https://de.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Veracious 2025-11-22T22:20:56Z Benutzerbeiträge MediaWiki 1.46.0-wmf.3 https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tick-Tack-Quiz&diff=219220943 2022-01-16T06:12:04Z

<p>Veracious: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Tick-Tack-Quiz''' war eine ca. 30-minütige Quizsendung mit hohen [[Einschaltquote]]n, die von 1958 bis 1967 in der [[ARD]] ausgestrahlt wurde. Moderator war [[Fritz Benscher]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Internetquelle |url=http://www.fernsehlexikon.de/2123/tick-tack-quiz/ |titel=Fernsehlexikon » Tick-Tack-Quiz |zugriff=2017-07-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; Die vom [[Bayerischer Rundfunk|Bayerischen Rundfunk]] produzierte Quizsendung lief zunächst in den vorabendlichen Regionalprogrammen (1. Programm) der einzelnen Rundfunkanstalten und kam ab dem 3. Oktober 1964 ins Hauptprogramm.<br /> <br /> Die ursprüngliche Show lief von 1956 bis 1959 in den [[USA]] unter dem Titel &quot;[[:en:Tic Tac Dough|Tic Tac Dough]]&quot; (mit Jack Barry).&lt;ref&gt;{{Literatur |Autor=Ryan, Steve., Wostbrock, Fred. |Titel=The encyclopedia of TV game shows |Auflage=3rd ed |Verlag=Facts On File |Ort=New York, NY |Datum=1999 |ISBN=0-8160-3846-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Ablauf ==<br /> Zwei Kandidaten (X – der Champion und O – der Herausforderer) spielten um einen Jackpot. Auf dem quadratischen Spielfeld befanden sich neun Felder, denen Fragekategorien zugeordnet waren. Abwechselnd suchte sich einer der Kandidaten eine Kategorie aus. Konnte er die ihm gestellte Frage beantworten, leuchtete sein Symbol (X oder O) auf dem Spielfeld auf. Die Kategorie war damit besetzt und dem Jackpot wurde – abhängig vom Schwierigkeitsgrad der Frage – ein Betrag hinzugefügt. Die Spieler mussten ihre Fragen so wählen, dass angelehnt an das Spiel [[Tic-Tac-Toe]] – waagerecht, senkrecht oder diagonal – eine Reihe aus drei gleichen Symbolen (XXX oder OOO) entstand. Allerdings waren die Fragen in der Mitte schwerer zu beantworten. Der Sieger kam eine Runde weiter, der Verlierer erhielt als Trostpreis eine [[Kuckucksuhr]].<br /> <br /> == Sonstiges ==<br /> Der Moderator [[Fritz Benscher]] nahm die Spielregeln nicht allzu ernst. Ihm kam es mehr auf den Unterhaltungswert an, den er mit Wortwitz und lockeren Sprüchen förderte.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> <br /> {{SORTIERUNG:TickTackQuiz}}<br /> [[Kategorie:Spielshow]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Fernsehsendung (Das Erste)]]<br /> [[Kategorie:BR Fernsehen]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Fernsehsendung der 1950er Jahre]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Fernsehsendung der 1960er Jahre]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Druckverschlussbeutel&diff=216992146 2021-11-05T08:36:16Z

<p>Veracious: /* Einzelnachweise */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Datei:Zip-Lock-Bag-Zipper-1.jpg|mini|Verschiedene Druckverschlussbeutel]]<br /> [[Datei:ZipLock 3.jpg|mini|Profil eines modernen Druckverschlussbeutels – Nahaufnahme]]<br /> Ein '''Druckverschlussbeutel''' ist ein Beutel aus [[Kunststoff]] mit einer Verschlussleiste aus zwei ineinandergreifenden Profilen an der Befüllöffnung,&lt;ref&gt;[https://register.dpma.de/DPMAregister/pat/register?AKZ=78170840 Gebrauchsmuster G 78 17 084.0: ''Vorrichtung zum Herstellen von Kunststoffbeuteln mit druckknopfartigen Verschlußleisten'']&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://register.dpma.de/DPMAregister/pat/register?AKZ=21639305 Patent P 21 63 930.5: ''Verfahren und Einrichtung zum kontinuierlichen Herstellen von mit Verschlussrippen versehenen, für die Beutelherstellung geeigneten Folien'']&lt;/ref&gt; mit der sich der Beutel nahezu luftdicht verschließen lässt. Der Beutel lässt sich einfach öffnen und wieder verschließen und ist so wiederverwendbar.<br /> <br /> Der Verschlussmechanismus wurde 1954 patentiert.&lt;ref&gt;[http://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/pdfs/US2666466.pdf Patent US 2666466 A: ''Pouch with sliderless fastener closure'']&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Ein ähnliches Verschlussprinzip wird bei [[Schiebeverschlussbeutel]]n verwendet.<br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> {{Commonscat|Pressure lock bags|Druckverschlussbeutel}}<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> [[Kategorie:Kunststoffbehälter]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Druckverschlussbeutel&diff=216992131 2021-11-05T08:35:17Z

<p>Veracious: stub</p> <hr /> <div>[[Datei:Zip-Lock-Bag-Zipper-1.jpg|mini|Verschiedene Druckverschlussbeutel]]<br /> [[Datei:ZipLock 3.jpg|mini|Profil eines modernen Druckverschlussbeutels – Nahaufnahme]]<br /> Ein '''Druckverschlussbeutel''' ist ein Beutel aus [[Kunststoff]] mit einer Verschlussleiste aus zwei ineinandergreifenden Profilen an der Befüllöffnung,&lt;ref&gt;[https://register.dpma.de/DPMAregister/pat/register?AKZ=78170840 Gebrauchsmuster G 78 17 084.0: ''Vorrichtung zum Herstellen von Kunststoffbeuteln mit druckknopfartigen Verschlußleisten'']&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://register.dpma.de/DPMAregister/pat/register?AKZ=21639305 Patent P 21 63 930.5: ''Verfahren und Einrichtung zum kontinuierlichen Herstellen von mit Verschlussrippen versehenen, für die Beutelherstellung geeigneten Folien'']&lt;/ref&gt; mit der sich der Beutel nahezu luftdicht verschließen lässt. Der Beutel lässt sich einfach öffnen und wieder verschließen und ist so wiederverwendbar.<br /> <br /> Der Verschlussmechanismus wurde 1954 patentiert.&lt;ref&gt;[http://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/pdfs/US2666466.pdf Patent US 2666466 A: ''Pouch with sliderless fastener closure'']&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Ein ähnliches Verschlussprinzip wird bei [[Schiebeverschlussbeutel]]n verwendet.<br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> {{Commonscat|Pressure lock bags|Druckverschlussbeutel}}<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> {{stub}}<br /> [[Kategorie:Kunststoffbehälter]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sowjetskaja_Ukraina&diff=215465499 2021-09-10T07:21:49Z

<p>Veracious: /* Geschichte */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Schiff<br /> | Schiffskategorie = Kriegsschiff<br /> | Name = ''Sowjetskaja Ukraina''<br /> | Bild = <br /> | Bildtext = <br /> |{{Infobox Schiff/Basis<br /> | Land = {{SUN-SK-1935}}<br /> | andere Schiffsnamen = <br /> | Schiffstyp = [[Schlachtschiff]]<br /> | Schiffsklasse = [[Sowjetski-Sojus-Klasse|''Sowjetski-Sojus''-Klasse]]<br /> | Bauwerft = [[Mykolajiw|Nikolajew]]<br /> | Baunr = <br /> | Baukosten = <br /> | Kiellegung = 17. Juli 1939<br /> | Verbleib = Nicht fertiggestellt<br /> }}<br /> |{{Infobox Schiff/Daten<br /> | Länge = 262,0<br /> | Lpp = <br /> | KWL = <br /> | Breite = 39,7<br /> | Tiefgang = 9,8<br /> | Verdrängung = Standard: ca. 50.000 ts&lt;br /&gt;Maximal: ca. 60.000 [[Tonne (Einheit)#Long ton|tn.l.]]<br /> | Vermessung = <br /> | Besatzung = <br /> }}<br /> |{{Infobox Schiff/Antrieb<br /> | Antrieb = 3 [[Dampfturbine]]n&lt;br /&gt;6 [[Dampfkessel]]<br /> | Maschinenleistung = 164000<br /> | Geschwindigkeit_M = 30<br /> | Propeller = 4<br /> }}<br /> |{{Infobox Schiff/Militär<br /> | Bewaffnung = <br /> * 9 × [[Schnellfeuergeschütz|Sk]] 40,6 cm [[Kaliberlänge|L/50]]<br /> * 12 × Sk 15,2 cm L/50<br /> * 12 × [[Flugabwehrkanone|Flak]] 10 cm L/56<br /> * 32 × Flak 3,7 cm L/67,8<br /> | Panzerung = <br /> | Sensoren = <br /> }}<br /> }}<br /> <br /> Die '''''Sowjetskaja Ukraina''''' ({{ruS|Советская Украина}}) war ein [[Sowjetunion|sowjetischer]] [[Schlachtschiff]]-Neubau der geplanten [[Sowjetski-Sojus-Klasse|''Sowjetski-Sojus''-Klasse]], der 1941 von der [[Wehrmacht]] erbeutet wurde.<br /> <br /> == Geschichte ==<br /> Im Laufe des [[Unternehmen Barbarossa|deutschen Angriffs auf die Sowjetunion]] wurde am 18.&amp;nbsp;August 1941 in [[Mykolajiw|Nikolajew]] am [[Schwarzes Meer|Schwarzen Meer]] das im Bau befindliche Schlachtschiff ''Sowjetskaja Ukraina'', noch auf [[Stapellauf|Stapel]] liegend, erbeutet und von der [[Kriegsmarine]] beschlagnahmt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Breyer426&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> Das Schiff war erst zu 18 % fertiggestellt und zu 75 % bereit für den [[Stapellauf]]. Da es mit einer in [[Lizenz]] gefertigten [[Turbine]]nantriebsanlage der [[Schweiz]]er Firma [[Brown, Boveri &amp; Cie.|BBC]] ausgestattet werden sollte, war ein Auftrag der Kriegsmarine an das Schweizer Unternehmen für die Antriebsanlage des Schiffes möglich, und die von sowjetischer Seite vorgesehene Hauptbewaffnung mit 40,6-cm-[[Geschütz]]en entsprach genau dem Geschütztyp, der für die deutschen Schlachtschiffe der [[H-Klasse (Schlachtschiff)|H-Klasse]] vorgesehen war und sich in Deutschland in Fertigung befand. Die Baupläne für diese Geschütze hatte die [[Sowjetunion]] 1940 von Deutschland erwerben wollen, deren Verkauf war aber von [[Adolf Hitler]] abgelehnt worden.&lt;ref&gt;Breyer: ''Schlachtschiffe und Schlachtkreuzer 1905–1970.'' S. 281, 333 und 426.&lt;/ref&gt; Es stellte sich also die Frage, das Schlachtschiff für die deutsche Flotte fertigzustellen.<br /> <br /> Am 20.&amp;nbsp;September 1942 vermerkte das [[Kriegstagebuch]] der [[Seekriegsleitung]]: ''Bisher Schlachtschiffneubau auf der Werft in Nikolajew konserviert&amp;nbsp;– Frage Fertigstellung oder abwracken&amp;nbsp;– Keine Baupläne vorhanden&amp;nbsp;– Fertigbau ist im Augenblick aus Arbeiter- und Rohstoffmangel nicht möglich&amp;nbsp;– Überlegungen sprechen für Abwracken des Schiffes.''&lt;ref&gt;''Kriegstagebuch der Seekriegsleitung 1939–1945.'' Band 37: September 1942. Verlag Mittler &amp; Sohn, Herford 1993, ISBN 3-8132-0637-8.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Ab 1943 soll dann doch der Weiterbau des Schlachtschiffes in schleppendem Gang betrieben worden sein; dies ist jedoch angesichts des Befehls Hitlers vom 26. Januar 1943, alle großen Überwassereinheiten außer Dienst zu stellen, und der daraufhin erfolgten Einstellung aller Bauarbeiten an Großschiffen selbst auf deutschen Werften höchst zweifelhaft.<br /> <br /> Beim Rückzug der deutschen Truppen aus Nikolajew am 18.&amp;nbsp;März 1944 wurde der noch immer auf Stapel liegende Schiffsrumpf durch Sprengungen weitgehend zerstört. Das Schiffswrack wurde später von der Sowjetunion abgebrochen.&lt;ref name=&quot;Breyer426&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> == Literatur ==<br /> * {{Literatur<br /> |Autor=Siegfried Breyer<br /> |Titel=Schlachtschiffe und Schlachtkreuzer 1905–1970<br /> |Verlag=Manfred Pawlak Verlagsgesellschaft<br /> |Ort=Herrsching<br /> |Datum=1970<br /> |ISBN=3-88199-474-2<br /> |Seiten=436f}}<br /> <br /> == Fußnoten ==<br /> &lt;references&gt;<br /> &lt;ref name=&quot;Breyer426&quot;&gt;<br /> Breyer: ''Schlachtschiffe und Schlachtkreuzer 1905–1970.'' S. 426.<br /> &lt;/ref&gt;<br /> &lt;/references&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Kategorie:Sowjetski-Sojus-Klasse]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Beuteschiff (Kriegsmarine)]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alberto-Culver&diff=196958766 2020-02-19T12:53:20Z

<p>Veracious: repositioning</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Unternehmen<br /> | Name = Alberto-Culver Company<br /> | Logo = <br /> | Unternehmensform = [[Gesellschaftsrecht der Vereinigten Staaten#Corporation|Corporation]]<br /> | ISIN = US0130781000<br /> | Gründungsdatum = 1955<br /> | Sitz = [[Melrose Park (Illinois)|Melrose Park]], [[Vereinigte Staaten]]<br /> | Leitung =<br /> * Carol Lavin Bernick, [[Vorstandsvorsitzender]]<br /> * V. James Marino, Präsident und [[Chief Executive Officer]]<br /> | Mitarbeiterzahl = 2.500&amp;nbsp;(Dezember&amp;nbsp;2009)&lt;ref name=&quot;gb2009&quot;&gt;{{Internetquelle |url=http://phx.corporate-ir.net/External.File?item=UGFyZW50SUQ9MzYzOTQxfENoaWxkSUQ9MzU4MTc4fFR5cGU9MQ==&amp;t=1 |titel=Geschäftsbericht 2009 |zugriff=2011-02-15 |autor=Alberto Culver Company |sprache=en |format=PDF |archiv-bot=2018-03-28 21:49:41 InternetArchiveBot |offline=ja }}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> | Umsatz = 1,434 [[Milliarde|Mrd]] [[US-Dollar|$]] (2009)&lt;ref name=&quot;gb2009&quot; /&gt;<br /> | Branche = Einzelhandel, Drogerie<br /> | Homepage = [http://www.alberto.com/ alberto.com]<br /> }}<br /> '''Alberto-Culver Company''' ist ein international tätiges Unternehmen aus den [[Vereinigte Staaten|Vereinigten Staaten]], das Pflegeprodukte für die Haare und Haut anbietet. Das Unternehmen ist im [[S&amp;P 500]] gelistet.<br /> <br /> Das Unternehmen steigerte seinen Umsatz zwischen 2006 und 2009 um 21 Prozent, wobei sich das Vorsteuerergebnis im selben Zeitraum mehr als verdoppelte. Zwei Drittel dieses Umsatzes wurden dabei in den USA erwirtschaftet.&lt;ref name=&quot;ftd.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ftd.de/finanzen/maerkte/marktberichte/:das-kapital-unilever-schmecken-pflegeprodukte-besser/50175272.html#utm_source=rss2&amp;utm_medium=rss_feed&amp;utm_campaign=/ |title=Das Kapital: Unilever schmecken Pflegeprodukte besser |publisher=FTD.de |date= |accessdate=2011-01-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100928142207/http://www.ftd.de/finanzen/maerkte/marktberichte/:das-kapital-unilever-schmecken-pflegeprodukte-besser/50175272.html#utm_source=rss2&amp;utm_medium=rss_feed&amp;utm_campaign=/|archivedate=2010-09-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Zu den Marken des Unternehmens gehören Alberto VO5, St. Ives, TRESemme, Consort und Nexxus.<br /> Hergestellt werden auch die Produkte Sugar Twin, Mrs. Dash, Static Guard, Molly McButter und Baker’s Joy.<br /> <br /> Am 27. September 2010 ist Alberto-Culver für eine 20-prozentige Prämie auf seinen Vortageskurs von dem britisch-niederländischen Konzern [[Unilever]] übernommen worden, welcher mit diesem Zukauf zum weltweiten Marktführer für Haarspülungsprodukte aufsteigt.&lt;ref name=&quot;ftd.de&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> <br /> == Weblink ==<br /> * [http://www.alberto.com/ Website der Alberto-Culver Company]<br /> [[Kategorie:Drogerieartikelhersteller]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Unilever-Unternehmen]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Unternehmen (Cook County, Illinois)]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Melrose Park (Illinois)]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hengstler_(Unternehmen)&diff=194914008 2019-12-15T04:18:44Z

