Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Kilik (Fluss)

2023-09-21T01:22:43Z

Voidvector: bild

{{Infobox Fluss
| LAGE= [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] ([[Pakistan]])
| FLUSSSYSTEM= Indus
| ABFLUSSWEG= Hunza (Fluss)/Hunza/Gilgit (Fluss)/Gilgit/Indus//Indischer Ozean
| FLUSSGEBIETSEINHEIT=
| EINZUGSGEBIET=
| NACHWEIS-EINZUGSGEBIET=
| LÄNGE-PREFIX=
| LÄNGE= 45
| NACHWEIS-LÄNGE=
| PEGEL1= /////////
| PEGEL1-REIHE=
| NACHWEIS-PEGEL1=
| BEZEICHNUNG-QUELLE= Ursprung
| QUELLE= [[Harkgletscher]]
| QUELLHÖHE-PREFIX= ca.
| QUELLHÖHE= 4500
| HÖHENBEZUG-QUELLE=
| NACHWEIS-QUELLHÖHE=
| QUELLE_LAT_GRAD= 37.016704
| QUELLE_LONG_GRAD= 74.600651
| QUELLE_REGION= PK-GB
| BEZEICHNUNG-MÜNDUNG= Vereinigung mit
| MÜNDUNG= [[Kunjirap]] zum [[Hunza (Fluss)|Hunza]]
| MÜNDUNGSHÖHE-PREFIX= ca.
| MÜNDUNGSHÖHE= 2800
| HÖHENBEZUG-MÜNDUNG=
| NACHWEIS-MÜNDUNGSHÖHE=
| MÜNDUNG_LAT_GRAD= 36.742917
| MÜNDUNG_LONG_GRAD= 74.824444
| MÜNDUNG_REGION= PK-GB
| LINKE NEBENFLÜSSE= [[Mintaka (Fluss)|Mintaka]]
| RECHTE NEBENFLÜSSE= [[Derdi]]
| GEMEINDEN=
| BILD= Kilik pass near morkoshi pakistan.jpg
| BILDBESCHREIBUNG=
| BILD1=
| BILD1-BESCHREIBUNG=
}}

Der '''Kilik''' (auch ''Kilik Jilga'') ist der rechte Quellfluss des [[Hunza (Fluss)|Hunza]] im [[Pakistan|pakistanischen]] Sonderterritorium [[Gilgit-Baltistan]].

Der Kilik entsteht am Gletschermaul des [[Harkgletscher]]s. Der Fluss strömt anfangs
8 km in ostnordöstlicher Richtung, bevor er eine scharfe Biegung nach Süden vollführt. Der Kilik verläuft im äußersten Osten des [[Hindukusch]]. Die Bergkette nördlich des Oberlaufs bildet die Grenze zwischen Pakistan und der [[Volksrepublik China]]. Der [[Kilik-Pass]] überquert diese Bergkette nördlich der Flussbiegung. Der Kilik behält seine Fließrichtung nach Süden bei. Der [[Mintaka (Fluss)|Mintaka]] trifft linksseitig auf den Kilik. Die letzten 13 km unterhalb der Einmündung des [[Derdi]] (''Derdi Jilga'') von rechts bildet der Kilik die nördliche Grenze des [[Karakorum (Gebirge)|Karakorum]]-Gebirges.
Schließlich trifft er etwa 7 km nördlich der Ortschaft [[Sust (Pakistan)|Sust]] auf den [[Kunjirap]]. Der Kilik besitzt eine Länge von 45 km.

[[Kategorie:Hindukusch]]
[[Kategorie:Karakorum (Gebirge)]]

Diskussion:Karakax (Fluss)

2020-11-23T02:40:07Z

Voidvector: Neuer Abschnitt /* About bad photo */

== About bad photo ==

Sorry, I don't speak German.

I recently replaced the previous photo [[:File:Yarkand River in the Western Kunlun Shan, seen from the Tibet-Xinjiang highway.jpg]] with [[:File:Karakash_River_IMG_3396.jpg]] because the previous photo was of a different river ([[Yarkant (Fluss)]]). Both rivers run in the same valley but they do not converge.

The new photo is bad, unfortunately, it is the only photo on Commons for this river. --[[Benutzer:Voidvector|Voidvector]] ([[Benutzer Diskussion:Voidvector|Diskussion]]) 03:40, 23. Nov. 2020 (CET)

Karakax (Fluss)

2020-11-23T02:26:00Z

Voidvector:

{{Infobox Fluss
| NAME= Karakax
| ALTERNATIVNAME= 黑玉河, Hēiyù hé Karakasch قاراقاش دەرياسى
| SORTNAME= Karakax
| LAGE= [[Xinjiang]] ([[VR China]])
| FLUSSSYSTEM= Tarim (Fluss)/Tarim
| ABFLUSSWEG= Hotan (Fluss)/Hotan/Tarim (Fluss)/Tarim (zeitweise)/Wüste Lop Nor
| EINZUGSGEBIET= 19983
| NACHWEIS-EINZUGSGEBIET= <ref name="bul">{{Internetquelle |autor=Saiti, Al |url=http://www.seppyo.org/bgr/pdf/7/BGR7P123.PDF |titel=Stream types and flood features on the north slope of the West Kunlun Mountains |hrsg=Bulletin of Glacial Research 7 (1989). Japanese Society on Snow and Ice |zugriff=2016-12-23 |format=PDF (706 kB) |archiv-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033543/http://www.seppyo.org/bgr/pdf/7/BGR7P123.PDF |archiv-datum=2016-03-04 |offline=ja |archiv-bot=2019-09-14 18:25:02 InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
| LÄNGE= 740
| NACHWEIS-LÄNGE=
| PEGEL1= //////69.7///
| PEGEL1-REIHE=
| NACHWEIS-PEGEL1= <ref name="bul" />
| BEZEICHNUNG-QUELLE= Quellgebiet
| QUELLE= in [[Aksai Chin]] am Nordhang des westlichen [[Himalaja]]
| QUELLHÖHE-PREFIX=
| QUELLHÖHE=
| HÖHENBEZUG-QUELLE=
| NACHWEIS-QUELLHÖHE=
| QUELLE_LAT_GRAD= 34.92929
| QUELLE_LONG_GRAD= 78.445702
| QUELLE_REGION= CN-XJ
| BEZEICHNUNG-MÜNDUNG= Vereinigung mit
| MÜNDUNG= [[Yurungkax]] zum [[Hotan (Fluss)|Hotan]]
| MÜNDUNGSHÖHE-PREFIX=
| MÜNDUNGSHÖHE=
| HÖHENBEZUG-MÜNDUNG=
| NACHWEIS-MÜNDUNGSHÖHE=
| MÜNDUNG_LAT_GRAD= 38.085358
| MÜNDUNG_LONG_GRAD= 80.559514
| MÜNDUNG_REGION= CN-XJ
| LINKE NEBENFLÜSSE=
| RECHTE NEBENFLÜSSE=
| STAUSEEN= [[Wuluwati-Talsperre]]
| MITTELSTÄDTE= [[Karakax (Stadt)|Karakax]]
| KLEINSTÄDTE=
| GEMEINDEN=
| KARTE=
| KARTE-BESCHREIBUNG=
| BILD= Karakash River IMG 3396.jpg
| BILDBESCHREIBUNG= Karakax im westlichen [[Kunlun]]-Gebirge
| BILD1=
| BILD1-BESCHREIBUNG=
| BILD2= Tarimrivermap.png
| BILD2-BESCHREIBUNG= Verlauf des Karakax im Einzugsgebiet des Tarim
}}

Der '''Karakax''' (auch ''Karakasch''; {{zh|c=黑玉河|p=Hēiyù hé|b=Fluss Heiyu}}, {{ugS|قاراقاش دەرياسى}}) ist der linke Quellfluss des [[Hotan (Fluss)|Hotan]] in [[Aksai Chin]] und im Süden des autonomen Gebiets [[Xinjiang]] im Südwesten der [[Volksrepublik China]].

Der Karakax entspringt in [[Aksai Chin]] am Nordhang des westlichen [[Himalaja]]. Er durchfließt Aksai Chin in nördlicher Richtung und wendet sich anschließend nach Westen. Bei der Siedlung [[Xaidulla]] ändert der Karakax seinen Kurs nach Norden und schneidet sich durch das westliche [[Kunlun]]-Gebirge. Er wendet sich zur darauf nach Osten. Er setzt seinen Kurs in Ostnordost-Richtung durch das Kunlun-Gebirge fort. Kurz vor Erreichen des [[Tarimbecken]]s wird der Fluss von der [[Wuluwati-Talsperre]] aufgestaut. Er fließt nun durch die [[Taklamakan]]-Wüste westlich der Stadt [[Hotan (Stadt)|Hotan]]. Er passiert die [[Karakax (Stadt)|gleichnamige Stadt]], welche zugleich das Verwaltungszentrum des [[Karakax|gleichnamigen Kreises]] ist. Etwa 130 km weiter nördlich vereinigt sich der Karakax mit dem [[Yurungkax]] zum Hotan. Der gesamte Flusslauf von Karakax und Hotan hat eine Länge von 1035 km.<ref name="gse">{{GSE|119726|Hotan}}</ref> Der Flussname hat die Bedeutung „schwarzer Jadefluss“.

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

Karakax (Fluss)

2020-11-23T02:25:39Z

Voidvector: replace photo, previous photo of wrong river

{{Infobox Fluss
| NAME= Karakax
| ALTERNATIVNAME= 黑玉河, Hēiyù hé Karakasch قاراقاش دەرياسى
| SORTNAME= Karakax
| LAGE= [[Xinjiang]] ([[VR China]])
| FLUSSSYSTEM= Tarim (Fluss)/Tarim
| ABFLUSSWEG= Hotan (Fluss)/Hotan/Tarim (Fluss)/Tarim (zeitweise)/Wüste Lop Nor
| EINZUGSGEBIET= 19983
| NACHWEIS-EINZUGSGEBIET= <ref name="bul">{{Internetquelle |autor=Saiti, Al |url=http://www.seppyo.org/bgr/pdf/7/BGR7P123.PDF |titel=Stream types and flood features on the north slope of the West Kunlun Mountains |hrsg=Bulletin of Glacial Research 7 (1989). Japanese Society on Snow and Ice |zugriff=2016-12-23 |format=PDF (706 kB) |archiv-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033543/http://www.seppyo.org/bgr/pdf/7/BGR7P123.PDF |archiv-datum=2016-03-04 |offline=ja |archiv-bot=2019-09-14 18:25:02 InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
| LÄNGE= 740
| NACHWEIS-LÄNGE=
| PEGEL1= //////69.7///
| PEGEL1-REIHE=
| NACHWEIS-PEGEL1= <ref name="bul" />
| BEZEICHNUNG-QUELLE= Quellgebiet
| QUELLE= in [[Aksai Chin]] am Nordhang des westlichen [[Himalaja]]
| QUELLHÖHE-PREFIX=
| QUELLHÖHE=
| HÖHENBEZUG-QUELLE=
| NACHWEIS-QUELLHÖHE=
| QUELLE_LAT_GRAD= 34.92929
| QUELLE_LONG_GRAD= 78.445702
| QUELLE_REGION= CN-XJ
| BEZEICHNUNG-MÜNDUNG= Vereinigung mit
| MÜNDUNG= [[Yurungkax]] zum [[Hotan (Fluss)|Hotan]]
| MÜNDUNGSHÖHE-PREFIX=
| MÜNDUNGSHÖHE=
| HÖHENBEZUG-MÜNDUNG=
| NACHWEIS-MÜNDUNGSHÖHE=
| MÜNDUNG_LAT_GRAD= 38.085358
| MÜNDUNG_LONG_GRAD= 80.559514
| MÜNDUNG_REGION= CN-XJ
| LINKE NEBENFLÜSSE=
| RECHTE NEBENFLÜSSE=
| STAUSEEN= [[Wuluwati-Talsperre]]
| MITTELSTÄDTE= [[Karakax (Stadt)|Karakax]]
| KLEINSTÄDTE=
| GEMEINDEN=
| KARTE=
| KARTE-BESCHREIBUNG=
| BILD= File:Karakash River IMG 3396.jpg
| BILDBESCHREIBUNG= Karakax im westlichen [[Kunlun]]-Gebirge
| BILD1=
| BILD1-BESCHREIBUNG=
| BILD2= Tarimrivermap.png
| BILD2-BESCHREIBUNG= Verlauf des Karakax im Einzugsgebiet des Tarim
}}

Der '''Karakax''' (auch ''Karakasch''; {{zh|c=黑玉河|p=Hēiyù hé|b=Fluss Heiyu}}, {{ugS|قاراقاش دەرياسى}}) ist der linke Quellfluss des [[Hotan (Fluss)|Hotan]] in [[Aksai Chin]] und im Süden des autonomen Gebiets [[Xinjiang]] im Südwesten der [[Volksrepublik China]].

Der Karakax entspringt in [[Aksai Chin]] am Nordhang des westlichen [[Himalaja]]. Er durchfließt Aksai Chin in nördlicher Richtung und wendet sich anschließend nach Westen. Bei der Siedlung [[Xaidulla]] ändert der Karakax seinen Kurs nach Norden und schneidet sich durch das westliche [[Kunlun]]-Gebirge. Er wendet sich zur darauf nach Osten. Er setzt seinen Kurs in Ostnordost-Richtung durch das Kunlun-Gebirge fort. Kurz vor Erreichen des [[Tarimbecken]]s wird der Fluss von der [[Wuluwati-Talsperre]] aufgestaut. Er fließt nun durch die [[Taklamakan]]-Wüste westlich der Stadt [[Hotan (Stadt)|Hotan]]. Er passiert die [[Karakax (Stadt)|gleichnamige Stadt]], welche zugleich das Verwaltungszentrum des [[Karakax|gleichnamigen Kreises]] ist. Etwa 130 km weiter nördlich vereinigt sich der Karakax mit dem [[Yurungkax]] zum Hotan. Der gesamte Flusslauf von Karakax und Hotan hat eine Länge von 1035 km.<ref name="gse">{{GSE|119726|Hotan}}</ref> Der Flussname hat die Bedeutung „schwarzer Jadefluss“.

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

Karakax (Fluss)

2020-11-23T02:22:52Z

Voidvector: replace photo of Yarkand river with Karakax river

Taplejung

2019-11-28T02:30:10Z

Voidvector: +bild

{{Infobox Ort
|BREITE = 27.357724
|LÄNGE = 87.671911
|NAME = Taplejung
|AMT-NAME = Taplejung Nagarpalika
|AMT-NAME2 = ताप्लेजुङ्ग नगरपालिका
|VE2-NAME = [[Taplejung (Distrikt)|Taplejung]]
|VE2-ART = Distrikt
|HÖHE = 1441
|FLÄCHE = 41,88
|EINWOHNER = 19.085
|STAND = 2011
|GRÜNDUNG = 18. Mai 2014
|ISO-CODE = NP-P1
|WWW = http://www.taplejungmun.gov.np/
|BILD = Phungling.JPG
|BILD-TEXT =
|ANMERKUNGEN = 9 Wards
}}

'''Taplejung''' ({{neS|ताप्लेजुङ्ग}} {{IAST|Taplejung|ne}}) ist eine [[Liste der Städte in Nepal|Stadt]] (''Munizipalität'') im äußersten Osten [[Nepal]]s im [[Taplejung (Distrikt)|gleichnamigen Distrikt]].

Die Stadt entstand 2014 durch Zusammenlegung der [[Village Development Committee]]s ''Dokhu'' und ''Phungling''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myrepublica.com/portal/index.php?action=news_details&news_id=74336|title=72 new municipalities announced|publisher=My Republica.com|accessdate=2014-06-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2014/05/08/news/govt-announces-72-new-municipalities/262559.html|title=Government announces 72 new municipalities|publisher= The Kathmandu Post|accessdate=2014-06-10}}</ref> Das Stadtgebiet umfasst 41,88 km².<ref name="mun">{{Webarchiv|url=http://www.muannepal.org.np/profiles.html |wayback=20140107011819 |text=Municipal Association of Nepal (MuAN) |archiv-bot=2019-05-17 08:53:25 InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> Taplejung liegt auf einem Höhenrücken in {{Höhe|1441}} Höhe. 5 km westlich verläuft das Flusstal des [[Tamor]]. Taplejung ist über eine Stichstraße vom Tamor-Tal aus erreichbar. 3 km östlich von Taplejung befindet sich der Flugplatz [[Suketar Airport]].

== Einwohner ==
Bei der Volkszählung 2011 hatten die VDCs, aus welchen die Stadt Taplejung entstand, 19.085 Einwohner (davon 9048 männlich) in 4480 Haushalten.<ref name=census2011>{{cite web|url=http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/VDC_Municipality.pdf |format=PDF; 2,1 MB|title=National Population and Housing Census 2011|publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731124937/http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/VDC_Municipality.pdf|archivedate=2013-07-31}}</ref>

== Galerie ==
<gallery>
Suketar_Tower.jpg|Suketar Tower
Suketar_airstrip.jpg|Suketar Landepiste
Suketar_village.jpg|Suketar Dorf
</gallery>

==Einzelnachweise==
<references/>
{{Navigationsleiste Städte und VDCs im Distrikt Taplejung}}
[[Kategorie:Stadt in Nepal]]
[[Kategorie:Distrikt Taplejung]]

Chinesisch-pakistanische Beziehungen

2017-07-18T16:23:19Z

Voidvector: Reverted 1 edit by 112.208.196.74 (talk) to last revision by Bender the Bot. (TW)

{{Infobox bilateral relations|China–Pakistan
| party1 = Pakistan
| party2 = China
| map = Pakistan China Locator.svg
| filetype = 250px
| envoytitle1 = [[Ambassador]]
| envoy1 = Masood Khalid
| envoytitle2 = [[Ambassador]]
| envoy2 = Sun Weidong
| mission1 = [[Beijing|Pakistani Embassy, Beijing]]
| mission2 = [[Islamabad|Chinese Embassy, Islamabad]]
}}
'''China–Pakistan relations''' began in 1950 when [[Pakistan]] was among the first countries to end official diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] and recognize the PRC. Since then, both countries have placed considerable importance on the maintenance of an extremely close and supportive relationship<ref name="bbcnews">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13418957|title= Pakistani PM hails China as his country's 'best friend'|work=BBC News|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=17 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="nyt">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/13/world/asia/13pstan.html|title= Pakistan President to Visit China, a Valued Ally|work=New York Times|accessdate=12 October 2008|first=Salman|last=Masood|date=13 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-11/14/content_732562.htm|title=China-Pakistan relations|accessdate=14 November 2006|work=China Daily}}</ref> and the two countries have regularly exchanged high-level visits resulting in a variety of agreements. The PRC has provided economic, military and technical assistance to Pakistan and each considers the other a close strategic ally.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|work=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/7384378.html|title=China, Pakistan joined in bonds of brotherhood|accessdate=18 May 2011|work=People's Daily}}</ref> The relationship has recently been the subject of renewed attention due to the publication of a new book, ''[[The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics]]'', which is the first extensive treatment of the relationship since the 1970s.

Bilateral relations have evolved from an initial Chinese policy of neutrality to a partnership with a smaller but militarily powerful Pakistan. Diplomatic relations were established in 1950, military assistance began in 1966, a strategic alliance was formed in 1972 and economic co-operation began in 1979. China has become Pakistan’s largest supplier of arms and its third-largest trading partner.<ref>{{cite web|agency=Reuters |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/05/21/pakistan-says-wants-china-to-build-naval-base.html |title=Pakistan wants China to build it a naval base |publisher=Dawn.com |date=21 May 2011 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecommongood.net/2011/05/china-to-fast-track-jets-for-pakistan/ |title=China to Fast-Track Jets for Pakistan |publisher=Thecommongood.net |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> Recently, both nations have decided to cooperate in improving [[Pakistan's civil nuclear power sector]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10340642 |title=China says Pakistan nuclear deal 'peaceful' |publisher=BBC |date=17 June 2010 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

According to [[Pew Research Center]] in 2014, Pakistanis have the most favorable view of China after China itself.<ref>[http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/24/ Opinion of China Do you have a favorable or unfavorable view of China?]</ref> Maintaining close relations with China is a central part of [[Pakistan's foreign policy]]. China supported Pakistan's opposition to the [[Soviet Union]]'s intervention in [[Afghanistan]] and is perceived by Pakistan as a regional counterweight to [[NATO]] and the [[United States]].{{dubious|date=June 2013}} In addition, Pakistan was one of only two countries, alongside Cuba, to offer crucial support for the PRC in after the [[Tiananmen protests of 1989]]. China and Pakistan also share close military relations, with China supplying a range of modern armaments to the Pakistani defense forces. China supports Pakistan's stance on [[Kashmir]] while Pakistan supports China on the issues of [[East Turkestan independence movement|Xinjiang]], [[Tibetan independence movement|Tibet]], and [[Taiwan independence|Taiwan]]. Military cooperation has deepened with joint projects producing armaments ranging from [[fighter jet]]s to guided missile frigates.

Chinese cooperation with Pakistan has reached economic high points, with substantial Chinese investment in Pakistani infrastructural expansion including the Pakistani deep-water port at [[Gwadar]]. Both countries have an ongoing [[free trade]] agreement. Pakistan has served as China's main bridge between Muslim countries. Pakistan also played an important role in bridging the communication gap between China and the West by facilitating the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].
The relations between Pakistan and China have been described by Pakistan's ambassador to China as ''higher than the mountains, deeper than the oceans, stronger than steel, dearer than eyesight, sweeter than honey, and so on.'' <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/18682839|title=Sweet as can be?|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=12 February 2013|date=14 May 2011}}</ref> According to [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] Pakistan is China's biggest arms buyer, counting for nearly 47% of Chinese arms exports.<ref>[http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=475 Trends in international arms transfers, 2013 Siemon T. Wezeman and Pieter D. Wezeman]</ref> According to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 75% of [[Pakistanis]] view China's influence positively with only 15% expressing a negative view. In the Asia Pacific region, [[Chinese people]] hold third most positive opinions of Pakistan's influence in the world, behind Indonesia and Pakistan itself.<ref>http://www.globescan.com/images/images/pressreleases/bbc2014_country_ratings/2014_country_rating_poll_bbc_globescan.pdf</ref>

==Background==
[[File:2007 08 21 China Pakistan Karakoram Highway Khunjerab Pass IMG 7311.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|[[Karakoram Highway]] connects the two states, it is also sometimes referred to as the Eighth Wonder of the World.]]
Buddhist monks from the area of what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan were involved in the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]] to [[Han dynasty]] China. The Han dynasty's [[Protectorate of the Western Regions]] bordered the [[Kushan Empire]]. [[Faxian]] travelled in what is now modern day Pakistan.

Pakistan has a long and strong relationship with China. The long-standing ties between the two countries have been mutually beneficial. A close identity of views and mutual interests remain the centre-point of bilateral ties. Since the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]], Pakistan has supported China on most issues of importance to the latter, especially those related to the question of China's sovereignty like [[Taiwan]], [[Xinjiang]], and [[Tibet]] and other sensitive issues such as human rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf |title=Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center, p 212 |format=PDF |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

The Chinese leadership has acknowledged Pakistan's steadfast support on key issues. Pakistan helped China in reestablishing formal ties with the West, where they helped make possible the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} Pakistan has collaborated with China in extensive military and economic projects, seeing China as a counterweight to [[India]] and the United States. Pakistan has also served as a conduit for China's influence in the Muslim world.

China also has a consistent record of supporting Pakistan in regional issues. Pakistan's military depends heavily on [[Equipment Development Department of the Central Military Commission|Chinese armaments]], and joint projects of both economic and militaristic importance are ongoing. China has supplied equipment to support Pakistan's nuclear program.

==Diplomatic relations==
[[File:Ambassador Hilaly receiving US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in Rawalpindi on 8 July 1971.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|[[Henry Kissinger]] was on a secret mission to China facilitated by the [[Government of Pakistan]], a fact known to very few people including [[Agha Hilaly|Ambassador Hilaly]].]]

[[Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War|Chinese Muslims fought against Japan in World War II]]. The Hui Muslim Imam Da Pusheng [[w:zh:达浦生|达浦生]] toured the Middle East and South Asia to confront Japanese propagandists in Muslim countries and denounce their invasion to the Islamic world. He directly confronted Japanese agents in Muslim countries and challenged them in public over their propaganda. He went to British India, Hejaz in Saudi Arabia and Cairo in Egypt. An anti-Japanese 8-month tour to spread awareness of the war in Muslim nations was undertaken by Muslim Shanghai Imam Da Pusheng.<ref name="Luo1991">{{cite book|author=Zhufeng Luo|title=Religion Under Socialism in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEfiZlUpI5oC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&dq=da+pusheng+1938&source=bl&ots=_szMS4OGH8&sig=PH6evN63RQX1Re0BUeW82jjhGB4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=T1qaU-r_NNayyATf3YLwAw&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=da%20pusheng%201938&f=false|date=January 1991|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-87332-609-4|pages=50–}}</ref> Misinformation on the war was spread in the Islamic Middle Eastern nations by Japanese agents. In response, in the World Islamic Congress in Hejaz, Imam Du openly confronted fake Muslim Japanese agents and exposed them as non-Muslims. Japan's history of imperialism was explained by Du to his fellow Muslims. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the future founder of Pakistan, met with Imam Du. The anti Japanese war effort in China received a pledge of support from Jinnah.<ref>http://www.88dict.com/archives/485094/ {{cite web|url=http://archive |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-08-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712160429/http://archive |archivedate=12 July 2013 |df=dmy }}. is/jDCDc</ref> The Hindu leaders Tagore and Gandhi and Muslim Jinnah both discussed the war with the Chinese Muslim delegation under Ma Fuliang while in Turkey President [[İsmet İnönü]] also met the delegation.<ref>http://www.huizu360.com/huizu/news_view.asp?tid=5&id=19276</ref> The bombardment of Chinese Muslims by the warplanes of the Japanese was reported in the newspapers of Syria. Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon were all toured by the delegation. The Foreign Minister, Prime Minister, and President of Turkey met with the Chinese Muslim delegation after they came via Egypt in May 1939. Gandhi and Jinnah met with the Hui Ma Fuliang and his delegation as they denounced Japan.<ref>http://www.xzbu.com/7/view-1606508.htm</ref>

Diplomatic relations between Pakistan and China were established on 21 May 1951, shortly after the [[Republic Of China]] lost power in [[Mainland China|the Mainland]] in 1949.<ref>[http://202.83.164.26/wps/portal/Mocul/!ut/p/c0/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os_hQN68AZ3dnIwML82BTAyNXTz9jE0NfQwNfA_2CbEdFAA2MC_Y!/?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/MoculCL/ministry/highlights/iap-pakchina-01 Pakistan and China Relations]</ref> While initially ambivalent towards the idea of a Communist country on its borders, Pakistan hoped that China would serve as a counterweight to Indian influence. [[India]] had recognized China a year before, and Indian Prime Minister Nehru also hoped for closer relations with the Chinese. However, with escalating border tensions leading to the [[1962 Sino-Indian war]], China and Pakistan aligned with each other in a joint effort to counter Indian encroachment. One year after China's border war with India, Pakistan ceded the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] to China to end border disputes and improve diplomatic relations.

Since then, an informal alliance that initially consisted of joint Indian opposition{{clarify|date=June 2013}} has grown into a lasting relationship that has benefited both nations on the diplomatic, economic and military frontiers. Along with diplomatic support, Pakistan served as a conduit for China to open up to the West. China has in turn provided extensive economic aid and political support to Pakistan.

[[File:Kashmir map big.jpg|thumb|200px|Disputed territory ceded to China in 1963.]]

Since the two sides established their "all-weather diplomatic relations", there has been frequent exchanges between the two countries' leadership and peoples. For example, former Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] received warm welcomes in all of his four visits to Pakistan. When Zhou died in 1976, then Pakistani's Ambassador to China rushed to the [[Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] at 8 in the morning without appointment. Upon arriving at the ministry, the ambassador cried due to his grief in front of Chinese diplomats. In 2004, a road in Pakistani capital [[Islamabad]] leading to the Diplomatic Enclave was named "Zhou Enlai Road". It is the first road in Pakistan that is named after foreign leaders. On 27 May 1976, then Chinese leader [[Mao Zedong]], aged 83, received his last foreign guest Pakistani president [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] despite his illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0417/c1001-26863311.html |title=中国与巴基斯坦高层交往的5则小故事 |publisher=[[People's Daily China]] |date=17 April 2015 |accessdate=18 April 2015}}</ref> On 22 May 2013, Chinese Premier [[Li Keqiang]]'s airplane was escorted by six JF-17 Thunder jets, jointly developed by the two countries, as it entered Pakistani airspace.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-22650591 |title=China media: Li Keqiang's Pakistan visit |publisher=BBC |date=24 May 2013 |accessdate=18 April 2015}}</ref> The premier was also received by both Pakistani president and prime minister upon his arrival at the airport. On 20 April 2015, Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]] visited Pakistan as his first foreign visit of the year, also the first by a Chinese president in 9 years. Before his arrival, he published an article praising the friendship on Pakistani newspapers like ''[[Daily Jang]]''. The Chinese president compared visiting Pakistan with visiting his brother's home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0420/c1001-26873284.html |title=解读：习近平为何说访巴就像到自己兄弟家中探访？ |publisher=People's Daily China |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref> Like previous visit by Premier Li, the airplane was escorted by 8 JF-17 Thunder jets. Xi was given a grand welcome upon his arrival at Noor Khan airbase, a 21-gun salute and guard of honour was presented to him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1177109/chinese-presidents-visit-to-usher-in-new-era-of-development-pm |title=Chinese president's visit to usher in new era of development: PM |publisher=[[DAWN News]] |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref>

{{quote|text=When I was young, I heard many touching stories about Pakistan and the friendship between our two countries. To name just a few, I learned that the Pakistani people were working hard to build their beautiful country, and that Pakistan opened an air corridor for China to reach out to the world and supported China in restoring its lawful seat in the United Nations. The stories have left me with a deep impression. I look forward to my upcoming state visit to Pakistan.|sign=[[Xi Jinping]], [[President of the People's Republic of China]] before his 2015 visit to Pakistan|source=<ref>[http://thediplomat.com/2015/04/xi-jinping-on-pakistan-i-feel-as-if-i-am-going-to-visit-the-home-of-my-own-brother/ Xi Jinping on Pakistan: 'I Feel as if I Am Going to Visit the Home of my Own Brother']</ref>}}

Pakistan's military initially depended almost entirely on American armaments and aid, which was increased during the covert U.S. support of Islamic militants in the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]. America under US President [[Richard Nixon]] supported Pakistan in the 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].<ref name="Shalom">Shalom, Stephen R., [http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue47/articles/a07.htm The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971]</ref> However, the period following the Soviet withdrawal and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] led indirectly to the increasing realignment of America with the previously pro-Soviet India. The [[Pressler Amendment]] in 1990 suspended all American military assistance and any new economic aid amidst concerns that Pakistan was attempting to develop a nuclear weapon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=larry_pressler_1 |title=Larry Pressler |publisher=Historycommons.org |date=29 March 1993 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> Given the support that Pakistan had given them during the War in Afghanistan, many Pakistanis saw this as a betrayal that sold out Pakistani interests in favor of India. This belief was further strengthened as India had developed a nuclear weapon without significant American opposition, and Pakistan felt obligated to do the same. Consequently, the primarily geopolitical alliance between Pakistan and China has since 1990 branched out into military and economic cooperation, due to Pakistan's belief that America's influence and support in the region should be counterbalanced by the Chinese.

With the U.S.-led [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]], there is a general sentiment in Pakistan to adopt a foreign policy which favors China over the United States.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm Global Security] and [http://pakobserver.net/201009/28/detailnews.asp?id=54483 Pakistan Foreign Policy Makers Urged to tie strongly with China compared to US]</ref> Washington has been accused deserting Pakistan in favor of a policy that favors stronger relations with India, while Pakistan sees China as a more reliable ally over the long term.<ref name="articles.cnn.com">{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|publisher=CNN}}</ref>

Since [[September 11 attacks]], Pakistan has increased the scope of Chinese influence and support by agreeing to a number of military projects, combined with extensive economic support and investment from the Chinese.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

==Military relations==
{{Unreliable sources|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Pakistan Air Force Chengdu JF-17 Gu.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|The [[JF-17 Thunder]] is a joint Pakistan-China project.]]
There are strong military ties between People's Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm|title=Pakistan enjoys strong defense ties with China|date=19 June 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Islamic Republic News Agency|IRNA – Islamic Republic News Agency]]|first=IRNA|last=Islamic Republic News Agency}}</ref> This alliance between two neighbouring Asian nations is significant geo-politically. The strong military ties primarily aim to counter regional Indian and American influence, and was also to repel [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] influence in the area. In recent years this relationship has strengthened through ongoing military projects and agreements between Pakistan and China.

Since 1962, China has been a steady source of military equipment to the [[Pakistani Army]], helping establish ammunition factories, providing technological assistance and modernizing existing facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html|title=China-Pakistan Relations|work=Backgrounder|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|date=6 July 2010|accessdate=16 July 2010|first1=Jamal|last1=Afridi|first2=Jayshree|last2=Bajoria}}</ref>
[[File:Pakistan airforce K8.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|[[Hongdu JL-8]] is co-produced by both Pakistan and China.]]

Most recently, the Chinese [[Chengdu J-10]]B fighter was compared to its closest American counterpart, the [[Lockheed Martin F-16]]C Block 52/60, the most advanced F-16, for orders on either aircraft for the [[Pakistan Air Force]], resulting in the wins of the Chinese [[Chengdu J-10]]B. Accordingly, the [[Chengdu J-10]]B had more advanced technology such as its radar and OLS targeting system, and its new generation stealthy features, such as its DSI intake gave it an edge over the [[Lockheed Martin F-16]].

China and Pakistan are involved in several projects to enhance military and weaponry systems, which include the joint development of the [[JF-17 Thunder]] fighter aircraft, [[K-8 Karakorum]] advance [[training aircraft]], a tailor made training aircraft for the [[Pakistan Air Force]] based on the Chinese domestic [[Hongdu L-15]], [[space technology]], [[Airborne Early Warning and Control|AWACS]] systems, [[Al-Khalid tank]]s, which China granted license production and tailor made modifications based on the initial Chinese Type 90 and/or MBT-2000. The Chinese has designed tailor made advanced weapons for Pakistan, making it a strong military power in the Asian region. The armies have a schedule for organising joint military exercises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/mbt-2000.htm|title=Al Khalid MBT-2000 / Type 2000 Main Battle Tank|publisher=GlobalSecurity.org|accessdate=16 July 2010}}</ref>

China is the largest investor in Pakistan's [[Gwadar]] Deep Sea Port, which is strategically located at the mouth of the [[Strait of Hormuz]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2528.html|title=Gwadar: China's Naval Outpost on the Indian Ocean|first=Tarique|last=Niazi|date=28 February 2005|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=Association for Asian Research}}</ref> It is viewed warily by both America and India as a possible launchpad for the Chinese Navy, giving them the ability to launch submarines and warships in the Indian Ocean. China has recently pledged to invest nearly $43 billion US dollars.

China has offered Pakistan military aid in order to fight against terrorism in Pakistan.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} Pakistan has purchased military equipment from China in order to bolster their efforts{{clarify|date=June 2013}} against militants.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeenews.com/news439060.html|title=China offers Pakistan military aid to fight terrorism|date=26 April 2008|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Zee Entertainment Enterprises|Zee News Ltd]]}}</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = If you love China, love Pakistan too.
|source = [[Li Keqiang]], [[Premier of the People's Republic of China]]<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-22650591 China media: Li Keqiang's Pakistan visit]</ref>
|width = 25%
|align = left
}}
In the past, China has played a major role in the development of Pakistan's nuclear infrastructure, especially when increasingly stringent export controls in [[Western countries]] made it difficult for Pakistan to acquire plutonium and uranium enriching equipment from elsewhere such as the Chinese help in building the [[Khushab]] reactor, which plays a key role in Pakistan's production of plutonium. A subsidiary of the [[China National Nuclear Corporation]] contributed in Pakistan's efforts to expand its uranium enrichment capabilities by providing 5,000 custom made ring magnets, which are a key component of the bearings that facilitate the high-speed rotation of centrifuges. China has also provided technical and material support in the completion of the [[Chashma Nuclear Power Complex]] and plutonium reprocessing facility, which was built in the mid-1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/|title=Pakistan Nuclear Weapons: A Brief History of Pakistan's Nuclear Program|date=11 December 2002|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=Strategic Security Project|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> China has become increasing concerned about al-Qaeda linked [[Terrorism in Pakistan|terrorism originating in Pakistan]] and sought help to set up military bases on Pakistani soil to deal with the problem.<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/china-seeks-military-bases-in-paks-restive-tribal-region/articleshow/10497288.cms "China seeks military bases in Pak's restive tribal region."] ''PTI'', 26 October 2011.</ref>

On January 26, 2015, Chinese Foreign Minister [[Wang Yi (politician)|Wang Yi]] during a conclusion of a two-day visit of [[Raheel Sharif]] to [[Beijing]] called Pakistan China's 'irreplaceable, all-weather friend'. Sharif also met [[Yu Zhengsheng]], [[Meng Jianzhu]] and [[Xu Qiliang]].<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/827836/coas-visit-chinese-foreign-minister-terms-pakistan-chinas-irreplaceable-friend/ Pakistan an 'irreplaceable' friend, Chinese foreign minister tells army chief]</ref> On April 19, 2015, China concluded sale of eight conventional [[submarines]] worth $5bn, biggest ever arms sale by China in its history.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/world/xi-jinpings-sale-of-submarines-to-pakistan-raises-risk-of-indian-ocean-nuclear-clash-20150418-1mnt6i.html Xi Jinping's sale of submarines to Pakistan raises risk of Indian Ocean nuclear clash]</ref>

==Economic relations==
{{See also|China–Pakistan Free Trade Agreement}}
[[File:Zong 4G1.jpg|[[Zong (mobile network operator)|Zong]] is Pakistan's first 4G operator|thumbnail]]
Economic trade between Pakistan and China is increasing at a rapid pace and a free trade agreement has recently been signed. Military and technological transactions continue to dominate the economic relationship between the two nations, although in recent years China has pledged to vastly increase their investment in Pakistan's economy and infrastructure. Among other things, China has been helping to develop Pakistan's infrastructure through the building of power plants, roads and communication nodes. Current trade between both countries is at $9 billion, making China the largest trade partner of Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/688389/top-ten-trading-partners |title=Top ten trading partners |publisher=Dawn |date=15 January 2012}}</ref>

Both countries are keen on strengthening the economic ties between the two, and have promised to 'propel' cross-border trade. This has led to investment in Pakistan's nascent financial and energy sectors, amidst a surge of Chinese investment designed to strengthen ties. Pakistan has in turn been granted free trade zones in China.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-09/10/content_12031914.htm|title=China, Pakistan service trade agreement to take effect next month|date=10 September 2009|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=Xinhua}}</ref>

The economic relationship between Pakistan and China is composed primarily of Chinese investment in Pakistani interests. China's increasing economic clout has enabled a wide variety of projects to be sponsored in Pakistan through Chinese credit. Pakistani investment in China is also encouraged, and cross-border trade remains fluid.<ref name="articles.cnn.com"/>

In 2011 China Kingho Group canceled a $19 billion mining deal because of security concerns.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/8799596/US-finds-new-friend-in-Uzbekistan-after-Pakistan-fallout.html "US finds new friend in Uzbekistan after Pakistan fallout."] ''Telegraph Media Group Limited'', 30 September 2011.</ref>

On 26 April, ''[[China Mobile]]'' announced $1 billion of investment in [[Pakistan]] in telecommunication infrastructure and training of its officials within a period of three years.<ref>[http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/04/24/city/karachi/china-mobile-to-invest-1b-in-pakistan/ China Mobile to invest $ 1b in Pakistan]</ref> The announcement came a day after China Mobile subsidy [[Zong Pakistan|Zong]] emerged as the highest bidder in the 3G auction, claiming a 10 MHz 3G band licence, qualifying for the 4G licence.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/699257/spectrum-auction-live-updates/ Next-generation licence: Govt raises over $1.1 billion in spectrum auction]</ref>

On 22 April 2015, According to ''[[China Daily]]'', China released its first overseas investment project under the [[One Belt, One Road]] for developing a hydropower station near [[Jhelum]].<ref>[http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2015-04/22/content_20508778.htm Silk Road Fund makes first investment]</ref>

===China–Pakistan Economic Corridor===
{{main article|China–Pakistan Economic Corridor}}
[[File:Gwadar Port.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|Gwadar Port.]]
Pak-China Economic Corridor is under construction. It will connect Pakistan with China and the Central Asian countries with highway connecting [[Kashgar]] to [[Khunjerab Pass|Khunjerab]] and [[Gwadar]].<ref>http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/</ref> [[Gwadar port]] in southern Pakistan will serve as the trade nerve center for China, as most of its trade especially that of oil will be done through the port, which is operated by the China Overseas Port Holding Company, a state-owned Chinese company.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/589268/pak-china-ties-gawadar-port-one-part-of-a-larger-plan/ Pak-China ties: Gawadar port one part of a larger plan]</ref> Currently, sixty percent of China’s oil must be transported by ship from the [[Persian Gulf]] to the only commercial port in China, Shanghai, a distance of more than 16,000 kilometres. The journey takes two to three months, during which time the ships are vulnerable to pirates, bad weather, political rivals and other risks. Using Gwadar port instead would reduce the distance and possibly the cost. However currently there is no plan to provide an oil pipeline to China and the Gwadar port lacks the ability to offload or store oil.

