under Heaven husband of-
* Chiha Yo Changgun -Village Guardian & General of the Underworld.
* Sanshilyong/Sanshin -The God of The Mountains
* Yongwang -The Dragon King of the seas
* Mago, the most famous one of the giants, who became the island of [[Cheju]]
* [[Hwanin]] -The Heavenly initiator a title of 7 rulers on earth.
* [[Hwanung]] -The son of Heaven & dynasty of rulers in Greater Mongolia.
* Ungnyo -The Bear who became a woman & mother of Tangun.
* [[Tangun]] son of Hwanung -The first Korean Emperor the first Korean dynasty.
* Sonyo -Daughters of Heaven
* Kyonu & Jingyo who weep the summer rainy season

'''Supernatural creatures'''
* Kumiho -A Nine-tailed fox woman
* Tokkebi (Gremlins)
* Tiger -an initially despised nation who later took control of Korea.
* Turtle errant of the sea palace.
* The Rabbit in The Moon
* The Stalk
* The Deer
* Yongma -Dragon horses of Cheju
* Chonma -The Celestial Horse
* Blue Dragon -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* White Tiger -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* Red Turtle -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* Hyonmu - -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* Ponghwang -Firebird
* Three-Legged-Bird

* Yugi -a magical bronze metal

Hass und Hoffnung – Kinder im Nahostkonflikt

2004-03-13T17:27:58Z

Wik:

'''''Promises''''' is a [[2001]] [[documentary film]] that looks at the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] from the perspectives of seven children living in the Palestinian communities in the [[West Bank]] and Israeli neighborhoods of [[Jerusalem]].

''Promises'' follows the journey of Israeli-American filmmaker [[B.Z. Goldberg]] as he meets with seven Palestinian and Israeli children between the ages of nine and thirteen, seeing the Middle East conflict through their eyes. Rather than focus on specific political events, the film gives voice to these children, who, although they live only 20 minutes apart, live in completely separate worlds.

''Promises'' was shot between [[1995]] and [[2000]] and was produced in association with the [[Independent Television Service]] with partial funding provided by the [[Corporation for Public Broadcasting]].

The film has a running time of 106 minutes, and includes Arabic, Hebrew and English dialogue with English subtitles.

''Promises'' has been shown at numerous film festivals and has received excellent reviews and numerous accolades including:

===Nominations===
*Best Documentary, 74th Annual [[Academy Award|Academy Awards]]
*Best Documentary, IFP Spirit Awards
*Truer than Fiction Award, IFP Spirit Awards

===Awards===
*2002 The NBR Freedom of Expression Citation National Board of Review
*2002 The Michael Landon Award for Community Service to Youth Twenty-Third Annual Young Artist Awards
*2001 Rotterdam International Film Festival]] Audience Award, Best Film
*2001 Munich Film Festival Freedom of Expression Award
*2001 Jerusalem Film Festival Special Festival Award
*2001 Locarno International Film Festival Special Ecumenical Jury Prize
*2001 San Francisco International Film Festival Audience Award, Best Documentary Grand Prize, Best Documentary Golden Gate Award, Documentary Film
*2001 Vancouver International Film Festival Audience Award, Diversity in Spirit Award
*2001 Hamptons International Film Festival Best Documentary
*2001 São Paulo International Film Festival Best Documentary Audience Award
*2001 Valladolid International Film Festival Best Documentary
*2001 Paris International Film Festival (Rencontres) Audience Award-Best Film

===Official Selection of the Following Festivals===
*[[Toronto International Film Festival]]
*[[Galway Film Fleadh]]
*[[Rotterdam International Film Festival]]
*[[Wellington International Film Festival]]
*[[Locarno International Film Festival]]
*[[Melbourne International Film Festival]]
*[[Karlovy Vary International Film Festival]]
*[[Brisbane International Film Festival]]
*[[Jerusalem International Film Festival]]
*[[Taipei Golden Horse Film Festival]]
*[[San Francisco International Film Festival]]
*[[Vancouver International Film Festival]]
*[[Edinburgh International Film Festival]]
*[[Festival of New Cinema]] ([[Montreal]])
*[[Hamptons International Film Festival]]
*[[Warsaw International Film Festival]]
*[[Los Angeles International Film Festival]]
*[[São Paulo International Film Festival]]
*[[Palm Springs Film Festival]]
*[[Valladolid International Film Festival]]
*[[Sydney International Film Festival]]
*[[Festival Do Rio]]
*[[Human Rights Watch Film Festival]] ([[New York]], [[Boston]], [[Berkeley, CA]])
*[[Boston Jewish Film Festival]]
*[[St. Petersburg International Film Festival]]
*[[Pusan International Film Festival]] ([[Korea]])
*[[Nordsk Panorama International Film Festival]]
*[[Washington Jewish Film Festival]]
*[[Buenos Aires International Film Festival]]
*[[Palm Beach Jewish Film Festival]]
*[[Stockholm International Film Festival]]
*[[San Francisco Jewish Film Festival]]
*[[Munich Film FestivalRencontres Cinema de Paris]]

== External link ==
*[http://www.promisesproject.org/ The ''Promises'' Film Project]

Koreanische Mythologie

2004-03-06T23:05:42Z

Wik:

'''Korean mythology''' consists of national legends & folk-tales which come from the all over the Korean peninsula. Considering the size of the area there is a remarkable amount of variation which has occurred. Even so it is possible to make some generalisations.

