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2010-04-04T22:54:25Z

Weaponbb7: Undid revision 353989269 by 98.198.170.150 (talk) tweek for the ip

{{Infobox Simpsons episode
| episode_name = The Joy of Sect
| image = [[Image:The Joy Of Sect.PNG|200px]]
| image_caption= A Movementarian mass wedding
| episode_no = 191
| prod_code = 5F23
| airdate = February 8, 1998<ref name="officialsite">{{cite web|url=http://www.thesimpsons.com/episode_guide/0913.htm|title=The Joy of Sect|accessdate=2007-10-24|publisher=The Simpsons.com}}</ref>
| show runner = [[David Mirkin]]
| writer = [[Steve O'Donnell (writer)|Steve O'Donnell]]
| director = [[Steven Dean Moore]]
| couch_gag = Tiny versions of the Simpsons climb on the couch, and Santa's Little Helper runs off with Homer.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/simpsons/episodeguide/season9/page13.shtml|title=The Joy of Sect|accessdate=2007-10-24|author=Martyn, Warren; Wood, Adrian |year=2000|publisher=BBC}}</ref>
| commentary = [[Matt Groening]]<BR>[[David Mirkin]]<BR>[[Steve O'Donnell]]<BR>[[Yeardley Smith]]<BR>[[Steven Dean Moore]]
| season = 9
}}
"'''The Joy of Sect'''" is the thirteenth episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki> [[The Simpsons (season 9)|ninth season]]. It originally aired on the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] network in the United States on February 8, 1998. In the episode, a [[cult]] called the "[[Religion in The Simpsons#Movementarianism|Movementarians]]" takes over Springfield, and Homer and the rest of the Simpson family become members. [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] and [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] are initially introduced to a pair of young Movementarian recruiters in an airport. Homer becomes [[brainwashing|brainwashed]], and moves his family into the cult compound. [[David Mirkin]] had the initial idea for the episode, [[Steve O'Donnell (writer)|Steve O'Donnell]] was the lead writer, and [[Steven Dean Moore]] directed. The writers drew on many groups to develop the Movementarians, but were principally influenced by [[Scientology]], [[Heaven's Gate (religious group)|Heaven's Gate]], the [[Unification Church]] and [[Peoples Temple]].

The episode was later analyzed from [[religion|religious]], [[philosophy|philosophical]] and [[psychology|psychological]] perspectives, and books on ''The Simpsons'' compared the Movementarians to many of the same groups that the writers had drawn influences from. The show contains many references to [[popular culture]], including the title reference to ''[[The Joy of Sex]]'' and a gag involving [[Rover (The Prisoner)|Rover]] from the television program ''[[The Prisoner]]''. ''[[USA Today]]'' and ''[[The A.V. Club]]'' featured "The Joy of Sect" in lists of important episodes of ''The Simpsons''.

==Plot==
[[Image:The Simpsons 5F23.png|left|200px|thumb|Mr. Burns as the god of his new religion]]
Homer takes Bart to the airport to greet the local football team after their championship loss. At the airport, Homer meets Glen and Jane, a pair of recruiters for a new religion called Movementarianism. They invite Homer to an introductory session at their resort, where a number of [[Springfield (The Simpsons)|Springfield]] residents watch a video about the religion. The video explains that the Movementarians plan to take a spaceship to the planet Blisstonia. They are guided by a mysterious male figure known only as "The Leader." Most of the attendees are brainwashed into worshipping The Leader, but Homer does not pay enough attention to the video to be affected. After trying other methods, Glen and Jane finally convert him by singing the theme to [[Batman (TV series)|''Batman'']], replacing the word ''Batman'' with the word ''Leader.''

After Homer joins the sect, he moves his family to the Movementarian compound. The compound is a fenced [[agriculture|agricultural]] facility where everyone is forced to grow and harvest [[lima bean]]s from dawn to dusk. The Leader lives in a "Forbidden Barn," where his spaceship is supposedly stored. He only appears briefly, riding through the fields in a [[Rolls-Royce (car)|Rolls-Royce]].

As Movementarianism gains popularity, [[Montgomery Burns|Mr. Burns]] decides to start his own religion, jealous of The Leader's tax-exempt status. Burns declares himself a god at a grand display atop one of his buildings, with Springfield residents and Burns's employees looking on. However, the Springfieldians are unconvinced after his outfit catches fire in a [[pyrotechnics]] display.

Though defiant at first, all the Simpson children are converted to Movementarianism. Bart plans to cause trouble with his "[[List of products in The Simpsons#"Li'l Bastard" products|Li'l Bastard]] Mischief Kit," but the Movementarians outwit him with a "Li'l Bastard Brainwashing Kit." [[Lisa Simpson|Lisa]] loathes that "The Leader" is the answer to every question at the Movementarian school, but she complies for the sake of her grades. [[Maggie Simpson|Maggie]] and other babies are brainwashed by [[Barney & Friends|Barney the Dinosaur]], who sings them a song about The Leader. [[Marge Simpson|Marge]] is the only family member to resist the Movementarians' methods, and she escapes from the compound, narrowly avoiding many obstacles along the way. Outside, she finds [[Reverend Timothy Lovejoy|Reverend Lovejoy]], [[Ned Flanders]], and [[Groundskeeper Willie]], and with their help, she poses as The Leader and tricks her children and Homer into leaving with her.

In Flanders's [[rumpus room]], Marge [[deprogramming|deprograms]] her children by promising them what appear to be hover-bikes. In reality, Marge had suspended regular bikes from the ceiling with wires, and Flanders provided hover-bike sound effects while hidden in a closet. Homer yields after Ned offers him a beer, but just as the first drop lands on Homer's tongue, he is captured by the Movementarians' lawyers. Back at the compound, Homer tells a crowd of Movementarians that he is no longer brainwashed. He opens the doors of the Forbidden Barn, hoping to expose the religion as a fraud. However, he is surprised to find "one hell of a spaceship," and The Leader proclaims that, due to Homer's "lack of faith," humanity will never reach Blisstonia. The Springfieldians fear that The Leader was speaking the truth, but as the spaceship begins to fly away, it falls apart, revealing The Leader on a pedal-powered aircraft departing with everyone's money. Everyone's faith is broken, but The Leader does not fly very far, crashing on [[Cletus Spuckler|Cletus Spuckler's]] front porch. Cletus promptly relieves the Leader of the town's money at gunpoint.

As the Simpsons return home, Lisa remarks, "It's wonderful to think for ourselves again." However, the family soon becomes hypnotized by a Fox television commercial, which declares, "You are watching Fox." In unison, the family responds, "We are watching Fox."

==Production==
[[Image:Davidmirkin.jpg|thumb|[[David Mirkin]], executive producer of "The Joy of Sect", who pitched the episode's plot|alt=A seated man wearing a cap smiles as he looks into the distance. His hands are crossed.]]
The episode was the second and last episode written by [[Steve O'Donnell (writer)|Steve O'Donnell]] and was based on an idea from [[David Mirkin]]. Mirkin had been the [[Executive producer|show runner]] during [[The Simpsons (season 5)|seasons five]] and [[The Simpsons (season 6)|six]], but had been brought back to run two episodes during the ninth season. He said he was attracted to the notion of parodying cults because they are "comical, interesting and twisted."<ref name="Mirkin" /> The main group of writers that worked on the episode were Mirkin, O'Donnell, [[Jace Richdale]] and [[Kevin Curran (writer)|Kevin Curran]]. The episode's title "The Joy of Sect" was pitched by Richdale.<ref name="Mirkin"/> [[Steven Dean Moore]] directed the episode.<ref name="alberti">{{cite book | last =Alberti | first =John | title =[[Leaving Springfield|Leaving Springfield: The Simpsons and the Possibility of Oppositional Culture]] | publisher =[[Wayne State University Press]] | year =2004 | id = | isbn = 0814328490 | page =321}}</ref>

Aspects of the Movementarians were inspired by different cults and religions, including Scientology, [[Jim Jones]] and the Peoples Temple, the Heaven's Gate group, the Unification Church, the [[Oneida Society]], and [[Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh]].<ref name="Mirkin">Mirkin, David. (2006). Commentary for "The Joy of Sect", in ''The Simpsons: The Complete Ninth Season'' [DVD]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> In particular, the leader driving through the fields in a [[Rolls-Royce (car)|Rolls Royce]] was partly inspired by the Bhagwans, and the notion of holding people inside the camp against their will was a reference to Jim Jones.<ref name="Mirkin"/> The name "Movementarians" itself was simply chosen for its awkward sound.<ref name="Mirkin" /> The scene during the six-hour orientation video where those who get up to leave are induced to stay through [[peer pressure]] and [[groupthink]] was a reference to the [[Unification Church]] and [[Erhard Seminars Training|EST Training]].<ref name="O'Donnell" /> The show's producers acknowledged that the ending scene of the episode was a poke at Fox as "being the evil mind controlling network."<ref name="Mirkin" /> The episode's script was written in 1997, at roughly the same time that the members of the Heaven's Gate cult committed [[mass suicide]]. The writers noticed strange parallels between Mirkin's first draft and Heaven's Gate, including the belief in the arrival of a spaceship and the group's members wearing matching clothes and odd sneakers.<ref name="Mirkin" /> Because of these coincidences, several elements of the episode were changed so that it would be more sensitive in the wake of the suicides.<ref name="O'Donnell">O'Donnell, Steve. (2006). Commentary for "The Joy of Sect", in ''The Simpsons: The Complete Ninth Season'' [DVD]. 20th Century Fox.</ref>

