Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Muhlenberg-Legende

2008-03-06T21:53:06Z

VirtualDelight: Anpassung an Lemma

Als '''Muhlenberg-Legende''' wird das Gerücht bezeichnet, nach der es vor mehr als 200 Jahren in den [[Vereinigte Staaten|Vereinigten Staaten]] eine Gesetzesvorlage gegeben haben soll, [[Deutsche Sprache|Deutsch]] als offizielle Landessprache einzuführen. Das Gesetz soll an einer einzigen Stimme gescheitert sein, nämlich am Widerspruch des Deutschamerikaners [[Frederick Muhlenberg]] (1750–1801).

Das Gerücht entstand um 1840 und fand durch Franz Lohers 1847 veröffentlichtes Buch ''History and Achievements of the Germans in America'' weite Verbreitung; es findet immer noch offene Ohren. Der Anteil der deutschsprachigen Einwanderer war Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts in den Vereinigten Staaten nennenswert, aber er war niedriger als allgemein angenommen. Um 1830 lag er unterhalb 33 % in [[Pennsylvania]] und bei knapp 9 % in den gesamten USA.

Zu jener Zeit hat in den USA nie eine Abstimmung über Deutsch als Amtssprache stattgefunden. Es gab auch in den Bundesstaaten keine derartige Abstimmung. Die Legende gründet sich darauf, dass am 9. Januar 1794 einige deutsche Einwanderer aus [[Virginia]] eine [[Petition]] an das [[Repräsentantenhaus der Vereinigten Staaten|Repräsentantenhaus]] richteten, mit der Forderung, Gesetzestexte künftig auch in deutscher Sprache zu veröffentlichen. Der Antrag wurde im zuständigen Gremium mit 42 zu 41 Stimmen abgelehnt. Frederick Muhlenberg, der [[Sprecher des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten|Speaker]], soll sich der Stimme enthalten und nach der Abstimmung erklärt haben: ''Je eher die Deutschen Amerikaner werden, desto besser''.

Die Vereinigten Staaten haben bis heute keine offizielle Amtssprache gewählt und sind weltweit eines der wenigen Länder ohne Amtssprache.

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Deutsche Sprache in den Vereinigten Staaten]]

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.zeit.de/stimmts/1997/1997_35_stimmts DIE ZEIT 35/1997: „Das Zünglein an der Wage“] (von Christoph Drösser)
* [http://www.spiegel.de/kultur/zwiebelfisch/0,1518,295157,00.html SPIEGEL ONLINE Zwiebelfisch: „Deutsch als Amtssprache der USA“] (von Bastian Sick)
* [http://www.ceryx.de/sprache/muehlenberglegende.htm Ceryx.de zum selben Thema]
* [http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/kade/adams/chap7.html Die Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis Library zur Mühlenberg-Legende] (englisch)
* [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M001063 Biographie von Muhlenberg] (englisch)

[[Kategorie:Moderne Sage]]
[[Kategorie:Deutsche Sprache]]
[[Kategorie:Deutsche Auswanderer]]
[[Kategorie:Amerikanistik]]

[[en:Muhlenberg legend]]

Diskussion:Muhlenberg-Legende

2008-03-06T21:41:18Z

VirtualDelight: /* Muehlenberg oder Muhlenberg? */ r

==Bindestrichschreibung==
Das Wort "Mühlenberglegende" besteht gerade mal aus zwei selbständigen Wörtern, daher ist die Bindestrichschreibung an sich völlig irrsinnig. Da es sich bei "Mühlenberg" jedoch um einen Namen handelt, ist die Bindestrichschreibung an sich in diesem Fall zu verstehen, jedoch wäre es sinnvoll, auch für jene, die für zwei Wörter nicht unbedingt eine Lesehilfe brauchen, den Zugang zu ermöglichen. Also: Könnte bitte jemand bewerkstelligen, daß man auch mit dem Stichwort "Mühlenberglegende" hierher geleitet wird? Danke.

: Ich verweise an [[Wolf Schneider]]: Deutsch: Was die Schule zu lehren vergass! Bindestriche sind eine sinnvolle Lesehilfe es Könnte schließlich auch Mühlen-Berg-Legende oder Mühlen-Berglegende oder Mühl-Enberg-Legende oder schlimmeres sein. Die gedankliche Trennung durch Bindestrich zwischen Eigenname und Legende ist Dudenkonform, sinnvoll und dem Lesefluss förderlich.--[[Benutzer:Sven Zoerner|Eusyllis]] 14:41, 29. Jun 2006 (CEST)

PS: der Artikel ist in sich nicht ganz logisch: Es gibt in den USA keine formal festgelegte Ansprache. Der Amtssprache im deutschen Verständnis entspricht das englische in den USA deshalb weil traditionell Gesetze und staatliche Dokumente in englisch verfasst werden.
Versteht man also Amtssprache nicht im formaljuristischen sondern im faktischen Sinne, dann gab es eine Abstimmung im Representantenhaus, Gesetzestexte zukünftig auch in deutsch zu erlassen die mit 42 zu 41 scheiterte, also mit einer Stimme Unterschied. Versteht man Amtssprache der USA also im faktischen Sinne, dann ist an die Mühlenberg-Legende keine Legende sondern wahr.--[[Benutzer:Sven Zoerner|Eusyllis]] 14:41, 29. Jun 2006 (CEST)

Der Brockhaus übrigens weiß zu diesem Thema noch was ganz anderes:
Die wahre Geschichte über die knappe Mehrheit, Englisch und nicht Deutsch als Amtsprache zu übernehmen, hat ihren Ursprung über einen Kongressentscheid der damals noch 13 (unabhängigen) Kolonien (Kongress in Philadelphia). Es wurde diskutiert, ob Englisch, Deutsch und sogar Französisch oder Hebräisch Amtssprache der Staaten werden sollte, und Englisch bekam tatsächlich 1(!) Stimme mehr als Deutsch.
[[Benutzer:Werner Koller|Werner Koller]]

== Muehlenberg oder Muhlenberg? ==

Inkonsistenz: das Lemma lautet zwar "Muehlenberg-Legende", verlinkt aber auf [[Frederick Muhlenberg]]. Muhlenberg ist in den USA geboren, schon sein Vater [[Henry Melchior Mühlenberg]] war in die USA emmigriert und hatte offenbar den Umlaut abgelegt. Frederick Muhlenberg scheint wohl selber nur die Namensschreibung mit einfachem "u" verwendet zu haben; jedenfalls finde ich auf amerikanischen Seiten fast nur in dieser Schreibung, z.B. auch auf der Seite des Repräsentantenhauses: http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M001063 – Lemma verschieben? --[[Benutzer:FordPrefect42|FordPrefect42]] 13:33, 28. Apr. 2007 (CEST)
:Stimme zu und habe verschoben. --[[Benutzer:VirtualDelight|VirtualDelight]] 22:41, 6. Mär. 2008 (CET)

Diskussion:Muhlenberg-Legende

2008-03-06T21:40:18Z

VirtualDelight: hat „Diskussion:Muehlenberg-Legende“ nach „Diskussion:Muhlenberg-Legende“ verschoben: siehe Diskussion u Artikel Frederick Muhlenberg u Henry Melchior Mühlenberg

Muehlenberg-Legende

2008-03-06T21:40:17Z

VirtualDelight: hat „Muehlenberg-Legende“ nach „Muhlenberg-Legende“ verschoben: siehe Diskussion u Artikel Frederick Muhlenberg u Henry Melchior Mühlenberg

#REDIRECT [[Muhlenberg-Legende]]

Muhlenberg-Legende

2008-03-06T21:40:17Z

VirtualDelight: hat „Muehlenberg-Legende“ nach „Muhlenberg-Legende“ verschoben: siehe Diskussion u Artikel Frederick Muhlenberg u Henry Melchior Mühlenberg

Als '''Muehlenberg-Legende''' wird das Gerücht bezeichnet, nach der es vor mehr als 200 Jahren in den [[Vereinigte Staaten|Vereinigten Staaten]] eine Gesetzesvorlage gegeben haben soll, [[Deutsche Sprache|Deutsch]] als offizielle Landessprache einzuführen. Das Gesetz soll an einer einzigen Stimme gescheitert sein, nämlich am Widerspruch des Deutschamerikaners [[Frederick Muhlenberg]] (1750–1801).

Das Gerücht entstand um 1840 und fand durch Franz Lohers 1847 veröffentlichtes Buch ''History and Achievements of the Germans in America'' weite Verbreitung; es findet immer noch offene Ohren. Der Anteil der deutschsprachigen Einwanderer war Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts in den Vereinigten Staaten nennenswert, aber er war niedriger als allgemein angenommen. Um 1830 lag er unterhalb 33 % in [[Pennsylvania]] und bei knapp 9 % in den gesamten USA.

Zu jener Zeit hat in den USA nie eine Abstimmung über Deutsch als Amtssprache stattgefunden. Es gab auch in den Bundesstaaten keine derartige Abstimmung. Die Legende gründet sich darauf, dass am 9. Januar 1794 einige deutsche Einwanderer aus [[Virginia]] eine [[Petition]] an das [[Repräsentantenhaus der Vereinigten Staaten|Repräsentantenhaus]] richteten, mit der Forderung, Gesetzestexte künftig auch in deutscher Sprache zu veröffentlichen. Der Antrag wurde im zuständigen Gremium mit 42 zu 41 Stimmen abgelehnt. Frederick Muhlenberg, der [[Sprecher des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten|Speaker]], soll sich der Stimme enthalten und nach der Abstimmung erklärt haben: ''Je eher die Deutschen Amerikaner werden, desto besser''.

Die Vereinigten Staaten haben bis heute keine offizielle Amtssprache gewählt und sind weltweit eines der wenigen Länder ohne Amtssprache.

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Deutsche Sprache in den Vereinigten Staaten]]

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.zeit.de/stimmts/1997/1997_35_stimmts DIE ZEIT 35/1997: „Das Zünglein an der Wage“] (von Christoph Drösser)
* [http://www.spiegel.de/kultur/zwiebelfisch/0,1518,295157,00.html SPIEGEL ONLINE Zwiebelfisch: „Deutsch als Amtssprache der USA“] (von Bastian Sick)
* [http://www.ceryx.de/sprache/muehlenberglegende.htm Ceryx.de zum selben Thema]
* [http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/kade/adams/chap7.html Die Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis Library zur Mühlenberg-Legende] (englisch)
* [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M001063 Biographie von Muhlenberg] (englisch)

[[Kategorie:Moderne Sage]]
[[Kategorie:Deutsche Sprache]]
[[Kategorie:Deutsche Auswanderer]]
[[Kategorie:Amerikanistik]]

[[en:Muhlenberg legend]]

Janice Baird

2007-09-28T14:13:08Z

VirtualDelight: + en, fr

'''Janice Baird''' (* [[10. Januar]] [[1963]] in [[New York City]], [[New York (Bundesstaat)|New York]]) ist eine [[Vereinigte Staaten|amerikanische]] [[Opernsänger]]in der Stimmlage [[Sopran]].

== Werdegang ==

Geboren und aufgewachsen ist Janice Baird in einem musikalisch geprägten Elternhaus in New York City. Sie studierte in ihrer Heimatstadt Musik (Querflöte und Gesang)und Fremdsprachen an der [[New York University]] und absolvierte ein Schauspielstudium am renommierten [[HB Studio]]. Nach ihren Anfängen als dramatischer [[Mezzosopran]] wurden größere Häuser auf sie aufmerksam, an denen sie mit durchschlagendem Erfolg ins Sopranfach wechselte. Mit weiterführenden intensiven Studien bei [[Astrid Varnay]] und Meisterkursen mit [[Birgit Nilsson]] erarbeitete sie schließlich das hochdramatische Repertoire, mit dem sie den Grundstein für ihre internationale Laufbahn legte. Neben ihrer Muttersprache spricht Baird Deutsch, Italienisch und Spanisch. 2007 lebte sie in Berlin sowie an der spanischen Atlantikküste.

Einen Bekanntheitsgrad in Fachkreisen erlangte sie für ihre Interpretationen von [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]- und [[Richard Strauss|Strauss]]-Partien.

Unter anderem sang sie die Rolle der ''Elektra'' von Strauss im [[Opernhaus Zürich]], [[Theatre du Capitole Toulouse]], Essen, Rom, Dresden, Strasbourg, Bilbao und Sevilla. Als ''Salome'' debütierte sie an der [[Wiener Staatsoper]], sang diese Rolle wiederholt an der [[Staatsoper Berlin]], Leipzig, Paris, Tokio, Genova und Palermo. Ihr Rollendebut als ''Färberin'' in Strauss' [[Die Frau ohne Schatten]] gab sie im Oktober 2006 in Toulouse. Sie sang ''Isolde'' in Buenos Aires und in der Saison 2006/2007 in Neuproduktionen an den Opernhäusern von Rom und Toulouse.

Janice Baird war die ''Brünnhilde'' in Genf, Catania, Toulouse sowie in Venedig, Zürich, Marseille, Düsseldorf, Stuttgart, Birmingham, Göteborg, Kopenhagen, Sevilla und der [[Deutsche Oper Berlin|Deutschen Oper Berlin]]. Sie wird im Sommer 2009 die ''Brünnhilde'' in Seattle sein.

==Weblinks==
*[http://www.janicebaird.com persönliche Website]
*[http://www.mennicken-pr.com/baird/opernwelt_2000_04.htm Portrait in opernwelt]
*[http://www.lefigaro.fr/culture/20070306.FIG000000143_janice_baird_de_retour_au_capitole.html Interview in Le Figaro] (französisch)
{{DM|310911338}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baird, Janice}}
[[Kategorie:Sopran]]
[[Kategorie:Opernsänger]]
[[Kategorie:US-Amerikaner]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1963]]
[[Kategorie:Frau]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Baird, Janice
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=amerikanische Sopranistin
|GEBURTSDATUM=[[10. Januar]] [[1963]]
|GEBURTSORT=[[New York City]], [[New York (Bundesstaat)|New York]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[en:Janice Baird]]
[[fr:Janice Baird]]

Kefeli-Moschee

2007-09-24T15:49:25Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate Niche to Niche (architecture) using popups

[[Image:KefeliMescidi20070603 1.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The Kefeli Mosque seen from the south.]]
{{coor title dms|41|1|46|N|28|56|30|E|type:landmark}}

The '''Kefeli Mosque''' ([[Turkish Language|Turkish]]: ''Kefeli Camii'', meaning "the mosque of the Caffariotes", after the inhabitants of the city of [[Caffa]] in [[Crimea]], or also ''Kefeli Mescidi'', where ''Mescit'' is the Turkish word for a small mosque) is a former [[Eastern Orthodox]] church, later jointly officiated by [[Roman Catholic]]s and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian]]s, and finally converted into a [[mosque]] by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. The Catholic church was dedicated to [[Saint Nicholas]]. Its date of dedication as Eastern Orthodox church is unknown. The interest of Kefeli Mosque arises because it reproposes the early Christian [[Basilica]] form during the later [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period. <ref name=mat190>Mathews, p. 190.</ref>

==Location==
The building lies in [[Istanbul]], in the district of [[Fatih]], in the neighborhood of [[Salmatomruk]], more or less halfway between the museum of [[Chora Church|Chora]] and the mosque of [[Fethiye Mosque|Fethiye]].

==History==
The origin of this building, which lies on the slope of the sixth hill of [[Constantinople]], is not certain. The tradition says that in the ninth century Manuel, ''[[Admiral|Drungarius]]'' in the wars against the [[Saracen]]s during the reign of [[Byzantine Emperor|Emperor]] [[Theophilos (emperor)|Teophilos]], built a [[monastery]] converting his house, which lied near the [[cistern]] of [[Aspar]].<ref>Van Millingen, p. 254.</ref> He was the uncle of Empress [[Theodora (9th century)|Theodora]], wife of the Theofilos, and before retiring in his monastery he was one of the three counselors which assisted the Empress after the death of her husband and the minority of [[Michael III]].

The monastery was rebuilt by Patriarch [[Photius]], and was restored again by Usurper [[Romanos I]] Lekapenos. Emperor [[Michael VII]] retired here after his deposition.<ref>Van Millingen, p. 257.</ref> All these events shows the importance of this monastery in Constantinople. Anyway, the attribution of this building to the complex founded by Manuel is far from certain, and has been denied by the newest research.<ref name=mat190>Mathews, p. 190.</ref>

The documented history of the edifice begins in 1475, shortly after the [[Fall of Constantinople]], when the [[ottoman empire|ottoman]]s conquered the [[Genoa|genoese]] colony of [[Caffa]], in [[Crimea]]. All the [[Latin Europe|Latin]], [[Greeks|Greek]] and [[Jewish]] inhabitants who lived in Caffa ("Caffariotes" or, in [[Turkish Language|Turkish]], ''kefeli'') were then deported to Istanbul and relocated to this quarter. The Latins, mainly [[Genoese]], were authorized to use this building as a church together with the [[Armenian People|Armenian]]s.<ref name=mat190>Mathews, p. 190.</ref> The church was dedicated to [[Saint Nicholas]] and officiated by the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]. In 1630, under the kingdom of [[Murat IV]] (1623-1640), the church was converted into a ''mescit'' (a small mosque), but maintained the name of Kefeli.

==Architecture==
[[Image:KefeliMescidi20070603 2.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The Apse of the Mosque with the [[Minaret]] seen from the north. From here, the alternate courses of bricks and stone are clearly visible.]]

The building is a large hall, 22.6 meter long by 7.22 wide,<ref name=mil258>Van Millingen, p. 258.</ref> and is oriented in North-South direction, which is quite uncommon among the byzantine churches in [[Constantinople]]. Its [[masonry]] consists of alternate courses of [[brick]]s and stones. The original building had a triple-[[nave]] plan, but the only remains of the side [[aisle]]s belong to the end wall of the western one.<ref name=mat190>Mathews, p. 190.</ref> To the north side there is an arch and a semicircular [[apse]] made of bricks, which outside has a polygonal shape. The walls of the apse are indented by two [[Niche (architecture)|niche]]s. The main aisle has walls which are lighted by two ranges of windows, which are irregularly spaced. The southern wall is also lighted by two ranges of windows. The lower windows are much larger than the higher. The entrance is situated in the middle of the western wall. Under the western side there is a cistern, whose roof rests on three [[column]]s.<ref name=mil258>Van Millingen, p. 258.</ref>

The dating of the edifice is uncertain. The polygonal apse and the niches in the apse are typical of the churches of [[Palaiologos|palaiologan]] foundation.<ref name=mat190>Mathews, p. 190.</ref> The building is architecturally interesting because it is an example of reproposition of the early Christian [[Basilica]] form during the later [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period.<ref name=mat190>Mathews, p. 190.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
==Sources==
{{commonscat|Kefeli Mescidi}}
*{{cite book
| last=Van Millingen
| first= Alexander
| title=Byzantine Churches of Constantinople
| publisher=MacMillan & Co
| location = London
| year=1912
}}
*{{cite book
| last=Mathews
| first= Thomas F.
| title=The Byzantine Churches of Istanbul: A Photographic Survey
| publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University Press]]
| location = University Park
| year=1976
| isbn=0-271-01210-2
}}
*{{cite book
| last=Gülersoy
| first= Celik
| title=A guide to Istanbul
| publisher=Kitapligi
| location=Istanbul
| year=1976
| oclc = 3849706
}}

[[Category:Mosques in Istanbul]]
[[Category:Byzantine architecture]]

Albertosaurus

2007-09-24T15:23:14Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate Niche to Ecological niche using popups

{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Albertosaurus''
| fossil_range = [[Late Cretaceous]]
| image = Albertosaurus model.jpg
| image_caption = Lifesize model of ''Albertosaurus'' outside the
[[New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science]].
| image_width = 230px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Sauropsid]]a
| superordo = [[Dinosauria]]
| ordo = [[Saurischia]]
| subordo = [[Theropoda]]
| familia = [[Tyrannosauridae]]
| genus = '''''Albertosaurus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Henry Fairfield Osborn|Osborn]], 1905
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = *'''''A. sarcophagus''''' Osborn, 1905
}}
'''''Albertosaurus''''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ælˌbɝto'sɔɹəs/}}; meaning 'Alberta lizard') is a [[genus]] of [[tyrannosaurid]] [[theropod]] [[dinosaur]] that lived in western [[North America]] during the Late [[Cretaceous]] [[Period (geology)|Period]], more than 70 [[million years ago]]. The [[type species]], ''A. sarcophagus'', was restricted in [[range (biology)|range]] to the modern-day [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Alberta]], after which the genus is named. Scientists disagree on the content of the genus, with some recognizing ''[[Gorgosaurus libratus]]'' as a second species.

As a tyrannosaurid, ''Albertosaurus'' was a [[biped]]al [[predator]] with tiny, two-fingered hands and a massive head with dozens of large, sharp teeth. It may have been at the top of the [[food chain]] in its local [[ecosystem]]. Although relatively large for a theropod, ''Albertosaurus'' was much smaller than its more famous relative ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'', probably weighing only as much as a modern [[black rhinoceros]].

[[Fossil]]s of more than thirty individuals have been recovered, providing scientists with a more detailed knowledge of ''Albertosaurus'' anatomy than is available for most other tyrannosaurids. The discovery of 22 individuals at one site provides evidence of [[pack hunter|pack]] behavior and allows studies of [[ontogeny]] and [[population biology]] which are impossible with lesser-known dinosaurs.

==Description==
''Albertosaurus'' was smaller than the truly gigantic tyrannosaurids like ''[[Tarbosaurus]]'' and ''Tyrannosaurus''. Typical adults measured up to 9 [[meter]]s (30 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) long,<ref name=russell1970>{{cite_journal |last=Russell |first=Dale A. |authorlink=Dale Russell |year=1970 |title=Tyrannosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of western Canada |journal=National Museum of Natural Sciences Publications in Paleontology |volume=1 |pages=1-34}}</ref><ref name=holtz2004>{{cite_book |last=Holtz |first=Thomas R. |authorlink=Thomas R. Holtz, Jr. |year=2004 |chapter=Tyrannosauroidea |editor= [[David B. Weishampel|Weishampel, David B.]]; [[Peter Dodson|Dodson, Peter]]; & Osmólska, Halska (eds.). |title=The Dinosauria |edition=Second Edition |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |pages=111-136 |isbn=0-520-24209-2}}</ref> while rare individuals of great age could grow to over 10 meters (33 ft) in length.<ref name=ericksonetal2006>{{cite_journal |last=Erickson |first=Gregory M. |coauthors= [[Phil Currie|Currie, Philip. J.]]; Inouye, Brian D.; & Wynn, Alice A. |year=2006 |title=Tyrannosaur life tables: an example of nonavian dinosaur population biology |journal=Science |volume=313 |pages=213-217 |doi=10.1126/science.1125721}}</ref> Several independent mass estimates, obtained by different methods, suggest that an adult ''Albertosaurus'' weighed between 1.3 [[tonne]]s (1.4 [[short ton]]s)<ref name=ericksonetal2004>{{cite_journal |last=Erickson, Gregory M. |coauthors=Makovicky, Peter J.; [[Phil Currie|Currie, Philip J.]]; Norell, Mark A.; Yerby, Scott A.; & Brochu, Christopher A. |year=2004 |title=Gigantism and comparative life-history parameters of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs |journal=Nature |volume=430 |pages=772–775 |doi=10.1038/nature02699}}</ref> and 1.7 tonnes (1.9 tons).<ref name=christiansenfarina2004>{{cite_journal |last=Christiansen |first=Per |coauthors=& Fariña, Richard A. |year=2004 |title=Mass prediction in theropod dinosaurs |journal=Historical Biology |volume=16 |issue=2-4 |pages=85–92 |doi=10.1080/08912960412331284313}}</ref>
[[Image:Albertosaurusscale.png|thumb|200px|left|''Albertosaurus sarcophagus'' with a human for scale.]]
The massive [[skull]] of ''Albertosaurus'', perched on a short, ''S''-shaped neck, was approximately 1 meter (3.3 ft) long in the largest adults.<ref name=currie2003a>{{cite_journal|last=Currie |first=Philip J. |authorlink=Phil Currie |year=2003 |title=Allometric growth in tyrannosaurids (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of North America and Asia |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=651–665 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/nrc/cjes/2003/00000040/00000004/art00014}}</ref> Wide openings in the skull ([[fenestrae]]) reduced the weight of the head while also providing space for [[muscle]] attachment and [[sensory organ]]s. Its long jaws contained more than 60 [[banana]]-shaped teeth; larger tyrannosaurids possessed fewer teeth. Unlike most theropods, ''Albertosaurus'' and other tyrannosaurids were [[heterodont]], with teeth of different forms depending on their position in the mouth. The [[premaxilla]]ry teeth at the tip of the upper jaw were much smaller than the rest, more closely packed, and ''D''-shaped in [[cross section (geometry)|cross section]].<ref name=holtz2004/>

All tyrannosaurids, including ''Albertosaurus'', shared a similar body appearance. Typically for a theropod, ''Albertosaurus'' was bipedal and balanced the heavy head and [[torso]] with a long tail. However, tyrannosaurid forelimbs were extremely small for their body size and retained only two digits. The hindlimbs were long and ended in a four-toed foot. The first digit, called the [[hallux]], was short and only the other three contacted the ground, with the third (middle) digit longer than the rest.<ref name=holtz2004/>

==Classification and systematics==
''Albertosaurus'' is a member of the theropod [[family (biology)|family]] Tyrannosauridae, in the subfamily Albertosaurinae. Its closest relative is the slightly older ''Gorgosaurus libratus'' (sometimes called ''Albertosaurus libratus''; see below).<ref name=currieetal2003>{{cite_journal |last=Currie |first=Philip J. |coauthors=Hurum, Jørn H; & Sabath, Karol. |authorlink=Phil Currie |year=2003 |title=Skull structure and evolution in tyrannosaurid phylogeny |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=227–234 |url=http://app.pan.pl/acta48/app48-227.pdf}}</ref> These two species are the only described albertosaurines, although other undescribed species may exist.<ref name=currie2003b>{{cite_journal |last=Currie |first=Philip J. |authorlink=Phil Currie |year=2003 |title=Cranial anatomy of tyrannosaurids from the Late Cretaceous of Alberta |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=191–226 |url=http://app.pan.pl/acta48/app48-191.pdf}}</ref> [[Thomas R. Holtz, Jr.|Thomas Holtz]] found ''[[Appalachiosaurus]]'' to be an albertosaurine in 2004,<ref name=holtz2004/> but his more recent unpublished work locates it just outside Tyrannosauridae,<ref name=holtzdml2005>{{cite web |url=http://dml.cmnh.org/2005Sep/msg00345.html |title=RE: Burpee Conference (LONG) |accessdate=2007-06-18 |last=Holtz |first=Thomas R. |authorlink=Thomas R. Holtz, Jr. |date=2005-09-20}}</ref> in agreement with other authors.<ref name=carretal2005>{{cite_journal |last=Carr |first=Thomas D. |coauthors=Williamson, Thomas E.; & Schwimmer, David R. |year=2005 |title=A new genus and species of tyrannosauroid from the Late Cretaceous (middle Campanian) Demopolis Formation of Alabama |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=119–143}}</ref>

The other major subfamily of tyrannosaurids is the Tyrannosaurinae, including ''[[Daspletosaurus torosus]]'', ''[[Tarbosaurus bataar]]'' and ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. Compared to these robust tyrannosaurines, albertosaurines had slender builds, with proportionately smaller skulls and longer bones of the lower leg ([[tibia]]) and feet ([[metatarsal]]s and [[phalanges]]).<ref name=currie2003a/><ref name=currieetal2003/>

==Discovery and naming==
''Albertosaurus'' was named by [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] in a very brief note at the end of his 1905 description of ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. The name honors Alberta, the Canadian province in which the first remains were found. The generic name also incorporates the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] term ''σαυρος''/''sauros'' ('lizard'), the most common suffix in dinosaur names. The type species is ''A. sarcophagus'', which means "flesh-eater" and has the same [[etymology]] as the [[sarcophagus|funeral container]] with which it shares its name: a combination of the Ancient Greek words ''σαρξ''/''sarx'' ('flesh') and ''Φαγειν''/''phagein'' ('to eat').<ref name=osborn1905>{{cite_journal |last=Osborn |first=Henry F. |authorlink=Henry Fairfield Osborn |year=1905 |title=Tyrannosaurus and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs |journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=21 |pages=259–265 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2246/1464}}</ref> More than thirty specimens of all ages are known to science.<ref name=ericksonetal2006/><ref name=currie2003b/>

===Early discoveries===
[[Image:red_deer_river.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Red Deer River near [[Drumheller]], Alberta. Almost three-quarters of all ''Albertosaurus'' remains have been discovered alongside the river, in outcrops like the ones on either side of this picture.]]
The [[type specimen]] is a partial skull, collected in 1884 from an [[outcrop]] of the [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation]] alongside the [[Red Deer River]] in Alberta. This specimen and a smaller skull associated with some skeletal material were recovered by expeditions of the [[Geological Survey of Canada]], led by the famous [[geologist]] [[Joseph Tyrrell|Joseph B. Tyrrell]]. The two skulls were assigned to the preexisting species "Laelaps incrassatus" by [[Edward Drinker Cope]] in 1892,<ref name=cope1892>{{cite_journal |last=Cope |first=Edward D. |authorlink=Edward Drinker Cope |year=1892 |title=On the skull of the dinosaurian ''Laelaps incrassatus'' Cope |journal=American Philosophical Society, Proceedings |volume=30 |pages=240–245}}</ref> despite the fact that the name ''Laelaps'' was [[ICZN|preoccupied]] by a genus of [[mite]] and had been changed to ''[[Dryptosaurus]]'' in 1877 by [[Othniel Charles Marsh]]. Cope refused to recognize the new name created by his archrival Marsh, so it fell to [[Lawrence Lambe]] to change "Laelaps incrassatus" to ''Dryptosaurus incrassatus'' when he described the remains in detail in 1904.<ref name=lambe1904>{{cite_journal |last=Lambe |first=Lawrence M. |authorlink=Lawrence Lambe |year=1904 |title=On ''Dryptosaurus incrassatus'' (Cope) from the Edmonton Series of the Northwest Territory |journal=Contributions to Canadian Palaeontology |volume=3 |pages=1–27}}</ref> Shortly later, Osborn pointed out that ''D. incrassatus'' was based on generic tyrannosaurid teeth, so the two Alberta skulls could not be confidently referred to that species. The Alberta skulls also differed markedly from the remains of ''D. aquilunguis'', type species of ''Dryptosaurus'', so Osborn created the new name ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus'' for them in 1905. He did not describe the remains in any great detail, citing Lambe's complete description the year before.<ref name=osborn1905/> Both specimens (CMN 5600 and 5601) are stored in the [[Canadian Museum of Nature]] in [[Ottawa]].

===Dry Island bonebed===
In 1910, American paleontologist [[Barnum Brown]] uncovered the remains of a large group of ''Albertosaurus'' at another [[quarry]] alongside the Red Deer River. Because of the large number of bones and the limited time available, Brown's party did not collect every specimen, but made sure to collect remains from all of the individuals they could identify in the [[bonebed]]. Among the bones deposited in the [[American Museum of Natural History]] collections in [[New York City]] are seven sets of right [[metatarsal]]s, along with two isolated toe bones that did not match any of the metatarsals in size. This indicated the presence of at least nine individuals in the quarry. The [[Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology]] rediscovered the bonebed in 1997 and resumed fieldwork at the site, which is now located inside [[Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park]].<ref name=currie1998>{{cite_journal |last=Currie |first=Philip J. |authorlink=Phil Currie |year=1998 |title=Possible evidence of gregarious behavior in tyrannosaurids |journal=Gaia |volume=15 |pages=271–277 |url=http://www.mnhn.ul.pt/geologia/gaia/21.pdf}}(not printed until 2000)</ref> Further excavation from 1997 to 2005 turned up the remains of 13 more individuals of various ages, including a diminutive two-year-old and a very old individual estimated at over 10 meters (33 ft) in length. None of these individuals are known from complete skeletons, and most are represented by remains in both museums.<ref name=ericksonetal2006/><ref name=ericksonetal2004/>

===''Gorgosaurus libratus''===
In 1913, [[paleontologist]] [[Charles Hazelius Sternberg]] recovered another tyrannosaurid skeleton from the slightly older [[Dinosaur Park Formation]] in Alberta. Lawrence Lambe named this dinosaur ''[[Gorgosaurus]] libratus'' in 1914.<ref name=lambe1914>{{cite_journal |last=Lambe |first=Lawrence M. |authorlink=Lawrence Lambe |year=1914 |title=On a new genus and species of carnivorous dinosaur from the Belly River Formation of Alberta, with a description of the skull of ''Stephanosaurus marginatus'' from the same horizon |journal=Ottawa Naturalist |volume=28 |pages=13–20}}</ref> Other specimens were later found in Alberta and [[Montana]]. Finding few differences to separate the two genera, [[Dale Russell]] declared the name ''Gorgosaurus'' a [[junior synonym]] of ''Albertosaurus'', which had been named first, and ''G. libratus'' was renamed ''Albertosaurus libratus'' in 1970. This addition extended the temporal range of the genus ''Albertosaurus'' backwards by several million years and its geographic range southwards by hundreds of [[kilometer]]s.<ref name=russell1970/>
[[Image:New mexico albertosaurine.jpg|thumb|230px|right|An albertosaurine skull in the midst of preparation, discovered in [[New Mexico]]. This undescribed species may belong to ''Albertosaurus''.]]
In 2003, [[Phil Currie]] compared several tyrannosaurid skulls and came to the conclusion that the two species are more distinct than previously thought. The decision to use one or two genera is rather arbitrary, as the two species are [[sister taxa]], more closely related to each other than to any other species. Recognizing this, Currie nevertheless recommended that ''Albertosaurus'' and ''Gorgosaurus'' be retained as separate genera, as they are no more similar than ''Daspletosaurus'' and ''Tyrannosaurus'', which are almost always separated. In addition, several albertosaurine specimens have been recovered from [[Alaska]] and [[New Mexico]], and Currie suggested that the ''Albertosaurus''-''Gorgosaurus'' situation may be clarified once these are described fully.<ref name=currie2003b/> Most authors have followed Currie's recommendation,<ref name=holtz2004/><ref name=ericksonetal2004/><ref name=ricklefs2007>{{cite_journal |last=Ricklefs |first=Robert E. |year=2007 |title=Tyrannosaur ageing |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=214-217 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0597}}</ref> but some have not.<ref name=carretal2005/>

===Other discoveries===
[[William Parks]] described a new species, ''Albertosaurus arctunguis'', based on a partial skeleton excavated near the Red Deer River in 1928,<ref name=parks1928>{{cite_journal |last=Parks |first=William A. |authorlink=William Parks |year=1928 |title=''Albertosaurus arctunguis'', a new species of therapodous dinosaur from the Edmonton Formation of Alberta |journal=University of Toronto Studies, Geological Series |volume=25 |pages=1–42}}</ref> but this species has been considered identical to ''A. sarcophagus'' since 1970.<ref name=russell1970/> Parks' specimen (ROM 807) is housed in the [[Royal Ontario Museum]] in [[Toronto]]. Six more skulls and skeletons have since been discovered in Alberta and are housed in various Canadian museums. Fossils have also been reported from the American states of Montana, New Mexico, and [[Wyoming]], but these probably do not represent ''A. sarcophagus'' and may not even belong to the genus ''Albertosaurus''.<ref name=holtz2004/><ref name=currie2003b/>

''Albertosaurus megagracilis'' was based on a small tyrannosaurid skeleton from the [[Hell Creek Formation]] of Montana.<ref name=paul1988>{{cite_book |last=Paul |first=Gregory S. |authorlink=Gregory S. Paul |year=1988 |title=Predatory Dinosaurs of the World. |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |pages=464pp |isbn=978-0671619466}}</ref> It was renamed ''[[Dinotyrannus]]'' in 1995,<ref name=olshevsky1995>{{cite_journal |last=Olshevsky |first=George. |authorlink=George Olshevsky |year=1995 |title=(The origin and evolution of the tyrannosaurids.) |journal=Kyoryugaku Saizensen (Dino Frontline) |volume=9 |pages=92–119 |language=Japanese}}</ref> but is now thought to represent a juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus rex''.<ref name=currie2003a/>

==Paleobiology==
Like many tyrannosaurids, ''Albertosaurus'' is well known from several different specimens, allowing detailed studies of its life history and providing evidence of its behavior.