The original religion of [[Korea]] was a form of the Eurasian [[Shamanism]], though it shows some similarity with the original religion of China & [[Taoism]]. There has been a mass conversion to [[Christianity]] amongst the population since the Korean War. After the [[Korean War]] Koreans became embarrassed about their own mythology and though many figures are still alive in the consciousness of the general population, much of the oral tradition about the relationship between the mythological figures has been lost. While [[Tangun]] is still remembered as a semi-historical dynasty, much else regarding the family of Gods he descends from has been brushed away from the national consciousness. A prime example of this was during the [[1988 Summer Olympic Games]] when there was a crack-down on the genuine local shamans out of embarrassment. There are now very few practicioners of the ancient Korean religions in [[Seoul]] and charlatans have quickly gobbled up the former shaman audience in the quest to exploit people seeking spirituality.

==Cosmology==
It seems that out of an initial chaos the world was formed and a race of giants set up the stars in the heavens, and separated them from a deepness of water. When their job was finished they fell into an eternal slumber and their bodies became the islands and mountains etc.

Of the first people to dwell on the earth, a brother and sister Haesik & Dalsoon play an important role in becoming the sun and the moon. The negative nature of the Tiger people is established in their story though over time stories concerning some of the Tiger people illustrate their redemption.

7 Hwanins ruled a country in succession from 7193-3898 BCE their country spreading 50,000-li north to south and 20,000-li east to west comprising of twelve Dongyi nations. Bak-dal Nara, the first Dongyi state of Greater Mongolia stretching from the Stanovoy mountains in the [[Lake Baikal]] vicinity from the North to the [[Chang Jiang|Yangtze]] river in the south (including present [[Jiangsu]], [[Shanghai]], and [[Anhui]]) and the Russian Maritime Provinces in the East to Dunhuang in the west is established in 3898 BCE ruled by the first of 18 Hwanungs. Tangun the son of the last Huanung recorded in Korean memory Kuh-bul-dan established Korea in 2333BC.

'''Some important mythological figures'''
* Hanle-nim -The Heavenly Emperor, Ruler of Heaven and Earth.
* Dal(soon)-nim -The moon, sister of the sun.
* Hae(sik)-nim -The sun brother of the moon.
* Chonha Dae Changgun -Village Guardian & General under Heaven husband of-
* Chiha Yo Changgun -Village Guardian & General of the Underworld.
* Sanshilyong/Sanshin -The God of The Mountains
* Yongwang -The Dragon King of the seas
* Mago, the most famous one of the giants, who became the island of [[Cheju]]
* [[Hwanin]] -The Heavenly initiator a title of 7 rulers on earth.
* [[Hwanung]] -The son of Heaven & dynasty of rulers in Greater Mongolia.
* Ungnyo -The Bear who became a woman & mother of Tangun.
* [[Tangun]] son of Hwanung -The first Korean Emperor the first Korean dynasty.
* Sonyo -Daughters of Heaven
* Kyonu & Jingyo who weep the summer rainy season

'''Supernatural creatures'''
* Kumiho -A Nine-tailed fox woman
* Tokkebi (Gremlins)
* Tiger -an initially despised nation who later took control of Korea.
* Turtle errant of the sea palace.
* The Rabbit in The Moon
* The Stalk
* The Deer
* Yongma -Dragon horses of Cheju
* Chonma -The Celestial Horse
* Blue Dragon -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* White Tiger -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* Red Turtle -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* Hyonmu - -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* Ponghwang -Firebird
* Three-Legged-Bird

* Yugi -a magical bronze metal

Erhöhung (Mormonentum)

2004-03-04T23:45:03Z

Wik:

'''Exaltation''' or '''Eternal Progression''' is a seminal doctrinal [[belief]] among devout members of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) that mortal men have the opportunity to achieve divine or [[God]]like status by following certain Church teachings, especially by being [[sealing (Mormonism)|sealed]] in LDS Church [[temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|temples]]. Exaltation is the ultimate goal of faithful LDS Church members.

LDS Church founder, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], taught this doctrine in the [[King Follett Discourse]].

Some critics regard Exaltation as blasphemous.

See also [[Christianity and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Theosis#Deification in Mormonism|Theosis]] and [[Salvation]].
----

"Exaltation" also means simply "lifting up" or "raising up"; it appears in the name of one the twelve [[Orthodox]] feasts, the "Exaltation of the Holy and Lifegiving Cross".

Julia Morgan

2004-01-20T17:25:28Z

Wik:

'''Julia Morgan''' ([[January 20]], [[1872]] - [[February 2]], [[1957]]) was an American architect. She is best known for her work on [[Hearst Castle]] in [[San Simeon, California]]. Born in [[San Francisco, California]], she was raised in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]]. She graduated from the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1894 with a degree in civil engineering. Her best-known works include the YMCAs in [[San Jose, California]], and Oakland, the [[Mills College]] Bell Tower and the Chapel of the Chimes, also in Oakland.