==Themes==
Chris Turner's book ''[[Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation|Planet Simpson]]'' describes the Movementarians as a cross between the [[Church of Scientology]] and [[Raëlism]], with lesser influences from [[Sun Myung Moon]] and [[Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh]].<ref name="turner">{{cite book | last = Turner | first = Chris | title = [[Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation]] | publisher = Da Capo Press |year=2005 | id = | isbn = 030681448X | page = 269, The First Church of ''The Simpsons''}}</ref> ''Planet Simpson'' also notes the Simpsons' chant at the conclusion of the episode as evidence of a "true high-growth quasi-religious cult of our time," referring to [[television]].<ref name="turner" /> The book refers to a "Cult of Pop," which it describes as "a fast growing mutation ersatz religion that has filled the gaping hole in the West's social fabric where organized religion used to be".<ref name="turner" /> Martin Hunt of [[FACTnet]] notes several similarities between the Movementarians and the Church of Scientology. "The Leader" physically resembles [[L. Ron Hubbard]]; the Movementarians' "trillion year labor contract" alludes to the Sea Org's billion year contract; and both groups make extensive [[Scientology and the legal system|use of litigation]].<ref>{{cite news | last = Hunt | first = Martin | title = Celebrity Critics of Scientology, Simpsons (TV show) | work = [[FACTnet]] | date = | url = http://www.factnet.org/Scientology/celebcrit.html#simpsons | accessdate = 2007-10-24}}</ref> ''[[The A.V. Club]]'' analyzes the episode in a piece called "Springfield joins a cult", comparing the Movementarians' plans to travel to "Blisstonia" to [[Heaven's Gate (religious group)|Heaven's Gate]]'s promises of bliss after traveling to the [[Hale-Bopp]] [[comet]]. However, it also notes that "The Joy of Sect" is a commentary on organized religion in general, quoting Bart as saying, "Church, cult, cult, church. So we get bored someplace else every Sunday."<ref name="koski">{{cite news | last = Koski | first = Genevieve | coauthors = Josh Modell, Noel Murray, Sean O'Neal, Kyle Ryan, Scott Tobias | title = Features: Inventory: 15 ''Simpsons'' Moments That Perfectly Captured Their Eras | work = [[The A.V. Club]] | publisher = 2007, Onion Inc. |date=July 23, 2007 | url = http://www.avclub.com/content/feature/inventory_15_simpsons_moments/2 | accessdate = 2007-10-24}}</ref> ''Planet Simpson'' discusses ''The Simpsons''<nowiki>'</nowiki> approach to [[deprogramming]] in the episode, noting groundskeeper Willie's conversion to the philosophy of the Movementarians after learning about it while attempting to deprogram Homer.<ref name="turner" /> Author Chris Turner suggests that Marge should have instead gone with the "Conformco Brain Deprogrammers" used in the episode "[[Burns' Heir]]" to convince Bart to leave Mr. Burns and come back home.<ref name="turner" />

In ''[[The Simpsons and Philosophy: The D'oh! of Homer]]'', the authors cite "escaping from a cult commune in 'The Joy of Sect'" as evidence of "Aristotle's virtuous personality traits in Marge."<ref name="irwin">{{cite book | last = Irwin | first = William | coauthors = Aeon J. Skoble, Mark T. Conard | title = The Simpsons and Philosophy: The D'oh! of Homer | publisher = Open Court Publishing |year=2001 | pages = 48–49 | id = | isbn = 0812694333}}</ref> As the title suggests, the book ''[[The Psychology of The Simpsons|The Psychology of the Simpsons: D'oh!]]'' examines "The Joy of Sect" from a [[psychology|psychological]] point of view. It discusses the psychology of decision-making in the episode, noting, "Homer is becoming a full-blown member of the Movementarians not by a rational choice, ..but through the process of escalating behavioral commitments."<ref name="brown">{{cite book | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | coauthors = Chris Logan | title = [[The Psychology of The Simpsons|The Psychology of the Simpsons: D'oh!]] | publisher = BenBella Books, Inc. |year=2006 | pages = 211–212 | id = | isbn = 1932100709}}</ref> ''The Psychology of the Simpsons'' explains the key recruitment techniques used by the Movementarians, including the charismatic leader, established authority based on a religious entity or alien being (in this case "Blisstonia"), and the method of taking away [[free choice]] through acceptance of the Leader's greatness.<ref name="brown" /> The book also analyzes the techniques used during the six-hour Movementarian recruitment film. In that scene, those who rise to leave are reminded that they are allowed to leave whenever they wish. They are, however, questioned in front of the group as to specifically why they wish to leave, and these individuals end up staying to finish watching the film.<ref name="brown" /> The book describes this technique as "subtle pressure," in contrast to the "razor wire, landmines, angry dogs, crocodiles and evil mystery bubble Marge confronts to escape, while being reminded again that she is certainly free to leave."<ref name="brown" /> ''The Psychology of the Simpsons'' writes that "the Leader" is seen as an authority figure, because "He has knowledge or abilities that others do not, but want."<ref name="brown" /> Instead of traditional [[mathematics]] textbooks, the children on the compound learn from ''Arithmetic the Leader's Way'' and ''Science for Leader Lovers''.<ref name="gimple">{{cite book | last = Gimple | first = Scott M. | coauthors =[[Matt Groening]], introduction | title = [[The Simpsons Forever!: A Complete Guide to Our Favorite Family ...Continued]] | publisher = [[HarperCollins]]| date = December 1, 1999 | pages = 26–27 | isbn = 978-0060987633}}</ref>

In Pinsky's ''The Gospel According to the Simpsons'', one of the show's writers recounted to the author that the producers of ''The Simpsons'' had vetoed a planned episode on Scientology in fear of the Church's "reputation for suing and harassing opponents".<ref name="pinsky" /> Pinsky found it ironic that Groening spoofed Scientology in spite of the fact that the voice of Bart Simpson, [[Nancy Cartwright]], is a Scientologist,<ref name="pinsky" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,,1274066,00.html|title=That's my boy|accessdate=2007-05-14|author=Emma Brockes|date=2004-08-02|publisher=The Guardian}}</ref> having joined in 1989.<ref>{{cite news | last = Burnett | first = John | title = All things Considered: Scientology | work = [[All Things Considered]] | publisher = [[National Public Radio]] | date = March 12, 1997 | url = http://www.solitarytrees.net/racism/collar.htm | accessdate = 2007-10-28}}</ref> Pinsky notes that [[Matt Groening]] later "took a shot at Scientology" in ''[[Futurama]]'' with the [[List of fictional religions|fictional religion]] "Church of Robotology".<ref name="pinsky">{{cite book | last = Pinsky | first = Mark I. | coauthors = Tony Campolo | title = The Gospel According to the Simpsons | publisher = Westminster John Knox Press |year=2001 | isbn = 0664224199}}</ref> Groening said he received a call from the Church of Scientology concerned about the use of a similar name.<ref>Groening, Matt. (2003). Commentary for "[[Hell Is Other Robots]]", in ''Futurama: Volume One'' [DVD]. 20th Century Fox. "I did get a call from a Scientologist who had somehow gotten hold of the script."</ref>

==Cultural references==
[[Image:Barney 9x13 .png|right|200px|thumb|[[Barney & Friends|Barney the Dinosaur]] indoctrinating toddler recruits of the Sect.]]
The episode contains several references to popular culture. The title of the episode is a spoof of the book ''[[The Joy of Sex]]'', by [[Alex Comfort]]. When Marge attempts to leave the compound, she is chased by the [[Rover (The Prisoner)|Rover]] guard "balloon" from the 1967 television program ''The Prisoner''.<ref name="BBC"/><ref name="booker">{{cite book | last = Booker | first = M. Keith | title = Drawn to Television: Prime-Time Animation from the Flintstones to Family Guy | publisher = Greenwood Press |year=2006 | id = | isbn = 0275990192 | page = 66}}</ref> [[Neal Hefti]] and [[Nelson Riddle]]'s [[theme music]] to the 1960s ''Batman'' series is used in the episode to indoctrinate Homer,<ref name="BBC"/> while "I Love You, You Love Me" sung by Barney the Dinosaur on the ''[[Barney and Friends]]''/''[[Barney and the Backyard Gang]]'' series is used to brainwash babies. When Mr. Burns introduces his new religion, most of the sequence is a parody of the promotional video of [[Michael Jackson]]'s 1995 album ''[[HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I]]''.<ref name="Mirkin"/>

==Reception==
In a 2006 article in ''[[USA Today]]'', "The Joy of Sect" was highlighted among the six best episodes of [[The Simpsons (season 9)|''The Simpsons'' season 9]], along with "[[Trash of the Titans]]," "[[The Last Temptation of Krust]]," "[[The Cartridge Family]]," "[[Dumbbell Indemnity]]," and "[[Das Bus]]."<ref>{{cite news | last = Clark | first = Mike | title = New on DVD | work = [[USA Today]] | publisher = Gannett Co. Inc. |date=December 22, 2006 | url = http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/reviews/2006-12-21-new-on-dvd_x.htm?csp=34 | accessdate = 2007-10-24}}</ref> ''[[The A.V. Club]]'' featured the episode in its analysis of "15 ''Simpsons'' Moments That Perfectly Captured Their Eras."<ref name="koski" /> ''[[Daily Mirror|The Mirror]]'' gave the episode positive mention in its review of the Season 9 DVD release, and wrote "The Joy Of Sect is hilarious with only Marge keeping her head."<ref name="mirror">{{cite news | last =Staff | title =DVDS: NEW RELEASES | work =[[Daily Mirror|The Mirror]] | page = 7| date =February 2, 2007 }}</ref> Isaac Mitchell-Frey of the ''[[Herald Sun]]'' cited the episode as the highlight of the season.<ref>{{cite news | last =Mitchell-Frey | first =Isaac | title =Comedy - The Simpsons, Series 9 | work =[[Herald Sun]] | page =E12 | date =February 11, 2007 }}</ref> The ''[[Sunday Mail (Scotland)|Sunday Mail]]'' highlighted the episode for their "Family Choice" segment, commenting: "Normally, a show about religious cults would spell doom and gloom. Only Bart, of The Simpsons, could make a comedy out of it but then, he and his cartoon family are a cult in their own right anyway!"<ref>{{cite news | last =Staff | title =Family Choice: Today's TV highlights | work =[[Sunday Mail (Scotland)|Sunday Mail]] | publisher =Scottish Daily Record & Sunday Mail Ltd. | date =March 15, 1998 }}</ref>