===Growth pattern===
[[Image:Tyrantgraph.png|thumb|400px|right|A graph showing the hypothesized growth curves (body mass versus age) of four tyrannosaurids. ''Albertosaurus'' is drawn in red. Based on Erickson et al. 2004.]]
Most age categories of ''Albertosaurus'' are represented in the [[fossil record]]. Using bone [[histology]], the age of an individual animal at the time of death can often be determined, allowing growth rates to be estimated and compared to other species. The youngest known ''Albertosaurus'' is a two-year-old discovered in the Dry Island bonebed, which would have weighed about 50 [[kilograms]] (110 [[pound (mass)|lb]]) and measured slightly more than 2 meters (7 ft) in length. The 10 meter (33 ft) specimen from the same quarry is the oldest and largest known, at 28 years of age. When specimens of intermediate age and size are plotted on a graph, an ''S''-shaped growth curve results, with the most rapid growth occurring in a four-year period ending around the sixteenth year of life, a pattern also seen in other tyrannosaurids. The growth rate during this phase was 122 kilograms (268 lb) per year, based on an adult 1.3 [[tonne]]s (1.4 [[short ton]]s). Other studies have suggested higher adult weights; this would affect the magnitude of the growth rate but not the overall pattern. Tyrannosaurids similar in size to ''Albertosaurus'' had similar growth rates, although the much larger ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' grew almost eight times faster (767 kilograms [[1687 lb]] per year) during its growth phase. The end of the rapid growth phase suggests the onset of [[sexual maturity]] in ''Albertosaurus'', although growth continued at a slower rate throughout the animals' lives.<ref name=ericksonetal2006/><ref name=ericksonetal2004/> Delayed sexual maturity is also seen in large mammals like [[elephant]]s and some large modern birds like the [[albatross]].<ref name=ricklefs2007/>

===Life history===
Most known ''Albertosaurus'' individuals were aged 14 years or more at the time of death. Juvenile animals are rarely found as fossils for several reasons, mainly [[Biased sample|preservation bias]], where the smaller bones of younger animals were less likely to preserved by fossilization than the larger bones of adults, and collection bias, where smaller fossils are less likely to be noticed by collectors in the field.<ref name=roachbrinkman2007>{{cite_journal |last=Roach |first= Brian T. |coauthors=& Brinkman, Daniel T. |year=2007 |title=A reevaluation of cooperative pack hunting and gregariousness in ''Deinonychus antirrhopus'' and other nonavian theropod dinosaurs |journal=Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=103-138 |url=http://www.peabody.yale.edu/scipubs/abstracts/abs_b48-1b.html}}</ref> Young ''Albertosaurus'' are relatively large for juvenile animals, but their remains are still rare in the fossil record compared to adults. It has been suggested that this phenomenon is a consequence of [[life history]], rather than bias, and that fossils of juvenile ''Albertosaurus'' are rare because they simply didn't die as often as adults did.<ref name=ericksonetal2006/>

A hypothesis of ''Albertosaurus'' life history postulates that [[hatchling]]s died in large numbers, but have not been preserved in the fossil record due to their small size and fragile construction. After just two years, juveniles were larger than any other predator in the region aside from adult ''Albertosaurus'', and more fleet of foot than most of their prey animals. This resulted in a dramatic decrease in their mortality rate and a corresponding rarity of fossil remains. Mortality rates doubled at age twelve, perhaps the result of the physiological demands of the rapid growth phase, and then doubled again with the onset of sexual maturity between the ages of fourteen and sixteen. This elevated mortality rate continued throughout adulthood, perhaps due to high physiological demands, stress and injuries received during intraspecific competition for mates and resources, and eventually, the ever-increasing effects of [[senescence]]. The higher mortality rate in adults may explain their more common preservation. Very large animals were rare because few individuals survived long enough to attain such sizes. High infant mortality rates, followed by reduced mortality among juveniles and a sudden increase in mortality after sexual maturity, with very few animals reaching maximum size, is a pattern observed in many modern large mammals, including elephants, [[African buffalo]], and [[rhinoceros]]. The same pattern is also seen in other tyrannosaurids. The comparison with modern animals and other tyrannosaurids lends support to this life history hypothesis, but bias in the fossil record may still play a large role, especially since more than two-thirds of all ''Albertosaurus'' specimens are known from one locality.<ref name=ericksonetal2006/><ref name=ricklefs2007/>

===Pack behavior===
The Dry Island bonebed discovered by Barnum Brown and his crew contains the remains of 22 ''Albertosaurus'', the most individuals found in one locality of any Cretaceous theropod, and the second-most of any large theropod dinosaur behind the ''[[Allosaurus]]'' assemblage at the [[Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry]] in [[Utah]]. The group seems to be composed of one very old adult; eight adults between 17 and 23 years old; seven sub-adults undergoing their rapid growth phases at between 12 and 16 years old; and six juveniles between the ages of 2 and 11 years, who had not yet reached the growth phase.<ref name=ericksonetal2006/>

The near-absence of [[herbivore]] remains and the similar state of preservation between the many individuals at the ''Albertosaurus'' bonebed quarry led Phil Currie to conclude that the locality was not a predator trap like the [[La Brea Tar Pits]] in [[California]], and that all of the preserved animals died at the same time. Currie claims this as evidence of pack behavior.<ref name="currie1998"/> Other scientists are skeptical, observing that the animals may have been driven together by drought, flood or for other reasons.<ref name=ericksonetal2006/><ref name=roachbrinkman2007/><ref name=eberthmccrea2001>{{cite_journal |last=Eberth |first=David A. |coauthors=& McCrea, Richard T. |year=2001 |title=Were large theropods gregarious? |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=21 |issue=(Supplement to 3 - Abstracts of Papers, 61st Annual Meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology) |pages=46A}}(published abstract only)</ref>

There is abundant evidence for gregarious behavior among herbivorous dinosaurs, including [[ceratopsia]]ns and [[hadrosaur]]s.<ref name=horner1997>{{cite_book |last=Horner |first=John R. |authorlink=Jack Horner (paleontologist) |year=1997 |chapter=Behavior |editor=[[Phil Currie|Currie, Philip J.]] & Padian, Kevin. (eds.). |title=Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |pages=45–50 |isbn=0-12-226810-5}}</ref> However, only rarely are so many dinosaurian predators found at the same site. Small theropods like ''[[Deinonychus]]'',<ref name=maxwellostrom1995>{{cite journal |last=Maxwell |first=W. Desmond |coauthors=& [[John Ostrom|Ostrom, John H.]] |year=1995 |title=Taphonomy and paleobiological implications of ''Tenontosaurus''-''Deinonychus'' associations |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=707–712}}</ref> ''[[Coelophysis]]'' and ''[[Megapnosaurus|Megapnosaurus (Syntarsus) rhodesiensis]]''<ref name=raath1990>{{cite_book |last=Raath |first=Michael A. |year=1990 |chapter=Morphological variation in small theropods and its meaning in systematics: evidence from ''Syntarsus rhodesiensis'' |editor=[[Kenneth Carpenter|Carpenter, Kenneth]] & [[Phil Currie|Currie, Philip J.]] |title=Dinosaur Systematics: Approaches and Perspectives |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |pages=91–105 |isbn=0-521-43810-1}}</ref> have been found in aggregations, as have larger predators like ''Allosaurus'' and ''[[Mapusaurus|Mapusaurus]]''.<ref name=coriacurrie2006>{{cite_journal |last=Coria |first=Rodolfo A. |authorlink=Rodolfo Coria |coauthors=& [[Phil Currie|Currie, Philip J.]] |year=2006 |title=A new carcharodontosaurid (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of Argentina |journal=Geodiversitas |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=71–118 |url=http://www.mnhn.fr/museum/front/medias/publication/7653_g06n1a4.pdf}}</ref> There is some evidence of gregarious behavior in other tyrannosaurids as well. Fragmentary remains of smaller individuals were found alongside "Sue," the ''Tyrannosaurus'' mounted in the [[Field Museum of Natural History]] in [[Chicago]], and a bonebed in the [[Two Medicine Formation]] of Montana contains at least three specimens of ''Daspletosaurus'', preserved alongside several hadrosaurs.<ref name=currieetal2005>{{cite_book |last=Currie |first=Philip J. |authorlink=Phil Currie |coauthors=Trexler, David; [[Eva Koppelhus|Koppelhus, Eva B.]]; Wicks, Kelly; & Murphy, Nate. |year=2005 |chapter=An unusual multi-individual tyrannosaurid bonebed in the Two Medicine Formation (Late Cretaceous, Campanian) of Montana (USA) |editor=[[Kenneth Carpenter|Carpenter, Kenneth]] (ed.). |title=The Carnivorous Dinosaurs |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington |pages=313–324 |isbn=978-0253345394}}</ref> These findings may corroborate the evidence for social behavior in ''Albertosaurus'', although some or all of the above localities may represent temporary or unnatural aggregations.<ref name=currie1998/> Others have speculated that instead of social groups, at least some of these finds represent [[Komodo dragon]]-like mobbing of carcasses, where aggressive competition leads to some of the predators being killed and cannibalized.<ref name=roachbrinkman2007/>

Currie also offers speculation on the pack-hunting habits of ''Albertosaurus''. The leg proportions of the smaller individuals were comparable to those of [[ornithomimid]]s, which were probably among the fastest dinosaurs. Younger ''Albertosaurus'' were probably equally fleet-footed, or at least faster than their prey. Currie hypothesized that the younger members of the pack may have been responsible for driving their prey towards the adults, who were larger and more powerful, but also slower.<ref name=currie1998/> Juveniles may also have had different lifestyles than adults, filling predator [[Ecological niche|niche]]s between the enormous adults and the smaller contemporaneous theropods, the largest of which were two [[orders of magnitude]] smaller than adult ''Albertosaurus'' in mass.<ref name=holtz2004/> A similar situation is observed in modern Komodo dragons, with hatchlings beginning life as small [[insectivore]]s before growing to become the dominant predators on their islands.<ref name=auffenberg1981>{{cite_book |last=Auffenberg |first=Walter |year=2000 |title=The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor |publisher=University Press of Florida |location=Gainesville |pages=460pp. |isbn=978-0813006215}}</ref> However, as the preservation of behavior in the fossil record is exceedingly rare, these ideas cannot readily be tested.

==Paleoecology==
[[Image:Horseshoe Canyon.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation]] exposed in its type section at [[Horseshoe Canyon (Alberta)|Horseshoe Canyon]], [[Alberta]].]]
All identifiable fossils of ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus'' are known from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation in Alberta. This [[geologic formation]] dates to the early [[Maastrichtian]] stage of the [[Late Cretaceous]] Period, 73 to 70 [[Mega-annum|Ma]] (million years ago). Immediately below this formation is the [[Bearpaw Shale]], a [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] formation representing a section of the [[Western Interior Seaway]]. The seaway was receding as the climate cooled and sea levels subsided towards the end of the Cretaceous, exposing land that had previously been underwater. It was not a smooth process, however, and the seaway would periodically rise to cover parts of the region throughout Horseshoe Canyon times before finally receding altogether in the years after. Due to the changing sea levels, many different environments are represented in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, including offshore and near-shore marine habitats and coastal habitats like [[lagoon]]s, [[estuary|estuaries]] and [[tidal flat]]s. Numerous [[coal]] seams represent ancient [[peat]] [[swamp]]s. Like most of the other [[vertebrate]] fossils from the formation, ''Albertosaurus'' remains are found in deposits laid down in the [[river delta|deltas]] and [[floodplain]]s of large rivers during the later half of Horseshoe Canyon times.<ref name=eberth1997>{{cite_book |last=Eberth |first=David A. |year=1997 |chapter=Edmonton Group |editor=[[Phil Currie|Currie, Philip J.]] & Padian, Kevin (eds.). |title=Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs |publisher= Academic Press |location=San Diego |pages=199-204 |isbn=0-12-226810-5}}</ref>

The [[fauna]] of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation is well-known, as vertebrate fossils, including those of dinosaurs, are quite common. [[Shark]]s, [[ray]]s, [[sturgeon]]s, [[bowfin]]s, [[gar]]s and the gar-like ''[[Aspidorhynchus]]'' made up the fish fauna. Mammals included [[multituberculate]]s and the [[marsupial]] ''[[Didelphodon]]''. The saltwater [[plesiosaur]] ''[[Leurospondylus]]'' has been found in marine sediments in the Horseshoe Canyon, while freshwater environments were populated by [[turtle]]s, ''[[Champsosaurus]]'', and [[crocodilia]]ns like ''[[Leidyosuchus]]'' and ''[[Stangerochampsa]]''. Dinosaurs dominate the fauna, especially hadrosaurs, which make up half of all dinosaurs known, including the genera ''[[Edmontosaurus]]'', ''[[Saurolophus]]'' and ''[[Hypacrosaurus]]''. Ceratopsians and [[ornithomimid]]s were also very common, together making up another third of the known fauna. Along with much rarer [[ankylosauria]]ns and [[pachycephalosaur]]s, all of these animals would have been prey for a diverse array of carnivorous theropods, including [[troodontid]]s, [[dromaeosaurid]]s, and [[caenagnathid]]s. Adult ''Albertosaurus'' were the [[apex predator]]s in this environment, with intermediate niches possibly filled by juvenile albertosaurs.<ref name=eberth1997/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{portalpar|Dinosaurs}}
*Some entries in [http://paleo.amnh.org/fossil/seek.html Online Collections Database] at the American Museum of Natural History:
**[http://paleo.amnh.org/fossil/show.html?cat_num=FR%205218 AMNH 5218] (numerous pictures of bones included)
**[http://paleo.amnh.org/fossil/show.html?cat_num=FR%205226 AMNH 5226] (pictures of a series of tail vertebrae included)
*[http://home.myuw.net/eoraptor/Tyrannosauroidea.html#Albertosaurussarcophagus List of specimens] from [http://home.myuw.net/eoraptor/Home.html The Theropod Database]
*[http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/paleochron/31_e.php A brief history] of Joseph B. Tyrrell and his discovery of the [[holotype]] skull of ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus''.
*[http://www.nm.blm.gov/features/dino_lift/dino_lift.html Operation Dino-Lift], detailing the discovery, excavation, and preparation of a possible ''Albertosaurus'' from [[Bureau of Land Management]] land in New Mexico.

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Cretaceous dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Featured dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Dinosaurs of North America]]
[[Category:Tyrannosaurs]]

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Papst (Titel)

2007-09-24T10:15:01Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate St. Augustine to Augustine of Hippo using popups

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{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Emblem_of_the_Papacy.svg|thumb|right|200px|The Emblem of the Papacy]]

The '''Pope''' (from [[Latin]]: ''papa'', father;<ref name="fn_1">[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=pope&searchmode=none Etymology] of ‘Pope’.</ref> from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|πάπας}} (''papas'') = father - originally written {{polytonic|πάππας}} (''pappas''), as in Homer's Odyssey, book VI, line 57)<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2377735 Liddell and Scott]</ref> is the [[Bishop of Rome]], the spiritual leader of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]<ref>This includes [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Rite]] churches that are in full communion with the Roman Pontiff.</ref> and head of state of [[Vatican City]]. Faith communities which recognize [[Apostolic Succession]] acknowledge the Bishop of Rome as successor of [[Saint Peter|St Peter]]. As such, Catholics believe the pope to be the [[Vicar of Christ]], while the other faith communities disacknowledge Petrine primacy among the bishops. The office of the pope is called the "papacy"; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the [[Holy See|"Holy See"]] (''Sancta Sedes'' in Latin) or [[Apostolic See|"Apostolic See"]] (this latter, on the basis that both St. Peter and [[Paul the Apostle|St. Paul]] were martyred at [[Rome]]). Early [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]] occupying the [[See of Rome]] were designated [[Vicar|"Vicar of Peter"]]; for later popes the more authoritative Vicar of Christ was substituted; this designation was first used by the Roman [[Synod]] of 495 to refer to [[Pope Gelasius I]], an advocate of [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|papal supremacy]] among the [[patriarch]]s. [[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]] (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome whom sources show used the title of pope. In the 11th century, after the [[East-West Schism]], [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]] declared the term "Pope" to be reserved for the Bishop of Rome. The current (265th) pope is '''[[Pope Benedict XVI]]''', who was elected [[April 19]], [[2005]] in [[Papal conclave, 2005|papal conclave]].

In addition to his service in this spiritual role, the pope is also [[Head of State]] of the independent sovereign state of the Vatican City, a [[city-state]] entirely [[Enclave and exclave|enclaved]] by the city of Rome. Before 1870 the pope's temporal authority extended over a large area of [[central Italy]]: the territory of the [[Papal States]]. The papacy retained sovereign authority over the Papal States until the [[Italian unification]] of 1870; a final political settlement with the [[Italy|Italian]] government was not reached until the [[Lateran Treaty]] of 1929.

For over a thousand years, popes have played powerful roles in Western Europe, crowning emperors ([[Charlemagne]] was the first emperor crowned by a pope) and regulating disputes among secular rulers. <ref>Such as regulating the colonization of the New World. See [[Line of Demarcation]] and [[Inter caetera]].</ref> The Bishop of Rome continued to be nominally allied and part of the civil structure of the [[Byzantine Empire]] until the 8th century, when the [[Donation of Pepin]] gave Rome and the surrounding area to the full sovereignty of the pope, which the popes already had been ''de facto'' rulers, creating the Papal States that lasted until [[1870]]. For centuries, the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] also provided the basis for the papacy's claim of political supremacy over the entire former Western Roman Empire.

Over the centuries, the pope's claims of spiritual authority have been ever more clearly expressed since the first centuries, culminating in the proclamation of the [[dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]]. The last such occasion was in the year [[1950]] with the definition of the dogma of the [[Assumption of Mary]].

{{Christianity}}
==Early history==

Roman Catholics say that the primacy of the papacy derives from [[Jesus Christ]] himself, while non-Catholic historians see the primacy of the pope as arising out of hundreds of years of church tradition. All agree that the Pope's role developed through history.

Catholics name [[St. Peter]] as the first pope and teach that Jesus put Peter in charge of the Church; according to them he served as its bishop and was martyred there. It is these traditions that give the post of the bishop of Rome primacy. During the first century of the Christian Church, the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance; but there are only a few 1st century references to the recognition of the [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|authoritative primacy]] of the [[Holy See|Roman See]] outside of Rome. The fact that [[Clement of Rome]]'s letter to the Corinthians (written ''c.'' 96)<ref name="fn_2">[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1010.htm Letter of Clement to the Corinthians]</ref> adopted a pastoral tone, and also the fact that [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] once used the word "preside" in the same sentence that he used the word "Romans" in his letter to the Romans (written ''c.'' 105)<ref name="fn_3">[http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html Letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans]</ref> are seen by some historians to present proof of the existence of a certain early papal primacy. Others argue that these documents refer only to a primacy of honor. The [[Petrine Doctrine]] is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western orthodox churches as well as separating Protestants from Rome.

During the second century AD, further manifestations of Roman authority over other churches were clearly evident. In the second century (AD 189), the assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in [[Irenaeus of Lyons]]'s ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' (3:3:2): "With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." This may be the first clear instance of the church in Rome asserting its primacy. Furthermore, in AD 195, [[Pope Victor I]], excommunicated the [[Quartodecimans]] for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, a tradition handed down by [[John the Evangelist|St. John the Evangelist]] himself based on the Jewish [[Passover]] (see [[Easter controversy]]). This exercise of Roman authority over other churches, even of apostolic origin, is still present today in the Western uniformity of calculating the day of Easter (though the Eastern Churches, even those in communion with Rome calculate the date of Easter differently. See [[computus]]).

After the imperial capital was moved to [[Constantinople]] in AD 330 the eastern churches, especially the Bishop of Constantinople, started to assert pre-eminence by virtue of its imperial status.

The [[First Council of Constantinople]] (AD 381) suggested strongly that Roman primacy was already asserted; however, it should be noted that, because of the controversy over this claim, the pope did not personally attend this [[ecumenical council]], which was held in the eastern capital of the Roman empire, rather than at [[Rome]]. It was not until 440 that [[Pope Leo I|Leo the Great]] more clearly articulated the extension of papal authority as doctrine, promulgating in edicts and in councils his right to exercise "the full range of apostolic powers that Jesus had first bestowed on the apostle Peter". It was at the ecumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 that Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter". At this same council, an attempt at compromise was made when the Bishop of Constantinople was given a primacy of honour second only to that of the Bishop of Rome, because "Constantinople is the New Rome." Ironically, Roman papal authorities rejected this language since it did not clearly recognize Rome's claim to juridical authority over the other churches.<ref>La Due, William J., "The Chair of Saint Peter", pp.300-301, Orbis Books (Maryknoll, NY; 1999)</ref>

The [[dogma]]s and traditions of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] teach that the institution of the papacy was first mandated by Biblical passages:

{{cquote|'''Matt.16:18-19:''' "And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this ''rock'' I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the ''keys'' of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven."

'''Isaiah 22:20-22:''' "On that day I will summon my servant Eliakim, son of Hilkiah; I will clothe him with your robe, and gird him with your sash, and give over to him your authority. He shall be a father to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and to the house of Judah. I will place the key of the House of David on his shoulder; when he opens, no one shall shut, when he shuts, no one shall open." (shows a parallel to Matthew 16:18-20)

'''John 21:15-17:''' "..Jesus said to Simon Peter, "Simon, son of John, do you love me more than these?" He said to him, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." He said to him, "Feed my lambs." He then said to him a second time, "Simon, son of John, do you love me?" He said to him, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." He said to him, "Tend my sheep." He said to him the third time, "Simon, son of John, do you love me?" Peter was distressed that he had said to him a third time, "Do you love me?" and he said to him, "Lord, you know everything; you know that I love you." (Jesus) said to him, "Feed my sheep."

'''Luke 12:41:''' "Then Peter said, "Lord, is this parable meant for us or for everyone?" And the Lord replied, "Who, then, is the faithful and prudent steward whom the master will put in charge of his servants to distribute (the) food allowance at the proper time?" (Feeding theme appears again here)

'''Luke 22:31-32:''' "Simon, Simon, behold Satan has demanded to sift all of you like wheat, but I have prayed that your own faith may not fail; and once you have turned back, you must strengthen your brothers."}}

The name "Peter" ({{Polytonic|Πέτρος}} in Greek) in Matthew 16:18 translates as ''rock''. Isaiah 22:22 is used to show the Old Testament connection to the "keys." The Bible further explains the position of Eliakim in Isaiah in the following:
<blockquote>
"Then Eliakim son of Hilkiah, who was ''in charge of the palace''..." ({{bibleverse|2|Kings|18:37|NRSV}})
</blockquote>

Some Jewish commentators of the Old Testament understood {{bibleverse||Numbers|23:9|HE}} in a manner similar to Peter with this commentary from the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] on Peter regarding Abraham:

"Upon Abraham as top of the rocks God said I shall build my kingdom"

The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here are the basis for the symbolic keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms (see below).

The first Bishop of Rome to style himself ''pope'' was [[Pope Siricius]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/history/papacy.htm |title=Development of the Papacy in Christian History |work=ReligionFacts |accessdate=2007-09-16 |date=2005-04-09}}</ref> who occupied that office at the very end of the 4th century. Prior to that, the [[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria|Patriarchs of Alexandria]] had been titled ''pope'' beginning with Pope [[Heraclas of Alexandria|Heraclas]] in 232.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/gp/richpub/syltguides/fullview/W4O42BT6T7FQ amazon]</ref>

==Election, death and abdication==
===Election===
{{main|Papal election}}
[[Image:Keys to Peter.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Traditional painting by Pietro Perugino depicting ''The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter'' (1492)]]

The pope was originally chosen by those junior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. In [[1059]] the electorate was restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in [[1179]]. [[Pope Urban VI]], elected [[1378]], was the last pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. [[Canon law]] requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.

The [[Second Council of Lyons]] was accused on [[May 7]], [[1274]], to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion (see [[Conclave]]) until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year ''[[Sede Vacante]]'' following the death of [[Pope Clement IV]] in [[1268]]. By the mid-[[sixteenth century]], the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.

Traditionally, the vote was conducted by [[acclamation]], by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in [[1621]]. [[Pope John Paul II]] abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]] by [[ballot]] (see [[Papal election]]).

[[Image:Konklave Konzilsgebaude Konstanz.jpg|thumb|left|The [[conclave]] in [[Konstanz]] where [[Pope Martin V]] was elected]]
[[Image:Habemus Papam 1415.jpg|thumb|left|The formal declaration of "[[Habemus Papam]]" after the election of Pope Martin V]]

The election of the pope almost always takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a sequestered meeting called a "[[conclave]]" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, ''cum clave'', until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar (in the 2005 conclave, a special urn was used for this purpose instead of a chalice and plate). The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of ''Universi Dominici Gregis'', the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days).

One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special stove erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St. Peter's Square]]. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or ''fumata nera''. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (''fumata bianca'') through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. At the end of the conclave that elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]], church bells were also rung to signal that a new pope had been chosen.

The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the cardinal who has been successfully-elected two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he cuts with the word ''"Accepto"'', his reign as Pope begins at that precise instinctive instant, ''not'' at the inauguration ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen for himself. (If the Dean himself is elected pope, the Vice Dean performs this duty).

The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments (''immantatio'') await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" by the [[Cardinal Camerlengo]], whom he first either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" (''adoratio'') and to receive his blessing.

The senior [[Cardinal Deacon]] then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following [[Habemus Papam|proclamation]]: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!'' ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He then announces the new pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name.

Until [[1978]] the pope's election was followed in a few days by the [[Papal Coronation]] A procession with great pomp and circumstance formed from the [[Sistine Chapel]] to [[St. Peter's Basilica]], with the newly elected pope borne in the ''[[sedia gestatoria]]''. There, after a solemn [[Papal Mass]], the new pope was crowned with the ''[[Papal Tiara|triregnum]]'' (papal tiara) and he gave for the first time as pope the famous blessing ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another renowned part of the coronation was the lighting of a bundle of [[flax]] at the top of a gilded pole, which would flare brightly for a moment and then promptly extinguish, with the admonition ''[[Sic transit gloria mundi]]'' ("Thus passes worldly glory"). A similar sombre warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the ritual exclamation ''"Annos Petri non videbis"'', reminding the newly crowned Pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter, who according to tradition headed the church for 35 years and has thus far been the longest reigning Pope in the history of the Catholic Church.

A [[traditionalist Catholic]] belief claims the existence of the [[Papal Oath (Traditionalist Catholic)|Papal Oath]] (not to be confused with the [[Oath Against Modernism]] mandated by [[Pope Pius X]]), which the popes from [[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]] on are said to have refused to swear, but there is no reliable authority for this claim.

The [[Latin]] term ''sede vacante'' ("vacant seat") refers to a papal [[interregnum]], the period between the death of a pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the term [[sedevacantism]], which designates a category of dissident, Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a ''Sede Vacante''. One of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and especially the replacement of the [[Tridentine Mass]] with the ''[[Mass of Paul VI]]'' are heretical, and that, per the dogma of papal infallibility, it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things. Secevacantists are considered to be [[schism]]atics by the mainstream Roman Catholic Church.

For centuries, the papacy was an institution dominated by [[Italians]]. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal [[Karol Wojtyla]] as Pope John Paul II in [[1978]], the last non-Italian was the Dutch-German [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the Italian domination of the papacy to be over.

===Death===
The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]] — that is, a ''[[sede vacante]]'' ("vacant seat") — were promulgated by John Paul II in his [[1996]] document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]''. During the "Sede Vacante", the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]], composed of the pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Chamberlain]]; however, canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]]. Any decision that requires the assent of the pope has to wait until the new pope has been elected and accepts office.

It has long been claimed that a pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late pope's head thrice with a silver hammer and calling his birth name three times, though this is disputed and has never been confirmed by the Vatican; there is general agreement that even if this procedure ever actually occurred, it was likely not employed upon the death of John Paul II. A [[medical doctor|doctor]] may or may not have already determined that the pope had died before this point. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the [[Ring of the Fisherman]]. Usually the ring is on the pope's right hand. But in the case of Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlain cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.

The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral; the popes of the [[20th century]] were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning (''novem dialis'') follows after the interment of the late Pope. Vatican tradition holds that no [[autopsy]] is to be performed on the body of a dead Pope.

===Abdication===
{{mainarticle|Papal abdication}}

The [[Code of Canon Law]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P16.HTM 332 §2] states, "If it happens that the [[Papal abdication|Roman Pontiff resigns]] his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone."

This right has been exercised by [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 and [[Pope Gregory XII]] in 1409, Gregory XII being the last to do so.

It was widely reported in June and July [[2002]] that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper ''Corriere della Sera''.

Nevertheless, 332 §2 caused speculation that:
* Pope John Paul II would have resigned as his health failed, or
* a properly manifested legal instrument had been prepared which effected his resignation if he could not perform his duties.

Pope John Paul II did not resign. He died on [[2 April]] [[2005]] after a long period of ill-health and was buried on [[8 April]] [[2005]].

After his death it was reported in his [[last will and testament]] that he considered abdicating in [[2000]] as he neared his 80th birthday. However, that portion of the will is unclear and others interpret it differently.

==Titles==
===Current===
The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio:
:*[[Bishop of Rome]]
:*[[Vicar of Christ]]
:*Successor of the [[Prince of the Apostles]]
:*[[Pontifex Maximus|Supreme Pontiff]] of the [[Universal church|Universal Church]]
:*[[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of [[Italy]]
:*[[Metropolitan bishop|Archbishop and Metropolitan]] of the Roman [[Ecclesiastical province|Province]]
:*Sovereign of the State of the [[Vatican City]]
:*[[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]]

===Former===
:* [[Patriarch]] of the West (dropped 2006)
:* [[Vicar]] of the [[Apostolic See]]

===Forms of address===
* "Your Holiness"
* "Holy Father"

===History===
The title "Vicar of Christ" refers to the Pope's claims of divine commission. This title came into use in the fifth and sixth centuries. The [[Second Vatican Council]] confirmed the titles "Vicar of Christ" and "Successor of Peter".

The use of the term "Supreme Pontiff" (''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'') by the pope can be traced back to the end of the fourth century. This ancient title of the Roman High-Priest, whose origins date from the foundation of Rome, was assumed by the Bishops of Rome after being relinquished by the [[Emperor Gratian]]. The term has also been applied to other metropolitan bishops, although examples are limited (see ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]''). It was in the eleventh century that the title came to be applied exclusively to the Bishop of Rome. The addition of the phrase "of the Universal Church" is a more recent alteration of this title.

Finally, the title attached to the pope, "Servant of the Servants of God", although used by Church leaders including [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] and [[St. Benedict]], was first used by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope St. Gregory the Great]] in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title [[Ecumenical Patriarch]]. It was not reserved for the pope until the thirteenth century. The documents of Vatican II reinforced the understanding of this title as a reference to the pope's role as a function of collegial authority, in which the Bishop of Rome serves the world's bishops.

The titles "Primate of Italy", "Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province", and "Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City" are references to the legal and canonical authority of the pope as defined by the laws of the Church and the [[Lateran Treaty]] of 1929.

The pope's signature is usually in the format ''NN. PP. x'' (e.g., [[Pope Paul VI]] signed his name as "Paulus PP. VI"), the "PP." standing for ''Papa'' ("Pope"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation ''Pont. Max.'' or ''P.M.'' (abbreviation of the Latin title ''Pontifex Maximus'', usually translated as "Supreme Pontiff"). The signature of [[papal bull]]s is customarily ''NN. Episcopus Ecclesiae Catholicae'' ("NN. Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is ''NN. Episcopus [[Servus Servorum Dei]]'' ("NN. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"). Other titles used in some official capacity in the past include ''Summus Pontifex'' ("Highest Pontiff"), ''Sanctissimus Pater'' and ''Beatissimus Pater'' ("Most Holy Father" and "Most Blessed Father"), ''Sanctissimus Dominus Noster'' ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the [[Middle Ages|Medieval period]], ''Dominus Apostolicus'' ("Apostolic Lord"). This title, however, was not abandoned altogether: the pope is still referred to as "Dominum Apostolicum" in the Latin version of the [[Litany of the Saints]], a solemn Catholic prayer. Writing informally, Catholics will often use the abbreviation H.H. (His Holiness), as in H.H., Benedict XVI.

The pope's [[cathedra|official seat]] or [[cathedral]] is the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer palace at [[Castel Gandolfo]] (situated on the site of the ancient city-state [[Alba Longa]]). Historically, the official residence of the Pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]].

The Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the [[Holy See]]) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the papal court (the [[Roman Curia]]) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.

The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the [[ordinary jurisdiction]] of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the [[Twelve apostles|Apostle]] [[St. Peter]] (see [[Apostolic Succession]]). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ''ubi Papa, ibi Curia'', wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the popes lived in [[Avignon]] (see [[Avignon Papacy]]), a period often called the [[Babylonian Captivity]] in allusion to the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[exile]] of [[Israel]].

The title ''Patriarch of the West'' did not appear in the 2006 pontifical yearbook, and this led to considerable media speculation. The title Patriarch of the West was first used by [[Pope Theodore]] in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On [[22 March]] [[2006]], the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church — and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the [[Eastern Churches]], as solemnly proclaimed by Vatican II.<ref>[[Vatican Information Service]] number 060322</ref>

Since in the Eastern Churches the title "pope" does not unambiguously refer to the Bishop of Rome, within them the construction "Pope of Rome" is frequently used whether they are in communion with Rome or not.

==Regalia and insignia==
{{main|Papal regalia and insignia}}
[[Image:holysee-arms.png|thumb|200px|The [[coat of arms]] of the Holy See. That of the State of Vatican City is the same except that the positions of the gold and silver keys are interchanged.]]

*"[[Papal Tiara|Triregnum]]", also called the "tiara" or "triple crown", representents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor", "supreme teacher" and "supreme priest". Recent popes have not, however, worn the ''triregnum'', though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies Popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
*[[Pastoral Staff]] topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the [[13th century]] (see [[papal cross]]).
*[[Pallium]], or pall, a circular band of fabric worn around the neck over the [[chasuble]]. It forms a yoke about the neck, breast and shoulders and has two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Previously, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the [[primate (religion)|primates]], but in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI began to use a distinct papal pallium that is larger than the primatial, and was adorned with red crosses instead of black.
*"Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
*[[Ring of the Fisherman]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning Pope around it.
*''[[Umbraculum]]'' (better known in the Italian form ''ombrellino'') is a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions.
*''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'', a mobile throne carried by twelve [[footmen]] (''palafrenieri'') in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing ''[[flabella]]'' (fans made of white ostrich feathers), and sometimes a large [[canopy]], carried by eight attendants. The use of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul I]]. The use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].

In [[heraldry]], each pope has his own [[Papal Coat of Arms]]. Though unique for each pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in [[saltire]] (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an ''X'') behind the [[escutcheon]] (shield) (one silver key and one gold key, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns and red ''infulae'' ([[lappet]]s—two strips of fabric hanging from the back of the triregnum which fall over the neck and shoulders when worn). This is [[blazon]]ed: "two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). With the recent election of [[Benedict XVI]] in [[2005]], his personal coat of arms eliminated the papal tiara; a [[mitre]] with three horizontal lines is used in its place, with the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan [[archbishops]] as a sign of communion with the See of Rome, was added underneath of the shield. The distinctive feature of the crossed keys behind the shield was maintained. The omission of the tiara in the Pope's personal coat of arms, however, did not mean the total disappearance of it from papal heraldry, since the coat of arms of the Holy See was kept unaltered.

The [[flag]] most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white [[flag of Vatican City]], with the arms of the Holy See (blazoned: "Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right-hand side (the "fly") in the white half of the flag (the left-hand side—the "hoist"—is yellow). The pope's escucheon does not appear on the flag. This flag was first adopted in [[1808]], whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colors of the papacy. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, it has been retained on the flag.

==Status and authority==
{{main|Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|Papal infallibility}}

The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] in its ''Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ'' ([[July 18]], [[1870]]). The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter", and states that (s.1) "according to the [[Gospel]] evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of [[God]] was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the Lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the [[twelve apostles|apostle]] was not appointed by Christ the Lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole [[church militant]]; or that it was a primacy of honor only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our Lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be [[anathema]]..."

[[Image:Kruisheren uden bij paus pius xii Crosiers from Uden Holland with PiusXII.jpg|thumb|350px|To maintain contacts with local clergymen and Catholic communities, the popes grant private audiences as well as public ones. Here the [[Canons Regular of the Holy Cross]] from [[Uden]] ([[Netherlands]]) are received by [[Pope Pius XII]].]]

The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs", states that (s.1) "that which our Lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the [[Chair of St. Peter|Chair of Peter]] obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church", and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the Lord Himself (that is to say, by [[Divine Law]]) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema."

Vatican I's Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the [[primacy of the Roman pontiff]]," states that (s.1) "the definition of the [[Ecumenical Council]] of [[Council of Florence|Florence]], which must be believed by all faithful [[Christianity|Christian]]s, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a worldwide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a preeminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman Pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "[[clergy]] and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world."

The powers of the Pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgment" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgment thereupon" (can. 331 defines the power of the Pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of [[papal infallibility]], ''sc.'' such that

:when the Roman Pontiff speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'', that is, when in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that [[infallibility]] which the divine Redeemer willed His church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the church, irreformable.

In 1302 the [[papal bull]] ''[[Unam Sanctam]]'' stated that "it is absolutely necessary for the [[salvation]] of every creature to be united to the Roman Pontiff" ([[Pope Boniface VIII]]). This teaching is often summarized by the phrase, ''[[extra Ecclesiam nulla salus]]'' ("outside the Church [exists] no salvation"), which has been reaffirmed by many popes throughout the centuries. [[Blessed John XXIII]] said: "Into this fold of Jesus Christ no man may enter unless he be led by the Sovereign Pontiff, and only if they be united to him can men be saved."

However, this dogma has been interpreted in many different ways by both Catholics and non-Catholics alike. "Many who are afflicted with [[invincible ignorance]] with regard to our holy religion, if they carefully keep the precepts of the [[Natural Law]] that have been written by God in the hearts of all men, if they are prepared to obey God, and if they lead a virtuous and dutiful life, can attain eternal life by the power of divine light and [[grace]]."{{Fact|date=August 2007}} [[Pope John Paul II]] wrote in his [[encyclical]], ''[[Redemptoris Missio]]'': "But it is clear that today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the Gospel revelation or to enter the Church.... For such people, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally a part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his sacrifice and is communicated by the [[Holy Spirit]]. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her [[synergism|free cooperation]]."

Moreover, the Catholic Church teaches that all Christians are united through [[Baptism]] and the "invisible Church" (body of believers). However, Christians are not fully / "formally" united due to divisions in beliefs etc.

As stated in the Catechism of the Catholic Church:

'''817''' In fact, "in this one and only Church of God from its very beginnings there arose certain rifts, which the Apostle strongly censures as damnable. But in subsequent centuries much more serious dissensions appeared and large communities became separated from full communion with the Catholic Church- for which often enough, men of both sides were to blame" (UR 3 1). The ruptures that wound the unity of Christ's Body - here we must distinguish heresy, apostasy and schism-do not occur without human sin:

:Where there are sins, there are also divisions, schisms, heresies and disputes. Where there is virtue, however, there also are harmony and unity, from which arise the one heart and one soul of all believers (Cf. CIC, can.751.).

'''818''' "However, one cannot charge with the sin of the separation those who at present are born into these communities [that resulted from such separation] and in them are brought up in the faith of Christ, and the Catholic Church accepts them with respect and affection as brothers... All who have been justified by faith in Baptism are incorporated into Christ; they therefore have a right to be called Christians, and with good reason are accepted as brothers in the Lord by the children of the Catholic Church" (UR 3 1).