{{msg:stub}}

Fischereisvögel

2003-12-27T19:36:20Z

Wik:

<table border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpading="2">
<tr><th align="center" bgcolor=pink>'''Water Kingfishers'''</th></tr>
<tr><th align="center" bgcolor=pink>'''[[Scientific classification]]'''</th></tr>
<tr><td>
<table align="center"><tr>
<td>[[Kingdom (biology)|Kingdom]]: </td><td>[[Animal]]ia </td></tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Phylum (biology)|Phylum]]: </td><td>[[chordate|Chordata]] </td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Class (biology)|Class]]: </td><td>[[bird|Aves]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Order (biology)|Order]]:</td><td>[[Coraciiformes]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Family (biology)|Family]]:</td><td> '''Cerylidae'''</td></tr>
</table>
</td></tr>
<tr><th align="center" bgcolor="pink">'''[[Genera]]'''</th></tr>
<tr><td>
''[[Megaceryle]]''<br>
''[[Ceryle]]''<br>
''[[Chloroceryle]]''
</td></tr>
</table>
The '''water kingfishers''' or '''Cerylidae''' are one of the three [[family (biology)|families]] of [[bird]] in the [[kingfisher]] group, and are also known as the '''belted kingfishers''' or '''cerylid kingfishers'''.

There are 9 species in three genera:

* The 4 '''green kingfishers''' (''[[Megaceryle]]'') have a wide distribution in [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[The Americas|America]]. The [[Belted Kingfisher]], ''M. alcyon'', is the only kingfisher that is widespread in [[North America]], though two of the tropical American species range as far north as [[Texas]] and [[Arizona]].
** Giant Kingfisher, <i>Megaceryle maxima</i>
** Crested Kingfisher, <i>Megaceryle lugubris</i>
** [[Belted Kingfisher]], <i>Megaceryle alcyon</i>
** Ringed Kingfisher, <i>Megaceryle torquata</i>
* The [[Pied Kingfisher]] (''Ceryle rudis''), is widespread in the tropical regions of the Old World.
* The 4 '''crested kingfishers''' (''[[Chloroceryle]]'') of tropical America.
** Amazon Kingfisher, <i>Chloroceryle amazona</i>
** Green Kingfisher, <i>Chloroceryle americana</i>
** Green-and-rufous Kingfisher, <i>Chloroceryle inda</i>
** American Pygmy Kingfisher, <i>Chloroceryle aenea</i>

Neurilemm

2003-12-18T23:12:41Z

Wik:

'''Neurolemma''' (spelled also ''neurolema'', ''neurilemma'' and ''neurilema'', and used interchangeably with '''epineurium''') is the insulating [[myelin]] layer that surrounds an individual [[peripheral nervous system|peripheral]] [[axon|nerve fiber]]. The myelin is contributed by [[Schwann cell]]s and the layer is sometimes referred to as the sheath of Schwann. The neurolemma is instrumental in regenerating axons that have been injured.

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2003-12-01T02:22:33Z

Wik: rv

<table align="right"><tr><td>
[[image:sarah_edmonds_disguised.gif]]
<br>Sarah Edmonds in disguise</br>
</td></tr></table>
'''Sarah Emma Edmonds''' (December [[1841]] - [[September 5]], [[1898]]) was an American woman who served as a [[transracial]] and [[transvestite]] [[American Civil War spies|spy]] for the Union in the [[American Civil War]]. She was born in [[New Brunswick]], [[Canada]], but moved to the United States in 1856. During the war, she enlisted, disguised as a man named Frank Thompson, and fought in several battles on the Union side, including the [[Battle of First Bull Run]]. She later served as a nurse and as a spy, continuing to disguise herself as a man and as an [[African American]]. She published ''Nurse and Spy in the Union Army'' after the war. In 1867, she married L. H. Seelye, a Canadian mechanic with whom she had three children. Edmonds died in [[La Porte, Texas]], and is buried in Washington Cemetery, in [[Houston, Texas]].

==External links==
*https://www.sandiego.edu/~kelliej/sarahedmonds.html
*http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USACWthompsonF.htm

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2003-12-01T02:14:59Z

Wik:

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2003-12-01T02:10:46Z

Wik: I am not obliged to repeat a correct edit I made

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2003-12-01T02:08:22Z

Wik: rv

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2003-12-01T02:00:51Z

Wik: rv (Danny ignored edit conflict)

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2003-12-01T01:52:14Z

Wik: rv

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2003-12-01T01:42:55Z

Wik:

Allegany State Park

2003-11-28T01:59:34Z

Wik:

'''Allegany State Park''' is a [[state park]] in [[New York state]], located in [[Cattaraugus County, New York|Cattaraugus County]], just above the [[Allegany National Forest]] in [[Pennsylvania]]. The park is divided into two sections: Red House and Quaker.

:The <b>Red House Area</b> is the upper half of Allegany State Park. It is usualy considered to be the most developed area of the park. The Red House area's attractions include: Stone Tower, the Summit Fire Tower, Red House Lake, and the Art Roscow Ski Area. Not to mention several [[hiking]] trails and camp sites.

:<b>The Quaker area</b>, unlike the Red House area is located in the lower section of the park. Its attractions include: Quaker Lake, the Mount Tuskarora Fire Tower, [[hiking]] trails, Science lake, and of course several camp sites.