Jeff Shalda of ''The Simpsons Archive'' used the episode as an example of one of the "good qualities present in The Simpsons," while analyzing why some other aspects of ''The Simpsons'' make Christians upset.<ref>{{cite paper | author = Shalda, Jeff. | title = Religion in the Simpsons | version = Online | publisher = The Simpsons Archive |date=December 29, 2000 | url = http://www.snpp.com/other/papers/jsh.paper.html | accessdate = 2007-02-10}}</ref> The book ''I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide'' commented that the episode was "an odd one," with "a lot of good moments," and went on to state that it was "a nice twist to see Burns determined to be loved." However, the book also noted that "The Joy of Sect" is "another one where the central joke isn't strong enough to last the whole episode."<ref name="BBC"/> In a lesson plan for [[St Mary's College, Durham]]: ''An Introduction to Philosophy: The Wit and Wisdom of Lisa Simpson'', the episode is described in a section on "False Prophets" as applicable for "..studying the more outrageous manifestations of ‘religion’ or those simply alert to the teachings of Christ on the subject."<ref name="farmington">{{cite book | last =Taylor | first =Tessa | title =An Introduction to Philosophy: The Wit and Wisdom of Lisa Simpson | publisher =Farmington Institute | date =August Term 2004 | location =[[St Mary's College, Durham]] | pages =30–32 | url =http://www.farmington.ac.uk/documents/new_reports/ME17.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Scientology|Scientology e meter blue.jpg}}
{{Portal|The Simpsons|Simpsons tv icon.svg}}
*[[List of fictional religions]]
*[[Parody religion]]
*[[Religion in Futurama|Religion in ''Futurama'']]
*[[Religion in The Simpsons|Religion in ''The Simpsons'']]
*[[Religious satire]]
*[[UFO religion]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal | last = Gray | first = Jonathan, [[Fordham University]] | title = Imagining America: The Simpsons Go Global | journal = Popular Communication | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–148 | publisher = Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. | location = [[Mahwah, New Jersey]] | year = 2007 | url = http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15405700701294111 | accessdate = 2007-10-28 | doi = 10.1080/15405700701294111 }}

==External links==
{{wikiquote|The_Simpsons#The_Joy_of_Sect_.5B9.13.5D|"The Joy of Sect"}}
*[http://www.thesimpsons.com/episode_guide/0913.htm "The Joy of Sect"] at The Simpsons.com
*{{snpp capsule|5F23}}
*{{Amg movie|285009}}
*{{imdb title|id=0779676|title=The Joy of Sect}}
*[http://www.tv.com/episode/1476/summary.html The Joy of Sect], at [[TV.com]]

{{Religion in The Simpsons}}
{{Relphilpop}}
{{Scientology in popular culture}}

{{Featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Joy of Sect, The}}
[[Category:Fictional religions]]
[[Category:The Simpsons episodes, season 9]]
[[Category:Cult-related media]]
[[Category:Fictional cults]]
[[Category:Scientology in popular culture]]
[[Category:1998 television episodes]]

[[es:The Joy of Sect]]
[[fr:Un coup de pied aux cultes]]

Schwarze Hebräer

2010-03-31T11:50:42Z

Weaponbb7: Undid revision 353131641 by 78.146.64.76 (talk) nope

{{African American topics sidebar|right}}
'''Black Hebrew Israelites''' (also '''Black Hebrews''', '''African Hebrew Israelites''', and '''Hebrew Israelites''') are groups of people mostly of [[Black people|Black African]] ancestry situated mainly in the [[United States]] who believe they are descendants of the ancient [[Israelite]]s. Black Hebrews adhere in varying degrees to the religious beliefs and practices of mainstream [[Judaism]]. They are generally not accepted as [[Jew]]s by the greater Jewish community, and many Black Hebrews consider themselves — and not mainstream Jews — to be the only authentic descendants of the ancient [[Israelites]]. Many choose to self-identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews.<ref>Ben-Jochannan, p. 306.</ref><ref name="JVL">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/blackjews.html |title=The Black Jewish or Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2007-12-15 |last=Ben Levy |first=Sholomo |publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Johannes P. Schade |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Religions |title=Black Hebrews |year=2006 |publisher=Foreign Media Group |location=Franklin Park, N.J. |isbn=1601360002 }}</ref><ref name="NYT">{{cite news |first=Tara |last=Bahrampour |title=They're Jewish, With a Gospel Accent |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E3DD1230F935A15755C0A9669C8B63 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=June 26, 2000 |accessdate=2008-01-19 }}</ref>

Dozens of Black Hebrew groups were founded during the late 19th and the early 20th centuries.<ref name=Chireau21/> In the mid-1980s, the number of Black Hebrews in the United States was between 25,000 and 40,000.<ref name=Sundquist118>Sundquist, p. 118.</ref> In the 1990s, the [[Alliance of Black Jews]] estimated that there were 200,000 African-American Jews, including Black Hebrews and those recognized as Jews by mainstream Jewish organizations.<ref name=Gelbwasser>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/8426/edition_id/160/format/html/displaystory.html |title=Organization for black Jews claims 200,000 in U.S. |accessdate=2008-02-12 |author=Michael Gelbwasser |date=1998-04-10 |publisher=''[[j.]]'' }}</ref>

==Overview==
While [[Black Christians]] traditionally have identified themselves with the [[Children of Israel]], they never claimed to be descendants of the [[Israelites]].<ref name=Chireau18>Chireau, p. 18.</ref> In the late 19th century among some African-Americans, an identification ''with'' the ancient Hebrews developed into an identification ''as'' ancient Hebrews.<ref name=Chireau21>Chireau, p. 21.</ref> One of the first groups of Black Hebrews, the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]], was founded in 1896.<ref name=Chireau21/> During the following decades, many more Black Hebrew congregations were established. These groups claimed descent from the ancient Israelites. They selected elements of Judaism and adapted them within a structure similar to that of the [[Black church]].<ref name=Chireau21/>

The beliefs and practices of Black Hebrew groups vary considerably. The differences are so great that historian [[James Tinney]] has suggested the classification of the organizations into three groups: Black Jews, who maintain a Christological perspective and adopt Jewish rituals; Black Hebrews, who are more traditional in their practice of Judaism; and Black Israelites, who are most [[Black nationalism|nationalistic]] and farthest from traditional Judaism.<ref name=Tinney>{{cite journal |last=Tinney |first=James |date=December 7, 1973 |title=Black Jews: A House Divided |journal=[[Christianity Today]] |pages=52–54 }}, cited at Chireau, p. 29.</ref>

Nevertheless, Black Hebrew organizations have certain common characteristics. Anthropologist James E. Landing, author of ''Black Judaism'', distinguishes the Black Hebrew movement, which he refers to as Black Judaism, from normative Judaism practiced by people who are Black (black Judaism):

<blockquote>Black Judaism is ... a form of institutionalized (congregational) religious expression in which black persons identify themselves as Jews, Israelites, or Hebrews...in a manner that seems unacceptable to the "whites" of the world's Jewish community, primarily because Jews take issue with the various justifications set forth by Black Jews in establishing this identity. Thus "Black Judaism," as defined here, stands distinctly apart from "black Judaism," or that Judaic expression found among black persons that would be acceptable to the world's Jewish community, such as conversion or birth to a recognized Jewish mother. "Black Judaism" has been a social movement; "black Judaism" has been an isolated social phenomenon.<ref name=Landing10>Landing, p. 10, quoted in Walter, p. 520.</ref></blockquote>

Landing's definition, and its underlying assumptions about race and normative Judaism, have been criticized,<ref name=Isaac>Isaac, pp. 512–542.</ref> but it provides a helpful framework for understanding some of the common traits that various Black Hebrew organizations share.