<p>Veracious: redundant</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Unternehmen<br /> | Name = Hengstler GmbH<br /> | Logo = <br /> | Unternehmensform = [[Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (Deutschland)|GmbH]]<br /> | ISIN = <br /> | Gründungsdatum = 1846<br /> | Auflösungsdatum = <br /> | Auflösungsgrund = <br /> | Sitz = [[Aldingen]]<br /> | Leitung = Martin Klimek, Jochen Feiler <br /> | Mitarbeiterzahl = rund 300<br /> | Umsatz = <br /> | Stand = <br /> | Branche = Elektrische Mess-, Kontroll-, Navigationsinstrumenten und Vorrichtungen<br /> | Homepage = hengstler.de<br /> }}<br /> Die '''Hengstler GmbH''' ist ein mittelständisches Unternehmen in [[Aldingen]], welches auf die Produktion von industriellen Zähl- und Steuerungskomponenten spezialisiert ist. Das Tochterunternehmen der [[Fortive Corporation]] ist auf dem Gebiet der [[Elektromechanik]] tätig.<br /> <br /> == Geschichte ==<br /> Der Uhrmachermeister Johannes Hengstler begann im Jahre 1846 im schwäbischen Aldingen, mit der Serienfertigung von Tonfedern. Ab 1912 begann Hengstler mit der Herstellung von Präzionsdrehteilen. Im Jahr 1926 wurde die Firma Efunda, die Zählapparate fertigte, von Hengstler übernommen. Hengstler überstand sowohl die Wirtschaftskrise am Ende der 1920er Jahre als auch eine Teildemontage nach dem Ende des [[Zweiter Weltkrieg|Zweiten Weltkriegs]]. 1954 ließ das Unternehmen 100 Werkswohnungen bauen, um so neue Mitarbeiter zu gewinnen. Die Anschaffung einer Kunststoff-Spritzgießmaschine für die Herstellung eigener Kunststoffteile trug zum weiteren wirtschaftlichen Erfolg bei. 1962 erfolgte die Gründung des ersten ausländischen Tochterunternehmens, der „Hengstler Great Britain“ in Großbritannien. Im Jahr 1995 wurde die Firma Hengstler von dem [[Vereinigte Staaten|US-amerikanischen]] Konzern [[Danaher Corporation]] übernommen und bediente seither Kunden wie [[Robert Bosch (Unternehmen)|Bosch]], [[Festo]], [[IBM]] oder [[Siemens]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hengstler.de/de/company/history.php Geschichte] auf hengstler.de&lt;/ref&gt; Nach einer Abspaltung der Maschinenbausparte Danahers ist Hengstler eine Tochter der [[Fortive Corporation]].&lt;ref&gt;Hengstler: ''[https://www.hengstler.de/de/company/hengstler.php Erfolgreich mit Hengstler]'' abgerufen am 15. Januar 2019&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Seit 2002 befindet sich in dem Gebäude des Firmengründers ein Museum, zu dem auch die ehemaligen Produktionsstätten der Firma Hengstler gehören.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.schwaebische.de/region/sigmaringen-tuttlingen/trossingen/rund-um-trossingen_artikel,-Hengstler-Urenkel-wandelt-auf-Spuren-der-Vergangenheit-_arid,5183799.html ''Hengstler-Urenkel wandelt auf Spuren der Vergangenheit''] auf schwaebische.de&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt; {{Webarchiv|text=Museum Aldingen |url=http://aldingen.de/index.php?id=67 |wayback=20131125103351 |archiv-bot=2018-04-14 14:58:31 InternetArchiveBot }} auf aldingen.de&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Produkte ==<br /> Hengstler bietet im Bereich der Prozesssteuerungs- und Umwelttechnologie unter anderem die Projektabwicklung für Applikationen an. Zu den Produkten zählen insbesondere [[Drehgeber]], [[Relais]], [[Zählwerk|Zähler]], [[Tachometer]], Positionsanzeigen, [[Näherungsschalter]] sowie Drucker und Abschneider. Die angebotenen [[Inkrementalgeber]] können beispielsweise zur Wegmessung bei Fließbändern, Fräsen und Robotern eingesetzt werden während die [[Absolutwertgeber]] eine genaue Positionierung ermöglichen.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hengstler.de/de/s_c1003/Drehgeber/ Drehgeber] auf hengstler.de&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == International ==<br /> Hengstler besitzt ein Schwesterwerk in der Slowakei die „Hengstler s.r.o.“&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.slowakei.com/firmen/pre%C5%A1ov/hengstler-sro.html Hengstler, s.r.o.] auf slowakei.com&lt;/ref&gt; sowie Tochterunternehmen in Frankreich, die „Hengstler contrôle numérique France“&lt;ref&gt; {{Webarchiv|text=HENGSTLER contrôle numérique France |url=http://www.hengstler.fr/ |wayback=20130906094420 |archiv-bot=2018-04-14 14:58:31 InternetArchiveBot }} auf hengstler.fr&lt;/ref&gt;, Italien, die „Hengstler Italia S.R.L.“ oder in den Vereinigten Staaten. Zudem gibt es weitere Fertigungsstätten und Vertretungen in Europa, Amerika und in Asien.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hengstler.de/de/company/hengstler.php Profil] auf hengstler.de&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Kategorie:Elektrotechnikhersteller]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Produzierendes Unternehmen (Baden-Württemberg)]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Gegründet 1846]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Aldingen]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benutzer_Diskussion:RoBri&diff=191806873 2019-08-30T06:21:53Z

<p>Veracious: Neuer Abschnitt /* Revert */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Autoarchiv<br /> |Alter =1<br /> |Ziel ='((Lemma))/Archiv/((Jahr))'<br /> |Übersicht =[[Spezial:Präfixindex/Benutzer Diskussion:RoBri/Archiv|Archiv]]<br /> |Mindestbeiträge =0<br /> |Mindestabschnitte =0<br /> |Frequenz =ständig<br /> }}<br /> <br /> == Keine Verbesserung des Artikel ==<br /> <br /> Guten Tag RoBri, <br /> Der Artikel wurde genauer verfasst und entscheident erweitert, ähnlich wie es der Englische, Französische oder Spanische Artikel vorgemacht hat. Der alte Artikel ist unpräzise und gibt ein ungenügendes Bild des Lexikonartikels wieder. Falls ein unzureichender Artikel erwünscht ist, Informationen im Sinne der UnbbIldung einfach vorenthalten werden, und so ein seriöser Artikel zu einem kunterbunten, ja fast, Märchenartikel mit mangelhaften Belgen gemacht werden soll, dann nennt man so etwas, ohne einen Grund zu nennen, ein Totschlagargument RoBri.<br /> RoBri =) D0 {{unsigniert|Zisht|05:13, 30. Aug. 2019 (CEST)}}<br /> <br /> == Revert ==<br /> <br /> Hello, i've notified that you are reverting my edits in [[Tanjung Lesung]]. I merged them because it's redundant to have more than one article explaining the same location. <br /> <br /> Also, can you explain why you reverted my edit on [[BT-SV]]? I only add an image there. Is that counted as vandalism?<br /> <br /> Regards. [[Benutzer:Veracious|Veracious]] ([[Benutzer Diskussion:Veracious|Diskussion]]) 08:21, 30. Aug. 2019 (CEST)</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanjung_Lesung&diff=191805761 2019-08-30T04:58:14Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>#REDIRECT[[Kap Lesung]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanjung_Lesung&diff=191805756 2019-08-30T04:58:05Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>'''Tanjung Lesung''' steht für:</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanjung_Lesung&diff=191805752 2019-08-30T04:57:53Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>'''Tanjung Lesung''' steht für:<br /> * [[Pantai Tanjung Lesung]], ein Strand westlich des Kaps Lesung&lt;/onlyinclude&gt;<br /> <br /> {{Begriffsklärung}}</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pantai_Tanjung_Lesung&diff=191805746 2019-08-30T04:57:22Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>#REDIRECT[[Kap Lesung]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pantai_Tanjung_Lesung&diff=191805740 2019-08-30T04:57:10Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>'''Pantai Tanjung Lesung''' ({{enS|''Tanjung Lesung Beach''}}, {{deS|Strand von Kap Lesung}}), ist ein Strand an der westlichen Spitze der [[Indonesien|indonesischen]] Insel [[Java (Insel)|Java]].</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pantai_Tanjung_Lesung&diff=191805737 2019-08-30T04:56:52Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Strand<br /> | NAME = &lt;!-- nur, wenn der Name vom Lemma abweicht --&gt;<br /> | BILD = Pantai Tanjung Lesung 01.jpg<br /> | BILDBESCHREIBUNG = Pantai Tanjung Lesung, mit dem gleichnamigen Kap im Hintergrund<br /> | LAGE = [[Pandeglang (Regierungsbezirk)|Pandeglang]], [[Indonesien]]<br /> | GEWÄSSER = [[Sundastraße]]<br /> | BREITENGRAD = -6.4786<br /> | LÄNGENGRAD = 105.6558<br /> | REGION-ISO = ID-BT<br /> | LÄNGE = <br /> | BREITE = <br /> | BESCHAFFENHEIT = <br /> | WASSER = <br /> | UMGEBUNG = <br /> | BESUCHER_F = <br /> | PARKPLATZ = <br /> | ÜBERWACHUNG = <br /> | FKK = <br /> | KRANKENHAUS = <br /> | KRANKENHAUS_D = <br /> | HAFEN = <br /> | HAFEN_D = <br /> | T_SONSTIGES = <br /> | LISTE = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Pantai Tanjung Lesung''' ({{enS|''Tanjung Lesung Beach''}}, {{deS|Strand von Kap Lesung}}), ist ein Strand an der westlichen Spitze der [[Indonesien|indonesischen]] Insel [[Java (Insel)|Java]].</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pantai_Tanjung_Lesung&diff=191805735 2019-08-30T04:56:43Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Strand<br /> | NAME = &lt;!-- nur, wenn der Name vom Lemma abweicht --&gt;<br /> | BILD = Pantai Tanjung Lesung 01.jpg<br /> | BILDBESCHREIBUNG = Pantai Tanjung Lesung, mit dem gleichnamigen Kap im Hintergrund<br /> | LAGE = [[Pandeglang (Regierungsbezirk)|Pandeglang]], [[Indonesien]]<br /> | GEWÄSSER = [[Sundastraße]]<br /> | BREITENGRAD = -6.4786<br /> | LÄNGENGRAD = 105.6558<br /> | REGION-ISO = ID-BT<br /> | LÄNGE = <br /> | BREITE = <br /> | BESCHAFFENHEIT = <br /> | WASSER = <br /> | UMGEBUNG = <br /> | BESUCHER_F = <br /> | PARKPLATZ = <br /> | ÜBERWACHUNG = <br /> | FKK = <br /> | KRANKENHAUS = <br /> | KRANKENHAUS_D = <br /> | HAFEN = <br /> | HAFEN_D = <br /> | T_SONSTIGES = <br /> | LISTE = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Pantai Tanjung Lesung''' ({{enS|''Tanjung Lesung Beach''}}, {{deS|Strand von Kap Lesung}}), ist ein Strand an der westlichen Spitze der [[Indonesien|indonesischen]] Insel [[Java (Insel)|Java]].<br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> {{Commonscat|Tanjung Lesung Beach}}</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pantai_Tanjung_Lesung&diff=191805730 2019-08-30T04:56:27Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Strand<br /> | NAME = &lt;!-- nur, wenn der Name vom Lemma abweicht --&gt;<br /> | BILD = Pantai Tanjung Lesung 01.jpg<br /> | BILDBESCHREIBUNG = Pantai Tanjung Lesung, mit dem gleichnamigen Kap im Hintergrund<br /> | LAGE = [[Pandeglang (Regierungsbezirk)|Pandeglang]], [[Indonesien]]<br /> | GEWÄSSER = [[Sundastraße]]<br /> | BREITENGRAD = -6.4786<br /> | LÄNGENGRAD = 105.6558<br /> | REGION-ISO = ID-BT<br /> | LÄNGE = <br /> | BREITE = <br /> | BESCHAFFENHEIT = <br /> | WASSER = <br /> | UMGEBUNG = <br /> | BESUCHER_F = <br /> | PARKPLATZ = <br /> | ÜBERWACHUNG = <br /> | FKK = <br /> | KRANKENHAUS = <br /> | KRANKENHAUS_D = <br /> | HAFEN = <br /> | HAFEN_D = <br /> | T_SONSTIGES = <br /> | LISTE = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Pantai Tanjung Lesung''' ({{enS|''Tanjung Lesung Beach''}}, {{deS|Strand von Kap Lesung}}), ist ein Strand an der westlichen Spitze der [[Indonesien|indonesischen]] Insel [[Java (Insel)|Java]].<br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> {{Commonscat|Tanjung Lesung Beach}}<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> {{SORTIERUNG:Tanjung Lesung, Pantai}}<br /> [[Kategorie:Strand in Indonesien]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Strand (Indischer Ozean)]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Geographie (Java)]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Banten]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Sonderwirtschaftszone]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pantai_Tanjung_Lesung&diff=191805725 2019-08-30T04:56:13Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Strand<br /> | NAME = &lt;!-- nur, wenn der Name vom Lemma abweicht --&gt;<br /> | BILD = Pantai Tanjung Lesung 01.jpg<br /> | BILDBESCHREIBUNG = Pantai Tanjung Lesung, mit dem gleichnamigen Kap im Hintergrund<br /> | LAGE = [[Pandeglang (Regierungsbezirk)|Pandeglang]], [[Indonesien]]<br /> | GEWÄSSER = [[Sundastraße]]<br /> | BREITENGRAD = -6.4786<br /> | LÄNGENGRAD = 105.6558<br /> | REGION-ISO = ID-BT<br /> | LÄNGE = <br /> | BREITE = <br /> | BESCHAFFENHEIT = <br /> | WASSER = <br /> | UMGEBUNG = <br /> | BESUCHER_F = <br /> | PARKPLATZ = <br /> | ÜBERWACHUNG = <br /> | FKK = <br /> | KRANKENHAUS = <br /> | KRANKENHAUS_D = <br /> | HAFEN = <br /> | HAFEN_D = <br /> | T_SONSTIGES = <br /> | LISTE = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Pantai Tanjung Lesung''' ({{enS|''Tanjung Lesung Beach''}}, {{deS|Strand von Kap Lesung}}), ist ein Strand an der westlichen Spitze der [[Indonesien|indonesischen]] Insel [[Java (Insel)|Java]].<br /> <br /> == Geographie ==<br /> Pantai Tanjung Lesung befindet sich etwa 160 Kilometer von der Hauptstadt [[Jakarta]] entfernt.<br /> <br /> Entgegen seinem Namen liegt der Strand am [[Kap Badur]] ''(Tanjung Badur)'', westlich des [[Kap Lesung|Kaps Lesung]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-z94KZhDzULM/TkCqlreJfMI/AAAAAAAAA4k/IYqh5znwL9E/s4600/KAB-PANDEGLANG.jpg Karte des Regierungsbezirks Pandeglang]&lt;/ref&gt; Die beiden Kaps bilden die Nordspitze der Halbinsel [[Tanjungjaya]] im Nordwesten des Distrikts [[Panimbang]] (Regierungsbezirk [[Pandeglang (Regierungsbezirk)|Pandeglang]], Provinz [[Banten]]), die markant in die [[Sundastraße]] hineinragt. Jenseits der Straße liegt die Insel [[Sumatra]]. Der Strand ist etwa 15 Kilometer lang und ein bekannter Tourismusort mit mehreren Hotels.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> {{Commonscat|Tanjung Lesung Beach}}<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> {{SORTIERUNG:Tanjung Lesung, Pantai}}<br /> [[Kategorie:Strand in Indonesien]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Strand (Indischer Ozean)]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Geographie (Java)]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Banten]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Sonderwirtschaftszone]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kap_Lesung&diff=191805675 2019-08-30T04:51:21Z