'''819''' "Furthermore, many elements of sanctification and of truth" (LG 8 2) are found outside the visible confines of the Catholic Church: "the written Word of God; the life of grace; faith, hope and charity, with the other interior gifts of the Holy Spirit, as well as the visible elements" (UR 3 2; cf. LG 15.). Christ's Spirit uses these Churches and ecclesial communities as means of salvation, whose power derives from the fullness of grace and truth that Christ has entrusted to the Catholic Church. All these blessings come from Christ and lead to Him, (Cf. UR 3.) and are in themselves calls to "Catholic unity" (Cf. LG 8.).

The pope has many powers which he exercises. He can appoint [[bishop]]s to [[diocese]]s, erect and suppress dioceses, appoint [[prefect]]s to the Roman [[dicastery|dicasteries]], approve or [[veto]] their acts, modify the [[liturgy]] and issue liturgical laws, revise the [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]], [[canonization|canonize]] and [[beatification|beatify]] individuals, approve and suppress [[religious order]]s, impose canonical [[sanctions]], act as a judge and hear cases, issue encyclicals, and issue infallible statements on matters pertaining to faith and morals which, according to the Church, must be believed by all Catholics. (An infallible statement regarding morals has so-far never been issued.) Most of these functions are performed by and through the various dicasteries of the [[Roman Curia]], through which the pope administers the church. The actions of the Curia are considered to be the actions of the pope himself, and he must approve their actions prior to their becoming official. While approval is generally granted, it is at the Pope's discretion.

==Political role==
[[Image:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|230px|left|[[Pope Pius VII]], bishop of Rome, in liturgical [[vestment]]s, next to his [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Caprara. [[Pius VII]] signed the [[Concordat of 1801]], illustratory of his important political role. Notice the [[pallium]] a clerical vestment which is noted at the bottom of the coat of arms of [[Benedict XVI]].]]
{{Politics of Vatican City}}

Though the progressive [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the [[fourth century]] did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the [[fifth century]] left the pope the senior imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by [[Pope Leo I]]'s confrontation with [[Attila]] in [[452]]. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the [[Donation of Sutri]], which in turn was substantially increased in [[754]], when the [[Frankish people|Frankish]] ruler [[Pippin the Younger]] gave to the pope the land from his conquest of the [[Lombards]]. The pope may have utilized the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] to gain this land, which formed the core of the [[Papal States]]. This document, accepted as genuine until the 1400s, states that [[Constantine I]] placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In [[800]] [[Pope Leo III]] [[coronation|crowned]] the Frankish ruler [[Charlemagne]] as [[Roman Emperor]], a major step toward establishing what later became known as the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; from that date onward the popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor, though the right fell into disuse after the coronation of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in [[1530]]. [[Pope Pius VII]] was present at the coronation of [[Napoleon I]] in [[1804]], but did not actually perform the crowning. As mentioned above, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in [[1870]] with their annexation by [[Italy]].

Popes like [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]], an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and [[Pope Julius II]], a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and [[Pope Alexander III]]). [[Papal bull]]s, [[interdict]], and [[excommunication]] (or the threat thereof) have been used many times to increase papal power. The Bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' in [[1155]] authorized [[Henry II of England]] to invade [[Ireland]]. In 1207, [[Innocent III]] placed England under interdict until [[John of England|King John]] made his kingdom a [[fiefdom]] to the Pope, complete with yearly [[tribute]], saying, "we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins"<ref>Quoted from the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Medieval Sourcebook]</ref>. The Bull ''[[Inter Caeteras]]'' in [[1493]] led to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in [[1494]], which divided the world into areas of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule. The Bull ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'' in [[1570]] excommunicated [[Elizabeth I of England]] and declared that all her subjects were released from all allegiance to her. The Bull ''[[Inter Gravissimas]]'' in [[1582]] established the [[Gregorian Calendar]].<ref>See [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/getImage.pl?target=/data/www/NASD/4a7f1db4-5792-415c-be79-266f41eef20a/009/499/PTIFF/00000673.tif&rs=2 selection from ''Concordia Cyclopedia'': Roman Catholic Church, History of]</ref>

==Objections to the papacy==
[[Image:GestatorialChair1.jpg|270px|left|thumb|[[Pope Pius XII]], wearing the traditional 1877 [[Papal Tiara]], is carried through St. Peter's Basilica on a [[sedia gestatoria]] circa 1955.]]

The pope's claim to hold the position of Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is recognized as [[dogma]]tic and not considered open to debate or dispute within the Roman Catholic Church. The First Vatican Council [[anathema]]tized all who dispute the pope's claims of primacy of honor and of jurisdiction. It is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution.

The pope's claim to authority is disputed outside the Roman Catholic Church. These objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as objections to the extent of the primacy of the pope and to the institution of the papacy itself.

Some Christian communities ([[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], the [[Independent Catholic Churches]], some [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], etc.) accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], and to varying extents, papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the [[Roman Empire]], a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th [[canon law|canon]] of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of ''universal immediate jurisdiction'', or to claims of [[papal infallibility]]. Because the First Vatican Council is not recognized as authoritive by these churches, they regard its definitions concerning jurisdiction, infallibility and the associated anathematization as the opinions of the followers of the pope. Several of these communities refer to such claims as ''[[ultramontanism]]''.

Some Christian denominations do not accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], rejecting the claims of [[Primacy of Simon Peter|Petrine primacy]] of honor, Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, and papal infallibility. The papacy's complex relationship with the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Empires, and other secular states, and the papacy's territorial claims in Italy, are other objections, as is the [[monarch]]ical character of the office of pope. In [[Western Christianity]] these objections — and the vehement rhetoric in which they have at times been cast — both contributed to and are products of the [[Protestant Reformation]].

These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's claim to authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the [[Antichrist]]<ref>[http://www.ianpaisley.org/antichrist.asp The Pope is the Antichrist]</ref><ref>'Therefore on the basis of a renewed study of the pertinent Scriptures we reaffirm the statement of the Lutheran Confessions, that “the Pope is the very Antichrist”', [http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?2617&collectionID=795&contentID=4441&shortcutID=5297 Statement on the Antichrist], from the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]</ref> from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18] [http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579], the Man of Sin from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thessalonians 2:3-12][http://www.kretzmannproject.org/EP_MINOR/2TH_2.htm][http://www.wlsessays.net/authors/IJ/JeskeThessalonians/JeskeThessalonians.PDF], and the Beast out of the Earth from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2013:11-18;&version=9; Revelation 13:11-18].[http://www.kretzmannproject.org/REV/REV_13.htm] Conservative [[Confessional Lutheran]]s hold that the pope is the Antichrist insisting that this article of faith is part of a ''quia'' rather than ''quatenus'' subscription to the [[Book of Concord]]. In 1932, the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] (LCMS) adopted ''A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod'', which a number of Lutheran church bodies now hold.<ref>The [[Lutheran Churches of the Reformation]][http://www.lcrusa.org/brief_statement.htm], the [[Concordia Lutheran Conference]][http://www.concordialutheranconf.com/clc/doctrine/brief_1932.cfm], the [[Church of the Lutheran Confession]][http://clclutheran.org/library/BriefStatement.html], and the Illinois Lutheran Conference [http://www.illinoislutheranconference.org/our-solid-foundation/doctrinal-position-of-the-ilc.lwp/odyframe.htm] all hold to ''Brief Statement'', which the LCMS adopted in 1932 and places in the [http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 LCMS.org website]</ref> Statement 43, ''Of the Antichrist'':[http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579]

[[Image:Lucas Cranach - Antichrist.png|thumb|right|250px|''The Antichrist'', by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] - [[1521]], commissioned by Martin Luther. Cranach was a Lutheran and therefore portrayed the Pope as the Antichrist by selling indulgences and demanding authority over all Christians and governments, represented by his [[tiara]].]]

<blockquote>43. As to the Antichrist we teach that the prophecies of the Holy Scriptures concerning the Antichrist, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thess. 2:3-12];[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18], have been fulfilled in the Pope of Rome and his dominion. All the features of the Antichrist as drawn in these prophecies, including the most abominable and horrible ones, for example, that the Antichrist "as God sitteth in the temple of God," [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:4;&version=9; 2 Thess. 2:4]; that he anathematizes the very heart of the Gospel of Christ, that is, the doctrine of the forgiveness of sins by grace alone, for Christ's sake alone, through faith alone, without any merit or worthiness in man ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rom.%203:20-28;&version=9; Rom. 3:20-28]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Gal.%202:16;&version=9; Gal. 2:16]); that he recognizes only those as members of the Christian Church who bow to his authority; and that, like a deluge, he had inundated the whole Church with his antichristian doctrines till God revealed him through the Reformation -- these very features are the outstanding characteristics of the Papacy. (Cf. [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 515, Paragraphs 39-41; p. 401, Paragraph 45; M. pp. 336, 258.]) Hence we subscribe to the statement of our Confessions that the Pope is "the very Antichrist." ([http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 475, Paragraph 10; M., p. 308.])</blockquote>

Some objectors to the papacy use [[Empiricism|empirical argument]]s, pointing out that popes [[Callixtus III]] and [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]] were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An [[omniscience|omniscient]] and [[omnibenevolent]] God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the Roman Catholic Church. Defenders of the papacy counter that the [[Bible]] shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men, citing examples like some of the kings of Israel, the apostle [[Judas Iscariot]], and even Peter after he denied Jesus. They also argue that not even the worst of the corrupt popes used the office to try to rip the doctrine of the Church from its apostolic roots, and that their failure to achieve that goal is evidence that the office is divinely protected.

==Antipopes==
{{main|Antipope|Western Schism}}
[[Fringe]] groups sometimes form around [[antipope]]s, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.

Traditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church ([[heresy]]) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (see [[schism]]). Briefly in the 1400s, three separate lines of Popes claimed authenticity (see [[Western Schism|Papal Schism]]). Even Catholics don't all agree whether certain historical figures were Popes or antipopes. Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor [[fringe]] causes.

==Other popes==
In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope," meaning "father," had been used by all bishops. Some popes used the term and others didn't. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the Bishop of Rome. In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities.

===In the Catholic Church===
"The [[Black Pope]]" is a derogatory name given to the [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] due to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits']] practice of wearing black cassocks (the Pope wears white), to the order's specific allegiance to the Roman pontiff, and the alleged power the order exercised within the church.

The Cardinal Prefect of the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] (formerly the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith) is known as the "Red Pope": "red", because he is a cardinal; "Pope", because he has almost absolute power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia"<ref name = "Magister">[http://www.chiesa.espressonline.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7049&eng=ylink Sandro Magister], Espresso Online.</ref>.

===In the Eastern Churches===
Today, the heads of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] continue to be called "Pope", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or, more properly, "[[List of Coptic Popes|Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle]]" and the last called "[[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa]]".

In the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" (поп). However, this should be differentiated from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian "папа", Russian "папа римский").

==Longest-reigning Popes==
[[Image:Popepiusix.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Pius IX]], the longest-reigning pope]]The '''10 longest-reigning popes''' whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:
# [[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]] (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days).
# [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,666 days).
# [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days).
# [[Pope Pius VI|Pius VI]] (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days).
# [[Pope Adrian I|Adrian I]] (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days).
# [[Pope Pius VII|Pius VII]] (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days).
# [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days).
# [[Pope Sylvester I|St. Sylvester I]] (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days).
# [[Pope Leo I|St. Leo I]] (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days. (7,713 days).
# [[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII]] (1623–1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days).

==Shortest-reigning Popes==

[[Image:urban3355.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Urban VII]], the shortest-reigning pope]]
This is the '''list of 10 shortest-reigning popes'''.

The number of calendar days includes partial days. Thus, for example, if a pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days.

#[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII]] ([[September 15]]–[[September 27]] , [[1590]]): reigned for 13<ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-popes-by-length-of-reign Answers.com]</ref> calendar days, died before consecration.
#[[Pope Boniface VI|Boniface VI]] (April, 896): reigned for 16 calendar days
#[[Pope Celestine IV|Celestine IV]] ([[October 25]]–[[November 10]], [[1241]]): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before [[consecration]].
#[[Pope Theodore II|Theodore II]] (December, 897): reigned for 20 calendar days
#[[Pope Sisinnius|Sisinnius]] ([[January 15]]–[[February 4]], [[708]]): reigned for 21 calendar days
#[[Pope Marcellus II|Marcellus II]] ([[April 9]]–[[May 1]], [[1555]]): reigned for 22 calendar days
#[[Pope Damasus II|Damasus II]] ([[July 17]]–[[August 9]], [[1048]]): reigned for 24 calendar days
#[[Pope Pius III|Pius III]] ([[September 22]]–[[October 18]], [[1503]]): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Leo XI|Leo XI]] ([[April 1]]–[[April 27]], [[1605]]): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Benedict V|Benedict V]] ([[May 22]]–[[June 23]], [[964]]) and [[Pope John Paul I]], ([[August 26]] – [[September 28]], [[1978]]: both reigned for 33 calendar days each.
*[[Pope-elect Stephen|Stephen]] ([[March 23]]–[[March 26]], [[752]]), died of [[apoplexy]] three days after his election, and before his [[consecration]] as a bishop. He is not recognized as a valid Pope, but was added to the lists of popes in the fifteenth century as ''Stephen II'', causing difficulties in enumerating later Popes named Stephen. He was removed in 1961 from the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] [[List of Popes|list]] (see "[[Pope-elect Stephen]]" for detailed explanation).

==Miscellanea==
* Youngest Pope: [[Pope John XII]], who was 18 when he became Pope.
* The earliest Pope who has not been canonized is [[Pope Liberius]].

==See also==
{{Portalpar | Christianity | Heart2.jpg | 35}}
{{Columns-start|num=2}}
*[[List of Popes]]
*[[List of Popes (graphical)]]
*[[List of Popes by length of reign]]
*[[List of ages of Popes]]
*[[List of canonised Popes]]
*[[Names of Popes]]
*[[Ecumenical Council]]
*[[College of Bishops]]
*[[Pontifical University]]
*[[Popish Plot]]
*[[Caesaropapism]]
*[[Sedevacantism]]
*[[Investiture Controversy]]
{{Column}}
*[[History of the Papacy]]
*[[African popes]]
*[[List of French popes]]
*[[List of German popes]]
*[[Myths and legends surrounding the Papacy]]
*[[Prophecy of the Popes]]
*[[Regnal name]]
*[[Papal regalia and insignia]]
*[[Papal Slippers]]
*[[Papal Coronation]]
*[[Papal Inauguration]]
*[[Global organisation of the Roman Catholic Church]]
{{Columns-end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Loomis, Louise Ropes | title=The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis): To the Pontificate of Gregory I | location=[[Evolution Publishing]] | publisher=[[Merchantville, NJ]] | year=2006 | id=ISBN 1-889758-86-8}}. Reprint of an English translation originally published in 1916.
*[[Ludwig von Pastor]], ''History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the [[Vatican Secret Archives|Secret Archives of the Vatican]] and other original sources'', 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder 1898 - ([http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/b92040657d7c02f6.html World Cat entry])
* Hartmann Grisar (1845-1932), ''History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages'', AMS Press; Reprint edition (1912). ISBN 0-404-09370-1
*[[James Joseph Walsh]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC22760194&id=B-cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22popes+and+science%22 ''The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time''], Fordam University Press, 1908, reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9

==Further reading==
*Brusher, Joseph H. ''Popes Through The Ages''. Princeton: D. Van Nostland Company, Inc. 1959.
*Chamberlain, E.R. ''The Bad Popes''. 1969. Reprint: Barnes and Noble. 1993.
*Dollison, John ''Pope - Pourri''. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1994.
*Kelly, J.N.D. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes''. Oxford: University Press. 1986. ISBN 0-19-213964-9
*Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. ''Chronicles of the Popes - The Reign By Reign Record of The Papacy From St. Peter To The Present''. London: Thames and Hudson. 1997. ISBN 0-500-01798-0

==External links==
{{Commons|Pope}}
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father] – website for the past and present Holy Fathers (since [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]])
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
*[http://thepopeblog.blogspot.com/ The Pope Blog] – Unofficial weblog about the Pope
*[http://kolonisera.rymden.nu/pope/popes.php?l=1 Pope Endurance League - Sortable list of Popes]
*[http://www.wlsessays.net/subjects/R/rsubind.htm#RomanCCPapacy Scholarly articles on the Roman Catholic Papacy from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library]

{{Popes}}
{{Papal symbols and ceremonial}}

[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Holy See|*]]
[[Category:Popes|*]]
[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Roman Catholicism]]

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Christoph Ransmayr

2007-09-21T08:51:24Z

VirtualDelight: /* Werke */ -> Damen & Herren unter Wasser, 2007, S. Fischer

[[Image:2007.05.19. Christoph Ransmayr by Kubik 01.jpg|right|thumb|'''Christoph Ransmayr''', [[Warschau]] ([[Polen]]), [[19. Mai]] [[2007]]]]
[[Image:2007.05.19. Christoph Ransmayr by Kubik 02.jpg|right|thumb|'''Christoph Ransmayr''']]
'''Christoph Ransmayr''' (* [[20. März]] [[1954]] in [[Wels (Stadt)|Wels]], [[Oberösterreich]]) ist ein österreichischer Schriftsteller.

== Leben ==

Ransmayr wuchs in der Nähe von [[Gmunden]] am [[Traunsee]] als Sohn eines Lehrers auf. Er studierte von 1972 bis 1978 [[Philosophie]] und [[Ethnologie]] in [[Wien]] und arbeitete danach als [[Kulturredakteur]] und freier Autor für verschiedene Zeitschriften („[[Extrablatt (Magazin)|Extrablatt]]“, „[[GEO (Zeitschrift)|Geo]]“, „[[Transatlantik]]“, „[[Merian]]“). Ab 1982 lebte er dort als [[freier Schriftsteller]]. Nach dem Erscheinen des Romans [[Die letzte Welt]] unternahm er ausgedehnte Reisen nach Asien, Nord- und Südamerika sowie Irland. 1994 verlegte er seinen Lebensmittelpunkt nach [[County Cork|West Cork]] in [[Republik Irland|Irland]]. Er verbindet in seiner [[Prosa]] historische Tatsachen mit Fiktionen.

[[1997]] hielt Ransmayr die Eröffnungsrede der [[Salzburger Festspiele]]. Er verlas die für diesen Anlass verfasste Kurzgeschichte "Die dritte Luft oder Eine Bühne am Meer".

== Auszeichnungen ==

*2007 [[Heinrich-Böll-Preis]] der Stadt [[Köln]]
*2004 [[Großer Österreichischer Staatspreis für Literatur]]
*2004 [[Bertolt-Brecht-Literaturpreis]] der Stadt [[Augsburg]]
*2001 [[Nestroy-Theaterpreis]]
*1998 [[Friedrich-Hölderlin-Preis]] der Stadt [[Bad Homburg]]
*1997 [[Kulturpreis des Landes Oberösterreich]]
*1997 [[Solothurner Literaturpreis]]
*1996 [[Prix Aristeion]]
*1995 [[Franz-Nabl-Preis]]
*1995 [[Franz-Kafka-Preis]]
*1992 [[Großer Literaturpreis der Bayerischen Akademie der Schönen Künste]]
*1988 [[Anton-Wildgans-Preis]]

== Werke ==
*''Strahlender Untergang''. Brandstätter, Wien 1982, (zusammen mit [[Willy Puchner]]) ISBN 3-85447-006-1.
*''[[Die Schrecken des Eises und der Finsternis]]''. Brandstätter, Wien, München 1984, ISBN 3-85447-043-6.
*''[[Die letzte Welt]]''. Greno, Nördlingen 1988, ISBN 3-89190-244-1.
*''[[Morbus Kitahara]]''. S. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1995, ISBN 3-10-062908-6.
*''Der Weg nach [[Surabaya]]'', 1997.
*''Die dritte Luft, oder Eine Bühne am Meer'', 1997
*''Die Unsichtbare. Tirade an drei Stränden'', 2001
*''Der Ungeborene, oder Die Himmelsareale des Anselm Kiefer'', 2002
*''Die Verbeugung des Riesen. Vom Erzählen'', 2003
*''Geständnisse eines Touristen. Ein Verhör'', 2004
*''Der fliegende Berg''. S. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2006, ISBN 978-3-10-062936-4.
*''Damen & Herren unter Wasser''. S. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2007, (zusammen mit [[Manfred Wakolbinger]]) ISBN 978-3-10-062937-1.

== Weblinks ==
* {{PND|118956299}}
* [http://www.br-online.de/kultur-szene/artikel/0402/10-ransmayr/index.xml www.br-online.de/kultur-szene/] Artikel zum Brecht-Preis für Ransmayr
* [http://www.ogl.at/OGL-Link/R/Ransmayr_Christian.html Linkliste zu Ransmayr] bei der Österreichischen Gesellschaft für Literatur
* [http://www.kaindlstorfer.at/interviews/ransmayr.html ''Ich habe etwas Wurzelsepphaftes an mir''], Günter Kaindlstorfer im Gespräch mit Christoph Ransmayr, in: [[Falter (Wochenzeitung)|Falter]], 27. September 2006

[[Kategorie:Mann|Ransmayr, Christoph]]
[[Kategorie:Österreicher|Ransmayr, Christoph]]
[[Kategorie:Autor|Ransmayr, Christoph]]
[[Kategorie:Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)|Ransmayr, Christoph]]
[[Kategorie:Literatur (Deutsch)|Ransmayr, Christoph]]
[[Kategorie:Roman, Epik|Ransmayr, Christoph]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1954|Ransmayr, Christoph]]
[[Kategorie: Nestroypreisträger|Ransmayr, Christoph]]



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[[en:Christoph Ransmayr]]
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Juan Latino (Latinist)

2007-09-19T16:45:43Z

VirtualDelight: add interlink to es

'''Juan Latino''', professor at Granada during the sixteenth century, was the only black Latinist, scholar, and writer in the European Renaissance.

Latino reflected on the black condition and refused a social hierarchy based on skin colour prejudices. His poem Austrias Carmen, was dedicated by to Juan de Austria after his victory over the Morisco insurrection in Granada, known as the War of the Alpujarras (1568–1572).

In the text, Latino searched to establish the dignity of all black Africans, relating them to biblical Ethiopia and refusing the idea of natural slavery. He imagines white people subordinated in Ethiopia (a reversed irony) and exalts blackness in the final verses.

Black Africans in Renaissance Europe ed. Thomas F. Earle and Kate J. P. Lowe [http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/bethencourt.html]

[[es:Juan Latino]]

Benutzer:VirtualDelight

2007-09-16T19:52:33Z

VirtualDelight: -> Benutzer Diskussion:VirtualDelight

#REDIRECT [[Benutzer Diskussion:VirtualDelight]]

Benutzer Diskussion:VirtualDelight

2007-09-16T19:50:55Z

VirtualDelight: -> en:User talk:VirtualDelight

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:VirtualDelight VirtualDelight English Wikipedia]

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2007-09-16T19:24:14Z

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2007-09-16T19:15:11Z

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Mary Brunner

2007-07-12T20:56:01Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate Malibu to Malibu, California using popups

[[Image:Marybruner.jpg|right|thumb|200px| '''Mary Brunner''' in a 1969 mugshot.]]
'''Mary Theresa Brunner''' (born [[December 17]], [[1943]]) is a former member of the "Manson Family" who was present during the 1969 murder of California musician and [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] Ph.D candidate in Sociology, Gary Allen Hinman. Brunner was subsequently arrested for numerous offenses, including credit card theft and armed robbery, and served a prison sentence at the California Institute for Women.

==Meeting Charles Manson==
[[Image:mary_brunner.jpg|right|thumb|200px| Mary Brunner during the Tate/LaBianca trial. {{unverifiedimage}}]]
Born and raised in [[Eau Claire, Wisconsin]] to parents John and Evelyn Brunner, Mary moved to [[California]] upon graduating from the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison|University of Wisconsin]] in 1965 after receiving a job offer as an assistant librarian at [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkley]]. It was there, in the spring of 1967 that the young woman met a 33 year old convicted felon and career criminal by the name of [[Charles Manson]]. Manson had just been released from serving a prison term at [[Terminal Island]] for a [[parole]] violation just several weeks prior to their meeting. Mary let Manson stay at her apartment and after a period of weeks the two developed a sexual relationship. Not long after the burgeoning relationship began, Manson traded a newly acquired friend's piano for a cheap [[Volkswagen]] van, Brunner quit her job and the two began to drift around California, meeting other young women.

In late 1967, Mary Brunner became pregnant by Manson and on [[April 15]], [[1968]] gave birth to a son she named Valentine Michael (nicknamed "Sunshine Hawk")<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904707-2,00.html ''Time magazine. Life With Father.'' Monday, Feb. 15, 1971]</ref> in a condemned house in [[Topanga, California|Topanga Canyon]] and was assisted during the birth by several of the young women from the "Family". Mary (like most members of the group) would acquire a number of aliases and nicknames, including: '''Marioche, Och, Mother Mary, Mary Manson, Linda Dee Manson''' and '''Christine Marie Euchts'''.<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent: 'Helter Skelter'', 1974. pg. ''xv''.</ref>

After arriving in [[Venice, Los Angeles, California|Venice, California]], Mary Brunner and Charles Manson met an 18 year old named [[Lynette Fromme]] and the three began living together in a rented house at 636 Cole Street in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. Over the course of the following two years, the "Family" would enlarge to include between 20 and 30 individuals living communally; some, like Brunner and Fromme becoming ardent followers of Manson, while others would become peripheral members, drifting in and out of the group.

After traveling along the California coast and excursions to [[Washington]], [[Oregon]] and [[Nevada]], the ever-growing number of young women and men eventually settled down at [[Spahn Ranch]], an occasional film set operated by an elderly man named George Spahn, near the [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] suburb of [[Chatsworth, Los Angeles, California|Chatsworth]].
Unemployed, the group of mostly older teenagers and young adults had much spare time on their hands at Spahn Ranch and they passed it by taking drugs and engaging in sexual orgies.<ref>[http://crimemagazine.com/04/manson,1212.htm ''Crime Magazine: An Encyclopedia of Crime'']</ref> The group supported itself financially by selling drugs and auto theft.

==The Hinman murder==
On [[July 25]], [[1969]], 21 year old "Family" member, musician and aspiring actor [[Bobby Beausoleil]] left Spahn Ranch accompanied by Mary Brunner and another Spahn Ranch member named [[Susan Atkins]] to pay a visit to an associate named Gary Allen Hinman at his home in [[Topanga, California|Topanga Canyon]], just south of [[Malibu, California|Malibu]]. Hinman had been friendly with the "Family" and had often allowed members to stay at his home. Both Beausoleil and Mary Brunner had previously lived with Hinman for short periods of time, and according to a 1981 interview with Beausoleil, Mary Brunner was close friends with Hinman. Beausoleil had in his possession a knife and a 9 mm Radon pistol that he had borrowed from "Family" member Bruce Davis.<ref>[http://www.charliemanson.com/beausoleil.htm Oui magazine. Jailhouse Interview: Bobby Beausoleil and the Manson Murders. November, 1981]</ref>

On [[July 31]], [[1969]], Gary Hinman was found murdered in his home. His face had been deeply slashed on the left side and he had two stab wounds to the chest. Hinman's house had been ransacked and the words "Political Piggy" were written on the wall in his blood. Both of Hinman's vehicles were missing: a Volkswagen van and a [[Fiat]] station wagon. On [[August 5]], [[1969]], Bobby Beausoleil was found by the [[California Highway Patrol]] asleep in the back of Hinman's Fiat near [[San Luis Obispo, California]]. Beausoleil had a sheath knife attached to his belt. <ref>[http://www.charliemanson.com/beausoleil.htm Oui magazine. ''Jailhouse Interview:Bobby Beausoleil and the Manson Murders. November, 1981]</ref> Robert Kenneth "Bobby" Beausoleil was arrested and charged with the murder of Gary Allen Hinman.

On [[August 8]], [[1969]], Mary Brunner and another member, [[Sandra Good]] were arrested in [[San Fernando, California]] at a [[Sears, Roebuck and Company|Sears]] store for purchasing items with a stolen credit card. Brunner had signed for her purchases with the alias "Mary Vitasek" and the two women fled the store when a cashier became suspicious. After being followed by the store manager, the police caught up with the two and found them in possession of numerous stolen credit cards and fake identification cards. They were charged with violating Section 459 and 484e of the [[California Penal Code]] and booked into the [[Sybil Brand Institute]] Reception Center later that evening. <ref>Sanders, Ed. ''The Family''. 2002. pgs. 199-201</ref>

That same evening, "Family" members [[Charles "Tex" Watson]], [[Susan Atkins]], [[Linda Kasabian]] and [[Patricia Krenwinkel]] would visit [[10050 Cielo Drive]] and murder film actress [[Sharon Tate]] and her guests [[Wojciech Frykowski]], [[Jay Sebring]] and [[Abigail Folger]], as well as 18 year old [[Steven Parent]], who was visiting Tate's groundskeeper [[William Garretson]].

=== Conflicting stories ===
According to former Deputy [[District Attorney]] prosecuter [[Vincent Bugliosi]] in his 1974 book ''[[Helter Skelter (book)|Helter Skelter]]'', Charles Manson instructed Bobby Beausoleil, Mary Brunner and Susan Atkins to go to Gary Hinman's and demand that Hinman hand over a large sum of money that he believed Hinman had inherited and the titles to Hinman's vehicles.<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 76</ref> Bugliosi also claimed that at one point during Hinman's two day detention in his home, that Manson himself came to Hinman's house and slashed Hinman's face with a knife when Hinman wouldn't cooperate with his captors and give them the money.<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 102-103.</ref> This account would later be corroborated by various "Family" members.

According to a 1981 interview with ''[[Oui (magazine)|Oui]]'' magazine, Bobby Beausoleil denied Manson's direct involvement and disputed that either Mary Brunner or Susan Atkins had any direct knowledge of why he was visiting Hinman.<ref>[http://www.charliemanson.com/beausoleil.htm Oui magazine. Jailhouse Interview: Bobby Beausoleil and the Manson Murders. November, 1981]</ref> Beausoleil contended that he went to Hinman's home in order to confront Hinman and collect $1,000 from him. Beausoleil claimed that he had purchased from Hinman tabs of [[mescaline]] that he then sold to a biker gang called the Straight Satans and that several hours after the gang purchased the mescaline from Beausoleil they showed up at Spahn Ranch, claiming the mescaline was poisoned with [[strychnine]], demanded their money back and threatened to kill Beausoleil.<ref>[http://www.charliemanson.com/beausoleil.htm Oui magazine. Jailhouse Interview: Bobby Beausoleil and the Manson Murders. November, 1981]</ref> Beausoleil contended that both Mary Brunner and Susan Atkins merely went along with him to Hinman's because they "liked" Hinman and wanted to visit. In the interview, he states that neither him nor Brunner or Atkins were instructed by Manson to go to Hinman's and that he initially had no intention to kill him. This contradicted Beausoleil's own testimony at his first trial in 1969, when he claimed that Manson did in fact instruct him to kill Hinman.

Beausoleil claims that the trio were at Hinman's home less than 24 hours and that "Mary Brunner was just scared to death. She just faded into the woodwork" during the murder, but that Susan Atkins went back into the house after Beausoleil stabbed Hinman and placed a pillow over Hinman's face. He also contended that it was Susan Atkins who wrote the words "Political Piggy" on Hinman's wall (at Beausoleil's instructions).<ref>[http://www.charliemanson.com/beausoleil.htm Oui magazine. Jailhouse Interview: Bobby Beausoleil and the Manson Murders. November, 1981]</ref>

In October of 1969, the police raided the "Family's" new residence of [[Barker Ranch]] near [[Death Valley, California]], holding most of the group in custody on charges of automobile theft. Among those arrested were Susan Atkins who, while being questioned by police sergeants Whitley and Guenther on [[October 13]], [[1969]], implicated herself in the murder of Gary Hinman and told the officers that Charles Manson had sent her and Beausoleil to Hinman's residence to force Hinman to hand over money that Manson believed Hinman had inherited.<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 76</ref> Atkins also told the police that Beausoleil alone acted in the murder of Hinman, stabbing him twice in the heart after being detained in his home for over two days. Atkins also maintained that it was Beausoleil who slashed Hinman's face, not Manson.<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 76</ref> However, Atkins gave several differing accounts of the murder of Gary Hinman; at times claiming that she killed Hinman, Manson killed Hinman or that Beausoleil killed Hinman.

==Trial==
Mary Brunner and Susan Atkins were subsequently charged along with Bobby Beausoleil with the murder of Gary Hinman. Brunner would later receive immunity from prosecution to testify against both Beausoleil and Atkins.<ref>[http://crime.about.com/od/murder/ig/The-Manson-Family/marybruner.htm Crime/Punishment]</ref> Beausoleil's first trial, which began in November 1969 would end in a hung jury, with Beausoleil claiming that Manson alone had murdered Hinman.

However, during the March 1970 trial of Beausoleil, Brunner would repudiate her testimony that Beausoleil murdered Hinman and Beausoleil produced an affadavit signed by Brunner stating that he did not stab Hinman. Called to the stand to testify, Brunner eventually repudiated her previous testimony and insisted that Beausoleil stabbed Hinman to death in an attempt to absolve Charles Manson of any participation in the crime.<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 293</ref> Various former "Family" members such as Ella Jo Bailey would contradict this testimony and testify before the jury that Charles Manson confessed to them that he in fact was present at the Hinman house and that he fully participated in the murder of Hinman.<ref>[http://crime.about.com/od/murder/ig/The-Manson-Family/ellajobailey.htm Ella Jo Bailey at Crime/Punishment]</ref>

Beasuoleil was sentenced to death and Atkins would plead guilty for her participation in Hinman's death and be sentenced to life imprisonment for her involvelment. Separate trials were held for the murders of Gary Hinman and Spahn Ranch-hand Donald "Shorty" Shea for "Family" members Bruce Davis (who was charged in the murder of Gary Hinman after it was learned Beausoleil called Davis at Spahn Ranch from Hinman's house and asked Davis to come over and pick up Hinman's Volkswagen van), Charles Manson, and another "Family" member named Steve Grogan.<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 466</ref>

Brunner subsequently returned to the remaining members of the "Family" and rallied support for those incarcerated for the [[Sharon Tate|Tate]]-[[Leno and Rosemary LaBianca|LaBianca]] murders. Her son Valentine was sent to live with her parents.

==Hawthorne shootout==
On [[August 21]], [[1971]], Mary Brunner, accompanined by "Family" member Catherine "Gypsy" Share and several male "Family" associates: Dennis Rice, Charles Lovett, Larry Bailey, Kenneth Como, drove a white van to a [[Hawthorne, California]] Western Surplus Store. Once inside the store, the group brandished guns and ordered the store patrons and clerks to lie on the ground. They then went about taking 143 rifles from the premises, loading them into their van, while a store clerk managed to trip the silent alarm. According to police officers, the group then began debating whether or not to kill all of those who were in the store.<ref>Sanders, Ed. ''The Family''. 2002. pg. 474</ref>

The group's plan was to hijack a [[Boeing 747]] and threaten to kill one passenger every hour until Manson and fellow "Family" members were released from prison.<ref>Sanders, Ed. ''The Family''. 2002. pg. 474</ref> When a police squad car arrived, Catherine Share opened fire on the vehicle, shattering the windshield. As more squad cars arrived, they were able to block the van from fleeing from the scene spraying it with over 50 bullets; the "Family" members firing nearly 20 rounds at the officers. When police finally gained control of the scene and apprehended the group, Mary Brunner, Catherine Share and Larry Bailey were injured.<ref>Sanders, Ed. ''The Family''. 2002. pg. 474</ref><ref>[http://crime.about.com/od/murder/ig/The-Manson-Family/marybruner.htm Crime/Punishment]</ref>

Brunner and Share were convicted of the crime and incarcerated at the [[California Institution for Women]] where [[Leslie Van Houten]], Susan Atkins and Patricia Krenwinkel were serving their sentences for their participation in the Tate-LaBianca murders. Brunner served just over six years for her participation in the Hawthorne shootout and was released in 1977.<ref>[http://crime.about.com/od/murder/ig/The-Manson-Family/marybruner.htm Crime/Punishment]</ref>

==Later life==

After her release from prison, Mary Brunner disassociated herself from the "Manson Family" and regained custody of her son with Manson. Brunner subsequently changed her name and currently lives somewhere in the [[Midwestern United States]].<ref>[http://crime.about.com/od/murder/ig/The-Manson-Family/marybruner.htm Crime/Punishment]</ref><ref>[http://charliesfamily.tripod.com/mary.html The Manson Girl Info Center]</ref>

==References==
<div class="references-small"><references /></div>

==Further reading==
* ''Helter Skelter: The True Story of the Manson Murders'', by Vincent Bugliosi with [[Curt Gentry]]. New York, 1974, W.W. Norton and Co. ISBN 0-553-57435-3.
* ''The Family'' by Ed Sanders (Thunder's Mouth Press rev update edition), 2002, ISBN 1-56025-396-7

==External links==
*Mary Brunner at [http://charliesfamily.tripod.com/mary.html The Manson Girl Info Center]
* [http://www.charliemanson.com/beausoleil.htm ''Oui'' magazine interview with Bobby Beausoleil. 1981]
*[http://crimemagazine.com/04/manson,1212.htm ''Crime Magazine: An Encyclopedia of Crime'']
*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/manson/mansonsummation.html Closing Argument: ''The State of California v. Charles Manson et al.'' delivered by Vincent Bugliosi, Los Angeles, California, January 15, 1971]

{{Manson Family}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brunner, Mary}}
[[Category:Manson Family]]
[[Category:People from Wisconsin]]
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Star Ferry

2007-05-11T19:56:31Z

VirtualDelight: Reverted 1 edit by 163.6.192.10 identified as vandalism to last revision by RJASE1. using TW

{{Chinese|t=天星小輪|p= Tiānxīng Xiǎolún|j=tin1 sing1 siu2 leon4|i=tʰɪn55 sɪŋ55 sɪʊ35 løn11}}

[[image:hkstarferry.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Meridian Star (午星號) of Hong Kong Star Ferry]]

The '''Star Ferry''' is a passenger [[ferry]] service operator in [[Hong Kong]], [[China]]. Its principal routes carry passengers across the [[Victoria Harbour]], between [[Hong Kong Island]] and [[Kowloon]].