=== External link ===

[http://www.nysparks.state.ny.us/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/nysparks/parks.cgi?p+33 Basic Recreation Information]

Allegany State Park

2003-11-28T01:59:11Z

Wik:

'''Allegany State Park''' is a [[state park]] in [[New York state]], located in [[Cattaraugus County, New York|Cattaraugus County]], just above the [[Allegany National Forest]] in [[Pennsylvania]]. The park is divided into two sections: Red House and Quaker.

:The <b>Red House Area</b> is the upper half of <b>Allegany State Park</b>. It is usualy considered to be the most developed area of the park. The <b>Red House area</b>'s attractions include: Stone Tower, the Summit Fire Tower, Red House Lake, and the Art Roscow Ski Area. Not to mention several [[hiking]] trails and camp sites.

:<b>The Quaker area</b>, unlike the Red House area is located in the lower section of the park. It's atractions include: Quaker Lake, the Mount Tuskarora Fire Tower, [[hiking]] trails, Science lake, and of course several camp sites.

=== External link ===

[http://www.nysparks.state.ny.us/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/nysparks/parks.cgi?p+33 Basic Recreation Information]

Carolyn Merchant

2003-11-26T21:42:47Z

Wik:

Carolyn Merchant is an Ecofeminst philosopher most famous for her theory on the 'Death of Nature', whereby she identifies the Enlightenment as the period when scinece began to atomise, objectify and dissect nature, fortelling it's eventual conception as inert.

She writes, "The female earth was central to organic cosmology that was undermined by the Scientific Revolution and the rise of a market-oriented cuture...for sixteenth-century Europeans the root metaphor binding together the self, society and the cosmos was that of an organism...organismic thoery emphaised interdependence among the parts of the human body, subordination of individual to communal purposes in family, community, and state, and vital life permeate the cosmos to the lowliest stone." (Merchant, The Death of Nature, 1990: 278)

Nature, Merchant tells us, was prior to the Enlightenment, concieved of as the benevolent mother of all things, albeit sometimes wild. This metaphor was to gradually be replaced by the 'dominion' model as the Scientific Revolution rationalised and dissected nature to show all her secrets. As nature revealed her secrets, so too she was able to be controlled. Both this intention and the methaphor of 'nature unveiled' is still prevalent in scientfic language. Conceptions of the Earth as nurturing bringer of life began slowly to change to one of a resource to be exploited as scince became more and more confident that human minds could know all there was about the natural world and therby affect changes on it at will. Merchant cites Francis Bacon's use of female methaphors to describe the exploitation of nature at this time was telling: "she is either free,...or driven out of her ordinary course by the perverseness, insolence and forwardness of matter and violence of impediments...or she is put in constraint, molded and made as it were new by art and the hand of man; as in things artificial...nature takes orders form man and works under his authority" (Bacon in Merchant 1990: 282). Nature must be "bound into service" and made a"slave" " to the human ends of regaining our dominion over nature lost in the 'fall from grace' in Eden.

In combination with increasing industrialisation and the rise of capitalism that simultaneous replaced women's work like weaving with machinery, and subsumed their roles as subsistence agriculturalists also drove people to live in cities further removing them from nature and the effects of industrialised production on it. The combined effects of industrialisation, scientifc exploration of nature and the ascendancy of the dominion/dominaton metaphor over the nuturing Mother Earth one, according to Merchant, can still be felt in social and political thought, as much as it was evident in the art, philosophy and science of the 16th Century.

See also: Ecofeminism

Pueblo de Taos

2003-11-23T23:21:33Z

Wik:

'''Taos Pueblo''' is the ancient town of the Northern [[Tiwa]] speaking tribe of [[Pueblo people]], [[Native American]]s. It lies about one mile north of modern [[Taos, New Mexico]] on the [[Rio Pueblo]], a small stream which flows from the [[Sangre de Christo Range]]. 95 thousand acres are attached to the pueblo; about 2000 people live there. In their own language the name of Taos is Tua-tah which means "our village."

Taos is a multi-storied complex of reddish-brown adobe divided into two parts by the Rio Pueblo.

''Need more about history and about the recovery of Blue Lake.''

==External link==
*http://taospueblo.com/

Koreanische Mythologie

2003-11-23T12:31:04Z

Wik:

'''Korean mythology''' consists of national legends & folk-tales which come from the all over the Korean penninsula. Considering the size of the area there is a remarkable ammount of variation which has occurred. Even so it is possible to make some generalisations.

The original religion of Korea was a form of the Eurasian Shamanism, though it shows some similarity with the original religion of China & Taoism. There has been a mass conversion to Christianity occur amongst the population since the Korean War. After the Korean War Koreans became embarrassed about their own mythology and though many figures are still alive in the consciousness of the general population, much of the oral tradition about the relationship between the mythological figures has been lost. While Tangun is still remembered as a semi-historical dynasty, much else regarding the family of Gods he descends from has been brushed away from the national consciousness. A prime example of this was during the 88 Olympic Games when there was a crack-down on the genuine local shamans out of embarrassment. There are now very few practicioners of the ancient Korean religions in Seoul and charlatans have quickly gobbled-up the former shaman audience in the quest to exploit people seeking spirituality.