<p>Veracious: Merged, as they are explaining the same topic.</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Kap<br /> | NAME = <br /> | ALTERNATIVNAME = Tanjung Lesung<br /> | SPRACHE-ANAME = <br /> | BILD-1 = Pantai Tanjung Lesung 02.jpg<br /> | BILD-1-TEXT = Das Kap vom gleichnamigen Strand aus gesehen<br /> | BREITENGRAD = 6/28/19.74/S<br /> | LÄNGENGRAD = 105/39/57.85/E<br /> | REGION-ISO = ID-BT<br /> | POSKARTE = <br /> | KARTE = <br /> | LAGE = <br /> | NAME-KÜSTE = Küste von Java<br /> | GEWÄSSER-1 = [[Sundastraße]]<br /> | GEWÄSSER-2 = <br /> | LÄNGE = <br /> | BREITE = <br /> | FLÄCHE = <br /> | HÖHE = <br /> | LEUCHTTURM = <br /> | BESONDERHEITEN = <br /> | BILD-2 = <br /> | BILD-2-TEXT = <br /> | ANMERKUNGEN = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> Das '''Kap Lesung''' ({{idS|''Tanjung Lesung''}}) ist ein Kap an der Westküste der Insel [[Java (Insel)|Java]]. Zusammen mit dem westlich gelegenen [[Kap Badur]] ''(Tanjung Badur)'' bildet es die Nordspitze der Halbinsel [[Tanjungjaya]] im Nordwesten des Distrikts [[Panimbang]] (Regierungsbezirk [[Pandeglang (Regierungsbezirk)|Pandeglang]], Provinz [[Banten]]), die markant in die [[Sundastraße]] hineinragt. Der nach dem Kap Lesung benannte Touristenstrand [[Pantai Tanjung Lesung]] befindet sich auf dem Kap Badur.&lt;ref&gt;[http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-z94KZhDzULM/TkCqlreJfMI/AAAAAAAAA4k/IYqh5znwL9E/s4600/KAB-PANDEGLANG.jpg Karte des Regierungsbezirks Pandeglang]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> ==Strand ==<br /> Strand von Kap Lesung befindet sich etwa 160 Kilometer von der Hauptstadt [[Jakarta]] entfernt.<br /> <br /> Entgegen seinem Namen liegt der Strand am [[Kap Badur]] ''(Tanjung Badur)'', westlich des [[Kap Lesung|Kaps Lesung]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-z94KZhDzULM/TkCqlreJfMI/AAAAAAAAA4k/IYqh5znwL9E/s4600/KAB-PANDEGLANG.jpg Karte des Regierungsbezirks Pandeglang]&lt;/ref&gt; Die beiden Kaps bilden die Nordspitze der Halbinsel [[Tanjungjaya]] im Nordwesten des Distrikts [[Panimbang]] (Regierungsbezirk [[Pandeglang (Regierungsbezirk)|Pandeglang]], Provinz [[Banten]]), die markant in die [[Sundastraße]] hineinragt. Jenseits der Straße liegt die Insel [[Sumatra]]. Der Strand ist etwa 15 Kilometer lang und ein bekannter Tourismusort mit mehreren Hotels.<br /> <br /> === Geschichte ===<br /> [[Datei:Sunda strait tsunami concert.jpg|mini|left|Der Strand, an dem das Konzert stattfand, nach der Tsunami]]<br /> <br /> Von der indonesischen Regierung wurde Tanjung Lesung 2012 als [[Sonderwirtschaftszone]] (SEZ) im Tourismussektor eingerichtet.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.gtai.de/GTAI/Navigation/DE/Trade/Maerkte/suche,t=indonesien-plant-sonderwirtschaftszone-nahe-jakarta,did=1816154.html ''Indonesien plant Sonderwirtschaftszone nahe Jakarta''], gtai.de vom 5. November 2017&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Am 22. Dezember 2018 wurde Tanjung Lesung durch einen [[Tsunami auf Java und Sumatra 2018|Tsunami]] getroffen, der durch den Ausbruch des [[Krakatau|Anak Krakataus]] und einem Unterwassererdrutsch ausgelöst wurde. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt gab die indonesische Boyband [[Seventeen (indonesische Band)|Seventeen]] am Strand ein Konzert. Ein Handyvideo dokumentierte den Moment, als die Welle von hinten auf die Bühne und dann über die Zuschauer einbrach. Unter den über hundert Toten im Ressort sind auch mehrere Bandmitglieder und Familienangehörige.&lt;ref&gt;Die Welt: [https://www.welt.de/vermischtes/article186036570/Indonesien-Zahl-der-Toten-nach-dem-Tsunami-steigt.html ''Zahl der Toten nach dem Tsunami steigt'', 24. Dezember 2018], abgerufen am 28. Dezember 2018.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> {{Commonscat|Tanjung Lesung Beach}}<br /> {{SORTIERUNG:Lesung}}<br /> [[Kategorie:Kap (Indonesien)]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Banten]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Kap (Asien)]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Geographie (Java)]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BT-SW&diff=190694307 2019-07-23T14:22:52Z

<p>Veracious: image</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox AFV<br /> | Name= BT-SV, BT-SV-2<br /> | Bild= Bt-sv-2_side_view.jpg<br /> | Beschreibung= <br /> | Besatzung= 4 (Kommandant, Fahrer, Ladeschütze, MG-Schütze/Funker)<br /> | Länge= 5,2 m<br /> | Breite= 2,8 m<br /> | Höhe= 2,17 m<br /> | Gewicht= 25 [[Tonne (Einheit)|Tonnen]]<br /> | Panzerung= 16–25 mm<br /> | Hauptbewaffnung= 45-mm 20KL; 140 Granaten<br /> | Sekundärbewaffnung= 1 × [[Infanterie-Maschinengewehr DP|MG DT]]; 1386 Schuss<br /> | Motor= [[Mikulin M-17|Mikulin M-17T-Ottomotor]]<br /> | Leistung= 500 PS (368 kW)<br /> | Federung= [[Christie-Laufwerk|Christie-Federung]]<br /> | Höchstgeschwindigkeit= 52&amp;nbsp;km/h<br /> | KGR= 38,1 PS/[[Tonne (Einheit)|Tonnen]]<br /> | Reichweite= 120&amp;nbsp;km<br /> }}<br /> <br /> Der '''BT-SV''' ({{RuS|Быстроходный Танк}}, ''Bystrochodni Tank'', SV-[[Stalin]]-[[Kliment Jefremowitsch Woroschilow|Voroschilow]], [[Deutsche Sprache|dt.]]: schnellfahrender Panzer) war ein [[Sowjetunion|sowjetischer]] Versuchspanzer der 1930er Jahre aus der [[BT-Serie]].<br /> <br /> == Entwicklung ==<br /> Der BT-SV wurde in den Jahren 1937 bis 1938 in der Panzerfahrzeug-Reparaturbasis Nr. 12 (Kharkov-Kommando) entwickelt. Der BT-SV nutzte Teile und Komponenten des BT-7. Die Wanne bestand aus 10- bis 12-mm-Strukturstahlplatten, die eine geschrägte Panzerung formten. Das Serienfahrzeug sollte 25 mm dicke, homogene Panzerstahlplatten besitzen. Es wurden lediglich zwei Prototypen hergestellt und erfolgreich getestet, jedoch nie in Dienst gestellt. Die geschrägte Panzerung war prägend für die später folgenden Versuchspanzer A-20 und den T-34.<br /> <br /> == Siehe auch ==<br /> * [[Sowjetische Militärfahrzeuge des Zweiten Weltkrieges]]<br /> <br /> [[Kategorie:Sowjetisches Militärfahrzeug]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Leichter Panzer]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soziale_Unterst%C3%BCtzung&diff=177989879 2018-06-03T10:10:38Z

<p>Veracious: /* Arten sozialer Unterstützung */</p> <hr /> <div>'''Soziale Unterstützung''' (Social Support) ist eine [[Ressource]], mit der durch die Beziehung zu anderen Personen zentrale [[Stufenmodell der psychosozialen Entwicklung|psychosoziale Bedürfnisse]] wie die nach [[Zuneigung]], [[Anerkennung]], [[Identität]], Zugehörigkeit und [[Sicherheit]], sowie instrumentelle Bedürfnisse wie Informationsbedarf, praktischer und materieller Hilfebedarf befriedigt werden. <br /> <br /> == Arten sozialer Unterstützung == <br /> Üblich ist die Unterscheidung zwischen sozialer Integration als dem quantitativ-strukturellen Aspekt (z.&amp;nbsp;B. Größe, Dichte, Kontaktfrequenz [[Soziales Netzwerk (Soziologie)|sozialer Netzwerke]]) und der sozialen Unterstützung als dem qualitativ-funktionalen Aspekt (z.&amp;nbsp;B. konkrete Hilfeleistungen oder Trost).&lt;ref name=&quot;Knoll &amp; Schwarzer, 2005&quot;&gt;Knoll, N., &amp; Schwarzer, R. (2005). Soziale Unterstützung. In R. Schwarzer (Hrsg.), ''Enzyklopädie der Psychologie: Gesundheitspsychologie'' (S. 333–349). Göttingen: Hogrefe.&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Innerhalb des qualitativ-funktionalen Aspekts der sozialen Unterstützung wird zudem zwischen wahrgenommener (bzw. erwarteter) Unterstützung (perceived available social support) und erhaltener Unterstützung (actually received social support) unterschieden.&lt;ref name=&quot;Knoll &amp; Schwarzer, 2005&quot;/&gt; Wahrgenommene Unterstützung bezeichnet die Einschätzung, von einer Person sozial unterstützt werden zu können, falls Bedarf besteht. Die wahrgenommene Unterstützung ist also eine prospektive Erwartung möglicher Unterstützung (in der Zukunft). Das Konstrukt der erhaltenen Unterstützung bezeichnet hingegen die Einschätzung einer Person bezüglich vergangener empfangener Unterstützungsleistungen. Erhaltene Unterstützung ist also die retrospektive Bewertung der bereits stattgefundenen Unterstützung einer empfangenden Person. Zur Messung beider Konstrukte verwendet man Skalen zur subjektiven Bewertung, da nicht die objektiven Verhältnisse, sondern die Interpretationen aus der Sicht der Person, welche die Unterstützung erwartet oder erhalten hat, im Vordergrund stehen.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cohen &amp; Wills, 1985&quot;&gt;Cohen, S. &amp; Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. ''Psychological bulletin, 98''(2), 310–357.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Weitergehende Differenzierungen beziehen sich auf die Art der hilfreichen Interaktion, wodurch beide Konstrukte noch einmal unterteilt werden können in emotionale, instrumentelle und informationelle Unterstützung.&lt;ref name=&quot;Knoll &amp; Schwarzer, 2005&quot;/&gt; Bei der emotionalen Unterstützung werden zum Beispiel Mitleid, Trost oder Wärme kommuniziert. Eine Aussage aus den ''Berliner Social Support Skalen'' (BSSS) zur emotionalen Unterstützung etwa lautet: „Wenn ich traurig bin, gibt es Menschen, die mich aufmuntern“.&lt;ref&gt;Schwarzer, R. &amp; Schulz, U. (2003). Soziale Unterstützung bei der Krankheitsbewältigung: Die Berliner Social Support Skalen (BSSS). ''Diagnostica, 49''(2), 73-82.&lt;/ref&gt; Instrumentelle Unterstützung umfasst Hilfe bei zu erledigenden Arbeiten, bei der Besorgung von Gütern oder dem Bereitstellen finanzieller Ressourcen (Beispiel: „Es gibt Menschen, die mir ihre Hilfe anbieten, wenn ich sie brauche“; BSSS). Informationelle Unterstützung beinhaltet guten Rat oder genereller die Übermittlung von Informationen (Beispiel: „Man schlug mir eine Tätigkeit vor, die mich etwas ablenken sollte“).<br /> <br /> == Wirkmechanismen sozialer Unterstützung ==<br /> Menschen, die viel soziale Unterstützung wahrnehmen und erhalten, berichten mehr Wohlbefinden und bessere körperliche und mentale Gesundheit als Menschen mit weniger Unterstützung.&lt;ref name=&quot;Knoll &amp; Schwarzer, 2005&quot;/&gt; Vertreter der Haupteffekt-Hypothese führen die Effekte sozialer Unterstützung auf Gesundheit und Wohlbefinden darauf zurück, dass sozial stärker unterstützte Personen generell mehr Wohlbefinden erleben und somit auch unter Belastung über dem Niveau weniger sozial unterstützter Menschen liegen.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cohen &amp; Wills, 1985&quot;/&gt; Dagegen sehen Befürworter der Abpufferungshypothese („Buffer-Hypothesis“) den Grund des höheren Wohlbefindens darin, dass dieses bei Personen mit verstärkter sozialer Unterstützung unter belastenden Umständen weniger absinkt als bei sozial weniger unterstützen Menschen.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cohen &amp; Wills, 1985&quot;/&gt; In der Abpufferungstheorie hat soziale Unterstützung demnach nur dann eine Wirkung auf das Wohlbefinden, wenn sich die empfangende Person in einer stressreichen Situation befindet, während die Haupteffekthypothese annimmt, dass soziale Unterstützung unabhängig vom Stressniveau einer Person wirkt.<br /> Effekte sozialer Unterstützung auf die Gesundheit lassen sich über drei mögliche Pfade erklären: Unterstützung kann 1) biologische Stressreaktionen vermindern, 2) auf die psychische Gesundheit wirken, z. B. indem sie den Selbstwert steigert und depressiven Symptomen vorbeugt und 3) gesundheitsrelevantes Verhalten verbessern, z.&amp;nbsp;B. mit dem Rauchen aufzuhören oder sich gesund zu ernähren.&lt;ref&gt;Uchino, B. N. (2009). Understanding the links between social support and physical health: a life-span perspective with emphasis on the separability of perceived and received support. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4'' (3), 236-255.&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> == Soziale Unterstützung bei Trauer ==<br /> === Soziale Unterstützung durch Familie und Freunde ===<br /> Partnerschaften gelten als bedeutende Quelle sozialer Unterstützung.&lt;ref name=&quot;Knoll &amp; Schwarzer, 2005&quot;/&gt; Familie und Freunde als Unterstützungsquellen bieten jeweils unterschiedliche Formen der Unterstützung im Anfangsstadium der Verwitwung (bis zu 6 Monate).&lt;ref name=&quot;de Vries et al., 2014&quot;&gt;de Vries, B., Utz, R., Caserta, M. &amp; Lund, D. (2014). Friend and family contact and support in early widowhood. ''The Journals Of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences And Social Sciences, 69B''(1), 75-84.&lt;/ref&gt; Einfluss auf den Effekt sozialer Unterstützung bei kürzlich Verwitweten haben die Freiwilligkeit der Unterstützung,&lt;ref&gt;Adams, R. G. &amp; Blieszner, R. (1994). An integrative conceptual framework for friendship research. ''Journal of Social and Personal Relationships'', 11, 163–184.&lt;/ref&gt; die Kompatibilität der Unterstützung (geteilte Ansichten, Werte und ähnliche Aktivitäten, Interessen, Erfahrungen),&lt;ref&gt;Adams, R. G., Blieszner, R. &amp; de Vries, B. (2000). Definitions of friendship in the third age: Age, gender, and study location effects. ''Journal of Aging Studies'', 14, 117–133.&lt;/ref&gt; sowie die geringere Belastung durch vorgegebene Rollen, Erwartungen und vorgeschriebene Grenzen.&lt;ref&gt;Barker, J. C. (2002). Neighbors, friends, and other nonkin caregivers of community-living dependent elders. ''The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57''(3), 158–167.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;de Vries, B. &amp; Johnson, C. L. (2002). The death of a friend in later life. ''Advances in life course research: New frontiers in socialization, 7'', 299– 324.&lt;/ref&gt; Auch geografische Nähe und größere Verfügbarkeit können eine Rolle spielen. <br /> <br /> === Posttraumatisches Wachstum nach einem Trauerfall ===<br /> Der Verlust eines Partners als traumatisches Erlebnis kann in einigen Fällen zu [[Posttraumatisches Wachstum|posttraumatischem Wachstum]] führen. In solchen Fällen bewältigen betroffene Personen ihre Trauer nicht nur erfolgreich, sondern berichten auch von unterschiedlichen Formen des Wachsens nach dem Verlust. Hierzu gehören aufgewertete Beziehungen, eine neue Sicht auf das Selbst und eine veränderte Lebensphilosophie.&lt;ref name=&quot;Michael &amp; Cooper, 2013&quot;&gt;Michael, C. &amp; Cooper, M. (2013). Post-traumatic growth following bereavement: A systematic review of the literature. ''Counselling Psychology Review, 28''(4), 18-33.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Laut der ''Shattered Assumptions Theory'' erschüttern Traumata – wie der Verlust eines geliebten Menschen – implizite Annahmen einer Person über die Welt und ihre Mitmenschen.&lt;ref&gt;Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). ''Shattered assumptions. Towards a new psychology of trauma.'' New York, NY: Free Press.&lt;/ref&gt; Die Welt gilt danach nicht mehr als wohlwollender Ort, in der Erlebnisse dem Verhalten einer Person entsprechen.