The fleet of twelve [[ferry|ferries]] operates four routes across the harbour, carrying over 70,000 passengers a day, or 26 million a year. Even though there are now other ways to cross the harbour (by [[MTR]] and road tunnels), the Star Ferry continues to provide an efficient, popular and inexpensive mode of crossing the harbour. The company's main route runs between [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] and [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], which is what most people mean by "the Star Ferry" in common parlance. This route is also popular with tourists, and has become one of the icons of Hong Kong heritage in the eyes of tourists. From the ferry, one can take in the famous view of the harbour and the [[Hong Kong]] skyline.

==History==
The company was originally founded by [[Parsee]] [[Dorabjee Nowrojee]] as the "Kowloon Ferry Company" in [[1888]]. He renamed it to "Star Ferry" in [[1898]], inspired by his love of [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]]'s poem "[[Crossing the Bar]]", of which the first line reads ''"Sunset and evening star, and one clear call for me!"''. In [[1924]] the [[Yaumati Ferry]] would monopolize the route to Kowloon in competition<ref>Wiltshire, Trea. [First published 1987] (republished & reduced2003). Old Hong Kong - Volume One. Central, Hong Kong: Text Form Asia books Ltd. Page 71. ISBN Volume One 962-7283-59-2</ref>.

The Star Ferry makes a "star turn" in the [[1950s]] film ''[[The World of Suzie Wong]]''. In the beginning of the film, Robert Lomax (played by [[William Holden]]) debarks from the USS President Harrison (an old American President Line transpacific passenger vessel) and takes the Star Ferry to Hong Kong Island, and on the ferry meets Suzie Wong (played by [[Nancy Kwan]]), who scorns his attentions as unwanted. The ferry itself is completely recognizable, and the layout of the pier where William Holden debarks in Kowloon is familiar to the resident or denizen of [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], but missing are the giant shopping malls of today.

In [[1966]], a fare increase of 10 cents of the ferry sparked the [[Hong Kong 1966 riots|1966 Hong Kong Riots]]. Until the opening of the [[Cross Harbour Tunnel]] in [[1972]], the Star Ferry was the main means of public transportation between Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon side.

On November 11, 2006, the end of an era was marked when the third generation pier in Central, the [[Edinburgh Place Ferry Pier]], ended its mission, along with the big clock tower. The pier will be demolished to make way for reclamation.

==Ferry routes and fares==

The Star Ferry operates the following cross-harbour routes:
* [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] to [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], costing HK$1.7 for the lower deck, HK$2.2 for the upper deck
* [[Wan Chai District|Wan Chai]] to Tsim Sha Tsui for HK$2.2
* Central to [[Hung Hom]] for HK$5.3
* Wan Chai to Hung Hom for HK$5.3
* Harbour Tour: a tourist cruise, making an indirect, circular route to all the stops, namely Tsim Sha Tsui, Central, Wan Chai, and Hung Hom. <ref>[http://www.starferry.com.hk/harbourtour/en_index.asp]</ref>

==Fleet==
There are currently 8 ships in the Star fleet with average age of the fleet at 44 years:

{| border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|+ '''Star Ferry Fleet'''
|----- bgcolor=#006699
|''' Name '''
|''' Year Built '''
|''' Builder '''
|''' Seats '''
|''' Notes '''
|-
| Morning Star (曉星號)
| [[1965]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
| named for original Kowloon Ferry Company's Morning Star (1888)
|-
| Day Star (晨星號)
| [[1964]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
|
|-
| Night Star (夜星號)
| [[1963]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
| named for original Kowloon Ferry Company's Night Star
|-
| Electric Star (電星號)
| [[1933]]
|
|
| retired in 1968
|-
| Golden Star (金星號)
| [[1989]]
| Wang Tak Engineering & Shipbuilding Ltd
| 762
|
|-
| World Star (世星號)
| [[1989]]
| Wang Tak Engineering & Shipbuilding Ltd
| 762
|
|-
| Celestial Star (天星號)
| [[1956]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
| currently the oldest vessel in service
|-
| Twinkling Star (熒星號)
| [[1964]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
|
|-
| Silver Star (銀星號)
| [[1965]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
|
|-
| Glowing Star (耀星號)
|
| Hong Kong Shipyard
| 288
| ex-[[British Army]] vessel delivered to Star Ferry in [[2001]] and its rental was ceased in [[2005]]
|-
| Northern Star (北星號)
| [[1959]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
|
|-
| Meridian Star (午星號)
| [[1958]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
|
|-
| Solar Star (日星號)
| [[1958]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
|
|-
| Shining Star (輝星號)
| [[1964]]
| Hong Kong & Whampoa Shipyard
| 576
| now used for the Star Ferry Harbour Tour (top sections were opened up)
|-
| Kowloon
|
|
|
| tug boat
|}

==Piers==

* [[Star Ferry Pier, Central]] at [[Central, Hong Kong|Central District]]
** First Generation (1890) at junction of [[Ice House Street]] and [[Connaught Road Central]]
** Second Generation (1912) at [[Pedder Street]], the present site of [[Jardine House]]
** [[Edinburgh Place Ferry Pier|Third Generation]] (1957) near [[Edinburgh Place]]
** Fourth Generation (2006) (Pier 7 and 8 of Central Ferry Piers) at Man Kwong Street
* [[Tsim Sha Tsui Ferry Pier|Star Ferry Pier]] at [[Tsim Sha Tsui]] (1957)
* [[Hung Hom]] Pier
* [[Wan Chai Pier]]

==Image gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Lower deck of a Star Ferry.jpg|Lower deck of a ferry boat in the morning
Image:Star Ferry Pier in Central, Hong Kong.JPG|Queen's Pier (Old Star Ferry Pier) in [[Central, Hong Kong]].
Image:The Star Ferry Pier, Tsim Sha Tsui.jpg|Star Ferry Pier in [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], [[Kowloon]].
Image:StarFerry-TST.png|The pier in [[Tsim Sha Tsui]] at night, with the [[International Financial Centre|2 ifc]] and [[International Financial Centre|1 ifc]] in the background
Image:Hong_Kong_Star_Ferry.JPG|Golden Star (金星號) of Hong Kong Star Ferry
Image:1005029.jpg|Two piers in [[Tsim Sha Tsui]] at night
Image:Starferrypier7.jpg|Pier 7 in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], one of two newer piers which replaced the old Central piers.
Image:newandoldstarferrypier.jpg|The 4th (recessed) and 3rd generation (foreground) of the [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] pier.
</gallery>

==Connections==

* [[Taxicabs of Hong Kong]]

==See also==
*[[Transportation in Hong Kong]]
*[[List of buildings, sites and areas in Hong Kong]]
*[[Hong Kong & Kowloon Ferry]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

==External links==
{{commons|Star_Ferry}}
* [http://www.starferry.com.hk Official website]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQKbVfVdfo8 Star Ferry Video]
* [http://guyleung.hkdisk.com/starferry/starferry_580.htm Guy Photo Collection - Star Ferry Sub-page]
* [http://www.project-see.net/main/pressrelease_eng.htm Save the Star Ferry Pier and the Clock Tower]
* [http://www.project-see.net Project SEE]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17pRSrurwVE Documentary on the Star Ferry Protest]

* [http://annatam.com/what-hong-kong-star-ferrys-tragic-end-exposes/ What Hong Kong Star Ferry’s Tragic End Exposes]

[[Category:Ferry transport in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Victoria Harbour]]
[[Category:Star Ferry| ]]
[[Category:Wharf]]
[[Category:Transport operators of Hong Kong]]
[[ja:スターフェリー]]
[[zh:天星小輪]]

Andersonville (Georgia)

2007-05-09T20:48:49Z

VirtualDelight: Reverted to revision 128699882 by TXiKiBoT. using TW

[[Image:GAMap-doton-Andersonville.PNG|right|Location of Andersonville, Georgia]]

'''Andersonville''' is a city in [[Sumter County, Georgia|Sumter County]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[United States]]. The population was 331 at the 2000 census.(174 in [[1910]]). It is in the southwest part of the state, about 60 miles southwest of [[Macon, Georgia]] on the [[Central of Georgia]] [[railroad]]. During the [[American Civil War]], it was the site of a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] which is now [[Andersonville National Historic Site]].

==Geography==
Andersonville is located at {{coor dms|32|11|49|N|84|8|30|W|city}} (32.197008, -84.141701){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 3.4 [[square kilometre|km²]] (1.3 [[square mile|mi²]]), all land.

== History ==
Andersonville, originally named Anderson, Georgia, was given the name Andersonville by the United States Postal Service to prevent confusion with another city, also named Anderson. Andersonville is infamous as an [[American Civil War]] [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] [[Prisoner-of-war camp|POW camp]], [[Camp Sumter]]. The town, though very sparsely populated, was in existence before the establishment of the prison camp at the site. A small base known as Civil War village was established for visitors and Confederate soldiers. This former stockade has since become a small town. After the civil war the Andersonvillle POW camp evolved into a small town with its own hotel, post office and restaurant. Later the [[Andersonville National Historic Site]] was established as a memorial to the POWs who died at the camp. There is also a small museum to display how the town was founded and the involvement with the site of the Andersonville POW camp.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 98.3/km² (254.1/mi²). There were 142 housing units at an average density of 42.2/km² (109.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% White and 34.74% [[African American]]. 1.21% of the population were [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (United States Census)|Latino]]

There were 124 households out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.

In the city the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $29,107, and the median income for a family was $30,972. Males had a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over.

==External links==
*[http://www.andersonvillegeorgia.com/ Official website of Andersonville, Georgia]
* [http://www.americusgeorgia.net/ AmericusGeorgia.net - Area info... by and for Andersonville Locals]
*[http://andersonvillega.freeservers.com/ Official website of Andersonville]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|32.197008|-84.141701}}

[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Sumter County, Georgia]]

[[io:Andersonville, Georgia]]
[[lmo:Andersonville, Georgia]]

Belgrano-II-Station

2007-04-28T21:36:46Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate Tierra del Fuego Province to Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and South Atlantic Islands Province using popups

{{placebox-begin}}
{{city-header-ar|General Belgrano II|General Belgrano II Base}}
{{placebox-begin-data}}
{{placebox-location|base=AntartidaArgentina.png|x=135|y=175}}
{{city-poli-ar|[[Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and South Atlantic Islands Province|Tierra del Fuego Province]]|[[Antártida Argentina]]}}
{{placebox-coor|77|52|S|34|37|W|}}
{{placebox-elevation|50}}
{{placebox-pop|21}}
{{placebox-end-data}}
{{placebox-end}}
'''General Belgrano II''' is an [[Argentine_Antarctica|Argentine Antarctic]] base located at {{coor dm|77|52|S|34|37|W|}}.

In [[1955]] General Hernan Pujato founded the first ''Belgrano'' station, remaining for years as the southernmost base. On [[February 5]], [[1979]] the ''Belgrano II'' was opened as replacement of the previous base. A third base, ''Belgrano III'' worked from [[1980]] to [[1984]], but the second one is the only one running, and its [[as of 2006]] the Argentine southernmost permanent base on the continent.

For more detailed info see: [http://www.comnap.aq/comnap/comnap.nsf/P/StationsByName/ARbelg Council Of Managers Of National Antarctic Programs: Belgrano II Base]

{{ArgentineAntarctica}}
{{Antarctica-geo-stub}}
{{Argentina-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Argentine Antarctica|Belgrano II]]

[[es:Base Belgrano II]]

Manille (Währung)

2007-04-27T21:26:18Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate Phoenician to Phoenicia using popups

'''Manillas''' are penannular (almost ring-like) armlets, mostly in bronze or copper, very rarely gold, which served as a form of money or barter coinage and to a degree, ornamentation, amongst certain [[West Africa|West African]] tribes (Guinea Coast, Gold Coast, Nigeria, etc.<ref name="Chamberlain">Chamberlain, C. C.(1963). The Teach Yourself ''Guide to Numismatics''. English Universities Press. P. 92.</ref> They also became known as "slave trade money"<ref name="calgary">[http://www.calgarycoin.com/primitive1.htm / Details of Manillas]</ref> after the Europeans started using them to acquire slaves for the [[slave trade]] into the Americas (as well as England prior to 1807).
{{TOCright}}

== Introduction ==
[[Image:Manillaokhapo.JPG|thumb|left|<center>An Okpoho manilla<center>]]
The name ''manilla'' is said to derive from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]]<ref name="Chamberlain">Chamberlain, C. C.(1963). The Teach Yourself ''Guide to Numismatics''. English Universities Press. P. 92.</ref> for a bracelet ''manella'', the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] for ''hand-ring'',<ref name="Rees">Rees, Alun (2000). ''Manillas.'' Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. P. 46 - 47. </ref> or after the [[Latin]] ''manus'' (hand) or from ''monilia'', plural of ''monile'' (necklace).<ref name="Coinco">[http://www.coincoin.com/I024.htm / An article on manillas by Scott Semans]</ref> They are usually [[horseshoe]]-shaped, with terminations that face each other and are roughly lozenge-shaped.

== Types of Manillas ==
The Africans of each region had names for each variety of manilla, probably varying locally. They valued them differently, and were notoriously particular about the types they would accept. Manillas were partly differentiated and valued by the sound they made when struck.

A report by the British Consul of [[Fernando Po]] in 1856 lists five different patterns of manillas in use in [[Nigeria]]. The ''Antony Manilla'' is good in all interior markets; the ''Congo Simgolo'' or 'bottle-necked' is good only at Opungo market; the ''Onadoo'' is best for [[Ibo]] country between [[Bony]] and New Calabar; the ''Finniman Fawfinna'' is passable in [[Juju]] Town and Qua market; but is only half the worth of the ''Antony''; and the ''Cutta Antony'' is valued by the people at [[Umballa]].<ref name="Einzig151">Einzig, Paul (1949). ''Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.'' Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. P. 151. </ref>

The proliferation of African names is probably due more to regional customs than actual manufacturing specialization. The 'Mkporo' is likely a Dutch or British manilla and the 'Popo' is French, but the rest are examples of a single evolving Birmingham product.

An important hoard had a group of 72 pieces with similar patination and soil crusting, suggesting common burial. There were 7 Mkporo; 19 Nkobnkob-round foot; 9 Nkobnkob-oval foot; and 37 Popo-square foot. The lightest 'Nkobnkobs' in the hoard are 108 and 114gm, while they are routinely found (called Onoudu) under 80gm, this implies that the group was buried at a certain point in the size devolution of the manilla. Mkporo are made of brass. The weight correspondence of the oval-foot Nkobnkob with the high end of the round-foot range suggests that it is either the earlier variety, or contemporary with the earliest round-foots. The exclusive presence of the 'square-foot' variety of French Popo, normally scarce among circulation groups of Popos, suggests that this is the earliest variety. The earliest French manillas as likely to be contemporaries of the earliest British (or Dutch?) pieces.
[[Image:ManillaOkhapos.JPG|thumb|left|<center>Two slightly differing Okpoho manillas<center>]]

Sometimes distinguished from manillas mainly by their wearability are a large number of regional types called 'Bracelet' monies and 'Legband' monies. Some are fairly uniform in size and weight and served as monies of account like manillas, but others were actually worn as wealth display. The less well off would mimic the movements of the 'better off' who were so encumbered by the weight of manillas that they moved in a very characteristic way. The larger manillas had a much more open shape.

== The various uses of Manillas ==
[[Image:Katangacross.JPG|thumb|right|<center>A Katanga Cross. An archaic form of money.<center>]]
Internally, manillas were the first true general-purpose currency known in west Africa, being used for ordinary market purchases, bride price, payment of fines, compensation of diviners, and for the needs of the next world, as burial money. [[Cowrie shell]]s, imported from Melanesia and valued at a small fraction of a manilla, were used for small purchases. In regions outside coastal west Africa and the [[Niger]] river a variety of other currencies, such as bracelets of more complex native design, iron units often derived from tools, copper rods, themselves often bent into bracelets, and the well-known Handa ([[Katanga]] cross) all served as special-purpose monies. As the slave trade wound down in the 19th century so did manilla production, which was already becoming unprofitable. By the 1890s their use in the export economy centered around the [[palm-oil]] trade.<ref name="Coinco">[http://www.coincoin.com/I024.htm/ An article on Manillas]</ref> Many manillas were melted down by African craftsmen to produce artworks.<ref name="Rees46">Rees, Alun (2000). ''Manillas.'' Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. P. 46. </ref> Manillas were often hung over a grave to show the wealth of the deceased and in the Degema area of [[Benin]] some women still wear large manillas around their necks at funerals, which are later laid on the family shrine. Gold manillas are said to have been made for the really important and powerful, such as King Jaja of Ophbo in 1891.<ref name="Rees47">Rees, Alun (2000). ''Manillas.'' Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. P. 47. </ref>

== History ==
====Origins====
Some sources attribute their introduction to the ancient [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]]s<ref name="Einzig150">Einzig, Paul (1949). ''Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.'' Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. P. 150. </ref> who traded along the west coast of Africa or even early [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] explorers and traders.<ref name="Rees46">Rees, Alun (2000). ''Manillas.'' Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. P. 46. </ref> The Egyptians have also been suggested as they used penannular money. One interesting suggestion is that Nigerian fishermen brought them up in their nets from the shipwrecks of European wrecks or made them from the copper 'pins' used in wooden sailing ships wrecked in the Bight of Benin. One theory is that if indigenous, they copied a splayed-end [[raffia]] cloth bracelet worn by women, another that the well-known [[Yoruba]] Mondua with its bulbous ends inspired the manilla shape.<ref name="Coinco">[http://www.coincoin.com/I024.htm/ An article on Manillas]</ref>

Copper bracelets and legbands were the principal 'money' and they were usually worn by women to display their husband's wealth. Early Portuguese traders thus found a pre-existing and very convenient willingness to accept unlimited numbers of these 'bracelets' and they are referred to by Duarte Pacheco Pereira who made voyages in the 1490s to buy [[ivory]] tusks, slaves, and pepper. He paid 12 to 15 manillas of brass for a slave, less if they were of copper.<ref name="Rees46">Rees, Alun (2000). ''Manillas.'' Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. P. 46. </ref> By 1522 in Benin a female slave of 16 cost 50 manillas and [[King Miguel]] of Portugal put a limit of 40 manillas per slave to stop this inflation. In 1505 at [[Calabar]] ([[Nigeria]]) they were being used as a medium of exchange, one ''manilla'' being worth a big elephant tooth, and a slave cost between eight and ten manillas.<ref name="Einzig151">Einzig, Paul (1949). ''Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.'' Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. P. 151. </ref> They were also in use on the [[Benin]] river in 1589 and again in Calabar in 1688, where [[Dutch people|Dutch]] traders bought slaves against payment in rough grey copper armlets which had to be very well made or they would be quickly rejected.<ref name="Einzig150">Einzig, Paul (1949). ''Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.'' Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. Pps. 150 - 152. </ref>
[[Image:Manillanigeria.jpg|thumb|left|<center>A British Empire-era Nigerian stamp showing a selection of manillas.<center>]]

====European and other [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] parallels====
Manillas bear some resemblance to [[torc]]s or torques in being rigid and circular and open-ended at the front. (The word 'torc' comes from Latin 'torquere', 'to twist', because of the twisted shape of the collar, an occasional feature of manillas). Although torcs were most often neck-rings, there were also bracelets with this shape. Torcs were made from gold or bronze, less often silver. "Torc" is the ancient Irish for "boar",and a relationship could be made with the monetary and sacred value of the animal in [[Celtic mythology]] suggesting a sort of equivalence between the item and the animal symbol of death and revival.

We know from various sources, such as grave goods, that torcs were worn by various European peoples from the Bronze Age, about 1000 BC, until about 300 AD, including the Galatians (or Anatolian Celts), various Germanic tribes, the [[Scythians]] and the Persians. Although some of the most elaborate speciments were uncovered at [[Phanagoria]] and [[Pereshchepina]] in the [[Pontic]] steppe, this type of necklace is still popularly associated with [[Celt]]ic people, especially Britons, Gauls, Ligures and Iberians.

====Slave trading====
Although gold was the primary and abiding merchandise sought by the Portuguese, by the early 16th century they were participating in the slave trade for bearers to carry manillas to Africa's interior, and gradually manillas became the principal money of this trade. The Portuguese were soon shouldered aside by the British, French, and Dutch, all of whom had labor-intensive plantations in the West Indies, and later by the Americans whose southern states were tied to a cotton economy . A typical voyage took manillas and utilitarian brass objects such as pans and basins to West Africa, then slaves to America, and cotton back to the mills of Europe. The price of a slave, expressed in manillas, varied considerably according to time, place, and the specific type of manilla offered.<ref name="Coinco">[http://www.coincoin.com/I024.htm/ An article on Manillas]</ref>

====Manufacture====
[[Copper]] was the "red gold" of Africa and had been both mined there and traded across the [[Sahara]] by Italian and Arab merchants.<ref name="Coinco">[http://www.coincoin.com/I024.htm/ An article on Manillas]</ref>

It is not known for certain what the Portuguese or the Dutch manillas looked like. From contemporary records, we know the earliest Portuguese were made in [[Antwerp]] for the monarch and possibly other places, and are about 240m long, about 13m gauge, weighing 600g in 1529, though by 1548 the dimensions and weight were reduced to about 250-280g. In many places brass, which is cheaper and easier to cast, was preferred to copper, so the Portuguese introduced smaller, yellow manillas made of copper and lead with traces of zinc and other metals. In ''Benin, Royal Art of Africa'', by Armand Duchateau, is a massive manilla of 25cm across and 4.5cm gauge, crudely cast with scoop-faceted sides, and well worn. It could be the heaviest (no weight given) and earliest manilla known. However, in the same book is a plaque with a European holding two pieces of very different form, crescent-shaped without flared ends, though apparently heavy if the proportions are correct. Today, pieces of this size and blunt form are associated with the [[Congo]].

Portuguese traders between 1504 and 1507 imported 287,813 ''manillas'' from Portugal into [[Guinea]] via the trading station of San Jorge da Mina.<ref name="Einzig155">Einzig, Paul (1949). ''Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.'' Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. P. 155. </ref>
As the Dutch came to dominate the Africa trade, they are likely to have switched manufacture from Antwerp to [[Amsterdam]], continuing the "brass" manillas, although, as stated, we have as yet no way to positively identify Dutch manillas. Trader and traveler accounts are both plentiful and specific as to names and relative values, but no drawings or detailed descriptions seem to have survived which could link these accounts to specific manilla types found today. The metals preferred were originally copper, then brass at about the end of the 15th century and finally bronze in about 1630.

Early in the 18th century, [[Bristol]], with companies such as R. & W. King (one of the companies later incorporated into the United African Company)<ref name="Rees46">Rees, Alun (2000). ''Manillas.'' Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. P. 46. </ref>, and then [[Birmingham]], became the most significant European brass manufacturing city. It is likely that most types of brass manillas were made there, including the "middle period" Nkobnkob-Onoudu whose weight apparently decreased over time, and the still lighter "late period" types such as Okpoho (from the Efik word for brass)<ref name="Rees">Rees, Alun (2000). ''Manillas.'' Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. P. 46 - 47. </ref> and those salvaged from the Duoro wreck of 1843. Among the late period types, specimen weights overlap type distinctions suggesting contemporary manufacture rather than a progression of types. The Popos, whose weight distribution places them at the transition point between Nkobnkob and Onoudu, were made in Nantes, France, possibly Birmingham as well and were too small to be worn.<ref name="calgary">[http://www.calgarycoin.com/primitive1.htm/ Details of Manillas</ref> They are wider than the Birmingham types and have a gradual, rather than sudden, flare to the ends. Though apparently rare in Nigeria, it is today the type found in the former French territories, and generally as common as the British. Many British pieces were withdrawn in the 1940s, so the French Popo may have been relatively scarcer at the time.

Manillas were made in Africa as well, though very little is known about these pieces. A recent discovery which can be called a "horseshoe manilla" is similar in form and size to European manillas, but appears to be African made. Although they are not as common in bulk manilla hoards as one might expect, low-weight "counterfeit" pieces could have been made in Africa or Europe.

A class of heavier, more elongated pieces, probably produced in Africa, are often labelled by collectors as 'King' or 'Queen' manillas. Usually with flared ends and more often copper than brass, they show a wide range of faceting and design patterns. Plainer types were apparently bullion monies, but the fancier ones were owned by royalty and used as bride price and in a pre-funeral "dying ceremony." Unlike the smaller money-manillas, their range was not confined to west Africa. A distinctive brass type with four flat facets and slightly bluging square ends, ranging from about 50-150 oz., was produced by the Jonga of [[Zaire]] and called 'Onganda', or 'onglese', phonetic French for "English.". Other types which are often called manillas include early twisted heavy-gauge wire pieces (with and without "knots") of probable [[Calabar]] origin, and heavy, multi-coil copper pieces with bulging ends from [[Nigeria]].

====Demise====
The Native Currency Proclamation of 1902 in Nigeria prohibited the import of ''manillas'' except with the High Commissioner's permit. This was done to encourage the use of coined money. They still were still in regular use however and constituted an administrative problem in the late 1940s. The Ibo tribe still used them prior to this and at Wukai a deep bowl of corn was considered equal to one large ''manilla'' and a cup-shaped receptacle filled with salt was worth one small ''manilla''. <ref name="Einzig151">Einzig, Paul (1949). ''Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.'' Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. P. 151. </ref> Although manillas were legal tender, they floated against British and French West African currencies and the palm-oil trading companies manipulated their value to advantage during the market season.

The British undertook a major recall dubbed "operation manilla" in 1948 to replace them with British West African currency. The campaign was largely successful and over 32 million pieces were bought up and resold as scrap. The manilla, a lingering reminder of the slave trade, ceased to be legal tender in British West Africa on [[April 1]], [[1949]]<ref name="Coinco">[http://www.coincoin.com/I024.htm/ An article on Manillas</ref> after a six month period of withdrawal.<ref name="Rees47">Rees, Alun (2000). ''Manillas.'' Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. P. 47. </ref> People were permitted to keep a maximum of 200 for ceremonies such as marriages and burials. Only ''Okpoho'', ''Okombo'' and ''abi'' were officially recognised and they were 'bought in' at 3d., 1d. and a halfpenny respectively. 32.5 million ''Okpoho'', 250,000 ''okombo'', and 50,000 ''abi'' were handed in and exchanged. A metal dealer in Europe purchased 2,460 tons of manillas, but the exercise still cost the taxpayer somewhere in the region of £284,000.

====Resurgence====
As curios for the tourist trade and internal 'non-monetary' uses they are still made, often of more modern metals such as aluminium, but the designs are still largely traditional ones.<ref name="Rees47">Rees, Alun (2000). ''Manillas.'' Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. P. 47. </ref>

== Miscellany ==
Brass rods formed an important element in the early currency system of Nigeria and some sources suggest that they originated from the straightening out of ''manillas''.<ref name="Einzig151">Einzig, Paul (1949). ''Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.'' Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. P. 151. </ref> These rods had a fixed price of 3d.

Manillas may be occasionally still used in a few remote villages in [[Upper Volta]] (2000).<ref name="calgary">[http://www.calgarycoin.com/primitive1.htm/ Details of Manillas]</ref>

Coiled wire objects such as the Nigerian Mondua are all often called "manillas" by collectors.

== References ==
<div class="references-medium" style="-moz-column-count:1; column-count:1;"><references/></div>

== See Also ==
* [[Manilla]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.joelscoins.com/odd.htm Odd & Curious Money]
*[http://www.hamillgallery.com/CURRENCY/MANILLACURRENCY/ManillaCurrency.html - Manillas Gallery]

[[Category:Coins]]
[[Category:Jewellery]]
[[Category:African culture]]

Michelham Priory

2007-04-26T20:51:10Z

VirtualDelight: dab

[[Image:Michelham-mh1.JPG|thumb|right|Michelham Priory]]
[[Image:Michelham-mh2.JPG|thumb|right|Watermill]]

'''Michelham Priory''' is the site of a former [[Augustinians|Augustine]] Priory near [[Upper Dicker]], [[East Sussex]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom]]. It is owned and administered by the [[Sussex Archaeological Society]].

==History==

The '''Augustine Priory of the Holt Trinity''' was founded at Michelham in 1229. The Priory was dissolved in the 1537 by [[King Henry VIII]]. The Church and some of the building were demolished and the house was sold into private ownership, the property remained in private hands into the 20th century. It was used as a base for [[Canada|Canadian]] troops during the winter of 1941-42 while they prepared for the Dieppe Raid. Later it the East Sussex headquarters of the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In 1958 Mrs R.H. Hotblack purchased the property with the aim of preserving it posterity. With an endowment from [[Kenneth James William_Mackay, 3rd_Earl of Inchcape|Kenneth, Earl of Inchcape]], as a memorial to his friend John Fletcher Boughey who was killed during the [[Second World War]], Mrs Hotblack gave the property in trust to the [[Sussex Archaeological Society]] on [[1 November]] [[1959]].

==Reference==
* ''Michelham Priory Guide Book'', Sussex Archaeological Society, 1995

[[Category:Buildings and structures in East Sussex]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in East Sussex]]

Buddy Roberts

2007-04-19T18:25:07Z

VirtualDelight: Reverted to revision 123826774 by MartinBot. using TW

{{unreferenced|date=April 2007}}

'''Dale Hey''' (born [[1945]]) was a [[professional wrestler]] better known as '''Buddy Roberts'''.

==Career==
'''Dale Hey''' started wrestling in [[1965]] as '''Dale Valentine''', the "brother" of [[Johnny Valentine]]. By 1970, he had formed a tag team called the "Hollywood Blonds" with Jerry Brown and they won numerous regional tag team titles across the [[United States]] throughout the 1970's.

In the late 1970's, he split from Brown and changed his name to '''Buddy Roberts'''. He joined the [[Fabulous Freebirds]] with [[Michael Hayes (wrestler)|Michael Hayes]] and [[Terry Gordy]] and became famous as Buddy "Jack" Roberts, due to his penchance for drinking [[Jack Daniel's]] whiskey.

In the ring, they won several titles and moved on to [[World Class Championship Wrestling]] in late 1982 and began a legendary feud with the Von Erich family. They wrestled [[David Adkisson|David]], [[Kerry Von Erich|Kerry]] and [[Kevin Adkisson|Kevin Von Erich]] numerous times through 1986.

Also during his time in WCCW came Roberts' most famous individual angle, which in 1983 involved the invention of what they referred to as "Freebird Hair Removal Cream", the culmination of the angle being a hair match between Roberts and [[Iceman Parsons]]. The result was Roberts seemingly winning the match via tight-pulling but the decision was reversed and the match restarted and in the fracas, Roberts' head was lathered in the hair cream. Subsequnet events showed Roberts wearing a wig kept in place by boxing headgear, an angle which would be recycled by the WWE's [[Kurt Angle]] after losing a hair vs hair match in 2002 to [[Adam Copeland|Edge]].

At the AWA's [[SuperClash]] in 1985, Roberts helped Hayes and Gordy apparently defeat the [[Road Warriors]] for the AWA Tag Team titles, but the decision was later reversed.

In early 1986, The Freebirds went to the [[Universal Wrestling Federation]] where Roberts won the Television Title.

In 1987, The Freebirds split up until reforming in WCCW late in the year. Buddy and Gordy turned on Hayes and teamed with [[Iceman Parsons]] to feud with Hayes and the Von Erichs. Gordy eventually left Roberts to rejoin Hayes. The feud ended in late 1988 when Hayes and Gordy left for the [[National Wrestling Alliance|NWA]]'s [[Jim Crockett Promotions]].

Roberts made one appearance as the manager for Hayes and [[Jimmy Garvin]] in a match against [[Steve Armstrong]] and [[Tracy Smothers]] in the NWA and then retired in 1990.

Roberts had throat cancer after he retired but had surgery to beat it.

==Profile==
*Height: 6'1" 
*Weight: 225 lbs. 
*Finisher: DDT
*Hometown: [[Del City, Oklahoma]]
*Trainer: [[Ivan Koloff]]
*Managers: [[Valerie French|Sunshine]],[Al Henderson] [[Oliver Humperdink]]
*Other Gimmicks: Dale Valentine, Buddy Roberts, Buddy "Jack" Roberts

==Championships/Accomplishments==
'''[[National Wrestling Alliance]]'''
*'''National'''
:*[[NWA North American Tag Team Championship]] (2 times) - with Jerry Brown
:*NWA Tri-State Tag Team Championship (3 times) - with Jerry Brown
*'''Regional'''
:*NWA America's Tag Team Championship (4 times) - with Jerry Brown
:*[[NWA Mid-Atlantic Tag Team Championship]] (1 time) - with Jerry Brown
:*[[NWA Florida Tag Team Championship]] (2 times) - with Jerry Brown

====World Class Championship Wrestling====
:*[[WCCW Texas Heavyweight Championship]] (1 time)
:*[[WCCW Television Championship]] (1 time)
:*[[WCCW Six-Man Tag Team Championship]] (6 times) - with [[Michael Hayes (wrestler)|Michael Hayes]] and [[Terry Gordy]] (5) and [[Iceman Parsons]] and Terry Gordy (1)

'''[[Universal Wrestling Federation]] / [[Mid-South Wrestling]]'''
:*[[UWF Television Championship]] (1 time)
:*[[UWF Tag Team Championship|Mid-South Tag Team Championship]] (1 time) - with Terry Gordy

'''Mid-Southern Wrestling'''
:*Mid-Southern Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Jerry Brown

'''Southwest Championship Wrestling'''
:*SCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
:*SCW Television Championship (2 times)

'''Other Titles'''
:*Southern Pro Wrestling Arkansas Championship (1 time)

====[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]====
*Pro Wrestling Illustrated ranked him #'''3''' of the 100 best tag teams during the "PWI Years" in 2003, along with Michael Hayes and Terry Gordy.
*Pro Wrestling Illustrated ranked him # '''167''' of the 500 best singles wrestlers during the "PWI Years" in 2003.

====[[Wrestling Observer Newsletter]]====
*He is a member of the [[Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame]] (inducted in 2005 as part of the Fabulous Freebirds)
*1980 Tag Team of the Year (with Terry Gordy)
*1983 Feud of the Year (with Terry Gordy and Michael Hayes vs The Von Erichs)
*1984 Feud of the Year (with Terry Gordy and Michael Hayes vs The Von Erichs)
*1984 Match of the Year (with Terry Gordy and Michael Hayes vs The Von Erichs)

[[Category:American professional wrestlers|Hey, Dale]]
[[Category:American Wrestling Association alumni|Hey, Dale]]
[[Category:People from Oklahoma|Hey, Dale]]
[[Category:1945 births|Hey, Dale]]
[[Category:Living people|Hey, Dale]]
[[Category:World Class Championship Wrestling alumni]]

Fenârî-Îsâ-Moschee

2007-04-05T20:13:38Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate Niche to Niche (architecture) using popups

[[Image:FeneriIsaCamiiInIstanbul20070102 1.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The southern view of the Mosque, formerly the ''Church of St. John the Baptist'']]
{{coor title dms|41|0|55.37|N|28|56|38.40|E|type:landmark}}
'''Fenari Isa Mosque''' (full name in [[Turkish Language|Turkish]]: ''Molla Fenari Isa Camii''; [[Greek Language|Greek]] name:''Εκλησια του Λιβος''), is a [[mosque]] in [[Istanbul]], made of two former [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches. The complex lies along the ''Vatan Caddesi'' avenue in the district of [[Fatih]].

== History ==
In year 908 the [[Byzantine Empire|byzantine]] Admiral [[Konstantinos Lips]] <ref>The name of the founder has been found in an inscription on the cornice of the apse. Krautheimer, 409</ref>, who would perish in 917 fighting against the [[Saracen]]s, built a [[nunnery]] dedicated to the '''[[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin]] Theotokos''' ("mother of God"). The [[monastery]], which was known also after his name (''Moni tou Libos''), became one of the largest of [[Constantinople]] <ref>By that time a total of 50 women inhabited the monastery. Krautheimer, 409</ref>.

The church of the monastery, also dedicated to the Virgin, was built on the remains of another shrine of the sixth century <ref>Gülersoy, 258</ref>.

After the [[Fourth Crusade |Latin invasion]] and the restoration of the Empire, between 1286 and 1304, Empress [[Theodora Doukaina Vatatzina|Theodora]], widow of Emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]], erected another church dedicated to '''[[St. John the Baptist]]''' ([[Greek Language|Greek]]:''Εκλησια τον Αγιον Ιοαννων'') <ref>Krautheimer, 436. This church was added to the thirty five ones dedicated to this Saint, which existed in Constantinople in the tenth century!</ref> south of the first church. Several exponents of the imperial dynasty of the [[Palaiologos]] were buried there besides Theodora: her son Constantinos, Empress [[Eirene of Montferrat|Eirene]] of [[Monferrato|Montferrat]] and her husband Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos|Andronikos II]]. <ref>Gülersoy, 258</ref>

During the fourteenth century an [[Narthex|esonarthex]] and a '''parecclesion''' <ref>The ''parekklesion'' is a [[chapel]] leaning to the side of the church or of the narthex</ref> were added to this church.

In 1496, shortly after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] and under the reign of [[Beyazid II]], the building was converted into a mosque by the [[Ottoman Empire|ottoman]] dignitary ''Fenarizade Alâeddin Ali Effendi'', whose family belonged to the class of the [[ulema]], and the monastery was converted into a [[dervish]] lodge. Since one of the head preachers of the [[Madrasah]] was named ''Isa'' ("Jesus" in [[Arabic]] and [[Turkish Language|Turkish]]), his name was added to that of the mosque. The edifice burned in 1633, was restored in 1636, and burned again in 1918. It was thoroughly restored between the seventies and the eighties of last century.