==Views==
{{externalvideo|video1=[http://money.cnn.com/2015/04/20/news/economy/pakistan-china-aid-infrastucture/ Pakistan lands $46 billion investment from China.]}}
The support with which China and Pakistan give each other is considered significant in global diplomacy, and has been compared to [[Israel – United States relations]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Thalif Deen |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2010/10/20101028135728235512.html |title=China: 'Pakistan is our Israel' – Features |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> According to a Pew survey of Pakistan public opinion in 2010, 84 percent of respondents said they had a favorable view of China and 16 percent had a favorable view of the United States. These results showed that Pakistan is the most pro-China country in the world.{{dubious|date=June 2013}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref> Similarly, the Chinese state-run media has portrayed Pakistan in a favorable light in regional issues. In 2013, this figure increased to 90% of Pakistanis having a favorable view of China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://afpak.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2013/03/25/could_pakistan_bridge_the_us_china_divide?wp_login_redirect=0 |title=Could Pakistan bridge the U.S.-China divide? - by Ziad Haider | The AfPak Channel |publisher=Afpak.foreignpolicy.com |date=2013-03-25 |accessdate=2013-05-23}}</ref>

Pakistan and China have long praised the close ties the two countries have with each other. China has been referred to by Pakistani President [[Pervez Musharraf]] as their "time-tested and all-weather friend", while in return Chinese president Hu Jintao has referred to Pakistan as "a good friend and partner".<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/16/world/main4018992.shtml | work=CBS | title=Olympic Torch Hits China-Friendly Pakistan | date=11 February 2009}}</ref> These statements are noted by some observers as occurring after Pakistani relations with the United States or India have become strained, such as after [[Osama Bin Laden]] was killed by American forces without Pakistan's prior permission.<ref name="articles.cnn.com"/>

On July 2013, ''[[Pew Research Center]]'' as part of their ''Global Attitudes Project'' declared [[Pakistan]] to have the most positive view of China in the world, according to the research 81% of Pakistanis responded favorable to China. On the other hand, only 11% of Pakistanis had favorable view on [[United States]], lowest in the world.<ref>http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/33/country/166/</ref><ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/579055/pakistanis-increasingly-view-china-as-postive-over-us/ Pakistanis increasingly view China as positive over US]</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = Pakistan, with its strategic position, natural resources and warm-water ports, has long been an ally of Beijing. The Chinese see the south Asian state, the closest they have to a friend both in south Asia and in the Islamic world, as important to the security and development of their western, predominantly Muslim provinces, and as a useful aide in efforts to counter the influence of India. In recent years, links have grown closer.
|source = ''[[The Guardian]]''<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/22/china-pakistan Pakistan kept sweet by China's money – and shared strategic interests]</ref>
|width = 70%
|align = center
}}

The author of the book ''[[The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics]]'' concludes the book by connecting the bilateral relationship to broader themes in Chinese foreign policy. According to the author, on the one hand, Pakistan is both a Chinese pawn (against India) and platform for power projection, but there are limits to this approach. For instance, as Small notes, 'Beijing's counterterrorism strategy has been essentially parasitic on the United States being a more important target for transnational militant groups than China'. It's unclear how long that can last.'<ref>[http://www.lowyinterpreter.org/post/2015/01/21/Book-review-China-Pakistan-Axis-Asias-New-Geopolitics-andrew-small.aspx Book review: The China-Pakistan Axis]</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = if there were recriminations they were not made public. Indeed China's ties with Pakistan, which were established during Mao's rule and are based on shared hostility towards India, thrive on many common interests. A long history of secret deals between their two armies--overrides the problems with Islamic extremism.
|source = Andrew Small, the author of ''[[The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics]]''<ref>[http://www.businessinsider.com/china-and-pakistan-are-geopolitical-friends-2015-1 China And Pakistan Are Geopolitical Friends]</ref>
|width = 70%
|align = center
}}

==Issues==

The [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement|ETIM]] is a [[Waziristan|Waziri]] based mujahedeen organization that is said to be allied with the [[Taliban]],<ref>http://waziristanhills.com/Taliban/MilitantOrganizations/EastTurkistanIslamicMovementETIM/tabid/141/language/en-GB/Default.aspx</ref> As these militants are labeled as terrorists from the Chinese province of [[Xinjiang]], Pakistan's inability to prevent this is a potential source of conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Politics/03-Jun-2009/Hu-Jintao-urges-Zardari-to-crush-ETIM-extremists |title=Hu Jintao urges Zardari to crush ETIM extremists |publisher=The Nation |date=3 June 2009 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213?pageNumber=2 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref>

==Timeline==
[[File:Pakistan embassy Beijing.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|Pakistan embassy in [[Beijing]], China.]]
[[File:PRC Towers and PNSC Building Karachi.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|People Republic of China '''PRC''' Tower in Karachi (left) has offices of many Chinese corporations.]]
Important events:
: '''1950''' – Pakistan becomes the third non-communist country, and first Muslim one, to recognize the People's Republic of China.
: '''1951''' – Beijing and [[Karachi]] establish diplomatic relations.
: '''1963''' – Pakistan cedes the Trans-Karakoram Tract to China, ending border disputes.
: '''1970''' – Pakistan helps the U.S. arrange the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].
: '''1978''' – The [[Karakoram Highway]] linking the mountainous [[Northern Pakistan]] with Western China officially opens.
: '''1980'''s – China and the U.S. provide support through Pakistan to the [[Afghan mujahideen#Afghanistan|Afghan guerillas]] fighting [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces.
: '''1986''' – China and Pakistan reach a comprehensive nuclear co-operation agreement.
: '''1996''' – Chinese President [[Jiang Zemin]] pays a state visit to Pakistan.
: '''1999''' – A 300-megawatt nuclear power plant, built with Chinese help in [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab province]], is completed.
: '''2001''' – A joint-ventured Chinese-Pakistani tank, the [[MBT-2000]] (Al-Khalid) MBT is completed.
: '''2002''' – The building of the [[Gwadar]] deep sea port begins, with China as the primary investor.
: '''2003''' – Pakistan and China signed a $110 million contract for the construction of a housing project on Multan Road in Lahore<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/2004/12/16/top5.htm|title=China, Pakistan sign 7 accords in vital sectors: •Oil, gas exploration •high-level trade •Gwadar port improvement|author=Khan, Bahzad Alam|date=16 December 2004|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref>
: '''2007''' – The [[People's Republic of China|Sino-]]Pakistani joint-ventured [[multirole]] [[fighter aircraft]] – the [[JF-17 Thunder]] (FC-1 Fierce Dragon) is formally rolled out.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan welcomes the Chinese Olympic Torch in an Islamabad sports stadium, under heavy guard amidst security concerns.<ref name="cbsnews.com"/>
:'''2008''' – China and Pakistan sign a free trade agreement.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan and China to build a railway through the [[Karakoram Highway]], in order to link China's rail network to [[Gwadar Port]].
:'''2008''' – The [[F-22P]] frigate, comes into service with the [[Pakistani Navy]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/brothers-in-arms-china-gives-warship-to-pak/98275-2.html|title=Brothers in 'arms'? China gives warship to Pak|date=31 July 2009|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=[[Press Trust of India]]|publisher=[[CNN-IBN|IBN Live]]}}</ref>
:'''2009''' – The [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] arrest several suspected [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] terrorists seeking refuge in Pakistan.
:'''2010''' – Pakistan and China conduct a joint anti-terrorism drill.
:'''2010''' – China donates $260 million in dollars to flood hit Pakistan and sends 4 military rescue helicopters to assist in rescue operations.
:'''2010''' – [[Wen Jiabao]] visits Pakistan. More than 30 billion dollars worth of deals were signed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://dailytimespakistan.com/china-pm-inaugurates-pak-china-friendship-centre/|title=Gilani, Jiabao inaugurate Pak-China Friendship Centre|date=18 December 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Associated Press of Pakistan|APP]]|first=APP|last=Express}}</ref>
:'''2011''' – Pakistan is expected to buy air-to-air SD 10 missiles from China for its 250 JF 17 thunder fighter fleet
:'''2013''' – Management of [[Gwadar port]] is handed over to state-run Chinese Overseas Port Holdings after previously being managed by Singapore’s PSA International,<ref>[http://dawn.com/2013/02/07/decision-to-hand-over-gwadar-port-to-china-worries-india/ "Decision to hand over Gwadar port to China worries India"], ''[[Dawn (newspaper)]]'', 7 February 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2013.</ref> and it becomes a matter of ''great concern'' for India.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/503373/india-concerned-over-china-running-gwadar-port/ "India 'concerned' over China running Gwadar port"], ''[[The Express Tribune]]'', 6 February 2013. Retrieved on 13 February 2013.</ref>
:'''2013''' – Chinese Premier Li Keqiang visits Pakistan. Trade between China and Pakistan hit a 12-month figure of $12 billion for the first time in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/article-101959-Chinese-PM-begins-Pakistan-visit |title=Chinese PM begins Pakistan visit |publisher=Thenews.com.pk |date=2013-05-16 |accessdate=2013-05-23}}</ref>
:'''2013''' – On 5 July 2013, Pakistan and China approved the '''Pak-China Economic corridor''' which will link Pakistan’s [[Gwadar Port]] on the [[Arabian Sea]] and Kashghar in [[Xinjiang]] in northwest China. The [[$]]18 billion project will also includes the construction of a 200km-long tunnel.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/572857/china-pakistan-friendship-sweeter-than-honey-nawaz/ Development projects: Nawaz signs $18 bn tunnel deal with China]</ref><ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/ Boosting trade: Pak-China economic corridor plan gets premier’s go-ahead]</ref>
:'''2013''' – On 24 December 2013, China announced a commitment $6.5 billion to finance the construction of a major nuclear power project in [[Karachi]], the project which will have two reactors with a capacity of 1,100 megawatts each.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/649908/china-commits-6-5-billion-for-nuclear-project-in-pakistan/ China commits $6.5 billion for nuclear project in Pakistan- The Express Tribune]</ref>
:'''2014''' – Chinese Premier announced investment of $31.5 billion in Pakistan mainly in countries energy, infrastructure and port expansion for [[Gwadar]]. According to ''[[The Express Tribune]]'' initially projects worth $15–20 billion will be started which include Lahore-Karachi motorway, Gwadar Port expansion and energy sector projects will be launched in [[Gadani]] and six coal projects near [[Thar coalfield]]. The newspaper further claimed that the government has also handed over to Pakistan Army the task of providing fool-proof security to Chinese officials in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]] in a bid to address [[Beijing]]’s concerns and execute the investment plan in the province, which will get 38% of the funds.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/683281/balochistan-to-receive-big-slice-of-chinese-funds/ Balochistan to receive big slice of Chinese funds]</ref>
:'''2014''' – On 22 May 2014, The governments of Pakistan and China on Thursday signed an agreement to start a metro train project in Lahore, Express News reported. The 27.1 kilometres long track – named Orange Line – will be built at the cost of $1.27 billion.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/711614/pakistan-china-sign-lahore-metro-train-agreement/ Pakistan, China sign Lahore metro train agreement]</ref>
:'''2014''' – On 8 November 2014, Pakistan and China signed 19 agreements particularly relating to [[China–Pakistan Economic Corridor]], China pledged a total investment worth of $42 billion. While Pakistan pledged to help China in its fight concerning the [[Xinjiang conflict]].<ref>[http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/11/08/national/pakistan-wins-42b-chinese-investment/ Pakistan wins $42b Chinese investment]</ref>
:'''2015''' – On 20 April 2015, Chinese President Xi Jinping, accompanied by the First Lady and a delegation of high-level officials and businessmen, visits Pakistan. It is the first visit to Pakistan by a Chinese president after a gap of 9 years and the first foreign trip of Xi in 2015. 51 Memorandums of Understanding are signed, including the plan of "Pakistan China Economic Corridor".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1177109/economic-corridor-in-focus-as-pakistan-china-sign-51-mous |title=Economic corridor in focus as Pakistan, China sign 51 MoUs |publisher=DAWN News |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref>
:'''2015''' – Pakistan began circulating the Rs. 20 coin with the Pakistan and China flags to commemorate the countries' lasting friendship.

==See also==
{{Portal|China|Pakistan|International relations}}
* [[Pakistan Embassy College Beijing]]
* [[Hong Kong–Pakistan relations]]

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last1=Small|first1=Andrew|title=The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics|date=2015|publisher=Hurst|location=London|isbn=1849043418|pages=288|edition=1|url=http://www.andrewsmall.org}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Cardenal|first1=Juan Pablo|authorlink1=Juan Pablo Cardenal|last2=Araújo|first2=Heriberto|authorlink2=Heriberto Araújo |title=La silenciosa conquista china |location=Barcelona|publisher=Crítica|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/?id=jQ2fvBVpQpYC |pages=247ff|isbn=9788498922578|language=es}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://blogs.reuters.com/india-expertzone/2012/01/20/the-limits-of-the-pakistan-china-alliance/ The limits of the Pakistan-China alliance]
*[https://www.youtube.com/v/Ogqj5UZiWEs&list=UURPwLKbd4S960c7hkYVNahQ&index=1&feature=plcp China hints at ally Pakistan's hand in Xinjiang unrest]
*[http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-12/news/31052205_1_china-pakistan-relationship-countries-trade-and-business-relationship Ahmed Rashid on the Sino-Pakistani relationship]
*[http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center]
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSISL9262520061124 CHRONOLOGY-Main events in Chinese-Pakistani relations]
*[http://www.hindustantimes.com/audio-news-video/AV-World/Pakistan-trained-militants-pose-a-threat-to-Xinjiang/Article2-841360.aspx Xinjiang-Pakistan]

{{China–Pakistan relations}}
{{Foreign relations of China}}
{{Foreign relations of Pakistan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:China-Pakistan Relations}}
[[Category:China–Pakistan relations| ]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of China|Pakistan]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Pakistan]]

Mandschurische Schrift

2017-06-21T20:21:43Z

Voidvector: /* Geschichte */ png -> {{MongolUnicode}}

[[Datei:Manjui gisun.svg|mini|hochkant=0.6| „Mandschu“ in mandschurischer Schrift]]

Die '''mandschurische Schrift''' ist eine Adaption der [[Mongolische Schrift|mongolischen Schrift]] für die [[Mandschurische Sprache|Sprache der Mandschuren]], eine tungusische Sprache.

== Beispiele ==
{| class="prettytable"
|-
| [[Datei:Manchu chinese.jpg|mini|links|hochkant=0.75]]
| [[Datei:Yonghe Gong sign.jpg|mini|links|hochkant=0.75]]
| [[Datei:Chengde summer palace writings.jpg|mini|links|hochkant=0.75]]
|-
| mandschurische Schrift (rechts) neben der chinesischen Schrift in der [[Verbotene Stadt|Verbotenen Stadt]]
| mongolische, tibetische, chinesische und mandschurische Schrift (rechts außen), im [[Lamatempel]] von [[Peking]]
| mandschurische Schrift (rechts außen) im Sommerpalast von [[Chengde]]
|-
|}

== Schreibrichtung ==
Die mandschurische Schrift wird wie die mongolische Schrift und die traditionelle [[chinesische Schrift]] von oben nach unten geschrieben.

== Geschichte ==
Die mandschurische Schrift war während der [[Qing-Dynastie]] neben der chinesischen Schrift die offizielle Schrift des chinesischen Reichs. Inschriften in Mandschurisch finden sich heute noch in der [[Verbotene Stadt|Verbotenen Stadt]].

Nach der mandschurischen Überlieferung ({{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ ᡳ ᠶᠠᡵᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡴᠣᡠᠯᡳ|lang=mnc}} ''manju-i yargiyan kooli'', chinesisch: 滿洲實錄 Mǎnzhōu Shílù) entschied der Mandschu-Anführer [[Nurhaci]] 1599, die [[mongolische Schrift]] für die Sprache des Mandschu-Volks anzupassen. Er bedauerte es, dass ungebildete Chinesen oder Mongolen ihre eigene Sprache verstehen konnten, wenn sie ihnen vorgelesen wurde, während das bei den Mandschus nicht der Fall war, deren Dokumente von mongolischen Schreibern aufgezeichnet wurden. Die daraus entstandene Schrift hieß ''tongki fuka akū hergen'' ("Schrift ohne Punkte und Kreise").

Erst 1632 fügte [[Dahai]] diakritische Zeichen hinzu, um die vielen Zweideutigkeiten der mongolischen Schrift zu beseitigen.

== Alphabet ==
{| class="wikitable" style="clear:both;"
|-
! colspan="4" | Zeichen
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | Umschrift
! rowspan="2" | Unicode
! rowspan="2" | Anmerkungen
|-
! isoliert
! Anfang
! Mitte
! Ende
|-
! colspan="8" | Vokale
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠠ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠠ᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠠ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠠ}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | a
| rowspan="2" | 1820
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠠ᠋}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡝ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡝ᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡝ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡝ}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | e
| rowspan="2" | 185D
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| ([[Image:Mongol a tail 2.jpg]])
|-
| rowspan="4" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡳ}}
| rowspan="4" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡳ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳ᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳ}}
| rowspan="4" |
| rowspan="4" | i
| rowspan="4" | 1873
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳ᠌᠊}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳ᠍᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳ᠋}}
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳ᠌}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠣ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠣ᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠣ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠣ}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | o
| rowspan="2" | 1823
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠣ᠋}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡠ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡠ᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡠ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡠ}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | u
| rowspan="2" | 1860
|
|-
| ??
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡡ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡡ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡡ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡡ}}
|
| ū/uu/v
|
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡟ}}
| ([[Image:Mongol y1 head.jpg]])
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡟ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡟ}}
|
| y/y/i'
| 185F
|
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠨ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠨ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠨ᠋᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠨ}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | n
| rowspan="2" | 1828
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠨ᠊}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠩ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠩ᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠩ}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | ng
| rowspan="2" | 1829
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡴ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡴ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | k [q]
| rowspan="2" | 1874
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ᠋᠊}}
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|}} ([[Image:Mongol k head.jpg]])
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ᠌᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ᠋}}
|
| k [k]
| 1874
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| {{MongolUnicode|ᡤ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡤ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡤ᠊}}
|
|
| g [ɢ]
| 1864
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| g [g]
| 1864
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| {{MongolUnicode|ᡥ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡥ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡥ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| h [χ]
| 1865
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| h [x]
| 1865
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠪ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠪ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠪ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠪ}}
|
| b
| 182A
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡦ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡦ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡦ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| p
| 1866
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠰ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠰ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠰ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠰ}}
|
| s
| 1867
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡧ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡧ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡧ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡧ}}
|
| š
| 1867
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡨ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡨ᠋᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡨ᠋᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
| rowspan="3" |
| rowspan="3" | t
| rowspan="3" | 1868
| rowspan="3" |
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡨ}}
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡨ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡨ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡩ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡩ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡩ᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | d
| rowspan="2" | 1869
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡩ᠋᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡩ᠋᠊}}
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠯ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠯ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠯ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠯ}}
|
| l
| 182F
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠮ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠮ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠮ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠮ}}
|
| m
| 182E
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠴ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠴ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠴ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| c/ch/c
| 1834
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠵ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠵ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠵ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| j/zh/j
| 1835
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠶ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠶ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠶ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| y
| 1836
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡵ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡵ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡵ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡵ}}
|
| r
| 1875
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡶ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡶ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡶ᠊}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | f
| rowspan="2" | 1876
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡶ‍᠋}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊‍ᡶ‍}}
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠸ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠸ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠸ᠊}}
|
|
| v (w)
| 1838
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠺ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠺ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠺ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| k'/kk/k῾/k’
| 183A
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡬ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡬ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡬ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| g'/gg/ǵ/g’
| 186C
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡭ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡭ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡭ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| h'/hh/h́/h’
| 186D
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡮ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡮ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡮ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| ts'/c/ts῾/c
| 186E
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡯ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡯ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡯ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| dz/z/dz/z
| 186F
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡰ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡰ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡰ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| ž/rr/ž/r’
| 1870
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡱ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡱ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡱ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| c'/ch/c῾/c’
| 1871
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡷ}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡷ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡷ᠊}}
| {{MongolUnicode|}}
|
| j/zh/j̊/j’
| 1877
|
|}

== Silben ==
Die mandschurische Schrift hat 131 Silben：
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᠠ}} a || {{MongolUnicode|ᡝ}} e || {{MongolUnicode|ᡳ}} i || {{MongolUnicode|ᠣ}} o || {{MongolUnicode|ᡠ}} u || {{MongolUnicode|ᡡ}} ū || {{MongolUnicode|ᠨᠠ}} na || {{MongolUnicode|ᠨᡝ}} ne || {{MongolUnicode|ᠨᡳ}} ni || {{MongolUnicode|ᠨᠣ}} no || {{MongolUnicode|ᠨᡠ}} nu || {{MongolUnicode|ᠨᡡ}} nū
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᡴᠠ}} ka || {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᠠ}} ga || {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠ}} ha || {{MongolUnicode|ᡴᠣ}} ko || {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᠣ}} go || {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠣ}} ho || {{MongolUnicode|ᡴᡡ}} kū || {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡡ}} gū || {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᡡ}} hū ||
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠠ}} ba || {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᡝ}} be || {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᡳ}} bi || {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠣ}} bo || {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᡠ}} bu || {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᡡ}} bū || {{MongolUnicode|ᡦᠠ}} pa || {{MongolUnicode|ᡦᡝ}} pe || {{MongolUnicode|ᡦᡳ}} pi || {{MongolUnicode|ᡦᠣ}} po || {{MongolUnicode|ᡦᡠ}} pu || {{MongolUnicode|ᡦᡡ}} pū
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠠ}} sa || {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᡝ}} se || {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᡳ}} si || {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠣ}} so || {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᡠ}} su || {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᡡ}} sū || {{MongolUnicode|ᡧᠠ}} ūa || {{MongolUnicode|ᡧᡝ}} še || {{MongolUnicode|ᡧᡳ}} ši || {{MongolUnicode|ᡧᠣ}} šo || {{MongolUnicode|ᡧᡠ}} šu || {{MongolUnicode|ᡧᡡ}} šū
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᡨᠠ}} ta || {{MongolUnicode|ᡩᠠ}} da || {{MongolUnicode|ᡨᡝ}} te || {{MongolUnicode|ᡩᡝ}} de || {{MongolUnicode|ᡨᡳ}} ti || {{MongolUnicode|ᡩᡳ}} di || {{MongolUnicode|ᡨᠣ}} to || {{MongolUnicode|ᡩᠣ}} do || {{MongolUnicode|ᡨᡠ}} tu || {{MongolUnicode|ᡩᡠ}} du
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᠯᠠ}} la || {{MongolUnicode|ᠯᡝ}} le || {{MongolUnicode|ᠯᡳ}} li || {{MongolUnicode|ᠯᠣ}} lo || {{MongolUnicode|ᠯᡠ}} lu || {{MongolUnicode|ᠯᡡ}} lū || {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠠ}} ma || {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᡝ}} me || {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᡳ}} mi || {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣ}} mo || {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᡠ}} mu || {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᡡ}} mū
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠠ}} ca || {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᡝ}} ce || {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᡳ}} ci || {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠣ}} co || {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᡠ}} cu || {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᡡ}} cū || {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠠ}} ja || {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᡝ}} je || {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᡳ}} ji || {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠣ}} jo || {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᡠ}} ju || {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᡡ}} jū
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᠶᠠ}} ya || {{MongolUnicode|ᠶᡝ}} ye || {{MongolUnicode|ᠶᠣ}} yo || {{MongolUnicode|ᠶᡠ}} yu || {{MongolUnicode|ᠶᡡ}} yū || {{MongolUnicode|ᡴᡝ}} ke || {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡝ}} ge || {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᡝ}} he || {{MongolUnicode|ᡴᡳ}} ki || {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡳ}} gi || {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᡳ}} hi || {{MongolUnicode|ᡴᡠ}} ku || {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡠ}} gu || {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᡠ}} hu
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᠺᠠ}} k'a || {{MongolUnicode|ᡬᠠ}} g'a || {{MongolUnicode|ᡭᠠ}} h'a || {{MongolUnicode|ᠺᠣ}} k'o || {{MongolUnicode|ᡬᠣ}} g'o || {{MongolUnicode|ᡭᠣ}} h'o || {{MongolUnicode|ᡵᠠ}} ra || {{MongolUnicode|ᡵᡝ}} re || {{MongolUnicode|ᡵᡳ}} ri || {{MongolUnicode|ᡵᠣ}} ro || {{MongolUnicode|ᡵᡠ}} ru || {{MongolUnicode|ᡵᡡ}} rū
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᡶᠠ}} fa || {{MongolUnicode|ᡶᡝ}} fe || {{MongolUnicode|ᡶᡳ}} fi || {{MongolUnicode|ᡶᠣ}} fo || {{MongolUnicode|ᡶᡠ}} fu || {{MongolUnicode|ᡶᡡ}} fū || {{MongolUnicode|ᠸᠠ}} wa || {{MongolUnicode|ᠸᡝ}} we
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᡮᠠ}} ts'a || {{MongolUnicode|ᡮᡝ}} ts'e || {{MongolUnicode|ᡮᡟ}} ts || {{MongolUnicode|ᡮᠣ}} ts'o || {{MongolUnicode|ᡮᡠ}} ts'u || {{MongolUnicode|ᡯᠠ}} dza || {{MongolUnicode|ᡯᡝ}} dze || {{MongolUnicode|ᡯᡳ}} dzi || {{MongolUnicode|ᡯᠣ}} dzo || {{MongolUnicode|ᡯᡠ}} dzu
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|ᡰᠠ}} ža || {{MongolUnicode|ᡰᡝ}} že || {{MongolUnicode|ᡰᡳ}} ži || {{MongolUnicode|ᡰᠣ}} žo || {{MongolUnicode|ᡰᡠ}} žu || {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᡟ}} sy || {{MongolUnicode|ᡱᡳ}} c'y || {{MongolUnicode|ᡷᡳ}} jy
|}

== Literatur ==
* [[Florian Coulmas]]: ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems.'' Blackwell, 1999, ISBN 0-631-21481-X.

== Weblinks ==
{{Incubator|Wp/mnc|Mandschurische Schrift}}
* [http://abkai.net/core/en/ Unicode Manchu/Sibe/Daur Fonts and Keyboards] (englisch)
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/manchu.htm Omniglot: Manchu alphabet] (englisch)
* [http://www.anakv.com/eng/ Manchu script generator (Romanization → Manchu script)] (englisch)
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/manchufont/ ManchuFont] (englisch)
* [http://manc.hu/ Sammlung von Qing-zeitlichen Texten in mandschurischer Schrift] (englisch)
[[Kategorie:Mandschurei]]
[[Kategorie:Schrift]]

Taschkorgan-Reservat

2017-02-05T20:09:26Z

Voidvector: Coordinate

Das '''Taxkorgan-Reservat''' liegt im Westen [[Volksrepublik China|Chinas]] im [[Pamir (Gebirge)|Pamir]]-[[Karakorum (Gebirge)|Karakorum]]-Gebiet im Uigurischen Autonomen Gebiet [[Xinjiang]]. Es wurde im Jahr 1984 vor allem zum Schutz des seltenen [[Pamir-Argali]] eingerichtet und erstreckt sich über 14.000 km² Hochgebirge.

==Geographie und Vegetation==
Das Reservat liegt im Grenzbereich Chinas zu Afghanistan, Tadschikistan und Pakistan. Die Hälfte der Fläche liegt oberhalb von 4500 m und umschließt die Nordflanke des Karakorumgebirges, den westlichsten Ausläufer des [[Kunlun]] sowie den östlichen Rand des Pamirgebirges. Im Süden grenzt der 2200 km² große [[Khunjerab-Nationalpark]] [[Pakistan]]s an das Schutzgebiet. Seit den späten 1960er Jahren verbindet der [[Karakorum Highway]] China und Pakistan über den [[Khunjerab-Pass]]. Weite Gebiete des Schutzgebietes sind zu trocken oder zu kalt um das Wachstum üppiger Vegetation zu gewährleisten. Die einzigen Bäume, die in einigen niedrigen Tälern unterhalb von 3400 m wachsen, sind Weiden, Tamarisken, Pappeln und Birken. Nur wenige Bäume erreichen eine Höhe von 10 m. Die obere Vegetationsgrenze liegt bei etwa 4400 m.<ref name="Biological Conservation">George B. Schaller, Li Hong Talipu, Lu Hua, Ren Junrang, Qiu Mingjiang, Wang Haibin: ''Status of Large Mammals in the Taxkorgan Reserve, Xinjiang, China.'' Biological Conservation 42 (1987), 53–71.</ref>

==Tierwelt==
Im Taxkorgan-Reservat kommen drei wildlebende Huftierarten vor. Darunter ist das Marco-Polo-[[Argali]] am meisten bedroht. Im Reservat lebten in den 1980er Jahren nur noch etwa 150 dieser großen Wildschafe<ref name="Biological Conservation" />. Heute haben sich die Bestände auf über 1000 Tiere erholt<ref>George B. Schaller and Aili Kang (2008) ''Status of Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon polii in China and adjacent countries: conservation of a Vulnerable subspecies.'' Oryx Vol 42 No 1, 2008</ref>. Die beiden anderen Huftierarten des Reservats sind der [[Sibirischer Steinbock|Sibirische Steinbock]] und das [[Blauschaf]], wobei beide Arten nur in wenigen Arealen nebeneinander vorkommen. Ursprünglich kam auch der [[Kiang]] in Taxkorgan vor, doch sind die Einhufer mittlerweile ausgestorben. Die Huftiere bieten mehreren großen Räubern, wie Schneeleoparden, Wölfen und Braunbären Nahrung. Im Reservat leben etwa 7.750 Menschen und 70.000 Nutztiere, die die Landschaft durch starke Beweidung stark beeinflussen.<ref name="Biological Conservation" />

== Weblinks ==
*[http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/pa/1630v.htm Taxkorgan-Reservat UNEP-WCMC (englisch)]

==Einzelnachweise==
<references/>

{{Coordinate |NS=37/0.00000//N |EW=75/30.00000//E |type=landmark|dim=12000 |region=IN-MP}}

[[Kategorie:Naturschutzgebiet in Asien]]
[[Kategorie:Geographie (Tadschikistan)]]

Semo La

2017-02-05T09:19:42Z

Voidvector:

{{Belege fehlen}}
{{Infobox Pass
| NAME =
| BILD = Semo-la.jpg
| BILDBESCHREIBUNG = Bild von der höchsten Passstraße der Welt
| REGION = [[Autonomes Gebiet Tibet|Tibet]]
| REGION-BEZ = [[Administrative Gliederung der Volksrepublik China|Autonomes Gebiet]]
| REGION-ISO = CN-54
| PASSHÖHE = 5565
| PASSHÖHE-BEZUG =
| AUSBAU = Passstraße
| ERBAUT =
| SPERRE =
| SPERREART =
| GEBIRGE = [[Hochland von Tibet]]
| BESONDERHEITEN =
| DENZEL =
| NEBENBOX =
| KARTE =
| POSKARTE =
| ALTERNATIVKARTE =
| LAT = 30/06/36/N
| LONG = 85/25/54/E
}}
Der '''Semo La''' ({{zh|c=桑木拉|t=|v=|p=}}) ist ein 5.565 Meter hoher [[Gebirgspass]] im [[Tibet]]. Er liegt in einer extrem dünn besiedelten aber verkehrstechnisch gut erschlossenen und durch viele Seen, Flüsse und Geysire (Tagejia oder „Heiße Quellen des Königstigers“) geprägten Landschaft im Transhimalaja. Auf Grund einer in unserem Sprachgebrauch vorkommenden Namensgleichheit eines anderen Passes (La) wird er von den Tibetern auch Sarmo La genannt.

Er gilt als höchster befahrbarer Pass der Erde und liegt auf der Kailash-Nord-Route, die etwa 10 km westlich von Raka von der F219 nach Norden abzweigt. Die 421 km bis Coqên sind zweispurig und für diese Höhe sehr gut asphaltiert.

[[Kategorie:Pass in Tibet]]
[[Kategorie:Geographie (Tibet)]]

Semo La

2017-02-05T09:14:31Z

Voidvector: chinesisch

{{Belege fehlen}}
{{Infobox Pass
| NAME =
| BILD =
| BILDBESCHREIBUNG =
| REGION = [[Autonomes Gebiet Tibet|Tibet]]
| REGION-BEZ = [[Administrative Gliederung der Volksrepublik China|Autonomes Gebiet]]
| REGION-ISO = CN-54
| PASSHÖHE = 5565
| PASSHÖHE-BEZUG =
| AUSBAU = Passstraße
| ERBAUT =
| SPERRE =
| SPERREART =
| GEBIRGE = [[Hochland von Tibet]]
| BESONDERHEITEN =
| DENZEL =
| NEBENBOX =
| KARTE =
| POSKARTE =
| ALTERNATIVKARTE =
| LAT = 30/06/36/N
| LONG = 85/25/54/E
}}
[[Datei:Semo-la.jpg|miniatur|Bild von der höchsten Passstraße der Welt]]
Der '''Semo La''' ({{zh|c=桑木拉|t=|v=|p=}}) ist ein 5.565 Meter hoher [[Gebirgspass]] im [[Tibet]]. Er liegt in einer extrem dünn besiedelten aber verkehrstechnisch gut erschlossenen und durch viele Seen, Flüsse und Geysire (Tagejia oder „Heiße Quellen des Königstigers“) geprägten Landschaft im Transhimalaja. Auf Grund einer in unserem Sprachgebrauch vorkommenden Namensgleichheit eines anderen Passes (La) wird er von den Tibetern auch Sarmo La genannt.

Er gilt als höchster befahrbarer Pass der Erde und liegt auf der Kailash-Nord-Route, die etwa 10 km westlich von Raka von der F219 nach Norden abzweigt. Die 421 km bis Coqên sind zweispurig und für diese Höhe sehr gut asphaltiert.

[[Kategorie:Pass in Tibet]]
[[Kategorie:Geographie (Tibet)]]

Flugverkehrskontrolle

2009-02-25T18:12:49Z

Voidvector:

{{For|the Canadian musical group|Air Traffic Control (band)}}

{{Refimprove|date=October 2007}}
[[Image:Verkeerstorens Schiphol.jpg|thumb|right|Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCTs) at [[Amsterdam]]'s [[Schiphol Airport]]]]
'''Air traffic control''' ('''ATC''') is a service provided by ground-based [[Air traffic controller|controllers]] who direct [[aircraft]] on the ground and in the air. The primary purpose of ATC systems worldwide is to ''separate'' aircraft to prevent collisions, to organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and to provide information and other support for pilots when able. In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense role (as in the United States), or actually be run entirely by the military (as in Brazil).

Preventing collisions is referred to as [[Separation (air traffic control)|separation]], which is a term used to prevent aircraft from coming too close to each other by use of lateral, vertical and longitudinal separation minima; many aircraft now have [[Aircraft collision avoidance systems|collision avoidance systems]] installed to act as a backup to ATC observation and instructions. In addition to its primary function, the ATC can provide additional services such as providing information to pilots, weather and navigation information and [[NOTAM]]s (Notices to Airmen).''

In many countries, ATC services are provided throughout the majority of airspace, and its services are available to all users (private, military, and commercial). When controllers are responsible for separating some or all aircraft, such airspace is called "[[controlled airspace]]" in contrast to "[[uncontrolled airspace]]" where aircraft may fly without the use of the air traffic control system. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue ''instructions'' that [[Aviator|pilots]] are required to follow, or merely ''flight information'' (in some countries known as ''advisories'') to assist pilots operating in the airspace. In all cases, however, the pilot in command has final responsibility for the safety of the flight, and may deviate from ATC instructions in an emergency.

Although native language for the region is normally used, [[English language]] must be used if requested, as required by the internation aviation organization ICAO.{{cn}}

==History==
[[Image:12-30-2007 001.JPG|thumb|right|Air traffic controllers at [[Memphis International Airport]], 1962]]
The first attempts to provide a semblance of air traffic control were based on simple "rules of the road" (European sponsored International Convention for Air Navigation, 1919).

It is considered that the first introduction of Air traffic control was at London's [[Croydon Airport]] in 1921. [[Archie League]], who controlled aircraft using colored flags at what is today [[Lambert-St. Louis International Airport]], is often considered the first [[air traffic controller]].

The first air traffic regulations were established in the United States by the passage of the Air Commerce Act (1926).

Around 1930, radio equipped control towers were established by some local authorities, and in 1933 instrument flying began.

By 1935 several airlines jointly established the first Airway Traffic Control centers to safeguard their aircraft against midair collisions. In 1936 this preliminary effort was transferred to the Federal Government, and the first-generation Air Traffic Control (ATC) System was born.

In 1935, in the US, airlines using the Chicago, Cleveland, and Newark airports agreed to coordinate the handling of airline traffic between those cities. In December, the first Airway Traffic Control Center opened at Newark, New Jersey. The first-generation Air Traffic Control (ATC) System was born. Additional centers at Chicago and Cleveland followed in 1936.

==Airport control==
[[Image:AeroportoGuarulhos TorreInterno.jpg|thumb|right|Inside the [[Guarulhos International Airport|São Paulo/Guarulhos International Airport's]] tower, Latin America's second busiest airport.]]
The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual observation from the control tower. The tower is a tall, windowed structure located on the airport grounds. '''Aerodrome''' or '''Tower''' controllers are responsible for the separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 2 to 5 nautical miles (3.7 to 9.2 km) depending on the airport procedures.

[[Radar]] displays are also available to controllers at some airports. Controllers may use a radar system called [[Secondary surveillance radar|Secondary Surveillance Radar]] for airborne traffic approaching and departing. These displays include a map of the area, the position of various aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft identification, speed, heading, and other information described in local procedures.

The areas of responsibility for tower controllers fall into three general operational disciplines; Ground Control, Local or Air Control, and Flight Data or Clearance Delivery -- other categories, such as [[Airport ramp|Apron]] Control or Ground Movement Planner, may exist at extremely busy airports. While each tower's procedures will vary and while there may be multiple teams in larger towers that control multiple runways, the following provides a general concept of the delegation of responsibilities within the tower environment.