 Zur Überwindung eines Traumas müssen die bestehenden Modelle an die neue Information angepasst werden ([[Akkommodation]]). Dies setzt voraus, dass das soziale Umfeld in der Lage ist, diese positiven Akkommodationsprozesse zu fördern. Soziale Unterstützung ist also ein bedeutsamer Prädiktor von posttraumatischem Wachstum bei Verwitweten.&lt;ref name=&quot;Michael &amp; Cooper, 2013&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> === Soziale Unterstützung im Internet ===<br /> Das Internet bietet die Möglichkeit, individuelle Lebensumstände mit anderen auszutauschen und informative sowie emotionale Unterstützung zu erhalten.&lt;ref&gt;Ainsworth, M. ''E-Therapy: History and Survey.'' Zugriff am 15. April 2008, von http://www.metanoia.org/imhs/history.htm.&lt;/ref&gt; In mehreren Studien konnte belegt werden, dass soziale Unterstützung über das Internet vermittelt werden kann.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hawdon &amp; Ryan, 2012&quot;&gt;Hawdon, J. &amp; Ryan, J. (2012). Well-being after the Virginia Tech mass murder: The relative effectiveness of face-to-face and virtual interactions in providing support to survivors. ''Traumatology, 18''(4), 3.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Frost, 2014&quot;&gt;Frost, M. (2014). The Grief Grapevine: Facebook Memorial Pages and Adolescent Bereavement. ''Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 24''(2), 256–265.&lt;/ref&gt; So erhalten auch Trauernde die Möglichkeit, von anderen virtuell in ihrem Trauerprozess begleitet zu werden. Trauer im Internet kann als ein neues Trauerritual verstanden werden, das Betroffene bei ihrer emotionalen Verarbeitung begleitet und versucht, die Beschäftigung mit dem Tod zurück in die Gesellschaft zu holen.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hawdon &amp; Ryan, 2012&quot;/&gt; <br /> <br /> Soziale Netzwerke wie [[Facebook]] bieten unterschiedliche Möglichkeiten des Umgangs mit Trauer. Beispielsweise kann das Profil einer verstorbenen Person in eine sogenannte „Memorialpage“ transformiert werden, die es ermöglichen soll, Erinnerungen an den Verstorbenen auszutauschen und somit das Andenken an ihn zu bewahren. Facebook-Anwender nutzen die Pinnwand ihres Profils, um über ihre Trauer zu schreiben. Während bei einer „Memorialpage“ der Fokus eher auf dem Verstorbenen liegt, ermöglicht die Mitteilung via Pinnwand den Trauernden, Unterstützung in Form von Beileidsbekundungen etc. zu erhalten&lt;ref name=&quot;Frost, 2014&quot;/&gt; Eine weitere Möglichkeit der Trauer besteht in der Gründung von Facebook-Gruppen. Diese Gruppen werden insbesondere nach Unglücken und Katastrophen mit vielen Opfern ins Leben gerufen und ermöglichen sowohl Betroffenen und Angehörigen als auch Unbeteiligten, sich über das Ereignis auszutauschen und gemeinsam eine Akzeptanz für das Geschehene zu finden. Eine Studie, die die Reaktionen von Studierenden der Virginia Tech im Zuge des Amoklaufs 2007 untersuchte, fand heraus, dass viele der Studierenden sich schon in der ersten Stunde nach der Tat an Facebook gewendet hatten und schon am ersten Tag zahlreiche Facebook-Gruppen entstanden waren.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hawdon &amp; Ryan, 2012&quot;/&gt; Ein großer Teil der Studierenden trat einer entsprechenden Facebook-Gruppe bei und hinterließ eine Nachricht zu dem Amoklauf.<br /> <br /> Bislang ist nicht belegt, ob die Nutzung sozialer Netzwerke eine gute Quelle sozialer Unterstützung ist, die konsistent mit weniger Depressivität und Hoffnungslosigkeit zusammenhängt. <br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> *[[:en:Social support|Social Support]] Englischer Eintrag: Social Support<br /> *[[:en:Shattered Assumptions Theory|Shattered Assumptions Theory]] Englischer Eintrag: Shattered Assumptions Theory<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Kategorie:Soziale Arbeit]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malta-Konvois&diff=188743634 2018-01-24T04:53:21Z

<p>Veracious: /* Operation MB 6 */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Distinguish|Battle of the Malta Convoy (1800)}}<br /> {{Infobox operational plan<br /> | name = Malta convoys<br /> | partof = The Battle of the Mediterranean<br /> | image = File:Relief Map of Mediterranean Sea.png<br /> |image_size = 300px<br /> | caption = Relief map of the Mediterranean Sea<br /> | scope = Supply operations<br /> | type =<br /> | location = Malta<br /> | coordinates = {{coord|35|53|42|N|14|31|14|E|source:Geohack|display=title}}<br /> | planned_by = [[Mediterranean Fleet]]&lt;br /&gt;[[RAF Middle East Command|RAF Middle East]] (RAF Middle East Command from 29 December 1941)&lt;br /&gt;[[Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)|Merchant Navy]]&lt;br /&gt;Allies<br /> | commanded_by = Admiral [[Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope|Sir Andrew Cunningham]], 1 June 1939 – March 1942&lt;br /&gt;Admiral [[Henry Harwood|Sir Henry Harwood]], 22 April 1942 – February 1943<br /> | objective = Relief of the [[Siege of Malta (World War II)|Siege of Malta]]<br /> | target =<br /> | date = 27 June 1940 – 31 December 1943<br /> | time =<br /> | time-begin =<br /> | time-end =<br /> | timezone =<br /> | executed_by =<br /> | outcome = Allied victory<br /> | casualties = 1,600 civilians on Malta&lt;br /&gt;5,700 service personnel on land, sea and in the air&lt;br /&gt;Aircraft: 707&lt;br /&gt;Merchant Navy ships: 31 sunk&lt;br /&gt;[[Royal Navy]]:&lt;br /&gt; 1 battleship&lt;br /&gt; 2 aircraft carriers&lt;br /&gt; 4 cruisers&lt;br /&gt; 1 minelayer&lt;br /&gt; 20 destroyers/minesweepers&lt;br /&gt; 40 submarines&lt;br /&gt;unknown number of smaller vessels<br /> | campaignbox =<br /> {{Campaignbox Mediterranean Campaign}}<br /> }}<br /> <br /> The '''Malta convoys''' were [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] supply [[convoy]]s of the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The convoys took place during the [[Siege of Malta (World War II)|Siege of Malta]] in the [[Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II|Mediterranean Theatre]]. The civilian population and the garrison required imports of food, medical supplies, fuel and equipment; the military forces on the island needed reinforcements, ammunition and spare parts. British convoys were escorted to Malta by ships of the [[Mediterranean Fleet]] and aircraft of the [[Fleet Air Arm]] and [[Royal Air Force]], during the [[Battle of the Mediterranean]] (1940–1943). British and Allied ships were attacked by the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Italian]] ''[[Regia Aeronautica]]'' (Royal Air Force) and ''[[Regia Marina]]'' (Royal Navy) in 1940 and starting in 1941, by the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' (German Air Force) and ''[[Kriegsmarine]]'' (German Navy).<br /> <br /> Malta was a base from which British sea and air forces could attack Italian ships carrying supplies from Italy to [[Italian Libya]] for Italian civilian colonists and the [[Axis powers|Axis]] armies in North Africa, which fought the [[Western Desert Campaign]] (1940–1943) against the British [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]]. The war in the desert was fought for control of Libya and Egypt, the [[Suez Canal]] and British controlled oilfields in the [[Middle East]]. The strategic value of Malta was so great that the British risked many merchant vessels and warships to supply the island and the Axis made determined efforts to starve out the population. The destruction of the Italian [[Tenth Army (Italy)|10th Army]], in Egypt and Libya during [[Operation Compass]] (9 December 1940 – 9 February 1941) and defeat in the [[Italo-Greek War]] (28 October 1940 – 23 April 1941) led to German intervention in the Mediterranean. German bombers and submarines joined the effort to neutralise Malta and preparations were made to invade the island.<br /> <br /> The British assembled large flotillas of warships to escort convoys, sent fast warships to make solo runs to the island and organised [[Magic Carpet (Battle of the Mediterranean)|Magic Carpet]] supply runs by submarine. [[Hawker Hurricane]] and then [[Supermarine Spitfire]] fighters were flown to Malta from aircraft carriers on [[Club Run]]s from Gibraltar towards Malta. In mid-1942, Axis air attacks on the island and on supply convoys neutralised Malta as an offensive base and an Axis invasion, [[Operation Herkules|''Unternehmen Herkules'']] (Operation Hercules), was set for mid-July 1942. After the Axis victory in the [[Battle of Gazala]] (26 May – 21 June 1942) in Libya, the capture of Tobruk and then the Axis pursuit of the Eighth Army into Egypt, ''Herkules'' was postponed and then cancelled. The siege of Malta eased late in 1942, after the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]] (23 October–11 November) and [[Operation Torch]] (8–16 November), when the Allies captured territory and landing grounds in Libya and Algeria, bringing more of the seas around Malta into range of land-based Allied aircraft. Regular through convoys from Gibraltar to Alexandria and back were resumed and ships were detached from the convoys and escorted to and from Malta.<br /> {{TOC limit}}<br /> <br /> ==Background==<br /> <br /> [[File:EU-Malta.svg|thumb|Malta]]<br /> <br /> [[Malta]], a Mediterranean island of {{convert|122|sqmi|sqkm}}, had been a British colony since 1814. By the 1940s, the island had a population of 275,000 but local farmers could feed only one-third of the population, the deficit being made up by imports. Malta was a staging post on the British [[Suez Canal]] sea route to [[India]], East Africa, the oilfields of [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]] and [[Iran]], India and the Far East. The island was also close to the [[Strait of Sicily|Sicilian Channel]] between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunis]] and was a military base from which [[Italy|Italian]] ships sailing to [[Libya]] could be attacked.{{sfn|Bartimeus|1944|pp=42–47}}<br /> <br /> When Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940, the Taranto Naval Squadron did not sail to occupy Malta as suggested by Admiral [[Carlo Bergamini (admiral)|Carlo Bergamini]].{{sfn|Bartimeus|1944|pp=42–47}} With Italian bases in Sicily, British control of Malta was made more difficult from its bases in [[Gibraltar]] to the west and [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]] and [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] to the east, which were much further away. Two weeks after the Italian declaration of war, the [[Second Armistice at Compiègne]] (between France and Germany) ended British access to [[Mediterranean Sea]] bases in France and passage to Mediterranean colonies. The British [[attack on Mers-el-Kébir]] (3 July 1940) against French naval ships, created a [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] antagonism towards Britain. Axis support for General [[Francisco Franco]] in the [[Spanish Civil War]] also caused British to be apprehensive about the [[Spain in World War II|security]] of the British base at Gibraltar.<br /> <br /> Italy, Sicily, [[Sardinia]] and Libya dominated the central Mediterranean and an Italian conquest of Egypt would link [[Ethiopia|Abyssinia]], [[Italian Somaliland]] and [[Eritrea]]. The [[Italian invasion of Egypt]] in September 1940, was followed by Operation Compass, a British counter-offensive in December, which led to the conquest of [[Cyrenaica]] in January 1941. Hitler transferred the ''Luftwaffe'''s [[10th Air Corps (Germany)|''Fliegerkorps X'']] to Sicily (''Unternehmen Mittelmeer'' or Operation Mediterranean) to protect the Axis supply routes past Malta, and sent the ''Afrika Korps'' to Libya ([[Operation Sonnenblume|''Unternehmen Sonnenblume'']] or Operation Sunflower) which, with Italian reinforcements, recaptured Cyrenaica.{{sfn|Potter|Nimitz|1960|pp=521–527}} ''Fliegerkorps X'' was transferred to [[Greece]] in April 1941 and the [[23rd U-boat Flotilla]] was based at [[Salamis Naval Base|Salamis]], near [[Athens]], in September.{{sfn|Helgason|2012|nopp=y}} Resources available to sustain Malta were reduced when [[Japan]] declared war in December 1941, and conducted the [[Indian Ocean raid]] in April 1942.{{sfn|Potter|Nimitz|1960|pp=654–661}} Malta was neutralised as an offensive base against Italian convoys by the attacks of the ''Regia Aeronautica'' and the ''Luftwaffe'' in early 1942. Several warships were sunk in Valletta harbour and others were withdrawn to Gibraltar and Egypt. Food and medicines for the Maltese population and the British garrison dwindled along with fuel, ammunition and spare parts with the success of Axis attacks on Malta convoys. The Italian [[Operation C3]] and the German-Italian ''Unternehmen Herkules'' (Operation Hercules) invasion plans against Malta were prepared but then cancelled on 16 June 1942.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=324}}{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|p=225}}<br /> <br /> ==1940==<br /> <br /> ===July===<br /> <br /> [[File:Map of Malta 2.png|thumb|{{centre|Map of Malta}}]]<br /> In the [[Battle of Calabria]] (''Battaglia di Punta Stilo''), ''Regia Marina'' escorts (two battleships, 14 cruisers and 32 destroyers) of an Italian convoy engaged the battleships {{HMS|Warspite|03|6}}, {{HMS|Malaya||2}} and {{HMS|Royal Sovereign|05|2}} and the aircraft carrier {{HMS|Eagle|1918|6}}.{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|pp=63–81}} The British cruisers and destroyers covered two convoys heading from Malta to Alexandria. The first, Malta Fast 1 (MF 1)/Malta East 1 (ME 1), was composed of the ''El Nil'', ''Knight of Malta'' and ''Rodi''; the second, Malta Slow 1 (MS 1)/ME 1 was composed of the ''Kirkland'', ''Masirah'', ''Novasli'', ''Tweed'' and ''Zeeland''.{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|pp=63–81}}<br /> <br /> ===August===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Hurry====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Hurry}}<br /> <br /> Using an aircraft carrier to ferry land based aircraft to Malta had been discussed by the Admiralty in July and once Italy had declared war, the reinforcement of Malta could be delayed no longer. The training aircraft carrier {{HMS|Argus|I49|6}} was used to despatch twelve Hurricanes to Malta from a position to the south-west of Sardinia. Hurry was the first Club Run to reinforce the air defence of the island, despite the British Chiefs of Staff decision two months earlier that nothing could be done to reinforce Malta.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=298}} Club Runs continued until it was possible to fly the aircraft direct from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=58, 61}}<br /> <br /> ===September===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Hats====<br /> {{main|Operation Hats}}<br /> [[File:Prelucrare 3D pentru La Valletta Harbour.jpg|thumb|{{centre|La Valletta Harbour}}]]<br /> The Mediterranean Fleet escorted fast convoy MF 2 of three transports (carrying {{convert|40000|ST|t|lk=on|abbr=on}} of supplies, including reinforcements and ammunition for the island's anti-aircraft defences) from Alexandria and collected another convoy from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Hague|2000|pp=192–193}} En route, Italian airbases were raided; the ''Regia Marina'' had superior forces at sea but missed the opportunity to exploit their advantage.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=61–62, 64, 73–74}}<br /> <br /> ===October===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MB 6====<br /> {{main|Operation MB 6}}<br /> Four ships of convoy MF 3 reached Malta safely from Alexandria and three ships returned to Alexandria as convoy MF 4.{{sfn|Hague|2000|pp=192–193}} The convoys were part of Operation MB 6 and the escort included four battleships and two aircraft carriers. An Italian attempt against the returning escort by destroyers and torpedo boats ended in the [[Battle of Cape Passero (1940)|Battle of Cape Passero]], a British success.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=78–80}}<br /> <br /> ===November===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Judgement====<br /> <br /> {{main|Battle of Taranto}}<br /> <br /> [[File:Balearic Sea map.png|thumb|{{centre|western Mediterranean and Gibraltar, venue for Club Runs to Malta}}]]<br /> The five ship convoy MW 3 from Alexandria and four ship return convoy ME 3 arrived safely, coinciding with a troop convoy from Gibraltar and the air attack on the Italian battle fleet at the Battle of Taranto.{{sfn|Hague|2000|pp=192–193}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=82, 86–87}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation White====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation White}}<br /> <br /> In Operation White, twelve Hurricanes were flown off ''Argus'' to reinforce Malta but the threat of the Italian fleet lurking south of Sardinia prompted a premature fly-off from ''Argus'' and its return to Gibraltar. Eight Hurricanes ran out of fuel and ditched at sea, with seven pilots lost.{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|p=115}} An enquiry found that the Hurricane pilots had been insufficiently trained about the range and endurance of their aircraft.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=298}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Collar====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Collar (convoy)}}<br /> <br /> Operation Collar was intended to combine the passage of a battleship, heavy cruiser and light cruiser with mechanical defects from Alexandria to Gibraltar, with a four-ship convoy MW 4 to Malta and the sailing of ME 4 from Malta comprising ''Cornwall'' and the four empty ships from convoy MW 3, escorted by a cruiser and three destroyers. Attacks on Italian airfields in the Aegean and North Africa were to be made at the same time. Three ships at Gibraltar, two bound for Malta and one for Alexandria were to be escorted by the cruisers {{HMS|Manchester|15|6}} and {{HMS|Southampton|C83|6}}. Operation MB 9 from Alexandria began on 23 November, when convoy MW 4 with four ships sailed with eight destroyer escorts, covered by Force E of three cruisers. Force D comprising a battleship and two cruisers sailed on 24 November and next day, two more battleships, an aircraft carrier, two cruisers and four destroyers of Force C departed Alexandria. MW 4 reached Malta without incident; ME 4 had sailed on 26 November, two destroyers returned to Malta; the cruiser and one destroyer saw the freighters into Alexandria and Port Said on 30 November.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=95–97}}<br /> <br /> Force F from Gibraltar was to pass 1,400 soldiers and RAF personnel from Gibraltar to Alexandria in the two cruisers, slip two supply ships into Malta and one to Crete. The other warships destined for the reinforcement of the fleet at Alexandria were to be sent on, the cruisers being accompanied by two destroyers and four corvettes. Force B provided the covering force with the battlecruiser ''Renown'', the aircraft carrier ''Ark Royal'', the cruisers ''Sheffield'' and ''Despatch'' and nine destroyers. The destroyers and corvettes left Alexandria on the night of 23/24 November to rendezvous with the merchant ships and their destroyer escorts from Britain. The cruisers embarked the troops and RAF personnel, leaving Gibraltar on 25 November. The British were unaware that Italian reconnaissance aircraft had spotted the sailings from both ends of the Mediterranean and set up submarine ambushes. Two Italian battleships, three cruisers and two destroyer flotillas had left harbour, more cruisers, destroyers and torpedo boats following. Force D was attacked on the night of 26/27 November but the attack was so ineffectual that the British did not notice. On 27 November, aircraft from Force F spotted the Italian battle fleet, the force headed for Force D and prepared to defend the merchant ships, in what became a confused and inconclusive engagement. Two Italian submarines attacked three cruisers in the Sicilian Narrows as they waited for the eastbound convoy on the night of 27/28 November to no effect and the two ships for Malta arrived on 29 November, as Force H returned to Gibraltar and the through convoy and naval ships reached Alexandria.