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{{About|the narrative genre|the Christian evangelistic book|Wordless Book}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=August 2013}}

[[File:Frans Masereel - 25 Images of a Man's Passion - final four plates.jpg|400px|thumb|alt=Four high-contrast black-and-white images in sequence. In the first, a man, facing left with his right arm aloft, marches with a crowd towards a group of gun-wielding figures. In the second, uniformed figures are taking the man away amongst a crowd. In the third, the man is seen from behind at the bottom, with a group seated behind a bench in the distance near the top in an apparent courtroom. A crucifix hangs prominently above the bench, bathed in light in the darkened room. In the fourth, the man has his back to a wall, hands bound behind him, with another figure lying apparently dead at his feet. He faces right, apparently awaiting his execution by gunfire.|Wordless novels flourished in Germany in the 1920s and typically were made using [[woodcut]] or similar techniques in an [[Expressionism|Expressionist]] style. ([[Frans Masereel]], ''[[25 Images of a Man's Passion]]'', 1918)]]

The '''wordless novel''' is a narrative genre that uses sequences of captionless pictures to tell a story. As artists have often made such books using [[woodcut]] and other [[relief printing]] techniques, the terms '''woodcut novel''' or '''novel in woodcuts''' are also used. The genre flourished primarily in the 1920s and 1930s and was especially popular in Germany.

The wordless novel has its origin in the [[German Expressionism|German Expressionist]] movement of the early 20th century. The typically [[Socialism|socialist]] work drew inspiration from mediaeval woodcuts and used the awkward look of that medium to express angst and frustration at social injustice. The first such book was the Belgian [[Frans Masereel]]'s ''[[25 Images of a Man's Passion]]'', published in 1918. Other artists, such as the German [[Otto Nückel]], followed Masereel's example. [[Lynd Ward]] brought the genre to the United States in 1929 when he produced {{not a typo|''[[Gods' Man]]''}}, which inspired other American wordless novels and was parodied in 1930 by cartoonist [[Milt Gross]] in ''[[He Done Her Wrong]]''. Following an early-1930s peak in production and popularity, the genre waned in the face of competition from [[sound film]]s and anti-socialist censorship in Nazi Germany and the US.

Following World War II, new examples of wordless novels became increasingly rare, and early works went out of print. Interest began to revive in the 1960s when the American comics [[fandom]] subculture came to see wordless novels as prototypical book-length comics. In the 1970s, cartoonists such as [[Will Eisner]] and [[Art Spiegelman]] were inspired by the example of the wordless novel to create book-length non-genre comics—"[[graphic novel]]s". Cartoonists such as [[Eric Drooker]] and [[Peter Kuper]] took direct inspiration from worldess novels to create wordless graphic novels.

==Overview==

[[File:CABINET DES DR CALIGARI 01.jpg|thumb|alt=A black-and-white film still. Three figures stand facing each other on a heavily stylized street set.|[[German Expressionism|Expressionist film]] and graphics inspired early wordless novels. (''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'', 1920)]]

Wordless novels use sequences of expressive images to tell a story.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=112}} [[Socialism|Socialist]] themes of struggle against [[capitalism]] are common; scholar Perry Willett calls these themes "a unifying element of the genre's aesthetic".{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=114}} In both formal and moral aspects, they draw from [[Expressionism|Expressionist]] graphics, [[Expressionism (theatre)|theatre]], and [[German Expressionism|film]].{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}} Wordless novelists such as [[Frans Masereel]] appropriated the intentionally awkward aesthetic of mediaeval woodcuts to express their anguish and revolutionary political ideas{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}} and used simple, traditional iconography. Text is restricted to title and chapter pages, except where text is a part of the scene, such as in signs.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=181}}

The storytelling tends to be melodramatic,{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=114}} and the stories tend to focus on struggles against social oppression; characters are silenced by economic, political, and other social forces. The characters are clearly delineated as good or evil, with the good drawn sympathetically, and the evil drawn with the contempt of the artist's moral indignation.{{sfn|Willett|2005|pp=130–131}}

Most wordless novelists were not prolific; few besides Masereel and [[Lynd Ward]] produced more than a single book.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=131}} The books were designed to be mass-produced for a popular audience, in contrast to similar but shorter portfolios by artists such as [[Otto Dix]], [[George Grosz]], and [[Käthe Kollwitz]], which were produced in limited editions for collectors. These portfolios, typically from eight to ten prints in length, also were meant to be viewed in sequence. Wordless novels were longer, had more complex narratives, and were printed in sizes and dimensions comparable to those of novels.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=128}} A large influence was the most popular silent visual medium of the time: [[silent film]]s. Panning, zooming, slapstick, and other filmic techniques are found in the books; Lynd Ward said that in creating a wordless novel, he first had to visualize it in his head as a silent film.{{sfn|Willett|2005|pp=128–129}}

[[File:Prelude to a Million Years, plate 29, by Lynd Ward.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Photograph of an engraved piece of wood, on which is an image of a man kneeling.|Wordless novelists favoured [[relief printing]] such as in this [[wood engraving]] from [[Lynd Ward|Ward]]'s ''[[Prelude to a Million Years]]'' (1933).]]

Typically, wordless novels used [[relief printing]] techniques such as [[woodcut]]s, [[wood engraving]], [[metalcut]]s, or [[linocut]]s. One of the oldest printing techniques, relief printing has its origins in 8th-century China and was introduced to Europe in the 15th century. It requires an artist to draw or transfer an image to a printing block; the areas not to be printed (the white areas) are cut away, leaving raised areas to which ink is applied to make prints.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=15}} The monochrome prints were usually black and white, but were occasionally in another colour, such as [[sienna]] or orange.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=193}} Relief printing is an inexpensive but labour-intensive printing technique; it was accessible to socially conscious artists who wanted to tell wordless stories of the working classes.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=16}}

==History==

In 15th-century{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=175}} mediaeval Europe, woodcut [[block book]]s were printed as religious guides; particularly popular was the {{lang|la|''[[Ars moriendi]]''}}. The early 16th century saw block books disappear in favour of books printed with the [[movable type]] of [[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]'s presses.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|pp=172–173, 175}} Woodcut printing itself persisted into the 16th century under artists such as [[Albrecht Dürer|Dürer]], [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Holbein]], and [[Jost Amman|Amman]],{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=175}} after which engraving techniques superseded woodcuts. Pioneered by [[Thomas Bewick]], wood engraving enjoyed popularity beginning in the 18th century, until the method gave way by the 19th century to more advanced printing methods such as [[lithography]].{{sfn|Cohen|1977|pp=176–177}}

[[File:Biblia pauperum, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|alt=A monochromatic woodcut print of a page from a mediaeval book depicting a bible scene.|[[Expressionism|Expressionist]] woodcut artists expressed angst using the awkward look of mediaeval woodcuts such as this {{lang|la|''[[Biblia pauperum]]''}}.]]

[[Post-Impressionism|Post-impressionist]] artist [[Paul Gauguin]] revived woodcut printing in the late-19th century, favouring it for its [[Primitivism|primitivist]] effect.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=177}} Early in the 20th century, woodcut artists such as Käthe Kollwitz (1867–1945) and [[Max Klinger]] (1857–1920) published portfolios of woodcuts, thematically linked by themes of social injustice.{{sfn|Willett|2005|pp=127–128}} Expressionist graphic artists such as [[Max Beckmann]] (1884–1950), Otto Dix (1891–1969), Kollwitz, and [[Karl Schmidt-Rottluff]] (1884–1976) were inspired by an early-20th-century revival of interest in mediaeval graphic arts—in particular Biblical woodcut prints such as the {{lang|la|''[[Biblia pauperum]]''}}. These artists used the awkward look of woodcut images to express feelings of anguish.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}}

===In Europe===

The wordless novel grew out of the Expressionist movement.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=111}} The Belgian Frans Masereel (1889–1972) created the earliest example, ''[[25 Images of a Man's Passion]]'',{{efn|{{lang-fr|25 images de la passion d'un homme}} }} in 1918.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=112}} It was a commercial success{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=17}} and was followed by ''[[Passionate Journey]]'',{{efn|{{lang-fr|Mon livre d'heures|links=no}}; the book was translated into English as ''My Book of Hours'' (1919),{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=114}} }} and at 167 images was Masereel's longest book. It was also the most commercially successful,{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=114}} particularly in Germany, where copies of his books sold in the hundreds of thousands throughout the 1920s and had introductions by writers such as [[Max Brod]], [[Hermann Hesse]], and [[Thomas Mann]]. Masereel's books drew strongly on Expressionist theatre and film{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=112}} in their exaggerated but representational artwork with strong contrasts of black and white.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=180}}