==Description==
[[Image:FeneriIsaCamiiInIstanbul20070102 2.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The Dome of the ''Church of St. John the Baptist'']]

The '''north church''' has a [[quincuncial]] plan, and was one of the first shrines in Constantinople to adopt this plan, whose prototype is possibly the [[Nea]], ("New church"), erected in Costantinople in the year 881, and now disappeared <ref>Krautheimer, 388</ref> .

The dimensions of the north church are small: the ''[[naos]]'' is 13 m long and 9.5 m wide, and was sized according to the population living in the monastery at that time.

The [[masonry]] of the north church was erected alternating layers of bricks and small rough stone blocks. In this technique, which is typical of the byzantine architecture of the tenth century <ref>Krautheimer, 405</ref>, the bricks sink in a thick bed of [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]].

This edifice has three high [[apse]]s: the central one is polygonal, and is flanked by the other two, which served as ''pastophoria'' <ref>The ''pastophorium '' is a room, usually near the apse, which served as ''diakonikon'' or ''prothesis''</ref>, ''prothesis'' <ref>The ''prothesis'' is a room where the bread and wine of the [[Eucharist]] were prepared and kept </ref> and ''diakonikon'' <ref>The ''diakonikon'' was a room used as archive, [[sacristy]] and library</ref>.

The apses are interrupted by triple and single [[lancet window]]s. The walls of the central arms of the naos cross have two orders of windows: the lower order has triple lancet windows, the higher semicircular windows. Two long ''parecclesia'', each one ended by a low apse, flanks the ''presbitery'' of the naos. The angular and central bays are very slender. At the four edges of the building lies four small roof chapels, each surmounted by a [[cupola]].

Of the decoration of this church remain the bases of three of the four columns of the central bay, and many original decorating elements, which survive on the pillars of the windows and on the frame of the dome. The decoration consisted originally in marble panels and coloured tiles: the vaults were decorated with mosaics. Only spurs of it are now visible <ref>Krautheimer, 405</ref>.

The '''south church''' is a square room surmounted by a dome, and surrounded by two ''deambulatoria'' <ref>A ''deambulatorium'' is an aisle which encircles the central part of a church</ref>, an ''esonarthex'' and a ''parecclesion'' (added later). The north deambulatorium is the south parecclesion of the N church. This multiplication of spaces around the central part of the church is typical of the late palaiologos architecture: the reason of that was the need for more space for tombs, monuments erected to benefactors of the church, etc. <ref>Krautheimer, 457</ref> . The central room is divided from the aisles by a triple arcade. During the mass the believers were confined in the deambulatoria, which were shallow and dark, and could barely see what happened in the central part of the church.

The masonry is composed of alternated rows of bricks and stone, typical of the late Byzantine architecture in Constantinople.

The lush decoration of the south and of the main apses (the latter is eptagonal), is made of a triple order of [[Niche (architecture)|niche]]s , the middle order being alternated with triple windows. The bricks are arranged to form patterns like arches, hooks, [[Meander (art)|greek fret]]s, [[sun cross]]es, [[swastika]]s and fans <ref>Krautheimer, 467</ref> . Between these patterns are white and dark red bands, alternating one row of stone with two to five of bricks. This is the first appearance of this most important decorating aspect of the palaiologos architecture in Constantinople.

The church has an exonarthex surmounted by a gallery, which was extended to reach also the N church.

The '''parecclesion''' was erected alongside the southern side of the south church, and was connected with the esonarthex, so that the room surrounds the whole complex on the west and south side. Several marble [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] are placed within it.

As a whole, this complex represents a notable example of the middle and late [[byzantine Architecture]] in Constantinople.

==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

==References==
{{commonscat|Fenari Isa Camii}}
*{{cite book
| author=Gülersoy, Celik
| title=A guide to Istanbul
| publisher=Kitapligi, Istanbul
| year=1976
}}

*{{cite book
| author=Krautheimer, Richard
| title=Architettura paleocristiana e bizantina
| publisher=Einaudi, Turin
| year=1986
}}

[[Category:10th century architecture]]
[[Category:1300s architecture]]
[[Category:Mosques in Istanbul]]
[[Category:Byzantine architecture]]

[[tr:Fenari İsa Camisi]]

Andersonville (Georgia)

2007-04-01T17:38:18Z

VirtualDelight: Undid revision 112925288 by 67.140.199.186 (talk)

Andersonville (Georgia)

2007-04-01T17:36:22Z

VirtualDelight: Undid revision 119364152 by 71.53.2.53 (talk)

[[Image:GAMap-doton-Andersonville.PNG|right|Location of Andersonville, Georgia]]

'''Andersonville''' is a city in [[Sumter County, Georgia|Sumter County]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[United States]]. The population was 331 at the 2000 census.(174 in [[1910]]). It is in the southwest part of the state, about 60 miles southwest of [[Macon, Georgia]] on the [[Central of Georgia]] [[railroad]]. During the [[American Civil War]], it was the site of a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] which is now [[Andersonville National Historic Site]].

==Geography==
Andersonville is located at {{coor dms|32|11|49|N|84|8|30|W|city}} (32.197008, -84.141701){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 56 [[square kilometre|km²]] (1.3 [[square mile|mi²]]), all land.

== History ==
Andersonville, originally named Anderson, Georgia, was given the name Andersonville by the United States Postal Service to prevent confusion with another city, also named Anderson. Andersonville is infamous as an [[American Civil War]] [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] [[Prisoner-of-war camp|POW camp]], [[Camp Sumter]]. The town, though very sparsely populated, was in existence before the establishment of the prison camp at the site. A small base known as Civil War village was established for visitors and Confederate soldiers. This former stockade has since become a small town. After the civil war the Andersonvillle POW camp evolved into a small town with its own hotel, post office and restaurant. Later the [[Andersonville National Historic Site]] was established as a memorial to the POWs who died at the camp. There is also a small museum to display how the town was founded and the involvement with the site of the Andersonville POW camp.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 98.3/km² (254.1/mi²). There were 142 housing units at an average density of 42.2/km² (109.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% White and 34.74% [[African American]]. 1.21% of the population were [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (United States Census)|Latino]]

There were 124 households out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.

In the city the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $29,107, and the median income for a family was $30,972. Males had a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over.

==External links==
*[http://www.andersonvillegeorgia.com/ Official website of Andersonville, Georgia]
* [http://www.americusgeorgia.net/ AmericusGeorgia.net - Area info... by and for Andersonville Locals]
*[http://andersonvillega.freeservers.com/ Official website of Andersonville]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|32.197008|-84.141701}}

[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Sumter County, Georgia]]

[[io:Andersonville, Georgia]]

Shock Records

2007-03-02T22:41:44Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate Prodigy to The Prodigy using popups

{{infobox record label
| name = Shock Records
| image = [[Image:ShockRecordsLogo.jpg|250px|Shock Records logo]]
| image_bg = white
| parent =
| founded = 1988
| founder =
| distributor =
| genre = Various
| country = [[Australia]]
| location = [[Melbourne]]
| url = http://www.shock.com.au/
}}
'''Shock Records''' is [[Australia|Australia's]] largest [[independent record label]]. It helps distribute records from overseas records labels such as [[Epitaph Records]], and also for small record labels designed specifically for that band such as [[Cement Records]]. Shock Records started back in [[1988 in music|1988]] by three partners who decided to release, distribute and export Australian music. '''Shock Exports''' is the export arm of Shock Records.

Shock Records distributes markets and exports CDs by Australian artists in all styles of music. Shock has received the award for Governor of Victoria Export Award in 1995, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004. They have released 20,000 records to date. Shock also started the company CDFA, an entertainment distribution and fulfillment company. They sell DVDs, music, computer games and other entertainment products to a client base Australian wide. Shock also does publishing.

Shock Records was the first major Australian record company to use the Internet to its full extent. In [[1994]] they were the first Australian record company to market records on the internet and in [[1997]] they offered free MP3 downloads of forthcoming singles by bands such as [[Frenzal Rhomb]] and [[Bodyjar]].

Shock Records first #1 record was [[Smash (album)|Smash]] by the [[United States|American]] band [[The Offspring]]. Shock Records opened its first [[New Zealand]] branch in [[1999]] with its first release 'Crush' by [[Jennifer Paige]] reaching #1 chart topping success.

==Representation==

===Labels===
*[[Architecture Label]]
*[[Delta Grove]]
*[[Drive Thru Records]]
*[[Epitaph]]
*[[In-Fidelity|In-Fidelity Records]]
*[[Redline Records]]

===Bands===

*[[Against Me!]]
*[[Amusement Parks on Fire]]
*[[Ane Brun]]
*[[Ani Difranco]]
*[[Area-7]]
*[[At the Drive-In]]
*[[Bodyjar]]
*[[The Casanovas]]
*[[Dan Kelly and the Alpha Males]]
*[[The Drones]]
*[[Dubious Brothers]]
*[[Every Move a Picture]]
*[[Freestylers]]
*[[Geezer]]
*[[The Gibson Brothers]]
*[[The Gilmorea]]
*[[Gomez]]
*[[Goodshirt]]
*[[hellogoodbye]]
*[[Junip]]
*[[The Kill Devil Hills]]
*[[Lambchop]]
*[[Laura Gissara]]
*[[Luka Bloom]]
*[[Neko Case]]
*[[NOFX]]
*[[Orange Blossom]]
*[[Parkway Drive]]
*[[Peter Bjorn and John]]
*[[The Prodigy|Prodigy]]
*[[Public Enemy]]
*[[Ricki-Lee]]
*[[The Sadies]]
*[[The Spazzys]]
*[[Stereophonics]]
*[[Think of One]]
*[[TISM]]
*[[Unwritten Law]]

== Titles available ==

*[[The Girl From Tomorrow]]
*[[The Girl from Tomorrow Part II: Tomorrow's End]]

== See also ==
* [[List of record labels]]
* [[:Category:Shock Records albums]]

==External links==
* [http://www.shock.com.au/ Official site]
* [http://www.shockexports.com/ Official site of Shock Exports]
* [http://www.shockexports.com/Information.html Distribution contact details]
* {{discogs label|label=Shock+(Australia)}}

[[Category:Australian record labels]]
[[Category:Record labels established in 1988]]
[[Category:Independent record labels]]
[[Category:Alternative music record labels]]

Florida-Territorium

2007-02-18T19:58:08Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate St. Augustine to St. Augustine, Florida using popups

The '''Florida Territory''' was a historic [[organized territory]] of the [[United States]] from [[1822]] to [[1845]].

== Background ==
Florida was first discovered in 1513 by [[Juan Ponce de Leon]] who claimed the land as a possesion of [[Spain]]. The second oldest European settlement in the U.S., [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], was founded on the northeast coast of [[Florida]] in 1565. Florida continued to remain a Spanish possession until the end of the [[Seven Year's War]] when they were forced to cede it to [[England]]. In 1783, after the [[American Revolution]], England was compeled to give Florida back to Spain.{{fn|1}}

The second term of Spanish rule was heavily influenced by the United States. There were border disputes along the Georgia/Florida boundary and issues of American use of the Mississippi. These problems were supposedly solved in [[1795]] by the [[Treaty of San Lorenzo]], which among other things solidified the boundary of Florida and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] along the 31st parrallel. However as [[Thomas Jefferson]] had once predicted; the U.S. could not keep its hands off of Florida.{{fn|2}}

== American involvement pre-1821 ==

In [[1812]] United States forces and Georgia "patriots" under General George Matthews invaded Florida to protect American interests.{{fn|4}} These interests were mostly slave related. Runaway slaves had been given protection by the Florida natives, called [[Seminoles]] by Americans, for many years. They lived in a semi-fuedal system; the Seminoles giving the now "free" blacks protection, while the former slaves shared crops with the natives. Despite the fact that the Negroes were still considered inferior by the Seminoles, the two parties lived in harmony. The slaveholders in Georgia and the rest of the south became furious over this matter as slaves cotinued to escape to Florida.{{fn|5}} This invasion of Florida was peceived by most of the country as ill-advised and the Spanish were promised a speedy exit of troops.{{fn|6}}

In [[1818]] after many years of further conflicts involving natives and settlers General [[Andrew Jackson]] wrote to President Monroe informing him that he was invading Florida. Jackson's force departed from [[Tennessee]] and marched down the [[Apalachicola River]] wreaking havoc in North Florida until they came upon Pensecola in March, where the Spanish quickly surrendered.{{fn|7}}

== Adams-Onis Treaty ==

The [[Adams-Onis Treaty]], also known as the Transcontinental Treaty, was signed on [[February 22]], [[1819]] by [[John Quincy Adams]] and Luis de Onis, but did not take effect until it was ratified by the Spanish government in [[1821]]. It is a widely accepted fact that America paid $5,000,000 to the Spanish as a result of this treaty, however this is a myth. No money was exchanged between the two governments; the U.S. received Florida and [[Oregon]] while ceding all [[Texas]] claims to Spain.{{fn|3}}

== Territorial Florida and the Seminole Wars ==

General [[Andrew Jackson]] served as military governor of the newly acquired territory, however only for a brief period. On [[March 30]], [[1822]], the United States merged [[East Florida]] and part of [[West Florida]] into the Florida Territory. [[William Pope Duval]] became the first official governor of Florida and soon after the capitol was established at Tallahassee, but only after removing a Seminole tribe off of the land.{{fn|8}}

The central conflict of Territorial Florida was the Seminole inhabitants. The federal government and most white settlers desired all Florida Indians to migrate to the West. On [[May 28]], [[1930]] Congress past the [[Indian Removal Act]] requiring all native Americans to move west of the [[Mississippi River]].{{fn|9}} The Act itself did not mean much to Florida, however it laid the framework for the [[Treaty of Paynes Landing]] which was signed by a council of Seminole chiefs on [[May 9]], [[1833]]. This treaty stated that all Seminole inhabitants of Florida should be relocated by [[1936]], giving them three years. It was at this meeting that the famous [[Osceola]] first voiced his decesion to fight.{{fn|10}}

Beginning in late [[1835]] Osceola and the Seminole allies began a guerilla war against the U.S. forces.{{fn|11}} Numerous generals fought and failed, succumbing to the heat and disease as well as lack of knowledge of the land. It was not until General [[Thomas Jesup]] captured many of the key Seminole chiefs, including Osceola who died in captivity of illness, that the battles bagan to die down.{{fn|12}} The Seminoles were eventually forced to migrate and almost all were gone, except for a small group in the Everglades, by the time Florida joined the Union as the 27th state on [[March 3]], [[1845]].

==See also==
* [[Historic regions of the United States]]

== Notes ==
* {{fn|1}} Hubert Bruce Fuller, ''The Florida Purchase'', (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1964), Introduction xvii.
*{{fn|2}} ''Ibid.,'' Introduction xviii-xix.
*{{fn|3}} Fuller, ''The'', Editorial Preface, xi.
*{{fn|4}} Virginia Bergman Peters, ''The Florida Wars,''(Hamden: The Shoestring Press, 1979),39.
*{{fn|5}} ''Ibid.,''18-22.
*{{fn|6}} Peters, ''The'', 39.
*{{fn|7}} Peters, ''The'', 50-54.
*{{fn|8}} Peters, ''The'', 63-74.
*{{fn|9}} Peters, ''The'', 87.
*{{fn|10}} Peters, ''The'', 89-95.
*{{fn|11}} Peters, ''The'', 105-110.
*{{fn|12}} Peters, ''The'', 137-160.

== References ==
#Hubert Bruce Fuller, ''The Florida Purchase'', (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1964).
#Virginia Bergman Peters, ''The Florida Wars,''(Hamden: The Shoestring Press, 1979).

==External links==
* [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=003/llsl003.db&recNum=695 3 U.S. Statute 654 approved on March 30, 1822 establishing Florida Territory (pages 654-659)] from [[United States Statutes at Large]] at the [[Library of Congress]] website.

[[Category:Historical regions and territories of the United States]]
[[Category:History of Florida]]
[[Category:1822 establishments]]

[[pl:Terytorium Florydy]]

Architektur der Renaissance

2007-01-13T19:59:42Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate Niche to Niche (architecture) using popups

[[Image:Tempietto05.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, 1502, by Bramante. This small temple marks the place where [[St Peter]] was put to death.]]
[[Image:Temple Of Vesta ~ Rome.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Tempio di Vesta, Rome, 205 AD. As the most important temple of Ancient Rome, it became the model for Bramante's Tempietto.]]
'''Renaissance Architecture''' is the architecture of the period beginning between the early 15th and the early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe, where there was a conscious revival and development of certain elements of [[Classical Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] thought and material culture.

The Renaissance style places emphasis on [[symmetry]], [[proportion]], geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of Classical antiquity and in particular, the architecture of [[Roman Architecture|Ancient Rome]], of which many visible examples existed. Orderly arrangements of [[column]]s, [[pilaster]]s and [[lintel]]s, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical [[dome]]s, [[Niche (architecture)|niche]]s and [[aedicule]]s replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of [[Gothic architecture|medieval]] buildings.

Developed first in Florence, with [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere.

==Historiography==

The word "renaissance" derived from the term "la rinascita" which first appeared in [[Giorgio Vasari]]'s ''Vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani'' (The Lives of the Artists, 1550-68).

Although the term [[Renaissance]] was used first by the French historian [[Jules Michelet]], was given its more lasting definition from the Swiss historian [[Jacob Burckhardt]], whose book, ''Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien'' 1860, <ref>The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1860, English translation, by SGC Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878)</ref> was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance. The folio of measured drawings ''Édifices de Rome moderne; ou, Recueil des palais, maisons, églises, couvents et autres monuments'' (The Buildings of Modern Rome), first published in 1840 by [[Paul Letarouilly]],  also played an important part in the revival of interest in this period. <ref>[[Erwin Panofsky]], ''Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art'', (New York: Harper and Row, 1960) </ref> The Renaissance style was recognized by contemporaries in the term “all'antica,” or "in the ancient manner (of the Romans)".

==Principal Phases==

Historians often divide the Renaissance in Italy into three phases. <ref>Some architectural histories eg. Sir [[Banister Fletcher]], ''A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method'', (first published 1896, current edition 2001, Elsevier Science & Technology ISBN 0750622679), include Baroque as a phase of Renaissance architecture. Because of its extent, diversity and deviation from the Classical it is not included here and is the subject of a main article.</ref> Whereas art historians might talk of an "Early Renaissance" period, in which they include developments in 14th century painting and sculpture, this is usually not the case in architectural history. The bleak economic conditions of the late 14th century did not produce buildings that are considered to be part of the Renaissance. As a result, the word "Renaissance" among architectural historians usually applies to the period 1400 to ca. 1525, or later in the case of non-Italian Renaissances.

Historians often use the following designations:

* Renaissance (ca. 1400-1500); also known as the [[Quattrocento]]. <ref>The Italian translates literally to "fourteen-hundred" and coincides with the English "fifteenth century".</ref> and sometimes Early Renaissance<ref>The ''Early Renaissance'' in architecture is most applicable to developments in Venice, where there was a more fluid development between medieval and Renaissance styles than in Florence. See: John McAndrew ''Venetian Architecture of the Early Renaissance'' (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1980).</ref>
* [[High Renaissance]] (ca.1500-1525)
* [[Mannerism]] (ca. 1520-1600)

===Quattrocento===

In the ''Quattrocento'', concepts of architectural order were explored and rules were formulated. The study of classical antiquity led in particular to the adoption of Classical detail and ornamentation.

Space, as an element of architecture, was utilised differently to the way it had been in the [[Middle Ages]]. Space was organised by proportional logic, its form and rhythm subject to geometry, rather than being created by intuition as in Medieval buildings. The prime example of this is the [[Pazzi Chapel]] in [[Florence]] by [[Filippo Brunelleschi]](1377-1446).<ref>Howard Saalman. ''Filippo Brunelleschi: The Buildings''. (London: Zwemmer, 1993).</ref>
===High Renaissance===
During the ''[[High Renaissance]]'', concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater surety. The most representative architect is Bramante (1444-1514) who expanded the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings. His [[San Pietro in Montorio]] (1503) was directly inspired by circular [[Roman temple]]s. He was, however, hardly a slave to the classical forms and it was his style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the 16th century.<ref>Arnaldo Bruschi. ''Bramante'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 1977).</ref>

===Mannerism===
During the ''Mannerist'' period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style was [[Michelangelo]] (1475-1564), who is credited with inventing the [[giant order]], a large pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of a facade. He used this in his design for the [[Campidoglio]] in Rome.

Another leading example of the Mannerist approach is the [[Palazzo Te]] (1524-1534) by [[Giulio Romano]] in [[Mantua]] with its monumental loggias, [[rusticated]] walls, garden grottoes and extensive frescos. Prior to the 20th century, the term ''Mannerism'' had negative connotations, but it is now used to describe the historical period in more general non-jumental terms.<ref>Arnold Hauser. ''Mannerism: The Crisis of the Renaissance and the Origins of Modern Art''. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1965).</ref>

As the new style of architecture spread out from Italy, most other European countries developed a sort of proto-Renaissance style, before the construction of fully formulated Renaissance buildings. Each country in turn then grafted its own architectural traditions to the new style, so that Renaissance buildings across Europe are diversified by region.

Within Italy the evolution of Renaissance architecture into Mannerism, with widely diverging tendencies in the work of Michelangelo and Giulio Romano and Andrea Palladio, led to the Baroque style in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric.

Outside Italy, [[Baroque architecture]] was more widespread and fully developed than the Renaissance style, with significant buildings as far afield as [[Mexico]]<ref>[[Cathedral of Chihuahua]], 1725-1826</ref> and the [[Philippines]].<ref>[[Basilica Minore del Santo Niño]], present structure 1735-39</ref> It is the subject of a separate article.
{{main|Baroque architecture}}
[[Image:StPetersDomePD.jpg|thumb|The Dome of St Peter's Basilica, Rome. photo- Wolgang Stuck, 2004]]

==Renaissance Architectural Theory==
During the Renaissance, architecture became not only a question of practice, but also a matter for theoretical discussion. The first treatise on architecture was [[De re aedificatoria ]] (English: On the Art of Building) by [[Leon Battista Alberti]] in 1450. It was to some degree dependent on [[Vitruvius]]' [[De architectura]], a manuscript of which was discovered in 1414 in a library in Switzerland. ''De re aedificatoria'' in 1485 became the first printed book on architecture. [[Printing]] played a large role in the dissemination of ideas. [[Sebastiano Serlio]] (1475 – c. 1554) produced the next important text, the first volume of which appeared in Venice in 1537; it was entitled "Regole generali d'architettura [...]" (or "General Rules of Architecture"). It is known as Serlio's "Fourth Book" since it was the fourth in Serlio's original plan of a treatise in seven books. In all, five books were published. In 1570, [[Andrea Palladio]] (1508 –1580) published [[I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura]] (The Four Books of Architecture) in [[Venice]]. This book was widely printed and responsible to a great degree of spreading the ideas of the Renaissance through Europe. All these books were intended to be read and studied not only by architects, but also by patrons.

== Characteristics of Renaissance architecture ==
[[Image:Sant agostino.JPG|thumb|Sant'Agostino, Rome, Giacomo di Pietrasanta, 1483]]
The obvious distinguishing features of Classical Roman architecture were adopted by Renaissance architects. However, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time. So had the structure of cities. Among the earliest buildings of the reborn Classicism were churches of a type that the Romans had never constructed. Neither were there models for the type of large city dwellings required by wealthy merchants of the 15th century. Conversely, there was no call for enormous sporting fixtures and public bath houses such as the Romans had built. The ancient orders were analysed and reconstructed to serve new purposes.
:The list of characteristics below is based on [[Banister Fletcher|Banister Fletcher's]] ''History of Architecture on the Comparative Method''.

'''Plan'''

The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square, [[symmetry|symmetrical]], planned appearance in which proportions are usually based on a module. Within a church the module is often the width of an aisle.

'''Facade'''

Facades are symmetrical around their vertical axis.
Church facades are generally surmounted by a [[pediment]]. The columns and windows show a progression towards the center.
Domestic buildings are often surmounted by a cornice. There is a regular repetition of openings on each floor, and the centrally placed door is marked by a feature such as a balcony, or rusticated surround.
[[Image:Classical orders from the Encyclopedie.png|thumb|left|Classical Orders, engraving from the ''Encyclopédie vol. 18.'' 18th century.]]

'''Columns'''

The Roman orders of columns are used:- Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. The orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall. When against walls, the orders often appear as pilasters.

'''Arches'''

Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch.

'''Vaults'''

Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular.

'''Domes'''

The Dome is used frequently, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from the exterior, and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally.

'''Ceilings'''

Roofs are fitted with flat or coffered ceilings. They are not left open as in Medieval architecture. They are frequently painted or decorated.

'''Doors'''
[[Image:Palazzo Strozzi cortile.JPG|thumb|Courtyard of Palazzo Strozzi, Florence]]
Door usually have square lintels. They may be set within an arch or surmounted by a triangular or segmental pediment.
Openings that do not have doors are usually arched and frequently have a large or decorative keystone.

'''Windows'''

Windows may be paired and set within a semi-circular arch. They may have square lintels and triangular or segmental pediments, which are often used alternately. In the Mannerist period the “Palladian” arch was employed, using a motif of a high semi-circular topped opening flanked with two lower square-topped openings. Windows are used to bring light into the building. Stained glass does not feature.

'''Walls'''

External walls are generally of highly-finished ashlar masonry, laid in straight courses. The corners of buildings are often emphasised by rusticated “quoins”. Basements are often rusticated.
Internal walls are smoothly plastered. Internal surfaces are often decorated with frescoes.

'''Details'''

Courses, moldings and all decorative details are carved with great precision. Moldings stand out around doors and windows rather than being recessed. Sculptured figures may be set in niches or placed on plinths. They are not integral to the building as in Medieval architecture.
<ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

== Influences on the development of Renaissance architecture in Italy ==

Italy of the 15th century, and the city of Florence in particular, was home to the Renaissance. It is in Florence that the new architectural style had its beginning, not slowly evolving in the way that [[Gothic Architecture|Gothic]] grew out of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], but consciously brought to being by particular architects who sought to revive the order of a past "[[Golden Age]]". The scholarly approach to the architecture of the ancient coincided with the general revival of learning. A number of factors were influential in bringing this about.

[[Image:Baptisteriumganz.jpg|thumb|left|The Romanesque Baptistry of Florence was the object of Brunelleschi's studies of perspective]]

'''Architectural'''

Italy had never fully adopted the Gothic style of architecture. Apart from the [[Cathedral of Milan]], largely the work of German builders, few Italian churches show the emphasis on vertically, the clustered shafts, ornate tracery and complex ribbed vaulting that characterise [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] in other parts of Europe. Italian architects had always preferred forms that were clearly defined and structural members that expressed their purpose.<ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>
The presence, particularly in Rome, of architectural remains showing the ordered [[Classical style]] provided an inspiration to artists at a time when philosophy was also turning towards the Classical.

'''Political'''

In the 15th century, [[Florence]], [[Venice]] and [[Naples]] extended their power through much of the area that surrounded them, making the movement of artists possible. This enabled Florence to have significant artistic influence in [[Milan]], and through Milan, [[France]].

In 1377 the Pope from [[Avignon]] and re-established of the [[Papal court]] in Rome, bringing a renewal in the importance of the Pope in Italy, further strengthened by the [[Council of Constance]] in 1417. and also in the wealth and importance of Rome.
Successive Popes, especially [[Julius II]], 1503-13, sought to extend the Pope’s [[Papal states|temporal power]] throughout Italy. <ref>Andrew Martindale, ''Man and the Renaissance'', 1966, Paul Hamlyn, ISBN unknown</ref>

'''Commercial'''

In the early Renaissance, [[Venice]] controlled sea trade over goods from the East. The large towns of [[Northern Italy]] were prosperous through trade with the rest of Europe, [[Genoa]] providing a seaport for the goods of France and Spain; [[Milan]] and [[Turin]] being centers of overland trade, and maintaining substantial metalworking industries.
Trade brought wool from England to Florence, ideally located on the river for the production of fine cloth, the industry on which its wealth was founded. By dominating [[Pisa]], Florence gained a seaport, and also maintained dominance of Genoa.
In this commercial climate, one family in particular turned their attention from trade to the lucrative business of money-lending. The [[Medici]] became the chief bankers to the princes of Europe, becoming virtually princes themselves as they did so, by reason of both wealth and influence.
Along the trade routes, and thus offered some protection by commercial interest, moved not only goods but also artists, scientists and philosophers.<ref>Andrew Martindale</ref>

[[Image:Melozzo da Forlì 001.jpg|thumb|Pope Sixtus IV, 1477, builder of the Sistine Chapel. Fresco by Melozzo da Forli in the [[Vatican Palace]].]]

'''Religious'''

The return of the Pope from Avignon in 1377 and the resultant the new emphasis on Rome as the center of Christian spirituality, brought about a boom in the building of churches in Rome such as had not taken place for nearly a thousand years. This commenced in the mid 15th century and gained momentum in the 16th century, reaching its peak in the Baroque period. The construction of Sistine Chapel with its uniquely important decorations and the entire rebuilding of St Peter's, one of Christendom's most significant churches, was part of this process.<ref>Ilan Rachum, ''The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia'', 1979, Octopus, ISBN 0706408578</ref>

In wealthy republican Florence, the impetus for church-building was more civic than spiritual. The unfinished state of the enormous cathedral dedicated to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] did no honour to the city under her patronage. However, as the technology and finance were found to complete it, the rising dome did credit not only to the Blessed Virgin, its architect and the Church but also the Signoria, the Guilds and the sectors of the city from which the manpower to construct it was drawn. The dome inspired further religious works in Florence.

[[Image:Zaccaria in the temple by dghirlandaio.jpg|thumb|left|Four Humanist philosophers under the patronage of the Medici: [[Marsilio Ficino]], [[Cristoforo Landino]], [[Angelo Poliziano]] and [[Demetrius Chalcondyles]]. Fresco by [[Domenico Ghirlandaio]].]]
'''Philosophic'''

The development of printed books, the rediscovery of ancient writings, the expanding of political and trade contacts and the exploration of the world all increased knowledge and the desire for education.<ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

The reading of philosophies that were not based in Christian theology led to the development of [[Humanism]] through which it was clear that while God had established and maintained order in the Universe, it was the role of Man to establish and maintain order in Society.<ref> J.R.Hale, ''Renaissance Europe, 1480-1520'', 1971, Fontana ISBN 0006324355</ref>

'''Civil'''
[[Image:Jacopo Pontormo 055.jpg|thumb|[[Cosimo de' Medici the Elder]], head of the Medici Bank, sponsored civic building programs. Fresco by [[Bronzino]].]]
Through [[Humanism]], civic pride and the promotion of civil peace and order were seen as the marks of citizenship. This led to the building of structures such as Brunelleschi's [[Ospedale degli Innocenti|Hospital of the Innocents]] with its elegant colonnade forming a link between the charitable building and the public square, and the [[Laurentian Library]] where the collection of books established by the Medici family could be consulted by scholars.<ref>Helen Gardner</ref>

Some major ecclesiastical building works were also commissioned, not by the church, but by guilds representing the wealth and power of the city. Brunelleschi’s dome at [[Florence Cathedral]], more than any other building belonged to the people of the city because the construction of each of the eight segments was achieved by a different sector of the city.<ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

'''Patronage'''

As in the [[Plato|Platonic academy]] of [[Athens]], it was seen by those of Humanist understanding that those people who had the benefit of wealth and education ought to promote the pursuit of learning and the creation of that which was beautiful. To this end, wealthy families:- the [[Medici]] in Florence, the [[Gonzaga]] family of Mantua, the [[Farnese]] in Rome, the [[Sforzas]] in Milan, gathered around them people of learning and talent, promoting the skills and creating employment for the most talented artists and architects of their day. <ref>Helen Gardner, ''Art through the Ages'', 5th edition, Harcourt, Brace and World, inc.,ISBN 07679933</ref><ref>Ilan Rachum</ref>

==Development of Renaissance architecture in Italy==
[[Image:Ospedale degli Innocenti.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ospedale degli Innocenti]] in Florence.]]
===Early Renaissance, or Quattrocento===
The leading architects of the Early Renaissance were [[Brunelleschi]], [[Michelozzo]] and [[Alberti]].

====Brunelleschi====
The person generally credited with bringing about the Renaissance view of architecture is [[Filippo Brunelleschi]], (1377-1446).<ref>Cropplestone, Trewin, ''World Architecture'', 1963, Hamlyn. Page 243</ref> The underlying feature of the work of Brunelleschi was "order".

In the early 1400s Brunelleschi began to look at the world to see what the rules were that governed ones way of seeing. His observed that the way one sees regular structures such as the [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)|Baptistery of Florence]] and the tiled pavement surrounding it follows a mathematical order- [[linear perspective]].

The buildings remaining among the ruins of ancient Rome appeared to respect a simple mathematical order in the way that Gothic buildings did not. One incontrovertible rule governed all [[Ancient Roman architecture]]- a semi-circular arch is exactly twice as wide as it is high. A fixed proportion with implications of such magnitude occurred nowhere in [[Gothic architecture]]. A Gothic pointed arch could be extended upwards or flattened to any proportion that suited the location. Arches of differing angles frequently occurred within the same structure. No set rules of proportion applied.
[[Image:Firenze.Duomo05.JPG|thumb|left|The dome of [[Duomo of Florence|Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore]].]]
From the observation of the architecture of Rome came a desire for symmetry and careful proportion in which the form and composition of the building as a whole and all its subsidiary details have fixed relationships, each section in proportion to the next, and the architectural features serving to define exactly what those rules of proportion are.<ref>Robert Erich Wolf and Ronald Millen, ''Renaissance and Mannerist Art'', 1968, Harry N. Abrams, ISBN not known</ref>

'''Cathedral of Florence'''

Brunelleschi's first major architectural commission was for the enormous brick dome which covers the central space that of [[Duomo of Florence|Florence's cathedral]], designed by [[Arnolfo di Cambio]] in the 14th century but left unroofed. While often described as the first building of the Renaissance, Brunelleschi's daring design utilizes the pointed Gothic arch and Gothic ribs. It seems certain, however, that while stylistically Gothic, in keeping with the building it surmounts, the dome is in fact structurally influenced by the great dome of Ancient Rome, which Brunelleschi could hardly have ignored in seeking a solution. This is the dome of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], a circular temple, now a church.
[[Image:Einblick LH2 San Lorenzo Florenz.jpg|thumb|right|The church of San Lorenzo. Photo Stephan Bauer.]]
Inside the Pantheon's single-shell dome of brick and stone is coffering which greatly decreases the weight, while maintaining the strength of each individual stone. The vertical partitions of the coffering effectively serve as ribs, although this feature does not dominate visually. At the apex of the Pantheon's dome is an opening, 8 meters across. Brunelleschi was aware that a dome of enormous proportion could in fact be engineered without a keystone. The dome in Florence is supported by the eight large ribs and sixteen more internal ones holding a brick shell, with the bricks arranged in a herringbone manner. Although the techniques employed are different, in practice both domes comprise a thick network of ribs supporting very much lighter and thinner infilling. And both have a large opening at the top.<ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

'''San Lorenzo'''

The new architectural philosophy is best demonstrated in the churches of [[Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze|San Lorenzo]] and [[Santo Spirito di Firenze|Santo Spirito]] in Florence. Designed by Brunelleschi in about 1425 and 1428 respectively, both have the shape of the [[Latin cross]]. Each has a modular plan, each portion being a multiple of the square bay of the aisle. This same formula controlled also the vertical dimensions. In the case of Santo Spirito, which is entirely regular in plan, transepts and chancel are identical, while the nave is an extended version of these. In 1434 Brunelleschi designed the first Renaissance central planned building, [[Santa Maria degli Angeli di Firenze|Santa Maria degli Angeli]] of Florence. It is composed of a central [[octagon]] surrounded by a circuit of eight smaller chapels. From this date onwards numerous churches were built in variations of these designs. <ref>Giovanni Fanelli, ''Brunelleschi'', 1980, Becocci editore Firenze</ref>

'''Michelozzo'''

[[Image:Palazzo Medici Riccardi.JPG|thumb|right|Palazzo Medici Riccardi by Michelozzo.]]
[[Michelozzo Michelozzi]], (1396-1472), was an architect under the patronage of the [[Medici]] family, his most famous work being the [[Palazzo Medici Riccardi]], which he was commissioned to design for [[Medici|Cosimo de'Medici]] in 1444. A decade later he built the Villa Medici at [[Fiesole]]. Among his other works for Cosimo are the library at the Convent of San Marco, Florence. He went into exile in Venice for a time with his patron. He was one of the first architects to work in the Renaissance style outside Italy, building a palace at [[Dubrovnik]].<ref>Ilan Rachum, ''The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia'', 1979, Octopus, ISBN 0706408578</ref>

The Palazzo Medici Riccardi is Classical in the details of its pedimented window and recessed doors, but, unlike the works of Brunelleschi and Alberti, there are no ''[[Classical orders|orders]]'' of columns in evidence. Instead, Michelozzo has respected the Florentine liking for rusticated stone. He has seemingly created three orders out of the three defined rusticated levels, the whole being surmounted by an enormous Roman-style cornice which juts out over the street by 2.5 meters.<ref>Banister Fletcher pp.678,681,683.</ref>

'''Alberti'''

[[Leon Battista Alberti]], (1402-1472), was an important Humanist theoretician and designer whose book on architecture ''De re Aedificatoria'' was to have lasting effect. An aspect of [[Humanism]] was an emphasis of the anatomy of nature, in particular the human form, a science first studied by the Ancient Greeks. Humanism made man the measure of things. Alberti perceived the architect as a person with great social responsibilities.<ref>Ilan Rachum</ref>
[[Image:SantAndreaMantua Alberti.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sant'Andrea, Mantua]], the facade. Photo- Frode Inge Helland]]
He designed a number of buildings, but unlike Brunellleschi, he did not see himself as a builder in a practical sense and so left the supervision of the work to others. Miraculously, one of his greatest designs, that of the Church of [[Sant'Andrea in Mantua]], was brought to completion with its character essentially intact. Not so the church of [[San Francesco, Rimini|San Francesco]] in [[Rimini]], a rebuilding of a Gothic structure, which, like Sant'Andrea, was to have a façade reminiscent of a Roman triumphal arch. This was left sadly incomplete.<ref>Ilan Rachum</ref>

Sant'Andrea is an extremely dynamic building both without and within. Its triumphal façade is marked by extreme contrasts. The projection of the order of pilasters that define the architectural elements, but are essentially non-functional, is very shallow. This contrasts with the gaping deeply recessed arch which makes a huge portico before the main door. The size of this arch is in direct contrast to the two low square-topped openings that frame it. The light and shade play dramatically over the surface of the building because of the shallowness of its mouldings and the depth of its porch. In the interior Alberti has dispensed with the traditional nave and aisles. Instead there is a slow and majestic progression of alternating tall arches and low square doorways, repeating the "[[Arch of Constantine|triumphal arch]]" motif of the façade.<ref>Joseph Rykwert, ''Leonis Baptiste Alberti'', Architectural Design, Vol 49 No 5-6, Hollland St, London</ref>
[[Image:Santa Maria Novella.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Façade of [[Santa Maria Novella]], 1456-70.]]
Two of Alberti’s best known buildings are in Florence, the [[Palazzo Rucellai]] and at [[Santa Maria Novella]]. For the palace, Alberti applied the classical orders of columns to the façade on the three levels, 1446-51. At Santa Maria Novella he was commissioned to finish the decoration of the façade. He completed the design in 1456 but the work was not finished until 1470.