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=97–105}}<br /> <br /> ===December===<br /> <br /> Convoy MW 5A with ''Lanarkshire'' and ''Waiwera'' carrying supplies and munitions and convoy MW 5B of ''Volo'', ''Rodi'' and ''Devis'', the tanker ''Pontfield'', ''Hoegh Hood'' and ''Ulster Prince'' from Alexandria with a covering force of a battleship, two cruisers, destroyers and corvettes reached Malta on 20 December and convoy ME 5 with the empty ''Breconshire'', ''Memnon'', ''Clan Macaulay'' and ''Clan Ferguson'' were collected by the covering force and returned to Alexandria.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=106–108}} Convoy MG 1 with ''Clan Forbes'' and ''Clan Fraser'' reached Gibraltar from Malta escorted by the battleship and four destroyers.{{sfn|Hague|2000|pp=192–193}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=107}}<br /> <br /> ==1941==<br /> <br /> ===January===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Excess====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Excess}}<br /> <br /> [[File:SM 79 attacking Malta convoy MIWM FLM 003795.jpg|thumb|{{centre|An Italian [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.79]] during an attack}}]]<br /> Operation Excess delivered one ship from Gibraltar to Malta and three to [[Piraeus]]. The operation was coordinated with Operation MC 4, consisting of convoy MW {{frac|5|1|2}} of ''Breconshire'' and ''Clan Macaulay'' from Alexandria to Malta, and convoys ME 6, a return journey of ME {{frac|5|1|2}} with ''Lanarkshire'' and ''Waiwera'' and ME 6, with ''Volo'', ''Rodi'', ''Pontfield'', ''Devis'', ''Hoegh Hood'', ''Trocas'' and {{RFAux|Plumleaf|A78|6}}. The convoys arrived safely with {{convert|10000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies. The Royal Navy lost the cruiser {{HMS|Southampton|83|6}}; the cruiser {{HMS|Gloucester|62|6}} and aircraft carrier {{HMS|Illustrious|87|6}} were badly damaged and a destroyer was damaged beyond repair.{{sfn|Thomas|1999|p=65}} This was the first action to involve the ''Luftwaffe''. The Italian torpedo boat [[Italian torpedo boat Vega|''Vega'']] was sunk in the course of the operations.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=110–111, 113–114, 125–126}}<br /> <br /> ===February===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MC 8====<br /> <br /> Operation MC 8 from 19–21 February, ran troops, vehicles and stores to Malta in the cruisers ''Orion'', ''Ajax'' and ''Gloucester'' and the Tribal-class destroyers ''Nubian'' and ''Mohawk'', covered by ''Barham'', ''Valiant'', ''Eagle'', ''Coventry'', ''Decoy'', ''Hotspur'', ''Havock'', ''Hereward'', ''Hero'', ''Hasty'', ''Ilex'', ''Jervis'', ''Janus'' and ''Jaguar''. The return journey to Alexandria with the unloaded ''Breconshire'' and ''Clan Macaulay'' by 23 February was uneventful.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=131}}<br /> <br /> ===March===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MC 9====<br /> <br /> Operation MC 9 covered convoy MW 6 consisting of ''Perthshire'', ''Clan Ferguson'', ''City of Manchester'' and ''City of Lincoln'', which sailed from Alexandria on 19 March, the escorts sailing a day later, covered by the Mediterranean Fleet until the night of 22/23 March. The ships sailed by indirect routes and bad weather enabled the convoy to evade Axis air reconnaissance. The ships arrived at Malta but two ships were bombed while berthed in harbour. No merchant ships were waiting to return from Malta and a cruiser and a destroyer were damaged during the passage but the escorts reached Egypt on 26 March.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=423}}<br /> <br /> ===April===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Winch and convoy ME 7====<br /> <br /> Hurricanes delivered to Gibraltar on ''Argus'' were put on board ''Ark Royal'', which sailed on 2 April, escorted by the battleship ''Renown'' a cruiser and five destroyers. The Hurricanes were flown off on 3 April and all arrived, Force H returning safely to Gibraltar on 4 April. Stores and ammunition were run to Malta in Operations MC 8 and MC 9. On 18 April, the Mediterranean Fleet sailed from Alexandria to Suda Bay in Crete with ''Breconshire'' carrying oil and aviation fuel for Malta. Late on 19 April, the Malta Strike Force destroyers sailed with convoy ME 7 of four empty cargo ships. ''Breconshire'' made a run into Malta and the destroyers returned after joining in a shore bombardment by the main fleet. The cruiser ''Gloucester'', which had a long range, joining the force.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=156–157, 160, 162–163}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Dunlop====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Dunlop|Battle of the Tarigo Convoy}}<br /> <br /> In Operation Dunlop, {{HMS|Ark Royal|91|6}} sailed from Gibraltar on 24 April and flew off 24 Hurricanes at dawn on 27 April. [[Bristol Blenheim]]s and [[Bristol Beaufighter|Beaufighters]] were also flown direct from Gibraltar. Three battleships and an aircraft carrier covered the fast transport ''Breconshire'' (now commissioned into the RN) from Alexandria to Malta. The operation was coordinated with the four-ship convoy ME 7 from Malta to Alexandria.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=164–166, 250}} On 16 April, the value of Malta for offensive operations was shown when four destroyers of the 14th Flotilla (the Malta Striking Force), recently based in the island, sank a five-ship Axis convoy of {{convert|14000|LT|t|abbr=on}} and its escorts in the Battle of the Tarigo Convoy.{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|pp=162–164}}{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=431}}{{efn|An ''Afrika Korps'' convoy (the Tarigo convoy) of the German ships ''Aegina'', ''Arta'', ''Adana'' and ''Iserlhon'', with 3,000 troop reinforcements on board, the Italian ''Sabaudia'' loaded with ammunition and three Italian destroyer escorts was sunk by the destroyers ''Jervis'', ''Janus'', ''Nubian'' and ''Mohawk'', near the [[Kerkennah Islands]] off [[Tunisia]]; ''Mohawk'' was also sunk but the success showed the value of Malta as an offensive base. Churchill ordered that the Italian supply route to Tripoli be cut off and even suggested using the battleship ''Barham'' to block the harbour.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=158–159}}}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Temple====<br /> During Operation Temple, the freighter ''Parracombe'' sailed for Malta from Gibraltar on the night of 28/29 April, disguised as a Spanish merchantman and later as the Vichy steamer ''Oued-Kroum''. The vessel was lost on 2 May after striking a mine, which blew off the forepart of the ship. The ship sank with 21 Hurricanes, equipment, ammunition and military freight; another ship reached Alexandria from Malta as convoy MD 3.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=165–167}}<br /> <br /> ===May===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Tiger and Splice====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Tiger (1941)|Operation Splice}}<br /> <br /> [[File:Strait of Sicily map.png|thumb|{{centre|Strait of Sicily}}]]<br /> In Operation Tiger, convoy WS 8 sailed from Gibraltar to Alexandria, combined with a supply run to Malta by six destroyers of Force H. Five {{convert|15|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}} merchant ships passed Gibraltar on 6 May accompanied by Force H, along with a battleship and two cruisers en route to Alexandria. The destroyers from Force H participated in the convoy operation as far as Malta. The fleet at Alexandria sailed westwards, bombarded Benghazi on the night of 7/8 May and rendezvoused with the convoy {{convert|50|nmi|mi km|abbr=on}} south of Malta late on 9 May.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=437}}{{efn|During the night, two of the ships hit mines, {{SS|Empire Song||2}} blowing up and the other ship being damaged but continuing; the four surviving ships arrived at Alexandria.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=437, 440}}}} In Operation Splice, a Club Run from 19 to 22 May, 48 more Hurricanes were flown off ''Ark Royal'' and {{HMS|Furious|47|2}} on 21 May and all reached Malta. Slow convoy MW 7B with two tankers sailed from Egypt for Malta with {{convert|24000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of fuel oil, followed by fast convoy MW 7A with six freighters escorted by five cruisers, three destroyers and two corvettes. ''Abdiel'' and ''Breconshire'' sailed with the main fleet and all the ships reached Grand Harbour on 9 May preceded by a minesweeper, which detonated about twelve mines.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=172–173}} In May, the ''Luftwaffe'' transferred ''Fliegerkorps'' X from Sicily to the Balkans, relieving pressure on Malta and the British convoys until December.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=519}}<br /> <br /> ===June===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Rocket====<br /> <br /> A Club Run from 5 to 7 June delivered 35 Hurricanes to Malta, guided by eight Blenheims from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=177}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Tracer====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Tracer (1941)}}<br /> <br /> In June, the new carrier {{HMS|Victorious|R38|6}} replaced ''Furious'' on Club Runs and ''Furious'' began to ferry fighters from Britain to Gibraltar. On 13 June, ''Ark Royal'' and ''Victorious'' began Operation Tracer when they sailed from Gibraltar into the western Mediterranean escorted by Force H and on 14 June flew off 47 Hurricanes to Malta guided by four Hudsons from Gibraltar, 43 of the Hurricanes reached Malta.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=177}}{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=423, 518}}<br /> <br /> ====Operations Railway I and II====<br /> <br /> On 26 June ''Ark Royal'' and ''Furious'' sailed again with 22 Hurricanes, guided to Malta by Blenheims from Gibraltar; all arrived at Malta in bad weather and a Hurricane crashed on landing. Force H reached port on 28 June, ''Furious'' having steamed back to Britain to collect more Hurricanes, some of which were put aboard ''Ark Royal''. Crated aircraft were assembled on ''Furious'' as it joined Force H for Operation Railway II and on 30 June, 26 Hurricanes took off from ''Ark Royal''. The second fighter to take off from ''Furious'' skidded a fuel tank fell off and caught fire as the Hurricane went overboard, killing nine men and injuring four more before the fire was extinguished; it took until the early afternoon for the 35 remaining Hurricanes to land at Malta, having been guided by six Blenheims. During the month 142 aircraft reached Malta, some of which continued on to Egypt.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=177}}{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=423, 518}}<br /> <br /> ===July===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Substance====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Substance}}<br /> <br /> In Operation Substance, convoy GM 1 of six ships containing 5,000 soldiers, ran from Gibraltar to Malta, escorted by six destroyers, covered by the battleship {{HMS|Nelson|28|2}} and three cruisers from the Home Fleet and Force H comprising ''Ark Royal'', {{HMS|Renown|1916|2}} and several cruisers and destroyers. The convoy reached Gibraltar from Britain on 19 July and sailed for Malta on 21 July, except for the troopship {{RMS|Leinster||6}} which ran aground and had to return to Gibraltar with its 1,000 troops and the RAF ground crews destined for Malta. The Eastern Fleet sortied from Alexandria as a diversion and eight submarines watched Italian ports and patrolled the routes that an Italian sortie was expected to use. Force H was to return to Gibraltar at the Sicilian Narrows and the close escort of three cruisers, ''Manxman'' and ten destroyers would continue to Malta. During the convoy operation, ''Breconshire'' and six other empty ships at Malta were independently to return to Gibraltar in Operation MG 1. On 23 July, south of Sardinia, Italian air attacks began, a cruiser was hit and had to return to Gibraltar; a destroyer was so badly damaged that it was sunk by the British but the air cover from ''Ark Royal'' enabled the convoy to reach the Skerki Channel by late afternoon. The covering force turned for Gibraltar and the rest of the ships sailed on as more ''Regia Aeronautica'' aircraft attacked, forcing another damaged destroyer to drop out and return to Gibraltar. By turning north the convoy evaded Italian aircraft sent to attack during the night but on the night of 23/24 July, the {{nowrap|12,000 GRT}} steamer {{SS|Sydney Star||2}} was torpedoed by an Italian [[MAS (boat)|MAS boat]] and crippled but the Australian destroyer {{HMAS|Nestor|G02|6}} assisted her safe arrival to harbour and she was seaworthy again by September. The cruisers sailed ahead to disembark troops and equipment and begin their return that evening and the convoy and its destroyer escort arrived later on 24 July. All of the ships of MG 1 had managed to reach Gibraltar and the covering force was joined by the cruiser escorts and all reached Gibraltar on 27 July, An raid on 26 July by Italian midget submarines, MAS boats and aircraft on the transports in [[Grand Harbour]] failed, with the attacking force almost destroyed and {{convert|65000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies were landed.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=184–185, 206–208, 212–213, 218}} On 31 July, three cruisers and two destroyers sailed from Gibraltar with the troops and stores left behind on ''Leinster'' arrived on 2 August, departed the same day and reached Gibraltar on 4 August.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=521–523}}<br /> <br /> ===September===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Status I and II, Operation Propeller====<br /> <br /> [[File:HMS Birmingham convoy.jpg|thumb|Three British cruisers during Operation Halberd]]<br /> ''Ark Royal'' and ''Furious'' flew off over 50 Hurricanes to Malta in Operation Status I and Status II, forty-nine arriving; several Blenheims flew direct from Gibraltar at the same time, to build up the Malta striking force to use the munitions delivered in Operation Substance.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=524}} The merchantman {{ship|SS|Empire Guillemot}} reached Malta from Gibraltar in Operation Propeller and another ship completed the trip independently.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=218–219}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Halberd====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Halberd}}<br /> In Operation Halberd, the eastbound convoy GM 2 with nine {{convert|15|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}} merchant ships, carrying {{convert|81000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of supplies and 2,600 troops from Gibraltar, was accompanied by the battleships ''Nelson'', {{HMS|Rodney|29|2}}, {{HMS|Prince of Wales|53|2}} (all detached from the Home Fleet), ''Ark Royal'', five cruisers, and eighteen destroyers. The British staged diversions in the eastern Mediterranean and submarines and aircraft watched Italian naval and air bases. Attacks on the convoy by the ''Regia Aeronautica'' began on 27 September, demonstrating more skill and determination than earlier encounters. An Italian torpedo bomber hit ''Nelson'' with an [[aerial torpedo]] and reduced her speed. Later air attacks were deterred by the anti-aircraft fire of the British destroyer screen. British reconnaissance aircraft reported the Italian Fleet had left harbour and was on an interception course and the British covering force, less ''Nelson'', was sent to engage. ''Ark Royal'' launched her torpedo bombers but the Italian turned back, and the aircraft failed to make contact; at about {{nowrap|7:00 p.m.}}, GM 2 reached the Narrows.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=529–530}}<br /> <br /> The five cruisers and nine of the destroyers continued for Malta as the covering force changed course. The British made course for Sicily, which enabled them to skirt minefields laid by the Italians in the channel between Sicily and the North African coast. During the night the moon was bright and Italian torpedo bombers managed to hit the {{nowrap|10,000 GRT}} transport {{SS|Imperial Star||2}} with an aerial torpedo. Attempts to tow the ship to Malta failed; her troops were taken off and the ship was scuttled. During the morning of 28 September, the convoy came into range of Malta-based fighters. The rest of the convoy reached Malta at {{nowrap|1:30 p.m.}} and landed {{convert|85000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies. Halberd was the last convoy operation of 1941.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=530–531}}&lt;!--Del the rest; it's about the siege, or Med ops, not the supply convoys--&gt;<br /> <br /> ===October===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Callboy and MG 3====<br /> <br /> {{main|Force K#Force K (1941)|l1=Force K|Operation Callboy|Operation MG 3}}<br /> <br /> On 16 October, Force H covered Operation Callboy, another Club Run by ''Ark Royal'', to fly off thirteen Swordfish and Albacore torpedo bombers for Malta, delivered to Gibraltar by ''Argus''.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=532–533}} On 12 October, the cruisers {{HMS|Aurora|12|6}} and {{HMS|Penelope|97|2}} had sailed from Scapa Flow for Malta and were joined by the destroyers {{HMS|Lance|G87|6}} and {{HMS|Lively|G40|2}} of Force H at Gibraltar, reaching the island on 21 October. The squadron was named Force K (reviving a title used in 1939) for operations against the Italian supply route to North Africa. Operation MG 3 was a convoy planned to despatch the Halberd merchant ships from Malta but the ships sailed in succession. Two departed on 16 October but one ship had to turn back with engine trouble. The second ship was covered by the fleet movements of Operation Callboy which reached the flying off point on 17 October and arrived on 19 October, having dodged a torpedo bomber attack. Two cruisers and two destroyers of Force H loaded equipment and ammunition for Malta as soon as they got back to Gibraltar and sailed again on 20 October and arrived at Grand Harbour in Malta the next day. Two of the empty ships from Malta sailed on 21 October and arrived at Gibraltar despite air attacks and the ship with engine trouble left Malta again on 22 October to be watched over by Catalina flying boats but failed to arrive; an Italian radio broadcast claimed a British merchant ship, which was taken to mean the ship bound for Gibraltar. The fourth ship sailed on 24 October but was attacked by an Italian aircraft and recalled, having been spotted so quickly.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=240–243}}{{efn|''Empire Guillemot'' had sailed close to the African shore but on 23 October was caught by three Italian bombers and sunk. The crew tried to sail on to Gibraltar in two lifeboats but were eventually forced ashore and the survivors were interned by the Vichy French.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=242–243}}}}<br /> <br /> ===November===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Perpetual====<br /> <br /> Force K of two cruisers and two destroyers sailed from Malta on 8 November and sank the merchant ships of an Axis convoy off Cape Spartivento.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=532}}{{efn|Force K sank seven merchantmen and one of its destroyer escorts; the force was back at Malta by the afternoon of 9 November and the submarine ''Upholder'' from Malta sank another destroyer.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=532–533}}}} On 10 November, ''Ark Royal'' and ''Argus'' sailed from Gibraltar and flew off thirty-seven Hurricanes for Malta, thirty-four arriving on the island; seven Blenheims flew direct from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=243–245}} On 13 November, ''Ark Royal'' was torpedoed and sank the next day, {{convert|25|nmi|mi km|abbr=on}} from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=533}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Astrologer====<br /> <br /> Operation Astrologer (14–15 November 1941), an attempt to supply Malta by two unescorted freighters, [[List of Empire ships (E)|''Empire Pelican'']] and {{SS|Empire Defender||2}} disguised as neutral Spanish then French ships. ''Empire Pelican'' passed Gibraltar on 12 November and sailed close to the Moroccan, Algerian and Tunisian coasts but was spotted by Italian aircraft at early on 14 November south of [[Galite Islands]] and sunk by torpedo bombers. ''Empire Defender'' was sunk at sunset the nest day in the same place; Astrologer was the last attempt to send merchant ships to Malta from the west for six months.