==Cosmology==
It seems that out of an initial chaos the world was formed and a race of giants set up the stars In the heavens, and sperated them from a deepness of water. When their job was finished they fell into an eternal slumber and their bodies became the islands and mountains etc..

Of the first people to dwell on the earth, a brother and sister Haesik & Dalsoon play an important role in becoming the sun and the moon. The negative nature of the Tiger people is established in their story though over time stories concerning some of the Tiger people illustrate their redemption.

7 Hwanins ruled a country in succession from 7193-3898 BCE their country spreading 50,000-li north to south and 20,000-li east to west comprising of twelve Dongyi nations. Bak-dal Nara, the first Dongyi state of Greater Mongolia stretching from the Stanovoy mountains in the Lake Baykal vicinity from the North to the Yangzi river in the south (including present Jiangsu, Shanghai, and Anhui) and the Russian Maritime Provinces in the East to Dunhuang in the west is established in 3898 BCE ruled by the first of 18 Hwanungs. Tangun the son of the last Huanung recorded in Korean memory Kuh-bul-dan established Korea in 2333BC.

'''Some important mythological figures'''
* Hanle-nim -The Heavenly Emperor, Ruler of Heaven and Earth.
* Dal(soon)-nim -The moon, sister of the sun.
* Hae(sik)-nim -The sun brother of the moon.
* Chonha Dae Changgun -Village Guardian & General under Heaven husband of-
* Chiha Yo Changgun -Village Guardian & General of the Underworld.
* Sanshilyong/Sanshin -The God of The Mountains
* Yongwang -The Dragon King of the seas
* Mago, the most famous one of the giants, who became the island of Cheju
* Hwanin -The Heavenly initiator a title of 7 rulers on earth.
* Hwanung -The son of Heaven & dynasty of rulers in Greater Mongolia.
* Ungnyo -The Bear who became a woman & mother of Tangun.
* Tangun son of Hwanung -The first Korean Emperor the first Korean dynasty.
* Sonyo -Daughters of Heaven
* Kyonu & Jingyo who weep the summer rainy season

'''Supernatural creatures'''
* Kumiho -A Nine-tailed fox woman
* Tokkebi (Gremlins)
* Tiger -an initially dispised nation who later took control of Korea.
* Turtle errant of the sea palace.
* The Rabbit in The Moon
* The Stalk
* The Deer
* Yongma -Dragon horses of Cheju
* Chonma -The Celestial Horse
* Blue Dragon -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* White Tiger -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* Red Turtle -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* Hyonmu - -Tomb guardian of one of the four directions
* Ponghwang -Firebird
* Three-Legged-Bird

* Yugi -a magical bronze metal

Wort der Weisheit

2003-11-09T02:40:14Z

Wik:

The '''Word of Wisdom''' is a health code subscribed to by the members of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. Abiding by the precepts of the code is one of the requirements to be worthy to enter the [[Temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|temples]] of the Church.

== Brief History ==

The [[Mormon]] [[prophet]], [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], claimed to receive a [[revelation]] in [[1833]] from which he dictated the precepts of the Word of Wisdom. This dictation is recorded in [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/89 section 89] of ''[[Doctrine and Covenants|The Doctrine and Covenants]]''. Initially this teaching was not given as a commandment, but merely as an admonition. Thus, in the early period of the Church a number of [[Latter-day Saints]] including Church leaders still occasionally consumed things against which the Word of wisdom advised. However, by [[September 9]], [[1851]] at a General Conference of the Church, [[Brigham Young]], the president and prophet of the Church at the time, proposed that the admonition be accepted as a binding commandment for all Latter-day Saints from that time forward, and the body of the Church sustained the decision.

== Basic Precepts of the Word of Wisdom ==

While the precepts of the Word of Wisdom have been developed somewhat overtime, it's modern, primary precepts are summed up as follows:

*[[Alcohol]], [[tobacco]], [[coffee]], [[tea]] (including iced tea) and illicit [[drug]]s should not be consumed. Food and drink with harmful ingredients should be avoided and should not be consumed if circumstances of the consumption would result in habitual consumption of a food or drink with habit-forming drugs such as [[caffeine]].

*[[Meat]] should be eaten sparingly.

*[[cereal|Grain]]s, [[herb]]s, [[vegetable]]s and [[fruit]]s should be consumed (or used, in the case of herbs) prudently.

Contrary to the suggestions of some, the Word of Wisdom is not a code of [[vegetarianism]]. Moreover, the original restriction in section 89 that meat only be eaten in times of winter, cold or famine appears to have been relaxed somewhat given modern means of storing and preparing meat.

== The Meaning of "Strong Drinks" and "Hot Drinks" ==

Although section 89 does not refer to alcohol, coffee nor tea explicitly, General Authorities of the Church from Smith's time to the present have expressly stated that alcohol, coffee and tea are what is referred to by the terms "strong drinks" and "hot drinks". They have suggested that at the time the Word of Wisdom was introduced the strong drinks and hot drinks being consumed at that time were alcohol, coffee and tea. Presently, tea includes iced tea. Presumably, many of the hot, herbal teas with no obvious, harmful ingredients are not officially prohibited under the Word of Wisdom, but the Church does not officially endorse their use. Latter-day Saints are moderately divided in their stances on the use of such drinks. Some members choose to avoid them since they are not specifically excluded under the Word of Wisdom. Others see no harm in consuming them believing that some herbal teas contain ingredients that are especially healthy for the body.