Masereel's commercial success led other artists to try their hands at the genre;{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=116}} themes of oppression under capitalism were prominent, a pattern set early by Masereel.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=112}} At age thirteen, Polish-French artist [[Balthus]] drew a wordless story about his cat; it was published in 1921 with an introduction by poet [[Rainer Maria Rilke]].{{sfnm|1a1=Rewald|1y=1984|1pp=12–13|2a1=Walker|2y=2007|2p=11}} In ''Destiny'' (1926),{{efn|{{lang-de|Schicksal}}{{sfn|Smart|2011|pp=22–23}} }} [[Otto Nückel]] (1888–1955) produced a work with greater nuance and atmosphere than Masereel's bombastic works;{{sfn|Smart|2011|pp=22–23}} where Masereel told tales of Man's struggle against Society, Nückel told of the life of an individual woman.{{sfn|Bi|2009}} ''Destiny'' sold well in the US.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=191}}

[[Clément Moreau]] (1903–1988) first tried his hand at the genre with the six-plate ''Youth Without Means''{{efn|{{lang-de|Erwerbslose Jugend|links=no}} }} in 1928.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=23}} [[István Szegedi-Szüts]] (1892–1959), a Hungarian immigrant to England, made a wordless book in brush and ink called ''My War'' (1931). In simple artwork reminiscent of [[Sumi-e|Japanese brush painting]], Szegedi-Szüts told of a Hungarian cavalryman disillusioned by his World War I experiences.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=177}} [[Helena Bochořáková-Dittrichová]] (1894–1980) was the first woman to produce a wordless novel, ''[[Childhood (wordless novel)|Childhood]]'' (1931),{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=21}} which presented middle-class life, rather than the working-class struggle found in the works of Masereel or Nückel.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=115}} Bochořáková described her books as "cycles" rather than novels.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=21}} [[Surrealism|Surrealist]] artist [[Max Ernst]] made the silent collage novel ''[[Une semaine de bonté]]'' in 1934.{{sfn|Beronä|1999|pp=2–3}} Following World War II, {{ill|de|Werner Gothein}} (1890–1968), a member of the German Expressionist group [[Die Brücke]], produced ''The Tightrope Walker and the Clown''{{efn|{{lang-de|Die Seiltänzerin und ihr Clown|links=no}} }} (1949).{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=21}}

===In North America===

In 1926, the American Lynd Ward (1905–1985) moved to Leipzig to study graphic arts; while there, he discovered the works of Masereel and Otto Nückel.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=20–21}} He produced six such works of his own{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}}; he preferred to call them "pictorial narratives".{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=19–21}} The first, {{not a typo|''[[Gods' Man]]''}} (1929), was his most popular.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=126}} Ward used wood engraving rather than woodcutting{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=19–21}} and varied image sizes from page to page.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=191}} {{not a typo|''Gods' Man''}} sold 20,000 copies, and other American artists followed up on this success with their own wordless novels in the 1930s.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=19–21}}

[[File:He Done Her Wrong - Gross does Ward.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A black-and-white drawing of woman opening a window.|In ''[[He Done Her Wrong]]'' (1930), [[Milt Gross]] parodied [[Lynd Ward]]'s {{not a typo|''[[Gods' Man]]''}} (1929).]]

Cartoonist [[Milt Gross]]'s ''[[He Done Her Wrong]]'' (1930) was a parody of the genre; the book used varying panel designs akin to those of comics, with the action sometimes taking place outside the panel borders{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=21–22, 24}} and "dialogue balloons" that showed in images what the characters were saying.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=158}} Cartoonist and illustrator [[William Gropper]]'s ''Alay-oop'' (1930) told of three entertainers' disappointed dreams.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=136}} Animator [[Myron Waldman]] (1908–2006) wrote one wordless book, a tale of a plump young woman looking for a glamorous husband. The book, ''Eve'' (1943), also used "picture balloons" as ''He Done Her Wrong'' had.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=170}}

Inspired by mediaeval religious block books and working in an [[Art Deco]] style, American illustrator James Reid (1907–1989) produced one wordless novel, ''The Life of Christ'' (1930);{{sfn|Walker|2007|pp=25, 27}} due to the book's religious content, the [[Soviet Union]] barred its importation under its [[Religion in the Soviet Union|policies on religion]].{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=17}}

In 1938, Italian-American [[Giacomo Patri]] (1898–1978) produced his only worldess novel, the linocut ''White Collar''. It chronicled the aftermath of the 1929 stock market crash and was intended to motivate [[white-collar worker]]s to unionize;{{sfn|Walker|2007|pp=25, 27}} it also dealt with controversial topics such as abortion, accessibility of health care for the poor, and loss of Christian faith.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=177}} From 1948 to 1951, Canadian [[Laurence Hyde (artist)|Laurence Hyde]] (1914–1987) produced his single wordless novel, the woodcut ''[[Southern Cross (book)|Southern Cross]]'', in response to the American [[Bikini atomic experiments|atomic tests in the Bikini Atoll]].{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=31}} The work tells of an American evacuation of an island for nuclear tests, with one family left behind.{{sfn|Cohen|1977|p=195}} Polish-American [[Si Lewen]]'s (1918– ) first book, ''The Parade: A Story in 55 Drawings'' (1957), won praise from [[Albert Einstein]] for its anti-war message.{{sfnm|1a1=Beronä|1y=1999|1pp=2–3|2a1=Walker|2y=2007|2p=10}} Canadian George Kuthan's ''Aphrodite's Cup'' (1964) was an erotic book drawn in an ancient Greek style.{{sfn|Beronä|1999|p=2–3}} In the early 21st century, Canadian [[George A. Walker]] made wordless woodcut novels, beginning with ''Book of Hours'' (2010), about the lives of those in the [[World Trade Center]] complex just before the [[September 11 attacks]].{{sfn|Smart|2011|p=55}}

===Decline===

The popularity of wordless novels peaked around 1929 to 1931, when "[[Sound film|talkies]]" were introduced and began to supersede silent films.{{sfn|Willett|2005|pp=129–130}} In the 1930s, the Nazis in Germany suppressed and detained many printmakers and banned Masereel's works{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=17}} as "[[degenerate art]]".{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=21}} Following World War II, US censors suppressed books with socialist views, including the works of Lynd Ward, on whom the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] kept files over his socialist sympathies; this censorship has made early editions of wordless novels scarce collectors' items in the US.{{sfn|Walker|2007|p=17}}

By the 1940s, most artists had given up on the genre. The most devoted practitioners, Masereel and Ward, moved on to other work for which they became better known; Masereel's obituary did not even mention his wordless novels.{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=131}} Many wordless novels remained out of print until the rise of the graphic novel revived interest among readers and publishers in the early 21st century.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=225}}

==Relation to graphic novels==

{{Quote
|text = "... Ward's roots were not in comics, though his work is part of the same large family tree ..."
|sign = [[Art Spiegelman]]
|source = ''[[The Paris Review]]'', 2010{{sfn|Spiegelman|2010}}
}}

There have been sporadic examples of textless comics throughout the medium's history. In the US, there were comic strips such as [[Otto Soglow]]'s ''[[The Little King]]'', begun in 1931, and [[Carl Thomas Anderson|Carl Anderson]]'s ''[[Henry (comic strip)|Henry]]'', begun in 1932.{{sfn|Beronä|1999|pp=2–3}} German cartoonist [[E. O. Plauen]]'s wordless domestic comic strip ''[[Father and Son (comics)|Father and Son]]''{{efn|{{lang-de|Vater und Sohn|links=no}} }} (1934–37) was popular in Germany, and collected into three volumes.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|p=153}} [[Antonio Prohías]]'s textless ''[[Mad (magazine)|Mad]]'' magazine feature ''[[Spy vs. Spy]]'' began in 1961.{{sfn|Beronä|1999|pp=2–3}}

{{multiple image
|image1 = Will Eisner2.jpg
|alt = An bald elderly man in a suit and tie, seated before a meal, raising his right hand slightly and look to the right of the picture.

|image2 = Art Spiegelman (2007).jpg
|alt = A late-middle-aged man with glasses, seated, wearing a black leather jacket, smiles at the camera.

|footer = Cartoonists [[Will Eisner]] (left) and [[Art Spiegelman]] (right) were inspired by [[Lynd Ward]]'s work to create [[graphic novel]]s.}}