The lower section of the building had Gothic niches and typical polychrome marble decoration. There was a large ocular window in the end of the nave which had to be taken into account. Alberti simply respected what was already in place, and the Florentine tradition for polychrome that was well established at the [[Baptistry of Florence|Baptistry of San Giovanni]], the most revered building in the city. The decoration, being mainly polychrome marble, is mostly very flat in nature, but a sort of order is established by the regular compartments and the circular motifs which repeat the shape of the round window. <ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>For the first time, Alberti linked the lower roofs of the aisles to nave using two large scrolls. These were to become a standard Renaissance device for solving the problem of different roof heights and bridge the space between horizontal and vertical surfaces.<ref>[[Nikolaus Pevsner]], ''An Outline of European Architecture'', Pelican, 1964, ISBN unknown</ref>

===High Renaissance===

In the late 15th century and early 16th century architects such as [[Bramante]], [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]] and others showed a mastery of the revived style and ability to apply it to buildings such as churches and city palazzo which were quite different to the structures of ancient times. The style became more decorated and ornamental, statuary, domes and [[cupola]]s becoming very evident.
The architectural period is known as the "High Renaissance" and coincides with the age of [[Leonardo]], [[Michelangelo]] and [[Raphael]].

'''Bramante'''
[[Image:Milano Grazie 1.JPG|thumb|Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan.]]
[[Donato Bramante]], (1444-1514), was born in [[Urbino]] and turned from painting to architecture, found his first important patronage under [[Ludovico Sforza]], Duke of Milan, for whom he produced a number of buildings over 20 years. After the fall of [[Milan]] to the French in 1499, Bramante travelled to Rome where he achieved great success under papal patronage.<ref>Ilan Rachum</ref>

Bramante’s finest architectural achievement in Milan is his addition of crossing and choir to the abbey church of [[Santa Maria delle Grazie]]. This is a brick structure, the form of which owes much to the Northern Italian tradition of square domed [[Baptistery|baptisteries]]. The new building is almost centrally planned, except that, because of the site, the chancel extends further than the transept arms. The hemispherical dome, of approximately 20 metres across, rises up hidden inside an octagonal drum pierced at the upper level with arched classical openings. The whole exterior has delineated details decorated with the local [[terracotta]] ornamentation.

In Rome Bramante created what has been described as "a perfect architectural gem",<ref>Banister Fletcher, p. 701.</ref> the [[Tempietto]] in the Cloister of [[San Pietro in Montorio]]. This small circular temple marks the spot where St Peter was martyred and is thus the most sacred site in Rome. The building adapts the style apparent in the remains of the [[Temple of Vesta]], the most sacred site of Ancient Rome. It is enclosed by and in spatial contrast with the cloister which surrounds it. As approached from the cloister, as in the picture above, it is seen framed by an arch and columns, the shape of which are echoed in its free-standing form.

Bramante went on to work at the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] where he designed the impressive Cortili of St. Damaso and of the [[Cortile del Belvedere|Belvedere]]. In 1506 Bramante’s design for [[Pope Julius II|Pope Julius II’s]] rebuilding of [[St. Peter’s Basilica]] was selected, and the foundation stone laid. After Bramante’s death and many changes of plan, [[Michelangelo]], as chief architect, reverted to something closer to Bramante’s original proposal. See below- Michelangelo. <ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

'''Sangallo'''

[[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]], (1485-1546), was one of a family of military engineers. His uncle, [[Giuliano da Sangallo]] was one of those who submitted a plan for the rebuilding of St Peter’s and was briefly a co-director of the project, with [[Raphael]].<ref>Ilan Rachum</ref>
Antonio da Sangallo also submitted a plan for St Peter’s and became the chief architect after the death of Raphael, to be succeeded himself by Michelangelo.
[[Image:Palazzo Farnese.JPG|thumb|220px|left|The [[Palazzo Farnese]], [[Rome]] (1534-1545). Designed by [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger|Sangallo]] and [[Michelangelo]].]]
His fame does not rest upon his association with St Peter’s but in his building of the [[Farnese Palace]], “the grandest palace of this period”, started in 1530.<ref>Banister Fletcher</ref> The impression of grandness lies in part in its sheer size, (56 m long by 29.5 meters high) and in its lofty location overlooking a broad piazza. It is also a building of beautiful proportion, unusual for such a large and luxurious house of the date in having been built principally of stuccoed brick, rather than of stone. Against the smooth pink-washed walls the stone ''quoins'' of the corners, the massive rusticated portal and the stately repetition of finely-detailed windows give a powerful effect, setting a new standard of elegance in palace-building. The upper of the three equally-sized floors was added by Michelangelo. It is probably just as well that this impressive building is of brick; the travetine for its architectural details came not from a quarry, but from the [[Colosseum]].<ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

'''Raphael'''

[[Raphael]], (1483-1520), [[Urbino]], trained under [[Perugino]] in [[Perugia]] before moving to Florence, was for a time the chief architect for [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter’s]], working in conjunction with Antonio Sangallo. He also designed a number of buildings, most of which were finished by others. His single most influential work is the Palazzo Pandolfini in Florence with its two stories of strongly articulated windows of a "[[tabernacle]]" type, each set around with ordered pilasters, cornice and alternate arched and triangular pediments. <ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

===Mannerism===
[[Mannerist architecture|Mannerism]] was marked by widely diverging tendencies in the work of [[Michelangelo]], [[Giulio Romano]], [[Baldassare Peruzzi|Peruzzi]] and [[Andrea Palladio]], that led to the [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] style in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric.
[[Image:Palazzo Massimo.jpg|thumb|220px|left|[[Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne]].]]
'''Peruzzi'''

[[Baldassare Peruzzi]], (1481-1536), was an architect born in [[Siena]], but working in Rome, whose work bridges the High Renaissance and the Mannerist.
His Villa Farnesiana of 1509 is a very regular monumental cube of two equal stories, the bays being strongly articulated by orders of pilasters. The building is unusual for its frescoed walls. <ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

Peruzzi’s most famous work is the [[Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne]] in Rome. The unusual features of this building are that its façade curves gently around a curving street. It has in its ground floor a dark central portico running parallel to the street, but as a semi enclosed space, rather than an open loggia. Above this rise three undifferentiated floors, the upper two with identical small horizontal windows in thin flat frames which contrast strangely with the deep porch, which serving, from the time of its building, as a refuge to the city’s poor.<ref>Nikolaus Pevsner</ref>

'''Giulio Romano'''

[[Giulio Romano]] (1499-1546), was a pupil of Raphael, assisting him on various works for the Vatican. Romano was also a highly inventive designer, working for [[Frederick II, Duke of Mantua|Federico II Gonzaga]] at Mantua on the [[Palazzo Te]], a project which combined his skills as architect, sculptor and painter. In this work he uses [[illusion|illusionistic effects]], surprising combination of architectural form and texture and the frequent use of features that seem somewhat disproportionate or out of alignment. The total effect is eerie and disturbing. Ilan Rachum cites Romano as ''“one of the first promoters of Mannerism”'' <ref>Ilan Rachum</ref>
====Michelangelo====
[[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] (1475-1564), was one of the creative giants whose achievements mark the High Renaissance. He excelled in each of the fields of painting, sculpture and architecture and his achievements brought about significant changes in each area. His architectural fame lies chiefly in two buildings:- the interiors of the [[Laurentian Library]] and its lobby at the monastery of San Lorenzo in Florence, and the Basilica of St. Peter in Rome.
[[Image:Petersdom von Engelsburg gesehen.jpg|thumb|250px|St. Peter's Basilica.]]
'''St. Peter's'''

[[St Peter's Basilica|St Peter's]] was ''"the greatest creation of the Renaissance"'',<ref>Banister Fletcher, p719</ref> and a great number of architects contributed their skills to it. But at its completion, there was more of Michelangelo’s design than of any other architect, before or after him.
The plan that was accepted at the laying of the foundation stone in 1506 was that by Bramante. Various changes in plan occurred in the series of architects that succeeded him, but Michelangelo, when he took over the project in 1546, reverted to Bramante’s Greek-cross plan and redesigned the piers, the walls and the dome, giving the lower weight-bearing members massive proportions and eliminating the encircling aisles from the chancel and identical transept arms. [[Helen Gardner]] says: "Michelangelo, with a few strokes of the pen, converted its snowflake complexity into a massive, cohesive unity." <ref>[[Helen Gardner]], ''Art through the Ages'', 1970, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc. ISBN 07679933</ref>

Michelangelo’s dome was a masterpiece of design using two masonry shells, one within the other and crowned by a massive lantern supported, as at Florence, on ribs. For the exterior of the building he designed a giant order which defines every external bay, the whole lot being held together by a wide cornice which runs unbroken like a rippling ribbon around the entire building.

There is a wooden model of the dome, showing its outer shell as hemispherical. When Michelangelo died in 1564, the building had reached the height of the drum. The architect who succeeded Michelangelo was [[Giacomo della Porta]]. The dome, as built, has a much steeper projection than the dome of the model. It is generally presumed that it was della Porta who made this change to the design, to lessen the outward thrust. But, in fact it is unknown who it was that made this change, and it equally possible, and in fact a stylistic likelihood that the person who decided upon the more dynamic outline was Michelangelo himself, at some time during the years that he supervised the project.<ref>Pevsner and Gardener suggest that Michelangelo began with the idea of a pointed dome, as in Florence, then in his old age reverted to the lower silhouette, and that della Porta stuck to Michelangelo's original concept. Mignacca, on the other hand, suggests that the pointed dome was Michelangelo's final, and brilliant, solution to the apparent visual tension within the building.</ref>
[[Image:Laurentian Library vestibule.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The vestibule of the Laurentian Library]]
'''Laurentian Library'''

Michelangelo was at his most Mannerist in the design of the vestibule of the [[Laurentian Library]], also built by him to house the [[Cosimo de' Medici|Medici]] collection of books at the convent of [[San Lorenzo, Florence|San Lorenzo]] in Florence, the same San Lorenzo’s at which [[Brunelleschi]] had recast church architecture into a Classical mold and established clear formula for the use of [[Classical orders]] and their various components.

Michelangelo takes all Brunelleschi’s components and bends them to his will. The Library is upstairs. It is a long low building with an ornate wooden ceiling, a matching floor and crowded with corrals finished by his successors to Michelangelo’s design. But it is a light room, the natural lighting streaming through a long row of windows that appear positively crammed between the order of pilasters that march along the wall. The vestibule, on the other hand, is tall, taller than it is wide and is crowded by a large staircase that pours out of the library in what [[Nikolaus Pevsner|Pevsner]] refers to as a “flow of lava”, and bursts in three directions when it meets the balustrade of the landing. It is an intimidating staircase, made all the more so because the rise of the stairs at the center is steeper than at the two sides, fitting only eight steps into the space of nine.

The space is crowded and it is to be expected that the wall spaces would be divided by pilasters of low projection. But Michelangelo has chosen to use paired columns, which, instead of standing out boldly from the wall, he has sunk deep into recesses within the wall itself. In San Lorenzo's church nearby, Brunelleschi used little scrolling console brackets to break the strongly horizontal line of the course above the arcade. Michelangelo has borrowed Brunelleschi’s motifs and stood each pair of sunken columns on a pair of twin console brackets. [[Nikolaus Pevsner|Pevsner]] says the ''“Laurenziana… reveals Mannerism in its most sublime architectural form”''. <ref>Pevsner</ref> <ref>Ludwig Goldscheider, ''Michelangelo'', 1964, Phaidon, ISBN unknown</ref>
[[Image:Il Gesu.jpg|thumb|left|Il Gesù, designed by Giacomo della Porta.]]
'''Giacomo della Porta'''

[[Giacomo della Porta]], (c.1533-1602), was famous as the architect who made the dome of St Peter’s Basilica a reality. The change in outline between the dome as it appears in the model and the dome as it was built, has brought about speculation as to whether the changes originated with della Porta or with Michelangelo himself.

Della Porta spent nearly all his working life in Rome, designing villas, palazzi and churches in the Mannerist style. One of his most famous works is the façade of the Church of ''il Gesù'', a project that he inherited from his teacher [[Vignola]]. Most characteristics of the original design are maintained, subtly transformed to give more weight to the central section, where della Porta uses, among other motifs, a low triangular pediment overlaid on a segmental one above the main door. The upper storey and its pediment give the impression of compressing the lower one. The center section, like that of Sant'Andrea at Mantua, is based on the Triumphal Arch, but has two clear horizontal divisions like [[Santa Maria Novella]]. See Alberti above. The problem of linking the aisles to the nave is solved using Alberti’s scrolls, in contrasts to Vignola’s solution which provided much smaller brackets and four statues to stand above the paired pilasters, visually weighing down the corners of the building. The influence of the design may be seen in Baroque churches throughout Europe.

====Andrea Palladio====
[[Image:La Rotonda.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Villa Capra La Rotonda]].]]
[[Andrea Palladio]], (1518-80), "the most influential architect of the whole Renaissance"',<ref>Banister Fletcher, p.738</ref> was, as a stone mason, introduced to Humanism by the poet [[Giangiorgio Trissino]]. His first major architectural commission was the rebuilding of the [[Basilica Palladiana]] at [[Vicenza]], in the [[Veneto]] where he was to work most of his life. <ref>Ilan Rachum</ref>

Palladio was to transform the architectural style of both palaces and churches by taking a different perspective on the notion of Classicism. While the architects of Florence and Rome looked to structures like the [[Coliseum]] and the [[Arch of Constantine]] to provide formulae, Palladio looked to classical temples with their simple peristyle form. When he used the “[[Arch of Constantine|triumphal arch]]” motif of a large arched opening with lower square-topped opening on either side, he invariably applied it on a small scale, such as windows, rather than on a large scale as Alberti used it at Sant’Andrea’s. This Ancient Roman motif <ref>described by the architectural writer [[Sebastiano Serlio]] (1475–1554) in ''Tutte l'opere d'architettura et prospetivaref''</ref> is often referred to as the ''Palladian Arch''.

The best known of Palladio’s domestic buildings is the [[Villa Capra]], otherwise known as "la Rotonda", a centrally planned house with a domed central hall and four identical facades, each with a temple-like portico like that of the [[Pantheon]] in Rome. <ref>Manfred Wundram, Thomas Pape, Paolo Marton, ''Andrea Palladio'', Taschen, ISBN 3822802719</ref>

Like Alberti, della Porta and others, in the designing of a church facade, Palladio was confronted by the problem of visually linking the aisles to the nave while maintaining and defining the structure of the building. Palladio’s solution was entirely different to that employed by della Porta. At the church of [[San Giorgio Maggiore]] in Venice he overlays a tall temple, its columns raised on high plinths, over another low wide temple façade, its columns rising from the basements and its narrow lintel and pilasters appearing behind the giant order of the central nave. <ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

===Progression from Early Renaissance through to Baroque===

In Italy, there appears to be a seamless progression from Early Renaissance architecture through the High Renaissance and Mannerist to the Baroque style. Pevsner comments about the vestibule of the Laurentian Library that it "has often been said that the motifs of the walls show Michelangelo as the father of the Baroque".

While continuity may be the case in Italy, it was not necessarily the case elsewhere. The adoption of the Renaissance style of architecture was slower in some areas than in others, as may be seen in England, for example. Indeed, as [[Pope Julius II]] was having the ancient Basilica of St. Peter’s demolished to make way for the new, [[Henry VII]] of England was adding a glorious new chapel in the Perpendicular Gothic style to [[Westminster Abbey]].

Likewise, the style that was to become known as Baroque evolved in Italy in the early 1600s, at about time that the first fully Renaissance buildings were constructed at Greenwich and Whitehall in England, after a prolonged period of experimentation with Classical motifs applied to local architectural forms, or conversely, the adoption of Renaissance structural forms in the broadest sense with an absence of the formulae that governed their use. While the English were just discovering what the rules of Classicism were, the Italians were experimenting with methods of breaking them. In England, following the [[Restoration]] of the Monarchy in 1660, the architectural climate had changed, and taste moved in the direction of the Baroque. Rather than evolving, as it did in Italy, it arrived, fully fledged.

In a similar way, in many parts of Europe that had few purely classical and ordered buildings like Brunelleschi’s Santo Spirito and Michelozzo’s Medici Riccardi Palace, Baroque architecture appeared almost unheralded, on the heels of a sort of Proto-Renaissance local style.<ref>Janson, H.W., Anthony F. Janson (1997). ''History of Art'', New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.. ISBN 0810934426.</ref> The spread of the Baroque and its replacement of traditional and more conservative Renaissance architecture was particularly apparent in the building of churches as part of the [[Counter Reformation]].<ref>Pevsner</ref>
{{main|Baroque architecture}}

==Spread of Renaissance architecture==
[[Image:Venezia - Ospedale - Foto G. Dall'Orto, 2 lug 2006 - 03.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Scuola Grande di San Marco]], [[Venice]].]]

====Italy====
Having its origins in Florence, the Renaissance spread throughout Tuscany, to Lombardy, Rome and beyond. In 1499 the French captured [[Milan]] causing Bramante to flee to Rome, where he studied ancient ruins, and with these in mind designed some of the most important buildings of the High Renaissance period. <ref>Cropplestone, Trewin (1963). ''World Architecture''. Hamlyn. Page 242</ref> Alberti, one of the pioneers of Renaissance architecture designed his most notable works in Mantua. In [[Venice]], [[San Zaccaria di Venezia|San Zaccaria]] received its Renaissance facade at the hands of Antonio Gambello and Mauro Codussi, begun in the 1480s.<ref>Marion Kaminski, ''Art and Architecture of Venice'', 1999, Könemann, ISBN 3829026579</ref>

In general, the courts of most of the lesser Italian states were centers for spreading of Renaissance philosophy, art and architecture. The Renaissance flourished at the famous [[Palazzo Ducale di Urbino|Ducal Palace]] at Urbino, at [[Ferrara]] with the [[Este Castle]] and [[Palazzo dei Diamanti]] and under the [[Visconti]] in [[Milan]] at [[Certosa di Pavia]] and under the [[Sforza]] at [[Castello Sforzesco]].<ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

In southern Italy, Renaissance masters were called to [[Naples]] by [[Alfonso V of Aragon]] after his conquest of the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. The most notable examples of Renaissance architecture in that city are the [[San Giovanni a Carbonara|Cappella Caracciolo]], attributed to Bramante, and the [[Orsini family|Palazzo Orsini di Gravina]], built by Gabriele d'Angelo between 1513 and 1549.

===Beyond Italy===
{{main|Northern Renaissance}}
When the Renaissance spirit was exported into [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[England]], the [[Low Countries]], [[Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Sweden]] and Eastern Europe, it had to compromise with local traditions and climates. Buildings of the Early Renaissance style are in general absent. It was not until about 1500 that signs of Renaissance architectural style began to appear outside Italy. <ref>Janson, H.W., Anthony F. Janson, ''History of Art'', 1997, New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.. ISBN 0810934426</ref>

[[Image:Chambord-wide-2004.jpg|thumb|right|200px|French Renaissance: [[Château de Chambord]](1519-1539).]]
====France====
{{main|French Renaissance architecture}}
During the early years of the 16th century the French were involved in wars in northern Italy, bringing back to France not just the Renaissance art treasures as their war [[booty]], but also stylistic ideas. In the [[Loire Valley]] a wave of building was carried and many Renaissance chateaux appeared at this time, the earliest example being the [[Château d'Amboise]] (c. 1495) in which [[Leonardo da Vinci]] spent his last years. The style became dominant under [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] (See [[Châteaux of the Loire Valley]]).<ref>Banister Fletcher Wolf and Millen</ref>

[[image:stadhuis.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Antwerp City Hall]] (finished in [[1564]])]]
====Netherlands====
{{main|Renaissance in the Netherlands}}
As in painting, Renaissance architecture took some time to reach the Netherlands and did not entirely supplant the Gothic elements. An architect directly influenced by the Italian masters was [[Cornelis Floris de Vriendt]], who designed the [[Antwerp City Hall|city hall of Antwerp]], finished in [[1564]].

In the early 17th century [[Dutch Republic]], [[Hendrick de Keyser]] played an important role in developing the '''Amsterdam Renaissance''' style, not slavishly following the classical style but incorporating many decorative elements, and giving a result that could also be categorized as [[Mannerism]]. [[Hans Vredeman de Vries]] was another important name, primarily as a garden architect.

Local characteristics include the prevalence of tall narrow town-houses, the "trapgevel" or [[Crow-stepped gable|Dutch gable]] and the employment of decorative triangular pediments over doors and windows in which the apex rises much more steeply than in most other Renaissance architecture, but in keeping with the profile of the gable. Carved stone details are often of low profile, resembling leatherwork. This feature was exported to England.<ref>Banister Fletcher Wolf and Millen</ref>

====England====
[[Image:Harwick Hall 07-04.jpg|thumb|right|200px|English Renaissance: [[Hardwick Hall]] (1590-1597). The numerous and large [[mullioned]] windows are typically English Renaissance, while the [[loggia]] is Italian.]]
{{main|Elizabethan architecture|Palladian architecture}}
Renaissance architecture arrived in [[England]] during the reign of [[Elizabeth I]], having first spread through the [[Low countries]] where among other features it acquired versions of the [[Crow-stepped gable|Dutch gable]], and [[Flemish]] [[strapwork]] in geometric designs adorning the walls. The new style tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as [[Longleat House]].

The first great exponent of Renaissance architecture in England was [[Inigo Jones]] ([[1573]]–[[1652]]), who had studied architecture in [[Italy]] where the influence of Palladio was very strong. Jones returned to England full of enthusiasm for the new movement and immediately began to design such buildings as the [[Queen's House]] at [[Greenwich]] in [[1616]] and the Banqueting House at [[Whitehall]] three years later. These works, with their clean lines, and symmetry were revolutionary in a country still enamoured with mullion windows, crenelations and turrets.<ref>Banister Fletcher John Summerson, ''Architecture in Britain 1530-1830'', 1977 ed., Pelican, ISBN 0140560033</ref>

[[Image:Fredriksborg palace.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Nordic Renaissance: [[Frederiksborg Palace]] (1602-1620).]]
====Scandinavia====

The Renaissance architecture that found its way to [[Scandinavia]] was (like the English) influenced by the Flemish architecture, and included high gables and a castle air as demonstrated in the architecture of [[Frederiksborg Palace]]. Consequently much of the Neo-Renaissance to be found in the Scandinavian countries is derived from this source.<ref>Wolf and Millen</ref>

====Germany====
[[Image:20060416-Michaelskirche Muenchen.jpg|thumb|St Michael's Church, Munich]]
{{main|German Renaissance}}
The Renaissance in Germany was inspired by German philosophers and artist such as [[Johannes Reuchlin]] and [[Albrecht Dürer]] who visit Italy. Important architecture of this period are especially the [[Landshut]] Residence, the castle in [[Heidelberg]] and the Town Hall in Augsburg. [[Michaelskirche (München)|St Michael]] in Munich is the largest Renaissance church north of the Alps. It was built by [[William V, Duke of Bavaria|Duke William V]] of [[Bavaria]] between 1583 and 1597 as a spiritual center for the [[Counter Reformation]] and was inspired by the Church of [[il Gesù]] in Rome. The architect is unknown.<ref>Banister Fletcher Wolf and Millen Martindale</ref>

[[Image:Ventana2.jpg|left|220px|thumb|The Escorial, Spain.]]

====Spain====
{{main|Architecture of the Spanish Renaissance}}

In [[Spain]], Renaissance began to be grafted to Gothic forms in the last decades of the [[15th century]]. The new style is called [[Plateresque]], because of the extremely decorated facades, that brought to the mind the decorative motifs of the intricately detailed work of [[silversmith]]s, the “Plateros”. Classical orders and candelabra motifs (''a candelieri'') combined freely into symmetrical wholes.

From the mid-sixteenth century, under such architects as Pedro Machuca, [[Juan Bautista de Toledo]] and [[Juan de Herrera]] there was a closer adherence to the art of ancient Rome, sometimes anticipating [[Manierism]], examples of which include the [[palace of Charles V]] in [[Granada]] and the [[Escorial]]. <ref>Banister Fletcher Wolf and Millen Martindale</ref>

[[Image:Belem.Torre05.jpg|thumb|Torre de Belém, Lisbon]]
====Portugal====

In [[Portugal]], the adoption of the Renaissance style was similar in pattern to the early Spanish styles. The so-called [[Manueline]] style married Renaissance elements to Gothic structures with the superficial application of exuberant ornament that was similar to the [[Isabelline Gothic]] of Spain. The [[Torre de Belém]], commemorating the expedition of [[Vasco da Gama]] is a fine example. Later examples of Renaissance architecture in Portugal include the cathedrals of [[Leiria]] and [[Portalegre]], the [[Jesuit]] college at [[Évora]] and the church of [[São Roque]] in [[Lisbon]]. <ref>Banister Fletcher</ref>

[[Image:Ratusz Poznań Woźna.jpg|thumb|left|Town Hall, Poznań, rebuilt by [[Giovanni Battista di Quadro]], 1550-1555]]

====Poland====

{{main|Renaissance in Poland}}
[[Polish Renaissance]] architecture is divided into three periods: The First period ([[1500]]-[[1550]]), is the so called "Italian". Most of Renaissance buildings were building of this time were by Italian architects, mainly from [[Florence]] including [[Francesco Florentino]] and [[Bartolomeo Berrecci]].

In the Second period ([[1550]]-[[1600]]), Renaissance achitecture became more common, with the beginnings of [[Mannerist]] and under the influence of the Netherlands, particularly in [[Pommerania]]. Buildings include the New [[Sukiennice|Cloth Hall]] in Cracow and city halls in [[Tarnów]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Chełm]] (demolished) and most famously in [[Poznań]].

In the Third period ([[1600]]-[[1650]]), the rising power of [[Jesuits]] and [[Counter Reformation]] gave impetus to the development of Mannerist architecture and Baroque. <ref> Harald Busch, Bernd Lohse, Hans Weigert, ''Baukunst der Renaissance in Europa. Von Spätgotik bis zum Manierismus'', Frankfurt af Main, 1960 Wilfried Koch, ''Style w architekturze'', Warsaw 1996 Tadeusz Broniewski, ''Historia architektury dla wszystkich'' Wydawnictwo Ossolineum, 1990 Mieczysław Gębarowicz, ''Studia nad dziejami kultury artystycznej późnego renesansu w Polsce'', Toruń 1962</ref>

====Kingdom of Hungary====
[[Image:Sárospatak - Castle.jpg|thumb|220px|The [[Rákóczi]] Castle in [[Sárospatak]] <ref>[http://www.nordtour.hu/1-753.html Rákóczi Castle] accessed 23 October 2006</ref>.]]
{{main|Renaissance architecture in Eastern Europe}}
One of the earliest places to be influenced by the Renaissance style of architecture was [[Hungary]]. The style appeared following the marriage of King [[Matthias Corvinus]] and Beatrix of Naples in 1476. Many Italian artists, craftsmen and [[mason]]s arrived at [[Buda]] with the new queen. The most important work of Hungarian Renaissance ecclesiastical architecture is the Bakócz Chapel in the, now rebuilt and mostly nineteenth century, [[Esztergom Basilica]]. <ref>[http://www.hung-art.hu/kep/zmisc/faragvan/162_sz/bakocz01.jpg Image of Bakócz Chapel] (1506-08) </ref>

====Russia====

[[Moscow Kremlin]]

* [[Palace of Facets]]
* [[Cathedral of the Archangel]]
* [[Cathedral of the Dormition]]
* [[Cathedral of the Annunciation]]

[[Image:Cathédrale Marie-Reine-du-Monde intérieur.jpg|thumb|Our Lady, Queen of the World Basilica, Montreal, Canada, 19th century.]]
== Legacy of Renaissance architecture ==

During the 19th century there was a conscious revival of [[Neo-Renaissance|Renaissance style]] architecture, that parallelled the [[Gothic Revival]]. Whereas the Gothic style was perceived by architectural theorists <ref>[[John Ruskin]] [[Cambridge Camden Society]]</ref>as being the most appropriate style for Church building, the Early Renaissance style was considered the most appropriate for secular buildings requiring an appearance of dignity and reliability such as banks and gentlemen's clubs.<ref>The Reform Club, [[Charles Barry]]</ref>. Buildings that sought to impress, such as the Paris Opera, were often of a more Mannerist or Baroque style. <ref>[[Charles Garnier]]</ref> Architects of factories, office blocks and department stores continued to use the Renaissance palazzo form into the 20th century. <ref>[[Louis Sullivan]]</ref><ref>Nikolaus Pevsner</ref>

Many ideas in Renaissance architecture can be traced through subsequent architectural movements- from Renaissance to High-Renaissance, to Mannerism, to Baroque (or Rococo), to Neo-Classicism, to Eclecticism, to Modernism, and to Post-Modernism. The influence of Renaissance architecture can still be seen in many of the modern styles and rules of architecture today.

 

== See also ==

* [[Renaissance]]
* [[Renaissance art]]
* [[Northern Renaissance]]
* [[Mannerism]]
* [[Baroque Architecture]]
* [[List of notable Renaissance structures]]
 

== References ==
[[Image:Genova-palazzodoria01.jpg|thumb|A late Renaissance quarter in [[Genoa]].]]
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>
==Bibliography==
* Sir [[Banister Fletcher]], ''A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method'', first published 1896, current edition 2001, Elsevier Science & Technology ISBN 0750622679
* Tadeusz Broniewski, ''Historia architektury dla wszystkich Wydawnictwo Ossolineum'', 1990
* Harald Busch, Bernd Lohse, Hans Weigert, ''Baukunst der Renaissance in Europa''. Von Spätgotik bis zum Manierismus, Frankfurt af Main, 1960
* Trewin Cropplestone, ''World Architecture'', 1963, Hamlyn. ISBN unknown
* Giovanni Fanelli, ''Brunelleschi'', 1980, Becocci editore Firenze. ISBN unknown
* [[Helen Gardner]], ''Art through the Ages'', 5th edition, Harcourt, Brace and World, inc.,ISBN 07679933
* Mieczysław Gębarowicz, ''Studia nad dziejami kultury artystycznej późnego renesansu w Polsce'', Toruń 1962
* Ludwig Goldscheider, ''Michelangelo'', 1964, Phaidon, ISBN unknown
* J.R.Hale, ''Renaissance Europe, 1480-1520'', 1971, Fontana ISBN 0006324355
* Brigitte Hintzen-Bohlen, Jurgen Sorges, ''Rome and the Vatican City'', Konemann, ISBN 3829031092
* Janson, H.W., Anthony F. Janson, ''History of Art'', 1997, New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.. ISBN 0810934426
* Marion Kaminski, ''Art and Architecture of Venice'', 1999, Könemann, ISBN 3829026579
* Wilfried Koch, ''Style w architekturze'', Warsaw 1996
* Andrew Martindale, ''Man and the Renaissance'', 1966, Paul Hamlyn, ISBN unknown
* Anne Mueller von der Haegen, Ruth Strasser, ''Art and Architecture of Tuscany'', 2000, Konemann, ISBN 3829026528
* [[Nikolaus Pevsner]], ''An Outline of European Architecture'', Pelican, 1964, ISBN unknown
* Ilan Rachum, ''The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia'', 1979, Octopus, ISBN 0706408578
* Joseph Rykwert, ''Leonis Baptiste Alberti, Architectural Design'', Vol 49 No 5-6, Holland St, London
* John Summerson, ''Architecture in Britain 1530-1830'', 1977 ed., Pelican, ISBN 0140560033
* Robert Erich Wolf and Ronald Millen, ''Renaissance and Mannerist Art'', 1968, Harry N. Abrams, ISBN not known
* Manfred Wundram, Thomas Pape, Paolo Marton, ''Andrea Palladio'', Taschen, ISBN 3822802719

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.greatbuildings.com/types/styles/renaissance.html Renaissance Architecture in Great Buildings Online]

[[Category:Architectural history]]
[[Category:Italian architecture]]
[[Category:Renaissance]]
[[Category:Renaissance architecture| ]]

{{Link FA|es}}
{{Link FA|pt}}

[[es:Arquitectura del Renacimiento]]
[[fr:Architecture Renaissance]]
[[it:Architettura del Rinascimento]]
[[he:אדריכלות הרנסאנס]]
[[lt:Renesansas]]
[[ja:ルネサンス建築]]
[[pl:Architektura renesansu]]
[[pt:Arquitetura do Renascimento]]
[[sr:Архитектура ренесансног доба]]
[[ta:மறுமலர்ச்சிக் கட்டிடக்கலை]]
[[zh:文艺复兴建筑]]

Angelis Gatsos

2007-01-03T21:40:50Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguate Edessa to Edessa, Greece using popups

'''Aggelis Gatsos''' ([[Greek Language|Greek]]:Αγγελής Γάτσος) ([[1771]] - [[1839]]) was a [[Macedonians (Greek)|Macedonian]] military commander during the [[Greek War of Independence]]. He was born in the village of [[Sarakini]], [[Edessa, Greece|Edessa]].

==His Life==

Aggelis Gatsos played an important role during the [[Greek War of Independence|Revolution]] not only in [[Macedonia]], but also in [[Central Greece|Rumeli]].
He joint the [[Klepht|Klephts]] bands of Central Macedonia in the age of 20 and played significant role during the liberation of [[Naoussa]] from the Ottomans in [[February]], [[1822]].
After the city was destroyed by the Ottoman Army, he escaped with [[Anastasios Karatasos]] to South Greece where he took part in many battles of the Revolution.
In [[1826]] he went to [[Euboea]] were he created his own band and participated in the battle of [[Atalanti (island)]].
After the creation of the Greek State, he joint the Army and died in [[Chalkida]], as [[Colonel]] in [[1839]].

==See also==

*[[Greek War of Independence]]

[[Category:1771 births|Gatsos, Aggelis]]
[[Category:1839 deaths|Gatsos, Aggelis]]
[[Category:Greek revolutionaries|Gatsos, Aggelis]]
[[Category:Natives of Central Macedonia|Gatsos, Aggelis]]
[[Category:People of the Greek War of Independence|Gatsos, Aggelis]]
[[Category:Macedonian (Greek) revolutionaries|Gatsos, Aggelis]]

Rebirth (Album)

2006-11-26T00:10:03Z

VirtualDelight: rm comment and unsourced change of selling

{{Unreferenced}}
{{Infobox Album | 
Name = Rebirth |
Type = [[Album]] |
Artist = [[Jennifer Lopez]] |
Cover = lopez-rebirth.jpg |
Released = [[March 1]], [[2005]] ([[United States|U.S.]]) |
Recorded = 2004 |
Genre = [[pop music|Pop]]/[[rhythm and blues|R&B]] |
Length = 48:17 |
Label = [[Epic Records|Epic]] |
Producer = [[Marc Anthony]], Robert Anthony, [[Big Boi]], Gregory Bruno, Cutmaster Swift, Danja Mowf, Hector Diaz, [[Rich Harrison]], [[Fred Jerkins III]], [[Rodney Jerkins]], Nyce Boy, [[Cory Rooney]] (also executive), [[Timbaland]] |
Reviews = *Stephen Thomas Erlewine, [[All Music Guide]] {{rating-5|4}} [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:mroibkk9dakb link]
*Mike Schiller, ''[[PopMatters]]'' {{rating-10|4}} [http://www.popmatters.com/music/reviews/l/lopezjennifer-rebirth.shtml link]
*''[[Rolling Stone]]'' {{rating-5|2}} [http://www.rollingstone.com/reviews/album/_/id/6807301/ link]
*[[E!]] (C-) [http://www.eonline.com/Reviews/Facts/Music/RevID/0,1107,3408,00.html link] |
Last album = ''[[This Is Me... Then]]'' (2002) |
This album = ''Rebirth'' (2005) |
Next album = ''[[Como Ama Una Mujer]]'' (2007) |
Misc = {{Extra album cover |
Upper caption = Alternate cover |
Background = lightsteelblue |
Cover = Jennifer Lopez - Rebirth DualDisc.jpg |
Lower caption = DualDisc edition cover
}}
}}

'''''Rebirth''''' is the fourth [[studio album]] (fifth overall) by [[United States|American]] singer [[Jennifer Lopez]], released in 2005 (see [[2005 in music]]) via [[Epic Records]].

The album's working title, ''Call Me Jennifer'', was a response to the "J.Lo" [[moniker]] which Lopez claims gave her an unfair reputation as an over-the-top [[diva]]. The eventual title was chosen as an attempt to start a new beginning after the "[[Bennifer]]" fall-out and the immense critical and commercial failure of the 2003's film ''[[Gigli]]''. The music itself is standard Lopez fare, '80s-tinged urban pop and [[funk]] (see [[Timeline of trends in music (1980-1989)|1980s in music]]) combined with orchestral [[ballad]]s. Her new husband, [[Marc Anthony]], co-wrote and co-produced one of the album's tracks, "(Can't Believe) This Is Me."