== Caffeinated-Soft Drinks ==

The permissibility of consuming caffeinated products such as caffeinated- [[soft drink|soda]]s is a longstanding issue among Latter-day Saints. Because of the statements of various Church leaders (which are not official statements nor practices of the Church), some adherents and even non-members believe that caffeine is officially prohibited under the Word of Wisdom. If this were so, other things which contain caffeine besides soda drinks would be prohibited too such as [[chocolate]]. Some members who hold that caffeinated-sodas are prohibited distinguish between things with naturally occuring caffeine and those things where caffeine is an additive although any difference in the chemistry and effect of caffeine as an additive or naturally-occuring are
negligible. In short, members are divided on their stance of consumption of caffeinated beverages, though it is not usually a point of great contention. The Church has no official stance on the consumption of caffeinated beverages and the consumption of such does not constitute breaking the Word of Wisdom (that is, you can obtain a temple recommend if you regularly consume caffeinated beverages).

== Purpose of the Word of Wisdom ==

Adding to the caffeine issue is the broader question of why tobacco, alcohol, coffee, tea and possibly caffeinated-sodas are prohibited at all. The harmful health effects of tobacco are nearly universally recognized. It is presumed in the case of coffee and tea that these drinks are prohibited because of their caffeine content. Thus, the condemnation of caffeine or caffeinated-sodas by some Church leaders. However, some Church leaders have also stated that God has not revealed why some things have been prohibited under the Word of Wisdom. Some suggest that the reasons will not become known for some time as in the case of tobacco. Some have stated further that: the primary purpose of the Word of Wisdom is, like all commandments, for spiritual benefits; and like some other commandments, earthly benefits are merely incidental. For example, there
are a number of promised rewards contingent on obedience to the Word of Wisdom not all of which appear to be direct health consequences of obedience to the dietary code. These rewards stated in section 89 include:

*"shall receive health in their navel and marrow to their bones"
*"shall find wisdom and great treasures of knowledge"
*"shall run and not be weary, and shall walk and not faint"
*"the destroying angel shall pass by them...and not slay them"

== Alcohol ==

In regards to the consumption of [[alcohol]]—or more particularly, [[ethanol]]—it has very little reedeming qualities: ethanol is toxic to the human body; it damages many organs and cells in the body including the brain and liver and gives rise to a higher incidence of [[cancer]] by hindering the immune system.

Recent scientific research was conducted into any possible health benefits of alcohol, which in the minds of some was an effort driven at least in part to justify moderate or light drinking. The research indicates that ethanol may provide a mild benefit to help prevent [[coronary heart disease]]. However, most, if not all, of this benefit can be achieved by other means without incurring the substantially greater harmful effects of ethanol. For example, the beneficial compounds found in red wine, [[polyphenol]]s and [[resveratrol]], are also found, although to a lesser extent, in [[peanut]]s, [[grape|grape juice]] and [[cranberry|cranberry juice]].

In the [[December]] [[1997]] issue of the ''Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine'', an editorial concludes that the recommendation to be a light drinker is "not only meaningless but also irresponsible" given that the many obvious health hazards of alcohol outweigh "the benefits of alcohol [which] are small and ill-understood" particularly when so many other cardiovascular treatments are available.

*''See also'' [[Moderate drinking controversy]]

== Health Subjects not Explicitily Addressed ==

Section 89 does not specifically address illicit drugs, such as [[cocaine]],
[[methamphetamine]]s or [[cannabis|marijuana]], although the Church has officially denounced their use as a violation of that doctrine. Beyond illicit drugs, there are innumerable subjects related to the Word of Wisdom that have not been addressed in fine detail by the Church: exercise, medical treatment, junk food, etc. This is in keeping with the teachings of the Church that Latter-day Saints, having been given the Gift of the Holy Ghost, are entitled to personal revelation guiding them to make personal choices that are based on individual circumstances and are consistent with the doctrines and practices of the Church. It is not the purpose of the Church to give detailed rules for every aspect of living a [[Christian]] life. The Word of Wisdom is no exception. Thus, Latter-day Saints are expected to make wise choices pertaining to personal health that are not specifically addressed by the Word of Wisdom. This principle allows sufficient latitude for varying circumstances. For example, the specific application of the Word of Wisdom could be potentially more restrictive for a person susceptible to obesity, but that determination is solely in the discretion of the individual.

== Caffeinated-Soft Drinks and Personal Discretion ==

Given the latitude in applying the Word of Wisdom to personal circumstances, many Latter-day Saints feel that the consumption of caffeinated-sodas falls in the category of personal discretion; while some may consider consumption of caffeinated-sodas permissible, others may not. More strict Latter-day Saints hold that while no official prohibition restricts the consumption of caffeinated-sodas, consumption by any member does indeed violate the spirit of the Word of Wisdom, and a member receiving proper inspiration will recognize this as so.