==Groups==
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, dozens of Black Hebrew organizations were established.<ref name=Chireau21/> In [[Harlem]] alone, at least eight such groups were founded between 1919 and 1931.<ref name=Parfitt96>Parfitt, p. 96.</ref> The Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations is the oldest known Black Hebrew group<ref name=Singer57/> and the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] is one of the largest Black Hebrew organizations.<ref name="Africana"/> The [[Commandment Keepers]] are noted for their adherence to traditional Judaism<ref name=Moses537/> and the [[African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem]] are widely known for having moved from the United States to [[Israel]].<ref name=Shipler/><ref name=Haas/><ref name=MFA/>

===Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations===
The oldest known Black Hebrew organization is the Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations.<ref name=Singer57>Singer, p. 57.</ref><ref name=Chireau3031>Chireau, pp. 30–31. "The founding dates of the earliest black-Jewish congregations are in dispute. Shapiro notes that F.S. Cherry's Church of God was organized in Tennessee in 1886, but other sources do not confirm this date. Another group, the Moorish Zion Temple, founded in 1899 by a Rabbi Richlieu of Brooklyn, New York, was one of the earliest black Jewish congregations that did not combine Jewish and Christian beliefs, as did the Church of God and the Saints of Christ."</ref> The group was founded by F. S. Cherry in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]], [[Tennessee]], in 1886, and later moved to [[Philadelphia]].<ref name=Singer57-58>Singer, pp. 57–58.</ref> Theologically, the Church of the Living God mixed elements of Judaism and Christianity, counting the [[Bible]] — including the [[New Testament]] — and the [[Talmud]] as essential scriptures.<ref name=Fauset34>Fauset, p. 34.</ref> The rituals of Cherry’s flock incorporated many Jewish practices and prohibitions alongside some Christian traditions.<ref name=Fauset36-40>Fauset, pp. 36–40.</ref> For example, during prayer the men wore [[Kippah|skullcap]]s and congregants [[Mizrah|faced east]]. In addition, members of the Church were not permitted to eat pork.<ref name=Fauset36-40/> Prayers were accompanied by musical instruments and [[Gospel music|gospel singing]].<ref name=Fauset36-37>Fauset, pp. 36–37.</ref> After Cherry's death, members of the church believed he had left temporarily and would reappear soon in spirit to lead the church through his son.<ref name="Africana">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hudson |first=Peter |editor=[[Kwame Anthony Appiah]] and [[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]] |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Africana|Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience]] |title=Black Jews |year=1999 |publisher=Basic Civitas Books |location=New York |pages=1050 }}</ref>

===Church of God and Saints of Christ===
{{main|Church of God and Saints of Christ}}
[[File:Fletcher Chapel.jpg|thumb|Former headquarters of the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] The building is now known as First Tabernacle Beth El and is listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].]]
The Church of God and Saints of Christ was established in [[Lawrence, Kansas|Lawrence]], [[Kansas]], in 1896 by [[William Saunders Crowdy]].<ref name=Fox>{{cite news |url=http://www.brown.edu/Students/INDY/archives/2005-09-29/articles/arts-fox_israelite.php |title=Sons of Abraham |accessdate=2007-10-20 |last=Fox |first=Andrew |date=September 29, 2005 |work=[[The College Hill Independent]] }}</ref> The group established its headquarters in Philadelphia in 1899, and Crowdy later relocated to [[Washington, D.C.]], in 1903. After Crowdy's death in 1908, the church continued to grow under the leadership of William Henry Plummer, who moved the organization's headquarters to its permanent location in [[Belleville, Virginia|Belleville]], [[Virginia]], in 1921.<ref name=Wynia31-34>Wynia, pp. 31–34.</ref> In 1936, the Church of God and Saints of Christ had more than 200 "tabernacles" (congregations) and 37,000 members.<ref name="Africana"/><ref name=Wynia>Wynia, n.p. </ref> [[Howard Z. Plummer|Howard Zebulun Plummer]] succeeded his father and became head of the organization in 1931.<ref>Greene, p. 42.</ref> His son, Levi Solomon Plummer, became the church's leader in 1975.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/history/index.html |title=Historical Timeline |accessdate=2008-02-09 |publisher=[[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] }}</ref> Since 2001, the Church of God and Saints of Christ has been led by [[Jehu August Crowdy, Jr.|Rabbi Jehu A. Crowdy, Jr.]], a great-grandson of William Saunders Crowdy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/leaders/jacrowdy.html |title=Rabbi Jehu August Crowdy, Jr. |accessdate=2008-02-09 |publisher=[[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] }}</ref> As of 2005, it had fifty tabernacles in the United States and dozens in Africa.<ref name=Fox/>

The Church of God and Saints of Christ describes itself as "the oldest African-American congregation in the United States that adheres to the tenets of Judaism".<ref name=Chireau3031/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/main.html |title=Church of God and Saints of Christ |accessdate=2008-02-09 }}</ref> It teaches that all Jews had been black originally, and that African-Americans are descendants of the [[Ten Lost Tribes|lost tribes of Israel]].<ref name=Kidd>Kidd, p. 59.</ref><ref name=Singer59>Singer, p. 59.</ref> Members believe that [[Jesus]] was neither God nor the son of God, but rather an adherent to Judaism and a prophet. They also consider William Saunders Crowdy to be a prophet.<ref name="gallagher">Gallagher, p. 146.</ref>

The Church of God and Saints of Christ synthesizes rituals from both Judaism and Christianity. They have adopted rites drawn from both the [[Old Testament]] and New Testament. Its Jewish observances include [[Brit milah|circumcision]] of newborn boys, use of the [[Hebrew calendar]], wearing of [[Kippah|yarmulke]]s, observance of Saturday as the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]], and celebration of [[Passover]]. Its New Testament rites include [[baptism]] (immersion) and [[footwashing]], both of which have Old Testament origins.<ref name=Kidd/><ref name=Singer59/>

{{Jews and Judaism sidebar}}

===Commandment Keepers===
{{main|Commandment Keepers}}
[[Wentworth Arthur Matthew]] founded the Commandment Keepers Congregation in Harlem in 1919.<ref name="JVL"/> Matthew was influenced by the white Jews he met and by [[Marcus Garvey]] and the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association]]. One of the accomplishments of Garvey's movement was to strengthen the connection between black Americans and Africa, [[Ethiopia]] in particular, and when Matthew learned about the [[Beta Israel]] — Ethiopian Jews — he identified with them.<ref name=Chireau25>Chireau, p. 25.</ref>

The Commandment Keepers follow traditional Jewish practice and observe Jewish holidays.<ref name=Moses537>Moses, p. 537.</ref> Members observe [[Kashrut|Jewish dietary laws]], circumcise newborn boys and celebrate [[Bar and Bat Mitzvah|bar mitzvah]], and their synagogue has a [[Mechitza|partition]] to separate men and woman during worship.<ref name="Jewish Week">{{cite news |first=Eric |last=Herschthal |title=Decline Of A Black Synagogue |url=http://joi.org/bloglinks/black%20synagogue%20Jewish%20Week.htm |work=[[The Jewish Week]] |date=July 6, 2007 |accessdate=2008-02-09 }}</ref>

[[Image:RabbiMatthewHoldingTorah.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wentworth Arthur Matthew]] holding a [[Sefer Torah|Torah scroll]].]]
The Commandment Keepers believe they are descendants of [[Solomon|King Solomon]] and the [[Queen of Sheba]].<ref name=Parfitt95>Parfitt, p. 95.</ref> Matthew taught that "the Black man is a Jew" and "all genuine Jews are Black men",<ref name=Sundquist116>Sundquist, p. 116.</ref> but he valued white Jews as those who had preserved Judaism over the centuries.<ref name="JVL"/> Matthew maintained cordial ties with white Jewish leaders in New York and frequently invited them to worship at his synagogue.<ref name=Wolfson48>Wolfson, p. 48.</ref>

Matthew established the Ethiopian Hebrew Rabbinical College (later renamed the Israelite Rabbinical Academy). He ordained more than 20 rabbis, who went on to lead congregations throughout the United States and the Caribbean.<ref name=Sundquist116/><ref name=Wolfson48/> He remained the leader of the Commandment Keepers in Harlem, and in 1962 the congregation moved to a landmark building on 123rd Street.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyc-architecture.com/HAR/HAR025.htm |title=Commandment Keepers Ethiopian Hebrew Congregation |accessdate=2008-02-01 |publisher=New York Architecture }}</ref>

Matthew died in 1973, sparking an internal conflict over who would succeed him as head of the Harlem congregation. Shortly before his death Matthew named his grandson, David Matthew Doré, the new spiritual leader. Doré was 16 years old at the time. In 1975, the synagogue's board elected Rabbi Willie White to be its leader. Rabbi Doré occasionally conducted services at the synagogue until the early 1980s, when White had Doré and some other members locked out of the building. Membership declined throughout the 1990s and by 2004 only a few dozen people belonged to the synagogue. In 2007 the Commandment Keepers sold the building that housed their synagogue while various factions among former members sued one another.<ref name="Jewish Week"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackjews.org/Essays/DestructionofCommandmentKeepers.html |title=The Destruction of Commandment Keepers, Inc. 1919-2007 |accessdate=2008-02-10 |last=Ben Levy |first=Sholomo |work=BlackJews.org |publisher=International Israelite Board of Rabbis }}</ref>

Beside the Harlem group, there are eight or ten Commandment Keeper congregations in the New York area and others throughout North America and in [[Israel]].<ref>Goldschmidt, p. 221.</ref> Since 2000, seven rabbis have graduated from the Israelite Rabbinical Academy founded by Matthew.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackjews.org/IsraeliteAcademy.html |title=Israelite Academy |accessdate=2008-02-10 |work=BlackJews.org |publisher=International Israelite Board of Rabbis }}</ref>