''Rebirth'' was her worst-received album to date, selling approximately 1.3 million in the U.S. Critical reception was mixed; comments in negative reviews were mainly focused on Lopez's weak [[vocal range]] and her reliance on overproduced material. ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' wrote "J-Lo's career hits its ''Gigli''," referring to Lopez's notoriously poorly-received film. Still, the album did produce one modest hit, the funky "[[Get Right]]."

''Rebirth'' was also released in a [[DualDisc]] format. The DualDisc contains the album in enhanced stereo, the "Get Right" [[music video]], the "Get Right" [[remix]] music video featuring rapper [[Fabolous]], and a short [[documentary film|documentary]] on the recording of the album. The documentary was originally shot by acclaimed [[film director|director]] [[D. A. Pennebaker]], who shot [[Bob Dylan]]'s ''[[Dont Look Back]]''. Lopez was reportedly stunned by her depiction, in which she was complaining angrily about the sound of her voice and verbally abusing her employees.

A few weeks after "Get Right" was released to radio stations, the song and the album became the subjects of controversy when it was discovered that the beat and some of the lyrics had plagiarised [[Usher (entertainer)|Usher]]'s unreleased song "[[Ride (song)|Ride]]." A few months later it was found out that the album contained another "cast off," "Ryde or Die," which was meant to be on [[Brandy (entertainer)|Brandy]]'s 2004's album ''[[Afrodisiac]]''. Brandy's voice can apparently be heard on the song as well, but she is not credited in the album for her vocals, which further fueled the controversy.

==Track listing==
#"[[Get Right]]" ([[James Brown]], [[Rich Harrison]]) – 3:45
#"Step into My World" ([[Rodney Jerkins]], [[Fred Jerkins III]], D. Thomas, Hector Diaz) – 4:05
#"[[Hold You Down]]" (featuring [[Fat Joe]]) (Larry Troutman, [[Cory Rooney]], [[Fat Joe|Joe Cartagena]], G. Christopher, G. Bruno, Makeba Riddick, W. Beck) – 4:32
#"Whatever You Wanna Do" (Rich Harrison, Harvey Fuqua, D.A. Churchill, K.L. Hawkins) – 3:49
#"Cherry Pie" (Bob Robinson, Cory Rooney, Jennifer Lopez, Tim Kelley) – 4:06
#"I Got U" (D. Thomas, Rodney Jerkins, [[LaShawn Daniels]], Fred III Jerkins, A. Pearce) – 3:57
#"Still Around" (Cory Rooney, Antwan Patton, A. Hall) – 3:22
#"Ryde or Die" ([[Brandy (entertainer)|Brandy Norwood]], Robert Smith, Blake English) – 4:03
#"I, Love" (Bob Robinson, Cory Rooney, Tim Kelley) – 3:42
#"He'll Be Back" ([[Timbaland|Tim Mosley]], W. Millsap, Chris Nelson) – 4:18
#"(Can't Believe) This Is Me" (Cory Rooney, Jennifer Lopez, [[Marc Anthony]]) – 4:44
#"Get Right" (remix featuring [[Fabolous]]) (James Brown, Rich Harrison) – 3:50

*'''DualDisc edition'''
Includes a DVD featuring the entire album in enhanced stereo plus the contents below:
#"Rebirth" Documentary
#"Get Right" (video)
#"Get Right" (remix featuring Fabolous) (video)

*'''Japanese edition'''
:13. "Get Right" (instrumental)

==Personnel==
*Marco Britti — [[drum]]s
*Mario Guini — [[guitar]]
*Rudaina Haddad — background vocals
*Tim Kelley — [[bass guitar|bass]], [[keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
*Jennifer Lopez — vocals
*Candice Nelson — background vocals
*Erben Perez — bass
*Makeba Riddick — background vocals
*Bob Robinson — [[electric guitar]]
*Cory Rooney — keyboards
*Delisha Thomas — background vocals
*Andrea Mendez — background vocals

==Production==
*Mert Alas — photography
*Jim Annunziato — assistant engineer
*Marc Anthony — producer
*Robert Anthony — producer
*Chris Avedon — engineer
*Scotty Beats — engineer
*[[Big Boi]] — producer
*Gregory Bruno — producer
*Cutmaster Swift — producer
*Danja Mowf — producer
*Hector Diaz — programming, producer
*Dylan Ely — assistant engineer
*Mike Evans — production coordination
*Katie Grand — stylist
*Rich Harrison — programming, producer
*Fred "Uncle Freddie" Jerkins III — producer
*Rodney Jerkins — programming, producer
*Tim Kelley — drum programming
*Peter Wade Keusch — engineer, mixing
*Jennifer Lopez — executive producer
*Andrew McKay — production coordination
*Nyce Boy — producer
*Oribe — hair stylist
*Julian Peploe — art direction
*William E. Pettaway Jr. — production coordination
*Marcus Piggott — photography
*Herb Powers — mastering
*Geneva Randolph — production coordination
*Cory Rooney — producer, executive producer, vocal producer
*Bruce Swedien — engineer, mixing
*Delisha Thomas — vocal arrangement
*Charlotte Tilbury — make-up
*[[Timbaland]] — producer
*Mike Tschupp — assistant engineer

==Charts==
{| class="wikitable"
!align="center"|Chart (2005)
!align="center"|Peak position
|-
|align="left"|U.S. [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]]
|align="center"|2
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums
|align="center"|2
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' Top Internet Albums
|align="center"|2
|-
|align="left"|[[ARIA Charts|Australia Top 100 Albums]]
|align="center"|10
|-
|align="left"|Canada Top 50 Albums
|align="center"|2
|-
|align="left"|France Top 150 Albums
|align="center"|7
|-
|align="left"|Germany Top 100 Albums
|align="center"|3
|-
|align="left"|Greece Top 50 Albums
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Italy Top 50 Albums
|align="center"|3
|-
|align="left"|Mexico Top 100 Albums
|align="center"|3
|-
|align="left"|Poland Top 50 Albums
|align="center"|8
|-
|align="left"|Switzerland Top 100 Albums
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|[[UK Albums Chart|UK Top 75 Albums]]
|align="center"|8
|}

===Chart trajectory===
{| class="wikitable"
!align="center" colspan="33"|''Billboard'' 200
|-
!align="center"|Week
!01
!02
!03
!04
!05
!06
!07
!08
!09
!10
!11
!12
!13
!14
!15
!16
!17
|-
!align="center" style="background-color: #white;"|Position
|<center>2
|<center>4
|<center>7
|<center>12
|<center>20
|<center>30
|<center>30
|<center>43
|<center>59
|<center>78
|<center>91
|<center>104
|<center>123
|<center>132
|<center>151
|<center>161
|<center>184
|-
!align="center" style="background-color: #white;"|Sales per week
|<center>261,638
|<center>86,434
|<center>60,209
|<center>60,305
|<center>32,952
|<center>25,813
|<center>24,150
|<center>19,304
|<center>16,840
|<center>15,514
|<center>10,850
|<center>9,315
|<center>8,003
|<center>7,788
|<center>6,499
|<center>6,928
|<center>5,470
|-
!align="center" style="background-color: #white;"|Total sales
|<center>261,638
|<center>348,072
|<center>408,281
|<center>468,600
|<center>501,552
|<center>527,365
|<center>551,515
|<center>570,819
|<center>587,659
|<center>603,173
|<center>614,023
|<center>623,338
|<center>631,341
|<center>639,129
|<center>645,628
|<center>652,556
|<center>658,026
|}

{{Jennifer Lopez}}

[[Category:2005 albums]]
[[Category:Jennifer Lopez albums]]
[[Category:DualDisc albums]]

[[cs:Rebirth]]
[[pt:Rebirth]]

Play (Album)

2006-11-07T17:56:52Z

VirtualDelight: Revert to the revision prior to revision 86245692 dated 2006-11-07 10:33:28 by 212.219.188.4 using popups

{{Infobox Album | 
Name = Play |
Type = [[Album]] |
Artist = [[Moby]] |
Cover = moby_play.JPG |
Released = [[June 1]] [[1999]] |
Recorded = ??? |
Genre = [[Techno]] / [[Electronica]] / Dance |
Length = 63:03 |
Label = [[V2 Records]] |
Producer = [[Moby]] |
Reviews = *[[All Music Guide]] {{Rating-5|4.5}} [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:33o20r4au48p link]
*[[Robert Christgau]] (A+) [http://www.robertchristgau.com/get_artist.php?name=moby link]
*[[Pitchfork Media|Pitchfork]] {{Rating-5|2.5}} [http://pitchforkmedia.com/record-reviews/m/moby/play.shtml link] |
Last album = ''[[I Like to Score]]'' (1997) |
This album = ''Play'' (1999) |
Next album = ''[[Play: The B Sides]]'' (2000) |
}}
'''''Play''''' is a 1999 [[techno]] music album by the musician [[Moby]]. While some of Moby's earlier work (notably the album ''[[Everything is Wrong]]'' from 1995) garnered some critical success, ''Play'' was Moby's first true critical and commercial success.

One of the more interesting aspects of this album is the ways in which it combines old [[folk music]] rhythms with modern techno sensibilities. For the album, Moby sampled heavily from the collected works of [[Alan Lomax]] in songs such as "Honey", "Find My Baby", "Run On", and "Natural Blues". This created a sound that was unique among the music that was being released at the time. While the album also has some more standard electronic tracks and ambient pieces, it is this fusion of gospel and techno that this album is usually most remembered for.

Inside the booklet included with the album, there are five short essays written by Moby, on topics such as [[vegan|veganism]], [[fundamentalism]], and [[humanitarianism]]. After the essays is a disclaimer written by Moby: "These essays are not really related to the music, so if you hate the essays you might still like the music, and if you like the essays you might hate the music. Who knows, maybe by some bizarre twist of fate you'll like them both."

== Critical and commercial success ==
It was also the first album to ever have all of its tracks licensed for use in [[film|movie]]s, [[television]] shows, or [[television commercial|commercials]]<ref name="Organization Moby">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.05/moby.html|title=Organization Moby|accessdate=2006-08-24|publisher=Wired|year=2002|author=Ethan Smith}}</ref>. One of the more notable commercials featured [[golf]]er [[Tiger Woods]] playing a round of golf around [[New York City]] to the tune of Moby's "Find My Baby". In many ways, this album helped to establish Moby as a mainstream musician. The album has sold over 2 million copies in the United States since it was released in 1999, and has sold 10 million copies worldwide. The album was also lauded by many critics as one of 1999's best albums. It was voted as the best album of the year in [[The Village Voice]] [[Pazz & Jop]] critics poll. {{RS500|341}}

In 2000, ''Play'' was re-released as a special edition album with several B-side tracks with the B Sides disc later released separately in 2004; the B-side was entitled ''[[Play: The B Sides]]''. In addition, a remix of the song "South Side", which featured a duet with [[No Doubt]] frontwoman [[Gwen Stefani]] was released as a single. Thanks to a creative video and heavy airplay, the song helped to push the success of the album even further. Later on, Play was re-released with the version of 'South Side' featuring Gwen Stefani replacing the original, therefore the original is out of print and now hard to find.

==Track listing==
#"Honey" – 3:28
#"Find My Baby" – 3:59
#"[[Porcelain (song)|Porcelain]]" – 4:01
#"Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad?" – 4:24
#"[[South Side (song)|South Side]]" – 3:49
#"Rushing" – 3:00
#"Bodyrock" – 3:36
#"Natural Blues" – 4:13
#"Machete" – 3:37
#"7" – 1:02
#"Run On" – 3:45
#"Down Slow" – 1:34
#"If Things Were Perfect" – 4:18
#"Everloving" – 3:25
#"Inside" – 4:48
#"Guitar Flute & String" – 2:09
#"The Sky Is Broken" – 4:18
#"My Weakness" – 3:37

== Singles ==
Over five singles were released from Play. These are the UK releases:

=== Honey ===
* Released: August 3rd, 1998 (US)
** August 31st, 1998 (UK)
* Highest UK Chart Position: 33

=== Run On ===
* Released: March 29th, 1999 (US)
** April 26th, 1999 (UK)
* Highest UK Chart Position: 33

=== Bodyrock ===
* Released: July 12th, 1999 (US)
** July 26th, 1999 (UK)
* Highest UK Chart Position: 38

=== Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad? ===
* Released: October 11th, 1999 (Both UK and US)
* Highest UK Chart Position: 16

=== Natural Blues ===
* Released: March 6th, 2000 (Both UK and US)
* Highest UK Chart Position: 11

=== [[Porcelain (song)|Porcelain]] ===
* Released: June 12th, 2000 (Both UK and US)
* Highest UK Chart Position: 5

=== Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad? (Remix) / Honey (featuring Kelis)===
* Released: 16 Oct, 2000 (UK)
* Highest UK Chart Position: 17

=== [[South Side (song)|South Side]] (featuring Gwen Stefani) ===
* Released: 7 November, 2000 (US)
* Highest US Chart Position: 14

== Play: The DVD ==
A DVD was released as a companion to the album, featuring the music videos (the Southside video, featuring Gwen Stefani, however, was omitted), Moby's performance on ''Later... With Jools Holland'', Moby's tour diary entitled ''Give An Idiot A Camcorder'', and a DVD-Rom component where users are able to remix two of Moby's songs.

The DVD also included a separate CD, entitled ''Moby's Megamix'', featuring remixes of Moby's songs by a number of different artists. Instead of having separate tracks, the Megamix is a single track.

== References ==
<div class="references-small"><references /></div>

==External link==
*{{MusicBrainz album|id=679841df-599d-402f-9f89-0d0bb6e94368|name =Play}}

[[Category:1999 albums]]
[[Category:Moby albums]]
[[Category:Mute Records albums]]

Abgar V.

2006-11-04T10:52:17Z

VirtualDelight: /* The legend of King Abgar */ add textlink to Ab'gar XIV

[[Image:Abgarwithimageofedessa10thcentury.jpg|frame|right|Tenth-century icon of Abgar with the ''[[mandylion]]'', the image of Christ]]
:''For the other historical kings Abgar of Osroene, see [[Osroene]]''.

'''Abgar V''' or '''Abgarus V of Edessa''' ([[4 BC]] - AD [[7]] and AD [[13]] - [[50]])  is a historical ruler of the kingdom of [[Osroene]], holding his capital at [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]]. (Compare the Syrian region that was earlier called [[Aram-Naharaim]] in the [[Old Testament]].)

== The legend of King Abgar ==
In [[Christian mythology]], the story of king Abgar of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] was an early tale of a wonder-working [[icon]], set in the heart of the region where [[iconoclast]] tradition disapproved strongly of images in general, but which this icon-legitimizing legend connected directly with [[Jesus]].

The legend tells that Abgar, king of Edessa, afflicted with an incurable sickness, had heard the fame of the power and miracles of Jesus and wrote to him, acknowledging his divinity, craving his help, and offering him asylum in his own residence; the tradition states that Jesus wrote a letter declining to go, but promising that after his ascension, he would send one of his disciples, endowed with his power, namely [[Saint Jude|Thaddeus]] (called Addaï), or one of the seventy-two Disciples, called [[Thaddeus of Edessa]].

The [[4th century]] church historian [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea]], records a tradition, in his ''Historia Ecclesiae'', I, xii or xiii, ''ca'' AD [[325]], concerning a correspondence on this occasion, exchanged between Abgar of Edessa and Jesus. Eusebius was convinced that the original letters, written in Syriac, were kept in the archives of Edessa. Eusebius also states that in due course, Judas, son of Thaddaeus, was sent in 29 AD. Eusebius copies the two letters into the text of his history.

The correspondence consisted of Abgar's letter and the answer dictated by Jesus. As the legend later expanded, a portrait of Jesus painted from life began to be mentioned. This portrait, purportedly painted by the court archivist Hannan during his visit to Jesus, is first mentioned in the [[Syriac]] text called the "Doctrine of Addai" (''Doctrina Addai''-- Addaei, Addaeus = Thaddaeus or Thaddeus), from the second half of the 4th century. Here it is said that the reply of Jesus was given not in writing, but verbally, and that the event took place in 32 AD. This '' Teaching of Addai'' is also the earliest account of an image of Jesus painted from life, enshrined by the ailing King Abgar V in one of his palaces. [[Greek language|Greek]] forms of the legend are found in the ''Acta Thaddaei,'' the "Acts of Thaddaeus".

The story of the "letter to Abgar", including the portrait made by the court painter Hannan, is repeated, with some additions, in the mid-[[5th century]] ''History of the Armenians'' of [[Moses of Chorene]], who remarked that the portrait was preserved in Edessa.

The story was later elaborated further by the church historian Evagrius, bishop of Edessa (c. 536-600), who declared for the first time (as far as is known) that the image of Jesus was "divinely wrought," and "not made by human hands." In sum, the documented legend developed from no image in Eusebius, to an image painted by Hannan in "Addai" and Moses of Chorene, to a miraculously-appearing image not made by human hands in Evagrius.

This latter concept of an "image not made by hands" ('' acheiropoietos'') formed the foundation on which the Eastern Orthodox doctrine of icons was later created in the 8th century. This doctrine held that Jesus made the first icon of himself by pressing a wet towel to his face, miraculously imprinting the cloth with his features — thus creating the prototype for all icons of Jesus, and an implied divine approval for their creation.

[[John of Damascus]], the leading architect of the church dogma favoring icons, specifically mentioned that Jesus "is said to have taken a piece of cloth and pressed it to his face, impressing on it the image of his face, which it keeps to this day" (''On the Divine Images I'').

The Abgar legend enjoyed great popularity in the East, and also in the West, during the Middle Ages: Jesus' letter was copied on parchment, inscribed in marble and metal, and used as a talisman or an amulet. Of this [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] correspondence, there survive not only a Syriac text, but an Armenian translation as well, two independent Greek versions, shorter than the Syriac, and several inscriptions on stone.

A curious legendary growth has arisen from this imaginary occurrence, with scholars disputing whether Abgar suffered from gout or from leprosy, whether the correspondence was on parchment or papyrus, and so forth. Most testimony of the 5th century, for instance [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Jerome]], is to the effect that Jesus wrote nothing. The correspondence was rejected as [[apocryphal]] by [[Pope Gelasius I]] and a Roman synod (c. 495). Biblical scholars now generally believe that the letters were fabricated, probably in the 3rd century AD, and "planted" where Eusebius eventually found them. Another theory is that the story was fabricated by [[Abgar IX of Osroene]], during whose reign the kingdom became Christianized, as a way of legitimizing its religious conversion.

The text of the letter varies. The less available variant, transcribed from the ''Doctrina Addaei'', and printed in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' 1908, is as follows:

:"Abgar Ouchama to Jesus, the Good Physician Who has appeared in the country of Jerusalem, greeting:

:"I have heard of Thee, and of Thy healing; that Thou dost not use medicines or roots, but by Thy word openest (the eyes) of the blind, makest the lame to walk, cleansest the lepers, makest the deaf to hear; how by Thy word (also) Thou healest (sick) spirits and those who are tormented with lunatic demons, and how, again, Thou raisest the dead to life. And, learning the wonders that Thou doest, it was borne in upon me that (of two things, one): either Thou hast come down from heaven, or else Thou art the Son of God, who bringest all these things to pass. Wherefore I write to Thee, and pray that thou wilt come to me, who adore Thee, and heal all the ill that I suffer, according to the faith I have in Thee. I also learn that the Jews murmur against Thee, and persecute Thee, that they seek to crucify Thee, and to destroy Thee. I possess but one small city, but it is beautiful, and large enough for us two to live in peace."

The ''Doctrina'' then continues:

:When Jesus had received the letter, in the house of the high priest of the Jews, He said to Hannan†, the secretary, "Go thou, and say to thy master, who hath sent thee to Me: 'Happy art thou who hast believed in Me, not having seen Me, for it is written of Me that those who shall see Me shall not believe in Me, and that those who shall not see Me shall believe in Me. As to that which thou hast written, that I should come to thee, (behold) all that for which I was sent here below is finished, and I ascend again to My Father who sent Me, and when I shall have ascended to Him I will send thee one of My disciples, who shall heal all thy sufferings, and shall give (thee) health again, and shall convert all who are with thee unto life eternal. And thy city shall be blessed forever, and the enemy shall never overcome it.'"

(†According to Eusebius, Jesus himself wrote the letter; nothing is mentioned of his having dictated it to Hannan.)

The [[Nuttall Encyclopaedia]] attributes the legend to a king [[Ab'gar XIV]] of Edessa.

==Liturgical use of the letter of Abgar==
The quotations paraphrasing the Gospels are actually from the famous concordance of [[Tatian]], the ''Diatessarion,'' itself compiled in the 2nd century.{{fact}} The legend could not be older than the 3rd century.

In addition to the importance it attained in the apocryphal cycle, the correspondence of King Abgar also gained a place in liturgy for some time. The decree, ''De libris non recipiendis'' ("Books not to be received"), traditionally attributed to [[Pope Gelasius I]], places the letter among the [[apocrypha]]. That in itself may be an indication of its having been interpolated among the officially sanctioned lessons of the liturgy of some churches. The Syrian liturgies commemorate the correspondence of Abgar during Lent. The Celtic liturgy appears to have attached importance to the legend; the ''Liber Hymnorum'', a manuscript preserved at Trinity College, Dublin (E. 4, 2), gives two collects on the lines of the letter to Abgar. It is even possible that this letter, followed by various prayers, may have formed a minor liturgical office in some Catholic churches.

==True images==
The account given by Thaddeus/Adda contains a detail that may be briefly referred to. Hannan, who wrote at Jesus' dictation, was archivist at Edessa and painter to King Abgar. He had been charged to paint a portrait of Jesus Christ, and brought to Edessa an icon that became an object of general veneration, and that was eventually said to have been painted (or created miraculously) by Jesus himself. Like the letter, the iconic portrait was destined be the nucleus of a legendary growth; the "Holy Face of Edessa" was chiefly famous in the Byzantine world, where the legend of the Edessa portrait forms part of the subject of the iconography of Christ, and also of the pictures of miraculous origin called ''acheiropoietoe'' ("made without hands") both in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and, in the West where the tradition is associated with [[Veronica]]s and the [[Shroud of Turin]].

==See also==

[[Christian mythology]]

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[[Walter Bauer]], ''Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity'', 1934, (in English 1971)
*Robert Eisenman, ''James the Brother of Jesus'' 1997 (Viking Penguin), especially ch. 24 "Judas the brother of Jesus" and the section "Thaddeus, Judas Thomas and the conversion of the [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Osrhoeans]]", pp 189ff.
*Ian Wilson, ''Holy faces, secret places'' 1991
*Robert Eisenman, ''James the Brother of Jesus'' 1997, especially ch. 24 "Judas the brother of James and the conversion of King Agbar"
([http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/Bauer/bauer01.htm#FN1 On-line text]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01042c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia -- Legend of Abgar]
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-08/anf08-103.htm Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. VIII:] ''Acts of the Holy Apostle Thaddeus, One of the Twelve''
*[http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/new-testament-apocrypha/1/1.php ''Epistle of Jesus Christ to Abgarus King of Edessa''] from Eusebius

[[Category:Christian legend and folklore]]
[[Category:1st century BC births]]
[[Category:50 deaths]]

[[ca:Abgar]]
[[de:Abgar]]
[[fr:Abgar]]
[[pl:Abgar V Ukkama bar Ma'nu]]
[[ru:Абгар V Уккама (Черный)]]
[[sv:Abgar]]

Andersonville (Georgia)

2006-11-02T21:40:16Z

VirtualDelight: /* External links */ remove v missed by prior rvs

[[Image:GAMap-doton-Andersonville.PNG|right|Location of Andersonville, Georgia]]

'''Andersonville''' is a city in [[Sumter County, Georgia|Sumter County]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[United States]]. The population was 331 at the 2000 census.(174 in [[1910]]). It is in the southwest part of the state, about 60 miles southwest of [[Macon, Georgia]] on the [[Central of Georgia]] [[railroad]]. During the [[American Civil War]], it was the site of a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] which is now [[Andersonville National Historic Site]].

==Geography==
Andersonville is located at {{coor dms|32|11|49|N|84|8|30|W|city}} (32.197008, -84.141701){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 3.4 [[square kilometre|km²]] (1.3 [[square mile|mi²]]), all land.

== History ==
Andersonville, originally named Anderson, Georgia, was given the name Andersonville by the United States Postal Service to prevent confusion with another city, also named Anderson. Andersonville is infamous as an [[American Civil War]] [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] [[Prisoner-of-war camp|POW camp]], [[Camp Sumter]]. The town, though very sparsely populated, was in existence before the establishment of the prison camp at the site. A small base known as Civil War village was established for visitors and Confederate soldiers. This former stockade has since become a small town. After the civil war the Andersonvillle POW camp evolved into a small town with its own hotel, post office and restaurant. Later the [[Andersonville National Historic Site]] was established as a memorial to the POWs who died at the camp. There is also a small museum to display how the town was founded and the involvement with the site of the Andersonville POW camp.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 98.3/km² (254.1/mi²). There were 142 housing units at an average density of 42.2/km² (109.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% White and 34.74% [[African American]]. 1.21% of the population were [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (United States Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There were 124 households out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.

In the city the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $29,107, and the median income for a family was $30,972. Males had a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over.

==External links==
*[http://www.andersonvillegeorgia.com/ Official website of Andersonville, Georgia]
* [http://www.americusgeorgia.net/ AmericusGeorgia.net - Area info... by and for Andersonville Locals]
*[http://andersonvillega.freeservers.com/ Official website of Andersonville]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|32.197008|-84.141701}}

[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Sumter County, Georgia]]

[[io:Andersonville, Georgia]]

Abgar V.

2006-11-01T18:31:32Z

VirtualDelight: /* The legend of King Abgar */ Disambiguation link repair - You can help! Thaddaeus

[[Image:Abgarwithimageofedessa10thcentury.jpg|frame|right|Tenth-century icon of Abgar with the ''[[mandylion]]'', the image of Christ]]
:''For the other historical kings Abgar of Osroene, see [[Osroene]]''.

'''Abgar V''' or '''Abgarus V of Edessa''' ([[4 BC]] - AD [[7]] and AD [[13]] - [[50]])  is a historical ruler of the kingdom of [[Osroene]], holding his capital at [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]]. (Compare the Syrian region that was earlier called [[Aram-Naharaim]] in the [[Old Testament]].)

== The legend of King Abgar ==
In [[Christian mythology]], the story of king Abgar of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] was an early tale of a wonder-working [[icon]], set in the heart of the region where [[iconoclast]] tradition disapproved strongly of images in general, but which this icon-legitimizing legend connected directly with [[Jesus]].

The legend tells that Abgar, king of Edessa, afflicted with an incurable sickness, had heard the fame of the power and miracles of Jesus and wrote to him, acknowledging his divinity, craving his help, and offering him asylum in his own residence; the tradition states that Jesus wrote a letter declining to go, but promising that after his ascension, he would send one of his disciples, endowed with his power, namely [[Saint Jude|Thaddeus]] (called Addaï), or one of the seventy-two Disciples, called [[Thaddeus of Edessa]].

The [[4th century]] church historian [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea]], records a tradition, in his ''Historia Ecclesiae'', I, xii or xiii, ''ca'' AD [[325]], concerning a correspondence on this occasion, exchanged between Abgar of Edessa and Jesus. Eusebius was convinced that the original letters, written in Syriac, were kept in the archives of Edessa. Eusebius also states that in due course, Judas, son of Thaddaeus, was sent in 29 AD. Eusebius copies the two letters into the text of his history.

The correspondence consisted of Abgar's letter and the answer dictated by Jesus. As the legend later expanded, a portrait of Jesus painted from life began to be mentioned. This portrait, purportedly painted by the court archivist Hannan during his visit to Jesus, is first mentioned in the [[Syriac]] text called the "Doctrine of Addai" (''Doctrina Addai''-- Addaei, Addaeus = Thaddaeus or Thaddeus), from the second half of the 4th century. Here it is said that the reply of Jesus was given not in writing, but verbally, and that the event took place in 32 AD. This '' Teaching of Addai'' is also the earliest account of an image of Jesus painted from life, enshrined by the ailing King Abgar V in one of his palaces. [[Greek language|Greek]] forms of the legend are found in the ''Acta Thaddaei,'' the "Acts of Thaddaeus".

The story of the "letter to Abgar", including the portrait made by the court painter Hannan, is repeated, with some additions, in the mid-[[5th century]] ''History of the Armenians'' of [[Moses of Chorene]], who remarked that the portrait was preserved in Edessa.

The story was later elaborated further by the church historian Evagrius, bishop of Edessa (c. 536-600), who declared for the first time (as far as is known) that the image of Jesus was "divinely wrought," and "not made by human hands." In sum, the documented legend developed from no image in Eusebius, to an image painted by Hannan in "Addai" and Moses of Chorene, to a miraculously-appearing image not made by human hands in Evagrius.

This latter concept of an "image not made by hands" ('' acheiropoietos'') formed the foundation on which the Eastern Orthodox doctrine of icons was later created in the 8th century. This doctrine held that Jesus made the first icon of himself by pressing a wet towel to his face, miraculously imprinting the cloth with his features — thus creating the prototype for all icons of Jesus, and an implied divine approval for their creation.

[[John of Damascus]], the leading architect of the church dogma favoring icons, specifically mentioned that Jesus "is said to have taken a piece of cloth and pressed it to his face, impressing on it the image of his face, which it keeps to this day" (''On the Divine Images I'').

The Abgar legend enjoyed great popularity in the East, and also in the West, during the Middle Ages: Jesus' letter was copied on parchment, inscribed in marble and metal, and used as a talisman or an amulet. Of this [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] correspondence, there survive not only a Syriac text, but an Armenian translation as well, two independent Greek versions, shorter than the Syriac, and several inscriptions on stone.

A curious legendary growth has arisen from this imaginary occurrence, with scholars disputing whether Abgar suffered from gout or from leprosy, whether the correspondence was on parchment or papyrus, and so forth. Most testimony of the 5th century, for instance [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Jerome]], is to the effect that Jesus wrote nothing. The correspondence was rejected as [[apocryphal]] by [[Pope Gelasius I]] and a Roman synod (c. 495). Biblical scholars now generally believe that the letters were fabricated, probably in the 3rd century AD, and "planted" where Eusebius eventually found them. Another theory is that the story was fabricated by [[Abgar IX of Osroene]], during whose reign the kingdom became Christianized, as a way of legitimizing its religious conversion.

The text of the letter varies. The less available variant, transcribed from the ''Doctrina Addaei'', and printed in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' 1908, is as follows:

:"Abgar Ouchama to Jesus, the Good Physician Who has appeared in the country of Jerusalem, greeting:

:"I have heard of Thee, and of Thy healing; that Thou dost not use medicines or roots, but by Thy word openest (the eyes) of the blind, makest the lame to walk, cleansest the lepers, makest the deaf to hear; how by Thy word (also) Thou healest (sick) spirits and those who are tormented with lunatic demons, and how, again, Thou raisest the dead to life. And, learning the wonders that Thou doest, it was borne in upon me that (of two things, one): either Thou hast come down from heaven, or else Thou art the Son of God, who bringest all these things to pass. Wherefore I write to Thee, and pray that thou wilt come to me, who adore Thee, and heal all the ill that I suffer, according to the faith I have in Thee. I also learn that the Jews murmur against Thee, and persecute Thee, that they seek to crucify Thee, and to destroy Thee. I possess but one small city, but it is beautiful, and large enough for us two to live in peace."

The ''Doctrina'' then continues:

:When Jesus had received the letter, in the house of the high priest of the Jews, He said to Hannan†, the secretary, "Go thou, and say to thy master, who hath sent thee to Me: 'Happy art thou who hast believed in Me, not having seen Me, for it is written of Me that those who shall see Me shall not believe in Me, and that those who shall not see Me shall believe in Me. As to that which thou hast written, that I should come to thee, (behold) all that for which I was sent here below is finished, and I ascend again to My Father who sent Me, and when I shall have ascended to Him I will send thee one of My disciples, who shall heal all thy sufferings, and shall give (thee) health again, and shall convert all who are with thee unto life eternal. And thy city shall be blessed forever, and the enemy shall never overcome it.'"

(†According to Eusebius, Jesus himself wrote the letter; nothing is mentioned of his having dictated it to Hannan.)

==Liturgical use of the letter of Abgar==
The quotations paraphrasing the Gospels are actually from the famous concordance of [[Tatian]], the ''Diatessarion,'' itself compiled in the 2nd century.{{fact}} The legend could not be older than the 3rd century.

In addition to the importance it attained in the apocryphal cycle, the correspondence of King Abgar also gained a place in liturgy for some time. The decree, ''De libris non recipiendis'' ("Books not to be received"), traditionally attributed to [[Pope Gelasius I]], places the letter among the [[apocrypha]]. That in itself may be an indication of its having been interpolated among the officially sanctioned lessons of the liturgy of some churches. The Syrian liturgies commemorate the correspondence of Abgar during Lent. The Celtic liturgy appears to have attached importance to the legend; the ''Liber Hymnorum'', a manuscript preserved at Trinity College, Dublin (E. 4, 2), gives two collects on the lines of the letter to Abgar. It is even possible that this letter, followed by various prayers, may have formed a minor liturgical office in some Catholic churches.

==True images==
The account given by Thaddeus/Adda contains a detail that may be briefly referred to. Hannan, who wrote at Jesus' dictation, was archivist at Edessa and painter to King Abgar. He had been charged to paint a portrait of Jesus Christ, and brought to Edessa an icon that became an object of general veneration, and that was eventually said to have been painted (or created miraculously) by Jesus himself. Like the letter, the iconic portrait was destined be the nucleus of a legendary growth; the "Holy Face of Edessa" was chiefly famous in the Byzantine world, where the legend of the Edessa portrait forms part of the subject of the iconography of Christ, and also of the pictures of miraculous origin called ''acheiropoietoe'' ("made without hands") both in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and, in the West where the tradition is associated with [[Veronica]]s and the [[Shroud of Turin]].

==See also==

[[Christian mythology]]

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[[Walter Bauer]], ''Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity'', 1934, (in English 1971)
*Robert Eisenman, ''James the Brother of Jesus'' 1997 (Viking Penguin), especially ch. 24 "Judas the brother of Jesus" and the section "Thaddeus, Judas Thomas and the conversion of the [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Osrhoeans]]", pp 189ff.
*Ian Wilson, ''Holy faces, secret places'' 1991
*Robert Eisenman, ''James the Brother of Jesus'' 1997, especially ch. 24 "Judas the brother of James and the conversion of King Agbar"
([http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/Bauer/bauer01.htm#FN1 On-line text]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01042c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia -- Legend of Abgar]
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-08/anf08-103.htm Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. VIII:] ''Acts of the Holy Apostle Thaddeus, One of the Twelve''
*[http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/new-testament-apocrypha/1/1.php ''Epistle of Jesus Christ to Abgarus King of Edessa''] from Eusebius

[[Category:Christian legend and folklore]]
[[Category:1st century BC births]]
[[Category:50 deaths]]

[[ca:Abgar]]
[[de:Abgar]]
[[fr:Abgar]]
[[pl:Abgar V Ukkama bar Ma'nu]]
[[ru:Абгар V Уккама (Черный)]]
[[sv:Abgar]]

Siebzig Jünger

2006-11-01T17:54:46Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguation link repair - You can help! Thaddeus

{{christianity}}
The '''Seventy''' of the ''[[Gospel of Luke]]'' {{bibleverse-nb||Luke|10:1-20}}, were [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples (students)]] that [[Jesus]] appointed and sent ahead of him.

They were to eat any food offered, [[Exorcism#Jesus|heal the sick]] and spread the word; that [[Kingdom of God|God's reign]] is coming, that whoever hears them hears Jesus, whoever rejects them rejects Jesus and whoever rejects Jesus rejects the [[God the Father|One]] who sent him. In addition they were granted great powers over the enemy and their names were written in heaven. The episode is termed the "''Synaxis'' of the Seventy" in Eastern Orthodoxy, and celebrated on January 4th. This is the only mention of the group in the [[Bible]]. The number is "seventy" in manuscripts in the [[Alexandrian text-type|Alexandrian]] (such as [[Codex Sinaiticus]]) and [[Caesarean text-type|Caesarean]] text traditions but "seventy-two" in most other Alexandrian and [[Western text-type|Western]] (Roman) texts. It may derive from the 70 nations of {{bibleverse||Genesis|11}} or the many other 70 in the Bible, or the 72 translators of the [[Septuagint]] from the [[Letter of Aristeas]]. <ref>[[Bruce Metzger]]'s ''Textual Commentary on the Greek NT''</ref>. In editing the ''[[Vulgate]]'', [[Jerome]] selected the reading of seventy-two.

The passage in ''Luke'' 10 reads:
:1 After this the Lord appointed seventy (-two) others whom he sent ahead of him in pairs to every town and place he intended to visit.
:9 Whatever town you enter and they welcome you, eat what is set before you, cure the sick in it and say to them, 'The kingdom of God is at hand for you.'
:16-17 "Whoever listens to you listens to me. Whoever rejects you rejects me. And whoever rejects me rejects the one who sent me." The seventy (-two) returned rejoicing, and said, "Lord, even the [[demon]]s are subject to us because of your name."
:19-20 "Behold, I have given you the power to tread upon serpents and scorpions and upon the full force of the enemy and nothing will harm you. Nevertheless, do not rejoice because the spirits are subject to you, but rejoice because your names are written in heaven."
(translation in the United States Convention of Roman Catholic Bishops' [[New American Bible]] [http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/luke/luke10.htm])

==Sources and traditions==
The ''Gospel of Luke'' is alone among the [[synoptic gospels]] in containing two episodes in which Jesus sends out his followers on a mission. The first occasion (Luke 9:1-6) is closely based on the mission in ''[[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]'' 6:6b-13, which however recounts the sending out of the [[Twelve Apostles|Twelve Apostles]], rather than seventy, though with similar details. The parallels (also [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 9:35,10:1,7-11), suggest a common origin in the posited [[Q document]].