== Views toward Modern and Alternative Medicine ==

The majority of Latter-day Saints acknowledge that generally the treatments of modern [[medicine]] and the advice of their [[physician]]s and the guides issued from the [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] is in keeping with the Word of Wisdom. In contrast to this more moderate position, a small minority of Latter-day Saints are wary of modern medicine and have interpreted the Word of Wisdom somewhat less conventionally. This group favors some aspects of [[alternative medicine]]--especially [[herbal therapy|herbal]] or [[homeopathy|homeopathic]] treatments--to modern medicine as a more effective treatment of health problems. (Other alternative lifestyle choices, such as [[home schooling]] or a strong interest in the [[Breastfeeding|La Leche League]], often appeal to this group of Latter-day Saints although interest in a particular, alternative lifestyle is not necessarily inclusive of other popular, alternative lifestyles among the Latter-day Saints.) While alternative treatments might also include [[acupuncture]] for a few, [[magnet therapy]] would be too radical. Still some of the practices, such as the heavy consumption of [[colloidal silver]] for [[common cold]]s, directly contradicts the conventional wisdom of modern medicine and the precautions advised by the FDA. Latter-day Saints generally consider most of alternative medicine as [[quackery]] or based on [[pseudoscience]]. Thus, although Joseph Smith permitted a phrenologist to examine his head in the [[19th century]], nearly all Latter-day Saints now-a-days reject the validity of [[phrenology]], an academically respected field of research in its day.

== Health Studies regarding Latter-day Saints ==

A 14-year study conducted by [[UCLA]] [[epidemiologist]] [[James E. Enstrom]] tracked the health of 10,000 moderately active married LDS couples. Of these non-[[smoking]], [[monogamy|monogamous]] non-[[alcoholic beverage|drinkers]], Enstrom concluded from the study "that LDS Church members who follow religious mandates barring smoking and drinking have one of the lowest death rates from cancer and cardiovascular diseases—about half that of the general population... Moreover, the healthiest LDS Church members enjoy a life expectancy eight to 11 years longer than that of the general white population in the United States." (''LDS Lifestyle May Be Secret to Long Life'', Associated Press)

This study and others conclude that Latter-day Saints live significantly longer, healthier lives compared to the general U.S. populace, a consquence that correlates to their health code, the Word of Wisdom. Thus, Latter-day Saints extol the prohibition against even moderate consumption of alcohol, coffee, tea and tobacco as divine guidance whose wisdom will be recognized in time.

Critics reject these studies in part because other factors may be credited for Latter-day Saints'longevity and health.

==External Links==
* [http://www.jefflindsay.com/WWisdom.shtml The cited Associated Press article and discussion of Word of Wisdom by Jeff Lindsay] (the full article is about halfway down the page)
* [http://www.watchman.org/lds/tmlds.htm ''The Watchman's'' discussion of the UCLA study]

Freedom Forum

2003-11-05T05:44:29Z

Wik:

'''The Freedom Forum''' was created in [[1991]] under the direction of [[Allen H. Neuharth]], former publisher of ''[[USA Today]]'' newspaper. Funding was provided by a foundation started by publisher [[Frank E. Gannett]] in 1935, called the Gannett Foundation. The foundation took on the name of The Freedom Forum in 1991.

The Freedom Forum describes itself as "a nonpartisan foundation dedicated to free press, free speech and free spirit for all people."

It runs the First Amendment Center and the Diversity Institute at [[Vanderbilt University]] in [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]. It is also the creator of the [[Newseum]], a museum dedicated to the history of news, which will open in [[2006]] in [[Washington, D.C.]].

''This article is a [[Wikipedia:Perfect stub article|stub]]. You can help Wikipedia by [[Wikipedia:Find or fix a stub|fixing it]].''

Edward Brongersma

2003-10-14T22:14:28Z

Wik:

'''Edward Brongersma''' ([[August 31]], [[1911]] - [[April 22]], [[1998]]) was for a number of years a member of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Eerste Kamer]] ("First Chamber" or Senate), and chairman of the Eerste Kamer's Judiciary Committee (1969-77).

He was a well-known advocate of [[pedophilia]], and was the author of a number of books and journal articles defending male [[homosexual]] pedophilia, the most famous of which is his book ''[[Loving Boys]]''.

In April 1998 he ended his own life by taking drugs which were given to him by his doctor, [[Philip Sutorius]]. He had requested [[euthanasia]] because, although he was not terminally ill and was not in any pain or suffering, he was lonely, no longer felt useful, was 'tired of life' and believed his life was no longer worth living. Sutorius was prosecuted for violating Dutch law, which permits euthanasia only in cases where a person has a terminal illness or has unbearable and unending pain or suffering, which did not appear to apply in Brongersma's case. Sutorius was acquitted after the Court heard expert witnesses state that Brongersma was afflicted with unbearable suffering of a psychological nature. The Dutch Ministry of Justice appealed the acquittal; the appeal court overturned the original acquittal and convicted Sutorius, on the grounds that the kind of psychological suffering Brongersma was afflicted with was not what was meant by 'unbearable and unending pain or suffering' in Dutch euthanasia law. However, the appeal court did not give Sutorius any sentence, on the grounds that he had acted from compassion.