===African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem===
{{main|African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem}}
[[Image:Black hebrews Dimona visit1.jpg|thumb|''African Hebrew Israelites'' speak to visitors in [[Dimona]].]]
[[Ben Ammi|Ben Ammi Ben Israel]] established the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], in 1966. In 1969, after a sojourn in [[Liberia]], Ben Ammi and about 30 Hebrew Israelites moved to [[Israel]].<ref name=Haas>{{cite news |last=Haas |first=Danielle |title=Black Hebrews fight for citizenship in Israel |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/11/15/MN144395.DTL |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |date=November 15, 2002 |accessdate=2008-05-25 }}</ref> Over the next 20 years nearly 600 more members left the United States for Israel. As of 2006, about 2,500 Hebrew Israelites live in [[Dimona]] and two other towns in the [[Negev]] region of Israel, where they are widely referred to as Black Hebrews.<ref name=CBS>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |title=Music Earns Black Hebrews Some Acceptance |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/04/05/ap/world/mainD8GPUNGG8.shtml |work=[[CBS News]] |date=April 5, 2006 |accessdate=2008-05-25 }}</ref> In addition, there are Hebrew Israelite communities in several major American cities, including Chicago, [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], and Washington, D.C.<ref name=Michaeli75>Michaeli, p. 75.</ref>

The Black Hebrews believe they are descended from members of the [[Tribe of Judah]] who were exiled from the [[Land of Israel]] after the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] destroyed the [[Second Temple]] in 70 CE.<ref name=CBS/><ref name=OurStory>{{cite web |url=http://www.kingdomofyah.com/our_story.htm |title=Our Story |accessdate=2008-05-25 |publisher=The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem }}</ref> The group incorporates elements of [[African American culture]] into their interpretation of the Bible,<ref name=Michaeli75/> and they do not recognize rabbinical Jewish interpretations such as the [[Talmud]].<ref name=CBS/> The Black Hebrews observe [[Shabbat]] and biblically-ordained [[Jewish holiday]]s such as [[Yom Kippur]] and [[Passover]].<ref name=Michaeli76>Michaeli, p. 76.</ref> Men wear ''[[tzitzit]]'' on their African print shirts, women follow the [[Niddah|biblical laws concerning menstruation]],<ref name=Michaeli75/> and newborn boys are circumcised.<ref name=Haas/> In accordance with their interpretation of the Bible, the Black Hebrews follow a strictly [[vegan]] diet and wear only natural fabrics.<ref name=Haas/><ref name=OurStory/> Most men have more than one wife, and [[birth control]] is not permitted.<ref name=CBS/>

When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969, they claimed citizenship under the [[Law of Return]], which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship.<ref>Michaeli, pp. 73–74.</ref> The Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship, and the Black Hebrews were denied [[work permit]]s and state benefits. The group responded by accusing the Israeli government of [[Racism|racist discrimination]].<ref name=Michaeli74>Michaeli, p. 74.</ref> In 1981, a group of American civil rights activist led by [[Bayard Rustin]] investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of Black Hebrews' situation.<ref name=Shipler>{{cite news |last=Shipler |first=David K. |title=Israelis Urged To Act Over Black Hebrew Cult |url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F4071FFA395F0C738FDDA80894D9484D81 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 30, 1981 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref> No official action was taken to return the Black Hebrews to the United States, but some individual members were [[Deportation|deported]] for working illegally. Some Black Hebrews [[Renunciation of citizenship|renounced]] their American citizenship to try to prevent more deportations. In 1990, Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews' legal status in Israel. Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services. The Black Hebrews reclaimed their American citizenship and have received aid from the U.S. government that helped them build a school and additional housing.<ref name=Michaeli74/> In 2003 the agreement was revised, and the Black Hebrews were granted [[Permanent residency|permanent resident]] status.<ref name=MFA>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/people/the%20black%20hebrews |title=The Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2008-05-26 |date=September 29, 2006 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs }}</ref><ref name=Kaufman>{{cite news |last=Kaufman |first=David |title=Quest for a Homeland Gains a World Stage |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/fashion/sundaystyles/16BUTLER.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 16, 2006 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref>

In 2009, Elyakim Ben-Israel became the first Black Hebrew to receive Israeli citizenship. The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship.<ref>{{cite news |last=Alush |first=Zvi |title=First Black Hebrew Gets Israeli Citizenship |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3665976,00.html |work=[[Ynetnews]] |date=February 2, 2009 |accessdate=2009-02-02 }}</ref>

The Black Hebrews have become well-known for their [[Gospel music|gospel choir]], which tours throughout Israel and the United States. The group owns restaurants in several Israeli cities.<ref name=Michaeli74/> In 2003 the Black Hebrews garnered much public attention when singer [[Whitney Houston]] visited them in Dimona.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel retreat for Houston |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/2940042.stm |publisher=[[BBC News Online]] |date=May 27, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |title=Whitney Houston visits Israel for Christmas album inspiration |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2003-05-27-houston-israel_x.htm |work=[[USA Today]] |date=May 28, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Palti |first=Michal |title=Whitney does Dimona |url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/black_hebrews/black_hebrews6.html |work=[[Haaretz]] |date=May 29, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref> In 2006, [[Eddie Butler (singer)|Eddie Butler]], a Black Hebrew, was chosen by the Israeli public to [[Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006|represent Israel]] in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2006|Eurovision Song Contest]].<ref name=CBS/><ref name=Kaufman/>

==Allegations of black supremacy and racism==
In late 2008, the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] (SPLC) described as [[Black supremacy|black supremacist]] what it called "the extremist fringe of the Hebrew Israelite movement". It wrote that the members of such groups "believe that Jews are devilish impostors and ... openly condemn whites as evil personified, deserving only death or slavery". The SPLC also said that "most Hebrew Israelites are neither explicitly racist nor anti-Semitic and do not advocate violence".<ref name=Ready>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=941 |title='Ready for War' |accessdate=2008-11-22 |date=Fall 2008 |work=Intelligence Report |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] }}</ref>

The Black Hebrew groups characterized as black supremacist by the SPLC include the [[Nation of Yahweh]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=808 |title=Margins to the Mainstream |accessdate=2008-11-22 |last=Potok |first=Mark |date=Fall 2007 |work=Intelligence Report |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] }}</ref> and the Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ.<ref name=Ready/> Also, the [[Anti-Defamation League]] has written that the "12 Tribes of Israel" website, maintained by a Black Hebrew group, promotes black supremacy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adl.org/poisoning_web/black_bigots.asp |title=Poisoning the Web: African-American Anti-Semitism |accessdate=2008-11-22 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] }}</ref>

==Correspondence of the Twelve Tribes of Israel==
Some groups of Black Hebrews believe that various groups in the Americas correspond to the Biblical [[Israelites|Twelve Tribes of Israel]]. One such correspondence is:

* [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] — [[Black Americans]]
* [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] — [[Caribbean|West Indians]]
* [[Levite|Levi]] — [[Haiti]]ans
* [[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] — [[Dominican Republic|Dominicans]]
* [[Tribe of Zebulun|Zebulon]] — [[Guatemala]]ns, [[Panama]]nians
* [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraim]] — [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Ricans]]
* [[Tribe of Menasheh|Manasseh]] — [[Cubans]]
* [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]] — [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American Indians]]
* [[Tribe of Reuben|Reuben]] — [[Seminole]] Indians
* [[Tribe of Asher|Asher]] — [[Colombia]]ns, [[Uruguay]]ans
* [[Tribe of Naphtali|Napthali]] — [[Argentina|Argentines]], [[Chile]]ans
* [[Tribe of Issachar|Issachar]] — [[Mexico|Mexicans]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saintsunit.org/12tribes.html |title=The 12 Tribes |accessdate=2008-10-22 |author= |last= |first= |date= |year= |month= |publisher=Children of the Saints Unit }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portalbox
| name1 = African American
| image1 = AmericaAfrica.png
| name2 = Israel
| image2 = Flag of Israel.svg
| name3 = Judaism
| image3 = Star of David.svg
}}
* [[Afro-American religion]]
* [[Groups claiming an affiliation with the ancient Israelites]]
* [[Jews and Judaism in the African diaspora]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite book |last=Ben-Jochannan |first=Yosef A. A. |authorlink=Yosef Ben-Jochannan |title=We, the Black Jews: Witness to the "White Jewish Race" Myth |origyear=1983 |year=1993 |publisher=Black Classic Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=0933121407 }}
*{{cite book |last=Chireau |first=Yvonne |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0195112571 |chapter=Black Culture and Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism, 1790–1930, an Overview }}
*{{cite book |last=Fauset |first=Arthur Huff |authorlink=Arthur Fauset |title=Black Gods of the Metropolis: Negro Religious Cults of the Urban North |origyear=1944 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0812210018 }}
*{{cite book |title=The New Religious Movements Experience in America |last=Gallagher |first=Eugene V. |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=0313328072 }}
*{{cite book |last=Goldschmidt |first=Henry |title=Race and Religion Among the Chosen Peoples of Crown Heights |year=2006 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brusnwick, N.J. |isbn=0813538971 }}
*{{cite book |title=Selling Black History for Carter G. Woodson: A Diary, 1930–1933 |last=Greene |first=Lorenzo Johnston |authorlink=Lorenzo Greene |coauthors=Arvarh E. Strickland, ed. |year=1996 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Columbia, Mo. |isbn=0826210686 }}
*{{cite book |last=Isaac |first=Walter |editor=[[Lewis Gordon|Lewis R. Gordon]], Jane Anna Gordon, eds. |title=A Companion to African-American Studies |year=2006 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Mass. |isbn=0631235167 |chapter=Locating African-American Judaism: A Critique of White Normativity }}
*{{cite book |title=The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600-2000 |last=Kidd |first=Colin |authorlink=Colin Kidd |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521793246 }}
*{{cite book |last=Landing |first=James E. |title=Black Judaism: Story of an American Movement |year=2002 |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |location=Durham, N. C. |isbn=0890898200 }}
*{{cite book |last=Michaeli |first=Ethan |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0195112571 |chapter=Another Exodus: The Hebrew Israelites from Chicago to Dimona }}
*{{cite book |last=Moses |first=Wilson Jeremiah |editor=[[Cornel West]], Eddie S. Glaude, Jr., eds. |title=African American Religious Thought: An Anthology |year=2003 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, Ky. |isbn=0664224598 |chapter=Chosen Peoples of the Metropolis: Black Muslims, Black Jews, and Others }}
*{{cite book |last=Parfitt |first=Tudor |coauthors=Emanuela Trevisan Semi |title=Judaising Movements: Studies in the Margins of Judaism in Modern Times |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0700715150 }}
*{{cite book |last=Singer |first=Merrill |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0195112571 |chapter=Symbolic Identity Formation in an African American Religious Sect: The Black Hebrew Israelites }}
*{{cite book |last=Sundquist |first=Eric J. |title=Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America |year=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0674019423 }}
*{{cite book |last=Wolfson |first=Bernard J. |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0195112571 |chapter=African American Jews: Dispelling Myths, Bridging the Divide }}
*{{cite book |last=Wynia |first=Elly M. |title=The Church of God and Saints of Christ: The Rise of Black Jews |year=1994 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0815311362 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons cat|Black Hebrew}}
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/bhi.htm Black Hebrew Israelites—ReligousTolerance.org]
*[http://www.blackapologetics.com/bhifaq.html Black Hebrew Israelite FAQ—Black Apologetics Ministry]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/Black_Hebrews.html The Black Hebrews], [[Jewish Virtual Library]]