===Ground Control===

Ground Control (sometimes known as Ground Movement Control abbreviated to GMC or Surface Movement Control abbreviated to SMC) is responsible for the airport "maneuvering" areas, or areas not released to the airlines or other users. This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive having vacated the runway and departure gates. Exact areas and control responsibilities are clearly defined in local documents and agreements at each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or working in these areas is required to have clearance from the ground controller. This is normally done via VHF radio, but there may be special cases where other processes are used. Most aircraft and airside vehicles have radios. Aircraft or vehicles without radios will communicate with the tower via [[aviation light signals]] or will be led by vehicles with radios. People working on the airport surface normally have a communications link through which they can reach or be reached by ground control, commonly either by handheld radio or even [[Mobile phone|cell phone]]. Ground control is vital to the smooth operation of the airport because this position might constrain the order in which the aircraft will be sequenced to depart, which can affect the safety and efficiency of the airport's operation.

Some busier airports have Surface Movement Radar (SMR), such as, ASDE-3, AMASS or [[ASDE-X]], designed to display aircraft and vehicles on the ground. These are used by the ground controller as an additional tool to control ground traffic, particularly at night or in poor visibility. There are a wide range of capabilities on these systems as they are being modernized. Older systems will display a map of the airport and the target. Newer systems include the capability to display higher quality mapping, radar target, data blocks, and safety alerts, and to interface with other systems such as [[digital flight strips]].

===Local or Air Control===
Local or Air Control (most often referred to as the generic "Tower" control, although Tower control can also refer to a combination of the local, ground and clearance delivery positions) is responsible for the active runway surfaces. The Air Traffic Control Tower clears aircraft for take off or landing and ensures the runway is clear for these aircraft. If the tower controller detects any unsafe condition, a landing aircraft may be told to "[[go-around]]" and be re-sequenced into the landing pattern by the approach or terminal area controller.

Within the tower, a highly disciplined communications process between tower and ground control is an absolute necessity. Ground control must request and gain approval from tower control to cross any active runway with any aircraft or vehicle. Likewise, tower control must ensure ground control is aware of any operations that impact the taxiways and must work with the approach radar controllers to ensure "holes" or "gaps" in the arrival traffic are created (where necessary) to allow taxiing traffic to cross runways and to allow departing aircraft to take off. [[Crew Resource Management]] (CRM) procedures are often used to ensure this communication process is efficient and clear, although this is not as prevalent as CRM for [[Aviator|pilots]].

===Flight Data or Clearance delivery===
Clearance delivery is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft before they commence taxiing. These contain details of the route that the aircraft is expected to fly after departure. This position will, if necessary, coordinate with the en-route center and national command center or flow control to obtain releases for aircraft. Often however such releases are given automatically or are controlled by local agreements allowing "free-flow" departures. When weather or extremely high demand for a certain airport or airspace becomes a factor, there may be ground "stops" (or "slot delays") or re-routes may be necessary to ensure the system does not get overloaded. The primary responsibility of the clearance delivery position is to ensure that the aircraft have the proper route and slot time. This information is also coordinated with the en-route center and the ground controller in order to ensure the aircraft reaches the runway in time to meet the slot time provided by the command center. At some airports the clearance delivery controller also plans aircraft pushbacks and engine starts and is known as Ground Movement Planner (GMP): this position is particularly important at heavily congested airports to prevent taxiway and apron gridlock.

===Approach and terminal control===
[[Image:Potomac Consolidated TRACON.jpg|thumb|right|Inside the Potomac TRACON]]
{{main|Terminal Control Center}}
Many airports have a radar control facility that is associated with the airport. In most countries, this is referred to as ''Approach'' or ''Terminal Control''; in the U.S., it is often still referred to as a [[Terminal Control Center|TRACON]] (Terminal Radar Approach CONtrol) facility. While every airport varies, terminal controllers usually handle traffic in a 30 to 50 nautical mile (56 to 93 km) radius from the airport. Where there are many busy airports in close proximity, one single terminal control may service all the airports. The actual airspace boundaries and altitudes assigned to a terminal control are based on factors such as traffic flows, neighboring airports and terrain, and vary widely from airport to airport: a large and complex example is the [[London Terminal Control Centre]] which controls traffic for five main London airports up to {{convert|20000|ft|m}} and out to {{convert|100|nmi|km}}.

Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services within their airspace. Traffic flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and overflights. As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the next appropriate control facility (a control tower, an en-route control facility, or a bordering terminal or approach control). Terminal control is responsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate altitude when they are handed off, and that aircraft arrive at a suitable rate for landing.

Not all airports have a radar approach or terminal control available. In this case, the en-route center or a neighboring terminal or approach control may co-ordinate directly with the tower on the airport and vector inbound aircraft to a position from where they can land visually. At some of these airports, the tower may provide a non-radar [[procedural control|procedural approach]] service to arriving aircraft handed over from a radar unit before they are visual to land. Some units also have a dedicated approach unit which can provide the [[procedural control|procedural approach]] service either all the time or for any periods of radar outage for any reason.

==En-route, center, or area control==
[[Image:AirTraffic-8.jpg|thumb|right|Controllers at work at the Washington Air Route Traffic Control Center.]]
{{main|Area Control Center}}
ATC provides services to aircraft in flight between airports as well. Pilots fly under one of two sets of rules for separation: [[Visual flight rules|Visual Flight Rules]] (VFR) or [[Instrument flight rules|Instrument Flight Rules]] (IFR). Air traffic controllers have different responsibilities to aircraft operating under the different sets of rules. While IFR flights are under positive control, in the US VFR pilots can request flight following, which provides traffic advisory services on a time permitting basis and may also provide assistance in avoiding areas of weather and flight restrictions.

En-route air traffic controllers issue clearances and instructions for airborne aircraft, and pilots are required to comply with these instructions. En-route controllers also provide air traffic control services to many smaller airports around the country, including clearance off of the ground and clearance for approach to an airport. Controllers adhere to a set of separation standards that define the minimum distance allowed between aircraft. These distances vary depending on the equipment and procedures used in providing ATC services.

===General characteristics===
En-route air traffic controllers work in facilities called Area Control Centers, each of which is commonly referred to as a "Center". The United States uses the equivalent term Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC). Each center is responsible for many thousands of square miles of airspace (known as a [[Flight Information Region]]) and for the airports within that airspace. Centers control IFR aircraft from the time they depart an airport or terminal area's airspace to the time they arrive at another airport or terminal area's airspace. Centers may also "pick up" VFR aircraft that are already airborne and integrate them into the IFR system. These aircraft must, however, remain VFR until the Center provides a clearance.

Center controllers are responsible for climbing the aircraft to their requested altitude while, at the same time, ensuring that the aircraft is properly separated from all other aircraft in the immediate area. Additionally, the aircraft must be placed in a flow consistent with the aircraft's route of flight. This effort is complicated by crossing traffic, severe weather, special missions that require large airspace allocations, and traffic density. When the aircraft approaches its destination, the center is responsible for meeting altitude restrictions by specific points, as well as providing many destination airports with a traffic flow, which prohibits all of the arrivals being "bunched together". These "flow restrictions" often begin in the middle of the route, as controllers will position aircraft landing in the same destination so that when the aircraft are close to their destination they are sequenced.

As an aircraft reaches the boundary of a Center's control area it is "handed off" or "handed over" to the next Area Control Center. In some cases this "hand-off" process involves a transfer of identification and details between controllers so that air traffic control services can be provided in a seamless manner; in other cases local agreements may allow "silent handovers" such that the receiving center does not require any co-ordination if traffic is presented in an agreed manner. After the hand-off, the aircraft is given a frequency change and begins talking to the next controller. This process continues until the aircraft is handed off to a terminal controller ("approach").

===Radar coverage===
Since centers control a large airspace area, they will typically use long range radar that has the capability, at higher altitudes, to see aircraft within 200 nautical miles (370 km) of the radar antenna. They may also use [[TRACON]] radar data to control when it provides a better "picture" of the traffic or when it can fill in a portion of the area not covered by the long range radar.

In the U.S. system, at higher altitudes, over 90% of the U.S. airspace is covered by radar and often by multiple radar systems; however, coverage may be inconsistent at lower altitudes used by unpressurized aircraft due to high terrain or distance from radar facilities. A center may require numerous radar systems to cover the airspace assigned to them, and may also rely on pilot position reports from aircraft flying below the floor of radar coverage. This results in a large amount of data being available to the controller. To address this, automation systems have been designed that consolidate the radar data for the controller. This consolidation includes eliminating duplicate radar returns, ensuring the best radar for each geographical area is providing the data, and displaying the data in an effective format.

Centers also exercise control over traffic travelling over the world's ocean areas. These areas are also [[Flight Information Region|FIR]]s. Because there are no radar systems available for oceanic control, oceanic controllers provide ATC services using [[procedural control]]. These procedures use aircraft position reports, time, altitude, distance, and speed to ensure separation. Controllers record information on [[flight progress strip]]s and in specially developed oceanic computer systems as aircraft report positions. This process requires that aircraft be separated by greater distances, which reduces the overall capacity for any given route.

Some Air Navigation Service Providers (e.g Airservices Australia, The Federal Aviation Administration, NAVCANADA, etc.) have implemented Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast ([[ADS-B]]) as part of their surveillance capability. This new technology reverses the radar concept. Instead of radar "finding" a target by interrogating the transponder, the ADS-equipped aircraft sends a position report as determined by the navigation equipment on board the aircraft. Normally, ADS operates in the "contract" mode where the aircraft reports a position, automatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a predetermined time interval. It is also possible for controllers to request more frequent reports to more quickly establish aircraft position for specific reasons. However, since the cost for each report is charged by the ADS service providers to the company operating the aircraft, more frequent reports are not commonly requested except in emergency situations. ADS is significant because it can be used where it is not possible to locate the infrastructure for a radar system (e.g. over water). Computerized radar displays are now being designed to accept ADS inputs as part of the display. This technology is currently used in portions of the North Atlantic and the Pacific by a variety of States who share responsibility for the control of this airspace.

===Flight traffic mapping===
[[Image:Mapflightmap4.jpg|thumb|right|All inbound and outbound traffic for Minneapolis/St. Paul (MSP) airport on a weekday at 12:52 PM CDT from [http://maps.unomaha.edu/AnimatedFlightAtlas/ Animated Atlas: Flight Traffic over North America]]]The mapping of flights in real-time is based on the air traffic control system. In 1991, data on the location of aircraft was made available by the Federal Aviation Administration to the airline industry. The National Business Aviation Association ([[NBAA]]), the General Aviation Manufacturers Association, the Aircraft Owners & Pilots Association, the Helicopter Association International, and the National Air Transportation Association petitioned the FAA to make [[ASDI]] information available on a "need-to-know" basis. Subsequently, [[NBAA]] advocated the broad-scale dissemination of air traffic data. The Aircraft Situational Display to Industry ([[ASDI]]) system now conveys up-to-date flight information to the airline industry and the public. Some companies that distribute [[ASDI]] information are FlightExplorer, [[FlightView]], and FlyteComm. Each company maintains a website that provides free updated information to the public on flight status. Stand-alone programs are also available for displaying the geographic location of airborne [[IFR]] (Instrument Flight Rules) air traffic anywhere in the FAA air traffic system. Positions are reported for both commercial and general aviation traffic. The programs can overlay air traffic with a wide selection of maps such as, geo-political boundaries, air traffic control center boundaries, high altitude jet routes, satellite cloud and radar imagery.

==Problems==
===Traffic===
:''For more information see [[Air traffic flow management]]''.

The day-to-day problems faced by the air traffic control system are primarily related to the volume of air traffic demand placed on the system, and [[weather]]. Several factors dictate the amount of traffic that can land at an airport in a given amount of time. Each landing aircraft must touch down, slow, and exit the [[runway]] before the next crosses the beginning of the runway. This process requires at least one and up to four minutes for each aircraft. Allowing for departures between arrivals, each runway can thus handle about 30 arrivals per hour. A large airport with two arrival runways can handle about 60 arrivals per hour in good weather. Problems begin when [[airline]]s schedule more arrivals into an airport than can be physically handled, or when delays elsewhere cause groups of aircraft that would otherwise be separated in time to arrive simultaneously. Aircraft must then be delayed in the air by [[holding (aviation)|holding]] over specified locations until they may be safely sequenced to the runway. Up until the 1990s, holding, which has significant environmental and cost implications, was a routine occurrence at many airports. Advances in computers now allow the sequencing of planes hours in advance. Thus, planes may be delayed before they even take off (by being given a "slot"), or may reduce power in flight and proceed more slowly thus significantly reducing the amount of holding.

===Weather===
Beyond runway capacity issues, weather is a major factor in traffic capacity. [[Rain]] or [[ice]] and [[snow]] on the runway cause landing aircraft to take longer to slow and exit, thus reducing the safe arrival rate and requiring more space between landing aircraft. [[Fog]] also requires a decrease in the landing rate. These, in turn, increase airborne delay for holding aircraft. If more aircraft are scheduled than can be safely and efficiently held in the air, a ground delay program may be established, delaying aircraft on the ground before departure due to conditions at the arrival airport.

In Area Control Centers, a major weather problem is [[thunderstorms]], which present a variety of hazards to aircraft. Aircraft will deviate around storms, reducing the capacity of the en-route system by requiring more space per aircraft, or causing congestion as many aircraft try to move through a single hole in a line of thunderstorms. Occasionally weather considerations cause delays to aircraft prior to their departure as routes are closed by thunderstorms.

Much money has been spent on creating [[software]] to streamline this process. However, at some ACCs, air traffic controllers still record data for each flight on strips of paper and personally coordinate their paths. In newer sites, these [[flight progress strip]]s have been replaced by electronic data presented on computer screens. As new equipment is brought in, more and more sites are upgrading away from paper flight strips.

==Call signs==
A prerequisite to safe air traffic separation is the assignment and use of distinctive [[callsign|call signs]]. These are permanently allocated by [[ICAO]] (pronounced "eh-key-oh") on request usually to [[scheduled air transport|scheduled flights]] and some air forces for [[military aviation|military flights]]. They are written callsigns with 3-letter combination like KLM, AAL, SWA , BAW , DLH followed by the flight number, like AAL872, BAW018. As such they appear on flight plans and ATC radar labels. There are also the ''audio'' or ''Radio-telephony'' callsigns used on the radio contact between pilots and Air Traffic Control not always identical with the written ones. For example BAW stands for British Airways but on the radio you will only hear the word ''Speedbird'' instead. By default, the callsign for any other flight is the [[Aircraft registration|registration number]] (tail number) of the aircraft, such as "N12345" or "C-GABC". The term ''tail number'' is because a registration number is usually painted somewhere on the tail of a plane, yet this is not a rule. Registration numbers may appear on the engines, anywhere on the [[fuselage]], and often on the wings. The short ''Radio-telephony'' callsigns for these tail numbers is the first letter followed by the last two, like C-BC spoken as Charlie-Bravo-Charlie for C-GABC or the last 3 letters only like ABC spoken Alpha-Bravo-Charlie for C-GABC or the last 3 numbers like 345 spoken as tree-fower-fife for N12345. In the United States the abbreviation of callsigns is required to be a prefix (such as aircraft type, aircraft manufacturer, or first letter of registration) followed by the last three characters of the callsign. This abbreviation is only allowed after communications has been established in each sector.

The flight number part is decided by the aircraft operator. In this arrangement, an identical call sign might well be used for the same scheduled journey each day it is operated, even if the departure time varies a little across different days of the week. The call sign of the return flight often differs only by the final digit from the outbound flight. Generally, airline flight numbers are even if eastbound, and odd if westbound. In order to reduce the possibility of two callsigns on one frequency at any time sounding too similar, a number of airlines, particularly in Europe, have started using [[alphanumeric]] callsigns that are not based on flight numbers. For example DLH23LG, spoken as [[lufthansa]]-two-tree-lima-golf. Additionally it is the right of the air traffic controller to change the 'audio' callsign for the period the flight is in his sector if there is a risk of confusion, usually choosing the tail number instead.

Before around 1980 [[IATA]] and [[ICAO]] were using the same 2-letter callsigns. Due to the larger number of new airlines after deregulation [[ICAO]] established the 3-letter callsigns as mentioned above. The [[IATA]] callsigns are currently used in aerodromes on the announcement tables but never used any longer in Air Traffic Control. For example, AA is the [[IATA]] callsign for [[American Airlines]] — ATC equivalent AAL. Other examples include LY/ELY for [[El Al]], DL/DAL for [[Delta Air Lines]], LH/DLH for Lufthansa etc.

==Technology==
Many technologies are used in air traffic control systems. Primary and secondary [[radar]] are used to enhance a controller's "situational awareness" within his assigned airspace — all types of aircraft send back primary echoes of varying sizes to controllers' screens as radar energy is bounced off their skins, and [[transponder]]-equipped aircraft reply to secondary radar interrogations by giving an ID (Mode A), an altitude (Mode C) and/or a unique callsign (Mode S). Certain types of weather may also register on the radar screen.

These inputs, added to data from other radars, are correlated to build the air situation. Some basic processing occurs on the radar tracks, such as calculating ground speed and magnetic headings.

Usually, a [[Flight Data Processing System]] manages all the [[flight plan]] related data, incorporating - in a low or high degree - the information of the track once the correlation between them (flight plan and track) is established. All this information is distributed to modern [[operational display system]]s, making it available to controllers.

The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] has spent over USD$3 billion on software, but a fully-automated system is still over the horizon. In 2002 the UK brought a new area control centre into service at [[Swanwick, Hampshire|Swanwick]], in [[Hampshire]], relieving a busy suburban centre at [[West Drayton]] in [[Middlesex]], north of [[London Heathrow Airport]]. Software from [[Lockheed-Martin]] predominates at Swanwick. The Swanwick facility, however, was initially been troubled by software and communications problems causing delays and occasional shutdowns.

Some tools are available in different domains to help the controller further:
* [[Flight Data Processing System]]s: this is the system (usually one per Center) that processes all the information related to the Flight (the Flight Plan), typically in the time horizon from Gate to gate (airport departure/arrival gates). It uses such processed information to invoke other Flight Plan related tools (such as e.g. MTCD), and distributes such processed information to all the stakeholders (Air Traffic Controllers, collateral Centers, Airports, etc).
* [[Short Term Conflict Alert|STCA]] (Short Term CA) that checks possible conflicting trajectories in a time horizon of about 2 or 3 minutes (or even less in approach context - 35 seconds in the French Roissy & Orly approach centres <ref>[http://www.dgac.fr/html/publicat/av_civil/them_1/them_1_34_35.pdf DGAC/Aviation Civile Magazine]</ref>) and alerts the controller prior the loss of separation. The algorithms used may also provide in some systems a possible vectoring solution, that is, the manner in which to turn, descend, or climb the aircraft in order to avoid infringing the minimum safety distance or altitude clearance.
*Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW): a tool that alerts the controller if an aircraft appears to be flying too low to the ground or will impact terrain based on its current altitude and heading.
*System Coordination (SYSCO) to enable controller to negotiate the release of flights from one sector to another.
*Area Penetration Warning (APW) to inform a controller that a flight will penetrate a restricted area.
*Arrival and Departure Manager to help sequence the takeoff and landing of aircraft.
**The [[DMAN|Departure Manager (DMAN)]]: A system aid for the ATC at airports, that calculates a planned departure flow with the goal to maintain an optimal throughput at the runway, reduce queuing at holding point and distribute the information to various stakeholders at the airport (i.e. the airline, ground handling and Air Traffic Control (ATC)).
**The [[AMAN|Arrival Manager (AMAN)]]: A system aid for the ATC at airports, that calculates a planned Arrival flow with the goal to maintain an optimal throughput at the runway, reduce arrival queuing and distribute the information to various stakeholders.
** passive Final Approach Spacing Tool (pFAST), a CTAS tool, provides runway assignment and sequence number advisories to terminal controllers to improve the arrival rate at congested airports. pFAST was deployed and operational at five US TRACONs before being cancelled. NASA research included an Active FAST capability that also provided vector and speed advisories to implement the runway and sequence advisories.
*Converging Runway Display Aid (CRDA) enables Approach controllers to run two final approaches that intersect and make sure that go arounds are minimized
*Center TRACON Automation System (CTAS) is a suite of human centered decision support tools developed by NASA Ames Research Center. Several of the CTAS tools have been field tested and transitioned to the FAA for operational evaluation and use. Some of the CTAS tools are: Traffic Management Advisor (TMA), passive Final Approach Spacing Tool (pFAST), Collaborative Arrival Planning (CAP), Direct-To (D2), En Route Descent Advisor (EDA) and Multi Center TMA.
* Traffic Management Advisor (TMA), a CTAS tool, is an en route decision support tool that automates time based metering solutions to provide an upper limit of aircraft to a TRACON from the Center over a set period of time. Schedules are determined that will not exceed the specified arrival rate and controllers use the scheduled times to provide the appropriate delay to arrivals while in the en route domain. This results in an overall reduction in en route delays and also moves the delays to more efficient airspace (higher altitudes) than occur if holding near the TRACON boundary is required to not overload the TRACON controllers. TMA is operational at most en route air route traffic control centers (ARTCCs) and continues to be enhanced to address more complex traffic situations (e.g. Adjacent Center Metering (ACM) and En Route Departure Capability (EDC))
* MTCD & URET
**In the US, User Request Evaluation Tool (URET) takes paper strips out of the equation for En Route controllers at ARTCCs by providing a display that shows all aircraft that are either in or currently routed into the sector.
**In Europe, several MTCD tools are available: iFACTS ([[National Air Traffic Services|NATS]]), ERATO (DSNA [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSNA]), VAFORIT ([[Deutsche Flugsicherung|DFS]]), New FDPS ([[MASUAC]]). The [[Single European Sky ATM Research|SESAR]]<ref name=SESARref>[http://www.eurocontrol.int/sesar/public/subsite_homepage/homepage.html SESAR]</ref> Programme should soon launch new MTCD concepts.
:URET and MTCD provide conflict advisories up to 30 minutes in advance and have a suite of assistance tools that assist in evaluating resolution options and pilot requests.
*[[Transponder (aviation)#Mode S|Mode S]]: provides a data downlink of flight parameters via Secondary Surveillance Radars allowing radar processing systems and therefore controllers to see various data on a flight, including airframe unique id (24-bits encoded), indicated airspeed and flight director selected level, amongst others.
*CPDLC: [[Controller Pilot Data Link Communications]] — allows digital messages to be sent between controllers and pilots, avoiding the need to use radiotelephony. It is especially useful in areas where difficult-to-use [[High Frequency|HF]] radiotelephony was previously used for communication with aircraft, e.g. oceans. This is currently in use in various parts of the world including the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
*[[ADS-B]]: Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast — provides a data downlink of various flight parameters to air traffic control systems via the Transponder (1090 MHz) and reception of those data by other aircraft in the vicinity. The most important is the aircraft's latitude, longitude and level: such data can be utilized to create a radar-like display of aircraft for controllers and thus allows a form of pseudo-radar control to be done in areas where the installation of radar is either prohibitive on the grounds of low traffic levels, or technically not feasible (e.g. oceans). This is currently in use in Australia and parts of the Pacific Ocean and Alaska.
*The Electronic Flight Strip system (e-strip): A system of electronic flight strips replacing the old paper strips is been used by several Service Providers, such as NAV CANADA, MASUAC, DFS, being produced by several industries, such as [[Indra Sistemas]], [[Thales Group]], [[Frequentis]], Avibit, SAAB etc. E-strips allows controllers to manage electronic flight data online without Paper Strips, reducing the need for manual functions.

==Major accidents==
A list of recent accidents can be found in [[:category:21st century aviation accidents and incidents|this list]].

On [[July 1]], [[2002]] a [[Tupolev Tu-154]] and [[Boeing 757]] collided above [[Überlingen]] near the boundary between [[Germany|German]] and [[Switzerland|Swiss]]-controlled [[airspace]] when a [[Skyguide]]-employed controller ([[Peter Nielsen]]), unaware that the flight was receiving instruction from the on-board automatic [[Traffic Collision Avoidance System]] software to climb, instructed the southbound Tupolev to descend. See ''[[2002 Überlingen Mid-Air Collision]]'' for more on this accident.

The deadliest mid-air crash, the [[1996 Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision]] over [[India]], partly resulted from the fact that the [[New Delhi]]-area airspace was shared by departures and arrivals, when in most cases departures and arrivals would use separate airspaces.

The deadliest collision between airliners took place on the ground, on [[March 27]], [[1977]], in what is known as the [[Tenerife disaster]].

==Air navigation service providers (ANSPs) and traffic service providers (ATSPs)==
The regulatory function remains the responsibility of the State and can be exercised by Government and/or independent Safety, Airspace and Economic Regulators depending on the national institutional arrangements. Often you will see a division between the [[Civil Aviation Authority]] (CAA) (the [[Regulator]]) and the ANSP (the [[Air Navigation Service Provider]]).

An Air Navigation Service Provider — The air navigation service provider is the authority directly responsible for providing both visual and non-visual aids to navigation within a specific airspace in compliance with, but not limited to, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annexes 2, 6, 10 and 11; ICAO Documents 4444 and 9426; and, other international, multi-national, and national policy, agreements or regulations.

An Air Traffic Service Provider is the relevant authority designated by the State responsible for providing air traffic services in the airspace concerned — where airspace is classified as Type A through G airspace. Air traffic service is a generic term meaning variously, flight information service, alerting service, air traffic advisory service, air traffic control service (area control service, approach control service or aerodrome control service).

Both ANSPs and ATSPs can be public, private or corporatized organisations and examples of the different legal models exist throughout the world today. The world's ANSPs are united in and represented by the [[Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation]] ([http://www.canso.org CANSO]) based at Amsterdam Airport [[Schiphol]] in the Netherlands.

In the [[United States]], the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) provides this service to all aircraft in the [[National Airspace System]] (NAS). With the exception of facilities operated by the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] (DoD), the FAA is responsible for all aspects of U.S. Air Traffic Control including hiring and training controllers, although there are contract towers located in many parts of the country. A contract tower is an Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) that performs the same function as an FAA-run ATCT but is staffed by employees of a private company ([[Martin State Airport]] in [[Maryland]] is an example). DoD facilities are generally staffed by military personnel and operate separately but concurrently with FAA facilities, under similar rules and procedures. In [[Canada]], Air Traffic Control is provided by [[NAV CANADA]], a private, non-share capital corporation that operates Canada's civil air navigation service.

*{{flag|Albania}} - [http://www.anta.altirana.com Agjencia Nacionale e Trafikut Ajror]
*{{flag|Austria}} - [http://www.austrocontrol.at Austro Control]
*{{flag|Australia}} - [[Airservices Australia]] (State Owned Corporation) and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]].
*{{flag|Belgium}} - [http://www.belgocontrol.be/ Belgocontrol]
*{{flag|Brazil}} - [http://www.decea.gov.br Department of Air Space Control] (Military Authority) and the [http://www.anac.gov.br National Agency of Civil Aviation]
*{{flag|Bulgaria}} - [http://www.atsa.bg/ Air Traffic Services Authority]
*{{flag|Canada}} - [[NAV CANADA]] - formerly provided by [[Transport Canada]]
*[[Central America]] - [http://www.cocesna.org Corporación Centroamericana de Servicios de Navegación Aerea]
**{{flag|Guatemala}} - [http://www.dgac.gob.gt/ DGAC (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil)]
**{{flag|El Salvador}}
**{{flag|Honduras}}
**{{flag|Nicaragua}}
**{{flag|Costa Rica}} - [http://www.dgac.go.cr/ Dirección General de Aviacion Civil]
**{{flag|Belize}}
*{{flag|Colombia}} - [http://www.aerocivil.gov.co (UAEAC)Aeronáutica Civil Colombiana]
*{{flag|Croatia}} - [http://www.crocontrol.hr Hrvatska kontrola zračne plovidbe (Croatia Control Ltd.)]
*{{flag|Cuba}} - [http://www.cubagob.cu/des_eco/iacc/home.htm IACC (Instituto de Aeronáutica Civil de Cuba)]
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} - [http://www.rlp.cz/ Řízení letového provozu ČR]
*{{flag|Denmark}} - [http://www.naviair.dk/ Naviair] (Danish ATC)
*{{flag|Dominican Republic}} - [http://www.dgac.gov.do/ DGAC (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil)]
*{{flag|Estonia}} - [http://www.eans.ee/ Estonian Air Navigation Services]
*{{flag|Europe}} - [[Eurocontrol]] - (European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation)
*{{flag|Finland}} - [[Finavia]]
*{{flag|France}} - [http://www.aviation-civile.gouv.fr/ Direction Générale de l'Aviation Civile (DGAC)] : [http://www.dsna-dti.aviation-civile.gouv.fr/presentation/frpresent.html Direction des Systèmes de la Navigation Aérienne (DSNA)] (Government body)
*{{flag|Georgia}} - [http://airnav.ge/en/ SAKAERONAVIGATSIA, Ltd. (Georgian Air Navigation)]
*{{flag|Germany}} - [[Deutsche Flugsicherung]] (German ATC)
*{{flag|Greece}} - Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority (Hellenic ATC)
*{{flag|Hong Kong}} - [http://www.cad.gov.hk CAD (Civil Aviation Department)]
*{{flag|Hungary}} - [http://www.hungarocontrol.hu/en/ HungaroControl Magyar Légiforgalmi Szolgálat Zrt.] (HungaroControl Hungarian Air Navigation Services Pte. Ltd. Co.)
*{{flag|Iceland}} - [http://www.flugstodir.is/?PageID=101 ISAVIA]
*{{flag|Indonesia}} - [http://www.angkasapura2.co.id/ Angkasa Pura II]
*{{IRL}} - IAA ([[Irish Aviation Authority]])
*{{flag|India}} - [[Airports Authority of India]] (AAI) (under Ministry of Civil Aviation, [[Government Of India]])
*{{flag|Italy}} - ENAV (Italian ATC)[http://www.enav.it/ (Ente Nazionale Assistenza al Volo - Italian ATC)]
*{{flag|Jamaica}} - [http://www.jcaa.gov.jm/ JCAA (Jamaica Civil Aviation Authority)]
*{{flag|Latvia}} - [http://www.lgs.lv LGS (Latvian ATC)]
*{{flag|Lithuania}} - [http://www.ans.lt ANS (Lithuanian ATC)]
*{{flag|Macedonia}} - [http://www.dgca.gov.mk DGCA (Macedonian ATC)]
*{{flag|Malaysia}} - [http://www.dca.gov.my DCA-Department of Civil Aviation]
*{{flag|Mexico}} - [http://www.seneam.gob.mx Servicios a la Navegación en el Espacio Aéreo Mexicano]
*{{flag|Netherlands}} - [http://www.lvnl.nl LVNL (Dutch ATC)]
*{{flag|New Zealand}} - [[Airways New Zealand]] (State Owned Enterprise)
*{{flag|Norway}} - [[Avinor]] (State-owned private company)
*{{flag|Pakistan}} - [[Civil Aviation Authority of Pakistan|Civil Aviation Authority]] (under [[Government of Pakistan]])
*{{flag|Peru}} - [http://www.corpac.gob.pe/ciac/ciac.asp Centro de Instrucción de Aviación Civil CIAC] Civil Aviation Training Center
*{{flag|Philippines}} - Air Transportation Office (ATO) (under the Philippine Government)
*{{flag|Poland}} - PANSA - [[Polish Air Navigation Services Agency]]
*{{flag|Portugal}} - NAV - [http://www.nav.pt NAV (Portuguese ATC)]
*{{flag|Romania}} - Romanian Air Traffic Services Administration - [http://www.romatsa.ro (ROMATSA)]
*{{flag|Singapore}} - CAAS ([[Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore]])
*{{flag|Serbia}} - Nacionalna sluzba letenja
*{{flag|Slovakia}} - [http://www.lps.sk/ Letové prevádzkové služby Slovenskej republiky]
*{{flag|Slovenia}} - [http://www.sloveniacontrol.si Slovenia Control]
*{{flag|South Africa}} - Air Traffic and Navigation Services , [http://www.atns.co.za]
*{{flag|Spain}} - [[AENA]] (Spanish ATC and Airports)
*{{flag|Sweden}} - [http://www.lfv.se/ The LFV Group] (Swedish ATC)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} - [[Skyguide]]
*{{flag|Taiwan}} - [http://www.anws.gov.tw/eng/index.php ANWS ] Civil Aeronautical Administration
*{{flag|Thailand}} - [http://www.aerothai.co.th/ AEROTHAI (Aeronautical Radio of Thailand)]
*{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}} - [http://www.caa.gov.tt/ TTCAA (Trinidad and Tobago Civil Aviation Authority)]
*{{flag|Turkey}} - [http://www.shgm.gov.tr/ DGCA (Turkish Directorate General of Civil Aviation)]
*{{flag|United Kingdom}} - [[National Air Traffic Services]] (49% State Owned Public-Private Partnership)
*{{flag|United States}} - [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (Government Body)
*{{flag|Ukraine}} - Ukrainian State Air Traffic Service Enterprise (UkSATSE)
*{{flag|Venezuela}} - INAC (Instituto Nacional de Aviación Civil)

==Proposed changes==

In the United States, some alterations to traffic control procedures are being examined.
* The [[Next Generation Air Transportation System]] examines how to overhaul the United States national airspace system.
* [[Free flight (air traffic control)|Free flight]] is a developing air traffic control method that uses no centralized control (e.g. air traffic controllers). Instead, parts of airspace are reserved dynamically and automatically in a distributed way using computer communication to ensure the required separation between aircraft.<ref>[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.04/es.faa.html Free Flight]</ref>

In Europe, the SESAR<ref name=SESARref /> ([[Single European Sky ATM Research]]) Programme plans to develop new methods, new technologies, new procedures, new systems to accommodate future (2020 and beyond) Air Traffic Needs.

Many countries have also privatized or corporatized their air navigation service providers.<ref>McDougall, Glen and Roberts, Alasdair S.,Commercializing Air Traffic Control: Have the Reforms Worked?(August 15, 2007). ''Canadian Public Administration'', Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 45-69, 2009 . [http://ssrn.com/abstract=1317450 Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1317450]</ref>

==USA Specifities==

[[FAA]] [[Control Tower Operator]]s ([[CTO]])/[[Air Traffic Controller]]s use [[FAA Order 7110.65S]] as the authority for all procedures regarding air traffic. For more information regarding [[Air Traffic Control]] rules and regulations, refer the [[Federal Aviation Administration]]'s ([[FAA]]) website at:[http://www.faa.gov/atpubs]

==See also==
*[[Air safety]]
*[[Air traffic controller]]
*[[Airspace]]
*[[Area Control Center]] (ACC)
*[[Australian Air Traffic Control]]
*[[Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast]] (ADS-B)
*[[Aviation light signals]]
* European Operational Concept Validation Methodology ([[E-OCVM]])
*[[Flight level]] (FL)
*[[Flight planning]]
*[[Flight progress strip]]
*[[Flight traffic mapping]]
*[[Global Air Traffic Management]]
*[[IFATCA]] (International Federation of ATC Associations)
*[[Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization]]
*[[Tenerife disaster]], ([[Los Rodeos Airport|TFN]])
*[[Terminal Control Center]]
*[[Tower en route control]] (TEC)
*[[Zagreb mid-air collision]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.atc-network.com The ATC Network - The online portal for ATC professionals]
*[http://www.flightschoollist.com/atc.htm ATC Training Schools]
*[http://www.ifatsea.org International Federation of Air Traffic Safety Electronics Associations]

===History===
*[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Government_Role/Air_traffic_control/POL15.htm U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission - Air Traffic Control]

===Internet services===
* [http://www.skybrary.aero SKYbrary: The single point of reference in the network of aviation safety knowledge]
*[http://www.liveatc.net Listen to ATC radio] 24/7 Live Aviation Radio
*[http://flightaware.com/live/ Map of airborne flights controlled by US ATC]
*[http://media.libsyn.com/media/airspeed/AirspeedSchad.mp3 Audio of interview with US terminal area controller]

{{commercial aviation}}

[[Category:Air traffic control| ]]
[[Category:Aviation terminology]]
[[Category:Radar]]

[[ar:مراقبة الملاحة الجوية]]
[[ca:Control del trànsit aeri]]
[[cs:Řízení letového provozu]]
[[da:Flyvekontroltjeneste]]
[[de:Flugsicherung]]
[[et:Lennujuht]]
[[el:Έλεγχος Εναέριας Κυκλοφορίας]]
[[es:Control del tráfico aéreo]]
[[fa:مراقبت پرواز]]
[[fr:Contrôle du trafic aérien]]
[[gl:Control de tráfico aéreo]]
[[ko:항공 교통 관제]]
[[id:Pengatur lalu-lintas udara]]
[[it:Controllo del traffico aereo]]
[[he:פיקוח טיסה]]
[[nl:Luchtverkeersleiding]]
[[ja:航空交通管制]]
[[no:Flykontrolltjeneste]]
[[pl:Służba kontroli ruchu lotniczego]]
[[pt:Controle de tráfego aéreo]]
[[ru:Система управления воздушным движением]]
[[simple:Air traffic control]]
[[sk:Riadenie letovej prevádzky]]
[[fi:Lennonjohto]]
[[sv:Flygledning]]
[[vi:Điều khiển không lưu]]
[[tr:Hava trafik kontrol (ATC)]]
[[ur:ہوائی مرور انضباط]]
[[zh:航空交通管制]]

Flugverkehrskontrolle

2008-12-28T06:15:54Z

Voidvector: request cite

{{For|the Canadian musical group|Air Traffic Control (band)}}

{{refimprove|date=October 2007}}
[[Image:Verkeerstorens Schiphol.jpg|thumb|right|Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCTs) at [[Amsterdam]]'s [[Schiphol Airport]]]]
'''Air traffic control''' ('''ATC''') is a service provided by ground-based [[Air traffic controller|controllers]] who direct [[aircraft]] on the ground and in the air. The primary purpose of ATC systems worldwide is to ''separate'' aircraft to prevent collisions, to organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and to provide information and other support for pilots when able. In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense role (as in the United States), or actually be run entirely by the military (as in Brazil). Air traffic control was first introduced at London's [[Croydon Airport]] in 1921. [[Archie League]], who controlled aircraft using colored flags at what is today [[Lambert-St. Louis International Airport]], is often considered the first [[air traffic controller]].

Preventing collisions is referred to as [[Separation (air traffic control)|separation]], which is a term used to prevent aircraft from coming too close to each other by use of lateral, vertical and longitudinal separation minima; many aircraft now have [[Aircraft collision avoidance systems|collision avoidance systems]] installed to act as a backup to ATC observation and instructions. In addition to its primary function, the ATC can provide additional services such as providing information to pilots, weather and navigation information and [[NOTAM]]s (Notices to Airmen).''