Cartoonist [[Will Eisner]] (1917–2005) first came upon the work of Lynd Ward in 1938. An early pioneer in the [[American comic book]] industry, Eisner saw in Ward's work a greater potential for comics; his ambitions were rebuffed by his peers, who saw comics as no more than low-status entertainment. Einser withdrew from the commercial comics industry to do government and educational work but returned in the 1970s, when the atmosphere had changed and his readers and peers seemed more receptive to his ambitions. In 1978, he began a career creating book-length comics, the first of which was ''[[A Contract with God]]''; the book was marketed as a "graphic novel", a term that became standard towards the end of the 20th century.{{sfn|Kaplan|2010|p=153}}

Interest in the wordless novel revived with the rise of the graphic novel.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|p=20}} Comics fans discussed the works of Masereel and others in fanzines, and the discussions turned to talk of the [[Great American Novel]] being made in comics. These discussions inspired cartoonist [[Art Spiegelman]] (1942– ),{{sfn|Kaplan|2010|p=171}} who in 1973 made a four-page strip, "Prisoner on the Hell Planet", in an Expressionist style inspired by Ward's work. Spiegelman later incorporated the strip into his graphic novel ''[[Maus]]''.{{sfn|Witek|2004|p=100}}

Eisner called Ward "perhaps the most provocative graphic storyteller"{{sfn|Chute|2012|p=410}} of the 20th century. He wrote that Ward's ''Vertigo'' (1937) required considerable investment from readers in order to fill in the story between images.{{sfn|Chute|2012|p=410}}

While graphic novels generally use captions and dialogue,{{sfn|Willett|2005|p=131}} cartoonists such as [[Eric Drooker]], [[Peter Kuper]], {{ill|fr|Thomas Ott}}, [[Brian Ralph]], [[Masashi Tanaka]], and [[Lewis Trondheim]] have made wordless graphic novels.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|p=20}} As Gross did in ''He Done Wer Wrong'', {{ill|de|Hendrik Dorgathen}}'s wordless ''oeuvre'' uses textless [[Speech balloon|word balloon]]s containing symbols, icons, and other images.{{sfn|Beronä|2001|pp=27–28}} The influence of the wordless novel is prominent in Drooker's ''Flood'' (1992) and Kuper's ''The System'' (1997), metaphorical stories focused on social themes.{{sfn|Beronä|2008|pp=225}}

==See also==

*''[[Frank (comics)|Frank]]'', wordless comics by [[Jim Woodring]]

{{Portal bar|Comics|Novels|Socialism|Visual arts}}

==Notes==

{{Notelist|colwidth=40em}}

==References==

{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}}

===Works cited===

====Books====

{{Refbegin|colwidth=40em}}

* {{cite book
|ref = harv
|editor1-last = Varnum
|editor1-first = Robin
|editor2-last = Gibbons
|editor2-first = Christina T.
|last = Beronä
|first = David A.
|title = The Language of Comics: Word and Image
|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=j_S6QHAov1kC&pg=PA19
|year = 2001
|publisher = [[University Press of Mississippi]]
|isbn = 978-1-60473-903-9
|pages = 19–39
|chapter = Pictures Speak in Comics Without Words}}
* {{cite isbn|9780810994690|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
|ref = harv
|editor1-last = Bray
|editor1-first = Joe
|editor2-last = Gibbons
|editor2-first = Alison
|editor3-last = McHale
|editor3-first = Brian
|first = Hillary
|last = Chute
|title = The Routledge Companion to Experimental Literature
|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3S2uf3Zj8AC&pg=PA407
|year = 2012
|publisher = [[Routledge]]
|isbn = 978-0-415-57000-8
|pages = 407–419
|chapter = Graphic Narrative}}
* {{cite isbn|9780827610439|ref=harv}}
* {{cite isbn|9780810907386|ref=harv}}
* {{cite isbn|9781554072705|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
|ref = harv
|editor-last = Donahue
|editor-first = Neil H.
|last = Willett
|first = Perry
|title = A Companion to the Literature of German Expressionism
|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=zjvV48n-ngUC&pg=PA111
|year = 2005
|publisher = [[Camden House Publishing]]
|isbn = 978-1-57113-175-1
|pages = 111–134
|chapter = The Cutting Edge of German Expressionism: The Woodcut Novel of Frans Masereel and Its Influences}}

{{Refend}}

====Magazines and journals====

{{Refbegin|colwidth=40em}}

* {{cite journal
|ref = harv
|first = David A.
|last = Beronä
|title = An Introduction to 'Beyond Words: A Wordless Comic Anthology'
|journal = Sunburn
|issue = 11
|month = Summer
|year = 1999
|pages = 2–3
|url = http://jupiter.plymouth.edu/~daberona/intro.htm
|accessdate = 2013-03-17}}
* {{cite journal
|ref = harv
|title = The Novel in Woodcuts: A Handbook
|first = Martin S.
|last = Cohen
|journal = Journal of Modern Literature
|volume = 6
|issue = 2
|month = April
|year = 1977
|pages = 171–195
|publisher = [[Indiana University Press]]
|jstor = 3831165}}
* {{cite journal
|ref = harv
|last = Smart
|first = Tom
|title = Devil's Artisan
|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=fIgKsV3BXacC
|volume = 68
|year = 2011
|month = Spring
|publisher = The Porcupine's Quill
|pages = 10–37
|chapter = A Suite of Engravings from ''The Mysterious Death of Tom Thomson''}}
* {{cite journal
|ref = {{SfnRef|Spiegelman|2010}}
|url = http://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2010/10/13/the-woodcuts-of-lynd-ward/
|title = The Woodcuts of Lynd Ward
|first = Art
|last = Spiegelman
|authorlink = Art Spiegelman
|journal = [[The Paris Review]]
|date = 2010-10-13
|accessdate = 2013-03-18}}
* {{cite journal
|ref = harv
|url = http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v1_1/witek/
|last = Witek
|first = Joseph
|title = Imagetext, or, Why Art Spiegelman Doesn't Draw Comics
|journal = ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies
|volume = 1
|issue = 1
|year = 2004
|issn = 1549-6732
|publisher = [[University of Florida]]
|accessdate = 2012-04-16}}

{{Refend}}

====Web====

{{Refbegin}}

* {{cite web
|ref = harv
|title = ''Destin'' de Otto Nückel
|url = http://www.du9.org/chronique/destin/
|first = Jessie
|last = Bi
|work = du9
|year = 2009
|month = May
|language = French
|accessdate = 2013-03-18}}

{{Refend}}

==Further reading==

{{Refbegin}}

* {{cite book

|last = Willett
|first = Perry
|title = The Silent Shout: Frans Masereel, Lynd Ward, and the Novel in Woodcuts
|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=FtVIAQAAIAAJ
|year = 1997
|publisher = [[Indiana University Libraries]]
|oclc = 36526265}}

{{Refend}}

==External links==

*{{cite web
|title = La bande dessinée muette
|url = http://www.du9.org/dossier/bande-dessinee-muette-1-la/
|language = French
|first = Jessie
|last = Bi
|work = du9
|date = 2006-06
|accessdate = 2013-04-19}}
*[http://www.frans-masereel.de/ Frans Masereel Foundation] internet portal. Includes a [http://www.frans-masereel.de/15331_Graphic_Novels.html graphic novels] page with online versions of Masereel's books.
*{{cite web
|title = Stories Without Words: A Bibliography with Annotations
|date = 2003-07-23
|first1 = Mike
|last1 = Rhode
|first2 = Tom
|last2 = Furtwangler
|first3 = David
|last3 = Wybenga
|publisher = Michigan State University Libraries
|url = http://comics.lib.msu.edu/rhode/wordless.htm
|accessdate = 2013-04-19}}

{{Wordless novels}}

[[Category:Expressionism]]
[[Category:History of comics]]
[[Category:Narrative forms]]
[[Category:Woodcuts]]

Liste der 32X-Spiele

2013-06-24T10:01:26Z

VoxelBot: Adding Featured List Star

{{featured list}}
[[File:Sega-Genesis-Model2-32X.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Sega 32X attached to a Sega Genesis]]

The [[Sega 32X]] was an add-on for the [[Sega Genesis]] [[video game console]]. Codenamed "Project Mars",<ref name="Kent_493_496"/> the 32X was designed to expand the power of the Genesis and serve as a holdover until the release of the [[Sega Saturn]].<ref name="32XIGN">{{cite web|author=Buchanan, Levi|title=32X Follies|publisher=[[IGN]]|date=2008-10-24|accessdate=2013-05-25|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/10/24/32x-follies}}</ref> Independent of the Genesis, the 32X utilized its own [[ROM cartridge]]s and had its own library of games. A total of forty titles were produced, including six that required both the Sega 32X and [[Sega Mega-CD]] add-ons.<ref name="AllgameCD32X" />