[[Category:Black Hebrew Israelites| ]]
[[Category:African American culture]]
[[Category:Black Jews]]
[[Category:Groups claiming Jewish descent]]
[[Category:African and Black nationalism]]
{{Jews and Judaism}}

[[bg:Черни евреи]]
[[ca:Hebreus africans]]
[[es:Israelitas negros]]
[[fr:Hébreux noirs]]
[[nl:Afrikaanse Hebreeërs]]
[[ja:ブラック・ジュー]]
[[pt:Israelitas negros]]
[[ru:Чёрные евреи]]

Schwarze Hebräer

2010-03-17T01:29:06Z

Weaponbb7: Undid revision 350317854 by 69.86.233.94 (talk)

{{African American topics sidebar|right}}
'''Black Hebrew Israelites''' (also '''Black Hebrews''', '''African Hebrew Israelites''', and '''Hebrew Israelites''') are groups of people mostly of [[Black people|Black African]] ancestry situated mainly in the [[United States]] who believe they are descendants of the ancient [[Israelite]]s. Black Hebrews adhere in varying degrees to the religious beliefs and practices of mainstream [[Judaism]]. They are generally not accepted as [[Jew]]s by the greater Jewish community, and many Black Hebrews consider themselves — and not mainstream Jews — to be the only authentic descendants of the ancient [[Israelites]]. Many choose to self-identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews.<ref>Ben-Jochannan, p. 306.</ref><ref name="JVL">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/blackjews.html |title=The Black Jewish or Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2007-12-15 |last=Ben Levy |first=Sholomo |publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Johannes P. Schade |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Religions |title=Black Hebrews |year=2006 |publisher=Foreign Media Group |location=Franklin Park, N.J. |isbn=1601360002 }}</ref><ref name="NYT">{{cite news |first=Tara |last=Bahrampour |title=They're Jewish, With a Gospel Accent |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E3DD1230F935A15755C0A9669C8B63 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=June 26, 2000 |accessdate=2008-01-19 }}</ref>

Dozens of Black Hebrew groups were founded during the late 19th and the early 20th centuries.<ref name=Chireau21/> In the mid-1980s, the number of Black Hebrews in the United States was between 25,000 and 40,000.<ref name=Sundquist118>Sundquist, p. 118.</ref> In the 1990s, the [[Alliance of Black Jews]] estimated that there were 200,000 African-American Jews, including Black Hebrews and those recognized as Jews by mainstream Jewish organizations.<ref name=Gelbwasser>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/8426/edition_id/160/format/html/displaystory.html |title=Organization for black Jews claims 200,000 in U.S. |accessdate=2008-02-12 |author=Michael Gelbwasser |date=1998-04-10 |publisher=''[[j.]]'' }}</ref>

==Overview==
While [[Black Christians]] traditionally have identified themselves with the [[Children of Israel]], they never claimed to be descendants of the [[Israelites]].<ref name=Chireau18>Chireau, p. 18.</ref> In the late 19th century among some African-Americans, an identification ''with'' the ancient Hebrews developed into an identification ''as'' ancient Hebrews.<ref name=Chireau21>Chireau, p. 21.</ref> One of the first groups of Black Hebrews, the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]], was founded in 1896.<ref name=Chireau21/> During the following decades, many more Black Hebrew congregations were established. These groups claimed descent from the ancient Israelites. They selected elements of Judaism and adapted them within a structure similar to that of the [[Black church]].<ref name=Chireau21/>

The beliefs and practices of Black Hebrew groups vary considerably. The differences are so great that historian [[James Tinney]] has suggested the classification of the organizations into three groups: Black Jews, who maintain a Christological perspective and adopt Jewish rituals; Black Hebrews, who are more traditional in their practice of Judaism; and Black Israelites, who are most [[Black nationalism|nationalistic]] and farthest from traditional Judaism.<ref name=Tinney>{{cite journal |last=Tinney |first=James |date=December 7, 1973 |title=Black Jews: A House Divided |journal=[[Christianity Today]] |pages=52–54 }}, cited at Chireau, p. 29.</ref>

Nevertheless, Black Hebrew organizations have certain common characteristics. Anthropologist James E. Landing, author of ''Black Judaism'', distinguishes the Black Hebrew movement, which he refers to as Black Judaism, from normative Judaism practiced by people who are Black (black Judaism):

<blockquote>Black Judaism is ... a form of institutionalized (congregational) religious expression in which black persons identify themselves as Jews, Israelites, or Hebrews...in a manner that seems unacceptable to the "whites" of the world's Jewish community, primarily because Jews take issue with the various justifications set forth by Black Jews in establishing this identity. Thus "Black Judaism," as defined here, stands distinctly apart from "black Judaism," or that Judaic expression found among black persons that would be acceptable to the world's Jewish community, such as conversion or birth to a recognized Jewish mother. "Black Judaism" has been a social movement; "black Judaism" has been an isolated social phenomenon.<ref name=Landing10>Landing, p. 10, quoted in Walter, p. 520.</ref></blockquote>

Landing's definition, and its underlying assumptions about race and normative Judaism, have been criticized,<ref name=Isaac>Isaac, pp. 512–542.</ref> but it provides a helpful framework for understanding some of the common traits that various Black Hebrew organizations share.

==Groups==
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, dozens of Black Hebrew organizations were established.<ref name=Chireau21/> In [[Harlem]] alone, at least eight such groups were founded between 1919 and 1931.<ref name=Parfitt96>Parfitt, p. 96.</ref> The Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations is the oldest known Black Hebrew group<ref name=Singer57/> and the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] is one of the largest Black Hebrew organizations.<ref name="Africana"/> The [[Commandment Keepers]] are noted for their adherence to traditional Judaism<ref name=Moses537/> and the [[African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem]] are widely known for having moved from the United States to [[Israel]].<ref name=Shipler/><ref name=Haas/><ref name=MFA/>

===Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations===
The oldest known Black Hebrew organization is the Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations.<ref name=Singer57>Singer, p. 57.</ref><ref name=Chireau3031>Chireau, pp. 30–31. "The founding dates of the earliest black-Jewish congregations are in dispute. Shapiro notes that F.S. Cherry's Church of God was organized in Tennessee in 1886, but other sources do not confirm this date. Another group, the Moorish Zion Temple, founded in 1899 by a Rabbi Richlieu of Brooklyn, New York, was one of the earliest black Jewish congregations that did not combine Jewish and Christian beliefs, as did the Church of God and the Saints of Christ."</ref> The group was founded by F. S. Cherry in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]], [[Tennessee]], in 1886, and later moved to [[Philadelphia]].<ref name=Singer57-58>Singer, pp. 57–58.</ref> Theologically, the Church of the Living God mixed elements of Judaism and Christianity, counting the [[Bible]] — including the [[New Testament]] — and the [[Talmud]] as essential scriptures.<ref name=Fauset34>Fauset, p. 34.</ref> The rituals of Cherry’s flock incorporated many Jewish practices and prohibitions alongside some Christian traditions.<ref name=Fauset36-40>Fauset, pp. 36–40.</ref> For example, during prayer the men wore [[Kippah|skullcap]]s and congregants [[Mizrah|faced east]]. In addition, members of the Church were not permitted to eat pork.<ref name=Fauset36-40/> Prayers were accompanied by musical instruments and [[Gospel music|gospel singing]].<ref name=Fauset36-37>Fauset, pp. 36–37.</ref> After Cherry's death, members of the church believed he had left temporarily and would reappear soon in spirit to lead the church through his son.<ref name="Africana">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hudson |first=Peter |editor=[[Kwame Anthony Appiah]] and [[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]] |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Africana|Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience]] |title=Black Jews |year=1999 |publisher=Basic Civitas Books |location=New York |pages=1050 }}</ref>