In many countries, ATC services are provided throughout the majority of airspace, and its services are available to all users (private, military, and commercial). When controllers are responsible for separating some or all aircraft, such airspace is called "[[controlled airspace]]" in contrast to "[[uncontrolled airspace]]" where aircraft may fly without the use of the air traffic control system. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue ''instructions'' that [[Aviator|pilots]] are required to follow, or merely ''flight information'' (in some countries known as ''advisories'') to assist pilots operating in the airspace. In all cases, however, the pilot in command has final responsibility for the safety of the flight, and may deviate from ATC instructions in an emergency. To ensure communication, all pilots and all controllers everywhere are required to be able to speak and understand [[English language|English]]. While they may use any compatible language, English must be used if requested.{{cn}} The native language for the region is normally used. FAA [[Control Tower Operator]]s ([[CTO]])/[[Air Traffic Controller]]s use [[FAA Order 7110.65S]] as the authority for all procedures regarding air traffic. For more information regarding [[Air Traffic Control]] rules and regulations, refer the [[Federal Aviation Administration]]'s ([[FAA]]) website at:[http://www.faa.gov/atpubs]

==History==
[[Image:12-30-2007 001.JPG|thumb|right|Air traffic controllers at [[Memphis International Airport]], 1962]]The first attempts to provide a semblance of air traffic control were based on simple "rules of the road" (European sponsored International Convention for Air Navigation, 1919). The first air traffic regulations were established in the United States by the passage of the Air Commerce Act (1926).

Around 1930, radio equipped control towers were established by some local authorities, and in 1933 instrument flying began.

By 1935 several airlines jointly established the first Airway Traffic Control centers to safeguard their aircraft against midair collisions. In 1936 this preliminary effort was transferred to the Federal Government, and the first-generation Air Traffic Control (ATC) System was born.

In 1935, in the US, airlines using the Chicago, Cleveland, and Newark airports agreed to coordinate the handling of airline traffic between those cities. In December, the first Airway Traffic Control Center opened at Newark, New Jersey. The first-generation Air Traffic Control (ATC) System was born. Additional centers at Chicago and Cleveland followed in 1936.

==Airport control==
[[Image:AeroportoGuarulhos TorreInterno.jpg|thumb|right|Inside the [[Guarulhos International Airport|São Paulo/Guarulhos International Airport's]] tower, Latin America's second busiest airport.]]
The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual observation from the control tower. The tower is a tall, windowed structure located on the airport grounds. '''Aerodrome''' or '''Tower''' controllers are responsible for the separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 2 to 5 nautical miles (3.7 to 9.2 km) depending on the airport procedures.

[[Radar]] displays are also available to controllers at some airports. Controllers may use a radar system called [[Secondary surveillance radar|Secondary Surveillance Radar]] for airborne traffic approaching and departing. These displays include a map of the area, the position of various aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft identification, speed, heading, and other information described in local procedures.

The areas of responsibility for tower controllers fall into three general operational disciplines; Ground Control, Local or Air Control, and Clearance Delivery -- other categories, such as Apron Control or Ground Movement Planner, may exist at extremely busy airports. While each tower's procedures will vary and while there may be multiple teams in larger towers that control multiple runways, the following provides a general concept of the delegation of responsibilities within the tower environment.

===Ground Control===

Ground Control (sometimes known as Ground Movement Control abbreviated to GMC or Surface Movement Control abbreviated to SMC) is responsible for the airport "maneuvering" areas, or areas not released to the airlines or other users. This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive having vacated the runway and departure gates. Exact areas and control responsibilities are clearly defined in local documents and agreements at each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or working in these areas is required to have clearance from the ground controller. This is normally done via VHF radio, but there may be special cases where other processes are used. Most aircraft and airside vehicles have radios. Aircraft or vehicles without radios will communicate with the tower via [[aviation light signals]] or will be led by vehicles with radios. People working on the airport surface normally have a communications link through which they can reach or be reached by ground control, commonly either by handheld radio or even [[Mobile phone|cell phone]]. Ground control is vital to the smooth operation of the airport because this position might constrain the order in which the aircraft will be sequenced to depart, which can affect the safety and efficiency of the airport's operation.

Some busier airports have Surface Movement Radar (SMR), such as, ASDE-3, AMASS or [[ASDE-X]], designed to display aircraft and vehicles on the ground. These are used by the ground controller as an additional tool to control ground traffic, particularly at night or in poor visibility. There are a wide range of capabilities on these systems as they are being modernized. Older systems will display a map of the airport and the target. Newer systems include the capability to display higher quality mapping, radar target, data blocks, and safety alerts.

===Local or Air Control===
Local or Air Control (most often referred to as the generic "Tower" control, although Tower control can also refer to a combination of the local, ground and clearance delivery positions) is responsible for the active runway surfaces. The Air Traffic Control Tower clears aircraft for take off or landing and ensures the runway is clear for these aircraft. If the tower controller detects any unsafe condition, a landing aircraft may be told to "[[go-around]]" and be re-sequenced into the landing pattern by the approach or terminal area controller.

Within the tower, a highly disciplined communications process between tower and ground control is an absolute necessity. Ground control must request and gain approval from tower control to cross any runway with any aircraft or vehicle. Likewise, tower control must ensure ground control is aware of any operations that impact the taxiways and must work with the approach radar controllers to ensure "holes" or "gaps" in the arrival traffic are created (where necessary) to allow taxiing traffic to cross runways and to allow departing aircraft to take off. [[Crew Resource Management]] (CRM) procedures are often used to ensure this communication process is efficient and clear, although this is not as prevalent as CRM for [[Aviator|pilots]].

===Clearance delivery===
Clearance delivery is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft before they commence taxiing. These contain details of the route that the aircraft is expected to fly after departure. This position will, if necessary, coordinate with the en-route center and national command center or flow control to obtain releases for aircraft. Often however such releases are given automatically or are controlled by local agreements allowing "free-flow" departures. When weather or extremely high demand for a certain airport or airspace becomes a factor, there may be ground "stops" (or "slot delays") or re-routes may be necessary to ensure the system does not get overloaded. The primary responsibility of the clearance delivery position is to ensure that the aircraft have the proper route and slot time. This information is also coordinated with the en-route center and the ground controller in order to ensure the aircraft reaches the runway in time to meet the slot time provided by the command center. At some airports the clearance delivery controller also plans aircraft pushbacks and engine starts and is known as Ground Movement Planner (GMP): this position is particularly important at heavily congested airports to prevent taxiway and apron gridlock.

===Approach and terminal control===
[[Image:Potomac Consolidated TRACON.jpg|thumb|right|Inside the Potomac TRACON]]
{{main|Terminal Control Center}}
Many airports have a radar control facility that is associated with the airport. In most countries, this is referred to as ''Approach'' or ''Terminal Control''; in the U.S., it is often still referred to as a [[Terminal Control Center|TRACON]] (Terminal Radar Approach CONtrol) facility. While every airport varies, terminal controllers usually handle traffic in a 30 to 50 nautical mile (56 to 93 km) radius from the airport. Where there are many busy airports in close proximity, one single terminal control may service all the airports. The actual airspace boundaries and altitudes assigned to a terminal control are based on factors such as traffic flows, neighboring airports and terrain, and vary widely from airport to airport: a large and complex example is the [[London Terminal Control Centre]] which controls traffic for five main London airports up to {{convert|20000|ft|m}} and out to 100+ nautical miles.

Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services within their airspace. Traffic flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and overflights. As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the next appropriate control facility (a control tower, an en-route control facility, or a bordering terminal or approach control). Terminal control is responsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate altitude when they are handed off, and that aircraft arrive at a suitable rate for landing.

Not all airports have a radar approach or terminal control available. In this case, the en-route center or a neighboring terminal or approach control may co-ordinate directly with the tower on the airport and vector inbound aircraft to a position from where they can land visually. At some of these airports, the tower may provide a non-radar [[procedural control|procedural approach]] service to arriving aircraft handed over from a radar unit before they are visual to land. Some units also have a dedicated approach unit which can provide the [[procedural control|procedural approach]] service either all the time or for any periods of radar outage for any reason.

==En-route, center, or area control==
[[Image:AirTraffic-8.jpg|thumb|right|Controllers at work at the Washington Air Route Traffic Control Center.]]
{{main|Area Control Center}}
ATC provides services to aircraft in flight between airports as well. Pilots fly under one of two sets of rules for separation: [[Visual flight rules|Visual Flight Rules]] (VFR) or [[Instrument flight rules|Instrument Flight Rules]] (IFR). Air traffic controllers have different responsibilities to aircraft operating under the different sets of rules. While IFR flights are under positive control, in the US VFR pilots can request flight following, which provides traffic advisory services on a time permitting basis and may also provide assistance in avoiding areas of weather and flight restrictions.

En-route air traffic controllers issue clearances and instructions for airborne aircraft, and pilots are required to comply with these instructions. En-route controllers also provide air traffic control services to many smaller airports around the country, including clearance off of the ground and clearance for approach to an airport. Controllers adhere to a set of separation standards that define the minimum distance allowed between aircraft. These distances vary depending on the equipment and procedures used in providing ATC services.

===General characteristics===
En-route air traffic controllers work in facilities called Area Control Centers, each of which is commonly referred to as a "Center". The United States uses the equivalent term Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC). Each center is responsible for many thousands of square miles of airspace (known as a [[Flight Information Region]]) and for the airports within that airspace. Centers control IFR aircraft from the time they depart an airport or terminal area's airspace to the time they arrive at another airport or terminal area's airspace. Centers may also "pick up" VFR aircraft that are already airborne and integrate them into the IFR system. These aircraft must, however, remain VFR until the Center provides a clearance.

Center controllers are responsible for climbing the aircraft to their requested altitude while, at the same time, ensuring that the aircraft is properly separated from all other aircraft in the immediate area. Additionally, the aircraft must be placed in a flow consistent with the aircraft's route of flight. This effort is complicated by crossing traffic, severe weather, special missions that require large airspace allocations, and traffic density. When the aircraft approaches its destination, the center is responsible for meeting altitude restrictions by specific points, as well as providing many destination airports with a traffic flow, which prohibits all of the arrivals being "bunched together". These "flow restrictions" often begin in the middle of the route, as controllers will position aircraft landing in the same destination so that when the aircraft are close to their destination they are sequenced.

As an aircraft reaches the boundary of a Center's control area it is "handed off" or "handed over" to the next Area Control Center. In some cases this "hand-off" process involves a transfer of identification and details between controllers so that air traffic control services can be provided in a seamless manner; in other cases local agreements may allow "silent handovers" such that the receiving center does not require any co-ordination if traffic is presented in an agreed manner. After the hand-off, the aircraft is given a frequency change and begins talking to the next controller. This process continues until the aircraft is handed off to a terminal controller ("approach").

===Radar coverage===
Since centers control a large airspace area, they will typically use long range radar that has the capability, at higher altitudes, to see aircraft within 200 nautical miles (370 km) of the radar antenna. They may also use [[TRACON]] radar data to control when it provides a better "picture" of the traffic or when it can fill in a portion of the area not covered by the long range radar.

In the U.S. system, at higher altitudes, over 90% of the U.S. airspace is covered by radar and often by multiple radar systems; however, coverage may be inconsistent at lower altitudes used by unpressurized aircraft due to high terrain or distance from radar facilities. A center may require numerous radar systems to cover the airspace assigned to them, and may also rely on pilot position reports from aircraft flying below the floor of radar coverage. This results in a large amount of data being available to the controller. To address this, automation systems have been designed that consolidate the radar data for the controller. This consolidation includes eliminating duplicate radar returns, ensuring the best radar for each geographical area is providing the data, and displaying the data in an effective format.

Centers also exercise control over traffic travelling over the world's ocean areas. These areas are also [[Flight Information Region|FIR]]s. Because there are no radar systems available for oceanic control, oceanic controllers provide ATC services using [[procedural control]]. These procedures use aircraft position reports, time, altitude, distance, and speed to ensure separation. Controllers record information on [[flight progress strip]]s and in specially developed oceanic computer systems as aircraft report positions. This process requires that aircraft be separated by greater distances, which reduces the overall capacity for any given route.

Some Air Navigation Service Providers (e.g Airservices Australia, The Federal Aviation Administration, NAVCANADA, etc.) have implemented Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast ([[ADS-B]]) as part of their surveillance capability. This new technology reverses the radar concept. Instead of radar "finding" a target by interrogating the transponder. The ADS-equipped aircraft sends a position report as determined by the navigation equipment on board the aircraft. Normally, ADS operates in the "contract" mode where the aircraft reports a position, automatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a predetermined time interval. It is also possible for controllers to request more frequent reports to more quickly establish aircraft position for specific reasons. However, since the cost for each report is charged by the ADS service providers to the company operating the aircraft, more frequent reports are not commonly requested except in emergency situations.. ADS is significant because it can be used where it is not possible to locate the infrastructure for a radar system (e.g. over water). Computerized radar displays are now being designed to accept ADS inputs as part of the display. This technology is currently used in portions of the North Atlantic and the Pacific by a variety of States who share responsibility for the control of this airspace.

===Flight traffic mapping===
[[Image:Mapflightmap4.jpg|thumb|right|All inbound and outbound traffic for Minneapolis/St. Paul (MSP) airport on a weekday at 12:52 PM CDT from [http://maps.unomaha.edu/AnimatedFlightAtlas/ Animated Atlas: Flight Traffic over North America]]]The mapping of flights in real-time is based on the air traffic control system. In 1991, data on the location of aircraft was made available by the Federal Aviation Administration to the airline industry. The National Business Aviation Association ([[NBAA]]), the General Aviation Manufacturers Association, the Aircraft Owners & Pilots Association, the Helicopter Association International, and the National Air Transportation Association petitioned the FAA to make [[ASDI]] information available on a "need-to-know" basis. Subsequently, [[NBAA]] advocated the broad-scale dissemination of air traffic data. The Aircraft Situational Display to Industry ([[ASDI]]) system now conveys up-to-date flight information to the airline industry and the public. Some companies that distribute [[ASDI]] information are FlightExplorer, [[FlightView]], and FlyteComm. Each company maintains a website that provides free updated information to the public on flight status. Stand-alone programs are also available for displaying the geographic location of airborne [[IFR]] (Instrument Flight Rules) air traffic anywhere in the FAA air traffic system. Positions are reported for both commercial and general aviation traffic. The programs can overlay air traffic with a wide selection of maps such as, geo-political boundaries, air traffic control center boundaries, high altitude jet routes, satellite cloud and radar imagery.

==Problems==
===Traffic===
:''For more information see [[Air traffic flow management]]''.

The day-to-day problems faced by the air traffic control system are primarily related to the volume of air traffic demand placed on the system, and [[weather]]. Several factors dictate the amount of traffic that can land at an airport in a given amount of time. Each landing aircraft must touch down, slow, and exit the [[runway]] before the next crosses the end of the runway. This process requires at least one and up to four minutes for each aircraft. Allowing for departures between arrivals, each runway can thus handle about 30 arrivals per hour. A large airport with two arrival runways can handle about 60 arrivals per hour in good weather. Problems begin when [[airline]]s schedule more arrivals into an airport than can be physically handled, or when delays elsewhere cause groups of aircraft that would otherwise be separated in time to arrive simultaneously. Aircraft must then be delayed in the air by [[holding (aviation)|holding]] over specified locations until they may be safely sequenced to the runway. Up until the 1990s, holding, which has significant environmental and cost implications, was a routine occurrence at many airports. Advances in computers now allow the sequencing of planes hours in advance. Thus, planes may be delayed before they even take off (by being given a "slot"), or may reduce power in flight and proceed more slowly thus significantly reducing the amount of holding.

===Weather===
Beyond runway capacity issues, weather is a major factor in traffic capacity. [[Rain]] or [[ice]] and [[snow]] on the runway cause landing aircraft to take longer to slow and exit, thus reducing the safe arrival rate and requiring more space between landing aircraft. [[Fog]] also requires a decrease in the landing rate. These, in turn, increase airborne delay for holding aircraft. If more aircraft are scheduled than can be safely and efficiently held in the air, a ground delay program may be established, delaying aircraft on the ground before departure due to conditions at the arrival airport.

In Area Control Centers, a major weather problem is [[thunderstorms]], which present a variety of hazards to aircraft. Aircraft will deviate around storms, reducing the capacity of the en-route system by requiring more space per aircraft, or causing congestion as many aircraft try to move through a single hole in a line of thunderstorms. Occasionally weather considerations cause delays to aircraft prior to their departure as routes are closed by thunderstorms.

Much money has been spent on creating [[software]] to streamline this process. However, at some ACCs, air traffic controllers still record data for each flight on strips of paper and personally coordinate their paths. In newer sites, these [[flight progress strip]]s have been replaced by electronic data presented on computer screens. As new equipment is brought in, more and more sites are upgrading away from paper flight strips.

==Call signs==
A prerequisite to safe air traffic separation is the assignment and use of distinctive [[callsign|call signs]]. These are permanently allocated by [[ICAO]] (pronounced "eh-key-oh") on request usually to [[scheduled air transport|scheduled flights]] and some air forces for [[military aviation|military flights]]. They are written callsigns with 3-letter combination like KLM, AAL, SWA , BAW , DLH followed by the flight number, like AAL872, BAW018. As such they appear on flight plans and ATC radar labels. There are also the ''audio'' or ''Radio-telephony'' callsigns used on the radio contact between pilots and Air Traffic Control not always identical with the written ones. For example BAW stands for British Airways but on the radio you will only hear the word ''Speedbird'' instead. By default, the callsign for any other flight is the [[Aircraft registration|registration number]] (tail number) of the aircraft, such as "N12345" or "C-GABC". The term ''tail number'' is because a registration number is usually painted somewhere on the tail of a plane, yet this is not a rule. Registration numbers may appear on the engines, anywhere on the [[fuselage]], and often on the wings. The short ''Radio-telephony'' callsigns for these tail numbers is the first letter followed by the last two, like C-BC spoken as Charlie-Bravo-Charlie for C-GABC or the last 3 letters only like ABC spoken Alpha-Bravo-Charlie for C-GABC or the last 3 numbers like 345 spoken as tree-fower-fife for N12345. In the United States the abbreviation of callsigns is required to be a prefix (such as aircraft type, aircraft manufacturer, or first letter of registration) followed by the last three characters of the callsign. This abbreviation is only allowed after communications has been established in each sector.

The flight number part is decided by the aircraft operator. In this arrangement, an identical call sign might well be used for the same scheduled journey each day it is operated, even if the departure time varies a little across different days of the week. The call sign of the return flight often differs only by the final digit from the outbound flight. Generally, airline flight numbers are even if eastbound, and odd if westbound. In order to reduce the possibility of two callsigns on one frequency at any time sounding too similar, a number of airlines, particularly in Europe, have started using [[alphanumeric]] callsigns that are not based on flight numbers. For example DLH23LG, spoken as [[lufthansa]]-two-tree-lima-golf. Additionally it is the right of the air traffic controller to change the 'audio' callsign for the period the flight is in his sector if there is a risk of confusion, usually choosing the tail number instead.

Before around 1980 [[IATA]] and [[ICAO]] were using the same 2-letter callsigns. Due to the larger number of new airlines after deregulation [[ICAO]] established the 3-letter callsigns as mentioned above. The [[IATA]] callsigns are currently used in aerodromes on the announcement tables but never used any longer in Air Traffic Control. For example, AA is the [[IATA]] callsign for the [[ICAO]] — ATC equivalent AAL. Other examples include LY/ELY for [[El Al]], DL/DAL for [[Delta Air Lines]], LH/DLH for Lufthansa etc.

==Technology==
Many technologies are used in air traffic control systems. Primary and secondary [[radar]] are used to enhance a controller's "situational awareness" within his assigned airspace — all types of aircraft send back primary echoes of varying sizes to controllers' screens as radar energy is bounced off their skins, and [[transponder]]-equipped aircraft reply to secondary radar interrogations by giving an ID (Mode A), an altitude (Mode C) and/or a unique callsign (Mode S). Certain types of weather may also register on the radar screen.

These inputs, added to data from other radars, are correlated to build the air situation. Some basic processing occurs on the radar tracks, such as calculating ground speed and magnetic headings.

Other correlations with electronic [[flight plan]]s are also available to controllers on modern [[operational display system]]s.

The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] has spent over USD$3 billion on software, but a fully-automated system is still over the horizon. In 2002 the UK brought a new area control centre into service at [[Swanwick, Hampshire|Swanwick]], in [[Hampshire]], relieving a busy suburban centre at [[West Drayton]] in [[Middlesex]], north of [[London Heathrow Airport]]. Software from [[Lockheed-Martin]] predominates at Swanwick. The Swanwick facility, however, was initially been troubled by software and communications problems causing delays and occasional shutdowns.

Some tools are available in different domains to help the controller further:
*Conflict Alert (CA): a tool that checks possible conflicting trajectories and alerts the controller. The most common used is the [[Short Term Conflict Alert|STCA]] (Short Term CA) that is activated about 2 minutes (or even less in approach context - 35 seconds in the French Roissy & Orly approach centres <ref>[http://www.dgac.fr/html/publicat/av_civil/them_1/them_1_34_35.pdf DGAC/Aviation Civile Magazine]</ref> - to not raise wrong alerts) prior the loss of separation . The algorithms used may also provide in some systems a possible vectoring solution, that is, the manner in which to turn, descend, or climb the aircraft in order to avoid infringing the minimum safety distance or altitude clearance.
*Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW): a tool that alerts the controller if an aircraft appears to be flying too low to the ground or will impact terrain based on its current altitude and heading.
*System Coordination (SYSCO) to enable controller to negotiate the release of flights from one sector to another.
*Area Penetration Warning (APW) to inform a controller that a flight will penetrate a restricted area.
*Arrival and Departure manager to help sequence the takeoff and landing of aircraft.
*Converging Runway Display Aid (CRDA) enables Approach controllers to run two final approaches that intersect and make sure that go arounds are minimized
*Center TRACON Automation System (CTAS) is a suite of human centered decision support tools developed by NASA Ames Research Center. Several of the CTAS tools have been field tested and transitioned to the FAA for operational evaluation and use. Some of the CTAS tools are: Traffic Management Advisor (TMA), passive Final Approach Spacing Tool (pFAST), Collaborative Arrival Planning (CAP), Direct-To (D2), En Route Descent Advisor (EDA) and Multi Center TMA.
* Traffic Management Advisor (TMA), a CTAS tool, is an en route decision support tool that automates time based metering solutions to provide an upper limit of aircraft to a TRACON from the Center over a set period of time. Schedules are determined that will not exceed the specified arrival rate and controllers use the scheduled times to provide the appropriate delay to arrivals while in the en route domain. This results in an overall reduction in en route delays and also moves the delays to more efficient airspace (higher altitudes) than occur if holding near the TRACON boundary is required to not overload the TRACON controllers. TMA is operational at most en route air route traffic control centers (ARTCCs) and continues to be enhanced to address more complex traffic situations (e.g. Adjacent Center Metering (ACM) and En Route Departure Capability (EDC))
* passive Final Approach Spacing Tool (pFAST), a CTAS tool, provides runway assignment and sequence number advisories to terminal controllers to improve the arrival rate at congested airports. pFAST was deployed and operational at five US TRACONs before being cancelled. NASA research included an Active FAST capability that also provided vector and speed advisories to implement the runway and sequence advisories.
* MTCD & URET
**In the US, User Request Evaluation Tool (URET) takes paper strips out of the equation for En Route controllers at ARTCCs by providing a display that shows all aircraft that are either in or currently routed into the sector.
**In Europe, [[Eurocontrol]] launched a Medium Term Conflict Detection (MTCD) Programme for use by [[European Civil Aviation Conference|ECAC]] States. Today several MTCD tools are available: iFACTS ([[National Air Traffic Services|NATS]]), ERATO (DSNA [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSNA]), VAFORIT ([[Deutsche Flugsicherung|DFS]]). The SESAR <ref name=SESARref>[http://www.eurocontrol.int/sesar/public/subsite_homepage/homepage.html SESAR]</ref> Programme should soon launch new MTCD concepts.
:URET and MTCD provide conflict advisories up to 30 minutes in advance and have a suite of assistance tools that assist in evaluating resolution options and pilot requests.
*[[Transponder (aviation)#Mode S|Mode S]]: provides a data downlink of flight parameters via Secondary Surveillance Radars allowing radar processing systems and therefore controllers to see various data on a flight, including airframe unique id (24-bits encoded), indicated airspeed and flight director selected level, amongst others.
*CPDLC: [[Controller Pilot Data Link Communications]] — allows digital messages to be sent between controllers and pilots, avoiding the need to use radiotelephony. It is especially useful in areas where difficult-to-use [[High Frequency|HF]] radiotelephony was previously used for communication with aircraft, e.g. oceans. This is currently in use in various parts of the world including the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
*[[ADS-B]]: Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast — provides a data downlink of various flight parameters to air traffic control systems via the Transponder (1090 MHz) and reception of those data by other aircraft in the vicinity. The most important is the aircraft's latitude, longitude and level: such data can be utilized to create a radar-like display of aircraft for controllers and thus allows a form of pseudo-radar control to be done in areas where the installation of radar is either prohibitive on the grounds of low traffic levels, or technically not feasible (e.g. oceans). This is currently in use in Australia and parts of the Pacific Ocean and Alaska.
*The Electronic Flight Strip system (e-strip): A system of electronic flight strips replacing the old paper strips developed by NAV CANADA, Frequentis, Avibit, SAAB etc. E-strips allows controllers to manage electronic flight data online using touch-sensitive display screens resulting in system feed of clearances, fewer manual functions and a greater focus on safety. The NAV CANADA system has been sold to the Air Navigation Services Providers in the United Kingdom and Denmark.
*The [[DMAN| Departure Manager (DMAN)]]: A system aid for the ATC at airports, that calculates a planned departure flow with the goal to maintain an optimal throughput at the runway, reduce queuing at holding point and distribute the information to various stakeholders at the airport (i.e. the airline, ground handling and Air Traffic Control (ATC)). The tool is developed to give substantial environmental and safety benefits in peak hour operation.

==Major accidents==
A list of recent accidents can be found in [[:category:21st century aviation accidents and incidents|this list]].

On [[July 1]], [[2002]] a [[Tupolev Tu-154]] and [[Boeing 757]] collided above [[Überlingen]] near the boundary between [[Germany|German]] and [[Switzerland|Swiss]]-controlled [[airspace]] when a [[Skyguide]]-employed controller ([[Peter Nielsen]]), unaware that the flight was receiving instruction from the on-board automatic [[Traffic Collision Avoidance System]] software to climb, instructed the southbound Tupolev to descend. See ''[[2002 Überlingen Mid-Air Collision]]'' for more on this accident.

The deadliest mid-air crash, the [[1996 Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision]] over [[India]], partly resulted from the fact that the [[New Delhi]]-area airspace was shared by departures and arrivals, when in most cases departures and arrivals would use separate airspaces.

The deadliest collision between airliners took place on the ground, on [[March 27]], [[1977]], in what is known as the [[Tenerife disaster]].

==Air navigation service providers (ANSPs) and traffic service providers (ATSPs)==
The regulatory function remains the responsibility of the State and can be exercised by Government and/or independent Safety, Airspace and Economic Regulators depending on the national institutional arrangements. Often you will see a division between the [[Civil Aviation Authority]] (CAA) (the [[Regulator]]) and the ANSP (the [[Air Navigation Service Provider]]).

An Air Navigation Service Provider — The air navigation service provider is the authority directly responsible for providing both visual and non-visual aids to navigation within a specific airspace in compliance with, but not limited to, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annexes 2, 6, 10 and 11; ICAO Documents 4444 and 9426; and, other international, multi-national, and national policy, agreements or regulations.

An Air Traffic Service Provider is the relevant authority designated by the State responsible for providing air traffic services in the airspace concerned — where airspace is classified as Type A through G airspace. Air traffic service is a generic term meaning variously, flight information service, alerting service, air traffic advisory service, air traffic control service (area control service, approach control service or aerodrome control service).

Both ANSPs and ATSPs can be public, private or corporatized organisations and examples of the different legal models exist throughout the world today. The world's ANSPs are united in and represented by the [[Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation]] ([http://www.canso.org CANSO]) based at Amsterdam Airport [[Schiphol]] in the Netherlands.

In the [[United States]], the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) provides this service to all aircraft in the [[National Airspace System]] (NAS). With the exception of facilities operated by the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] (DoD), the FAA is responsible for all aspects of U.S. Air Traffic Control including hiring and training controllers, although there are contract towers located in many parts of the country. DoD facilities are generally staffed by military personnel and operate separately but concurrently with FAA facilities, under similar rules and procedures. A contract tower is an Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) that performs the same function as an FAA-run ATCT but is staffed by employees of a private company ([[Martin State Airport]] in [[Maryland]] is an example). In [[Canada]], Air Traffic Control is provided by [[NAV CANADA]], a private, non-share capital corporation that operates Canada's civil air navigation service.

*{{flag|Albania}} - [http://www.anta.altirana.com Agjencia Nacionale e Trafikut Ajror]
*{{flag|Austria}} - [http://www.austrocontrol.at Austro Control]
*{{flag|Australia}} - [[Airservices Australia]] (State Owned Corporation) and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]].
*{{flag|Belgium}} - [http://www.belgocontrol.be/ Belgocontrol]
*{{flag|Brazil}} - [http://www.decea.gov.br Department of Air Space Control] (Military Authority) and the [http://www.anac.gov.br National Agency of Civil Aviation]
*{{flag|Bulgaria}} - [http://www.atsa.bg/ Air Traffic Services Authority]
*{{flag|Canada}} - [[NAV CANADA]] - formerly provided by [[Transport Canada]]
*[[Central America]] - [http://www.cocesna.org Corporación Centroamericana de Servicios de Navegación Aerea]
**{{flag|Guatemala}} - [http://www.dgac.gob.gt/ DGAC (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil)]
**{{flag|El Salvador}}
**{{flag|Honduras}}
**{{flag|Nicaragua}}
**{{flag|Costa Rica}} - [http://www.dgac.go.cr/ Dirección General de Aviacion Civil]
**{{flag|Belize}}
*{{flag|Colombia}} - [http://www.aerocivil.gov.co (UAEAC)Aeronáutica Civil Colombiana]
*{{flag|Croatia}} - [http://www.crocontrol.hr Hrvatska kontrola zračne plovidbe (Croatia Control Ltd.)]
*{{flag|Cuba}} - [http://www.cubagob.cu/des_eco/iacc/home.htm IACC (Instituto de Aeronáutica Civil de Cuba)]
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} - [http://www.rlp.cz/ Řízení letového provozu ČR]
*{{flag|Denmark}} - [http://www.naviair.dk/ Naviair] (Danish ATC)
*{{flag|Dominican Republic}} - [http://www.dgac.gov.do/ DGAC (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil)]
*{{flag|Estonia}} - [http://www.eans.ee/ Estonian Air Navigation Services]
*{{flag|Europe}} - [[Eurocontrol]] - (European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation)
*{{flag|Finland}} - [[Finavia]]
*{{flag|France}} - [http://www.aviation-civile.gouv.fr/ Direction Générale de l'Aviation Civile (DGAC)] : [http://www.dsna-dti.aviation-civile.gouv.fr/presentation/frpresent.html Direction des Systèmes de la Navigation Aérienne (DSNA)] (Government body)
*{{flag|Georgia}} - [http://airnav.ge/en/ SAKAERONAVIGATSIA, Ltd. (Georgian Air Navigation)]
*{{flag|Germany}} - [[Deutsche Flugsicherung]] (German ATC)
*{{flag|Greece}} - Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority (Hellenic ATC)
*{{flag|Hong Kong}} - [http://www.cad.gov.hk CAD (Civil Aviation Department)]
*{{flag|Hungary}} - [http://www.hungarocontrol.hu/en/ HungaroControl Magyar Légiforgalmi Szolgálat Zrt.] (HungaroControl Hungarian Air Navigation Services Pte. Ltd. Co.)
*{{flag|Iceland}} - [http://www.flugstodir.is/?PageID=101 ISAVIA]
*{{flag|Indonesia}} - [http://www.angkasapura2.co.id/ Angkasa Pura II]
*{{IRL}} - IAA ([[Irish Aviation Authority]])
*{{flag|India}} - [[Airports Authority of India]] (AAI) (under Ministry of Civil Aviation, [[Government Of India]])
*{{flag|Italy}} - ENAV (Italian ATC)[http://www.enav.it/ (Ente Nazionale Assistenza al Volo - Italian ATC)]
*{{flag|Jamaica}} - [http://www.jcaa.gov.jm/ JCAA (Jamaica Civil Aviation Authority)]
*{{flag|Latvia}} - [http://www.lgs.lv LGS (Latvian ATC)]
*{{flag|Lithuania}} - [http://www.ans.lt ANS (Lithuanian ATC)]
*{{flag|Macedonia}} - [http://www.dgca.gov.mk DGCA (Macedonian ATC)]
*{{flag|Malaysia}} - [http://www.dca.gov.my DCA-Department of Civil Aviation]
*{{flag|Mexico}} - [http://www.seneam.gob.mx Servicios a la Navegación en el Espacio Aéreo Mexicano]
*{{flag|Netherlands}} - [http://www.lvnl.nl LVNL (Dutch ATC)]
*{{flag|New Zealand}} - [[Airways New Zealand]] (State Owned Enterprise)
*{{flag|Norway}} - [[Avinor]] (State-owned private company)
*{{flag|Pakistan}} - [[Civil Aviation Authority of Pakistan|Civil Aviation Authority]] (under [[Government of Pakistan]])
*{{flag|Peru}} - [http://www.corpac.gob.pe/ciac/ciac.asp Centro de Instrucción de Aviación Civil CIAC] Civil Aviation Training Center
*{{flag|Philippines}} - Air Transportation Office (ATO) (under the Philippine Government)
*{{flag|Poland}} - PANSA - [[Polish Air Navigation Services Agency]]
*{{flag|Portugal}} - NAV - [http://www.nav.pt NAV (Portuguese ATC)]
*{{flag|Romania}} - Romanian Air Traffic Services Administration - [http://www.romatsa.ro (ROMATSA)]
*{{flag|Singapore}} - CAAS ([[Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore]])
*{{flag|Serbia}} - Nacionalna sluzba letenja
*{{flag|Slovakia}} - [http://www.lps.sk/ Letové prevádzkové služby Slovenskej republiky]
*{{flag|Slovenia}} - [http://www.sloveniacontrol.si Slovenia Control]
*{{flag|South Africa}} - Air Traffic and Navigation Services , [http://www.atns.co.za]
*{{flag|Spain}} - [[AENA]] (Spanish ATC and Airports)
*{{flag|Sweden}} - [http://www.lfv.se/ The LFV Group] (Swedish ATC)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} - [[Skyguide]]
*{{flag|Thailand}} - [http://www.aerothai.co.th/ AEROTHAI (Aeronautical Radio of Thailand)]
*{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}} - [http://www.caa.gov.tt/ TTCAA (Trinidad and Tobago Civil Aviation Authority)]
*{{flag|Turkey}} - [http://www.shgm.gov.tr/ DGCA (Turkish Directorate General of Civil Aviation)]
*{{flag|United Kingdom}} - [[National Air Traffic Services]] (49% State Owned Public-Private Partnership)
*{{flag|United States}} - [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (Government Body)
*{{flag|Ukraine}} - Ukrainian State Air Traffic Service Enterprise (UkSATSE)
*{{flag|Venezuela}} - INAC (Instituto Nacional de Aviación Civil)

==Proposed changes==

In the United States, some alterations to traffic control procedures are being examined.
* The [[Next Generation Air Transportation System]] examines how to overhaul the United States national airspace system.
* [[Free flight (air traffic control)|Free flight]] is a developing air traffic control method that uses no centralized control (e.g. air traffic controllers). Instead, parts of airspace are reserved dynamically and automatically in a distributed way using computer communication to ensure the required separation between aircraft.<ref>[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.04/es.faa.html Free Flight]</ref>

In Europe, the SESAR<ref name=SESARref /> ([[Single European Sky ATM Research]]) Programme plans to develop new methods, new technologies, new procedures, new systems to accommodate future (2020 and beyond) Air Traffic Needs.