Unveiled at June 1994's [[Consumer Electronics Show]], [[Sega]] presented the 32X as the "poor man's entry into 'next generation' games."<ref name="Kent_493_496"/> The product was originally conceived as an entirely new console by Sega of Japan and positioned as an inexpensive alternative for gamers into [[History of video game consoles (fifth generation)|the 32-bit era]], but at the suggestion of Sega of America [[research and development]] head Joe Miller, the console was converted into an add-on to the existing Genesis and made more powerful, with two 32-bit [[central processing unit]] chips and a 3D graphics processor.<ref name="Kent_493_496"/> Despite these changes, the console failed to attract either developers or consumers as the Sega Saturn had already been announced for release the next year.<ref name="Kent_493_496"/> In part because of this, and also to rush the 32X to market before the [[Christmas and holiday season|holiday season]] in 1994, the 32X suffered from a poor library of titles, including Genesis [[Porting|ports]] with improvements to the number of colors that appeared on screen.<ref name="32XIGN" /> Originally released at [[US$]]159, Sega dropped the price to $99 in only a few months and ultimately cleared the remaining inventory at $19.95.<ref name="Kent_493_496">{{cite book |last=Kent |first=Steven L. |authorlink=Steven L. Kent |title=The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World |year=2001 |publisher=Prima Publishing |location=Roseville, California |isbn=0-7615-3643-4 |pages=493–496}}</ref> At least 665,000 units were sold.<ref name=Man!ac>{{cite news |title=Videospiel-Algebra|publisher=''Man!ac Magazine'' |date=May 1995}}</ref>

The following list contains all of the games released for the 32X, as well as the games that required both the 32X and the Mega-CD. Among the titles for the 32X were ports of [[Arcade game|arcade]] games ''[[Space Harrier]]'' and ''[[Star Wars Arcade]]'', a [[Side-scrolling video game|sidescroller]] with a [[hummingbird]] as a main character in ''[[Kolibri (video game)|Kolibri]]'', a 32X-exclusive game in the [[Sonic the Hedgehog (series)|''Sonic the Hedgehog'' series]] in ''[[Knuckles' Chaotix]]'', and a version of ''[[Doom (video game)|Doom]]'' that was noted for its movement and game length issues when compared to other versions of the game. In a retrospective review of the console, ''Star Wars Arcade'' was considered the best game for the 32X by [[IGN]] for its cooperative play, soundtrack, and faithful reproduction of the experiences of ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]''.<ref name="32XIGN" /><ref name="IGNSW" />

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+Region code guide
|-
!scope="col"|Regions released
!scope="col"|Region description
|-
!scope="row"|JP ([[Japan]])
|Japanese ([[NTSC-J]]) formatted release
|-
!scope="row"|NA ([[North America]])
|North America and other [[NTSC]] territories, besides Japan
|-
!scope="row"|PAL
|[[PAL]]/[[SECAM]] territories: much of [[Europe]], [[Australia]], parts of [[Asia]]
|-
!scope="row"|BR ([[Brazil]])
|PAL release in Brazil only
|}

==Games==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:98%;"
! scope="col"|Title(s) <ref name="AllgameCD32X">{{cite web|title=Games for the Sega Genesis 32X CD|publisher=[[Allgame]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.allgame.com/platform.php?id=43&tab=games}}</ref><ref name="Allgame">{{cite web|title=Games for the Sega Genesis 32X|publisher=[[Allgame]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.allgame.com/platform.php?id=35&tab=games}}</ref>
! scope="col"|Year released <ref name="AllgameCD32X" /><ref name="Allgame" />
! scope="col"|Requires Sega Mega-CD? <ref name="AllgameCD32X" />
! scope="col"|Developer 
! scope="col"|Publisher 
! scope="col"|Regions released 
! scope="col"|Ref(s) 
|-
!scope="row"|''[[After Burner]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sega]]
|Sega
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="AllgameAfterBurner">{{cite web|title=After Burner – Overview|publisher=[[Allgame]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id=1379}}</ref><ref name="IGNAB">{{cite web|title=After Burner – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/after-burner/32x-5668}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[BC Racers]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Core Design]]
|[[U.S. Gold]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNBC">{{cite web|title=BC Racers – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/bc-racers/32x-7708}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Blackthorne]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Interplay Entertainment|Interplay]]
|Interplay
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNBlack">{{cite web|title=Blackthorne – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/blackthorne/32x-5669}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Brutal: Paws of Fury#Series synopsis|Brutal: Above the Claw]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[GameTek]]
|GameTek
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNBRUTAL">{{cite web|title=Brutal: Above the Claw Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/19/brutal-above-the-claw-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Corpse Killer]]''
|{{vgy|1994}}
|Yes
|[[Digital Pictures]]
|Digital Pictures
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNCK">{{cite web|title=Corpse Killer – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/corpse-killer/32x-7711}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Cosmic Carnage]]''
|{{vgy|1994}}
|No
|[[Sega]]
|Sega
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNCC">{{cite web|title=Cosmic Carnage Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/21/cosmic-carnage-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Darxide]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Frontier Developments]]
|[[Sega]]
|PAL
|<ref name="IGNDarX">{{cite web|title=Darxide – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/darxide/32x-498234}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Doom (video game)|Doom]]''
|{{vgy|1994}}
|No
|[[id Software]]
|[[Sega]]
|NA
|<ref name="IGNDOOM">{{cite web|title=Doom 32X Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/12/06/doom-32x-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Fahrenheit (1994 video game)|Fahrenheit]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|Yes
|[[Sega]]
|Sega
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNF">{{cite web|title=Fahrenheit – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/fahrenheit/32x-7712}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[FIFA Soccer 96]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Probe Entertainment Limited|Probe]]
|[[EA Sports]]
|PAL
|<ref name="IGNFIFA">{{cite web|title=FIFA Soccer 96 – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/fifa-soccer-96/32x-498231}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Golf Magazine: 36 Great Holes Starring Fred Couples]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sega]]
|Sega
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNGOLF">{{cite web|title=GOLF Magazine Presents 36 Great Holes Starring Fred Couples – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/golf-magazine-presents-36-great-holes-starring-fred-couples-142020/32x-6791}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Knuckles' Chaotix]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sonic Team]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNKnux">{{cite web|title=Knuckles Chaotix Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/03/26/knuckles-chaotix-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Kolibri (video game)|Kolibri]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Appaloosa Interactive|Novotrade]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="AllgameKol">{{cite web|title=Kolibri – Overview|publisher=[[Allgame]]|accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id=8041}}</ref><ref name="IGNKol">{{cite web|title=Kolibri - Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/kolibri/32x-7714}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Metal Head]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sega]]
|Sega
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNMH">{{cite web|title=Metal Head – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/metal-head/32x-7715}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Mortal Kombat II]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Midway Games]]
|[[Acclaim Entertainment]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNMK2">{{cite web|title=Mortal Kombat II 32X Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/12/09/mortal-kombat-ii-32x-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Motocross Championship]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sega]]
|Sega
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNMC">{{cite web|title=Motocross Championship Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/21/motocross-championship-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[NBA Jam Tournament Edition]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Iguana Entertainment]]
|[[Acclaim Entertainment]]
|JP, NA
|<ref name="IGNNBA">{{cite web|title=NBA Jam: Tournament Edition – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/nba-jam-tournament-edition/32x-5674}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[NFL Quarterback Club]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|IGS Games
|[[Acclaim Entertainment]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNNFL">{{cite web|title=NFL Quarterback Club – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/nfl-quarterback-club/32x-5684}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Night Trap]]''
|{{vgy|1994}}
|Yes
|[[Digital Pictures]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNNight">{{cite web|title=Night Trap – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/night-trap/32x-7717}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Pitfall: The Mayan Adventure]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Activision]]
|Activision
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNPITFALL">{{cite web|title=Pitfall: The Mayan Adventure Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/12/01/pitfall-the-mayan-adventure-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Primal Rage]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Probe Entertainment Limited|Probe]]
|[[Time Warner Interactive Entertainment]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNPR">{{cite web|title=Primal Rage Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/26/primal-rage-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[RBI Baseball|R.B.I. Baseball '95]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Tengen (company)|Tengen]]
|Tengen
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNTENG">{{cite web|title=R.B.I. Baseball '95 – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/games/rbi-baseball-95/32x-7718}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms IV: Wall of Fire|Sangokushi IV]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Koei]]
|Koei
|JP
|<ref name="Famitsu">{{cite journal |author= |year=1995 |title=New Games Cross Review: 三國志IV |journal=Weekly Famicom Tsūshin |volume= |issue=346 |pages=33 |publisher=[[Famitsu]] |accessdate=}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Shadow Squadron]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sega]]
|Sega
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNShadow">{{cite web|title=Shadow Squadron Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/13/shadow-squadron-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Slam City with Scottie Pippen]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|Yes
|[[Digital Pictures]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNScottie">{{cite web|title=Slam City with Scottie Pippen – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-25|url=http://www.ign.com/games/slam-city-with-scottie-pippen/32x-6790}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Space Harrier]]''
|{{vgy|1994}}
|No
|[[Sega-AM2]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNSPACE">{{cite web|title=Space Harrier Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/17/space-harrier-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Spider-Man: Web of Fire]]''
|{{vgy|1996}}
|No
|[[BlueSky Software]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNSpidey">{{cite web|title=Spider-Man: Web of Fire – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-25|url=http://www.ign.com/games/spider-man-web-of-fire/32x-5677}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Star Trek: Starfleet Academy Starship Bridge Simulator]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Interplay Entertainment|Interplay]]
|Interplay
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNSFleet">{{cite web|title=Star Trek: Starfleet Academy – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-25|url=http://www.ign.com/games/star-trek-starfleet-academy/32x-6852}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Star Wars Arcade]]''
|{{vgy|1994}}
|No
|[[Sega-AM3]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNSW">{{cite web|title=Star Wars Arcade Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/10/24/star-wars-arcade-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Supreme Warrior]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|Yes
|[[Digital Pictures]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNSupW">{{cite web|title=Supreme Warrior – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-25|url=http://www.ign.com/games/supreme-warrior/32x-7720}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Surgical Strike (video game)|Surgical Strike]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|Yes
|[[Sega]]
|[[TecToy]]
|BR
|<ref name="SurgicalStrike">{{cite web|title=Surgical Strike|publisher=[[UGO Networks]]|accessdate=2013-06-18|url=http://www.consolecity.com/games/action-game_info/game_id-42515.html}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[T-MEK]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Time Warner Interactive Entertainment]]
|[[Atari Games]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNTMEK">{{cite web|title=T-Mek 32X Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/12/05/t-mek-32x-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Tempo (video game)|Tempo]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sega]]
|Sega
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNTEMPO">{{cite web|title=Tempo Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/18/tempo-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Toughman Contest (video game)|Toughman Contest]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Visual Concepts]]
|[[Electronic Arts]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNTOUGH">{{cite web|title=Toughman Contest Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/14/toughman-contest-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Virtua Fighter (video game)|Virtua Fighter]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sega-AM2]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNVF">{{cite web|title=Virtua Fighter Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/24/virtua-fighter-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Virtua Racing Deluxe]]''
|{{vgy|1994}}
|No
|[[Sega-AM2]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNVR">{{cite web|title=Virtua Racing Deluxe Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-25|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/11/12/virtua-racing-deluxe-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[World Series Baseball Starring Deion Sanders]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Blue Sky Software]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNDS">{{cite web|title=World Series Baseball '95 – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-25|url=http://www.ign.com/games/world-series-baseball-95/32x-7721}}</ref><ref name="AllgameDS">{{cite web|title=World Series Baseball Starring Deion Sanders – Overview|publisher=Allgame |accessdate=2013-05-25|url=http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id=12226}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[WWF Raw (video game)|WWF Raw]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[LJN]]
|[[Acclaim Entertainment]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNWWFRAW">{{cite web|title=WWF Raw – Sega 32X|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-31|url=http://www.ign.com/games/wwf-raw/32x-5683}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[WWF WrestleMania: The Arcade Game]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sculptured Software]]
|[[Acclaim Entertainment]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNWM">{{cite web|title=WWF Wrestlemania: The Arcade Game Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/12/02/wwf-wrestlemania-the-arcade-game-review}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|''[[Zaxxon's Motherbase 2000]]''
|{{vgy|1995}}
|No
|[[Sega]]
|[[Sega]]
|JP, NA, PAL
|<ref name="IGNZAX">{{cite web|title=Zaxxon Motherbase 2000 Review|publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2013-05-24|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/12/04/zaxxon-motherbase-2000-review}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Sega}}
*[[List of Sega Mega Drive games]]
*[[List of Sega Mega-CD games]]
*[[Lists of video games]]