===Church of God and Saints of Christ===
{{main|Church of God and Saints of Christ}}
[[File:Fletcher Chapel.jpg|thumb|Former headquarters of the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] The building is now known as First Tabernacle Beth El and is listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].]]
The Church of God and Saints of Christ was established in [[Lawrence, Kansas|Lawrence]], [[Kansas]], in 1896 by [[William Saunders Crowdy]].<ref name=Fox>{{cite news |url=http://www.brown.edu/Students/INDY/archives/2005-09-29/articles/arts-fox_israelite.php |title=Sons of Abraham |accessdate=2007-10-20 |last=Fox |first=Andrew |date=September 29, 2005 |work=[[The College Hill Independent]] }}</ref> The group established its headquarters in Philadelphia in 1899, and Crowdy later relocated to [[Washington, D.C.]], in 1903. After Crowdy's death in 1908, the church continued to grow under the leadership of William Henry Plummer, who moved the organization's headquarters to its permanent location in [[Belleville, Virginia|Belleville]], [[Virginia]], in 1921.<ref name=Wynia31-34>Wynia, pp. 31–34.</ref> In 1936, the Church of God and Saints of Christ had more than 200 "tabernacles" (congregations) and 37,000 members.<ref name="Africana"/><ref name=Wynia>Wynia, n.p. </ref> [[Howard Z. Plummer|Howard Zebulun Plummer]] succeeded his father and became head of the organization in 1931.<ref>Greene, p. 42.</ref> His son, Levi Solomon Plummer, became the church's leader in 1975.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/history/index.html |title=Historical Timeline |accessdate=2008-02-09 |publisher=[[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] }}</ref> Since 2001, the Church of God and Saints of Christ has been led by [[Jehu August Crowdy, Jr.|Rabbi Jehu A. Crowdy, Jr.]], a great-grandson of William Saunders Crowdy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/leaders/jacrowdy.html |title=Rabbi Jehu August Crowdy, Jr. |accessdate=2008-02-09 |publisher=[[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] }}</ref> As of 2005, it had fifty tabernacles in the United States and dozens in Africa.<ref name=Fox/>

The Church of God and Saints of Christ describes itself as "the oldest African-American congregation in the United States that adheres to the tenets of Judaism".<ref name=Chireau3031/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/main.html |title=Church of God and Saints of Christ |accessdate=2008-02-09 }}</ref> It teaches that all Jews had been black originally, and that African-Americans are descendants of the [[Ten Lost Tribes|lost tribes of Israel]].<ref name=Kidd>Kidd, p. 59.</ref><ref name=Singer59>Singer, p. 59.</ref> Members believe that [[Jesus]] was neither God nor the son of God, but rather an adherent to Judaism and a prophet. They also consider William Saunders Crowdy to be a prophet.<ref name="gallagher">Gallagher, p. 146.</ref>

The Church of God and Saints of Christ synthesizes rituals from both Judaism and Christianity. They have adopted rites drawn from both the [[Old Testament]] and New Testament. Its Jewish observances include [[Brit milah|circumcision]] of newborn boys, use of the [[Hebrew calendar]], wearing of [[Kippah|yarmulke]]s, observance of Saturday as the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]], and celebration of [[Passover]]. Its New Testament rites include [[baptism]] (immersion) and [[footwashing]], both of which have Old Testament origins.<ref name=Kidd/><ref name=Singer59/>

{{Jews and Judaism sidebar}}

===Commandment Keepers===
{{main|Commandment Keepers}}
[[Wentworth Arthur Matthew]] founded the Commandment Keepers Congregation in Harlem in 1919.<ref name="JVL"/> Matthew was influenced by the white Jews he met and by [[Marcus Garvey]] and the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association]]. One of the accomplishments of Garvey's movement was to strengthen the connection between black Americans and Africa, [[Ethiopia]] in particular, and when Matthew learned about the [[Beta Israel]] — Ethiopian Jews — he identified with them.<ref name=Chireau25>Chireau, p. 25.</ref>

The Commandment Keepers follow traditional Jewish practice and observe Jewish holidays.<ref name=Moses537>Moses, p. 537.</ref> Members observe [[Kashrut|Jewish dietary laws]], circumcise newborn boys and celebrate [[Bar and Bat Mitzvah|bar mitzvah]], and their synagogue has a [[Mechitza|partition]] to separate men and woman during worship.<ref name="Jewish Week">{{cite news |first=Eric |last=Herschthal |title=Decline Of A Black Synagogue |url=http://joi.org/bloglinks/black%20synagogue%20Jewish%20Week.htm |work=[[The Jewish Week]] |date=July 6, 2007 |accessdate=2008-02-09 }}</ref>

[[Image:RabbiMatthewHoldingTorah.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wentworth Arthur Matthew]] holding a [[Sefer Torah|Torah scroll]].]]
The Commandment Keepers believe they are descendants of [[Solomon|King Solomon]] and the [[Queen of Sheba]].<ref name=Parfitt95>Parfitt, p. 95.</ref> Matthew taught that "the Black man is a Jew" and "all genuine Jews are Black men",<ref name=Sundquist116>Sundquist, p. 116.</ref> but he valued white Jews as those who had preserved Judaism over the centuries.<ref name="JVL"/> Matthew maintained cordial ties with white Jewish leaders in New York and frequently invited them to worship at his synagogue.<ref name=Wolfson48>Wolfson, p. 48.</ref>

Matthew established the Ethiopian Hebrew Rabbinical College (later renamed the Israelite Rabbinical Academy). He ordained more than 20 rabbis, who went on to lead congregations throughout the United States and the Caribbean.<ref name=Sundquist116/><ref name=Wolfson48/> He remained the leader of the Commandment Keepers in Harlem, and in 1962 the congregation moved to a landmark building on 123rd Street.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyc-architecture.com/HAR/HAR025.htm |title=Commandment Keepers Ethiopian Hebrew Congregation |accessdate=2008-02-01 |publisher=New York Architecture }}</ref>

Matthew died in 1973, sparking an internal conflict over who would succeed him as head of the Harlem congregation. Shortly before his death Matthew named his grandson, David Matthew Doré, the new spiritual leader. Doré was 16 years old at the time. In 1975, the synagogue's board elected Rabbi Willie White to be its leader. Rabbi Doré occasionally conducted services at the synagogue until the early 1980s, when White had Doré and some other members locked out of the building. Membership declined throughout the 1990s and by 2004 only a few dozen people belonged to the synagogue. In 2007 the Commandment Keepers sold the building that housed their synagogue while various factions among former members sued one another.<ref name="Jewish Week"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackjews.org/Essays/DestructionofCommandmentKeepers.html |title=The Destruction of Commandment Keepers, Inc. 1919-2007 |accessdate=2008-02-10 |last=Ben Levy |first=Sholomo |work=BlackJews.org |publisher=International Israelite Board of Rabbis }}</ref>

Beside the Harlem group, there are eight or ten Commandment Keeper congregations in the New York area and others throughout North America and in [[Israel]].<ref>Goldschmidt, p. 221.</ref> Since 2000, seven rabbis have graduated from the Israelite Rabbinical Academy founded by Matthew.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackjews.org/IsraeliteAcademy.html |title=Israelite Academy |accessdate=2008-02-10 |work=BlackJews.org |publisher=International Israelite Board of Rabbis }}</ref>

===African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem===
{{main|African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem}}
[[Image:Black hebrews Dimona visit1.jpg|thumb|''African Hebrew Israelites'' speak to visitors in [[Dimona]].]]
[[Ben Ammi|Ben Ammi Ben Israel]] established the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], in 1966. In 1969, after a sojourn in [[Liberia]], Ben Ammi and about 30 Hebrew Israelites moved to [[Israel]].<ref name=Haas>{{cite news |last=Haas |first=Danielle |title=Black Hebrews fight for citizenship in Israel |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/11/15/MN144395.DTL |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |date=November 15, 2002 |accessdate=2008-05-25 }}</ref> Over the next 20 years nearly 600 more members left the United States for Israel. As of 2006, about 2,500 Hebrew Israelites live in [[Dimona]] and two other towns in the [[Negev]] region of Israel, where they are widely referred to as Black Hebrews.<ref name=CBS>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |title=Music Earns Black Hebrews Some Acceptance |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/04/05/ap/world/mainD8GPUNGG8.shtml |work=[[CBS News]] |date=April 5, 2006 |accessdate=2008-05-25 }}</ref> In addition, there are Hebrew Israelite communities in several major American cities, including Chicago, [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], and Washington, D.C.<ref name=Michaeli75>Michaeli, p. 75.</ref>

The Black Hebrews believe they are descended from members of the [[Tribe of Judah]] who were exiled from the [[Land of Israel]] after the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] destroyed the [[Second Temple]] in 70 CE.<ref name=CBS/><ref name=OurStory>{{cite web |url=http://www.kingdomofyah.com/our_story.htm |title=Our Story |accessdate=2008-05-25 |publisher=The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem }}</ref> The group incorporates elements of [[African American culture]] into their interpretation of the Bible,<ref name=Michaeli75/> and they do not recognize rabbinical Jewish interpretations such as the [[Talmud]].<ref name=CBS/> The Black Hebrews observe [[Shabbat]] and biblically-ordained [[Jewish holiday]]s such as [[Yom Kippur]] and [[Passover]].<ref name=Michaeli76>Michaeli, p. 76.</ref> Men wear ''[[tzitzit]]'' on their African print shirts, women follow the [[Niddah|biblical laws concerning menstruation]],<ref name=Michaeli75/> and newborn boys are circumcised.<ref name=Haas/> In accordance with their interpretation of the Bible, the Black Hebrews follow a strictly [[vegan]] diet and wear only natural fabrics.<ref name=Haas/><ref name=OurStory/> Most men have more than one wife, and [[birth control]] is not permitted.<ref name=CBS/>