==See also==
*[[Air safety]]
*[[Air traffic controller]]
*[[Airspace]]
*[[Area Control Center]] (ACC)
*[[Australian Air Traffic Control]]
*[[Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast]] (ADS-B)
*[[Aviation light signals]]
* European Operational Concept Validation Methodology ([[E-OCVM]])
*[[Flight level]] (FL)
*[[Flight planning]]
*[[Flight progress strip]]
*[[Flight traffic mapping]]
*[[Global Air Traffic Management]]
*[[IFATCA]] (International Federation of ATC Associations)
*[[Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization]]
*[[Tenerife disaster]], ([[Los Rodeos Airport|TFN]])
*[[Terminal Control Center]]
*[[Tower en route control]] (TEC)
*[[Zagreb mid-air collision]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.atc-network.com The ATC Network - The online portal for ATC professionals]
*[http://www.flightschoollist.com/atc.htm ATC Training Schools]

===History===
*[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Government_Role/Air_traffic_control/POL15.htm U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission - Air Traffic Control]

===Internet services===
* [http://www.skybrary.aero SKYbrary: The single point of reference in the network of aviation safety knowledge]
*[http://www.liveatc.net Listen to ATC radio] 24/7 Live Aviation Radio
*[http://flightaware.com/live/ Map of airborne flights controlled by US ATC]
*[http://media.libsyn.com/media/airspeed/AirspeedSchad.mp3 Audio of interview with US terminal area controller]

{{commercial aviation}}

[[Category:Air traffic control| ]]
[[Category:Aviation terminology]]
[[Category:Radar]]

[[ar:مراقبة الملاحة الجوية]]
[[cs:Řízení letového provozu]]
[[da:Flyvekontroltjeneste]]
[[de:Flugsicherung]]
[[et:Lennujuht]]
[[el:Έλεγχος Εναέριας Κυκλοφορίας]]
[[es:Control del tráfico aéreo]]
[[fa:مراقبت پرواز]]
[[fr:Contrôle du trafic aérien]]
[[gl:Control de tráfico aéreo]]
[[ko:항공 교통 관제]]
[[id:Pengatur lalu-lintas udara]]
[[it:Controllo del traffico aereo]]
[[he:פיקוח טיסה]]
[[nl:Luchtverkeersleiding]]
[[ja:航空交通管制]]
[[no:Flykontrolltjeneste]]
[[pl:Służba kontroli ruchu lotniczego]]
[[pt:Controle de tráfego aéreo]]
[[ru:Система управления воздушным движением]]
[[simple:Air traffic control]]
[[sk:Riadenie letovej prevádzky]]
[[fi:Lennonjohto]]
[[sv:Flygledning]]
[[vi:Điều khiển không lưu]]
[[tr:Hava trafik kontrol (ATC)]]
[[zh:航空交通管制]]

Masanjia (Umerziehungslager)

2008-11-04T04:37:52Z

Voidvector:

{{POV-check|date=January 2008}}
'''Masanjia Labor Camp''' (马三家劳教所) is in [[Masanjia]] Town in [[Yuhong]] district in the [[Liaoning]] province of [[China]].<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=| title=Liaoning Masanjia | format= | work= |
url=http://wordpress.com/tag/liaoning-masanjia/ |accessdate=}}</ref>
It also is called the ''Ideology Education School of Liaoning Province''<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=| title=Liaoning Masanjia Labor Camp | format= | work= |
url= http://chinaview.wordpress.com/category/social/politics/labor-camp/liaoning-masanjia/ |accessdate=}}</ref> and was opened under China's [[re-education through labor]], or 'laojiao' policy. It is claimed by Falun Gong supporters that several thousand [[Falun Gong]] pratictioners were detained at Mansanjia Labor Camp from 1999 to 2007.<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=Falun Gong Human Rights Working Group | format= | work= |
url=http://www.flghrwg.net/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=1330&Itemid=0 |accessdate=}}</ref> Dr. Veron Mei-ying Hung reported to the United States Congressional Executive Commission on China in 2002 that:
<blockquote>
China has not disclosed the exact number of [[Falun Gong]] followers held in re-education through [[labor camp]]s. But it confirmed in January 2001 that at least 470 followers were held at the Masanjia Education-Through-Labour Education Institution in Liaoning Province and the official media reported in August 2001 that “th[is] camp has also succeeded in `re-educating’ more than 90 per cent of the 1,000 female Falun Gong members housed there.”
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cecc.gov/pages/roundtables/072602/hung.php#_ftnref45|title=Protection of Human Rights in the Context of Punishment of Minor Crimes in China|Publisher=United States Congressional Executive Commission on China |last=Mei-ying Hung|first=Veron|accessdate=2008-06-25}}</ref></blockquote>

On August 23, 2001, spokesman [[Zhang Yuanyuan (ambassador)|Zhang Yuanyuan]] of the Chinese embassy in the [[United States]] denied a claim that "130 Falun Gong practitioners at the Masanjia Rehabilitation Center in China's Liaoning Province have been on hunger strike for more than 20 days in protest of the so-called extension of their terms".<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=Falun Gong's Fabrication About Masanjia Will Get Nowhere | format= | work= |
url=http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/ppflg/t36596.htm |accessdate=}}</ref>

The Labor Camp includes a women’s section and the [[penal labor]] they do as part of their sentence is mainly that of textile production.<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=Falun Gong Human Rights Working Group | format= | work= |
url=http://www.flghrwg.net/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=1330&Itemid=0 |accessdate=}}</ref> According to Falun Gong websites, the workshops there have mainly processed and produced toxic arts and crafts products for profit, many of them for export, over the past few years<ref>{{cite web | title=Clear Harmony | url=http://clearharmony.net/articles/200710/41707.html |accessdate=}}</ref> and eighteen female practitioners were stripped naked and forced into the cells of male criminals to be repeatedly raped and abused. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= Falun Dafa | format= | work= |
url=http://www.falundafa-florida.org/Persecution/persecution_china.htm|accessdate=}}</ref>
The directors of Masanjia in 2003 were believed to be Sun Fengwu, Zhang Chaoying and Su Jing. <ref>{{cite web | title=Falun Gong Woman Exhibits Torture Injuries, Dies in Masanjia Forced Labor Camp | url=http://www.faluninfo.net/displayAnArticle.asp?ID=7667 |}}</ref>
According to the [[People's Daily]] it is the institution most heavily attacked by [[Li Hongzhi]] and his organisation. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=People's Daily | format= | work= |
url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200105/24/eng20010524_70866.html |accessdate=}}</ref>
The [[Falun Gong]] organisation abroad claimed many members of Falun Gong had been tortured. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=the guardian | format= | work= |
url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,440270,00.html |accessdate=}}</ref>
It is near [[Sujiatun prison camp]]. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= Friends of Falun Gong USA | format= | work= |
url=http://www.fofg.org/news/news_story.php?doc_id=1266 |accessdate=}}</ref>
''Inmates lead an easy life'' according to the [[People's Daily]]. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= People's Daily | format= | work= |
url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200102/18/eng20010218_62663.html |accessdate=}}</ref>
Most Masanjia Labor Camp Falun Gong practitioners have been moved to [[Sujiatun Concentration Camp]]. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= Epoch Times | format= | work= |
url=http://en.epochtimes.com/news/6-3-10/39111.html |accessdate=}}</ref>
Masanjia Labor camp has been mentioned in a U.N. Special Rapporteur report.
<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= Justice for Falun Gong | format= | work= |
url=http://www.flgjustice.org/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=748&Itemid=1 |accessdate=}}</ref>
It is connected to Masanjia Xinsheng Farm. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= laogai.org | format= | work= |
url=http://www.laogai.org/hdbook/liaoning.htm|accessdate=}}</ref>

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

[[Category:Penal imprisonment]]
[[Category:Political repression in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Shenyang]]
[[Category:Penal labor]]
[[Category:Prisons in China]]

[[de:Arbeitslager Masanjia]]
[[fr:Camp de travail de Masanjia]]

DLX (Gen)

2008-10-31T02:26:16Z

Voidvector:

{{otheruses|DLX (disambiguation)}}
'''Dlx''' is a family of [[homeodomain]] [[transcription factor]]s which are related to the [[Drosophila]] distal-less (Dll) gene <ref>{{cite journal
|title=Developmental functions of the Distal-less/Dlx homeobox genes.
|author=Panganiban G
|coauthors=Rubenstein JL.
|journal=Development
|year=2002
|month=October
|volume=129
|issue=20
|pages=4371–86
|pmid=12223397
}}</ref>.

The family has been related to a number of developmental features.
The family seems to be well preserved across species<ref>{{cite journal
|title=The evolution of the vertebrate Dlx gene family.
|author=Stock DW
|coauthors=Ellies DL, Zhao Z, Ekker M, Ruddle FH, Weiss KM.
|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
|year=1996
|month=October
|volume=93
|issue=20
|pages=10858–63
|pmid=8855272
|doi=10.1073/pnas.93.20.10858
}}</ref>.

Known members of the family include Dlx1 to Dlx7. They form bigene clusters with each other. There are Dlx1-Dlx2, Dlx5-Dlx6 and Dlx3-Dlx7 clusters in vertebrates. Each of those are linked to a specific Hox-gene cluster. In higher fishes, like zebrafish, there are a couple of additional dlx-genes, dlx5 and dlx8. In zebrafish the orthologous genes to vertebrate Dlx5-Dlx6 are dlx4 and dlx6, which form a bigene cluster in zebrafish. These additional genes are not linked with each other, or any other dlx-gene.

Dlx4, Dlx7, Dlx8 and Dlx9 are the same gene in vertebrates. They're named differently, because every time the same gene was found, the researchers thought they had found a new gene.

Dlx genes are required for the tangential migration of [[interneuron]]s from the subpallium to the pallium during vertebrate [[brain development]] <ref>{{cite journal
|title=Interneuron migration from basal forebrain to neocortex: dependence on Dlx genes.
|author=Anderson SA
|coauthors=Eisenstat DD, Shi L, Rubenstein JL.
|journal=Science.
|year=1997
|month=October
|volume=278
|issue=5337
|pages=474–6
|pmid=9334308
|doi=10.1126/science.278.5337.474
}}</ref>. It has been suggested that Dlx promotes the migration of [[interneuron]]s by repressing a set of proteins that are normally expressed in terminally differentiated neurons and act to promote the outgrowth of [[dendrite]]s and [[axon]]s <ref>{{cite journal
|title=Dlx transcription factors promote migration through repression of axon and dendrite growth.
|author=Cobos I
|coauthors=Borello U, Rubenstein JL.
|journal=Neuron.
|year=2007
|month=June
|volume=54
|issue=6
|pages=873–88
|pmid=17582329
|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2007.05.024
}}</ref>. Mice lacking Dlx1 exhibit electrophysiological and histological evidence consistent with delayed-onset [[epilepsy]] <ref>{{cite journal
|title=Mice lacking Dlx1 show subtype-specific loss of interneurons, reduced inhibition and epilepsy.
|author=Cobos I
|coauthors=Calcagnotto ME, Vilaythong AJ, Thwin MT, Noebels JL, Baraban SC, Rubenstein JL.
|journal=Nat Neurosci.
|year=2005
|month=August
|volume=8
|issue=8
|pages=1059–68
|pmid=16007083
|doi=10.1038/nn1499
}}</ref>.

Dlx2 has been associated with a number of areas including development of the [[zona limitans intrathalamica]] and the [[prethalamus]].

Dlx5/6 expression is necessary for normal lower jaw patterning in vertebrates <ref>{{cite journal
|title=Specification of jaw subdivisions by Dlx genes
|journal=Science.
|year=2002
|month=October
|volume=298
|issue=5592
|pages=381–85.
|author=Depew MJ
|coauthors=Lufkin T, Rubenstein JL
|pmid=12193642
|doi=10.1126/science.1075703
}}</ref>.

Dlx7 is expressed in [[bone marrow]]<ref>{{cite journal
|title=Inhibition of DLX-7 homeobox gene causes decreased expression of GATA-1 and c-myc genes and apoptosis
|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
|year=1997
|month=April
|volume=94
|issue=7
|pages=3245–9.
|author=Takashi Shimamoto,
|coauthors=Shuji Nakamura, Jacques Bollekens, Frank H. Ruddle, and Kenichi Takeshita
|pmid=9096378
|doi=10.1073/pnas.94.7.3245
}}</ref>.

==References==
<references/>

{{Transcription factors}}

[[Category:Genes]]
[[Category:Transcription factors]]

{{biochem-stub}}

ICP-Lizenz

2008-09-29T11:16:42Z

Voidvector: government reform, moved under a new department

'''ICP license''' (ICP stands for ''Internet Content Provider''; {{zh-cl|c=ICP备案|l=ICP record}}) is a permit issued by the Chinese [[Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Industry and Information Technology]] to permit China-based websites to operate in China. The ICP license numbers for Chinese websites can often be found on the bottom of their front page.

This license regime was instated by the ''Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China'' (《中华人民共和国电信条例》) that was promulgated in September 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miit.gov.cn/art/2005/12/15/art_4184_45663.html|title=中华人民共和国电信条例|last=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]|date=2005-12-10|publisher=[[Ministry of Industry and Information Technology]]|language=Chinese|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref> By the [[letter of the law]], all websites with their own [[domain name]] that operate inside China are required to obtain a license, and China-based Internet service providers are required to block the site if a license is not acquired within a grace period. Licenses are issued at the provincial level.

Operating from China is also a prerequisite for acquiring a license. Foreign companies such as [[Google]], unable to acquire a ICP license on their own, often partner up with Chinese Internet companies to use the licenses of the Chinese company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/work/feeds/afx/2006/02/23/afx2547661.html|title=Google license issue seized by China to make political statement|last=Bishop|first=John|coauthors=Chris Myrick|date=2006-02-23|work=Focus|publisher=[[Forbes]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/02/21/75537_HNgoogleborrowing_1.html|title=Nothing unusual about Google borrowing ICP|last=Lemon|first=Sumner|date=2006-02-21|publisher=[[Infoworld]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Internet in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]

==External links==
* [http://www.miibeian.gov.cn/ Ministry of Information Industry Records]{{zh}}

{{China-stub}}
[[Category:Internet in the People's Republic of China]]

Englisches Alphabet

2008-08-30T12:36:36Z

Voidvector: /* Letter names */

The modern '''English alphabet''' consists of 26 letters<ref>See also the section on [[#Modern English|Ligatures]]</ref> derived from the '''[[Latin alphabet]]''':

{|class="wikitable" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|bgcolor="#EFEFEF" align="center" colspan="26" | '''[[Capital letters|Majuscule Forms]]''' (also called '''uppercase''' or '''capital letters''')
|-
|width=3% align="center"|[[A]]||width=3% align="center"|[[B]]||width=3% align="center"|[[C]]||width=3% align="center"|[[D]]||width=3% align="center"|[[E]]||width=3% align="center"|[[F]]||width=3% align="center"|[[G]]||width=3% align="center"|[[H]]||width=3% align="center"|[[I]]||width=3% align="center"|[[J]]||width=3% align="center"|[[K]]||width=3% align="center"|[[L]]||width=3% align="center"|[[M]]||width=3% align="center"|[[N]]||width=3% align="center"|[[O]]||width=3% align="center"|[[P]]||width=3% align="center"|[[Q]]||width=3% align="center"|[[R]]||width=3% align="center"|[[S]]||width=3% align="center"|[[T]]||width=3% align="center"|[[U]]||width=3% align="center"|[[V]]||width=3% align="center"|[[W]]||width=3% align="center"|[[X]]||width=3% align="center"|[[Y]]||width=3% align="center"|[[Z]]
|-
|bgcolor="#EFEFEF" align="center" colspan="26" | '''[[Lower case|Minuscule Forms]]''' (also called '''lowercase''' or '''small letters''')
|-
|align="center"|a||align="center"|b||align="center"|c||align="center"|d||align="center"|e||align="center"|f||align="center"|g||align="center"|h||align="center"|i||align="center"|j||align="center"|k||align="center"|l||align="center"|m||align="center"|n||align="center"|o||align="center"|p||align="center"|q||align="center"|r||align="center"|s||align="center"|t||align="center"|u||align="center"|v||align="center"|w||align="center"|x||align="center"|y||align="center"|z
|}

The exact shape of printed letters varies depending on the [[typeface]]. The shape of [[handwriting|handwritten]] letters can differ significantly from the standard printed form (and between individuals), especially when written in [[cursive]] style. See the individual letter articles for information about letter shapes and origins (follow the links on any of the uppercase letters above).

==History==

:''See also: [[History of the Latin alphabet]].''

===Old English===
The [[English language]] was first written in the [[Anglo-Saxon futhorc]] runic alphabet, in use from the [[5th century]]. This alphabet was brought to what is now England, along with the proto-form of the language itself, by [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] settlers. Very few examples of this form of written Old English have survived, these being mostly short inscriptions or fragments.

The [[Latin alphabet]], introduced by Christian missionaries, began to replace the Anglo-Saxon futhorc from about the [[7th century]] onwards, although the two continued in parallel for some time. Futhorc influenced the Latin alphabet by providing it with the letters ''[[thorn (letter)|thorn]]'' ('''Þ''', '''þ''') and ''[[wynn]]'' ('''{{unicode|Ƿ}}''', '''{{unicode|ƿ}}'''). The letter ''[[eth]]'' ('''Ð''', '''ð''') was later devised as a modification of [[d]], and finally ''[[yogh]]'' ('''{{latinx|Ȝ}}''', '''{{latinx|ȝ}}''') was created by Norman scribes from the [[insular G|insular g]] in Old English and [[Irish language|Irish]], and used alongside their [[Carolingian minuscule|Carolingian]] ''g''.

The [[ligature]] '''[[Æ]]''' ('''æ'''), for ''ae'', was adopted as a letter its own right, named ''[[æsc]]'' ("ash") after a futhorc rune. In very early Old English '''[[Œ]]''' ('''œ'''), for ''oe'', also appeared as a distinct letter named ''[[œðel]]'' ("ethel"), again after a rune. Additionally, the ligature '''[[w]]''' (''double-u''), for ''vv'', was in use.

In the year 1011, a writer named Byrhtferð ordered the Old English alphabet for numerological purposes.<ref name="Evertype">Michael Everson, Evertype, Baldur Sigurðsson, Íslensk Málstöð [http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyogh/thorn.html ON THE STATUS OF THE LATIN LETTER ÞORN AND OF ITS SORTING ORDER]</ref> He listed the 24 letters of the Latin alphabet (including [[ampersand]]) first, then 5 additional English letters, starting with the [[Tironian notes|Tironian nota]] ''ond,'' '''⁊''', an insular symbol for ''and'':
:A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z & ⁊ Ƿ Þ Ð Æ

===Modern English===
In the [[Modern English]] [[orthography]], [[Thorn (letter)|thorn]] ('''þ'''), [[eth]] ('''Ð'''), [[wynn]] ('''{{unicode|Ƿ}}''') and [[yogh]] ('''{{latinx|Ȝ}}''') are obsolete. Thorn and eth are now both represented by ''th'', though thorn continued in existence for some time, its lower case form gradually becoming graphically indistinguishable from the minuscule [[y]] in most handwritings. ''Y'' for ''th'' can still be seen in pseudo-archaisms such as ''Ye Olde Booke Shoppe''. The letters '''Þ''' and '''Ð''' are still used in present-day [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]. Wynn disappeared from English around the 14th century when it was supplanted by ''uu'', which ultimately developed into the modern ''w''. Yogh disappeared around the 15th century and was typically replaced by ''gh''.

The letters '''[[u]]''' and '''[[j]]''', as distinct from [[v]] and [[i]], were introduced in the [[16th century]], and '''w''' assumed the status of an independent letter, so that the English alphabet is now considered to consist of the following 26 letters:

:A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

The variant lower-case form ''[[long s]]'' ('''{{Unicode|ſ}}''') lasted into [[Early Modern English|early modern English]], and was used in non-final position up to the early nineteenth century.

The ligatures [[Æ]] (æ) and [[OE ligature|Œ]] (œ) mentioned earlier are still used in formal writing for certain words of Greek or Latin origin, such as "[[encyclopedia|encyclopædia]]" and "[[body cavity|cœlom]]". Lack of awareness combined with technological limitations (such as the [[QWERTY]]-format keyboard commonly used in typography, which does not have keys representing either ligature) has made it common to see these two letters rendered as "ae" and "oe" respectively in modern, non-academic usage. These ligatures are not used in American English (and related variants), where, for the most part, a lone "e" has supplanted both "æ" (as in the spelling "encyclopedia") and "œ" (e.g., "fetus" instead of "fœtus.")

==Diacritics==
{{main|English words with diacritics}}

[[Diacritic]] marks are never used in the modern spellings of native English words, but may appear in foreign and loan-words such as ''naïve'' and ''façade''. As such words become naturalised there is a tendency to drop the diacritics, as is now often the case with the two mentioned. Words that are still perceived as foreign tend to retain them; for example, the only spelling of ''soupçon'' found in English dictionaries (the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] and others) uses the diacritic. Diacritics are also more likely to be retained where there would otherwise be confusion with another word (for example, ''résumé'' rather than ''resume'').

Occasionally, especially in older writing, diacritics are used to indicate the [[syllable]]s of a word: ''cursed'' (verb) is pronounced with one syllable, while ''cursèd'' (adjective) is pronounced with two. Similarly, while in ''chicken coop'' the letters ''-oo-'' represent a single vowel sound (a [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]), in ''zoölogist'', they represent two. These devices, are, however, optional, and are in practice now very rarely used even where they would serve to alleviate some degree of confusion.

==Ampersand==

The [[ampersand]] (&, ''&)'' has sometimes appeared at the end of the English alphabet, as in Byrhtferð's list of letters in 1011.<ref name="Evertype" /> Properly speaking the figure is a [[ligature]] for the letters ''Et''. In English it is used to represent the word ''and'' and occasionally the Latin word ''et,'' as in the abbreviation ''&c'' (et cetera).

==Apostrophe==

The [[apostrophe]], while not considered part of the English alphabet, is used to abbreviate English words. A few pairs of words, such as ''its'' and ''it's'' (it is or it has), ''were'' and ''we're'' (we are), and ''shed'' and ''she'd'' (she would or she had) are distinguished in writing only by the presence or absence of an apostrophe. The apostrophe also distinguishes the [[possessive]] endings ''-'s'' and ''-s' '' from the common [[plural]] ending ''-s''.

==Letter names==
The names of the letters are rarely spelled out, except in compound words like ''tee-shirt, deejay, emcee, okay, aitch-less, wye-level, etc.,'' derived forms like ''exed out, effing, to eff and blind,'' and in the names of objects named after letters, such as ''em (space)'' in printing and ''wye (junction)'' in railroading. The forms listed below are from the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]: vowels stand for themselves, and consonants are ''C+ee'' or ''e+C'', with the exceptions of ''aitch, jay, kay, cue, ar, ess ''(but ''es-''), ''wye, zed''. Attested plural forms of the vowels are ''aes, ees,'' and ''oes.'' Plurals of consonants end in ''-s'', or in ''-es'' in the cases of ''aitch, ess, ex.'' Of course, all letters may stand for themselves, generally in capitalized form (''okay'' or ''OK,'' ''emcee'' or ''MC''), and plurals may be based on these (''A's, B's, etc.'')


{| class="wikitable"
! Letter !! Letter name !! [[Help:pronunciation|pronunciation]]
|-
| [[A]] || ''a'' || {{IPA|/eɪ/}}
|-
| [[B]] || ''bee'' || {{IPA|/biː/}}
|-
| [[C]] || ''cee'' || {{IPA|/siː/}}
|-
| [[D]] || ''dee'' || {{IPA|/diː/}}
|-
| [[E]] || ''e'' || {{IPA|/iː/}}
|-
| [[F]] || ''ef'' (''eff'' as a verb) || {{IPA|/ɛf/}}
|-
| [[G]] || ''gee'' || {{IPA|/dʒiː/}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[H]] || ''aitch'' || {{IPA|/eɪtʃ/}}
|-
| ''haitch'' sometimes in [[Hiberno-English]] || {{IPA|/heɪtʃ/}}
|-
| [[I]] || ''i'' || {{IPA|/aɪ/}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[J]] || ''jay'' || {{IPA|/dʒeɪ/}}
|-
| ''jy'' in [[Scottish English]] || {{IPA|/dʒaɪ/}}
|-
| [[K]] || ''kay'' || {{IPA|/keɪ/}}
|-
| [[L]] || ''el'' || {{IPA|/ɛl/}}
|-
| [[M]] || ''em'' || {{IPA|/ɛm/}}
|-
| [[N]] || ''en'' || {{IPA|/ɛn/}}
|-
| [[O]] || ''o'' || {{IPA|/oʊ/}}
|-
| [[P]] || ''pee'' || {{IPA|/piː/}}
|-
| [[Q]] || ''cue'' || {{IPA|/kjuː/}}
|-
| [[R]] || ''ar'' || {{IPA|/ɑr/}}
|-
| [[S]] || ''ess'' (spelled ''es-'' in compounds like ''es-hook'') || {{IPA|/ɛs/}}
|-
| [[T]] || ''tee'' || {{IPA|/tiː/}}
|-
| [[U]] || ''u'' || {{IPA|/juː/}}
|-
| [[V]] || ''vee'' || {{IPA|/viː/}}
|-
| [[W]] || ''double-u'' || {{IPA|/ˈdʌbəl juː/}}
|-
| [[X]] || ''ex'' || {{IPA|/ɛks/}}
|-
| [[Y]] || ''wy'' or ''wye'' || {{IPA|/waɪ/}}
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Z]] || ''zed'' || {{IPA|/zɛd/}}
|-
| ''zee'' in [[American English]] || {{IPA|/ziː/}}
|-
| ''izzard'' in some dialect expressions || {{IPA|/ˈɪzɚd/}}
|}

Some groups of letters, such as ''pee'' and ''bee,'' or ''em'' and ''en,'' are easily confused in speech, especially when heard over the telephone or a radio communications link. [[Spelling alphabet]]s such as the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]], used by [[aircraft]] pilots, police and others, are designed to eliminate this potential confusion by giving each letter a name that sounds quite different from any other.

==Phonology==
{{main|English phonology}}

The letters A, E, I, O, U are considered to be [[vowel]]s; the remaining letters are considered to be [[consonant]]s. However, Y is very frequently used as a vowel, and W may occasionally function as a vowel as well. (See [[Words without vowels]].)

==Letter frequencies==

{{main|letter frequencies}}
The letter most frequently used in [[English language|English]] is E. The least frequently used letters are J, X, Q, and Z.

The list below shows the frequency of letter use in English.

{|width = "100%"
|- valign="top"
|width="25%"|
'''in alphabetical order''' 
A – 8.17% 
B – 1.49% 
C – 2.78% 
D – 4.25% 
E – 12.70% 
F – 2.23% 
G – 2.02% 
H – 6.09% 
I – 6.97% 
J – 0.15% 
K – 0.77% 
L – 4.03% 
M – 2.41% 
|width="25%"|
 
N – 6.75% 
O – 7.51% 
P – 1.93% 
Q – 0.10% 
R – 5.99% 
S – 6.33% 
T – 9.06% 
U – 2.76% 
V – 0.98% 
W – 2.36% 
X – 0.15% 
Y – 1.97% 
Z – 0.07% 
|width="25%"|
'''by percentage''' 
E – 12.70% 
T – 9.06% 
A – 8.17% 
O – 7.51% 
I – 6.97% 
N – 6.75% 
H – 6.09% 
S – 6.33% 
R – 5.99% 
D – 4.25% 
L – 4.03% 
C – 2.78% 
U – 2.76% 
|width="25%"|
 
M – 2.41% 
W – 2.36% 
F – 2.23% 
G – 2.02% 
Y – 1.97% 
P – 1.93% 
B – 1.49% 
V – 0.98% 
K – 0.77% 
J – 0.15% 
X – 0.15% 
Q – 0.10% 
Z – 0.07% 
|}

==See also==
* [[Alphabet]]
* [[American Standard Code for Information Interchange|ASCII]]
* [[Anglo-Saxon futhorc]]
* [[English language]]
* [[History of the English language]]
* [[Alphabets derived from the Latin]]
* [[Greek alphabet]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:English spelling|Alphabet]]
[[Category:Latin-derived alphabets|English]]

[[cs:Anglická abeceda]]
[[fr:Alphabet anglais]]
[[hu:Angol ábécé]]
[[mk:Англиска азбука]]
[[pl:Alfabet angielski]]
[[ro:Alfabetul limbii engleze]]
[[ru:Английский алфавит]]
[[tg:Алифбои англисӣ]]
[[zh:英文字母]]

Englisches Alphabet

2008-08-30T12:28:59Z

Voidvector: /* Letter names */

The modern '''English alphabet''' consists of 26 letters<ref>See also the section on [[#Modern English|Ligatures]]</ref> derived from the '''[[Latin alphabet]]''':

{|class="wikitable" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|bgcolor="#EFEFEF" align="center" colspan="26" | '''[[Capital letters|Majuscule Forms]]''' (also called '''uppercase''' or '''capital letters''')
|-
|width=3% align="center"|[[A]]||width=3% align="center"|[[B]]||width=3% align="center"|[[C]]||width=3% align="center"|[[D]]||width=3% align="center"|[[E]]||width=3% align="center"|[[F]]||width=3% align="center"|[[G]]||width=3% align="center"|[[H]]||width=3% align="center"|[[I]]||width=3% align="center"|[[J]]||width=3% align="center"|[[K]]||width=3% align="center"|[[L]]||width=3% align="center"|[[M]]||width=3% align="center"|[[N]]||width=3% align="center"|[[O]]||width=3% align="center"|[[P]]||width=3% align="center"|[[Q]]||width=3% align="center"|[[R]]||width=3% align="center"|[[S]]||width=3% align="center"|[[T]]||width=3% align="center"|[[U]]||width=3% align="center"|[[V]]||width=3% align="center"|[[W]]||width=3% align="center"|[[X]]||width=3% align="center"|[[Y]]||width=3% align="center"|[[Z]]
|-
|bgcolor="#EFEFEF" align="center" colspan="26" | '''[[Lower case|Minuscule Forms]]''' (also called '''lowercase''' or '''small letters''')
|-
|align="center"|a||align="center"|b||align="center"|c||align="center"|d||align="center"|e||align="center"|f||align="center"|g||align="center"|h||align="center"|i||align="center"|j||align="center"|k||align="center"|l||align="center"|m||align="center"|n||align="center"|o||align="center"|p||align="center"|q||align="center"|r||align="center"|s||align="center"|t||align="center"|u||align="center"|v||align="center"|w||align="center"|x||align="center"|y||align="center"|z
|}

The exact shape of printed letters varies depending on the [[typeface]]. The shape of [[handwriting|handwritten]] letters can differ significantly from the standard printed form (and between individuals), especially when written in [[cursive]] style. See the individual letter articles for information about letter shapes and origins (follow the links on any of the uppercase letters above).

==History==

:''See also: [[History of the Latin alphabet]].''

===Old English===
The [[English language]] was first written in the [[Anglo-Saxon futhorc]] runic alphabet, in use from the [[5th century]]. This alphabet was brought to what is now England, along with the proto-form of the language itself, by [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] settlers. Very few examples of this form of written Old English have survived, these being mostly short inscriptions or fragments.

The [[Latin alphabet]], introduced by Christian missionaries, began to replace the Anglo-Saxon futhorc from about the [[7th century]] onwards, although the two continued in parallel for some time. Futhorc influenced the Latin alphabet by providing it with the letters ''[[thorn (letter)|thorn]]'' ('''Þ''', '''þ''') and ''[[wynn]]'' ('''{{unicode|Ƿ}}''', '''{{unicode|ƿ}}'''). The letter ''[[eth]]'' ('''Ð''', '''ð''') was later devised as a modification of [[d]], and finally ''[[yogh]]'' ('''{{latinx|Ȝ}}''', '''{{latinx|ȝ}}''') was created by Norman scribes from the [[insular G|insular g]] in Old English and [[Irish language|Irish]], and used alongside their [[Carolingian minuscule|Carolingian]] ''g''.

The [[ligature]] '''[[Æ]]''' ('''æ'''), for ''ae'', was adopted as a letter its own right, named ''[[æsc]]'' ("ash") after a futhorc rune. In very early Old English '''[[Œ]]''' ('''œ'''), for ''oe'', also appeared as a distinct letter named ''[[œðel]]'' ("ethel"), again after a rune. Additionally, the ligature '''[[w]]''' (''double-u''), for ''vv'', was in use.

In the year 1011, a writer named Byrhtferð ordered the Old English alphabet for numerological purposes.<ref name="Evertype">Michael Everson, Evertype, Baldur Sigurðsson, Íslensk Málstöð [http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyogh/thorn.html ON THE STATUS OF THE LATIN LETTER ÞORN AND OF ITS SORTING ORDER]</ref> He listed the 24 letters of the Latin alphabet (including [[ampersand]]) first, then 5 additional English letters, starting with the [[Tironian notes|Tironian nota]] ''ond,'' '''⁊''', an insular symbol for ''and'':
:A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z & ⁊ Ƿ Þ Ð Æ

===Modern English===
In the [[Modern English]] [[orthography]], [[Thorn (letter)|thorn]] ('''þ'''), [[eth]] ('''Ð'''), [[wynn]] ('''{{unicode|Ƿ}}''') and [[yogh]] ('''{{latinx|Ȝ}}''') are obsolete. Thorn and eth are now both represented by ''th'', though thorn continued in existence for some time, its lower case form gradually becoming graphically indistinguishable from the minuscule [[y]] in most handwritings. ''Y'' for ''th'' can still be seen in pseudo-archaisms such as ''Ye Olde Booke Shoppe''. The letters '''Þ''' and '''Ð''' are still used in present-day [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]. Wynn disappeared from English around the 14th century when it was supplanted by ''uu'', which ultimately developed into the modern ''w''. Yogh disappeared around the 15th century and was typically replaced by ''gh''.

The letters '''[[u]]''' and '''[[j]]''', as distinct from [[v]] and [[i]], were introduced in the [[16th century]], and '''w''' assumed the status of an independent letter, so that the English alphabet is now considered to consist of the following 26 letters:

:A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

The variant lower-case form ''[[long s]]'' ('''{{Unicode|ſ}}''') lasted into [[Early Modern English|early modern English]], and was used in non-final position up to the early nineteenth century.

The ligatures [[Æ]] (æ) and [[OE ligature|Œ]] (œ) mentioned earlier are still used in formal writing for certain words of Greek or Latin origin, such as "[[encyclopedia|encyclopædia]]" and "[[body cavity|cœlom]]". Lack of awareness combined with technological limitations (such as the [[QWERTY]]-format keyboard commonly used in typography, which does not have keys representing either ligature) has made it common to see these two letters rendered as "ae" and "oe" respectively in modern, non-academic usage. These ligatures are not used in American English (and related variants), where, for the most part, a lone "e" has supplanted both "æ" (as in the spelling "encyclopedia") and "œ" (e.g., "fetus" instead of "fœtus.")

==Diacritics==
{{main|English words with diacritics}}

[[Diacritic]] marks are never used in the modern spellings of native English words, but may appear in foreign and loan-words such as ''naïve'' and ''façade''. As such words become naturalised there is a tendency to drop the diacritics, as is now often the case with the two mentioned. Words that are still perceived as foreign tend to retain them; for example, the only spelling of ''soupçon'' found in English dictionaries (the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] and others) uses the diacritic. Diacritics are also more likely to be retained where there would otherwise be confusion with another word (for example, ''résumé'' rather than ''resume'').

Occasionally, especially in older writing, diacritics are used to indicate the [[syllable]]s of a word: ''cursed'' (verb) is pronounced with one syllable, while ''cursèd'' (adjective) is pronounced with two. Similarly, while in ''chicken coop'' the letters ''-oo-'' represent a single vowel sound (a [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]), in ''zoölogist'', they represent two. These devices, are, however, optional, and are in practice now very rarely used even where they would serve to alleviate some degree of confusion.

==Ampersand==

The [[ampersand]] (&, ''&)'' has sometimes appeared at the end of the English alphabet, as in Byrhtferð's list of letters in 1011.<ref name="Evertype" /> Properly speaking the figure is a [[ligature]] for the letters ''Et''. In English it is used to represent the word ''and'' and occasionally the Latin word ''et,'' as in the abbreviation ''&c'' (et cetera).

==Apostrophe==

The [[apostrophe]], while not considered part of the English alphabet, is used to abbreviate English words. A few pairs of words, such as ''its'' and ''it's'' (it is or it has), ''were'' and ''we're'' (we are), and ''shed'' and ''she'd'' (she would or she had) are distinguished in writing only by the presence or absence of an apostrophe. The apostrophe also distinguishes the [[possessive]] endings ''-'s'' and ''-s' '' from the common [[plural]] ending ''-s''.

==Letter names==
The names of the letters are rarely spelled out, except in compound words like ''tee-shirt, deejay, emcee, okay, aitch-less, wye-level, etc.,'' derived forms like ''exed out, effing, to eff and blind,'' and in the names of objects named after letters, such as ''em (space)'' in printing and ''wye (junction)'' in railroading. The forms listed below are from the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]: vowels stand for themselves, and consonants are ''C+ee'' or ''e+C'', with the exceptions of ''aitch, jay, kay, cue, ar, ess ''(but ''es-''), ''wye, zed''. Attested plural forms of the vowels are ''aes, ees,'' and ''oes.'' Plurals of consonants end in ''-s'', or in ''-es'' in the cases of ''aitch, ess, ex.'' Of course, all letters may stand for themselves, generally in capitalized form (''okay'' or ''OK,'' ''emcee'' or ''MC''), and plurals may be based on these (''A's, B's, etc.'')


{| class="wikitable"
| '''Letter   ''' || '''Letter name''' || '''[[Help:pronunciation|pronunciation]]'''
|-
| [[A]] || ''a'' || {{IPA|/eɪ/}}
|-
| [[B]] || ''bee'' || {{IPA|/biː/}}
|-
| [[C]] || ''cee'' || {{IPA|/siː/}}
|-
| [[D]] || ''dee'' || {{IPA|/diː/}}
|-
| [[E]] || ''e'' || {{IPA|/iː/}}
|-
| [[F]] || ''ef'' (''eff'' as a verb) || {{IPA|/ɛf/}}
|-
| [[G]] || ''gee'' || {{IPA|/dʒiː/}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[H]] || ''aitch'' || {{IPA|/eɪtʃ/}}
|-
| ''haitch'' sometimes in [[Hiberno-English]] || {{IPA|/heɪtʃ/}}
|-
| [[I]] || ''i'' || {{IPA|/aɪ/}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[J]] || ''jay'' || {{IPA|/dʒeɪ/}}
|-
| ''jy'' in [[Scottish English]] || {{IPA|/dʒaɪ/}}
|-
| [[K]] || ''kay'' || {{IPA|/keɪ/}}
|-
| [[L]] || ''el'' || {{IPA|/ɛl/}}
|-
| [[M]] || ''em'' || {{IPA|/ɛm/}}
|-
| [[N]] || ''en'' || {{IPA|/ɛn/}}
|-
| [[O]] || ''o'' || {{IPA|/oʊ/}}
|-
| [[P]] || ''pee'' || {{IPA|/piː/}}
|-
| [[Q]] || ''cue'' || {{IPA|/kjuː/}}
|-
| [[R]] || ''ar'' || {{IPA|/ɑr/}}
|-
| [[S]] || ''ess'' (spelled ''es-'' in compounds like ''es-hook'') || {{IPA|/ɛs/}}
|-
| [[T]] || ''tee'' || {{IPA|/tiː/}}
|-
| [[U]] || ''u'' || {{IPA|/juː/}}
|-
| [[V]] || ''vee'' || {{IPA|/viː/}}
|-
| [[W]] || ''double-u'' || {{IPA|/ˈdʌbəl juː/}}
|-
| [[X]] || ''ex'' || {{IPA|/ɛks/}}
|-
| [[Y]] || ''wy'' or ''wye'' || {{IPA|/waɪ/}}
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Z]] || ''zed'' || {{IPA|/zɛd/}}
|-
| ''zee'' in [[American English]] || {{IPA|/ziː/}}
|-
| ''izzard'' in some dialect expressions || {{IPA|/ˈɪzɚd/}}
|}

Some groups of letters, such as ''pee'' and ''bee,'' or ''em'' and ''en,'' are easily confused in speech, especially when heard over the telephone or a radio communications link. [[Spelling alphabet]]s such as the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]], used by [[aircraft]] pilots, police and others, are designed to eliminate this potential confusion by giving each letter a name that sounds quite different from any other.

==Phonology==
{{main|English phonology}}

The letters A, E, I, O, U are considered to be [[vowel]]s; the remaining letters are considered to be [[consonant]]s. However, Y is very frequently used as a vowel, and W may occasionally function as a vowel as well. (See [[Words without vowels]].)

==Letter frequencies==

{{main|letter frequencies}}
The letter most frequently used in [[English language|English]] is E. The least frequently used letters are J, X, Q, and Z.

The list below shows the frequency of letter use in English.