What has been said to the seventy (two) in Luke 10:4 is referred in passing to the Twelve in Luke 22:35:
:"He said to them, "When I sent you forth without a money bag or a sack or sandals, were you in need of anything?" "No, nothing," they replied.

Also related is the [[Great Commission]].

The [[Orthodox Church]] tradition of supplying names to the Seventy or the Seventy-Two whose "names are written in heaven" is associated with a late 3rd century bishop [[Dorotheus of Tyre]], unknown except in this context, to whom has been ascribed an account of the Seventy, of which the surviving version is 8th century. The names of these disciples are given in several lists: ''[[Chronicon Paschale]]'', and the Pseudo-Dorotheus (printed in ''[[Patrologia Graeca|Migne's Patrologiae cursus completus]]'', XCII, 521-524; 543-545; 1061-1065). The [[Roman Catholic]] church finds that "these lists are unfortunately worthless" ([[Catholic Encyclopedia]], 1908, "Apostle"). [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] positively asserted that no such roll existed in his time, and mentioned among the disciples only [[Barnabas]], [[Sosthenes]], [[Aramaic of Jesus#Cephas|Cephas]], [[Matthias]], [[Saint Jude|Thaddeus]] and [[James the Just|James "the Lord's brother"]] (''Historia Ecclesiae'' I.xii).

==List of the Seventy Disciples==

In the Orthodox Church, the '''Seventy''' are commemorated together, on [[January 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|January 4]]. However, their individual commemorations are scattered throughout the year as well (see [[Eastern Orthodox Church calendar]]). Many of their names are recognizable for their other achievements. The names included in various lists differ slightly. In the lists [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] is also one of these seventy himself. The following list gives a widely accepted [[wikt:canon|canon]].

# [[James the Just]], the brother of Jesus, author of the [[Epistle of James]], and first [[Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem#Bishops_of_Jerusalem_.2862_.E2.80.93_451.29|Bishop of Jerusalem]]
# [[Mark the Evangelist]], author of the [[Gospel of Mark]] and [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Bishop of Alexandria]]
# [[Luke the Evangelist]], author of the Gospel of Luke, and Bishop of [[Salonika]]
# [[Cleopas]]
# [[Symeon of Jerusalem|Symeon]] the son of Cleopas and 2nd Bishop of Jerusalem
# [[Barnabas]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|Bishop of Milan]]
# [[Joseph Justus|Justus]], Bishop of [[Eleutheropolis]]
# [[Thaddeus of Edessa|Thaddeus]] (not to be confused with [[Saint Jude|Thaddeus]] of the [[Twelve Apostles]])
# [[Ananias of Damascus|Ananias]], Bishop of [[Damascus]]
# [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] the Arch[[deacon]] and first [[martyr]]
# [[Philip the Evangelist]], of the [[Seven Deacons]], Bishop of [[Tralia]] in [[Asia Minor]]
# [[Prochorus the Deacon|Prochorus]], of the Seven, Bishop of [[Nicomedia]] in [[Bithynia]]
# [[Nicanor the Deacon]], of the Seven
# [[Timon the Deacon|Timon]], of the Seven
# [[Parmenas the Deacon]], of the Seven
# [[Timothy]], Bishop of [[Ephesus]]
# [[Apostle Titus|Titus]], Bishop of [[Crete]]
# [[Philemon]], Bishop of [[Gaza]]
# Onesimus (Not the [[Onesimus]] mentioned in the [[Epistle to Philemon]])
# [[Epaphras]], Bishop of [[Andriaca]]
# [[Archippus]]
# [[Silas]], Bishop of [[Corinth]]
# [[Silvanus of the Seventy|Silvanus]]
# [[Crescens]]
# [[Crispus of Chalcedon|Crispus]], Bishop of [[Chalcedon]] in [[Galilee]]
# [[Epenetus of Carthage|Epenetus]], Bishop of [[Carthage]]
# [[Andronicus of Pannonia|Andronicus]], Bishop of [[Pannonia]]
# [[Stachys the Apostle|Stachys]], [[Patriarch of Constantinople|Bishop of Byzantium]]
# [[Amplias of Odissa|Amplias]], Bishop of [[Odissa]]
# [[Urban of Macedonia|Urban]], Bishop of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]
# [[Narcissus of Athens|Narcissus]], [[List of Archbishops of Athens|Bishop of Athens]]
# [[Apelles of Heraklion|Apelles]], Bishop of [[Heraklion]]
# [[Aristobulus of Britannia|Aristobulus]], Bishop of [[Britain]]
# [[Herodion of Patfas|Herodion]], Bishop of [[Patfas]]
# [[Agabus]] the [[Prophet]]
# [[Rufus of Thebes|Rufus]], Bishop of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]]
# [[Asyncritus of Hyrcania|Asyncritus]], Bishop of [[Hyrcania]]
# [[Phlegon of Marathon|Phlegon]], Bishop of [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]]
# [[Hermes of Philippopolis|Hermes]], Bishop of [[Philippopolis]]
# [[Parrobus of Pottole|Parrobus]], Bishop of [[Pottole]]
# [[Hermas of Dalmatia|Hermas]], Bishop of [[Dalmatia]]
# [[Pope Linus]], [[Bishop of Rome]]
# [[Gaius of Ephesus|Gaius]], Bishop of [[Ephesus]]
# [[Philologus of Sinope|Philologus]], Bishop of [[Sinope]]
# [[Lucius of Cyrene]], Bishop of [[Latakia|Laodicea]] in [[Syria]]
# [[Jason of Tarsis|Jason]], Bishop of [[Tarsis]]
# [[Sosipater of Iconium|Sosipater]], Bishop of [[Iconium]]
# [[Olympas]]
# [[Tertius of Iconium|Tertius]], transcriber of the [[Epistle to the Romans]] and Bishop of Iconium
# [[Erastus of Paneas|Erastus]], Bishop of [[Paneas]]
# [[Quartus of Berytus|Quartus]], Bishop of [[Beirut|Berytus]]
# [[Euodias of Antioch|Euodias]], [[Patriarch of Antioch|Bishop of Antioch]]
# [[Onesiphorus of Cyrene|Onesiphorus]], Bishop of [[Cyrene]]
# [[Clement of Sardice|Clement]], Bishop of [[Sardice]]
# [[Sosthenes]], Bishop of [[Colophon]]
# [[Apollos]], Bishop of [[Caesarea]]
# [[Tychicus of Colophon|Tychicus]], Bishop of Colophon
# [[Epaphroditus]]
# [[Carpus of Berrhoe|Carpus]], Bishop of [[Berrhoe]] in [[Thrace]]
# [[Quadratus]]
# [[John Mark]],
# [[Zenas the Lawyer]], Bishop of [[Giospolis]]
# [[Aristarchus of Apamea|Aristarchus]], Bishop of [[Apamea (Syria)|Apamea]] in Syria
# [[Saint Pudens|Pudens]]
# [[Trophimus]]
# [[Mark of Apollonias|Mark]], Bishop of [[Apollonia]]
# [[Artemas of Lystra|Artemas]], Bishop of [[Lystra]]
# [[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]]
# [[Saint Fortunatus|Fortunatus]]
# [[Achaicus]]

Also, some lists name a few different apostles than the ones listed above. Solomon, Nestorian bishop of Basra in the 13th century, in ''The Book of the Bee'' (chapter xlix) offers the following list:

"''The names of the seventy. James, the son of Joseph; Simon the son of Cleopas; Cleopas his father; Joses; Simon; Judah; Barnabas; Manaeus (?); Ananias, who baptised Paul; Cephas, who preached at Antioch; Joseph the senator; Nicodemus the archon; Nathaniel the chief scribe; Justus, that is Joseph, who is called Barshabbâ; Silas; Judah; John, surnamed Mark; Mnason, who received Paul; Manaël, the foster-brother of Herod; Simon called Niger; Jason, who is (mentioned) in the Acts (of the Apostles); Rufus; Alexander; Simon the Cyrenian, their father; Lucius the Cyrenian; another Judah, who is mentioned in the Acts [of the Apostles]; Judah, who is called Simon; Eurion (Orion) the splay-footed; Thôrus (?); Thorîsus (?); Zabdon; Zakron. ''

Most commonly named are:
*Another Stephen
*[[Rodion]]
*[[Cephas of Iconium|Cephas]], Bishop of [[Iconium]]
*[[Caesar of Dyrrhachium|Caesar]], Bishop of [[Dyrrhachium]]
*Another [[Mark of Apollonias|Mark]], Bishop of [[Apollonias]]
*Another [[Tychicus of Chalcedon]], Bishop of [[Chalcedon]] in [[Bithynia]]
These are usually included at the expense of the aforementioned Timothy, Titus, Archippus, Crescens, Olympas, Epaphroditus, Quadratus, Aquila, Fortunatus, and/or Achaicus.

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~fisher/cgi-bin/gnt?id=0310 Luke 10 in Greek]
*[http://bibledbdata.org/onlinebibles/greek_translit/42_010.htm Luke 10 in Greek transliterated]
*[http://www.orthodox.net/saints/70apostles.html The Seventy]
*(Budge, Ernest A. Wallace, editor) 1886. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/bb/bbtp.htm ''The Book of the Bee''] by Solomon, Nestorian bishop of Basra, 13th century; ch. xlix "The names of the Apostles in order"

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Followers of Jesus| ]]
[[Category:Multiple people]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Saints from the Holy Land

[[ru:Апостолы от семидесяти]]
[[sr:Сабор светих Седамдесет апостола]]

Testament Adams

2006-11-01T10:33:04Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguation link repair - You can help! Edessa

The '''Testament of Adam''' is a [[Christian]] [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] work extant in Syriac and Arabic. The earliest manuscript is dated to the [[6th century]], but the text is [[4th century]] CE in origin, probably composed in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]]. It purports to relate the final words of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] to his son [[Seth]] in which he speaks of prayer and then prophesies both the coming of the [[Messiah]] and the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]].

For other accounts of the last words of Adam see [[Apocalypse of Adam]], [[Life of Adam and Eve]] and [[Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan]].

==External links==
* [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/testadam.html Early Jewish Writings: Testament of Adam], a discussion of the work.
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/bct/bct10.htm Sacred Texts: Christianity: Testamentum Adami], an English translation of the ''Testament of Adam'' by E. A. Wallis Budge.

[[Category: Christian texts]]
[[Category:Old Testament Apocrypha]]

Armenier in Syrien

2006-10-31T20:41:19Z

VirtualDelight: /* History */ Disambiguation link repair -[[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!] Edessa

The '''Armenians in Syria''' are [[Syria]]n citizens of [[Armenians|Armenian]] descent.

Syria and the surrounding areas have often served as a refuge for Armenians who fled from wars and persecution. It is estimated that there are more than 200,000 Armenians in Syria, most of whom living in [[Aleppo]].

== History ==
Armenia under [[Tigranes the Great]] subjugated Syria, and chose [[Antioch]] as one of the four capitals of the short lived Armenian Empire. During [[ancient history|Antiquity]], there was some Armenian presence in Northern Syria, however it wasn't a considerable one.

Christianity became the official religion of Armenia in [[301]] largely thanks to the efforts of [[Saint Gregory the Illuminator]]. Armenian merchants and travelers often frequented [[Antioch]], one of the earliest sites of Christian teaching and practice, and had relations with the even closer Christian centers of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] and [[Nisibis]], all of which are located in [[Greater Syria]], where Christianity flourished in apostolic times.

When the [[Seljuk Turks]] conquered Armenia from its previous Byzantine rulers, waves of Armenians left their homeland in order to find a more stable place to live. Most Armenians established themselves to [[Cilicia]] where an Armenian kingdom was founded, but some chose Northern Syria. Armenian quarters were formed in towns or cities such as [[Antioch]], [[Aleppo]], [[Aintab]], etc.

During the [[Crusades]], the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia chose to side with the European invadors rather than with the mostly Turkish rulers of Syria. Prior to the [[Siege of Antioch]], most Armenians were expelled from Antioch by [[Yaghi-Siyan]], the Turkish governor of the city, thus the remaining Armenians of Antioch strengthened their support for the Crusaders. Thus, the new rulers of Antioch became the Europeans. Armenian engineers also helped the Crusaders during the Siege of Tyre by manipulating siege engines.

The Armenian population of Syria and its surrounding areas greatly diminished after the [[Mongols]], [[Tatars]], and [[Mamelukes]] took over the area by massacring the general population.

During [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule, there was a much smaller quantity of Armenians in Northern Syria because of previous conflicts. A larger community existed in [[Urfa]], a city often considered part of [[Greater Syria]].

Although the Armenians have a very long history in Syria, most arrived in Syria during the [[Armenian Genocide]]. The main killing fields of Armenians were located in the Syrian desert of [[Dayr az-Zawr]]. 1.5 million Armenians were killed and hundreds of thousands fled historic Armenia. The Arabs didn't hesitate to shelter and support persecuted Armenians, regardless of their Christian faith.

During the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], thousands of Armenians left the country.

Most Armenians of Syria live in [[Aleppo]], while a smaller community exists in the capital city of [[Damascus]].

==Notable Syrian Armenians==
*[[Levon Ter-Petrossian]] – Previous President of Armenia
*[[Paul Baghdadlian]] – Armenian singer
*[[Karnig Sarkissian]] - Armenian Revolutionary Singer

[[Category:Armenian diaspora]]

Hurrikan Dennis (1999)

2006-10-14T17:02:07Z

VirtualDelight: /* Southeastern United States */ Disambiguation link repair - You can help! St. Augustine

:''This is about a hurricane of 1999; for the destructive 2005 hurricane, see main article [[Hurricane Dennis]], and for other storms of the same name, see [[Hurricane Dennis (disambiguation)]].''
{{infobox hurricane | name=Hurricane Dennis (1999)
| category=cat2
| type=hurricane
| image location=Hurricane Dennis (1999).jpg
| image name=Hurricane Dennis off North Carolina coast
| formed=[[August 24]], [[1999]]
| dissipated=[[September 7]], [[1999]]
| highest winds=105 [[miles per hour|mph]] (170 km/h)
| lowest pressure=962 [[mbar]] ([[hPa]])
| total damages=$157 million (1999 dollars)
$179 million (2005 dollars)
| total fatalities=4 direct
| areas affected=[[Bahamas]], [[North Carolina]], [[Virginia]], [[Maryland]], [[Pennsylvania]]
| hurricane season=[[1999 Atlantic hurricane season]]
}}
'''Hurricane Dennis''' of the [[1999 Atlantic hurricane season]] was a [[Category 2]] hurricane that was erratic in both track and intensity. Although it never made landfall as a hurricane, the storm was responsible for producing hurricane force winds along the [[North Carolina]] coast along with beach [[erosion]]. The hurricane caused $157 million in damage, and killed 4 people. The heavy rains from Dennis also set the stage for destructive [[flood]]ing from [[Hurricane Floyd]] about 2 weeks later.

==Storm history==
{{storm path|Dennis 1999 track.png}}
A tropical wave moved off the African coast on [[August 17]]. The wave continued west-northwestward, not organizing until the 21st when an increase in convection occurred. A low-level circulation slowly developed as it passed north of the [[Lesser Antilles]], and on [[August 24]] it was upgraded to Tropical Depression Five while located around 220 statute miles east of [[Grand Turk]]. It moved to the west-northwest, and later on the 24th it strengthened into Tropical Storm Dennis.

Located at the eastern end of an elongated trough, Dennis was affected by westerly shear. Despite the unfavorable conditions, the storm intensified, and reached hurricane status on [[August 26]] over the [[Bahamas]]. Due to the trough, Dennis moved very erratically, varying between a fast forward speed to a near drift in its developmental stages. After passing through the [[Bahamas]], the shear decreased, and Dennis was able to reach Category 2 strength on the 28th.

A mid-latitude trough brought Dennis north and northeastward, causing it to parallel the [[Florida]] through [[North Carolina]] coastlines. While east of Florida on [[August 28]], Dennis peaked at 105 mph (170 km/h) winds, though the wind field never resembled a classical tightly wound hurricane. The eye wall was around 35 miles wide, and at some occasions [[Reconnaissance Aircraft]] did not even report an eye. This may be due to the fact that some upper level shear remained. Dennis weakened as it continued northeastward, but still brought hurricane force winds to the North Carolina coast on [[August 30]].

Hurricane Dennis became involved with a cold front, which caused vertical shear and cool, dry air to impact the circulation. A ridge of high pressure to its north caused Dennis to stall, leading to the cyclone's weakening to a tropical storm on [[September 1]] as a result of the unfavorable conditions. On the 1st and 2nd, with disorganized convection and a large wind field, Dennis resembled a [[subtropical cyclone]] or even an extratropical storm, but it retained its warm core as it drifted southward over warmer waters. Dennis restrengthened as it turned to the west-northwest, and
made landfall near [[Harkers Island, North Carolina]] on [[September 5]] while just below hurricane strength. The storm rapidly weakened over land, and turned northward through Virginia. It became extratropical on [[September 7]], and was absorbed by a larger extratropical low on the 8th over [[Canada]].

==Impact==
[[Image:Dennis1999rain.gif|right|thumb|Rainfall from Dennis]]
Dennis left $157 million dollars (1999 [[USD]]) in damage and four deaths in [[North Carolina]], [[Virginia]] and the northeastern [[United States]]. The heavy rain from Dennis staged a catastrophic flood disaster wrought by [[Hurricane Floyd]] about 2 weeks later.

===Bahamas===
Dennis brought [[tropical storm]] and [[hurricane]] force winds to the [[Bahamas]]. In [[Grand Bahama]], a weather station reported winds of 40 mph while other areas reported winds between 70-75 mph. A 976 [[mbar]] reading and [[storm tide]]s 1-3 feet above normal occurred as the center of the storm moved across Abaco Island on [[August 28]]. The only official rainfall total from the [[Bahamas]] was 4.4 inches at [[Eleuthera]] and [[Abaco]]. <ref name="nhc">[http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1999dennis.html Dennis 1999 report]</ref> Dennis caused moderate damage across the [[Bahamas]]. On [[Abaco Island]], the rain caused heavy flooding and [[storm surge]] washed out roads. Dennis also caused considerable damage to trees and boats.<ref name="hcity">[http://www.hurricanecity.com/dam/dam1999.htm Hurricane City.com]</ref> However, there were no reports of deaths or injuries and damage totals from the [[Bahamas]] are unavailable. <ref name="nhc"/>

===Southeastern United States===
When Dennis was offshore the storm brought winds up to 35 mph with gusts reaching to 40 mph to [[Jacksonville, Florida]]. In [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], a weather station reported a 35 mph gust. Rainfall from Dennis was minimal, amounting to only 0.11 inches at [[Jacksonville International Airport]]. Dennis also brought [[storm tide]]s between 6-8 feet in some areas and there was only minor beach erosion. The strong rip currents brought by Dennis caused one fatality. <ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/weather/huricane/1999/atlantic/wdrptjax.htm CNN Report from Florida]</ref>

The state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] reported 35 mph wind gusts and only a trace of rain. <ref name="cnn">[http://www.usatoday.com/weather/huricane/1999/atlantic/wdrptchs.htm CNN report from Georgia and South Carolina]</ref>

In [[South Carolina]], numerous weather stations reported winds between 40-55 mph and gusts reaching hurricane force. Rainfall up to 1.2 inches fell in some areas while buoys offshore reported tides 2 feet above normal. Minor to moderate beach erosion was reported from [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]] to [[Colleton County, South Carolina|Colleton County]]. Damage in [[South Carolina]] was limited to downed trees and scattered power outages.<ref name="cnn">[http://www.usatoday.com/weather/huricane/1999/atlantic/wdrptchs.htm CNN report from Georgia and South Carolina]</ref>

===North Carolina===
[[Image:Highway 12 damage.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The storm surge from Dennis completely damaged a section of Highway 12 in [[North Carolina]].]]
On [[August 30]], Dennis brought [[tropical storm]] force winds with gusts up to hurricane force to the [[North Carolina]] coast. In Oregon Inlet, there were 60 mph winds, while [[Cape Hatteras]] and [[Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina|Wrightsville Beach]] reported gusts between 90-100 mph. A weather station reported 90 mph wind gusts and a barometric pressure reading of 977 [[mbar]]. When Dennis made landfall on [[September 4]], it brought tropical storm force winds to much of eastern North Carolina. 45 mph winds were reported in [[Cherry Point, North Carolina]]. Storm tides 3-5 feet above normal were reported along the North Carolina coast. Because Dennis was a slow moving storm, it produced heavy rains across eastern North Carolina. The highest rainfall total was 19.13 inches in [[Ocracoke, North Carolina|Ocracoke]], while rainfall between 3-10 inches was reported elsewhere. The rain was beneficial as it broke a prolonged dry spell, but it also staged the catastrophic flood disaster caused by [[Hurricane Floyd]] a month later. The heavy rains caused significant flooding that left $60 million dollars (1999 [[USD]]) in structural damage and $37 million dollars (1999 [[USD]]) in agricultural damage—totaling $97 million (1999 [[USD]]). <ref name="nhc"/> In addition, Dennis caused two indirect deaths when two cars collided during the storm. The heavy rains knocked down power lines near [[Wilmington, North Carolina]], leaving 56,000 residents without electricity. <ref name="hcity"/>

===Virginia===
In [[Virginia]], winds up to 50 mph with gusts up to 75 mph were reported at [[Langley Air Force Base]], and tides were reported 2-4 feet above normal. 1-3 inches of rain fell across much of southeastern Virginia, and an [[tornado|F2 tornado]] spawned by Dennis touched down in [[Hampton, Virginia|Hampton]], damaging several structures and injuring fifteen people, six of them seriously. Damage from the tornado was $7 million (1995 [[USD]]). <ref name="nhc"/> The tropical storm force winds also knocked out power to 22,500 residents in southeastern Virginia. <ref name="hcity"/> In all, Dennis left $97 million (1999 [[USD]]) in damage across southeastern Virginia. <ref name="nhc"/>

==Lack of retirement==
Despite the damage, the name Dennis was not retired and was [[Hurricane Dennis|re-used]] in [[2005]]. However, the name Dennis was retired after the 2005 storm and replaced by '''Don''' for the [[2011 Atlantic hurricane season|2011 season]].

==See also==
{{tcportal}}
*[[List of notable tropical cyclones]]
*[[List of notable Atlantic hurricanes]]

==Sources==
*[http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1999dennis.html Hurricane Dennis of 1999]
*[http://www.cnn.com/WEATHER/9908/31/storms.02/Hurricane Dennis weakens (CNN.com)]
*[http://www.wunderground.com/hurricane/at199904.aspHurricane Dennis track]

==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

{{1999 Atlantic hurricane season buttons}}

[[Category:1999 Atlantic hurricane season|Dennis (1999)]]
[[Category:1999 meteorology]]
[[Category:Atlantic hurricanes|Dennis (1999)]]
[[Category:Category 2 hurricanes|Dennis (1999)]]
[[Category:North Carolina hurricanes|Dennis (1999)]]

St. Marys (Georgia)

2006-10-14T11:36:46Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguation link repair - You can help! St. Augustine

'''St. Marys''', reputed by some sources to be the second oldest city in the United States after [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], [[Florida]], is a city in [[Camden County, Georgia|Camden County]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[United States]]. The population was 13,761 at the 2000 census.

==Geography==
[[Image:GAMap-doton-StMarys.PNG|right|Location of St. Marys, Georgia]]
St. Marys is located at {{coor dms|30|45|23|N|81|34|17|W|city}} (30.756264, -81.571287){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 52.6 [[km²]] (20.3 [[square mile|mi²]]). 48.6 km² (18.8 mi²) of it is land and 4.0 km² (1.5 mi²) of it (7.54%) is water.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 13,761 people, 4,837 households, and 3,758 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 283.4/km² (733.8/mi²). There were 5,351 housing units at an average density of 110.2/km² (285.3/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 74.61% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 19.99% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.47% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.21% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.07% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.56% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 2.09% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 4.46% of the population.

There were 4,837 households out of which 47.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.8% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.3% were non-families. 16.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 2.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83 and the average family size was 3.18.

In the city the population was spread out with 33.4% under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 34.7% from 25 to 44, 15.6% from 45 to 64, and 5.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.3 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $42,087, and the median income for a family was $46,065. Males had a median income of $35,419 versus $24,449 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $18,099. About 9.6% of families and 11.2% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 14.5% of those under age 18 and 7.1% of those age 65 or over.

==External links==
*[http://www.georgiascoast.com/ Georgia's Coast in photographs and more]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|30.756264|-81.571287}}

[[Category:Camden County, Georgia|Saint Marys, Georgia]]
[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)|Saint Marys, Georgia]]
[[Category:Micropolitan areas of Georgia|Saint Marys, Georgia]]

[[fi:St. Marys]]
[[io:St. Marys, Georgia]]

Film Booking Offices of America

2006-10-02T20:48:55Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguation link repair - You can help! The Jazz Singer

[[Image:CowboyCopPoster.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Poster for ''The Cowboy Cop'' (1926), starring [[Tom Tyler]], one of the best known of FBO's many Western stars.]]
'''Film Booking Offices of America (FBO)''' was an American [[film studio]] of the [[Silent film|silent era]]. Founded in 1920 as Robertson–Cole (U.S.), the American division of a British import-export company, it was a producer and distributor of mostly low-budget films through 1928, when it was merged with two other companies to create the [[Studio system#Sound and the Big Five|major studio]] [[RKO]].

==Business history==
[[Image:FBOlogo1924.jpg|thumb|left|200px|FBO logo from 1924.]]
The company that would become FBO began as the [[Hollywood#Hollywood and the motion picture industry|Hollywood]]-based production subsidiary of the British importer, exporter, and film distributor Robertson–Cole. R-C Pictures, as it was sometimes known, had already entered the American film distribution market, forging an alliance with Exhibitors Mutual Distributing, a corporate descendant of the [[Mutual Film]] studio, in 1919. The first of R-C's own feature productions to be released was ''The Wonder Man'', directed by John G. Adolfi and starring [[Georges Carpentier]], which debuted May 29, 1920. With its move into production, Robertson–Cole established a 13.5-acre studio in L.A.'s fortuitously named Colegrove district, then adjacent to but soon to be subsumed by Hollywood. The first official Robertson–Cole production shot at the studio was a February 1921 release, ''The Mistress of Shenstone'', directed by [[Henry King (director)|Henry King]] and starring [[Pauline Frederick]]. In 1922, Robertson–Cole underwent a major reorganization; the U.S. operation changed its name to Film Booking Offices of America, a banner under which R-C had previously released more than a dozen independent productions. The company, still under majority British ownership, operated primarily as a distributor of independent and foreign films—at the height of its activity (1923–28), it released an average of more than ninety [[Feature film|features]] and [[Short subject|shorts]] a year, including its own. As a production company, Film Booking Offices concentrated on low-budget movies, with an emphasis on [[Western (genre)|Westerns]]; from 1923 forward, the company produced approximately 330 films, about 60 percent as FBO Pictures and the remainder as Robertson-Cole Pictures (a few higher-end productions of 1924–25 were made under the rubric of Gothic Pictures). The first official FBO feature production, released in June 1923, was ''Divorce'', directed by Chester Bennett and starring [[Jane Novak]] and [[John Bowers]].
[[Image:FBOlogo1926.jpg|thumb|right|200px|FBO release logo from 1926.]]
[[Image:FBOlogo1928.jpg|thumb|right|200px|FBO logo from 1928.]]
In 1923, [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], one of America's leading businessmen and father of the future president, joined the FBO board of directors. By late 1925, FBO had fallen into financial trouble and turned to Kennedy, who had left the board in the interim, for help in finding a new owner. Kennedy formed his own group of investors to buy Film Booking Offices for $1.5 million in February 1926; shortly thereafter, he moved to Hollywood to focus on running the studio. Neither his personal involvement nor his replacement of production chief B. P. Fineman with Edwin King were enough to raise FBO out of the minor leagues of the [[studio system]]. The advent of [[sound film]] would change all that: Negotiations that began in late 1927 with the [[Radio Corporation of America]] (RCA) on a deal for sound conversion led to RCA purchasing a major interest in FBO in January 1928. Four months later, under the guidance of RCA head [[David Sarnoff]], Kennedy acquired [[Keith-Albee-Orpheum]] (KAO), a vaudeville exhibition chain with over seven hundred theaters across the United States. On [[June 17]], [[1928]], FBO's ''Perfect Crime'', directed by Bert Glennon and starring [[Clive Brook]] and [[Irene Rich]], debuted, becoming the first "[[Sound film#The "Talkies"|talkie]]" feature to appear from a studio other than [[Warner Bros.]] since the epochal premiere of [[Warners]]' ''[[The Jazz Singer (1927 film)|The Jazz Singer]]'' eight months earlier; it would go into general release in August. In October 1928, Film Booking Offices and KAO were merged to form the new motion picture studio [[RKO Pictures|Radio-Keith-Orpheum]] (RKO), under RCA control. William LeBaron, the last FBO production chief, retained his postion after the merger, but the new studio, dedicated to full sound production, cut ties with most of FBO's roster of silent-screen performers. Movies that Film Booking Offices had either produced or arranged to distribute were released under the FBO banner through the end of 1929. The last official FBO production to reach American theaters was ''Pals of the Prairie'', directed by Louis King and starring Buzz Barton and Frank Rice, released July 1, 1929.

==Cinematic legacy==
[[Image:EvelynBrent1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Publicity photo of [[Evelyn Brent]], star of 14 FBO films between 1924 and 1926.]]
The majority of FBO/Robertson-Cole pictures were produced at low cost, during either the silent era or the transitional period of the conversion to sound cinema; over 90 percent of the studio's silent productions are thought to be lost, with no copies now known to exist. Consequently, many of FBO's star actors are barely remembered today: Pauline Frederick was the major headliner of the early R-C days; [[Evelyn Brent]] was FBO's most prized star. [[Warner Baxter]], [[Joe E. Brown]], and young [[Frankie Darro]] were among the other prominent FBO players. [[Anna Q. Nilsson]] starred in two of the studio's larger productions and Ralph Lewis headlined a number of FBO pictures, both in-house productions and movies by independent producer-director Emory Johnson. The studio's cowboy stars included [[Harry Carey]], [[Tom Tyler]], Fred Thomson, Bob Custer, Bob Steele, teenager Buzz Barton, and the renowned [[Tom Mix]], toward the end of his years as a box-office draw. Two of the studio's most popular Western headliners were dogs: [[Strongheart]] and Ranger.

At present, the best regarded FBO picture is the studio's fourth "talkie" and one of its last productions before the RKO merger—''The Circus Kid'', directed by [[George B. Seitz]] and starring Darro, Brown, and [[Clown#"Character Clown"|Poodles Hanneford]], which was released in October 1928. Offscreen, the best known director to work regularly at FBO was Ralph Ince, younger brother of the famous [[Thomas H. Ince]]; pulling double duty on occasion, he starred in four of the fourteen films he made for the studio. [[Nicholas Musuraca]], who would become one of Hollywood's most respected [[cinematography|cinematographers]] with RKO, established his career at Film Booking Offices. [[Film editing|Editor]] [[Pandro S. Berman]], son of a major FBO stockholder, cut his first film for the studio at the age of twenty-two; he would go on to renown as an RKO producer and production chief.

Many sources give FBO's full name incorrectly as "Film Booking Office of America"; the proper name is Film Booking Offices of America, as can be verified by reference to multiple versions of the company's [http://www.learnaboutmovieposters.com/newsite/History/STUDIOS/Early%20Studios/FILM-BOOKING-OFFICE/fbo.asp official logo] (remarkably, even this source misstates the name throughout the accompanying text).

==References==
===Published===
*Crafton, Donald, ''The Talkies: American Cinema's Transition to Sound, 1926-1931'' (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1997) ISBN 0-684-19585-2
*Finler, Joel W., ''The Hollywood Story'' (New York: Crown, 1988) ISBN 0-517-56576-5
*Jewell, Richard B., with Vernon Harbin, ''The RKO Story'' (New York: Arlington House/Crown, 1982) ISBN 0-517-546566

===Online===
*[http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Archives+and+Manuscripts/Kennedy.Joseph+P/fa_kennedy_joseph_short.htm John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum/Joseph P. Kennedy (#136)] descriptive summary of material from the inventory of the late president's papers

==External links==
*[http://www.vitaphone.org/srko.html The Silent Films of FBO Pictures] comprehensive listing of silent films produced by FBO/Robertson–Cole and released between 1925 and 1929—see also [http://www.vitaphone.org/rko.html The Early Sound Films of Radio Pictures] for FBO sound productions released in 1928 (the list does not clearly indicate the several FBO sound productions released in 1929); both part of ''Vitaphone Video Early Talkies'' website

[[Category:Hollywood movie studios]]
[[Category:1920 establishments]]
[[Category:Defunct American movie studios]]
[[Category:Defunct media companies of the United States]]

Transverse Ranges

2006-09-30T09:29:10Z

VirtualDelight: Disambiguation link repair - You can help!

The '''Transverse ranges''' are a group of mountain ranges of southern [[California]], part of the [[North America|North American]] [[Coast Ranges]] that run along the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast from [[Alaska]] to [[Mexico]]. The Transverse ranges run predominantly east-west, while the other coast ranges tend north-south, including the Central Coast Ranges to the north and the [[Peninsular Ranges]] to the south. This is caused by a bend in the [[San Andreas Fault]], which has pushed the mountain ranges up around it.

The Transverse ranges begin at Point Conception in [[Santa Barbara County]], and include the [[Santa Ynez Mountains]] that run parallel to the coast behind [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]]. Also in Santa Barbara County, they include the [[San Rafael Mountains]] and the [[Sierra Madre Mountains (California)|Sierra Madre Mountains]], both of which extend approximately to the Ventura County line. The Transverse Ranges also include the [[Topatopa Mountains]] and the [[Santa Susana Mountains]] of [[Ventura County]] and [[Los Angeles County]], the [[Simi Hills]], the [[Santa Monica Mountains]] that run along the Pacific coast behind [[Malibu, California|Malibu]], and whose eastern portion are known as the [[Hollywood]] Hills, the steep [[San Gabriel Mountains]] northeast of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], the Puente Hills and Chino Hills, and the San Bernardino Mountains. To the north of the Transverse ranges are the Central Coast Ranges, The [[Central Valley]], and the [[Tehachapi Mountains]], which separate the Central Valley from the [[Mojave Desert]] to the east, and link the Transverse ranges to the [[Sierra Nevada (US)|Sierra Nevada]]. The Mojave Desert and California's low desert, including the [[Coachella Valley]], are at the eastern end of the ranges. The northern [[Channel Islands of California]] are also part of the Transverse Ranges; [[San Miguel Island|San Miguel]], [[Santa Rosa Island, California|Santa Rosa]], [[Santa Cruz Island|Santa Cruz]] and [[Anacapa Island]]s are a westward extension of the Santa Monica Mountains.

There are a number of important freeways that cross the Tranverse Ranges, like (from west to east) [[I-5]] at [[Tejon Pass]], [[California State Route 14|CA-14]] at [[Soledad Pass]], and [[I-15]] at [[Cajon Pass]]. These highways link [[Southern California]] with places to the north and northeast like [[San Francisco]] and [[Las Vegas]]. With the exception of several high passes on less-traveled [[California State Route 33|CA-33]], [[California State Route 2| CA-2]], [[California State Route 330|CA-330]]. [[California State Route 18|CA-18]] and [[California State Route 38|CA-38]], none of these passes are at high elevations, with Cajon Pass being at a modest 4,190 ft. (1,277 m) [[above mean sea level]]; this means that [[snow]] is less of a factor here than in the moderate to high mountain passes to the north like [[Donner Pass]]. Still sometimes, heavy snowfall can snarl traffic on Tejon and Cajon Pass, the higher two of the three freeway passes. I-5 and I-15 commonly experience heavy traffic over their mountainous route across these mountains.

A number of densely populated coastal plains and interior valleys lie between the mountain ranges, including the [[Oxnard Plain]] of coastal [[Ventura County]], the [[Santa Clarita Valley]] north of Los Angeles, the [[San Fernando Valley]], which is mostly included in the City of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Basin, which includes the portion of [[Los Angeles County]] south of the Santa Monica Mountains and most of [[Orange County, California|Orange County]], and the [[Inland Empire (California)|Inland Empire]] basin, which includes the cities of [[San Bernardino, California|San Bernardino]] and [[Riverside, California|Riverside]], lie between the Transverse Ranges and the Peninsular Ranges to the south.

The native plant communities of the Transverse ranges include [[grassland]], Coastal Sage Scrub, [[Chaparral]], and [[Oak]] woodland and [[savanna]] at lower elevations, and [[pine]] forests at higher elevations. The [[Angeles National Forest|Angeles]] and [[Los Padres National Forest]]s cover portions of the Transverse ranges. The ranges are part of the [[California chaparral and woodlands]] [[ecoregion]], but the eastern ends of the range touch two desert ecoregions, the [[Mojave desert]] ecoregion, and the [[Sonoran desert]] ecoregion, which includes the California's low deserts.

Notable mountains in the Transverse Ranges:

* [[Mount San Gorgonio]], 3,502 [[meter|m]] (11,490 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), San Bernardino Mountains
* [[Mount San Bernardino]], 3,311 m (10,864 ft), San Bernardino Mountains
* [[Mount San Antonio|Mount San Antonio (Old Baldy)]], 3,068 m (10,064 ft), San Gabriel Mountains
* [[Mount Wilson (California)|Mount Wilson]], 1,881 m (6,171 ft), San Gabriel Mountains
* [[Mount Pinos]], 2,692 m (8,831 ft), San Emigdio Mountains
* [[Double Mountain]], 2,433 m (7,981 ft), Tehachapi Mountains
* [[Reyes Peak]], 2,289 m (7,510 ft), Topatopa Mountains
* [[Frazier Mountain]], 2,446 m (8,026 ft)

[[Category:Mountain ranges of California]]
[[Category:Geologic provinces of California]]