When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969, they claimed citizenship under the [[Law of Return]], which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship.<ref>Michaeli, pp. 73–74.</ref> The Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship, and the Black Hebrews were denied [[work permit]]s and state benefits. The group responded by accusing the Israeli government of [[Racism|racist discrimination]].<ref name=Michaeli74>Michaeli, p. 74.</ref> In 1981, a group of American civil rights activist led by [[Bayard Rustin]] investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of Black Hebrews' situation.<ref name=Shipler>{{cite news |last=Shipler |first=David K. |title=Israelis Urged To Act Over Black Hebrew Cult |url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F4071FFA395F0C738FDDA80894D9484D81 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 30, 1981 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref> No official action was taken to return the Black Hebrews to the United States, but some individual members were [[Deportation|deported]] for working illegally. Some Black Hebrews [[Renunciation of citizenship|renounced]] their American citizenship to try to prevent more deportations. In 1990, Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews' legal status in Israel. Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services. The Black Hebrews reclaimed their American citizenship and have received aid from the U.S. government that helped them build a school and additional housing.<ref name=Michaeli74/> In 2003 the agreement was revised, and the Black Hebrews were granted [[Permanent residency|permanent resident]] status.<ref name=MFA>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/people/the%20black%20hebrews |title=The Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2008-05-26 |date=September 29, 2006 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs }}</ref><ref name=Kaufman>{{cite news |last=Kaufman |first=David |title=Quest for a Homeland Gains a World Stage |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/fashion/sundaystyles/16BUTLER.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 16, 2006 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref>

In 2009, Elyakim Ben-Israel became the first Black Hebrew to receive Israeli citizenship. The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship.<ref>{{cite news |last=Alush |first=Zvi |title=First Black Hebrew Gets Israeli Citizenship |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3665976,00.html |work=[[Ynetnews]] |date=February 2, 2009 |accessdate=2009-02-02 }}</ref>

The Black Hebrews have become well-known for their [[Gospel music|gospel choir]], which tours throughout Israel and the United States. The group owns restaurants in several Israeli cities.<ref name=Michaeli74/> In 2003 the Black Hebrews garnered much public attention when singer [[Whitney Houston]] visited them in Dimona.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel retreat for Houston |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/2940042.stm |publisher=[[BBC News Online]] |date=May 27, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |title=Whitney Houston visits Israel for Christmas album inspiration |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2003-05-27-houston-israel_x.htm |work=[[USA Today]] |date=May 28, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Palti |first=Michal |title=Whitney does Dimona |url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/black_hebrews/black_hebrews6.html |work=[[Haaretz]] |date=May 29, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref> In 2006, [[Eddie Butler (singer)|Eddie Butler]], a Black Hebrew, was chosen by the Israeli public to [[Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006|represent Israel]] in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2006|Eurovision Song Contest]].<ref name=CBS/><ref name=Kaufman/>

==Allegations of black supremacy and racism==
In late 2008, the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] (SPLC) described as [[Black supremacy|black supremacist]] what it called "the extremist fringe of the Hebrew Israelite movement". It wrote that the members of such groups "believe that Jews are devilish impostors and ... openly condemn whites as evil personified, deserving only death or slavery". The SPLC also said that "most Hebrew Israelites are neither explicitly racist nor anti-Semitic and do not advocate violence".<ref name=Ready>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=941 |title='Ready for War' |accessdate=2008-11-22 |date=Fall 2008 |work=Intelligence Report |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] }}</ref>

The Black Hebrew groups characterized as black supremacist by the SPLC include the [[Nation of Yahweh]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=808 |title=Margins to the Mainstream |accessdate=2008-11-22 |last=Potok |first=Mark |date=Fall 2007 |work=Intelligence Report |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] }}</ref> and the Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ.<ref name=Ready/> Also, the [[Anti-Defamation League]] has written that the "12 Tribes of Israel" website, maintained by a Black Hebrew group, promotes black supremacy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adl.org/poisoning_web/black_bigots.asp |title=Poisoning the Web: African-American Anti-Semitism |accessdate=2008-11-22 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] }}</ref>

==Correspondence of the Twelve Tribes of Israel==
Some groups of Black Hebrews believe that various groups in the Americas correspond to the Biblical [[Israelites|Twelve Tribes of Israel]]. One such correspondence is:

* [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] — [[Black Americans]]
* [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] — [[Caribbean|West Indians]]
* [[Levite|Levi]] — [[Haiti]]ans
* [[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] — [[Dominican Republic|Dominicans]]
* [[Tribe of Zebulun|Zebulon]] — [[Guatemala]]ns, [[Panama]]nians
* [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraim]] — [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Ricans]]
* [[Tribe of Menasheh|Manasseh]] — [[Cubans]]
* [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]] — [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American Indians]]
* [[Tribe of Reuben|Reuben]] — [[Seminole]] Indians
* [[Tribe of Asher|Asher]] — [[Colombia]]ns, [[Uruguay]]ans
* [[Tribe of Naphtali|Napthali]] — [[Argentina|Argentines]], [[Chile]]ans
* [[Tribe of Issachar|Issachar]] — [[Mexico|Mexicans]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saintsunit.org/12tribes.html |title=The 12 Tribes |accessdate=2008-10-22 |author= |last= |first= |date= |year= |month= |publisher=Children of the Saints Unit }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portalbox
| name1 = African American
| image1 = AmericaAfrica.png
| name2 = Israel
| image2 = Flag of Israel.svg
| name3 = Judaism
| image3 = Star of David.svg
}}
* [[Afro-American religion]]
* [[Groups claiming an affiliation with the ancient Israelites]]
* [[Jews and Judaism in the African diaspora]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite book |last=Ben-Jochannan |first=Yosef A. A. |authorlink=Yosef Ben-Jochannan |title=We, the Black Jews: Witness to the "White Jewish Race" Myth |origyear=1983 |year=1993 |publisher=Black Classic Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=0933121407 }}
*{{cite book |last=Chireau |first=Yvonne |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0195112571 |chapter=Black Culture and Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism, 1790–1930, an Overview }}
*{{cite book |last=Fauset |first=Arthur Huff |authorlink=Arthur Fauset |title=Black Gods of the Metropolis: Negro Religious Cults of the Urban North |origyear=1944 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0812210018 }}
*{{cite book |title=The New Religious Movements Experience in America |last=Gallagher |first=Eugene V. |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=0313328072 }}
*{{cite book |last=Goldschmidt |first=Henry |title=Race and Religion Among the Chosen Peoples of Crown Heights |year=2006 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brusnwick, N.J. |isbn=0813538971 }}
*{{cite book |title=Selling Black History for Carter G. Woodson: A Diary, 1930–1933 |last=Greene |first=Lorenzo Johnston |authorlink=Lorenzo Greene |coauthors=Arvarh E. Strickland, ed. |year=1996 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Columbia, Mo. |isbn=0826210686 }}
*{{cite book |last=Isaac |first=Walter |editor=[[Lewis Gordon|Lewis R. Gordon]], Jane Anna Gordon, eds. |title=A Companion to African-American Studies |year=2006 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Mass. |isbn=0631235167 |chapter=Locating African-American Judaism: A Critique of White Normativity }}
*{{cite book |title=The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600-2000 |last=Kidd |first=Colin |authorlink=Colin Kidd |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521793246 }}
*{{cite book |last=Landing |first=James E. |title=Black Judaism: Story of an American Movement |year=2002 |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |location=Durham, N. C. |isbn=0890898200 }}
*{{cite book |last=Michaeli |first=Ethan |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0195112571 |chapter=Another Exodus: The Hebrew Israelites from Chicago to Dimona }}
*{{cite book |last=Moses |first=Wilson Jeremiah |editor=[[Cornel West]], Eddie S. Glaude, Jr., eds. |title=African American Religious Thought: An Anthology |year=2003 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, Ky. |isbn=0664224598 |chapter=Chosen Peoples of the Metropolis: Black Muslims, Black Jews, and Others }}
*{{cite book |last=Parfitt |first=Tudor |coauthors=Emanuela Trevisan Semi |title=Judaising Movements: Studies in the Margins of Judaism in Modern Times |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0700715150 }}
*{{cite book |last=Singer |first=Merrill |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0195112571 |chapter=Symbolic Identity Formation in an African American Religious Sect: The Black Hebrew Israelites }}
*{{cite book |last=Sundquist |first=Eric J. |title=Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America |year=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0674019423 }}
*{{cite book |last=Wolfson |first=Bernard J. |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0195112571 |chapter=African American Jews: Dispelling Myths, Bridging the Divide }}
*{{cite book |last=Wynia |first=Elly M. |title=The Church of God and Saints of Christ: The Rise of Black Jews |year=1994 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0815311362 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons cat|Black Hebrew}}
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/bhi.htm Black Hebrew Israelites—ReligousTolerance.org]
*[http://www.blackapologetics.com/bhifaq.html Black Hebrew Israelite FAQ—Black Apologetics Ministry]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/Black_Hebrews.html The Black Hebrews], [[Jewish Virtual Library]]

[[Category:Black Hebrew Israelites| ]]
[[Category:African American culture]]
[[Category:Black Jews]]
[[Category:Groups claiming Jewish descent]]
[[Category:African and Black nationalism]]
[[bg:Черни евреи]]
[[ca:Hebreus africans]]
[[es:Israelitas negros]]
[[fr:Hébreux noirs]]
[[nl:Afrikaanse Hebreeërs]]
[[ja:ブラック・ジュー]]
[[ru:Чёрные евреи]]

{{Jews and Judaism}}