{|width = "100%"
|- valign="top"
|width="25%"|
'''in alphabetical order''' 
A – 8.17% 
B – 1.49% 
C – 2.78% 
D – 4.25% 
E – 12.70% 
F – 2.23% 
G – 2.02% 
H – 6.09% 
I – 6.97% 
J – 0.15% 
K – 0.77% 
L – 4.03% 
M – 2.41% 
|width="25%"|
 
N – 6.75% 
O – 7.51% 
P – 1.93% 
Q – 0.10% 
R – 5.99% 
S – 6.33% 
T – 9.06% 
U – 2.76% 
V – 0.98% 
W – 2.36% 
X – 0.15% 
Y – 1.97% 
Z – 0.07% 
|width="25%"|
'''by percentage''' 
E – 12.70% 
T – 9.06% 
A – 8.17% 
O – 7.51% 
I – 6.97% 
N – 6.75% 
H – 6.09% 
S – 6.33% 
R – 5.99% 
D – 4.25% 
L – 4.03% 
C – 2.78% 
U – 2.76% 
|width="25%"|
 
M – 2.41% 
W – 2.36% 
F – 2.23% 
G – 2.02% 
Y – 1.97% 
P – 1.93% 
B – 1.49% 
V – 0.98% 
K – 0.77% 
J – 0.15% 
X – 0.15% 
Q – 0.10% 
Z – 0.07% 
|}

==See also==
* [[Alphabet]]
* [[American Standard Code for Information Interchange|ASCII]]
* [[Anglo-Saxon futhorc]]
* [[English language]]
* [[History of the English language]]
* [[Alphabets derived from the Latin]]
* [[Greek alphabet]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:English spelling|Alphabet]]
[[Category:Latin-derived alphabets|English]]

[[cs:Anglická abeceda]]
[[fr:Alphabet anglais]]
[[hu:Angol ábécé]]
[[mk:Англиска азбука]]
[[pl:Alfabet angielski]]
[[ro:Alfabetul limbii engleze]]
[[ru:Английский алфавит]]
[[tg:Алифбои англисӣ]]
[[zh:英文字母]]

Masanjia (Umerziehungslager)

2008-07-31T20:16:38Z

Voidvector: Removed category "Law of the People's Republic of China"; Quick-adding category "Prisons in China" (using HotCat)

{{POV-check|date=January 2008}}
'''Masanjia Labor Camp''' is in [[Masanjia]] Town in [[Yuhong]] district in the [[Liaoning]] province of [[China]].<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=| title=Liaoning Masanjia | format= | work= |
url=http://wordpress.com/tag/liaoning-masanjia/ |accessdate=}}</ref>
It also is called the ''Ideology Education School of Liaoning Province''<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=| title=Liaoning Masanjia Labor Camp | format= | work= |
url= http://chinaview.wordpress.com/category/social/politics/labor-camp/liaoning-masanjia/ |accessdate=}}</ref> and was opened under China's [[reeducation through labor]], or 'laojiao' policy. It is claimed by Falun Gong supporters that several thousands of [[Falun Gong]] pratictioners were detained at Mansanjia Labor Camp over the period 1999 to 2007.<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=Falun Gong Human Rights Working Group | format= | work= |
url=http://www.flghrwg.net/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=1330&Itemid=0 |accessdate=}}</ref> Dr. Veron Mei-ying Hung reported to the United States Congressional Executive Commission on China in 2002 that:
<blockquote>
China has not disclosed the exact number of [[Falun Gong]] followers held in re-education through [[labor camp]]s. But it confirmed in January 2001 that at least 470 followers were held at the Masanjia Education-Through-Labour Education Institution in Liaoning Province and the official media reported in August 2001 that “th[is] camp has also succeeded in `re-educating’ more than 90 per cent of the 1,000 female Falun Gong members housed there.”
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cecc.gov/pages/roundtables/072602/hung.php#_ftnref45|title=Protection of Human Rights in the Context of Punishment of Minor Crimes in China|Publisher=United States Congressional Executive Commission on China |last=Mei-ying Hung|first=Veron|accessdate=2008-06-25}}</ref></blockquote>

On the 08/23/01, spokesman Zhang Yuanyuan of the Chinese embassy in the [[United States]] denied the claim by [[Falun Gong]] supporters that "130 Falun Gong practitioners at the Masanjia Rehabilitation Center in China's Liaoning Province have been on hunger strike for more than 20 days in protest of the so-called extension of their terms".<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=Falun Gong's Fabrication About Masanjia Will Get Nowhere | format= | work= |
url=http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/ppflg/t36596.htm |accessdate=}}</ref>

The Labor Camp includes a women’s section and the [[penal labor]] they do as part of their sentence is mainly that of textile production.<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=Falun Gong Human Rights Working Group | format= | work= |
url=http://www.flghrwg.net/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=1330&Itemid=0 |accessdate=}}</ref> The workshops there have mainly processed and produced toxic arts and crafts products for illegally-gained profit, many of them for export, over the past few years. <ref>{{cite web | title=Clear Harmony | url=http://clearharmony.net/articles/200710/41707.html |accessdate=}}</ref>
The directors of Masanjia in 2003 were believed to be Sun Fengwu, Zhang Chaoying and Su Jing. <ref>{{cite web | title=Falun Gong Woman Exhibits Torture Injuries, Dies in Masanjia Forced Labor Camp | url=http://www.faluninfo.net/displayAnArticle.asp?ID=7667 |}}</ref>
According to the [[People's Daily]] it is the institution most heavily attacked by [[Li Hongzhi]] and his organisation. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=People's Daily | format= | work= |
url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200105/24/eng20010524_70866.html |accessdate=}}</ref>
The [[Falun Gong]] organisation abroad claimed many members of Falun Gong had been tortured. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title=the guardian | format= | work= |
url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,440270,00.html |accessdate=}}</ref>
It is near [[Sujiatun prison camp]]. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= Friends of Falun Gong USA | format= | work= |
url=http://www.fofg.org/news/news_story.php?doc_id=1266 |accessdate=}}</ref>
''Inmates lead an easy life'' according to the [[People's Daily]]. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= People's Daily | format= | work= |
url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200102/18/eng20010218_62663.html |accessdate=}}</ref>
Most Masanjia Labor Camp Falun Gong practitioners have been moved to [[Sujiatun Concentration Camp]]. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= Epoch Times | format= | work= |
url=http://en.epochtimes.com/news/6-3-10/39111.html |accessdate=}}</ref>
Masanjia Labor camp has been mentioned in a U.N. Special Rapporteur report.
<ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= Justice for Falun Gong | format= | work= |
url=http://www.flgjustice.org/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=748&Itemid=1 |accessdate=}}</ref>
It is connected to Masanjia Xinsheng Farm. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= laogai.org | format= | work= |
url=http://www.laogai.org/hdbook/liaoning.htm|accessdate=}}</ref>
Eighteen female practitioners were stripped naked and forced into the cells of male criminals to be repeatedly raped and abused. <ref>{{cite web | author= | year=|
title= Falun Dafa | format= | work= |
url=http://www.falundafa-florida.org/Persecution/persecution_china.htm|accessdate=}}</ref>

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

[[Category:Penal imprisonment]]
[[Category:Political repression in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Shenyang]]
[[Category:Penal labor]]
[[Category:Prisons in China]]

[[de:Arbeitslager Masanjia]]
[[fr:Camp de travail de Masanjia]]

Querung über die Straße von Tiran

2008-07-28T06:32:35Z

Voidvector:

{{incomplete}}
The '''Saudi-Egypt Causeway''' is a proposal to link Egypt and Saudi Arabia with a causeway and bridge. <ref> http://www.arabianbusiness.com/512333-tenders-for-4bn-saudi-egypt-causeway-this-year </ref>.

It is expected to cost about $4b.

The structure does not yet include railway lines.

== Go Ahead ==

After years of doubt, the project gets go-ahead in May 2007. <ref> http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article1744489.ece </ref>

== Route ==

The causeway would link [[Ras Humaid]] in the northern Saudi region of [[Tabuk]] to the Red Sea resort of [[Sharm el-Sheikh]] and would pass through [[Tiran Island]] at the entrance of the [[Gulf of Aqaba]].

== See also ==

* [[Transport in Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Transport in Egypt]]
* [[Bridge of the Horns]] - cost about $10b.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{SaudiArabia-geo-stub}}
{{Egypt-geo-stub}}

ICP-Lizenz

2008-07-10T19:21:21Z

Voidvector: remove alternative literal translation, since it is not a "certification" process

'''ICP license''' (ICP stands for ''Internet Content Provider''; {{zh-cl|c=ICP备案|l=ICP record}}) is a permit issued by the Chinese [[Ministry of Information Industry]] to permit China-based websites to operate in China. The ICP license numbers for Chinese websites can often be found on the bottom of their front page.

This license regime was instated by the ''Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China'' (《中华人民共和国电信条例》) that was promulgated in September 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mii.gov.cn/art/2005/12/15/art_3040_30998.html|title=中华人民共和国电信条例|last=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]|date=2005-12-10|publisher=[[Ministry of Information Industry]]|language=Chinese|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref> By the [[letter of the law]], all websites with its own [[domain name]] that operates inside China are required to obtain the license, and China-based Internet service providers are required block the site if license is not acquired within a grace period. The license is issued at the provincial level.

Operating from China is also a prerequisite for acquiring a license. Foreign companies such as [[Google]], unable to acquire a ICP license on their own, often partner up with Chinese Internet companies to use the licenses of the Chinese company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/work/feeds/afx/2006/02/23/afx2547661.html|title=Google license issue seized by China to make political statement|last=Bishop|first=John|coauthors=Chris Myrick|date=2006-02-23|work=Focus|publisher=[[Forbes]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/02/21/75537_HNgoogleborrowing_1.html|title=Nothing unusual about Google borrowing ICP|last=Lemon|first=Sumner|date=2006-02-21|publisher=[[Infoworld]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Internet in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]

==External links==
* [http://www.miibeian.gov.cn/ Ministry of Information Industry Records]{{zh}}

{{China-stub}}
[[Category:Internet in the People's Republic of China]]

ICP-Lizenz

2008-06-27T19:35:12Z

Voidvector: add another citation about Google

'''ICP license''' (ICP stands for ''Internet Content Provider''; {{zh-cl|c=ICP备案|l=ICP record}} or {{zh-cl|c=ICP证|l=ICP certificate}}) is a permit issued by the Chinese [[Ministry of Information Industry]] to permit China-based websites to operate in China. The ICP license numbers for Chinese websites can often be found on the bottom of their front page.

This license regime was instated by the ''Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China'' (《中华人民共和国电信条例》) that was promulgated in September 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mii.gov.cn/art/2005/12/15/art_3040_30998.html|title=中华人民共和国电信条例|last=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]|date=2005-12-10|publisher=[[Ministry of Information Industry]]|language=Chinese|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref> By the [[letter of the law]], all websites with its own [[domain name]] that operates inside China are required to obtain the license, and China-based Internet service providers are required block the site if license is not acquired within a grace period. The license is issued at the provincial level.

Operating from China is also a prerequisite for acquiring a license. Foreign companies such as [[Google]], unable to acquire a ICP license on their own, often partner up with Chinese Internet companies to use the licenses of the Chinese company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/work/feeds/afx/2006/02/23/afx2547661.html|title=Google license issue seized by China to make political statement|last=Bishop|first=John|coauthors=Chris Myrick|date=2006-02-23|work=Focus|publisher=[[Forbes]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/02/21/75537_HNgoogleborrowing_1.html|title=Nothing unusual about Google borrowing ICP|last=Lemon|first=Sumner|date=2006-02-21|publisher=[[Infoworld]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Internet in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]

==External links==
* [http://www.miibeian.gov.cn/ Ministry of Information Industry Records]{{zh}}

{{China-stub}}
[[Category:Internet in the People's Republic of China]]

ICP-Lizenz

2008-06-27T19:18:56Z

Voidvector:

'''ICP license''' (ICP stands for ''Internet Content Provider''; {{zh-cl|c=ICP备案|l=ICP record}} or {{zh-cl|c=ICP证|l=ICP certificate}}) is a permit issued by the Chinese [[Ministry of Information Industry]] to permit China-based websites to operate in China. The ICP license numbers for Chinese websites can often be found on the bottom of their front page.

This license regime was instated by the ''Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China'' (《中华人民共和国电信条例》) that was promulgated in September 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mii.gov.cn/art/2005/12/15/art_3040_30998.html|title=中华人民共和国电信条例|last=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]|date=2005-12-10|publisher=[[Ministry of Information Industry]]|language=Chinese|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref> By the [[letter of the law]], all websites with its own [[domain name]] that operates inside China are required to obtain the license, and China-based Internet service providers are required block the site if license is not acquired within a grace period. The license is issued at the provincial level.

Operating from China is also a prerequisite for acquiring a license. Foreign companies such as [[Google]], unable to acquire a ICP license on their own, often partner up with Chinese Internet companies to use the licenses of the Chinese company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/02/21/75537_HNgoogleborrowing_1.html|title=Nothing unusual about Google borrowing ICP|last=Lemon|first=Sumner|date=2006-02-21|publisher=[[Infoworld]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Internet in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]

==External links==
* [http://www.miibeian.gov.cn/ Ministry of Information Industry Records]{{zh}}

{{China-stub}}
[[Category:Internet in the People's Republic of China]]

ICP-Lizenz

2008-06-27T19:06:19Z

Voidvector:

'''ICP license''' (ICP stands for ''Internet Content Provider''; {{zh-cl|c=ICP备案|l=ICP record}}) is a permit issued by the Chinese [[Ministry of Information Industry]] to permit China-based websites to operate in China. The ICP license numbers for Chinese websites can often be found on the bottom of their front page.

This license regime was instated by the ''Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China'' (《中华人民共和国电信条例》) that was promulgated in September 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mii.gov.cn/art/2005/12/15/art_3040_30998.html|title=中华人民共和国电信条例|last=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]|date=2005-12-10|publisher=[[Ministry of Information Industry]]|language=Chinese|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref> By the [[letter of the law]], all websites with its own [[domain name]] that operates inside China are required to obtain the license, and China-based Internet service providers are required block the site if license is not acquired within a grace period. The license is issued at the provincial level.

Operating from China is also a prerequisite for acquiring a license. Foreign companies such as [[Google]], unable to acquire a ICP license on their own, often partner up with Chinese Internet companies to use the licenses of the Chinese company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/02/21/75537_HNgoogleborrowing_1.html|title=Nothing unusual about Google borrowing ICP|last=Lemon|first=Sumner|date=2006-02-21|publisher=[[Infoworld]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Internet in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]

==External links==
* [http://www.miibeian.gov.cn/ Ministry of Information Industry Records]{{zh}}

{{China-stub}}
[[Category:Internet in the People's Republic of China]]

ICP-Lizenz

2008-06-27T18:59:57Z

Voidvector: Quick-adding category "Internet in the People's Republic of China" (using HotCat)

'''ICP license''' (ICP stands for ''Internet Content Provider''; {{zh-cl|c=ICP备案|l=ICP record}}) is a permit issued by the Chinese [[Ministry of Information Industry]] to permit China-based websites to operate in China. The ICP license numbers for Chinese websites can often be found on the bottom of their front page.

This license regime was instated by the ''Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China'' (《中华人民共和国电信条例》) that was promulgated in September 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mii.gov.cn/art/2005/12/15/art_3040_30998.html|title=中华人民共和国电信条例|last=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]|date=2005-12-10|publisher=[[Ministry of Information Industry]]|language=Chinese|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref> By the [[letter of the law]], all websites with its own [[domain name]] that operates inside China are required to obtain the license, and China-based Internet service providers are required block the site if license is not acquired within a grace period. The license is issued at the provincial level.

Operating from China is also a prerequisite for acquiring a license. Companies such as Google have to partner up with local Internet companies to use their license.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/02/21/75537_HNgoogleborrowing_1.html|title=Nothing unusual about Google borrowing ICP|last=Lemon|first=Sumner|date=2006-02-21|publisher=[[Infoworld]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Internet in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]

==External links==
* [http://www.miibeian.gov.cn/ Ministry of Information Industry Records]{{zh}}

[[Category:Internet in the People's Republic of China]]

ICP-Lizenz

2008-06-27T18:59:09Z

Voidvector: create

'''ICP license''' (ICP stands for ''Internet Content Provider''; {{zh-cl|c=ICP备案|l=ICP record}}) is a permit issued by the Chinese [[Ministry of Information Industry]] to permit China-based websites to operate in China. The ICP license numbers for Chinese websites can often be found on the bottom of their front page.

This license regime was instated by the ''Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China'' (《中华人民共和国电信条例》) that was promulgated in September 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mii.gov.cn/art/2005/12/15/art_3040_30998.html|title=中华人民共和国电信条例|last=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]|date=2005-12-10|publisher=[[Ministry of Information Industry]]|language=Chinese|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref> By the [[letter of the law]], all websites with its own [[domain name]] that operates inside China are required to obtain the license, and China-based Internet service providers are required block the site if license is not acquired within a grace period. The license is issued at the provincial level.

Operating from China is also a prerequisite for acquiring a license. Companies such as Google have to partner up with local Internet companies to use their license.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/02/21/75537_HNgoogleborrowing_1.html|title=Nothing unusual about Google borrowing ICP|last=Lemon|first=Sumner|date=2006-02-21|publisher=[[Infoworld]]|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Internet in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]

==External links==
* [http://www.miibeian.gov.cn/ Ministry of Information Industry Records]{{zh}}

Hover!

2008-06-18T02:10:30Z

Voidvector: format

{{Infobox VG
|title = Hover!
|image = [[Image:hover splash.png|257px]]
|caption =
|developer = [[Microsoft]]
|publisher = [[Microsoft]]
|distributor =
|designer =
|series =
|engine =
|version = 1.0.9.5
|released = [[1995 in video gaming|August 1995]]
|genre = [[Bumper cars]] [[Capture the flag]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings =
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]]
|media =
|requirements = 33 MHz [[Intel 80486|Intel 486]], 8 MB [[Random access memory|RAM]]
|input = [[Computer keyboard]] [[Joystick]] / [[Gamepad]]
}}
'''''Hover!''''' is a [[video game]] that was included on the Microsoft [[Windows 95]] operating system CD. <ref> [http://blogs.msdn.com/oldnewthing/archive/2005/12/26/508687.aspx Why did the Windows 95 CD have extra fun stuff?] </ref> It was a showcase for the advanced [[multimedia]] capabilities available on [[personal computer]]s at the time. It is still available from Microsoft (see the “External Links” section below) and can be run on all of Microsoft's operating systems released since Windows 95, including Windows Vista.

The game is a combination of [[bumper car]]s and [[capture the flag]]. Part of the game's help file says this:
{{Cquote|Match wits with robotic pilots as you steer your Hover 950 craft through the murky realms of Hover!, an amusement ride created by robots from the future.

The object is simple: steal all of the drones' flags before the drones capture yours. You will be awarded points for each of the enemy flags you collect and for every one of your flags remaining when you finish the level ahead of the drones. But the challenge doesn't end here. The drones will work their deceptions to throw you off course.

The world of Hover! is filled with floating pods that contain both good and bad objects. Drive through the good pods to collect booster packs and other handy tools. Avoid the bad pods! And keep an eye out for unwanted skid pads, flag removers, hold pads, and other tricky obstacles.

Good News! When the robots designed the world of Hover!, their game timer malfunctioned. This ride can continue as long as you keep capturing all the drones' flags before all of yours are captured.}}

== Interface ==
[[Image:Hoverss1.png|thumb|An attack drone looks like every other drone but is represented as a green triangle on your map.]]
Across the top of the game window are the flag area, which indicates the number of flags available, (When you capture a flag, the flag is colored in, blue for the flags that you have collected, and red for the flags the drones have picked up.) the rear view which displays the area behind your Hover 950, (when enabled), and the score area indicates your current score. The middle of the Hover! window is the main view outside the front of your Hover 950. The bottom of the window contains the object area which contains information about jump, wall, and cloak pods. Each object area tells you the number of objects you've picked up, the time remaining for that object, and the key associated with each object. Also along the bottom of the window are the map area, which is a bird's-eye view of the current playing field, and the craft area, which shows the remaining time you are invincible to hold pads, skid pads, and flag removers; it also shows the direction your craft is moving, and your current speed.

You can magnify and rotate the map to help you figure out where you are. To see more of the map, press the MINUS (-) key. To zoom in closer, press the PLUS (+) key. Flags are represented as blinking dots: red dots are your flags, and blue dots are the enemy flags you are collecting. Drones carrying flags are represented as yellow triangles, drones with no flags are blue triangles, attack drones are green triangles, and the red triangle in the center of the map is your craft.

Hover! can be played in full-screen (640x480) mode, press F4 (low-res mode) or SHIFT+F4 (higher-res mode) to enable this feature. To exit the full-screen mode, simply press F4 again.

== Levels ==
[[Image:hoverss2.png|thumb|A blue flag on a platform.]]There are three different mazes in Hover!. They resemble a medieval castle, a futuristic city, and a [[sewer]]. Each maze has its own texture maps, music theme, and spawn locations.

=== Objects in the Maze ===
The following is a list of objects found inside a maze.

; Flags
* Red Flag - Your flag. The enemy is collecting them as fast as they can.
* Blue Flag - Enemy flag. you need to collect these before the enemy drones collect all of yours.

; Floating Pods
* Cloak - Temporarily hides you from the drones.
* Wall - Puts up a temporary wall. Use it to slow down a drone.
* Jump - Allows you to look over and jump onto low walls and low platforms. You can also jump over hazards and enemies.
* Mystery Pod - It could be something good or bad. The sound you hear when you pick up the pod is the sound for the object inside.
* Shield - Makes you temporarily invincible to skid pads, hold pads, map erasers, flag removers and speed reduction pods.
* Green Light - Temporarily increases your speed.
* Red Light - Temporarily reduces your speed.
* Map Eraser - Erases most of your map.

; Floor Pads
* Hold Pad - Temporarily freezes you to the spot.
* Flag Remover - Returns a flag you have captured back into the maze.
* Skid Pad - Sends you skidding in the general direction the arrow is pointing.

; Floating Platforms
The floating platforms in the medieval castle and futuristic city mazes can be reached by the stairs that lead up to them, however the platforms in the sewer level can only be gotten onto by jumping (default key “A“).

== Internals ==
[[image:Hovergallery.png|thumb|Screenshot of the Hover! developer gallery.]]
===Easter Egg===
When you launch Hover!, the main screen with "Press F2 to start a game of Hover!" is displayed. Behind you is a partial wall that just fills the image in the rear view mirror. Behind the wall, is a photo gallery showing the team that produced the game.


The dashboard and view out the window and in the rear-view mirror are actually the real game screen, just stopped at a specific location in a special maze, "small.maz". This level is also the Easter Egg.

The key to the easter egg is to hold down Control and Shift while typing "IBMAB" (ctrl+shift+IBMAB) on the intro screen. ("Bambi" was the projects code name.) This will unlock the player's controls on this level and allow you to navigate through the level's photo gallery using the arrow keys.<ref>Conversation with development manager of Hover!</ref>

===Game Editor References===
When the Hover! executables are loaded into a resource hacker, there are string tables and dialog boxes not normally seen that have references to a 'game editor' that may have been intended for end users but was removed before the game's release.

===Outside the Maze===
It is possible to maneuver your craft over a maze wall and outside a Hover! maze. To do this, move your craft very close to a maze wall, drop a wall, jump on it, drop another wall, jump on it, and then jump onto the maze wall. From there, you can move along the top of the maze walls or cross over the wall to the outside of the maze. If you go too far up or outside a maze the game will crash.

==References==
<References />

==External links==
*[ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/deskapps/games/public/AAS/Hover.EXE Download Hover! (6.16 MB)] from [[Microsoft]]'s Public [[FTP server]]
*[http://www.duke.edu/~mfc5/HOVER/ Matthew Campbell's unofficial Hover! site]

[[Category:1995 video games]]
[[Category:Windows 95]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Discontinued Microsoft software]]
[[Category:Unmaintained software]]

Hover!

2008-01-16T10:54:28Z

Voidvector: use more conventional game terms

{{unreferenced|date=January 2008}}
{{Infobox VG
|title = Hover!
|image = [[Image:hover splash.png|257px]]
|caption =
|developer = [[Microsoft]]
|publisher = [[Microsoft]]
|distributor =
|designer =
|series =
|engine =
|version =
|released = [[1995 in video gaming|August 1995]]
|genre = [[Bumper cars]] [[Capture the flag]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings =
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]]
|media =
|requirements = 33 MHz [[Intel 80486|Intel 486]], 8 MB [[Random access memory|RAM]]
|input = [[Computer keyboard]]
}}
'''''Hover!''''' is a [[video game]] that came [[Product bundling|bundled]] with the Microsoft [[Windows 95]] operating system. It was a showcase for the advanced [[multimedia]] capabilities available on [[personal computer]]s at the time. While primitive by today's standards, ''Hover!'' was a landmark in home computer development. It is still available from Microsoft (see the “External Links” section below) and can be run on all of Microsoft's operating systems released since Windows 95, including Windows Vista.

The game is a combination of [[bumper car]]s and [[capture the flag]]. Part of the game's help file says this:
:''"Match wits with robotic pilots as you steer your Hover 950 craft through the murky realms of Hover!, an amusement ride created by robots from the future.''

:''The object is simple: steal all of the drones' flags before the drones capture yours. You will be awarded points for each of the enemy flags you collect and for every one of your flags remaining when you finish the level ahead of the drones. But the challenge doesn't end here. The drones will work their deceptions to throw you off course.''

:''The world of Hover! is filled with floating pods that contain both good and bad objects. Drive through the good pods to collect booster packs and other handy tools. Avoid the bad pods! And keep an eye out for unwanted skid pads, flag removers, hold pads, and other tricky obstacles.''

:''Good News! When the robots designed the world of Hover!, their game timer malfunctioned. This ride can continue as long as you keep capturing all the drones' flags before all of yours are captured."''

== Interface ==
[[Image:Hoverss1.png|thumb|An attack drone looks like every other drone but is represented as a green triangle on your map.]]
Across the top of the game window are the flag area, which indicates the number of flags available, (When you capture a flag, the flag is colored in, blue for the flags that you have collected, and red for the flags the drones have picked up.) the rear view which displays the area behind your Hover 950, (when enabled), and the score area indicates your current score. The middle of the Hover! window is the main view outside the front of your Hover 950. The bottom of the window contains the object area which contains information about jump, wall, and cloak pods. Each object area tells you the number of objects you've picked up, the time remaining for that object, and the key associated with each object. Also along the bottom of the window are the map area, which is a bird's-eye view of the current playing field, and the craft area, which shows the remaining time you are invincible to hold pads, skid pads, and flag removers; it also shows the direction your craft is moving, and your current speed.

You can magnify and rotate the map to help you figure out where you are. To see more of the map, press the MINUS (-) key. To zoom in closer, press the PLUS (+) key. Flags are represented as blinking dots: red dots are your flags, and blue dots are the enemy flags you are collecting. Drones carrying flags are represented as yellow triangles, drones with no flags are blue triangles, attack drones are green triangles, and the red triangle in the center of the map is your craft.

Hover! can be played in full-screen (640x480) mode, press F4 (low-res mode) or SHIFT+F4 (higher-res mode) to enable this feature. To exit the full-screen mode, simply press F4 again.

== Levels ==
[[Image:hoverss2.png|thumb|A blue flag on a platform.]]There are three different mazes in Hover!. They resemble a medieval castle, a futuristic city, and a [[sewer]]. Each maze has its own texture maps, music theme, and spawn locations.

=== Objects in the Maze ===
The following is a list of objects found inside a maze.

==== Flags ====

Red Flag - Your flag. The enemy is collecting them as fast as they can.

Blue Flag - Enemy flag. you need to collect these before the enemy drones collect all of yours.

==== Floating Pods ====

Cloak - Temporarily hides you from the drones.

Wall - Puts up a temporary wall. Use it to slow down a drone.

Jump - Allows you to look over and jump onto low walls and low platforms. You can also jump over hazards and enemies.

Mystery Pod - It could be something good or bad. The sound you hear when you pick up the pod is the sound for the object inside.

Shield - Makes you temporarily invincible to skid pads, hold pads, map erasers, flag removers and speed reduction pods.

Green Light - Temporarily increases your speed.

Red Light - Temporarily reduces your speed.

Map Eraser - Erases most of your map.

==== Floor Pads ====

Hold Pad - Temporarily freezes you to the spot.

Flag Remover - Returns a flag you have captured back into the maze.

Skid Pad - Sends you skidding in the general direction the arrow is pointing.

==== Floating Platforms ====

The floating platforms in the medieval castle and futuristic city mazes can be reached by the stairs that lead up to them, however the platforms in the sewer level can only be gotten onto by jumping (default key “A“).

== Easter Eggs ==

[[Image:Hoverss3.png|thumb|Screenshot of the introductory level.]]The level "small.maz" (found in the \mazes directory of the game) is used as the introduction level shown when the game finishes loading. While the player cannot move at all, if he manages to relocate his craft to a different part of the maze through some creative hacking, he can see pictures of the developers along the maze walls.

The player cannot simply rename and load this level normally; the maze is missing spawns for all other objects and crashes immediately on load.

When the Hover! executables are loaded into a resource hacker, there are string tables and dialog boxes not normally seen that have references to a 'game editor' that may have been intended for end users but was removed before the game's release.

It is possible to maneuver your craft over a maze wall and outside a Hover! maze. To do this, move your craft very close to a maze wall, drop a wall, jump on it, drop another wall, jump on it, and then jump onto the maze wall. From there, you can move along the top of the maze walls or cross over the wall to the outside of the maze. If you go too far up or outside a maze the game will crash.

==External links==
*[ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/deskapps/games/public/AAS/ Download Hover! (6.16 MB)] from [[Microsoft]]'s Public [[FTP server]] by clicking on the file named "Hover!"
*[http://www.duke.edu/~mfc5/HOVER/ Matthew Campbell's unofficial Hover! site]

[[Category:1995 video games]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Discontinued Microsoft software]]

Hover!

2008-01-16T10:53:19Z

Voidvector: remove a break, it is there so that the box doesn't look weird

{{unreferenced|date=January 2008}}
{{Infobox VG
|title = Hover!
|image = [[Image:hover splash.png|257px]]
|caption =
|developer = [[Microsoft]]
|publisher = [[Microsoft]]
|distributor =
|designer =
|series =
|engine =
|version =
|released = [[1995 in video gaming|August 1995]]
|genre = [[Bumper cars]] [[Capture the flag]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings =
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]]
|media =
|requirements = 33 MHz [[Intel 80486|Intel 486]], 8 MB [[Random access memory|RAM]]
|input = [[Computer keyboard]]
}}
'''''Hover!''''' is a [[video game]] that came [[Product bundling|bundled]] with the Microsoft [[Windows 95]] operating system. It was a showcase for the advanced [[multimedia]] capabilities available on [[personal computer]]s at the time. While primitive by today's standards, ''Hover!'' was a landmark in home computer development. It is still available from Microsoft (see the “External Links” section below) and can be run on all of Microsoft's operating systems released since Windows 95, including Windows Vista.

The game is a combination of [[bumper car]]s and [[capture the flag]]. Part of the game's help file says this:
:''"Match wits with robotic pilots as you steer your Hover 950 craft through the murky realms of Hover!, an amusement ride created by robots from the future.''

:''The object is simple: steal all of the drones' flags before the drones capture yours. You will be awarded points for each of the enemy flags you collect and for every one of your flags remaining when you finish the level ahead of the drones. But the challenge doesn't end here. The drones will work their deceptions to throw you off course.''

:''The world of Hover! is filled with floating pods that contain both good and bad objects. Drive through the good pods to collect booster packs and other handy tools. Avoid the bad pods! And keep an eye out for unwanted skid pads, flag removers, hold pads, and other tricky obstacles.''

:''Good News! When the robots designed the world of Hover!, their game timer malfunctioned. This ride can continue as long as you keep capturing all the drones' flags before all of yours are captured."''

== The Hover! Window ==
[[Image:Hoverss1.png|thumb|An attack drone looks like every other drone but is represented as a green triangle on your map.]]
Across the top of the game window are the flag area, which indicates the number of flags available, (When you capture a flag, the flag is colored in, blue for the flags that you have collected, and red for the flags the drones have picked up.) the rear view which displays the area behind your Hover 950, (when enabled), and the score area indicates your current score. The middle of the Hover! window is the main view outside the front of your Hover 950. The bottom of the window contains the object area which contains information about jump, wall, and cloak pods. Each object area tells you the number of objects you've picked up, the time remaining for that object, and the key associated with each object. Also along the bottom of the window are the map area, which is a bird's-eye view of the current playing field, and the craft area, which shows the remaining time you are invincible to hold pads, skid pads, and flag removers; it also shows the direction your craft is moving, and your current speed.

You can magnify and rotate the map to help you figure out where you are. To see more of the map, press the MINUS (-) key. To zoom in closer, press the PLUS (+) key. Flags are represented as blinking dots: red dots are your flags, and blue dots are the enemy flags you are collecting. Drones carrying flags are represented as yellow triangles, drones with no flags are blue triangles, attack drones are green triangles, and the red triangle in the center of the map is your craft.

Hover! can be played in full-screen (640x480) mode, press F4 (low-res mode) or SHIFT+F4 (higher-res mode) to enable this feature. To exit the full-screen mode, simply press F4 again.

== The Mazes ==
[[Image:hoverss2.png|thumb|A blue flag on a platform.]]There are three different mazes in Hover!. They resemble a medieval castle, a futuristic city, and a [[sewer]]. Each maze has its own texture maps, music theme, and spawn locations.

=== Objects in the Maze ===
The following is a list of objects found inside a maze.

==== Flags ====

Red Flag - Your flag. The enemy is collecting them as fast as they can.

Blue Flag - Enemy flag. you need to collect these before the enemy drones collect all of yours.

==== Floating Pods ====

Cloak - Temporarily hides you from the drones.

Wall - Puts up a temporary wall. Use it to slow down a drone.

Jump - Allows you to look over and jump onto low walls and low platforms. You can also jump over hazards and enemies.

Mystery Pod - It could be something good or bad. The sound you hear when you pick up the pod is the sound for the object inside.

Shield - Makes you temporarily invincible to skid pads, hold pads, map erasers, flag removers and speed reduction pods.

Green Light - Temporarily increases your speed.

Red Light - Temporarily reduces your speed.

Map Eraser - Erases most of your map.

==== Floor Pads ====

Hold Pad - Temporarily freezes you to the spot.

Flag Remover - Returns a flag you have captured back into the maze.

Skid Pad - Sends you skidding in the general direction the arrow is pointing.

==== Floating Platforms ====

The floating platforms in the medieval castle and futuristic city mazes can be reached by the stairs that lead up to them, however the platforms in the sewer level can only be gotten onto by jumping (default key “A“).

== Easter Eggs ==

[[Image:Hoverss3.png|thumb|Screenshot of the introductory level.]]The level "small.maz" (found in the \mazes directory of the game) is used as the introduction level shown when the game finishes loading. While the player cannot move at all, if he manages to relocate his craft to a different part of the maze through some creative hacking, he can see pictures of the developers along the maze walls.

The player cannot simply rename and load this level normally; the maze is missing spawns for all other objects and crashes immediately on load.

When the Hover! executables are loaded into a resource hacker, there are string tables and dialog boxes not normally seen that have references to a 'game editor' that may have been intended for end users but was removed before the game's release.

It is possible to maneuver your craft over a maze wall and outside a Hover! maze. To do this, move your craft very close to a maze wall, drop a wall, jump on it, drop another wall, jump on it, and then jump onto the maze wall. From there, you can move along the top of the maze walls or cross over the wall to the outside of the maze. If you go too far up or outside a maze the game will crash.

==External links==
*[ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/deskapps/games/public/AAS/ Download Hover! (6.16 MB)] from [[Microsoft]]'s Public [[FTP server]] by clicking on the file named "Hover!"
*[http://www.duke.edu/~mfc5/HOVER/ Matthew Campbell's unofficial Hover! site]

[[Category:1995 video games]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Discontinued Microsoft software]]

Huma Abedin

2007-12-10T10:16:40Z

Voidvector: Revert to revision 175949408 dated 2007-12-05 16:49:32 by Rklawton using popups

'''Huma M Abedin''' is an aide to presidential candidate Senator [[Hillary Clinton]].<ref name="mysterywoman">{{cite news
| last =Morgan
| first =Spencer
| coauthors =
| title =Hillary's Mystery Woman: Who is Huma?
| work =
| pages =
| language =English
| publisher =[[The New York Observer]]
| date =[[2007-04-01]]
| url =http://www.observer.com/node/37040
| accessdate = 2007-07-12 }}</ref> Abedin was born in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]], [[Michigan]] to an [[India]]n father and [[Pakistan]]i mother.<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/214568.html Huma, Hillary’s secret weapon, very very much in Vogue]. [[Indian Express]]. September 05, 2007.</ref> When she was two years old, the family relocated to [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. Abedin returned to the United States to attend [[George Washington University]].<ref name="mysterywoman"/>

''[[The Times]]'' reported in November 2007 that a [[dirty tricks]] campaign was underway intimating that Abedin and Clinton were engaged in a [[lesbian]] affair.<ref>{{cite news |first=Tim |last=Reid |title=Snarls, smears and innuendo as attack dogs get ready for the fray |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article2917646.ece |work=[[The Times]] |publisher=''[[News International]]'' |date=[[2007-11-22]] |accessdate=2007-11-26}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hillaryclinton.com/splash/ Official Hillary Clinton campaign site]
*[http://www.legistorm.com/trip/traveler/Huma_M_Abedin/3995.html Huma M Abedin], LegiStorm

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abedin, Huma}}
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Pakistani Americans]]
[[Category:Indian Americans]]
[[Category:American Muslims]]

Benutzer:Mielas/Vivendi Games

2007-12-03T22:22:50Z

Voidvector: typo

{{Unreferenced|date=August 2007}}
{{Infobox Company
|company_name = Vivendi Games
|company_logo = [[Image:Vivendi logo.gif|160px]]
|company_type = Subsidiary
|foundation = 1996
|location = Paris, France
|key_people =
|industry = [[Computer and video game industry]]
|products = [[computer and video games|video games]]
|revenue = Revenues
804 million [[euros]] (2006)
|operating_income =
|net_income =
|num_employees = 3,400
|parent = [[Vivendi|Vivendi SA]]
|subsid =
|homepage =
|footnotes =
}}
'''Vivendi Games''' (formerly known as '''Vivendi Universal Games''') is a global developer, publisher and distributor of interactive entertainment. Vivendi Games is a 100% subsidiary of [[Vivendi SA]]. Headed by Bruce Hack, it is headquartered in Los Angeles, California and employs over 3,400 people at 4 separate development divisions.

Vivendi Games owns the rights to such franchises as [[Warcraft universe|Warcraft]], [[StarCraft]], [[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]] and [[World of Warcraft]] as well as others like [[Crash Bandicoot series|Crash Bandicoot]], [[Spyro the Dragon (series)|Spyro]], [[Empire Earth (series)|Empire Earth]], [[Leisure Suit Larry]], [[Ground Control]] and [[Tribes (series)|Tribes]].

==History==

The history of Vivendi Games begins in February 1996, when [[CUC International]], a large mail order and subscription company, offered to acquire entertainment software developer [[Sierra On-Line]]. Headquarted in Bellevue, Washington, Sierra was the leading developer and publisher of computer games and was famous for its adventure game series such as [[King's Quest]], [[Gabriel Knight]], [[Space Quest]], and [[Leisure Suit Larry]]. Sierra was a public company, which employed roughly 1,000 employees at 12 different acquired studios. CUC offered to absorb Sierra's stock shares at a price roughly 90% higher than what Sierra was trading, and on July 24th 1996, Sierra became a wholly owned subsidiary of CUC.

At the same time, CUC also approached [[Davidson & Associates]], a leading publisher and distributor of educational software, with an offer of a similar stock swap. Headquarted in Torrance, California, Davidson was famous for its [[Math Blaster]] series, and also for [[Warcraft]] and Diablo. While mainly a game publisher, Davidson also had a major in-house developer in the form of [[Blizzard Entertainment]], which Davidson had acquired in 1994, and employed over 800 employees as of February 1996.
Davidson was also a public company, founded and headed by [[Bob Davidson]], who acted as CEO, and also by [[Jan Davidson]], who acted as President.

After acquiring these companies, CUC quickly integrated these two new divisions into the main CUC organization by announcing in September 1996 the creation of [[CUC Software]], a holding company which would consolidate the finance, distribution, manufacturing, accounting, sales, R&D and overall management of CUC's software companies.

Soon after its creation, CUC Software acquired in January 1997 [[Knowledge Adventure]], a leading developer of educational software, famous for its [[Jumpstart]] series of child oriented programs. CUC also acquired [[Gryphon Software]], another educational software company. Davidson & Associates and Gryphon were then absorbed into Knowledge Adventure, and [[Blizzard Entertainment]] was made a separate division of CUC Software. In 1997, [[CUC Software]] also acquired [[Berkeley Systems]], a California-based developer famous for its [[You Don't Know Jack!]] series, and integrated Berkeley Systems into Sierra On-Line.

CUC then merged with a hotel, real-estate, and car-rental franchiser called HFS Corporation to form [[Cendant]] in 1997. In 1998 it became apparent that CUC had engaged in accounting fraud for years before the merger; Cendant's stock lost 80% of its value over the next six months in the ensuing widely discussed accounting scandal. The company sold its consumer software operations, which included Sierra On-line and Blizzard, to French publisher [[Havas]] in 1998, the same year Havas was purchased by [[Vivendi]], which formed Vivendi Universal Games.

In 2004, Vivendi Games sold one of its divisions, [[Knowledge Adventure]] to a group of private investors. In 2005 Vivendi's revenues made 641 million euros with earnings from operations equaling to 41 million euros. In 2006 Vivendi Games created a new mobile division '''Vivendi Games Mobile''', which was promised to begin publishing and distributing games in 2006 through mobile carriers and portals.