==References==

{{reflist|3}}
{{Video game lists by platform}}

[[Category:Sega 32X games| ]]
[[Category:Video game lists by platform|Sega 32X]]

Réunionibis

2013-03-15T10:03:40Z

VoxelBot: Adding Featured Article Star

{{featured article}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Réunion Ibis
| status = EX
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN2012>{{IUCN|id=160030102 |title=''Threskiornis solitarius'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2012.1 |year=2012 |accessdate=16 July 2012}}</ref>
| extinct = early 18th C.
| image = Réunion Ibis.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Hypothetical restoration
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Pelecaniformes]]
| familia = [[Threskiornithidae]]
| genus = ''[[Threskiornis]]''
| species = '''''T. solitarius'''''
| binomial = ''Threskiornis solitarius''
| binomial_authority = ([[Edmond de Sélys Longchamps|Sélys]], 1848)
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true|title=List
|''Apterornis solitarius'' Sélys, 1848
|''Raphus solitarius'' Sélys, 1848
|''Didus apterornis'' Schlegel, 1854
|''Pezophaps borbonica'' Bonaparte, 1854
|''Ornithaptera borbonica'' Bonaparte, 1854
|''Apterornis solitaria'' Milne-Edwards, 1869
|''Didus borbonica'' Schlegel, 1873
|''Ornithaptera solitarius'' Hachisuka, 1953
|''Victoriornis imperialis'' Hachisuka, 1953
|''Borbonibis latipes'' Mourer & Moutou, 1987}}
|range_map= LocationReunion.svg
|range_map_width=250px
|range_map_caption=Former range (encircled)}}

The '''Réunion Ibis''' or '''Réunion Sacred Ibis''' (''Threskiornis solitarius'') is an [[list of extinct birds|extinct]] [[species]] of [[ibis]] that was [[endemic]] to the volcanic island of [[Réunion]] in the Indian Ocean. The first sub-fossil remains were found in 1974, and the ibis was first scientifically described in 1987. Its closest relatives are the [[Malagasy Sacred Ibis]], the [[African Sacred Ibis]], and the [[Straw-necked Ibis]].

Travellers' accounts from the 17th and 18th centuries described a white bird that flew with difficulty, and it was subsequently referred to as the '''Réunion Solitaire'''. In the mid‐19th century, the old travellers accounts were incorrectly assumed to refer to white relatives of the [[Dodo]], due to one account specifically mentioning Dodos on the island, and because 17th century paintings of white Dodos had recently surfaced. However, no fossils referable to Dodo-like birds were ever found on Réunion, and it was later questioned whether the paintings had anything to do with the island. Other identities were suggested as well, based only on speculation. In the late 20th century, the discovery of a [[subfossil]] ibis led to the idea that the old accounts actually referred to an ibis species instead. The idea that the solitaire and the subfossil ibis are identical has only met with limited dissent, and is now widely accepted.

Combined, the old descriptions and subfossils show that the Réunion Ibis was mainly white, with this colour merging into yellow and grey. The wing tips and plumes of [[ostrich]]-like feathers on its rear were black. The neck and legs were long, the beak was relatively straight and short for an ibis. It was more robust in build than its extant relatives, but was otherwise quite similar to them. Subfossil wing-bones indicate it had reduced flight capabilities, a feature perhaps linked to seasonal fattening. The diet of the Réunion Ibis was worms and other items foraged from soil. It preferred solitude (hence the name "solitaire") and it may have used its wings in combat, as indicated by features of the wings. In the 17th century, it lived in mountainous areas, but it may have been confined to these remote heights by heavy hunting by humans and predation by [[introduced animals]] in the more accessible areas of the island. Visitors to Réunion praised its flavour, and therefore sought after its flesh. These factors are believed to have driven the Réunion Ibis to extinction by the early 18th century.