Vereinigtes Thora-Judentum

2003-09-04T07:50:16Z

Wik: more common name

'''United Torah Judaism''' (יהדות התורה) is an Israeli political party currently led by Rabbi Elyashiv. The party represents the [[Ultra-Orthodox]] Jewry in Israel originating from [[Ashkenazi]] Jewry.

Schlacht von Bennington

2003-08-17T22:40:32Z

Wik:

The '''Battle of Bennington''' ([[August 16]], [[1777]]) was an important battle during the [[American Revolutionary War|American Revolution]] in which [[United Kingdom|British]] forces were defeated by [[United States|American]] troops. As with many battles, the Battle of Bennington was fought not at its namesake, [[Bennington, Vermont]], but instead a few miles over the border into the [[New York]] colony.

British Gen. [[John Burgoyne|Burgoyne]] was trying to push through northern [[Hudson River]] valley. After the recent British victories at [[Battle of Hubbardton|Hubbardton]], [[Fort Ticonderoga]], and St. Clair, Burgoyne's plan was to defeat the American forces in the area and then continue south to [[Albany, New York|Albany]] and on to the Connecticut River Valley, dividing the American colonies in half.

However by late July, Burgoyne's progress towards Albany had slowed to a crawl and his army's supplies began to dwindle. Burgoyne sent forth from [[Fort Miller, New York|Fort Miller]] a detachment of about 800 troops under the command of the German Lt. Col. [[Friedrich Baum]]. Half of Baum's detachment was made up of German mercenaries, while the other half consisted of local Loyalists, Canadians, and Indians. Baum was ordered to raid the supply depot at Bennington, which was guarded by fewer than 400 colonial militia.

On August 13th, en route to Bennington, Baum learned of the arrival in the area of 1,500 New Hampshire militia under the command of Gen. [[John Stark]]. Baum ordered his forces to stop at the [[Walloomsac River]], about 4 miles west of Bennington. After sending a request for reinforcements to [[Fort Miller]], Baum took advantage of the terrain and deployed his forces on the high ground. In the pouring rain, Baum's men dug in and hoped that the weather would prevent the Americans from attacking before reinforcements arrived. Deployed a few miles away, Stark decided to reconnoiter Baum's positions and wait until the weather cleared.

On the afternoon of [[August 16]]th, the weather cleared and Stark ordered his men ready to attack. Stark is reported to have rallied his troops saying ''There are your enemies, the Red Coats and the Tories. They are ours or this night Molly Stark sleeps a widow.'' Upon hearing that the militia had melted away into the woods, Baum assumed that the Americans were retreating or redeploying. However, Stark had recognized that Baum's forces were spread thin and decided immediately to envelop them from two sides while simultaneously charging Baum's central redoubt head-on. Stark's plan succeeded, and after a brief battle on Baum's flanks, the Loyalists and Indians fled. This left Baum and his German dragoons trapped on the high ground without any horse. The Germans fount valiantly even after running low on powder. The dragoons led a saber charge and tried to break through the enveloping forces. However, after this final charge failed and Baum was mortally wounded, the Germans surrendered.

Shortly after this battle ended, while the New Hampshire militia was disarming the German troops, Baum's reinforcements arrived. The German reinforcements, under the command of Lt. Col. [[Heinrich von Breymann]], saw the Americans in disarray and pressed their attack immediately. After hastily regrouping, Stark's forces tried to hold their ground against the German onslaught. Fortunately for the New Hampshire militia, before their lines collapsed a group of several hundred Vermont militiamen arrived to reinforce Stark's troops. The [[Green Mountain Boys]], commanded by [[Seth Warner]], had just been defeated at [[Battle of Hubbardton |Hubbardton]] by British reinforcements and were eager to exact their revenge on the enemy. Together, the New Hampshire and Vermont militias repulsed and finally routed von Breymann's force.

Total British and German losses at Bennington were recorded at 200 dead, 700 captured, compared to 40 American dead, 30 wounded. Stark's decision to intercept and destroy the raiding party before they could reach Bennington was a crucial factor in Burgoyne's eventual surrender, because it deprived his army of supplies.

The American victory at Bennington also galvanized the rebels and was a catalyst for [[France|French]] involvement in the war.

Pwyll (Krater)

2003-08-12T23:44:33Z

Wik:

The impact [[crater]] '''Pwyll''' (named after the [[Pwyll]] of [[Celtic mythology]]) is thought to represent one of the youngest features on the surface of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s [[natural satellite|moon]] [[Europa (moon)|Europa]].
<div style="float:right; margin: 3mm; padding: 1mm; width: 350px; border: thin solid;">
[[Image:Pwyll_gal.jpg]]<BR>
''A combination of color and high resolution black and white data from [[NASA]]'s [[Galileo probe|Galileo spacecraft]] was used to produce this view looking down on the crater with the sun illuminating the scene from the right.''
</div>

Pwyll's visible dark central region is about 26 kilometers in diameter, while brilliant white rays of debris blasted from the impact site extend outward for hundreds of kilometers. The white debris or ejecta clearly overlays everything else on the surface - indicating that this impact crater is younger than all surrounding features. The bright white color suggests a composition of water ice particles. [[Galileo probe|Galileo]]'s instruments have uncovered substantial evidence that water in liquid form exists below Europa's icy surface. If Europa has a subsurface ocean, it might also contain life.