In December 2007 it was announced that Vivendi Games would merge with games developer [[Activision|Activision]], forming [[Activision Blizzard]].<ref name="actblizmerger">{{cite press release
| title = VIVENDI AND ACTIVISION TO CREATE ACTIVISION BLIZZARD – World’s Largest, Most Profitable Pure-Play Video Game Publisher
| publisher = [[Activision]], [[Vivendi]]
| date = [[2007-12-02]]
| url = http://www.activisionblizzard.com/pressReleases/pr120207.php
| accessdate = 2007-12-02}}</ref>

==Divisions==
===Blizzard Entertainment===
{{Main|Blizzard Entertainment}}
Blizzard Entertainment is a world-renowned development studio best known for creating [[World of Warcraft]], [[Diablo]], [[StarCraft]], and [[Warcraft]]. World of Warcraft, the world’s most popular game in the MMORPG category, has currently over 9.3 million subscribers. [http://kotaku.com/gaming/world-of-warcraft/wow-population-hits-93-million-322914.php]

The Blizzard headquarters is located in Irvine, California.

===Sierra Entertainment===
{{Main|Sierra Entertainment}}
Sierra Entertainment creates and publishes software for consoles, handheld gaming devices and personal computers. Sierra Entertainment features a portfolio of titles based on original intellectual property and popular licenses from industry-leading content partners, including [[F.E.A.R.]], [[Crash Bandicoot]], [[Spyro The Dragon]], [[Scarface]], and [[Ice Age]].

Operating out of Los Angeles, California, Sierra employs over 700 people in development and has four wholly owned studios providing creative talents and development capabilities across multiple gaming genres: [[High Moon Studios]], [[Radical Entertainment]], [[Swordfish Studios]] and [[Massive Entertainment]].

===Sierra Online===
{{Main|Sierra Online}}
Sierra Online, a newly created division, focuses on developing and publishing high quality short and mid-session casual online games for [[PC]], [[Xbox Live Arcade]] and a range of other platforms.

Sierra Online’s titles include Assault Heroes, an award-winning game for Xbox Live Arcade, and the upcoming FreeStyle Street Basketball, an online PC game from leading Korean developer JC Entertainment, Inc.

The division is also developing a variety of other Xbox Live Arcade and PC online games targeting the mass market.

===Vivendi Games Mobile===
{{Main|Vivendi Games Mobile}}
Vivendi Games Mobile, a newly formed division, creates and publishes games for the worldwide mobile market. The division publishes games based on original intellectual property, popular entertainment licenses and classic Sierra Entertainment intellectual property games which are distributed by more than 90 operators and dozens of Web portals in more than 60 countries.

Vivendi Games Mobile has launched a number of award-winning titles, including SWAT Force which was named “Best Wireless Game of the Year” by Spike TV in December 2006.

==Executive Management==
[[René Pénisson]],
Chairman,
Vivendi Games

[[Bruce Hack]],
CEO,
Vivendi Games

[[Pascal Brochier]],
President, Global Retail

[[Cindy Cook]],
Chief Strategy and Marketing Officer

[[Terri Durham]],
Executive Vice President, Business Development and Global General Counsel

[[Jean-François Grollemund]],
Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer

[[Mark Halacy]],
Executive Vice President, Global Human Resources

==Divisional Management==

[[Mike Morhaime]],
President,
[[Blizzard Entertainment]]

[[Martin Tremblay]],
President
Worldwide Studios,
[[Sierra Entertainment]]

[[Al Simone]],
Senior Vice President, Global Marketing
[[Sierra Entertainment]]

[[Ed Zobrist]].
President,
Sierra Online

[[Paul Maglione]],
President,
[[Vivendi Games Mobile]]

==See also==
*[[Vivendi]]
*[[List of assets owned by Vivendi]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.vivendi.com/ Vivendi.com - Official site of Vivendi]
*[http://vugames.com/ VUgames.com - Official site of Vivendi games], redirects to [[Sierra Entertainment]] [http://sierra.com official site].
*[http://www.vivendi.com/corp/en/subsidiaries/index_games.php Vivendi games at Vivendi.com] — Vivendi Games page at [http://www.vivendi.com/ vivendi.com].

{{Vivendi}}

[[Category:Video game companies]]
[[Category:Entertainment Software Association]]

[[fr:Vivendi Games]]
[[it:Vivendi Games]]
[[nl:Vivendi Games]]
[[ja:ヴィヴェンディ・ユニバーサルゲームズ]]
[[pt:Vivendi Games]]

Benutzer:Mielas/Vivendi Games

2007-12-03T21:50:48Z

Voidvector: {{reflist}}

{{Unreferenced|date=August 2007}}
{{Infobox Company
|company_name = Vivendi Games
|company_logo = [[Image:Vivendi logo.gif|160px]]
|company_type = Subsidiary
|foundation = 1996
|location = Paris, France
|key_people =
|industry = [[Computer and video game industry]]
|products = [[computer and video games|video games]]
|revenue = Revenues
804 million [[euros]] (2006)
|operating_income =
|net_income =
|num_employees = 3,400
|parent = [[Vivendi|Vivendi SA]]
|subsid =
|homepage =
|footnotes =
}}
'''Vivendi Games''' (formerly known as '''Vivendi Universal Games''') is a global developer, publisher and distributor of interactive entertainment. Vivendi Games is a 100% subsidiary of [[Vivendi SA]]. Headed by Bruce Hack, it is headquartered in Los Angeles, California and employs over 3,400 people at 4 separate development divisions.

Vivendi Games owns the rights to such franchises as [[Warcraft universe|Warcraft]], [[StarCraft]], [[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]] and [[World of Warcraft]] as well as others like [[Crash Bandicoot series|Crash Bandicoot]], [[Spyro the Dragon (series)|Spyro]], [[Empire Earth (series)|Empire Earth]], [[Leisure Suit Larry]], [[Ground Control]] and [[Tribes (series)|Tribes]].

==History==

The history of Vivendi Games begins in February 1996, when [[CUC International]], a large mail order and subscription company, offered to acquire entertainment software developer [[Sierra On-Line]]. Headquarted in Bellevue, Washington, Sierra was the leading developer and publisher of computer games and was famous for its adventure game series such as [[King's Quest]], [[Gabriel Knight]], [[Space Quest]], and [[Leisure Suit Larry]]. Sierra was a public company, which employed roughly 1,000 employees at 12 different acquired studios. CUC offered to absorb Sierra's stock shares at a price roughly 90% higher than what Sierra was trading, and on July 24th 1996, Sierra became a wholly owned subsidiary of CUC.

At the same time, CUC also approached [[Davidson & Associates]], a leading publisher and distributor of educational software, with an offer of a similar stock swap. Headquarted in Torrance, California, Davidson was famous for its [[Math Blaster]] series, and also for [[Warcraft]] and Diablo. While mainly a game publisher, Davidson also had a major in-house developer in the form of [[Blizzard Entertainment]], which Davidson had acquired in 1994, and employed over 800 employees as of February 1996.
Davidson was also a public company, founded and headed by [[Bob Davidson]], who acted as CEO, and also by [[Jan Davidson]], who acted as President.

After acquiring these companies, CUC quickly integrated these two new divisions into the main CUC organization by announcing in September 1996 the creation of [[CUC Software]], a holding company which would consolidate the finance, distribution, manufacturing, accounting, sales, R&D and overall management of CUC's software companies.

Soon after its creation, CUC Software acquired in January 1997 [[Knowledge Adventure]], a leading developer of educational software, famous for its [[Jumpstart]] series of child oriented programs. CUC also acquired [[Gryphon Software]], another educational software company. Davidson & Associates and Gryphon were then absorbed into Knowledge Adventure, and [[Blizzard Entertainment]] was made a separate division of CUC Software. In 1997, [[CUC Software]] also acquired [[Berkeley Systems]], a California-based developer famous for its [[You Don't Know Jack!]] series, and integrated Berkeley Systems into Sierra On-Line.

CUC then merged with a hotel, real-estate, and car-rental franchiser called HFS Corporation to form [[Cendant]] in 1997. In 1998 it became apparent that CUC had engaged in accounting fraud for years before the merger; Cendant's stock lost 80% of its value over the next six months in the ensuing widely discussed accounting scandal. The company sold its consumer software operations, which included Sierra On-line and Blizzard, to French publisher [[Havas]] in 1998, the same year Havas was purchased by [[Vivendi]], which formed Vivendi Universal Games.

In 2004, Vivendi Games sold one of its divisions, [[Knowledge Adventure]] to a group of private investors. In 2005 Vivendi's revenues made 641 million euros with earnings from operations equaling to 41 million euros. In 2006 Vivendi Games created a new mobile division '''Vivendi Games Mobile''', which was promised to begin publishing and distributing games in 2006 through mobile carriers and portals.

In December 2007 it was announced that Vivendi Games would merge with games developer [[Activision|Activision]], forming [[Activision Blizzard]].<ref name="actblizmerger">{{cite press release
| title = VIVENDI AND ACTIVISION TO CREATE ACTIVISION BLIZZARD – World’s Largest, Most Profitable Pure-Play Video Game Publisher
| publisher = [[Activision]], [[Vivendi]]
| date = [[2007-12-02]]
| url = http://www.activisionblizzard.com/pressReleases/pr120207.php
| accessdate = 2007-12-02}}</ref>

==Divisions==
===Blizzard Entertainment===
{{Main|Blizzard Entertainment}}
Blizzard Entertainment is a world-renowned development studio best known for creating [[World of Warcraft]], [[Diablo]], [[StarCraft]], and [[Warcraft]]. World of Warcraft, the world’s most popular game in the MMORPG category, has currently over 9.3 million subscribers. [http://kotaku.com/gaming/world-of-warcraft/wow-population-hits-93-million-322914.php]

The Blizzard headquarters is located in Irvine, California.

===Sierra Entertainment===
{{Main|Sierra Entertainment}}
Sierra Entertainment creates and publishes software for consoles, handheld gaming devices and personal computers. Sierra Entertainment features a portfolio of titles based on original intellectual property and popular licenses from industry-leading content partners, including [[F.E.A.R.]], [[Crash Bandicoot]], [[Spyro The Dragon]], [[Scarface]], and [[Ice Age]].

Operating out of Los Angeles, California, Sierra employs over 700 people in development and has four wholly owned studios providing creative talents and development capabilities across multiple gaming genres: [[High Moon Studios]], [[Radical Entertainment]], [[Swordfish Studios]] and [[Massive Entertainment]].

===Sierra Online===
{{Main|Sierra Online}}
Sierra Online, a newly created division, focuses on developing and publishing high quality short and mid-session casual online games for [[PC]], [[Xbox Live Arcade]] and a range of other platforms.

Sierra Online’s titles include Assault Heroes, an award-winning game for Xbox Live Arcade, and the upcoming FreeStyle Street Basketball, an online PC game from leading Korean developer JC Entertainment, Inc.

The division is also developing a variety of other Xbox Live Arcade and PC online games targeting the mass market.

===Vivendi Games Mobile===
{{Main|Vivendi Games Mobile}}
Vivendi Games Mobile, a newly formed division, creates and publishes games for the worldwide mobile market. The division publishes games based on original intellectual property, popular entertainment licenses and classic Sierra Entertainment intellectual property games which are distributed by more than 90 operators and dozens of Web portals in more than 60 countries.

Vivendi Games Mobile has launched a number of award-winning titles, including SWAT Force which was named “Best Wireless Game of the Year” by Spike TV in December 2006.

==Executive Management==
[[René Pénisson]],
Chairman,
Vivendi Games

[[Bruce Hack]],
CEO,
Vivendi Games

[[Pascal Brochier]],
President, Global Retail

[[Cindy Cook]],
Chief Strategy and Marketing Officer

[[Terri Durham]],
Executive Vice President, Business Development and Global General Counsel

[[Jean-François Grollemund]],
Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer

[[Mark Halacy]],
Executive Vice President, Global Human Resources

==Divisional Management==

[[Mike Morhaime]],
President,
[[Blizzard Entertainment]]

[[Martin Tremblay]],
President
Worldwide Studios,
[[Sierra Entertainment]]

[[Al Simone]],
Senior Vice President, Global Marketing
[[Sierra Entertainment]]

[[Ed Zobrist]].
President,
Sierra Online

[[Paul Maglione]],
President,
[[Vivendi Games Mobile]]

==See also==
*[[Vivendi]]
*[[List of assets owned by Vivendi]]

==References===
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.vivendi.com/ Vivendi.com - Official site of Vivendi]
*[http://vugames.com/ VUgames.com - Official site of Vivendi games], redirects to [[Sierra Entertainment]] [http://sierra.com official site].
*[http://www.vivendi.com/corp/en/subsidiaries/index_games.php Vivendi games at Vivendi.com] — Vivendi Games page at [http://www.vivendi.com/ vivendi.com].

{{Vivendi}}

[[Category:Video game companies]]
[[Category:Entertainment Software Association]]

[[fr:Vivendi Games]]
[[it:Vivendi Games]]
[[nl:Vivendi Games]]
[[ja:ヴィヴェンディ・ユニバーサルゲームズ]]
[[pt:Vivendi Games]]

Huma Abedin

2007-12-02T23:58:50Z

Voidvector: Revert to revision 174513738 dated 2007-11-29 02:41:22 by Astanhope using popups

Huma Abedin

2007-11-28T01:20:22Z

Voidvector: Revert to revision 174250037 dated 2007-11-27 23:48:57 by Voidvector using popups

'''Huma M Abedin''' is an aide to presidential candidate Senator [[Hillary Clinton]].<ref name="mysterywoman">{{cite news
| last =Morgan
| first =Spencer
| coauthors =
| title =Hillary's Mystery Woman: Who is Huma?
| work =
| pages =
| language =English
| publisher =[[The New York Observer]]
| date =[[2007-04-01]]
| url =http://www.observer.com/node/37040
| accessdate = 2007-07-12 }}</ref> Abedin was born in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]], [[Michigan]] to an [[India]]n father and [[Pakistan]]i mother, both [[Islam|Muslims]].<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/214568.html Huma, Hillary’s secret weapon, very very much in Vogue]. [[Indian Express]]. September 05, 2007.</ref> When she was two years old, the family relocated to [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. Abedin returned to the United States to attend [[George Washington University]].<ref name="mysterywoman"/>

==Smear campaign against Abedin==
''[[The Times of London]]'' reported in November 2007 that a [[dirty tricks]] campaign was underway intimating that the pair were engaged in a [[lesbian]] affair.<ref>{{cite news |first=Tim |last=Reid |title=Snarls, smears and innuendo as attack dogs get ready for the fray |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article2917646.ece |work=[[Times Online]] |publisher=''[[The Times]]'' |date=[[2007-11-22]] |accessdate=2007-11-26}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hillaryclinton.com/splash/ Official Hillary Clinton campaign site]
*[http://www.legistorm.com/trip/traveler/Huma_M_Abedin/3995.html Huma M Abedin], LegiStorm

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abedin, Huma}}
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Pakistani Americans]]
[[Category:Indian Americans]]
[[Category:American Muslims]]

Huma Abedin

2007-11-27T23:48:57Z

Voidvector: Revert to revision 174248474 dated 2007-11-27 23:40:23 by Voidvector using popups

'''Huma M Abedin''' is an aide to presidential candidate Senator [[Hillary Clinton]].<ref name="mysterywoman">{{cite news
| last =Morgan
| first =Spencer
| coauthors =
| title =Hillary's Mystery Woman: Who is Huma?
| work =
| pages =
| language =English
| publisher =[[The New York Observer]]
| date =[[2007-04-01]]
| url =http://www.observer.com/node/37040
| accessdate = 2007-07-12 }}</ref> Abedin was born in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]], [[Michigan]] to an [[India]]n father and [[Pakistan]]i mother, both [[Islam|Muslims]].<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/214568.html Huma, Hillary’s secret weapon, very very much in Vogue]. [[Indian Express]]. September 05, 2007.</ref> When she was two years old, the family relocated to [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. Abedin returned to the United States to attend [[George Washington University]].<ref name="mysterywoman"/>

==Smear campaign against Abedin==
''[[The Times of London]]'' reported in November 2007 that a [[dirty tricks]] campaign was underway intimating that the pair were engaged in a [[lesbian]] affair.<ref>{{cite news |first=Tim |last=Reid |title=Snarls, smears and innuendo as attack dogs get ready for the fray |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article2917646.ece |work=[[Times Online]] |publisher=''[[The Times]]'' |date=[[2007-11-22]] |accessdate=2007-11-26}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hillaryclinton.com/splash/ Official Hillary Clinton campaign site]
*[http://www.legistorm.com/trip/traveler/Huma_M_Abedin/3995.html Huma M Abedin], LegiStorm

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abedin, Huma}}
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Pakistani Americans]]
[[Category:Indian Americans]]
[[Category:American Muslims]]

Huma Abedin

2007-11-27T23:40:23Z

Voidvector: add legistorm external link about her. It's a site that documents gov staffer salary and trip disclosures

'''Huma M Abedin''' is an aide to presidential candidate Senator [[Hillary Clinton]].<ref name="mysterywoman">{{cite news
| last =Morgan
| first =Spencer
| coauthors =
| title =Hillary's Mystery Woman: Who is Huma?
| work =
| pages =
| language =English
| publisher =[[The New York Observer]]
| date =[[2007-04-01]]
| url =http://www.observer.com/node/37040
| accessdate = 2007-07-12 }}</ref> Abedin was born in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]], [[Michigan]] to an [[India]]n father and [[Pakistan]]i mother, both [[Islam|Muslims]].<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/214568.html Huma, Hillary’s secret weapon, very very much in Vogue]. [[Indian Express]]. September 05, 2007.</ref> When she was two years old, the family relocated to [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. Abedin returned to the United States to attend [[George Washington University]].<ref name="mysterywoman"/>

==Smear campaign against Abedin==
''[[The Times of London]]'' reported in November 2007 that a [[dirty tricks]] campaign was underway intimating that the pair were engaged in a [[lesbian]] affair.<ref>{{cite news |first=Tim |last=Reid |title=Snarls, smears and innuendo as attack dogs get ready for the fray |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article2917646.ece |work=[[Times Online]] |publisher=''[[The Times]]'' |date=[[2007-11-22]] |accessdate=2007-11-26}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hillaryclinton.com/splash/ Official Hillary Clinton campaign site]
*[http://www.legistorm.com/trip/traveler/Huma_M_Abedin/3995.html Huma M Abedin], LegiStorm

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abedin, Huma}}
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Pakistani Americans]]
[[Category:Indian Americans]]
[[Category:American Muslims]]

Huma Abedin

2007-11-27T23:07:25Z

Voidvector: i believe a person's background is more important than some smear campaign about them

'''Huma M Abedin''' is an aide to presidential candidate Senator [[Hillary Clinton]].<ref name="mysterywoman">{{cite news
| last =Morgan
| first =Spencer
| coauthors =
| title =Hillary's Mystery Woman: Who is Huma?
| work =
| pages =
| language =English
| publisher =[[The New York Observer]]
| date =[[2007-04-01]]
| url =http://www.observer.com/node/37040
| accessdate = 2007-07-12 }}</ref> Abedin was born in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]], [[Michigan]] to an [[India]]n father and [[Pakistan]]i mother, both [[Islam|Muslims]].<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/214568.html Huma, Hillary’s secret weapon, very very much in Vogue]. [[India Express]]. September 05, 2007.</ref> When she was two years old, the family relocated to [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. Abedin returned to the United States to attend [[George Washington University]].<ref name="mysterywoman"/>

==Smear campaign against Abedin==
''[[The Times of London]]'' reported in November 2007 that a [[dirty tricks]] campaign was underway intimating that the pair were engaged in a [[lesbian]] affair.<ref>{{cite news |first=Tim |last=Reid |title=Snarls, smears and innuendo as attack dogs get ready for the fray |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article2917646.ece |work=[[Times Online]] |publisher=''[[The Times]]'' |date=[[2007-11-22]] |accessdate=2007-11-26}}</ref>
==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hillaryclinton.com/splash/ Official Hillary Clinton campaign site]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abedin, Huma}}
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Pakistani Americans]]
[[Category:Indian Americans]]
[[Category:American Muslims]]

Huma Abedin

2007-11-06T21:18:17Z

Voidvector: Revert to revision 169642965 dated 2007-11-06 18:10:21 by SmackBot using popups

{{AfDM|page=Huma Abedin|date=2007 November 1|substed=yes}}


'''Huma M Abedin''' is an aide to the presidential campaign of [[Hillary Clinton]]. Media sources{{Who|date=November 2007}} describe her as one of Clinton's closest advisers.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}

Abedin was born in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]], [[Michigan]] to an [[India]]n father and [[Pakistan]]i mother, both [[Islam|Muslims]].<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/214568.html Huma, Hillary’s secret weapon, very very much in Vogue]. [[India Express]]. September 05, 2007.</ref> When she was two years old, the family relocated to [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. Abedin returned to the United States to attend [[George Washington University]].
<ref>{{cite news
| last =Morgan
| first =Spencer
| coauthors =
| title =Hillary's Mystery Woman: Who is Huma?
| work =
| pages =
| language =English
| publisher =[[The New York Observer]]
| date =[[2007-04-01]]
| url =http://www.observer.com/node/37040
| accessdate = 2007-07-12 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abedin}}
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Indian Americans]]
[[Category:American Muslims]]

Huma Abedin

2007-11-06T06:22:21Z

Voidvector: add middle name and tag a sentence {{cn}}

{{AfDM|page=Huma Abedin|date=2007 November 1|substed=yes}}


'''Huma M Abedin''' is an aide to the presidential campaign of [[Hillary Clinton]]. Media sources{{who}} describe her as one of Clinton's closest advisers, particularly on issues involving the [[Middle East]], and often comment on her purportedly renowned competence, striking personal appearance.{{cn}}

Abedin was born in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]], [[Michigan]] to an Indian father and Pakistani mother, both [[Islam|Muslims]]. When she was two years old, the family relocated to [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. Abedin returned to the United States to attend [[George Washington University]].
<ref>{{cite news
| last =Morgan
| first =Spencer
| coauthors =
| title =Hillary's Mystery Woman: Who is Huma?
| work =
| pages =
| language =English
| publisher =[[The New York Observer]]
| date =[[2007-04-01]]
| url =http://www.observer.com/node/37040
| accessdate = 2007-07-12 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abedin}}
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Indian Americans]]
[[Category:American Muslims]]

Huma Abedin

2007-11-06T06:16:33Z

Voidvector: remove negative unsupported/unproven statement, this is an article on a living person.

{{AfDM|page=Huma Abedin|date=2007 November 1|substed=yes}}


'''Huma Abedin''' is an aide to the presidential campaign of [[Hillary Clinton]]. Media sources{{who}} describe her as one of Clinton's closest advisers, particularly on issues involving the [[Middle East]], and often comment on her purportedly renowned competence, striking personal appearance.

Abedin was born in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]], [[Michigan]] to an Indian father and Pakistani mother, both [[Islam|Muslims]]. When she was two years old, the family relocated to [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. Abedin returned to the United States to attend [[George Washington University]].
<ref>{{cite news
| last =Morgan
| first =Spencer
| coauthors =
| title =Hillary's Mystery Woman: Who is Huma?
| work =
| pages =
| language =English
| publisher =[[The New York Observer]]
| date =[[2007-04-01]]
| url =http://www.observer.com/node/37040
| accessdate = 2007-07-12 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abedin}}
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Indian Americans]]
[[Category:American Muslims]]

Hover!

2007-08-16T12:03:27Z

Voidvector: more recognizable

{{Infobox CVG
|title = Hover!
|image = [[Image:hover screen.jpg|200px]]
|caption =
|developer = [[Microsoft]]
|publisher = [[Microsoft]]
|distributor =
|designer =
|series =
|engine =
|version =
|released = [[1995 in video gaming|1995]]
|genre = [[Capture the flag]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings =
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]]
|media =
|requirements = 33 MHz [[Intel 80486|Intel 486]], 8 MB [[Random access memory|RAM]]
|input = [[Computer keyboard]]
}}
'''''Hover!''''' is a [[video game]] that came [[bundle]]d with [[Windows 95]]. It was a showcase for the advanced [[multimedia]] capabilities available on [[personal computer]]s at the time. While primitive by today's standards, ''Hover!'' was a landmark in home computer development. It is still available from Microsoft (see below) and can be run on all of Microsoft's operating systems released since Windows 95 including Windows Vista.

The game is a variation on [[capture the flag]]. The game's help file says this:
:''"The object is simple: steal all of the drones' flags before the drones capture yours. You will be awarded points for each of the enemy flags you collect, and for every one of your flags you have remaining in the maze when you finish the level ahead of the drones."''
[[Image:hoverdrone.jpg|thumb|An attack drone looks like every other blue drone but is represented as a green triangle on your map.]]

== The Hover 950 Control Panel ==
Across the top of the screen (from left to right in the picture at right) is a panel showing the number of flags collected by both player and computer, an optional rear view mirror (when disabled it reads Hover 950), and the player's score.

Across the bottom of the screen is a panel showing how many spring, wall, and cloak [[power-up]]s the player has left, the level's map, a [[speedometer]] and a compass of sorts, and another panel showing you how much shield, green light, or red light power is left.

== The Levels ==
[[Image:hoverlevel1.jpg|200px|right|Level 1]]
There are three different mazes in ''Hover!'': a medieval castle, a futuristic city/ nightclub area, and an oceanic themed [[sewer]]. Each maze has its own music theme, spawn locations, and 'style' (e.g., the sewer has a lot of areas in the air, while the city level has several dead-ends).

The red and blue flags are random placed on one of several spawn points on each level each time that levels is loaded, as well as powerups. Certain objects (shown as a yellow square on the map) have different effects, e.g. an orange swirly stopping you, a green arrow shooting you in that direction, or a "No-Flag" symbol that will put a collected flag back in the maze.

=== Easter Eggs ===

[[Image:Hover_easter_eggs.png|thumb|right|Screenshot from a hacked .maz file]]One level (shown as "small.maz" in the ''mazes'' directory of the game) is used as the introduction level shown when the game finishes starting up. While the player cannot move his ship or indeed move at all, if the player manages to relocate his or her car through some creative hacking, he or she can view pictures of the developer's heads.

The player cannot simply rename and load this level normally; the maze is missing spawns for all other objects and crashes immediately on load.

== Items ==
Power-ups and other items are found in green floating bubbles throughout the game.
:A cloak gives you the ability to hide yourself from the drones momentarily.
:A wall gives you the ability to put a temporary wall behind you, in order to slow a pursuing drone down.
:A spring gives you the ability to jump over walls and onto platforms. [[Image:hoverbubble.jpg|thumb|right|A spring power-up]]
:A green light temporarily increases your speed.
:A red light temporarily decreases your speed.
:A shield makes you temporarily invulnerable to the effects of all "power-downs".
:A question mark gives you a random item.
:A "map eraser" looks like a lightning bolt hitting your bottom control panel and it erases your map.

== Pads ==
There are several pads along the ground in the game Hover!
:'''skid pad''' - An arrow will force the craft to move in that direction
:'''hold pad''' - A stop pad will stop the vehicle by lowering it below the ground.
:'''flag remover''' - A pad with a strikethrough going through a flag will remove one of the player's captured flags if he or she happens to hover by it.

==External links==
*[ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/deskapps/games/public/AAS/Hover.exe Download Hover!] at [[Microsoft]]'s Public [[FTP server]]
*[http://www.duke.edu/~mfc5/HOVER/ HOVER! Download Website]

[[Category:1995 video games]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Discontinued Microsoft software]]

Hover!

2007-07-25T18:56:55Z

Voidvector: /* Pads */ add names from the help file

{{Infobox CVG
|title = Hover!
|image = [[Image:hover screen.jpg|200px]]
|caption =
|developer = [[Microsoft]]
|publisher = [[Microsoft]]
|distributor =
|designer =
|series =
|engine =
|version =
|released = [[1995 in video gaming|1995]]
|genre = [[Capture the flag]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings =
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]]
|media =
|requirements = 33 Hz [[Intel 80486]], 8 MB [[Random access memory|RAM]]
|input = [[Computer keyboard]]
}}
'''''Hover!''''' is a [[video game]] that came [[bundle]]d with [[Windows 95]]. It was a showcase for the advanced [[multimedia]] capabilities available on [[personal computer]]s at the time. While primitive by today's standards, ''Hover!'' was a landmark in home computer development. It is still available from Microsoft (see below) and can be run on all of Microsoft's operating systems released since Windows 95 including Windows Vista.

The game is a variation on [[capture the flag]]. The game's help file says this:
:''"The object is simple: steal all of the drones' flags before the drones capture yours. You will be awarded points for each of the enemy flags you collect, and for every one of your flags you have remaining in the maze when you finish the level ahead of the drones."''
[[Image:hoverdrone.jpg|thumb|An attack drone looks like every other blue drone but is represented as a green triangle on your map.]]

== The Hover 750 Control Panel ==
Across the top of the screen (from left to right in the picture at right) is a panel showing the number of flags collected by both player and computer, an optional rear view mirror (when disabled it reads Hover 950), and the player's score.

Across the bottom of the screen is a panel showing how many spring, wall, and cloak [[power-up]]s the player has left, the level's map, a [[speedometer]] and a compass of sorts, and another panel showing you how much shield, green light, or red light power is left.

== The Levels ==
[[Image:hoverlevel1.jpg|200px|right|Level 1]]
There are three different mazes in ''Hover!'': a medieval castle, a futuristic city/ nightclub area, and an oceanic themed [[sewer]]. Each maze has its own music theme, spawn locations, and 'style' (e.g., the sewer has a lot of areas in the air, while the city level has several dead-ends).

The red and blue flags are random placed on one of several spawn points on each level each time that levels is loaded, as well as powerups. Certain objects (shown as a yellow square on the map) have different effects, e.g. an orange swirly stopping you, a green arrow shooting you in that direction, or a "No-Flag" symbol that will put a collected flag back in the maze.

=== Easter Eggs ===

[[Image:Hover_easter_eggs.png|thumb|right|Screenshot from a hacked .maz file]]One level (shown as "small.maz" in the ''mazes'' directory of the game) is used as the introduction level shown when the game finishes starting up. While the player cannot move his ship or indeed move at all, if the player manages to relocate his or her car through some creative hacking, he or she can view pictures of the developer's heads.

The player cannot simply rename and load this level normally; the maze is missing spawns for all other objects and crashes immediately on load.

== Items ==
Power-ups and other items are found in green floating bubbles throughout the game.
:A cloak gives you the ability to hide yourself from the drones momentarily.
:A wall gives you the ability to put a temporary wall behind you, in order to slow a pursuing drone down.
:A spring gives you the ability to jump over walls and onto platforms. [[Image:hoverbubble.jpg|thumb|right|A spring power-up]]
:A green light temporarily increases your speed.
:A red light temporarily decreases your speed.
:A shield makes you temporarily invulnerable to the effects of all "power-downs".
:A question mark gives you a random item.
:A "map eraser" looks like a lightning bolt hitting your bottom control panel and it erases your map.

== Pads ==
There are several pads along the ground in the game Hover!
:'''skid pad''' - An arrow will force the craft to move in that direction
:'''hold pad''' - A stop pad will stop the vehicle by lowering it below the ground.
:'''flag remover''' - A pad with a strikethrough going through a flag will remove one of the player's captured flags if he or she happens to hover by it.

==External links==
*[ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/deskapps/games/public/AAS/Hover.exe Download Hover!] at [[Microsoft]]'s Public [[FTP server]]
*[http://www.duke.edu/~mfc5/HOVER/ HOVER! Download Website]

[[Category:1995 video games]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Discontinued Microsoft software]]

Hover!

2007-07-25T18:18:54Z

Voidvector: bigger logo

{{Infobox CVG
|title = Hover!
|image = [[Image:hover screen.jpg|200px]]
|caption =
|developer = [[Microsoft]]
|publisher = [[Microsoft]]
|distributor =
|designer =
|series =
|engine =
|version =
|released = [[1995 in video gaming|1995]]
|genre = [[Capture the flag]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings =
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]]
|media =
|requirements = 33 Hz [[Intel 80486]], 8 MB [[Random access memory|RAM]]
|input = [[Computer keyboard]]
}}
'''''Hover!''''' is a [[video game]] that came [[bundle]]d with [[Windows 95]]. It was a showcase for the advanced [[multimedia]] capabilities available on [[personal computer]]s at the time. While primitive by today's standards, ''Hover!'' was a landmark in home computer development. It is still available from Microsoft (see below) and can be run on all of Microsoft's operating systems released since Windows 95 including Windows Vista.

The game is a variation on [[capture the flag]]. The game's help file says this:
:''"The object is simple: steal all of the drones' flags before the drones capture yours. You will be awarded points for each of the enemy flags you collect, and for every one of your flags you have remaining in the maze when you finish the level ahead of the drones."''
[[Image:hoverdrone.jpg|thumb|An attack drone looks like every other blue drone but is represented as a green triangle on your map.]]

== The Hover 750 Control Panel ==
Across the top of the screen (from left to right in the picture at right) is a panel showing the number of flags collected by both player and computer, an optional rear view mirror (when disabled it reads Hover 950), and the player's score.

Across the bottom of the screen is a panel showing how many spring, wall, and cloak [[power-up]]s the player has left, the level's map, a [[speedometer]] and a compass of sorts, and another panel showing you how much shield, green light, or red light power is left.

== The Levels ==
[[Image:hoverlevel1.jpg|200px|right|Level 1]]
There are three different mazes in ''Hover!'': a medieval castle, a futuristic city/ nightclub area, and an oceanic themed [[sewer]]. Each maze has its own music theme, spawn locations, and 'style' (e.g., the sewer has a lot of areas in the air, while the city level has several dead-ends).

The red and blue flags are random placed on one of several spawn points on each level each time that levels is loaded, as well as powerups. Certain objects (shown as a yellow square on the map) have different effects, e.g. an orange swirly stopping you, a green arrow shooting you in that direction, or a "No-Flag" symbol that will put a collected flag back in the maze.

=== Easter Eggs ===

[[Image:Hover_easter_eggs.png|thumb|right|Screenshot from a hacked .maz file]]One level (shown as "small.maz" in the ''mazes'' directory of the game) is used as the introduction level shown when the game finishes starting up. While the player cannot move his ship or indeed move at all, if the player manages to relocate his or her car through some creative hacking, he or she can view pictures of the developer's heads.

The player cannot simply rename and load this level normally; the maze is missing spawns for all other objects and crashes immediately on load.

== Items ==
Power-ups and other items are found in green floating bubbles throughout the game.
:A cloak gives you the ability to hide yourself from the drones momentarily.
:A wall gives you the ability to put a temporary wall behind you, in order to slow a pursuing drone down.
:A spring gives you the ability to jump over walls and onto platforms. [[Image:hoverbubble.jpg|thumb|right|A spring power-up]]
:A green light temporarily increases your speed.
:A red light temporarily decreases your speed.
:A shield makes you temporarily invulnerable to the effects of all "power-downs".
:A question mark gives you a random item.
:A "map eraser" looks like a lightning bolt hitting your bottom control panel and it erases your map.

== Pads ==
There are several pads along the ground in the game Hover!
:An arrow will force the craft to move in that direction
:A stop pad will stop the vehicle by lowering it below the ground.
:A pad with a strikethrough going through a flag will remove one of the player's captured flags if he or she happens to hover by it.

==External links==
*[ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/deskapps/games/public/AAS/Hover.exe Download Hover!] at [[Microsoft]]'s Public [[FTP server]]
*[http://www.duke.edu/~mfc5/HOVER/ HOVER! Download Website]

[[Category:1995 video games]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Discontinued Microsoft software]]

Hover!

2007-07-25T18:17:47Z

Voidvector: infobox cvg

{{Infobox CVG
|title = Hover!
|image = [[Image:hover screen.jpg|150px]]
|caption =
|developer = [[Microsoft]]
|publisher = [[Microsoft]]
|distributor =
|designer =
|series =
|engine =
|version =
|released = [[1995 in video gaming|1995]]
|genre = [[Capture the flag]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings =
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]]
|media =
|requirements = 33 Hz [[Intel 80486]], 8 MB [[Random access memory|RAM]]
|input = [[Computer keyboard]]
}}
'''''Hover!''''' is a [[video game]] that came [[bundle]]d with [[Windows 95]]. It was a showcase for the advanced [[multimedia]] capabilities available on [[personal computer]]s at the time. While primitive by today's standards, ''Hover!'' was a landmark in home computer development. It is still available from Microsoft (see below) and can be run on all of Microsoft's operating systems released since Windows 95 including Windows Vista.

The game is a variation on [[capture the flag]]. The game's help file says this:
:''"The object is simple: steal all of the drones' flags before the drones capture yours. You will be awarded points for each of the enemy flags you collect, and for every one of your flags you have remaining in the maze when you finish the level ahead of the drones."''
[[Image:hoverdrone.jpg|thumb|An attack drone looks like every other blue drone but is represented as a green triangle on your map.]]

== The Hover 750 Control Panel ==
Across the top of the screen (from left to right in the picture at right) is a panel showing the number of flags collected by both player and computer, an optional rear view mirror (when disabled it reads Hover 950), and the player's score.

Across the bottom of the screen is a panel showing how many spring, wall, and cloak [[power-up]]s the player has left, the level's map, a [[speedometer]] and a compass of sorts, and another panel showing you how much shield, green light, or red light power is left.

== The Levels ==
[[Image:hoverlevel1.jpg|200px|right|Level 1]]
There are three different mazes in ''Hover!'': a medieval castle, a futuristic city/ nightclub area, and an oceanic themed [[sewer]]. Each maze has its own music theme, spawn locations, and 'style' (e.g., the sewer has a lot of areas in the air, while the city level has several dead-ends).

The red and blue flags are random placed on one of several spawn points on each level each time that levels is loaded, as well as powerups. Certain objects (shown as a yellow square on the map) have different effects, e.g. an orange swirly stopping you, a green arrow shooting you in that direction, or a "No-Flag" symbol that will put a collected flag back in the maze.

=== Easter Eggs ===

[[Image:Hover_easter_eggs.png|thumb|right|Screenshot from a hacked .maz file]]One level (shown as "small.maz" in the ''mazes'' directory of the game) is used as the introduction level shown when the game finishes starting up. While the player cannot move his ship or indeed move at all, if the player manages to relocate his or her car through some creative hacking, he or she can view pictures of the developer's heads.

The player cannot simply rename and load this level normally; the maze is missing spawns for all other objects and crashes immediately on load.

== Items ==
Power-ups and other items are found in green floating bubbles throughout the game.
:A cloak gives you the ability to hide yourself from the drones momentarily.
:A wall gives you the ability to put a temporary wall behind you, in order to slow a pursuing drone down.
:A spring gives you the ability to jump over walls and onto platforms. [[Image:hoverbubble.jpg|thumb|right|A spring power-up]]
:A green light temporarily increases your speed.
:A red light temporarily decreases your speed.
:A shield makes you temporarily invulnerable to the effects of all "power-downs".
:A question mark gives you a random item.
:A "map eraser" looks like a lightning bolt hitting your bottom control panel and it erases your map.

== Pads ==
There are several pads along the ground in the game Hover!
:An arrow will force the craft to move in that direction
:A stop pad will stop the vehicle by lowering it below the ground.
:A pad with a strikethrough going through a flag will remove one of the player's captured flags if he or she happens to hover by it.