==Taxonomy==
The taxonomic history of the Réunion Ibis is convoluted and complex, due to the ambiguous and meagre evidence that was available to scientists until recently. The supposed "white Dodo" of Réunion is now believed to have been an erroneous conjecture based on the few contemporary reports which described the Réunion Ibis, combined with paintings of white Dodos from Mauritius by the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] painters [[Pieter Withoos]] and [[Pieter Holsteyn II]] (and derivatives) from the 1600s that surfaced in the 19th century.<ref name="White Dodo"/>
[[File:Reunion dodo.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Painting of a white Dodo among various birds|Pieter Withoos's late 1600s painting of a white Dodo, the first of such paintings to be discovered]]
The English Chief Officer John Tatton was the first to mention a specifically white bird on Réunion, in 1625. The French occupied the island from 1646 and onwards, and referred to this bird as the "solitaire". M. Carré of the [[French East Indies Company]] described the solitaire in 1699, explaining the reason for its name:
{{Quotation|I saw a kind of bird in this place which I have not found elsewhere; it is that which the inhabitants call the Oiseaux Solitaire for to be sure, it loves solitude and only frequents the most secluded places; one never sees two or more together; it is always alone. It is not unlike a turkey, if it did not have longer legs. The beauty of its plumage is a delight to see. It is of changeable colour which verges upon yellow. The flesh is exquisite; it forms one of the best dishes in this country, and might form a dainty at our tables. We wished to keep two of these birds to send to France and present them to His Majesty, but as soon as they were on board ship, they died of melancholy, having refused to eat or drink.<ref name="Strickland"/>}}
A [[marooning|marooned]] French [[Huguenot]], [[François Leguat]], used the name "solitaire" for the [[raphine]] bird he encountered on the nearby island of [[Rodrigues]] in the 1690s, but it is thought he borrowed the name from a 1689 [[Tract (literature)|tract]] by Marquis Henri Duquesne which mentioned the Réunion species. Duquesne himself had probably based his own description on an earlier one.<ref name="White Dodo"/> No specimens of the solitaire were ever preserved.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/> The two individuals Carré attempted to send to the [[Subsidiary structures of the Palace of Versailles|royal menagerie]] in France did not survive in captivity. Billiard claimed that [[Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais]] sent a "solitaire" to France from Réunion around 1740. Since the Réunion Ibis is believed to have gone extinct by this date, the bird may actually have been a [[Rodrigues Solitaire]].<ref name="Lost Land"/>
[[File:White dodo.jpg|thumb|One of Pieter Holsteyn II's three mid-1600s paintings of a white Dodo]]
The only contemporary writer who referred specifically to "Dodos" inhabiting [[Réunion]] was the Dutch sailor [[Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe]], though he did not mention their colouration:<ref>{{cite book
| last = Bontekoe van Hoorn
| first = W.
| authorlink =
| title = Journael ofte Gedenk waerdige beschrijvinghe van de Oost-Indische Reyse van Willem Ysbrantz. Bontekoe van Hoorn
| publisher = Jooft Hartgers
| series =
| volume =
| edition =
| location = Amsterdam
| year = 1646
| page = 76
| language = Dutch
| isbn =
| mr =
| zbl = }}</ref>
{{Quotation|There were also ''Dod-eersen'' [old Dutch for Dodos], which have small wings, and so far from being able to fly, they were so fat that they could scarcely walk, and when they tried to run, they dragged their under side along the ground.<ref name="Strickland"/>}}
When his journal was published in 1646, it was accompanied by an engraving which is now known to have been copied after one of the Dodos in the [[Flemish]] painter [[Roelant Savery]]'s "Crocker Art Gallery sketch".<ref name="Lost Land">{{cite book
| last1 = Cheke | first1 = A. S.
| last2 = Hume | first2 = J. P.
| year=2008
| url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OGeENV4exXcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
| title=Lost Land of the Dodo: An Ecological History of Mauritius, Réunion & Rodrigues
| location= New Haven and London
| pages = 30–43
| isbn=978-0-7136-6544-4}}</ref> Since Bontekoe was [[shipwreck]]ed and lost all his belongings after visiting Réunion in 1619, he may not had been able to write his account until seven years later when he returned to [[Holland]]. It is therefore likely that he wrote it from memory, and as a result it may not be entirely reliable.<ref name="White Dodo"/>

===Early interpretation===
[[File:Dodo reunion-Rothschild original.jpg|thumb|left|Frohawk's 1907 adaptation of Withoos' Dodo, which restores the beak-tip]]
In the 1770s, the French naturalist [[Comte de Buffon]] stated that the Dodo inhabited both [[Mauritius]] and Réunion. It is unclear why he included Réunion, but he also combined accounts about the Rodrigues Solitaire and a third bird ("Oiseau de Nazareth", now thought to be a Dodo) under the same section.<ref name="White Dodo"/> English naturalist [[Hugh Edwin Strickland]] discussed the old descriptions of the Réunion Solitaire in his 1848 book ''The Dodo and Its Kindred'', and concluded it was distinct from the Dodo and Rodrigues Solitaire.<ref name="Strickland">{{cite book
| last = Strickland
| first = H. E.
| authorlink = Hugh Edwin Strickland
| last2 = Melville
| first2 = A. G.
| author2-link =
| title = The Dodo and Its Kindred; or the History, Affinities, and Osteology of the Dodo, Solitaire, and Other Extinct Birds of the Islands Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon
| publisher = Reeve, Benham and Reeve
| series =
| volume =
| edition =
| location = London
| year = 1848
| pages = 57–62
| doi =
| isbn =
| mr =
| url = http://archive.org/details/dodoitskindredor00stri}}</ref> Baron [[Edmund de Sélys-Longchamps]] coined the [[scientific name]] ''Apterornis solitarius'' for the solitaire in 1848, apparently making it the [[type species]] of the genus, in which he also included two other [[Mascarene]] birds only known from contemporary accounts, the [[Red Rail]] and the [[Réunion Swamphen]].<ref name="OlsonB">
{{cite book
| last = Olson
| first = S.
| authorlink =
| title = Rails of the World – A Monograph of the Family Rallidae
| publisher = Codline
| chapter = A synopsis on the fossil Rallidae
| volume =
| edition =
| location = Boston
| year = 1977
| pages = 357–358
| doi =
| isbn = 0-87474-804-6
| mr =
| zbl = }}</ref> As the name ''[[Apterornis]]'' had already been used for a different bird by [[Richard Owen]], and the other former names were likewise invalid, Bonaparte coined the new [[binomial]] ''Ornithaptera borbonica'' in 1854 ([[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] was the original French name for Réunion).<ref name="Avifauna"/> In 1854, [[Hermann Schlegel]] placed the solitaire in the same genus as the Dodo, and named it ''Didus apterornis''.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Schlegel
| first = H.
| author-link =
| title = Ook een Woordje over den Dodo (''Didus ineptus'') en zijne Verwanten
| journal = Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen
| volume = 2
| pages = 232–256
| language = Dutch
| year = 1854 }}</ref> He restored it strictly according to contemporary accounts, which resulted in an ibis or stork-like bird instead of a Dodo.<ref name="White Dodo"/> As it was considered [[congeneric]] with the Dodo, the Réunion Solitaire was long believed to also be a member of the [[Dididae]] family of [[Columbidae|pigeons]].<ref name="Rothschild"/>
[[File:Reunion Solitaire.png|thumb|upright|Restoration of the Réunion Solitaire based on Dubois' description, by Frederick William Frohawk, 1907]]
In 1856, William Coker announced the discovery of a 17th century "[[Persia]]n" painting of a white Dodo among [[waterfowl]], which he had been shown in England. The artist was later identified as Pieter Withoos, and many prominent 19th century naturalists subsequently assumed the image depicted the white solitaire of Réunion, a possibility originally proposed by ornithologist [[John Gould]]. Simultaneously, several similar paintings of white Dodos by Pieter Holsteyn II were discovered in the Netherlands.<ref name="White Dodo"/> In 1869, the English ornithologist [[Alfred Newton]] argued that the Withoos painting and engraving in Bontekoe's memoir depicted a living Réunion Dodo that had been brought to Holland, while explaining its blunt beak as a result of [[beak trimming]] to prevent it from injuring humans. He also brushed aside the inconsistencies between the illustrations and descriptions, especially the long, thin beak implied by one contemporary account.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1111/j.1096-3642.1868.tb00581.x}}</ref>