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=250–251}}<br /> <br /> ====Operations Chieftain and Landmark====<br /> <br /> During Operation Crusader in the Western Desert, a bogus Malta convoy GM 3, was assembled for Operation Chieftain, an attempt to divert Axis aircraft away from the land battle. Five merchantmen, the oiler ''Brown Ranger'' a sloop, a destroyer and three corvettes left Gibraltar on 16 November, the freighters to turn back after dark and return independently, while the escorts continued for a two day anti-submarine sweep. One of the corvettes had engine trouble, sailed late and sank a German U-boat. Force K contributed to the deception by sailing westwards from Malta to simulate a rendezvous with GM 3 then reversing course overnight to reach Malta again on 19 November. A second diversion force left Malta in Operation Landmark early on 21 November, feigning a voyage to Alexandria to escort four merchant ships and for added verisimilitude the battle squadron at Alexandria sailed as if to meet the ships from Malta. The German ''[[B-Dienst]]'' (Observation Service) learnt from British naval signals that Force K was at sea but an Italian convoy and escorts were ordered to port rather than risk battle.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=253–256}}<br /> <br /> ===December===<br /> <br /> ====Operations MF 1 and MD 1====<br /> <br /> To alleviate a fuel oil shortage on Malta, [[MV Breconshire|MV ''Breconshire'']] was escorted from Malta on 5 December by a cruiser and four destroyers of Force K in Operation MF 1 towards Alexandria; next day, a cruiser and two destroyers left Alexandria. During the evening of 6 December the cruiser and two destroyers returned to Malta and two destroyers carried on with ''Breconshire'', meeting the cruiser and two destroyers from Alexandria at dawn on 7 December. Two destroyers went on to Malta and ''Breconshire'' continued to Alexandria accompanied by the cruiser and its two destroyers, reaching Alexandria on 8 December, less the cruiser which was detached to help a sloop damaged by air attack of Tobruk. ''Breconshire'' was filled with {{convert|5000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of boiler oil and every space was filled with supplies. On 15 December, MD 1 began when ''Breconshire'' sailed for Malta with three cruiser and eight destroyer escorts. During the night ''Breconshire'' was slowed by engine trouble and on 16 December the force headed west in daylight without zig-zagging. After dark a cruiser and two destroyers turned back and made spurious wireless broadcasts to simulate the battle fleet at sea. Destroyers left Malta on 16 December and at {{nowrap|6:00 p.m.}} Force K comprising two cruisers and two destroyers sailed to meet ''Breconshire'' and escort it into Grand Harbour.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=263–264, 267–268}}<br /> <br /> During the afternoon, an Italian battleship convoy was spotted and every seaworthy ship at Malta was ordered out to bring in ''Breconshire''. Only one cruiser and two destroyers were operational but they met the oncoming force before dawn on 17 December and the ships made a circle round ''Breconshire''; the ''Luftwaffe'' and ''Regia Aeronautica'' attacked through the afternoon with bombs and torpedoes. As night was falling, three Italian battleships two cruisers and ten destroyers appeared and ''Breconshire'' and two escorts were diverted to the south-west as the rest of the British ships turned towards the Italian fleet. With the escorts between the Italians and ''Breconshire'', the ship was handed over to Force K as it arrived and set a smoke screen. The opposing ships diverged in the dark and Force K turned for Malta with ''Breconshire''; the rest of the ships returned to Alexandria and the Italian freighters reached Libya. Force K and ''Breconshire'' spent 18 December under air attack, until Malta Hurricanes arrived in the afternoon and at around {{nowrap|3:00 p.m.}} the ships arrived in Malta.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=268–270}}<br /> <br /> ==1942==<br /> <br /> ===January===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MF 2====<br /> <br /> [[File:HMS Dido (37).jpg|thumb|{{centre|HMS ''Dido'' at anchor on the Firth of Forth, showing the elevation of its [[QF 5.25 inch gun]]s}} ]]<br /> On 5 January, the fast supply ship {{HMS|Glengyle||6}} was escorted from Alexandria by the 15th Cruiser Squadron (Force B, Rear Admiral [[Philip Vian]]), comprising the [[Dido-class cruiser|''Dido''-class]] [[light cruiser]]s ''Naiad'', ''Dido'' and ''Euryalus'' and six destroyers and exchanged with ''Breconshire'' from Malta. The cruisers served as a bluff, in the absence of bigger ships capable of challenging a sortie by the ''Regia Marina''.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=44}}{{efn|The [[Dido-class cruiser]]s were equipped with a main armament of [[Dual-purpose gun|dual-purpose]] [[QF 5.25 inch gun]]s and had been designed for convoy protection and service in the Mediterranean.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=44}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=485}}}}&lt;!--not trivia, pertinent to their use in this way--&gt; ''Breconshire'' had sailed from Malta on 6 January escorted by four destroyers of Force C; the two forces met on 7 January and Force C with ''Glengyle'' reached Malta on 8 January, Force B with ''Breconshire'' arriving at Alexandria the next day.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=279–280}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation MF 3====<br /> On 16 January the convoys MW8A and MW8B with two ships each, sailed from Alexandria in Operation MF3, accompanied by the [[Cruiser#Anti-aircraft cruisers|Anti-aircraft cruiser]] {{HMS|Carlisle|D67|6}} and two [[Destroyer squadron#Royal Navy|destroyer divisions]].{{efn|''Carlisle'' had been converted to an anti-aircraft ship with eight 4-inch dual purpose guns in 1940 and had been allotted to the 15th Cruiser Squadron in May 1940.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=295}}}} The 15th Cruiser Squadron sailed on 17 January to join the escort force for both convoys. Force K (still short ''Aurora'') departed Malta to rendezvous with the convoy on 18 January. The 6,655-ton ''Thermopylae'' of MW8A developed mechanical faults and was diverted to Benghazi but was severely damaged by bombing ''en route'' and had to be scuttled. On 17 January, the destroyer {{HMS|Gurkha|G63|6}} was torpedoed by {{GS|U-133|1941|2}}; the Dutch destroyer {{HNLMS|Isaac Sweers||6}} towed her clear of blazing oil, allowing most of her crew to be rescued before the ship sank. The three remaining freighters reached Malta, air attacks on the ships being intercepted by fighters from [[No. 201 Group RAF|No. 201 (Naval Co-operation) Group]] based in Cyrenaica, the convoy and escorts' anti-aircraft guns; once the convoy was in range. Hurricanes from Malta also provided air cover and the ships docked on 19 January. As soon as it was certain that the Italian fleet was still in port, the 15th Cruiser Squadron and its destroyers turned for Alexandria and arrived on 20 January.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=280–281}} On 26 January, in a similar operation, ''Breconshire'' and escorts from Alexandria met two ships which had sailed from Malta on 25 January transporting service families from Malta with escorts from Force K, which escorted ''Breconshire'' back to the island on 27 January; on 28 January, the force from Alexandria returned with the two ships from Malta.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=282}}<br /> <br /> ===February===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MF 5====<br /> <br /> [[File:Tunisia - Sicily - South Italy.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Satellite image of Sardinia, Italy, Sicily, Malta and Tunisia}}]]<br /> During German air raids on Malta on 12 February, {{HMS|Maori|F24|6}} was sunk at her moorings in Grand Harbour.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=284}} On the same day, a three ship convoy MW 9, escorted by ''Carlisle'' and eight destroyers, sailed from Alexandria in [[Operation MF5]]; several hours later, two cruisers from 15th Cruiser Squadron, escorted by eight destroyers, sortied. On 13 February, ''Breconshire'', accompanied by cruiser and six destroyers, departed with three ships [[Ballast|in ballast]], bound for Alexandria. On 14 February, {{SS|Clan Campbell|1937|6}} was bombed and forced to seek shelter in [[Tobruk]], [[Cameron-class steamship|''Clan Chattan'']] was bombed, caught fire and [[Scuttling|scuttled]] in the afternoon; [[Union-Castle Line|''Rowallan Castle'']] was near-missed, disabled and taken under tow but scuttled by ''Lively'' after it was realised she could not reach Malta before dark: the escort had been warned the Italian battleship {{Ship|Italian battleship|Caio Duilio||2}} had sailed from Taranto to intercept the convoy.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=48}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=285–286}}<br /> <br /> ===March===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Spotter====<br /> <br /> {{see also|Second Battle of Sirte}}<br /> <br /> {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=right style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em&quot;<br /> |+Convoy MW 10&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;westbound, March 1942&lt;/small&gt;{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=73}}<br /> |-<br /> ! Type<br /> ! No.<br /> ! Sunk<br /> ! Dgd<br /> |-<br /> | Cruisers ||align=&quot;center&quot;|4||align=&quot;center&quot;|—||align=&quot;center&quot;|3<br /> |-<br /> | AA Ships ||align=&quot;center&quot;|1||align=&quot;center&quot;|—||align=&quot;center&quot;|—<br /> |-<br /> | Destroyers ||align=&quot;center&quot;|18||align=&quot;center&quot;|3||align=&quot;center&quot;|2<br /> |-<br /> | Submarines ||align=&quot;center&quot;|5||align=&quot;center&quot;|1||align=&quot;center&quot;|—<br /> |-<br /> | Freighters ||align=&quot;center&quot;|4||align=&quot;center&quot;|1||align=&quot;center&quot;|—<br /> |-<br /> | Freighters&lt;br&gt;arriving ||align=&quot;center&quot;|3||align=&quot;center&quot;|3 in&lt;br&gt;dock||align=&quot;center&quot;|—<br /> |}<br /> On 6 March, Operation Spotter, a Club Run by the aircraft carriers ''Eagle'' and ''Argus'' flew off the first 15 Spitfire reinforcements for Malta. An earlier attempt had been abandoned but the right external ferry tanks were fitted; seven Blenheims flew direct from Gibraltar. On 10 March, the Spitfires flew their first sorties against a raid by Ju 88s escorted by Bf 109 fighters.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=291}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation MG 1====<br /> Operation MG 1 began with convoy MW 10 of four ships sailing from Alexandria at {{nowrap|7:10 a.m.}} on 20 March, each with a navy liaison party and [[Defensively equipped merchant ship]] (DEMS) gunners, supplemented by service passengers. The convoy was escorted by Force B, the cruisers {{HMS|Cleopatra|33|6}}, {{HMS|Dido|37|2}}, {{HMS|Euryalus|42|2}}, the anti-aircraft cruiser ''Carlisle'' and the six ships of the [[22nd Destroyer Flotilla]]. The 5th Destroyer Flotilla sailed from Tobruk on an anti-submarine sweep, before joining the convoy on 21 March. ''Clan Campbell'' struggled to keep up because of engine trouble and the convoy timetable was not met. Several British submarines participated near Messina and Taranto to watch for Italian ships. [[Long Range Desert Group]] parties were to attack the airfields at Martuba and Tmimi in Cyrenaica as RAF and FAA aircraft bombed them to ground Ju 88 bombers; 201 Group RAF provided air cover and reconnaissance of the convoy route. A club run, Operation Picket was to use ''Argus'' and ''Eagle'', with Force H as a decoy, but the Spitfire ferry tanks were found to be defective and the operation was called off.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=293–295}}<br /> <br /> On 22 March, when MW 10 was through Bomb Alley, news arrived that an Italian squadron had sailed and from {{nowrap|10:35 a.m. – 12:05 p.m.}} five Italian torpedo bomber attacks were made but with no hits. In the afternoon, German and Italian air attacks began, with bombs and torpedoes, again to no effect. Smoke was seen at {{nowrap|2:10 p.m.}} and the escorts moved to intercept in rough seas as the convoy was hidden by a smoke screen. Italian cruisers commenced fire, then turned to lure the British cruisers towards ''Littorio''; the British did not take the bait. The exchange was the beginning of the Second Battle of Sirte and Axis aircraft concentrated on the convoy, which manoeuvred so effectively that no ship was hit, but the ships and close escort fired much of their ammunition. During the battle near the convoy, the escorts kept laying smoke screens and the Italians came within {{convert|8|nmi|mi km|abbr=on}} as Force B dodged around in the smoke, attacking at every opportunity.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=300, 303}}<br /> <br /> German air attacks continued and Force B turned for Alexandria, very short of fuel as Force K joined the convoy for the last leg. The convoy had been ordered to disperse, three ships diverting southwards and ''Clan Campbell'' making straight for Grand Harbour, the diversions being calculated to bring the ships back together just short of Malta by daylight on 23 March. The detours were a mistake and ''Pampas'' was hit by a bomb during the morning but kept going, reaching Malta. ''Talabot'' was also frequently attacked but arrived undamaged, except from some small bombs dropped by a Bf 109 fighter-bomber. ''Clan Campbell'' was sunk {{convert|20|nmi|mi km|abbr=on}} from Malta and ''Breconshire'', after being taken in tow by destroyers and tugs several times, reached Marsaxlokk harbour on 25 March. Unloading of the ships was very slow and ''Luftwaffe'' attacks on 26 March sank ''Breconshire'' in the evening and continued bombing Valletta harbour into the night. ''Talabot'' and ''Pampas'' were set on fire before unloading, only {{convert|4952|ST|t|abbr=on}} of the {{convert|29500|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies were landed and several destroyers were seriously damaged.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=306–316}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Picket====<br /> <br /> On 22 March, a Club Run by ''Argus'' and ''Eagle'' covered by Force H sailed from Gibraltar to deliver Spitfires to Malta and to divert attention from MG 1. Two Italian submarines spotted the British ships and one fired torpedoes at ''Argus'' with no effect but the operation was cancelled when the long range fuel tanks of the Spitfires were found to be defective. The operation was repeated on 27 March and sixteen Spitfires were flown off for Malta, the ships returning to Gibraltar on 30 March.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=295, 317}}<br /> <br /> ===April===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Calendar====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Calendar}}<br /> <br /> The island had ceased to be an effective offensive base and Axis convoys were mostly untroubled. Several submarines and destroyers were bombed and sunk in harbour and naval units were ordered to leave for Gibraltar or Alexandria. Not all arrived safely. Forty-seven Spitfires were flown off to Malta from the [[United States Navy|American]] carrier {{USS|Wasp|CV-7|6}}, escorted by the battlecruiser ''Renown'', cruisers {{HMS|Cairo|D87|6}} and {{HMS|Charybdis|88|2}} and six British and US destroyers. Most of the aircraft were destroyed on the ground by bombing.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=320–322}}<br /> <br /> ===May===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Bowery and LB====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Bowery|Operation LB}}<br /> <br /> In Operation Bowery, 64 Spitfires were flown off ''Wasp'' and ''Eagle''. A second batch of 16 fighters were flown off ''Eagle'' in Operation LB.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=321–322, 328}}<br /> <br /> ===June===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Style====<br /> On 20 May, {{SS|Empire Conrad||6}} departed from [[Milford Haven]], [[Wales]] with a cargo of 32 Spitfires in cases. The aircraft were all Spitfire Mk VcT. Also on board were the ground crew who were to assemble them, a total of over 110 men. ''Empire Conrad'' was escorted by the 29th ML Flotilla and the [[corvette]] {{HMS|Spirea|K08|6}}. The convoy was later joined by the [[minesweeper (ship)|Minesweepers]] {{HMS|Hythe|J194|6}} and {{HMS|Rye|J76|2}}. ''Empire Conrad'' arrived at Gibraltar on 27 May. The aircraft were transferred to the aircraft carrier {{HMS|Eagle|R05|6}} where they were assembled. On 2 June, ''Eagle'' departed from Gibraltar escorted by the cruiser ''Charybdis'' and destroyers {{HMS|Antelope|H36|6}}, {{HMS|Ithuriel|H05|2}}, {{HMS|Partridge|G30|2}}, {{HMS|Westcott|D47|2}} and {{HMS|Wishart|D67|2}}. On 3 June, the aircraft were flown off ''Eagle'', bound for Malta. Twenty-eight arrived safely, with the other four being shot down en route.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=211, 328}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Julius (Harpoon and Vigorous)====<br /> <br /> {{Main|Operation Harpoon (1942)|Operation Vigorous}}<br /> <br /> [[File:STS059-238-074 Strait of Gibraltar.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Satellite photograph of the Straits of Gibraltar, the starting point for Operation Harpoon}}]]<br /> The arrival of more Spitfires from ''Eagle'' and the transfer of German aircraft to the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Russian Front]] eased the pressure on Malta but supplies were needed. [[Operation Julius]] was planned to send convoys simultaneously from both ends of the Mediterranean.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=328–329}} The ships for Operation Harpoon sailed from Britain on 5 June and entered the Mediterranean on the night of 11/12 June. Force H had participated in the Allied invasion of Madagascar ([[Battle of Madagascar|Operation Ironclad]]) and escorts were collected from several stations to obtain one battleship, the aircraft carriers ''Eagle'' and ''Argus'', three cruisers and eight destroyers for the escort and covering force to the narrows, the close escort into Malta comprising the anti-aircraft cruiser Cairo, nine destroyers, four fleet minesweepers and six motor launches equipped for minesweeping. Once the convoy of three British, one Dutch and two US freighters carrying {{convert|43000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of supplies had been swept through the Axis minefields, the minesweepers were to remain at Malta. The fast minelayer {{HMS|Welshman|M84|6}} [{{convert|40|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}}] which looked similar to Vichy French warships, was to sail ahead with ammunition and stores; a fleet oiler {{RFAux|Brown Ranger|A169|6}} with an escort force was to sail near the convoy route, ready to refuel ships as necessary and four submarines patrolled Axis ports.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=63–64}}<br /> <br /> The ships from Gibraltar and Alexandria were intended to arrive on consecutive days. Axis naval and air forces made a corresponding maximum effort, the first attacks beginning in the morning of 12 June; one cruiser was badly damaged and one merchantman sunk. On 15 June an Italian cruiser force engaged the close escort and as Cairo and the small destroyers made smoke, the fleet destroyers attacked the Italian ships. Two of the fleet destroyers were soon disabled the remaining three managed to hit an Italian destroyer and were then joined by the cruiser and the four smaller destroyers. Dive-bombers attacked the convoy soon after and one merchant ship was sunk and another damaged and taken in tow. Near noon, another air attack damaged another merchant ship and it and the ship in tow were sunk to increase the speed of the remaining two ships, which under cover of the Malta Spitfires which defeated several more air attacks, arrived with {{convert|15000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies; the destroyers ({{HMS|Bedouin|F67|6}} and the [[Poland|Polish]] {{Ship|ORP|Kujawiak||2}} were also sunk.