==External links==
*[ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/deskapps/games/public/AAS/Hover.exe Download Hover!] at [[Microsoft]]'s Public [[FTP server]]
*[http://www.duke.edu/~mfc5/HOVER/ HOVER! Download Website]

[[Category:1995 video games]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Discontinued Microsoft software]]

Homopolarmotor

2007-02-19T03:56:32Z

Voidvector: rvv

[[Image:Homopolar Motor Large.jpg|thumb|250px|[[DIY]] simple homopolar motor made with drywall screw, alkaline cell, wire, and neodymium disk magnet. The screw and magnet contact the bottom of the battery cell and are held up by magnetic attraction.]]

A '''homopolar motor''' can take many forms, but all have a magnetic field that does not change in strength or direction, hence "homo-polar", and all have their electrical circuit in two parts that are able to move relative to each other while maintaining a sliding or rotating electrical contact at two places (or an even number of places). In contrast to other electrical motors the quantity of magnetic flux passing inside the closed loop of the electrical circuit does not change.

==Description==
When a source of electrical power forces a current through the electrical circuit a mechanical force is developed between the two parts of the electrical circuit in accordance with the [[Lorentz force]] equation. The source of the magnetic field may be attached to the moving part or the stationary part or neither. It makes no difference as there is no force on the magnet per se.

Like most electro-mechanical machines a homopolar motor is reversible so that when electrical energy of a suitable kind is put into its terminals, mechanical energy can be obtained from its motion and vice versa, so please see [[homopolar generator]] for more details on construction and theory of operation.

==History==
The homopolar motor was the first ever device to produce rotation from electromagnetism. It was first built and demonstrated by [[Michael Faraday]] in 1821 at the [[Royal Institution]] in London.

==Sources of Confusion==
People are sometimes confused by the fact that there is no force on the magnet per se in a homopolar motor, unlike other kinds of [[electrical motor]]. Instead there are equal and opposite forces or [[torque]]s on the two parts of the electrical circuit that carry the current, one of which must be able to slide or rotate (the rotor) while remaining in electrical contact with the other (the stator). This confusion has led to erroneous claims of [[free energy]] from homopolar machines called "[[N-machine]]s".

However, if the magnet is electrically conductive it may perform double duty as both the source of the magnetic field and as part of the electrical circuit. As a result it will experience a force due to its current-carrying function only.

Another source of confusion is the idea that, just as Einsten's [[theory of relativity]] tells us there is no such thing as absolute linear motion, so it should be with rotation, and therefore only relative rotation between the magnet and some other part of the machine should matter. The [[theory of relativity]] is sometimes thought to support this idea, and sometimes thought to be wrong because it does not. However absolute rotation of a reference frame can be determined by the need for [[fictitious force]]s to explain motion in that frame.

When a magnet with a symmetrical field is rotated about its axis of symmetry (as it may or may not do in a homopolar machine), people often ask whether the [[line of force|field lines]] rotate with the magnet. Field ''lines'' can be a useful visualization-aid in predicting the behaviour of ''some'' electro-mechanical machines, but are misleading in the case of homopolar machines. There are no field ''lines'' mentioned in [[special relativity]] or [[Maxwell's equations]] or the [[Lorentz force]] equation.

A magnetic field merely has a magnitude and direction at every point in space, and is only defined relative to an [[inertial frame of reference]] (i.e. a non-accelerating, non-rotating frame of reference). No one has ever succeeded in making a device that can tell whether or not a symmetrical non-conducting magnet, hidden inside a black box, is rotating about its axis of symmetry.

However the Lorentz force law predicts that a rotating ''conductive'' magnet should be detectable, at least in principle, by the electric field produced when its free charges separate radially due to the (absolute) rotation of the conductor within its own magnetic field. This is the basis of one construction of a homopolar generator. The failure to appreciate this difference between conducting and non-conducting magnets is yet another source of confusion.

== See also ==
* [[Homopolar generator]]

==External links==
*[http://dangerouslyfun.com/homopolar-motor How to build a simple 3-part homopolar motor]

[[Category:Electric motors]]

Schwarze

2006-10-29T03:25:50Z

Voidvector: zh:黑色人种

[[Image:blackpeoplecomposite.jpg|thumbnail|260px|right|Composite of various Black people]]
This article describes competing perspectives on the word '''''Black''''' (and its equivalents in other languages) as applies to '''people''', both at present and in historical contexts. These perspectives are variously based on racial, socio-political, lexical, biological, and other factors. The concept of a "Black people" has been traced to the ancient Greeks and Romans who labelled dark skinned peoples from North East Africa as "Kushite", "Nubian", and "Ethiopian."<ref name=Snowden>Snowden, F. (1991) ''Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience'', Harvard University Press (ISBN 0674063813)</ref> The label ''Black'' received something like its present meaning during [[The Enlightenment]] when [[anthropology|anthropologists]] of that era recognized five human [[race]]s: ''Yellows'' (Orientals), ''Reds'' (American Indians), ''Whites'' (Caucasians), ''Browns'' (Australoids), and ''Blacks'' (Africans).<ref name=Gould>Gould, S. J. (1996) ''The Mismeasure of Man'' (p. 402), W. W. Norton & Company (ISBN 0393314251)</ref> The term ''Black'' was soon replaced by ''[[Negro]]'' but by the 1970s [[African-Americans]] [[reclaiming|reclaimed]] the term ''Black'', as did segments of other non-white populations who shared in their struggle against [[racism]].<ref name="Capitalize Black">{{cite web|url=http://www.poynter.org/column.asp?id=58&aid=51320|publisher=Poynter Online|author=Aly Colón|title="Black, black, or African American"|}} Accessed [[27 October]] [[2006]].</ref> By the end of the 20th century, advances in modern [[genetics]] suggested that [[African Eve|Africa was the birth place of modern humans]], causing many people to declare that Blacks are the original race.<ref name=DSouza>D'Souza D. (1996) ''The End of Racism'', Free Press; New Ed edition (ISBN 0684825244)</ref>

==Historical background==

===The role of Ethiopians in defining ancient black identity===

[[Image:Nakempte_Boys.jpg|300px|center|right|thumb|Although [[Carleton Coon]] argued that Ethiopians resemble Caucasoids more than Negroids<ref name=RR-Ethiopians>[http://www.sitesled.com/members/racialreality/ethiopians.html Ethiopians], Racial Reality (personal web site). Accessed [[28 October]] [[2006]].</ref> the term Ethiopian was originally synonymous with black, and they are widely considered Black today.]]
Professor [[Frank M. Snowden, Jr]]. claims that terms like "Kushite", "Nubian", and "Ethiopian" were ancient synonyms for terms like "colored", "black", or "Negro" and argues that Ethiopians were the founders of religion, and greatly influenced many of the customs of Egyptians who he argues, were descendants of the Ethiopians. "The experiences of Africans who reached the alien shores of Greece and Italy constituted an important chapter in the history of classical antiquity," he claims. Drawing on evidence from terra cotta figures, paintings, and sources like Herodotus and Pliny the Elder, Snowden contradicts modern assumptions, that Greco-Romans viewed Africans with racial contempt. According to Smowden, many Africans worked in the Roman Empire as musicians, artisans, scholars, and generals and also slaves, but Snowden argues that they were noted as much for their virtue as for their complexion which the Greeks described as a 'burnt face' (from which the Greek name Ethiopian was derived).<ref name=Snowden/>

Although Ethiopians were the group by which the black race was originally defined and although Ethiopians have long been considered black because of their Negroid skin and hair type, their racial status has recently been called into question. A 2001 [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] genetic cluster study stated: ''62% of the Ethiopians fall in the first cluster, which encompasses the majority of the Jews, Norwegians and Armenians, indicating that placement of these individuals in a 'Black' cluster would be an inaccurate reflection of the genetic structure. Only 24% of the Ethiopians are placed in the cluster with the Bantu and most of the Afro-Caribbeans.''<ref>James F. Wilson, et.al., [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Wilson-NatGen-01-GDR.pdf Population genetic structure of variable drug response], ''Nature Genetics'', Volume 29, November 2001 Nature Publishing Group, published online [[29 October]] [[2001]]. Accessed [[28 October]] [[2006]].</ref> In addition [[Carleton Coon]] argued that their craniofacial features resemble those of Caucasoids.<ref name=RR-Ethiopians/>However the cause of their alleged genetic and physical resemblance to both Negroids and Caucasoids (terms not usually used by scientists today) may only partly be explained by admixture. Scientists believe that modern humans originated in Africa, and that all non-Africans carry a later mutation that occured in what is today known as Ethiopia. The man who first carried this mutation is known as the Eurasian Adam, and lived in what is today Ethiopia.{{fact}}

According to [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] recent attempts to redefine Ethiopians as something other than black is Eurocentric: "Traditionally Europeans in their historical attempts to exclude Africa from civilization have hit upon an obstacle when Ethiopia exists. To solve this apparent contradiction the argument moves to, 'it was introduced from another people.' At no point in time can Africans be allowed to be seen to have fostered anything, which Europe labels as artefacts of civilization. So either the invisible border comes into play and civilisations are assigned to North Africa ('non-Black') or alternatively, gifts given to Africans from external non-African sources.<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm Linguistics for a new African reality] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]], first published at the Cheikh Anta Diop conference in 2005</ref>

Others argue that the type of prejudice Shahadah describes is a relatively recent phenomenon. Christian Delacampagne's L'Invention du racisme: Antiquité et Moyen-Age (1983), describes the origins of racism, and claims that most specialists agree with Snowden's view that neither the Greeks nor the Romans attached a special stigma to dark skin.<ref name=Snowden/>

===The role of the Bible in defining black people===
Not everyone agrees that the ancient world was as color blind as Snowden suggests and some use Bible scriptures as evidence of racism in antiquity. According to some historians, the tale in Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Christian, Jewish, and Islamic scholars. According to columnist Felicia R. Lee "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Historians believe that by the 19th century, the belief that African-Americans were descended from Ham was used by Southern Christians to justify slavery. <ref name=FRLee>Felicia R. Lee, ''[http://www.racematters.org/noahscurseslaverysrationale.htm Noah's Curse Is Slavery's Rationale]'', Racematters.org, November 1, 2003</ref> According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College, "in 18th- and 19th-century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery."<ref name=FRLee/> A 1929 Jehovah’s Witnesses publication stated "The curse which Noah pronounced upon Canaan was the origin of the black race."<ref>Ham, K., Wieland, K. and Batten, D., (1999) ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/OneBlood/index.asp One Blood: The Biblical Answer to Racism]'', ''Master Books'' (ISBN 0890512760)</ref> Despite such claims, author David M. Goldenberg denies that the bible is a racist document and blames such anti-black interpretations on post-biblical writers of antiquity like Philo and Origen who equated blackness with darkness of the soul. <ref>Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) ''The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian'', Princeton University Press</ref> While scholars continue to debate how blacks were portrayed in the bible, many people believe that the tradition of dividing human kind into three major races: Negroid, Caucasoid, and Mongoloid (now commonly called black, white, and Asian) is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the [[Noah's Flood|Deluge]] and giving rise to three separate races.<ref>[http://www.bible-truth.org/GEN10.HTM The Descendants of Noah] (bible-truth.org)</ref>

===Age of Enlightenment: science defines the the black race===
[[Image:Races and skulls.png|180px|right|thumb|Nott and Gliddon's ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857) used misleading imagery to suggest that blacks ranked between whites and chimpanzees. Note the different angles at which the "White" and "Black" skulls are positioned.]]Many argue that racism did not always exist, and that its origins can be traced to the [[Age of Enlightenment]] which gave rise to biological classifications and the theory of evolution.{{fact}}

The concept of “black” as a metaphor for race was first used at the end of the 17th century when a French doctor named [[Francois Bernier]] divided up humanity based on facial appearance and body type. He proposed four categories: Europeans, Far Easterners, Lapps, and finally Blacks who he described as having wooly hair, thick lips, and very white teeth.<ref name=DSouza/> The first major scientific model was created in 18th century when [[Carolus Linnaeus]] recognized four main races: Europeanus which he labled the white race, Asiatic, which he labled the yellow race, Americanus, which he labled the red race, and Africanus, which he labeled the black race.<ref>[http://www.stcl.edu/faculty_pages/faculty_folders/steiner/aal/whiteness.ppt The Importance of “Whiteness” in American Legal History] (PowerPoint presentation)</ref> According Linnaeus the black male could be defined by his skin tone, face structure, and curly hair. Linnaeus belived blacks were cunning, passive, inattentive, and ruled by impulse. To Linnaeus, black females were apparently shameless, because "they lactate profusely".{{fact}} Linnaeus' protege, anthropology founder [[Johann Blumenbach]] completed his mentor's color coded race model by adding the brown race, which he called "Malay" for Polynesisians and Melanesians of Pacific Islands, and for aborigines of Australia.<ref name=Gould/> According to [[Dinesh D'Souza]], "Blumenbach's classification had a lasting influence in part because his categories neatly broke down into the familiar colors: white, black, yellow, red, and brown."<ref name=DSouza/> Gradually the "yellow" and "red" races got lumped together, and the brown race ignored because of its small population, yielding just three races commonly known as Mongoloid, Caucasoid, and Negroid<ref name=Rushton>[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/stalkers/jpr01.html Race as a Biological Concept], by J. Philippe Rushton</ref>. The last term is derived from Negro which is a Spanish adjective for black.<ref name=Boulaga>Boulaga F. B. [http://www.codesria.org/Links/Publications/contents_bulletin/bulletin_1_2000.htm Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga], ''CODESRIA Bulletin'' No.1&2 2004: 16-18 (see full article at [http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:lDEuCwny0QIJ:www.codesria.org/Links/Publications/bulletin1%2004/keita.pdf++Black+webster+Negro+equivalent+sets&hl=en&gl=ca&ct=clnk&cd=1 google cache])</ref> Some anthropologists added the brown race back in as an Australoid category (which includes aboriginal peoples of Australia along with various peoples of southeast and south Asia, especially Melanesia and the Malay Archipelago)<ref>[http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/Australoid Definition of Australoid (Yahoo Education)]</ref>, and viewed it as separate from Negroids (often lumping Australoids in with Caucasoids) despite the fact that their skin is also dark.<ref>[http://apologeticspress.org/articles/2007 The Origin of Races (apologeticspress.org)]</ref> By the 1970s the term black replaced negro in the United States{{fact}}. Debate continues to exist over whether the term black should be capitalized or not as are other ethnic labels like Hispanic. Responding to the issue, Norm Goldstein, stylebook editor for the Associated Press stated “African-Americans, Hispanics, Arabs, and similar descriptions are considered nationalities (or dual nationalities), while 'black' and 'white' are the more commonly used terms for the Negroid and Caucasian races{{fact}}.

===Late 20th century science: Blacks as the original race===

Charles Darwin was perhaps the first to publicly speculate that Africa was the cradle of human kind. Because the monkeys that were the most similar to humans (the great apes) lived in Africa, he believed that Africa was likely the place that humans evolved. However creationist views were still dominant at the start of the enlightenment and Johann Blumenbach believed that humans were created in Russia's Mount Caucacus, and thus Caucasians, which he lablled the white race, were the original ideal type central to humanity but believed climate degraded some whites into browns who degraded into blacks at one extreme, and other whites were degraded into reds who degraded into yellows at the other extreme<ref name=Gould/>. In the post-Darwin era [[Carleton Coon]] believed that different races evolved into modern humans independently and that Caucasoids were the most advanced because they were the first to become modern humans.
Such ideas have become increasingly obsolete with the discovery of the [[African Eve]] which shows that all humans alive today can trace their mitochondrial DNA to a single woman who lived in Africa 200,000 years ago. Only tens of thousands of years later did modern humans branch out into the Middle East and Europe and finally North East Asia and the Americas. Scientists believe that the need to absorb vitamin D in Northern climates gradually made skin become lighter.
Interpreting such findings, in 1993, black nationalists stated "white people are genetic mutations of black people. Only black women can claim all the genetic material necassary to create other races"<ref name=DSouza/>. Elijah Muhammad of the Nation of Islam echoes such themes: "The original man, Allah, is none other than the black man. The black man is the first and last, marker and owner of the universe. From him came all brown, yellow, red, and white people."<ref name=DSouza/>

However J. Phillipe Rushton of the university of Western Ontario argues that because blacks were indeed the first race to branch off the human evolutionary tree, they are primarily superior in primitive traits like size of genitalia, salience of muscles and buttox, and reproductive output, but lag behind when it comes to more evolved traits like brain size and social organization, especially when compared to orientals, who Rushton believes evolved most recently in a challenging ice age environment. "One theoretical possibility," said Rushton, "is that evolution is progressive and that some populations are more advanced than others."<ref>Knudtson P. (1991), ''A Mirror to Nature: Reflections on Science, Scientists, and Society'' (p. 163), Stoddart Publishing (ISBN 0773724672)</ref>

While Rushton's views are extremely controversial, Afrocentric scholars, black supremacists, racialist scholars, and mainstream scientists all increasingly agree that modern humans come from Africa. [[Nathan Hare]] suggests the following anthem:

"I, the Black Man, am the original man, the first man to walk this vast and imponderable earth. I, the black man, am an Africa, the exotic, single, quintesence of a universal blackness...the first truly human being the world has ever known."<ref name=DSouza/>

==Current definitions==

Because of the ancient, international, and often controversial history of labeling some human beings by the color black, defining who is black is not as easy it seems. Here are some recent attempts:

===Socio-political definitions===

*The U.S. census says a black is a person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, Kenyan, Nigerian, or Haitian.<ref>[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_309540.htm Quickfacts: U.S. Bureau of the Census]</ref>

*South Africa's Black Economic Empowerment Charter stated: "'Black people', 'black persons', or 'blacks' are generic terms which mean Africans, Coloureds and Indians who are South African citizens by birth or who have obtained citizenship prior 27 April 1994. This term does not include juristic persons or any form of enterprise other than a sole proprietor{{fact}}. However during [[apartheid]], Blacks were defined by the pencil test, in which a pencil was speared through one's hair, and if it failed to slip out, one was categorized as black.<ref>[http://www.stanford.edu/dept/news/pr/91/910610Arc1324.html South African activist teacher gets education doctorate] (Stanford University news release, 06/10/91)</ref>

*According to psychologist Arthur Jensen, "American blacks are socially defined simply as persons who have some degree of sub-Saharan African ancestry and who identify themselves (or, in the case of children, are defined by their parents) as black or African-American"<ref>Jorion, P.J.M. (1999). [Intelligence and race: The house of cards], ''Psycoloquy'' 10(064)</ref>

*According to activist [[Nirmala Rajasingam]] "I think the idea of a Black identity, was inspired by the Civil Rights movement in the US. Unfortunately, now Black is identified with people of African origin only, but it didn’t used to be that way. It was used as a political term of people of color uniting to fight racism".<ref name=Kadirgamar>[http://www.lines-magazine.org/Art_Aug02/Nirmala.htm interview by Ahilan Kadirgamar] ''Lines''. August 2002. Retrieved on [[2006-10-08]]</ref>

*According to Frank W. Sweet, the most controversial answer to the question "who is black?" is "whoever looks black." He writes that although most who use the label rationalize it in terms of physical appearance, there is little objective consistency in this regard, and that different cultures can assign the same individual to opposite "races": North Americans, Haitians, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Barbadians, Jamaicans, and Trinidadians all have different subconscious and automatic perceptions of just what features define who belongs to which "racial" label.<ref>Frank F. W. (2005) ''Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule'', Backintyme (ISBN 0939479230)</ref>

*"In this country, if you are not quite white, then you are black," said Jose Neinstein, a native white Brazilian and executive director of the Brazilian-American Cultural Institute in Washington. But in Brazil, he added, "If you are not quite black, then you are white." <ref>"[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A38089-2002Dec25?language=printer People of Color Who Never Felt They Were Black: Racial Label Surprises Many Latino Immigrants]", ''The Washington Post'', December 26, 2002</ref>

*According to America's [[one drop rule]] a black is any person with any known African ancestry.<ref name=Davis>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html Who is Black? One Nation's Definition (PBS)], by F. James Davis</ref>

===Lexical definitions===

*Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary defines the term ‘black’ with regard to race as follows: "a person belonging to a dark-skinned race or one stemming in part from such a race; esp. Negro.<ref name=Boulaga/>

*YourDictionary.com defines "black" with regard to race as "Of or belonging to a racial group having brown to black skin, especially one of African origin: the Black population of South Africa.<ref>[http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/b/b0292200.html yourdictionary.com]</ref>

*[[Dictionary.com]] and [[thefreedictionary.com]] defines "Black person" as "a person with dark skin who comes from Africa (or whose ancestors came from Africa) [syn: Black, Black person, blackamoor, Negro, Negroid]<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Black%20person thefreedictionary.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Black+person thefreedictionary.com]</ref>"

===Biological definitions===
[[Image:Sahara desert.jpg|thumb|right|To those who define black genetically, the Sahara desert divided the human gene pool into blacks and non-blacks.]]

*According to [[Michael Levin]] "Ordinary speakers acquainted with the out-of-Africa scenario are most charitably construed as intending 'Negroid' to denote individuals whose ancestors 15 to 5000 generations ago (with Harris & Hey, 1999, counting a generation as 20 years) were sub-Saharan African...Hybrid populations with multiple lines of descent are to be characterized in just those terms: as of multiple descent. Thus, American Negroids are individuals most of whose ancestors from 15 to 5000 generations ago were sub- Saharan African. Specifying 'most' more precisely in a way that captures ordinary usage may not be possible. '> 50%' seems too low a threshold; my sense is that ordinary attributions of race begin to stabilize at 75%.<ref>Levin M. [http://www.behavior.org/journals_BP/2002/levin.pdf The Race Concept: A Defense], ''Behavior and Philosophy'', 30, 21-42 (2002)</ref> University of Western Ontario professor J. Phillipe Rushton states "a Negroid is someone whose ancestors, between 4,000 and (to accommodate recent migrations) 20 generations ago, were born in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name=Rushton/>

*Sally Satel of the [[Policy Review]] stated “The entities we call ‘racial groups’ essentially represent individuals united by a common descent — a huge extended family, as evolutionary biologists like to say. Blacks, for example, are a racial group defined by their possessing some degree of recent African ancestry (recent because, after all, everyone of us is out of Africa, the origin of Homo sapiens).<ref name=Rushton/>

*Page 42 of the abridged version of "Race, Evolution, and Behavior" states: "In both everyday life and evolutionary biology, a 'Black' is anyone most of whose ancestors were born in sub-Saharan Africa<ref>Rushton J. P. (2000) ''Race, Evolution, and Behavior: A Life History Perspective'', Charles Darwin Research Inst. Pr; 3rd edition (ISBN 0965683613). Abstract available [http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/JP_Rushton/Race.htm here]</ref>

==Other view points==
[[Image:Owenshahadah.jpg|thumb|[[Owen Alik Shahadah]] finds both the term "black people" and "sub-Saharan" offensive]]
Many people feel that being black is too complex an issue to be adequately captured by any of the standard definitons:
*Lewis R. Gordan (Director of the Institute for the Study of Race and Social Thought at Temple University) says "Not all people who are designated African in the contemporary world are also considered black anywhere. And similarly, not all people who are considered in most places to be black are considered African anywhere. There are non-black Africans who are descended from more than a millennia of people living on the African continent, and there are indigenous Pacific peoples and peoples of India whose consciousness and life are marked by a black identity".<ref>[http://www.lpp-uerj.net/olped/documentos/1267.pdf ''African-American Philosophy, Race, and the Geography of Reason'']</ref>
*Psychiatrist Ikechukwu Obialo Azuonye says "being dark skinned is a widespread phenomenon which does not define any specific group of human beings. The tendency to reserve the designation black to sub-Saharan Africans and people of their extraction is manifestly misinformed".<ref>Azuonye I. O. [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/313/7059/760 Who is "black" in medical research?], ''British Medical Journal'' 1996;313:760</ref>
*Cultural writer and filmmaker [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] adds "the notion of some invisible border, which divides the North of African from the South, is rooted in racism, which in part assumes that a little sand is an obstacle for African people. This barrier of sand hence confines/confined Africans to the bottom of this make-believe location, which exist neither politically or physically". Shahadah argues that the term sub-Saharan Africa is a product of European imperialism, "Sub-Saharan Africa is a byword for primitive African: a place, which has escaped advancement. Hence, we see statements like 'no written languages exist in Sub-Saharan Africa.' 'Egypt is not a Sub-Saharan African civilisation.'<ref name=Shahadah/>
*Activist Nirmala Rajasingam also considers most standard definitions of black too narrow: "It was a failure because it divided the Black community into its constituent parts.. into Jamaican or Punjabi or Sri Lankan Tamil and so on, rather than build up Black unity.. But you know, there are young Asians who would like to call themselves Black, but the African youth will say 'You are not Black, you are Asian. We are Black'. Similarly, there are young Asians who will say 'We are not Black, we are Asian.'. So it has all become diluted and depoliticized."<ref name=Kadirgamar/>
*Dr. [[Cheikh Anta Diop]] also feels that the standard conceptions of black people fall short stating: "There are two well-defined Black races: one has a black skin and woolly hair; the other also has black skin, often exceptionally black, with straight hair, aquiline nose, thin lips, an acute cheekbone angle. We find a prototype of this race in India: the Dravidian. It is also known that certain Nubians likewise belong to the same Negro type...Thus, it is inexact, anti-scientific, to do anthropological research, encounter a Dravidian type, and then conclude that the Negro type is absent."''<ref>[http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/india2.html The African presence in Indian antiquity] by Runoko Rashidi</ref>

==Criticism==
There are objections to the standard definitions of black people, as well as criticisim of the term itself. [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] says "as a political term it was fiery and trendy but never was it an official racial classification of peoples who have a 120,000 year old history. Indians are from India , Chinese from China . There is no country called Blackia or Blackistan. Hence, the ancestry-nationality model is more respectful and accurate: African-American, African-British, African-Brazilian, and African-Caribbean. But that's not his only objection:" In addition, because it is a term placed on us, we have no bases for its control, and hence they are able to say; 'Ancient Egyptians weren't black.' Black has no meaning; except the meaning they place on it, if and when they chose.<ref name=Shahadah/>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:O Magazine cover.jpg| [[Oprah Winfrey]] is considered black by all definitions of the term. According to genetic tests done by PBS' African lives, she is 89% Sub-Saharan, 8% Native American, 3% East Asian.<ref name="AAlives">[http://jstheater.blogspot.com/2006/02/african-american-lives-on-pbs-part-ii.html African-American Lives on PBS Part II]</ref> which means that most of her ancestors were born in sub-Saharan Africa. On average African-Americans are about 83% African genetically.<ref>[http://www.racesci.org/in_media/african_ancestry.htm African Ancestry Inc. traces DNA roots], By Steve Sailer</ref>

Image:Barakobama.jpg| [[Barack Obama]] self-identifies as black and could identify as black or multi-racial on the U.S. census and by many dictionaries, though the British census would classify him as mixed and some biological definitions would claim he's not black because only half of his ancestors are from sub-Saharan Africa instead of most.
Image:Meles Zenawi.jpg|Although Ethiopians was once a synonym for Negro and Ethiopians are classified as black by the U.S. and British census, a 2001 [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] genetic cluster study called this into question, and anthropologist [[Carleton Coon]] classified them as a Mediterranean type of Caucasoid<ref>[http://www.sitesled.com/members/racialreality/subraces.html Caucasoid subraces (Racial Reality)]</ref>. Such views however are not mainstream.
Image:Aeta07.jpg|The term [[aeta]] comes from a word for "black" in tagalog, but aetas would be Asian or South Asian on the U.S. and British census respectively. They're also not classified as black by any biological definition or dictionary definitions that emphasize African ancestry, though Afrocentric scholars argue that all dark-skinned people are [[Africoid]]. However they are part of Johann Blumenbach's brown race.

Image:Truganini.jpg| Although [[Australoid]]s are frequently called black in Australia, this Tasmanian aboriginal would not be classified as black by the U.S. or British census. She would also not be classified as black by any biological definition or dictionary definitions that emphasize African ancestry, except by Afrocentric scholars who argue that all dark-skinned people are [[Africoid]]. Johann Blumenbach would have classified her as a member of the brown race.

Image:KRN.jpg| Although some [[Dalits]] called themselves black to show solidarity with African-Americans in the civil rights movement, this Dalit man would not be classified as black by the U.S. or British census, which would classify him as Asian or South Asian respectively. Anthropologists however have typically classified Indians as Caucasoid or Australoid{{fact]] corresponding to the white and brown races of Johann Blumenbach's model
Image:TigerW.jpg|Tiger Woods coined the term [[Cablinasian]] to describe his ethnicity and could identify as black, Asian, Native American, White, or multi-racial on the U.S. census and by many dictionaries, though the British census would classify him as mixed and some biological definitions would claim he's not black because only a quarter of his ancestors are from sub-Saharan Africa instead of most.
Image:Parnellsitting.jpg|The [[Black Irish]] are not considered black by any racial definitions of the term, however John Beddoe, the founder and president of the British Anthropological Institute, developed in his book "The Races of Man" (1862), an "Index of Nigressence", from which he argued that the Irish had craniofacial features close to Cro-Magnon man and thus had links with the "Africinoid" races.<ref>[http://www.victorianweb.org/science/phrenology/rc3.htm Phrenology and Race in Nineteenth-Century Britain (victorianweb.org)]</ref> Many dictionaries also define black as a synonym for swarthy, from which the Black Irish got their name.

Image:Mj1971-got-to-be-there.jpg| As a child, [[Michael Jackson]] was considerd black by all definitions of the term including Dictionary.com's which defines a black person as a dark skinned person who comes from Africa or has ancestors who come from Africa.
Image:Michaeljacksonmugshot.png| As an adult, Michael Jackson's ancestors still come from Africa, but he is no longer dark skinned and thus does not meet the first requirement in Dictionary.com's definition. He is still black according to the census and biological definitions.
Image:Bill Clinton.jpg| Bill Clinton is not considered black by any definition of the term, however Nobel prize winner [[Toni Morrison]] metaphorically described him as the first black president because of his dysfunctional background<ref>Toni Morrison "[http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/clinton/morrison.html Clinton as the first black president]", ''New Yorker'', October 1998 </ref>
Image:BlasianSensation.jpg|According to [[Cavalli-Sforza]], Europeans are genetically intermediate between Africans and East Asians<ref>Marks J. [http://personal.uncc.edu/jmarks/hgdp/an.html The Human Genome Diversity Project Good for If Not Good as Anthropology?] (first appeared on the back page (p. 72) of the Anthropology Newsletter, April 1995.)</ref> making many [[Blasians]] no more black on the genetic level than whites are.

Image:Tutanchamun Maske.jpg| Some scholars argue that [[Controversy over racial characteristics of ancient Egyptians|ancient Egyptians]], like King [[Tutankhamen]], were black.

Image:RFJesus.jpg| Afrocentrists caused controversy by arguing that Jesus may have been black<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3958241.stm So what colour was Jesus?], ''BBC News'', 27 October, 2004</ref>.
Image:Warren G Harding portrait as senator June 1920.jpg|Warren Harding may have some negro blood<ref>Vaughn L. (2002) ''Black People and Their Place in World History'', Self Published (ISBN 0971592004 )[Black People & Their Place In World History], by Leroy Vaughn</ref> making him the first black president to those who cite the [[one drop rule]].
Image:Tv sesame street whoopi.jpg|Recent genetic tests found that Whoopi Goldberg is of 92% sub-Saharan ancestry.<ref name="AAlives"/>.
</gallery>

== See also==
* [[African-American]]
* [[Colored]]
* [[Human genetic variation]]
* [[Mulatto]]
* [[Negrito]]
* [[Negro]]
* [[Negroid]]

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Pan-Africanism]]
[[Category:African diaspora]]
[[Category:Black people]]
[[Category:Words referring to ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Social issues]]
[[Category:Social groups]]
[[Category:Race]]
[[Category:Definition]]

[[zh:黑色人种]]

Ein Land, zwei Systeme

2006-09-01T19:31:44Z

Voidvector: voice of america does not belong in this article

"'''One country, two systems'''" ({{zh-stpw|s=一国两制|t=一國兩制|p=yì guó liǎng zhì|w=I Kuo Liang Chih}}; [[Jyutping]]: jat1 gwok3 loeng5 zai3; [[Yale Romanization#Cantonese|Yale]]: yāt gwok leúhng jai), is an idea originally proposed by [[Deng Xiaoping]], then [[Paramount Leader]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC), for the [[Chinese reunification|reunification of China]].

==Hong Kong and Macau==
In [[1984]], [[Deng Xiaoping]] proposed to apply the principle to [[Hong Kong]] in the negotiation talks with [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Margaret Thatcher]] over the future of Hong Kong when the lease of the [[New Territories]] (including [[New Kowloon]]) of Hong Kong to [[Britain]] was to expire in [[1997]]. The same principle was proposed in the talks with [[Portugal]] over [[Macau]].

The principle is that upon reunification, despite the practice of "[[Socialism with Chinese characteristics|socialism]]" in [[mainland China]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], which were formerly colonies of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Portugal]] respectively, can retain their established system (British and Portuguese respectively) under a high degree of autonomy for at least fifty years after reunification to a very large extent.

The establishment of these regions, called [[special administrative region (People's Republic of China)|special administrative regions]] (SARs), is authorized by Article 31 of the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]], which states that the State may establish SARs when necessary, and that the systems to be instituted in them shall be prescribed by law enacted by the [[National People's Congress]] in light of the specific conditions.

The SARs of Hong Kong and Macau were formally established on [[July 1]], [[1997]] and [[December 20]], [[1999]] respectively, immediately after the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) assumed the sovereignty over the respective regions.

===Framework===
The two SARs of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] are responsible for their domestic affairs, including, but not limited to, the [[judiciary]] and [[Court of Final Appeal|courts of last resort]], [[immigration]] and [[customs]], [[public finance]], [[currency|currencies]] and [[extradition]]. [[Diplomatic relations]] and [[national defense]] of the two SARs are, however, the responsibility of the [[Central People's Government]] in [[Beijing]].

Hong Kong continues using [[Law of England and Wales|English]] [[common law]]. Macau continues using the Portuguese [[civil law (legal system)|civil law system]].

===Implementation===
In [[Hong Kong]], the system has been implemented through the [[Basic Law of Hong Kong]], which serves as the mini-constitution of the region, and consistent with the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]]. Similar arrangements are in place with [[Macau]].

Under the respective basic laws, the SARs have a high degree of autonomy and enjoy executive, legislative and independent judicial power, including that of final adjudication. They formulate their own monetary and financial policies, maintain their own currencies, formulate their own policies on education, culture, sports, social welfare system, etc. within the framework of the basic laws.

As stipulated by the basic laws, while the Central People's Government of the PRC is responsible for foreign affairs and defence in relation to the SARs, representatives of the Government of the SARs may participate, as members of delegations of the PRC, in diplomatic negotiations that directly affect the Regions, and in other international organizations or conferences limited to states and affecting the region. For those international organizations and conferences not limited to states, the SARs may participate using the names in the form of "Hong Kong, China". As separate economic entities, both SARs of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] are members of the [[World Trade Organization]]. [[Hong Kong]] is also one of the member economies of [[APEC]].

The basic laws also provide constitutional protection on various fundamental [[human rights]] and freedoms. Specifically, the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] is given a constitutional status through the basic laws.

Some international observers and human rights organisations have expressed doubts over the future freedom of expressing political opinions, and on the pledge of high degree of autonomy in Hong Kong. They considered, for example, that the proposals on [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23|Article 23 of the Basic Law]] in 2003 (which was withdrawn due to mass opposition) might have undermined freedoms. Some also criticized that Beijing's influence on the democratic developments in Hong Kong could undermine the pledge of a high degree of autonomy.

Nonetheless, the governments of the People's Republic of China and Hong Kong both consider that the principle has been successfully implemented, quoting official reports of both the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]]. Public polls have also shown that among the various areas of governance, the public is most satisfied with the degree of freedoms enjoyed. {{citeneeded}}

==Tibet==
The 14th [[Dalai Lama]], [[Tenzin Gyatso]], has expressed interest in using "One Country, Two Systems" for governing Tibet. He has said that under such a system he would be willing to return to Tibet from exile. The government of the People's Republic of China, however, see this system as inapplicable to Tibet because "Tibet is already a part of China" and fears that "One Country, Two systems" will be used as a gateway to formal [[Tibetan independence]]. [http://www.tibet.cn/english/zt/forum/..%5Cforum/200402004517161630.htm]

==Taiwan==
This system has also been proposed by the PRC government for [[Taiwan]], but the [[Republic of China]] (ROC) government has refused this offer. (It was also claimed that the system was originally designed for Taiwan.) Special provisions for the ROC military have also been proposed. The concept of "One country, two systems" tends to be highly unpopular in Taiwan, with polls consistently showing 80% opposition and only about 10% support {{citeneeded}}. All of the major parties in Taiwan, including those that lean toward [[Chinese reunification]] have come out strongly against "One country, two systems." One of the few Taiwanese who have publicly supported "one country, two systems" is novelist [[Li Ao]].

Although the "One country, two systems" guarantees to leave Hong Kong's [[economic]] and [[political system]]s unchanged for 50 years after the British handover in [[1997]], the [[Mainland Affairs Council]] on Taiwan has cited 169 cases in which they claim the PRC has breached Hong Kong people's right to self-rule and severely intervened in the judicial system as well as freedom of speech. <ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20060629/wl_asia_afp/taiwanchinahongkong | title = Chen vows to safeguard Taiwan sovereignty, rejects China overture | work= Yahoo! News | year=[[June 29]], [[2006]] | accessdate = 2006-06-30}}</ref>

Since the accession of Hu Jintao, the PRC has stopped promoting immediate reunification via "one country, two systems" (though it remains official policy) in favor of stepwise economic integration and political exchanges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brookings.edu/views/op-ed/ohanlon/20050501.htm|title=The Risk of War Over Taiwan is Real
|work=Financial Times|year=May 1, 2005|accessdate=July 26, 2006}}</ref> This approach was emphasized during the [[2005 Pan-Blue visits to mainland China]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/World/Hopes-grow-as-second-Taiwan-leader-visits-China/2005/05/12/1115843308418.html|title=Hopes grow as second Taiwan leader visits China|year=May 13, 2005|accessdate=July 26, 2006}}</ref> A mention of the "one country, two systems" framework was conspicuously absent in the [[Anti-Secession Law of the People's Republic of China]].



==See also==
*[[Political divisions of China]]
*[[Special Administrative Region]]
*[[Basic Law of Hong Kong]]
*[[:Category:Hong Kong law|Hong Kong law]]
*[[Legal system of Hong Kong]]
*[[Basic Law of Macau]]
*[[Legal system of Macau]]
*[[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] - a similar arrangement

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
* [http://www.gov.hk/info/sar5/e12.htm "One Country, Two Systems", HKSAR Government web site]

{{Politics of the People's Republic of China footer}}{{Politics of the Republic of China footer}}

[[Category:Politics of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Chinese numbered policies|1]]
[[Category:People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Hong Kong law]]
[[Category:Special territories]]
[[Category:Macau]]
[[Category:Mainland China]]
[[Category:Government of Hong Kong]]

[[de:Ein Land, zwei Systeme]]
[[es:Un país, dos sistemas]]
[[fr:Un pays, deux systèmes]]
[[id:Satu Negara Dua Sistem]]
[[he:מדינה אחת, שתי שיטות]]
[[ja:一国二制度]]
[[pt:Um país, dois sistemas]]
[[fi:Yksi maa, kaksi järjestelmää]]
[[zh:一国两制]]