Newton's words particularly cemented the validity of this connection among contemporary peers, and several of them expanded on his views.<ref name="White Dodo"/> Dutch zoologist [[Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans]] suggested that the discrepancies between the paintings and the old descriptions were due to the paintings showing a female, and that the species was therefore [[sexually dimorphic]].<ref>{{cite doi|10.2307.2F4073093}}</ref> [[Walter Rothschild]] claimed the yellow wings might have been due to [[albinism]] in this particular specimen, since the old descriptions described these as black.<ref name="Rothschild">{{Cite book
| last = Rothschild
| first = W.
| authorlink =
| title = Extinct Birds
| publisher = Hutchinson & Co
| year = 1907
| location = London
| pages = 171–176
| url = http://archive.org/stream/extinctbirdsatte00roth#page/174/mode/2up
}}</ref> By the early 20th century, many other paintings and even physical remains were claimed to be white Dodos, amid much speculation. Some believed the solitaire of the old descriptions was rather a species similar to the Rodrigues Solitaire.<ref name="White Dodo"/> Rothschild commissioned British artist [[Frederick William Frohawk]] to restore the Réunion Solitaire as both a white Dodo, based on the Withoos painting, and as a distinct bird based on Dubois' description, for his 1907 book ''[[Extinct Birds (Rothschild book)|Extinct Birds]]''.<ref name="Rothschild"/> In 1953, the Japanese writer Masauji Hachisuka went as far as referring to the white Dodos of the paintings as ''Victoriornis imperialis'', and the solitaire of the accounts as ''Ornithaptera solitarius''.<ref name="de Lozoya"/>

===Recent interpretation===
Until the late 1980s, belief in the existence of a white Dodo on Réunion was the orthodox view, and only a few researchers doubted the connection between the solitaire accounts and the Dodo paintings. They cautioned that no conclusions could be made without solid evidence such as fossils, and that nothing indicated that the white Dodos in the paintings had anything to do with Réunion. In 1970, [[Robert W. Storer]] predicted that if any such remains were found, they would not belong to Raphinae, or even columbidae.<ref name="White Dodo"/><ref name =Greenway>{{cite book
| last = Greenway
| first = J. C.
| authorlink =
| title = Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World
| publisher = American Committee for International Wild Life Protection 13
| series =
| volume =
| edition =
| location = New York
| year = 1967
| page = 111
| doi =
| isbn = 0-486-21869-4
| mr =
| zbl = }}</ref>
[[File:Ibis sacré de Madagascar.JPG|thumb|The [[Malagasy Sacred Ibis]], perhaps the closest living relative]]
The first subfossil bird remains on Réunion were found in 1974, and assigned to a [[stork]], ''[[Ciconia]]'' sp. In 1987, subfossils of a recently extinct species of [[ibis]] from Réunion were described as ''Borbonibis latipes'', and thought related to the [[bald ibises]] of the genus ''Geronticus''.<ref name="Borbonibis">{{cite journal
| last1 = Mourer-Chauviré
| first1 = C.
| first2 = F.
| last2 = Moutou
|year=1987
|title=Découverte d'une forme récemment éteinte d'ibis endémique insulaire de l'île de la Réunion ''Borbonibis latipes'' n. gen. n. sp.
|language=French
|journal=[[Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences]]
|series=Série D
|volume=305
|issue=5
|pages=419–423}}</ref> In 1994, the "stork" remains were shown to belong to this ibis as well. The 1987 discovery led biologist Anthony S. Cheke to suggest to one of the describers, Francois Moutou, that the subfossils may have been of the Réunion Solitaire.<ref name="White Dodo"/> This suggestion was published by the describers of ''Borbonibis'' in 1995, and they also reassigned it to the genus ''[[Threskiornis]]'', now combined with the [[specific name (zoology)|specific epithet]] ''{{lang|la|solitarius}}'' from de Sélys-Longchamps' 1848 binomial for the solitaire. The authors pointed out that the contemporary descriptions matched the appearance and behaviour of an ibis more than a member of the Raphinae, especially since a fragment of a comparatively short and straight ibis mandible was discovered in 1994, and because ibis remains were abundant in some localities; it would be strange if contemporary writers never mentioned such a relatively common bird, whereas they mentioned most other species subsequently known from fossils. In 1995, morphological study suggested its closest extant relatives are the [[African Sacred Ibis]] (''T. aethiopicus'') of [[Africa]] and the [[Straw-necked Ibis]] (''T. spinicollis'') of [[Australia]].<ref name="Ibis">{{cite doi|10.1038/373568a0}}</ref> In 2006, the same researchers suggested that it was closest to the [[Malagasy Sacred Ibis]] (''T. bernieri''), and therefore of ultimately African origin.<ref name="Avian extinctions">{{cite journal
| last1 = Mourer-Chauviré
| first1 = C.
| first2 = S.
| last2 = Bour
| first3 = R.
| last3 = Ribes
|year=2006
|title=Recent avian extinctions on Réunion (Mascarene islands) from paleontological and historical sources
|journal=Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club
|series=
|volume=
|issue=126
|pages=40–48}}</ref>
[[File:Landscape with Orpheus and the animals.png|thumb|left|alt=Painting of various animals and people in a forest, including a whitish Dodo|Roelant Savery painting with a whitish Dodo in the lower right, 1611]]
The possible origin of the 17th century white Dodo paintings has also recently been examined by biologist Arturo Valledor de Lozoya in 2003, and independently by experts of Mascarene fauna Anthony Cheke and [[Julian Hume]] in 2004. The Withoos and Holsteyn paintings are clearly derived from each other, and Withoos likely copied his Dodo from one of Holsteyn's works, since these were probably produced at an earlier date. All later white Dodo pictures are thought to be based on these paintings. According to the aforementioned writers, it appears these pictures were themselves derived from a whitish Dodo in a previously unreported painting containing, called ''Landscape with Orpheus and the animals'', produced by Roelant Savery circa 1611. The Dodo was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in [[Prague]]; a ''walghvogel'' (old Dutch for Dodo) described as having a "dirty off-white colouring" was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II]] to whom Savery was contracted at the time (1607–1611). Savery's several later Dodo images all show greyish birds, possibly because he had by then seen a normal specimen. Cheke and Hume concluded the painted specimen was white due to albinism, and that this peculiar feature was the reason it was collected from Mauritius and brought to Europe.<ref name="White Dodo">{{cite doi|10.3366/anh.2004.31.1.57}}</ref> Valledor de Lozoya instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait, a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens, or simply due to artistic license.<ref name="de Lozoya">{{Cite doi|10.1093/jhc/15.2.201}}</ref>

The volcanic island of Réunion is only three million years old, whereas Mauritius and Rodrigues, with each their flightless raphine species, are eight to ten million years old, and it is unlikely that either bird would have been capable of flying after five or more million years of adapting to the islands. Therefore it is unlikely that Réunion could have been colonised by flightless birds from these islands, and only flighted species on the island have relatives there.<ref name="White Dodo"/> No fossil remains of Dodo-like birds have ever been found on Réunion.<ref name="Fuller Dodo">{{cite book
| last = Fuller
| first = E.
| authorlink = Errol Fuller
| year = 2002
| title = Dodo – From Extinction to Icon
| publisher = [[HarperCollins]]
| location = London
|pages = 168–172
| isbn = 978-0-00-714572-0
| ref = harv
}}</ref> A few later sources take issue with the proposed ibis-identity of the solitaire, and have even regarded the "white Dodo" as a valid species.<ref name="Lost Land"/> British writer [[Errol Fuller]] agrees the 17th century paintings do not depict Réunion birds, but has questioned whether the ibis subfossils are necessarily connected to the solitaire accounts. He notes that no evidence indicates the extinct ibis survived until the time Europeans reached Réunion.<ref name="Fuller Dodo"/><ref name="Fuller Extinct">{{cite book
| last = Fuller
| first = E.
| authorlink = Errol Fuller
| year = 2001
| title = Extinct Birds
| edition = revised
| publisher = Comstock
| location = New York
|pages = 385–386
| isbn = 978-0-8014-3954-4
| ref = harv
}}</ref> Cheke and Hume have dismissed such sentiments as being mere "belief" and "hope" in the existence of a Dodo on the island.<ref name="White Dodo"/>