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=64–66}}{{efn|''Merlins over Malta'' ([http://merlinsovermalta.gdenney.co.uk/worldwar2/timeline/ Chronology of the Siege of Malta, 1940–43]) states that 25,000 tons were landed, enough to sustain the population for two to three months.}} A convoy of eleven merchant ships from [[Haifa]], [[Mandate Palestine|Palestine]] and [[Port Said]], Egypt sailed in Operation Vigorous and was attacked by aircraft, torpedo boats and submarines for four days, threatened by a strong Italian battle fleet and was turned back to Alexandria. The cruiser ({{HMS|Hermione|74|6}}), the destroyers ({{HMS|Hasty|H24|6}}, ''Airedale'' and ''Nestor'' were sunk along with two merchantmen.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=329–370}}<br /> <br /> ===July===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Pinpoint====<br /> <br /> The fast minelayer ''Welshman'' had been sent back to Britain for maintenance and sailed on 9 July for Gibraltar carrying powdered milk, cooking oil, fats and flour, soap and minesweeping stores. The ship left for Malta on 14 July along with an aircraft carrier two cruisers and five destroyers, ''Eagle'' flew off 31 Spitfires on 15 July. ''Welshman'' made an independent run close to the Algerian coast but was shadowed by Axis aircraft and then attacked by fighter-bombers, bombers and torpedo bombers until dusk. ''Welshman'' reached Malta on 16 July and left again on 18 July, having unloaded under cover of the Spitfires from the Club Run. Bad weather enabled the ship to evade Italian submarine ambushes and a cruiser squadron, the ship not being sighted until 19 July; the ship survived attacks by bombers and torpedo bombers to return to Gibraltar on 21 July.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=370–371}} The supplies delivered to Malta enabled the submarine ''Upholder'' to return to Malta and resume offensive patrols from the island.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=75}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Insect====<br /> <br /> ''Eagle'' sailed from Gibraltar with two destroyers and five destroyers on 20 July, ''Eagle'' being missed by a salvo of four torpedoes from the Italian submarine ''Dandolo'' and on 21 July another 28 Spitfires were flown off for Malta.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=371–372}}<br /> <br /> ===August===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Pedestal====<br /> <br /> {{Main|Operation Pedestal}}<br /> <br /> As supplies on Malta dwindled, particularly of aviation fuel, the largest convoy to date was assembled at Gibraltar for Operation Pedestal. It consisted of 14 merchant ships, including the large oil tanker {{SS|Ohio||6}}. These were protected by powerful escort and covering forces, totalling forty-four warships, including the aircraft carriers ''Eagle'', ''Indomitable'' and ''Victorious'' and battleships ''Nelson'' and ''Rodney''. A diversionary operation was staged from Alexandria. The convoy was attacked fiercely. Three transports reached Malta on 13 August and another on 14 August. ''Ohio'' arrived on 15 August, heavily damaged by air attacks and being towed by destroyers {{HMS|Penn|G77|6}} and {{HMS|Ledbury|L90|2}}. The rest were sunk. ''Ohio'' later broke in two in Valletta Harbour but not before much of her cargo had been unloaded. The aircraft carrier ''Eagle'', cruisers ''Cairo'' and {{HMS|Manchester|C15|2}} and the destroyer {{HMS|Foresight|H68|6}} were sunk and there was serious damage to other warships; Italian losses were two submarines and damage to two cruisers.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=283, 372–380, 386–442, 454–455, 463}}<br /> <br /> This convoy, especially the arrival of ''Ohio'', was seen as ''divine intervention'' by the people of Malta. August 15 is celebrated as the feast of the [[Assumption of Mary]] and many Maltese attributed the arrival of ''Ohio'' into Grand Harbour as the answer to their prayers.{{sfn|Castillo|2006|p=207}} It had been agreed by military commanders at the time that if supplies became any lower, they would surrender the islands (the actual date, deferred as supplies were received, was referred to as the target date).{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=283}} At that time, to stretch the supply of flour, the Maltese mixed flour with [[potato]] peelings, making a sort of brown bread. The situation became so dire that bread became white again when potato peelings ran out. Pedestal delivered {{convert|12000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of coal, {{convert|32000|LT|t|abbr=on}} freight and {{convert|11000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of oil on ''Ohio'' of the {{convert|121000|LT|t|abbr=on}} on the ships when the convoy began. The commodities landed were enough for Malta to last until mid-November.{{sfn|Castillo|2006|p=199}} The 568 survivors of the Pedestal convoy were evacuated, 207 men on three destroyers to Gibraltar and the remainder by submarine and aircraft.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=450–457}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Baritone====<br /> <br /> [[File:Baleares-rotulado.png|thumb|{{centre|Formetera in the Balearic Islands}}]]<br /> On 16 August, a cruiser and twelve destroyers escorted ''Furious'' to the area south of [[Formentera]] in the south-west of the [[Balearic Islands]], which flew off 32 Spitfires of which one crashed on take-off and two turned back, 29 Spitfires reaching Malta that afternoon.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=456–457}}<br /> <br /> ===September===<br /> <br /> Attacks on Axis convoys to North Africa using the fuel delivered by ''Ohio'' deprived the Axis armies of {{convert|300000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of supplies.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=455}} The submarine {{HMS|Talisman|N78|6}} was lost on a supply run from Gibraltar, either stranded in a minefield or depth-charged by Italian torpedo boats north-west of Malta on 17 September.{{sfn|DNC|1952|p=376}}<br /> <br /> ===October===<br /> <br /> Magic Carpet rides by submarine reached Malta on 2 October (''Rorqual''), 3 October (''Parthian''), and 6 October (''Clyde''), with petrol and other stores, departing for Beirut on 8 October carrying survivors from Pedestal.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=450–457}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Train====<br /> <br /> A continuous flow of new Spitfires to Malta had become necessary after the Axis air forces resorted to attacks by fighter-bombers; in another Club Run from 28 to 30 October, two cruisers and eight destroyers escorted ''Furious'' which flew off 29 Spitfires for Malta, of which two returned with engine trouble. Ten Italian submarines were patrolling but were not able to attack and Axis aircraft were held off until the afternoon of 29 October, when a Ju 88 managed to drop a bomb which landed {{convert|600|ft|m|abbr=on}} behind ''Furious''.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|pp=311–312}}<br /> <br /> ===November===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Stone Age and Crupper====<br /> <br /> {{Main|Operation Stone Age}}<br /> <br /> [[File:Fairey Albacore ExCC.jpg|thumb|{{centre|[[Fairey Albacore]]}}]]<br /> An attempt in early November to sneak an independently routed, disguised freighter to Malta from Alexandria failed; on Operation Crupper, the disguised merchant ships ''Ardeola'' (2,609 tons) and ''Tadorna'' (1,947 tons) from Gibraltar, were captured and interned at Bizerta while passing through Vichy territorial waters. The fast minelayer ''Welshman'' made a dash from Gibraltar with a cargo of dried food and torpedoes during the Allied landings in French North Africa (Operation Torch), {{HMS|Manxman|M70|2}} and six destroyers sailed from Alexandria on 11 November; both efforts succeeded.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|pp=340, 312}} On 17 November, convoy MW 13 (two US, one Dutch, and one British merchant ship, carrying {{convert|35000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies) departed Alexandria, escorted by three cruisers of the 15th Cruiser Squadron; from 18 November, this was reduced to ten destroyers. Axis air attacks began and after the main escort had detached at {{nowrap|6:00 p.m.,}} the cruiser {{HMS|Arethusa|26|6}} was torpedoed and set on fire, {{nowrap|155 men}} being killed and the ship having to be towed stern-first through gales to Alexandria. Many of the air attacks were intercepted by Allied fighters flying from desert airfields and on 20 November, MW 13 arrived, escorted by ''Euryalus'' and ten Hunt-class destroyers. By 25 November, the ships had landed an adequate quantity of aviation fuel and Magic Carpet rides were cancelled. On 20 November, the minelayer {{HMS|Adventure|M23|6}} sailed from Plymouth to Gibraltar with 2,000 depth charges for Malta and made a repeat run in December.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=340}} The success of Stone Age relieved the siege of Malta, albeit by a narrow margin because the lack of military stores and food for the population would have been exhausted by December. Malta submarines were freed to increase the number of offensive patrols, Force K was re-established with ''Dido'', ''Euryalus'' and four destroyers, a [[Motor Torpedo Boat]] flotilla arrived and [[821 Naval Air Squadron|821 Squadron]] [[Fleet Air Arm]] (FAA) with [[Fairey Albacore]]s, began operations from the island.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|pp=341–342}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=458–461}}<br /> <br /> ===December===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Portcullis====<br /> <br /> {{Main|Operation Portcullis}}<br /> <br /> In Operation Portcullis, the five ships of convoy MW 14 arrived from Port Said with {{convert|55000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies, the first convoy to arrive without loss since 1941.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=346}} Nine more ships arrived in convoys MW 15 to MW 18, delivering {{convert|18200|ST|t|abbr=on}} of fuel and another {{convert|58500|ST|t|abbr=on}} of general supplies and military [[materiel|stores]] by the end of December; thirteen ships returned to Alexandria as convoys ME 11 and ME 12. Increased rations to civilians helped to stave off the general decline in health of the population, which had led to an outbreak of [[poliomyelitis]].{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=461–464}}<br /> <br /> ===December 1942 – January 1943===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Quadrangle====<br /> <br /> Portcullis was the last direct convoy to Malta; in Operations Quadrangle A, B, C and D, eight ships to Malta joined with ordinary west-bound convoys then rendezvoused with escorts from Force K and arrived with no loss.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=346}} In Operation Quadrangle A, convoy MW 15 of two ships was a side convoy from the new Port Said to Benghazi service. When the main convoy arrived off [[Marj|Barce]] in Libya, the ships for Malta rendezvoused with eight destroyer escorts and empty ships from the island, which were exchanged for the return voyage to Grand Harbour, MW 15 arriving on 10 December. Operation Quadrangle B covered convoy MW 16 of one tanker covered by six destroyers and a minesweeper. Four ships of MW 13 were formed into convoy MW 12 and nine destroyers departed Grand Harbour on 17 December and were attacked by JU 88s the next day to no effect. Several escorts handed over MW 12 at Barce to ships from Alexandria and took over convoy MW 17, two freighters in Operation Quadrangle C to Malta. Convoy ME 13 was omitted and convoy ME 14 with four empty ships sailed from Malta on 28 December with five destroyers and convoy MW 18 with a tanker and a merchant ship departed from Alexandria in Operation Quadrangle D with six destroyer escorts, arriving at Malta on 2 January 1943. In December, {{convert|58500|LT|t|abbr=on}} of general cargo and {{convert|18200|LT|t|abbr=on}} of fuel oil was delivered.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=463–465}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Survey====<br /> <br /> Convoy MW 19 left Alexandria on 7 January 1943 with five freighters and a tanker with nine destroyers and survived an attack by torpedo bombers at dusk on 8 January. During a night attack, a merchantman and a destroyer were near-missed and a destroyer evaded a torpedo and on 9 January a storm slowed the tanker and the convoy missed the meeting with Force K and later made rendezvous with three Malta destroyers. As the storm abated the ships gathered speed and for most of the run to Malta Beaufighters provided air cover, one being vectored onto a He 111 during 11 January, which was attacked and driven off, the convoy arriving at Malta during the evening.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=465–466}}<br /> <br /> ==Aftermath==<br /> <br /> ===Analysis===<br /> There were 35 large supply operations to Malta from 1940–1942. Operations White, Tiger, Halberd, MF5, MG1, Harpoon, Vigorous, and Pedestal were turned back or suffered severe losses from Axis forces. There were long periods when no convoy runs were even attempted and only a trickle of supplies reached Malta by submarine or fast warship. The worst period for Malta was from December 1941 to October 1942, when Axis forces had air and naval supremacy in the central Mediterranean. Operation Pedestal from 3 to 15 August 1942 was strategically successful in that it revived Malta as an offensive base, despite the cost in warship and merchant ship losses. Offensive operations from Malta sank Axis ships carrying {{convert|300000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of supplies to the Italian and German forces in North Africa. From 31 August to 2 September the Axis forces were stopped at Alam Halfa in Egypt, defeated from 23 to 24 October and on 8 November the Allies began [[Operation Torch]] in the western Mediterranean. In early 1943, supply ships brought the usual cargoes to Malta and the equipment and stores for [[Operation Husky]], the invasion of Sicily.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=455, 467}}<br /> <br /> ===Casualties===<br /> <br /> From June 1940 to December 1943, about 1,600 civilians and 700 soldiers were killed on Malta. The RAF lost about 900 men killed, 547 aircraft on operations and 160 on the ground and Royal Navy losses were 1,700 submariners and 2,200 sailors; about 200 merchant navy men died. Of 110 voyages by merchant ships to Malta 79 arrived, three to be sunk soon after reaching the island and one ship was sunk on a return voyage. Six of seven independent sailings failed, three ships being sunk, two were interned by Vichy authorities and one ship turned back. The Mediterranean Fleet lost a battleship, two aircraft carriers, four cruisers, a fast minelayer, twenty destroyers and minesweepers and forty submarines. Many small ships were sunk and many surviving ships were damaged.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=470–471}}<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Bonner Fellers#World War II|Bonner Fellers]] - the US [[military attaché]] in Egypt whose reports to Washington were being read by the Axis<br /> * [[Mediterranean U-boat Campaign (World War II)]]<br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{Notelist}}<br /> <br /> ==Footnotes==<br /> {{Reflist|20em}}<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{refbegin}}<br /> '''Books'''<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Bartimeus|1944}}<br /> |last=Bartimeus |first=W. M. |authorlink=|title=East of Malta, West of Suez |publisher=Little, Brown |year=1944 |location=New York/Boston |oclc=1727304}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Castillo|2006}}<br /> |last=Castillo |first=Dennis Angelo |title=The Maltese Cross: A Strategic History of Malta |publisher=Greenwood |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-313-32329-4}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Greene|Massignani|2002}}<br /> |title=The Naval War in the Mediterranean 1940–1943 |last1=Greene |first1=J. |last2=Massignani |first2=A. |year=2002 |orig-year=1998 |publisher=Chatham |location=Rochester |edition=pbk. |isbn=978-1-86176-190-3}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Hague|2000}}<br /> |last=Hague |first=Arnold |authorlink=|title=The Allied Convoy System 1939–1945 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=2000 |location=Annapolis, MD |isbn=978-1-55750-019-9}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|DNC|1952}}<br /> |author=&lt;!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--&gt; |title=H. M. Ships Damaged or Sunk by Enemy Action, 3rd September, 1939 to 2nd September, 1945 |publisher=Admiralty: Director of Naval Construction |location=London |year=1952 |url=http://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/Ships%20Damaged%20or%20Sunk%20by%20Enemy%20Action_opt_0.pdf |accessdate=9 October 2016 |oclc=38570200}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Potter|Nimitz|1960}}<br /> |editor1-last=Potter |editor1-first=E. B. |editor2-last=Nimitz |editor2-first=C. W. |authorlink=Chester W. Nimitz |title=Sea Power |year=1960 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs |oclc=933965485}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Roskill|1957}}<br /> |series=History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series |title=The War at Sea 1939–1945: The Defensive |volume=I |last=Roskill |first=S. W. |authorlink=Stephen Roskill |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J. R. M. |editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler |year=1957 |orig-year=1954 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |edition=4th impr. |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RN-I/index.html |accessdate=20 September 2017 |oclc=881709135}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Roskill|1962}}<br /> |last=Roskill |first=S. W. |series=[[History of the Second World War]]: The War at Sea 1939–1945 |title=The Period of Balance |volume=II |publisher=[[HMSO]] |location=London |year=1962 |orig-year=1956 |edition=3rd impression |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RN-II/index.html |accessdate=25 November 2016 |oclc=174453986}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Thomas|1999}}<br /> |last=Thomas |first=D. A. |title=Malta Convoys |publisher=[[Pen and Sword Books]] |year=1999 |location=[[Barnsley]] |isbn=978-0-85052-663-9}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Woodman|2003}}<br /> |last=Woodman |first=R. |title=Malta Convoys 1940–1943 |year=2003 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |edition=pbk. |isbn=978-0-7195-6408-6}}<br /> <br /> '''Websites'''<br /> * {{cite web |ref={{harvid|Helgason|2012}}<br /> |url=http://uboat.net/flotillas/23flo.htm |title=23rd Flotilla |first=Guðmundur |last=Helgason |website=German U-boats of WWII - uboat.net |accessdate=20 June 2012}}<br /> {{refend}}<br /> <br /> ==Further reading==<br /> '''Books'''<br /> * {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Ashley |authorlink=|title=The British Empire and the Second World War |publisher=Hambledon Continuum |year=2006 |location=London |isbn=978-1-85285-417-1}}<br /> * {{cite book |last1=Playfair |first1=Major-General I. S. O. |last2=Flynn |first2=Captain F. C. RN |last3=Molony |first3=Brigadier C. J. C. |last4=Gleave |first4=Group Captain T. P. |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=Sir James |series=History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series |title=The Mediterranean and Middle East: British Fortunes Reach Their Lowest Ebb (September 1941 to September 1942) |volume=III |publisher=Naval &amp; Military Press |location=Uckfield, UK |year=2004 |orig-year=1st. pub. HMSO: 1960 |isbn=978-1-84574-067-2 |display-authors=1}}<br /> * {{cite book |first1=Major-General I. S. O. |last1=Playfair |first2=Brigadier C. J. C. |last2=and Molony |first3=Captain F. C. |last3=with Flynn RN |first4=Group Captain T. P. |last4=Gleave |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J. R. M. |title=The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Destruction of the Axis Forces in Africa |volume=IV |series=History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series |orig-year=HMSO 1966 |year=2004 |location=Uckfield |publisher=Naval &amp; Military Press |isbn=978-1-84574-068-9 |display-authors=1}}<br /> * {{cite book |last=Richards |first=Denis |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RAF-I/UK-RAF-I-5.html |accessdate=9 October 2016 |title=Royal Air Force 1939–1945: The Fight At Odds |volume=I |location=London |publisher=[[HMSO]] |year=1974 |orig-year=1953 |edition=paperback |isbn=978-0-11-771592-9}}<br /> * {{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=D. |last2=St G. Saunders |first2=H. |title=Royal Air Force 1939–45: The Fight Avails |volume=II |year=1975 |orig-year=1954 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RAF-II/index.html |accessdate=9 October 2016 |edition=repr. |isbn=978-0-11-771593-6}}<br /> * {{cite book |title=L'aeronautica italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale |volume=II |trans-title=The Italian Air Force in WWII |last=Santoro |first=G. |authorlink= |year=1957 |publisher=Edizione Esse |location=Milano-Roma |edition=1st |others=[semi-official history] |url=http://www.avia-it.com/act/biblioteca/libri/PDF_Libri_By_AVIA/Aeronautica%20Italiana%20nella%20Seconda%20G.M.