==Description==
[[File:Réunion Solitaire.jpg|thumb|[[Hermann Schlegel]]'s 1854 ibis or stork-like restoration, based on Dubois' description]]
Contemporary accounts described the species as having white and grey plumage merging into yellow, black wing tips and tail feathers, a long neck and legs, and limited flight capabilities.<ref name="Fuller Dodo"/> [[Sieur Dubois]]' 1674 account is the most detailed contemporary description of the bird,<ref name="Rothschild"/> here as translated by Hugh Strickland in 1848:
{{Quotation|''Solitaires''. These birds are so called because they always go alone. They are the size of a large Goose, and are white, with the tips of the wings and tail black. The tail feathers resemble those of an Ostrich; the neck is long, and the beak is like that of a Woodcock, but larger; the legs and feet like those of Turkeys. This bird has recourse to running, as it flies but very little.<ref name="Strickland"/>}}
[[File:African Sacred Ibis RWD.jpg|thumb|left|A close extant relative, the [[African Sacred Ibis]], which has similar plumage]]
The plumage colouration mentioned is similar to that of the related African Sacred Ibis and Straw-necked Ibis, which are also mainly white and glossy black. In the reproductive season, the ornamental feathers on the back and wing tips of the African Sacred Ibis look similar to the feathers of an [[ostrich]], which echoes Dubois' description. Likewise, a subfossil lower jaw found in 1994 showed that the bill of the Réunion Ibis was relatively short and straight for an ibis, which corresponds with Dubois' [[woodcock]] comparison.<ref name="Ibis"/> Cheke and Hume have suggested that the French word (''bécasse'') from Dubois' original description, usually translated to "woodcock", could also mean [[oystercatcher]], another bird with a long, straight, but slightly more robust, bill. They have also pointed out that the last sentence is mistranslated, and actually means the bird could be caught by running after it.<ref name="White Dodo"/>

Subfossils of the Réunion Ibis show that it was more robust, likely much heavier, and had a larger head than the African Sacred and Straw-necked Ibises. It was nonetheless similar to them in most features. Rough protuberances on the wing bones of the Réunion Ibis are similar to those of birds that use their wings in combat. It was perhaps flightless, but this has not left significant [[osteological]] traces; no complete skeletons have been collected, but of the known [[Chest|pectoral]] elements, only one feature indicates reduction in flight capability. The [[coracoid]] is elongated and the [[radius]] and [[ulna]] are robust, as in flighted birds, but a particular [[foramen]] between a [[metacarpal]] and the [[alular]] is otherwise only known from flightless birds, such as some [[ratites]], [[penguins]], and several extinct species.<ref name="Avifauna">{{Cite journal
| last1 = Mourer-Chauvire
| first1 = C.
| last2 = Bour
| first2 = R.
| last3 = Ribes
| first3 = S.
| last4 = Moutou
| first4 = F.
| title = Avian paleontology at the close of the 20th century: The avifauna of Réunion Island (Mascarene Islands) at the time of the arrival of the first Europeans
| journal = Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology
| volume = 89
| pages = 8–11
| date =
| year = 1999
| url = http://hdl.handle.net/10088/2005}}</ref> As contemporary accounts are inconsistent on whether the Solitaire was flightless or had some flight capability, Mourer-Chauvire suggested that this was dependent on seasonal fat-cycles, meaning that individuals fattened themselves during cool seasons, but were slim during hot seasons; perhaps it could not fly when it was fat, but could when it was not.<ref name="Ibis"/> However, Dubois specifically stated the solitaires did not have fat-cycles, unlike most other Réunion birds.<ref name="White Dodo"/>

==Behaviour and ecology==
[[File:Threskiornis spinicollis - Centenary Lakes.jpg|thumb|The [[Straw-necked Ibis]], a close relative which inhabits wetlands, like most ibises]]
The species was termed a land-bird by Dubois, so it did not live in typical ibis habitats such as [[wetlands]]. It has been proposed that this is because the ancestors of the bird colonised Réunion before swamps had developed, and had therefore became adapted to the available habitats. They were perhaps prevented from colonising Mauritius as well due to the presence of [[Red Rail]]s there, which may have occupied a similar niche.<ref name="Lost Land"/> It appears to have lived in high altitudes, and perhaps had a limited distribution.<ref name="Extinct Birds">{{cite book
| last1 = Hume
| first1 = J. P.
| first2 = M.
| last2 = Walters
|year= 2012
|title= Extinct Birds
|publisher= A & C Black
|location= London
|pages= 67–68
|isbn=1-4081-5725-X
|url = http://books.google.com/?id=xpUBocGB12YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Extinct+Birds+hume#v=onepage&q=Extinct%20Birds%20hume&f=false}}</ref> The only mention of its diet and exact habitat is Feuilley's account from 1708, which is also the last record of a living individual:
{{Quotation|The solitaires are the size of an average turkey cock, grey and white in colour. They inhabit the tops of mountains. Their food is only worms and filth, taken on or in the soil.<ref name="Lost Land"/>}}
The diet and mode of [[foraging]] described by Feuilley matches that of an ibis, whereas members of the Raphinae are known to have been [[frugivorous|fruit eaters]].<ref name="Ibis"/> Accounts by early visitors indicate the species was found near their landing sites, but they were found only in remote places by 1667. The bird may have survived in eastern lowlands until the 1670s. Though many late 1600s accounts state the bird was good food, Feuilley stated it tasted bad. This may be because it changed its diet when it moved to more rugged, higher terrain, to escape pigs that destroyed its nests; since it had limited flight capabilities, it probably nested on the ground.<ref name="Lost Land"/>

Many other [[endemic species]] of Réunion became extinct after the arrival of man and the resulting disruption of the island's [[ecosystem]]. The Réunion Ibis lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the [[Hoopoe Starling]], the [[Mascarene Parrot]], the [[Réunion Parakeet]], the [[Réunion Swamphen]], the [[Réunion Owl]], the [[Réunion Night Heron]], and the [[Réunion Pink Pigeon]]. Extinct reptiles include the [[Réunion giant tortoise]] and the [[Mauritian giant skink]]. The [[small Mauritian flying fox]] and the snail ''[[Tropidophora carinata]]'' lived on Réunion and Mauritius, but vanished from both islands.<ref name="Lost Land"/>

==Extinction==
As Réunion was populated by settlers, the Réunion Ibis appears to have become confined to the tops of mountains. Introduced predators such as cats and rats took a toll. Overhunting also contributed and several contemporary accounts state the bird was widely hunted for food.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/> In 1625, John Tatton described the [[island tameness|tameness]] of the bird and how easy it was to hunt, as well as the large quantity consumed:
{{Quotation|There is store of land fowle both small and great, plenty of Doves, great Parrats, and such like; and a great fowle of the bignesse of a Turkie, very fat, and so short winged, that they cannot fly, being white, and in a manner tame: and so be all other fowles, as having not been troubled nor feared with shot. Our men did beat them down with sticks and stones. Ten men may take fowle enough to serve fortie men a day.<ref name="Rothschild"/>}}
[[File:Panorama-Cilaos-Greatoutdoors.jpg|thumb|Forested mountain tops on [[Réunion]]]]
In 1671, Melet described the slaughter of several types of birds on the island, and mentioned the culinary quality of this species:
{{Quotation|There are birds in such great confusion and so tame that it is not necessary to go hunting with firearms, they can so easily be killed with a little stick or rod. During the five or six days that we were allowed to go into the woods, so many were killed that our General [de La Haye] was constrained to forbid anyone going beyond a hundred paces from the camp for fear the whole quarter would be destroyed, for one needed only to catch one bird alive and make it cry out, to have in a moment whole flocks coming to perch on people, so that often without moving from one spot one could kill hundreds. But, seeing that it would have been impossible to wipe out such a huge quantity, permission was again given to kill, which gave great joy to everyone, because very good fare was had at no expense ... (A)nother sort of bird called solitaires which are very good (to eat) and the beauty of their plumage is most fascinating for the diversity of bright colours that shine on their wing and around their necks.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/>}}
The last definite account of the "solitaire" of Réunion was Feuilley's from 1708, indicating that the species probably became extinct sometime early in the century.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/> In the 1820s, Louis Henri de Freycinet asked an old slave about ''drontes'' (old Dutch word for Dodo), and was told the bird existed around [[Saint-Joseph, Réunion|Saint-Joseph]] when his father was an infant. This would perhaps be a century earlier, but the account may be unreliable. Cheke and Hume suspect that feral cats initially hunted wildlife in the lowlands and later turned to higher inland areas, which were probably the last stronghold of the Réunion Ibis, as they were unreachable by pigs. The species is thought to have been driven to extinction around 1710–1715.<ref name="Lost Land"/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{commons category|Threskiornis solitarius}}
{{wikispecies|Threskiornis solitarius}}
{{Threskiornithidae}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reunion Ibis}}
[[Category:Animals described in 1848]]
[[Category:Bird extinctions since 1500]]
[[Category:Birds of Réunion]]
[[Category:Extinct birds of Indian Ocean islands]]
[[Category:Ibises]]
[[Category:Threskiornis]]
[[Category:Controversial bird taxa]]