%20vol.%202%20%20-%20Santoro%20G..pdf |accessdate=9 October 2016 |oclc=60102091}}<br /> * {{cite book |title=The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force |others=Air 41/10 |number=248 |author=&lt;!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--&gt; |year=2001 |orig-year=1948 |publisher=Air Ministry |location=Richmond, Surrey |edition=Public Record Office War Histories |isbn=978-1-903365-30-4}}<br /> <br /> '''Journals'''<br /> * {{cite journal |last=Vego |first=M. |title=Major Convoy Operation To Malta, 10–15 August 1942 (Operation Pedestal) |work=Naval War College Review |volume=63 |issue=1 |date=Winter 2010 |url=https://www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/4679327a-c2e5-495e-9b97-ca231dae2516/Major-Convoy-Operation-to-Malta,-10-15-August-1942 |accessdate=9 October 2016 |issn=0028-1484}}<br /> <br /> '''Theses'''<br /> * {{cite thesis |last=Hammond |first=R. J. |title=The British Anti-shipping Campaign in the Mediterranean 1940–1944: Comparing Methods of Attack |type=PhD |url=http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.548977 |others=registration |year=2011 |publisher=University of Exeter |accessdate=31 October 2016 |docket=uk.bl.ethos.548977 |oclc=798399582}}<br /> <br /> '''Websites'''<br /> * {{cite web |last=Hague |first=Arnold |authorlink=|title=The Supply of Malta 1940–1942 |others=Part 1 |work=naval-history.com |date=4 December 2010 |url=http://www.naval-history.net/xAH-MaltaSupply01b.htm |accessdate=9 October 2016}}<br /> * {{cite web |last=Smith |first=G. |authorlink=|title=Royal Navy Vessels Lost at Sea, 1939–45 |work=naval-history.com |date=7 November 2010 |url=http://www.naval-history.net/WW2BritishLosses1Major.htm |accessdate=9 October 2016}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> {{Commons category|Malta convoys}}<br /> * [http://www.naval-history.net/WW2CampaignsItaly.htm Mediterranean naval campaign]<br /> * [http://www.hmsnaiad.co.uk/naiad_dido.html HMS Naiad - Dido Class Cruiser]<br /> * [https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://geocities.com/mike_buhagiar/convoy/convoy.html&amp;date=2009-10-25+03:45:08 Operation Harpoon]<br /> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311062547/http://members.fortunecity.com/rwbrown1942/Busterssite/id18.html Photos of Operation Pedestal]<br /> * [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=81593 Documentary film: ''Convoy to Malta'']<br /> * [http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38377.pdf MEDITERRANEAN CONVOY OPERATIONS] ([[London Gazette]])<br /> * [http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-2Epi-c4-WH2-2Epi-e.html NZETC SPITFIRES OVER MALTA]<br /> <br /> {{World War I}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Malta Convoys| ]]<br /> [[Category:Battle of the Mediterranean]]<br /> [[Category:Mediterranean Sea operations of World War II]]<br /> [[Category:Malta in World War II]]<br /> [[Category:Naval battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom]]</div>

Veracious https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malta-Konvois&diff=188743633 2018-01-24T04:53:02Z

<p>Veracious: /* Operation Hats */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Distinguish|Battle of the Malta Convoy (1800)}}<br /> {{Infobox operational plan<br /> | name = Malta convoys<br /> | partof = The Battle of the Mediterranean<br /> | image = File:Relief Map of Mediterranean Sea.png<br /> |image_size = 300px<br /> | caption = Relief map of the Mediterranean Sea<br /> | scope = Supply operations<br /> | type =<br /> | location = Malta<br /> | coordinates = {{coord|35|53|42|N|14|31|14|E|source:Geohack|display=title}}<br /> | planned_by = [[Mediterranean Fleet]]&lt;br /&gt;[[RAF Middle East Command|RAF Middle East]] (RAF Middle East Command from 29 December 1941)&lt;br /&gt;[[Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)|Merchant Navy]]&lt;br /&gt;Allies<br /> | commanded_by = Admiral [[Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope|Sir Andrew Cunningham]], 1 June 1939 – March 1942&lt;br /&gt;Admiral [[Henry Harwood|Sir Henry Harwood]], 22 April 1942 – February 1943<br /> | objective = Relief of the [[Siege of Malta (World War II)|Siege of Malta]]<br /> | target =<br /> | date = 27 June 1940 – 31 December 1943<br /> | time =<br /> | time-begin =<br /> | time-end =<br /> | timezone =<br /> | executed_by =<br /> | outcome = Allied victory<br /> | casualties = 1,600 civilians on Malta&lt;br /&gt;5,700 service personnel on land, sea and in the air&lt;br /&gt;Aircraft: 707&lt;br /&gt;Merchant Navy ships: 31 sunk&lt;br /&gt;[[Royal Navy]]:&lt;br /&gt; 1 battleship&lt;br /&gt; 2 aircraft carriers&lt;br /&gt; 4 cruisers&lt;br /&gt; 1 minelayer&lt;br /&gt; 20 destroyers/minesweepers&lt;br /&gt; 40 submarines&lt;br /&gt;unknown number of smaller vessels<br /> | campaignbox =<br /> {{Campaignbox Mediterranean Campaign}}<br /> }}<br /> <br /> The '''Malta convoys''' were [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] supply [[convoy]]s of the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The convoys took place during the [[Siege of Malta (World War II)|Siege of Malta]] in the [[Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II|Mediterranean Theatre]]. The civilian population and the garrison required imports of food, medical supplies, fuel and equipment; the military forces on the island needed reinforcements, ammunition and spare parts. British convoys were escorted to Malta by ships of the [[Mediterranean Fleet]] and aircraft of the [[Fleet Air Arm]] and [[Royal Air Force]], during the [[Battle of the Mediterranean]] (1940–1943). British and Allied ships were attacked by the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Italian]] ''[[Regia Aeronautica]]'' (Royal Air Force) and ''[[Regia Marina]]'' (Royal Navy) in 1940 and starting in 1941, by the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' (German Air Force) and ''[[Kriegsmarine]]'' (German Navy).<br /> <br /> Malta was a base from which British sea and air forces could attack Italian ships carrying supplies from Italy to [[Italian Libya]] for Italian civilian colonists and the [[Axis powers|Axis]] armies in North Africa, which fought the [[Western Desert Campaign]] (1940–1943) against the British [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]]. The war in the desert was fought for control of Libya and Egypt, the [[Suez Canal]] and British controlled oilfields in the [[Middle East]]. The strategic value of Malta was so great that the British risked many merchant vessels and warships to supply the island and the Axis made determined efforts to starve out the population. The destruction of the Italian [[Tenth Army (Italy)|10th Army]], in Egypt and Libya during [[Operation Compass]] (9 December 1940 – 9 February 1941) and defeat in the [[Italo-Greek War]] (28 October 1940 – 23 April 1941) led to German intervention in the Mediterranean. German bombers and submarines joined the effort to neutralise Malta and preparations were made to invade the island.<br /> <br /> The British assembled large flotillas of warships to escort convoys, sent fast warships to make solo runs to the island and organised [[Magic Carpet (Battle of the Mediterranean)|Magic Carpet]] supply runs by submarine. [[Hawker Hurricane]] and then [[Supermarine Spitfire]] fighters were flown to Malta from aircraft carriers on [[Club Run]]s from Gibraltar towards Malta. In mid-1942, Axis air attacks on the island and on supply convoys neutralised Malta as an offensive base and an Axis invasion, [[Operation Herkules|''Unternehmen Herkules'']] (Operation Hercules), was set for mid-July 1942. After the Axis victory in the [[Battle of Gazala]] (26 May – 21 June 1942) in Libya, the capture of Tobruk and then the Axis pursuit of the Eighth Army into Egypt, ''Herkules'' was postponed and then cancelled. The siege of Malta eased late in 1942, after the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]] (23 October–11 November) and [[Operation Torch]] (8–16 November), when the Allies captured territory and landing grounds in Libya and Algeria, bringing more of the seas around Malta into range of land-based Allied aircraft. Regular through convoys from Gibraltar to Alexandria and back were resumed and ships were detached from the convoys and escorted to and from Malta.<br /> {{TOC limit}}<br /> <br /> ==Background==<br /> <br /> [[File:EU-Malta.svg|thumb|Malta]]<br /> <br /> [[Malta]], a Mediterranean island of {{convert|122|sqmi|sqkm}}, had been a British colony since 1814. By the 1940s, the island had a population of 275,000 but local farmers could feed only one-third of the population, the deficit being made up by imports. Malta was a staging post on the British [[Suez Canal]] sea route to [[India]], East Africa, the oilfields of [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]] and [[Iran]], India and the Far East. The island was also close to the [[Strait of Sicily|Sicilian Channel]] between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunis]] and was a military base from which [[Italy|Italian]] ships sailing to [[Libya]] could be attacked.{{sfn|Bartimeus|1944|pp=42–47}}<br /> <br /> When Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940, the Taranto Naval Squadron did not sail to occupy Malta as suggested by Admiral [[Carlo Bergamini (admiral)|Carlo Bergamini]].{{sfn|Bartimeus|1944|pp=42–47}} With Italian bases in Sicily, British control of Malta was made more difficult from its bases in [[Gibraltar]] to the west and [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]] and [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] to the east, which were much further away. Two weeks after the Italian declaration of war, the [[Second Armistice at Compiègne]] (between France and Germany) ended British access to [[Mediterranean Sea]] bases in France and passage to Mediterranean colonies. The British [[attack on Mers-el-Kébir]] (3 July 1940) against French naval ships, created a [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] antagonism towards Britain. Axis support for General [[Francisco Franco]] in the [[Spanish Civil War]] also caused British to be apprehensive about the [[Spain in World War II|security]] of the British base at Gibraltar.<br /> <br /> Italy, Sicily, [[Sardinia]] and Libya dominated the central Mediterranean and an Italian conquest of Egypt would link [[Ethiopia|Abyssinia]], [[Italian Somaliland]] and [[Eritrea]]. The [[Italian invasion of Egypt]] in September 1940, was followed by Operation Compass, a British counter-offensive in December, which led to the conquest of [[Cyrenaica]] in January 1941. Hitler transferred the ''Luftwaffe'''s [[10th Air Corps (Germany)|''Fliegerkorps X'']] to Sicily (''Unternehmen Mittelmeer'' or Operation Mediterranean) to protect the Axis supply routes past Malta, and sent the ''Afrika Korps'' to Libya ([[Operation Sonnenblume|''Unternehmen Sonnenblume'']] or Operation Sunflower) which, with Italian reinforcements, recaptured Cyrenaica.{{sfn|Potter|Nimitz|1960|pp=521–527}} ''Fliegerkorps X'' was transferred to [[Greece]] in April 1941 and the [[23rd U-boat Flotilla]] was based at [[Salamis Naval Base|Salamis]], near [[Athens]], in September.{{sfn|Helgason|2012|nopp=y}} Resources available to sustain Malta were reduced when [[Japan]] declared war in December 1941, and conducted the [[Indian Ocean raid]] in April 1942.{{sfn|Potter|Nimitz|1960|pp=654–661}} Malta was neutralised as an offensive base against Italian convoys by the attacks of the ''Regia Aeronautica'' and the ''Luftwaffe'' in early 1942. Several warships were sunk in Valletta harbour and others were withdrawn to Gibraltar and Egypt. Food and medicines for the Maltese population and the British garrison dwindled along with fuel, ammunition and spare parts with the success of Axis attacks on Malta convoys. The Italian [[Operation C3]] and the German-Italian ''Unternehmen Herkules'' (Operation Hercules) invasion plans against Malta were prepared but then cancelled on 16 June 1942.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=324}}{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|p=225}}<br /> <br /> ==1940==<br /> <br /> ===July===<br /> <br /> [[File:Map of Malta 2.png|thumb|{{centre|Map of Malta}}]]<br /> In the [[Battle of Calabria]] (''Battaglia di Punta Stilo''), ''Regia Marina'' escorts (two battleships, 14 cruisers and 32 destroyers) of an Italian convoy engaged the battleships {{HMS|Warspite|03|6}}, {{HMS|Malaya||2}} and {{HMS|Royal Sovereign|05|2}} and the aircraft carrier {{HMS|Eagle|1918|6}}.{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|pp=63–81}} The British cruisers and destroyers covered two convoys heading from Malta to Alexandria. The first, Malta Fast 1 (MF 1)/Malta East 1 (ME 1), was composed of the ''El Nil'', ''Knight of Malta'' and ''Rodi''; the second, Malta Slow 1 (MS 1)/ME 1 was composed of the ''Kirkland'', ''Masirah'', ''Novasli'', ''Tweed'' and ''Zeeland''.{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|pp=63–81}}<br /> <br /> ===August===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Hurry====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Hurry}}<br /> <br /> Using an aircraft carrier to ferry land based aircraft to Malta had been discussed by the Admiralty in July and once Italy had declared war, the reinforcement of Malta could be delayed no longer. The training aircraft carrier {{HMS|Argus|I49|6}} was used to despatch twelve Hurricanes to Malta from a position to the south-west of Sardinia. Hurry was the first Club Run to reinforce the air defence of the island, despite the British Chiefs of Staff decision two months earlier that nothing could be done to reinforce Malta.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=298}} Club Runs continued until it was possible to fly the aircraft direct from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=58, 61}}<br /> <br /> ===September===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Hats====<br /> {{main|Operation Hats}}<br /> [[File:Prelucrare 3D pentru La Valletta Harbour.jpg|thumb|{{centre|La Valletta Harbour}}]]<br /> The Mediterranean Fleet escorted fast convoy MF 2 of three transports (carrying {{convert|40000|ST|t|lk=on|abbr=on}} of supplies, including reinforcements and ammunition for the island's anti-aircraft defences) from Alexandria and collected another convoy from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Hague|2000|pp=192–193}} En route, Italian airbases were raided; the ''Regia Marina'' had superior forces at sea but missed the opportunity to exploit their advantage.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=61–62, 64, 73–74}}<br /> <br /> ===October===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MB 6====<br /> <br /> Four ships of convoy MF 3 reached Malta safely from Alexandria and three ships returned to Alexandria as convoy MF 4.{{sfn|Hague|2000|pp=192–193}} The convoys were part of Operation MB 6 and the escort included four battleships and two aircraft carriers. An Italian attempt against the returning escort by destroyers and torpedo boats ended in the [[Battle of Cape Passero (1940)|Battle of Cape Passero]], a British success.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=78–80}}<br /> <br /> ===November===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Judgement====<br /> <br /> {{main|Battle of Taranto}}<br /> <br /> [[File:Balearic Sea map.png|thumb|{{centre|western Mediterranean and Gibraltar, venue for Club Runs to Malta}}]]<br /> The five ship convoy MW 3 from Alexandria and four ship return convoy ME 3 arrived safely, coinciding with a troop convoy from Gibraltar and the air attack on the Italian battle fleet at the Battle of Taranto.{{sfn|Hague|2000|pp=192–193}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=82, 86–87}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation White====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation White}}<br /> <br /> In Operation White, twelve Hurricanes were flown off ''Argus'' to reinforce Malta but the threat of the Italian fleet lurking south of Sardinia prompted a premature fly-off from ''Argus'' and its return to Gibraltar. Eight Hurricanes ran out of fuel and ditched at sea, with seven pilots lost.{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|p=115}} An enquiry found that the Hurricane pilots had been insufficiently trained about the range and endurance of their aircraft.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=298}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Collar====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Collar (convoy)}}<br /> <br /> Operation Collar was intended to combine the passage of a battleship, heavy cruiser and light cruiser with mechanical defects from Alexandria to Gibraltar, with a four-ship convoy MW 4 to Malta and the sailing of ME 4 from Malta comprising ''Cornwall'' and the four empty ships from convoy MW 3, escorted by a cruiser and three destroyers. Attacks on Italian airfields in the Aegean and North Africa were to be made at the same time. Three ships at Gibraltar, two bound for Malta and one for Alexandria were to be escorted by the cruisers {{HMS|Manchester|15|6}} and {{HMS|Southampton|C83|6}}. Operation MB 9 from Alexandria began on 23 November, when convoy MW 4 with four ships sailed with eight destroyer escorts, covered by Force E of three cruisers. Force D comprising a battleship and two cruisers sailed on 24 November and next day, two more battleships, an aircraft carrier, two cruisers and four destroyers of Force C departed Alexandria. MW 4 reached Malta without incident; ME 4 had sailed on 26 November, two destroyers returned to Malta; the cruiser and one destroyer saw the freighters into Alexandria and Port Said on 30 November.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=95–97}}<br /> <br /> Force F from Gibraltar was to pass 1,400 soldiers and RAF personnel from Gibraltar to Alexandria in the two cruisers, slip two supply ships into Malta and one to Crete. The other warships destined for the reinforcement of the fleet at Alexandria were to be sent on, the cruisers being accompanied by two destroyers and four corvettes. Force B provided the covering force with the battlecruiser ''Renown'', the aircraft carrier ''Ark Royal'', the cruisers ''Sheffield'' and ''Despatch'' and nine destroyers. The destroyers and corvettes left Alexandria on the night of 23/24 November to rendezvous with the merchant ships and their destroyer escorts from Britain. The cruisers embarked the troops and RAF personnel, leaving Gibraltar on 25 November. The British were unaware that Italian reconnaissance aircraft had spotted the sailings from both ends of the Mediterranean and set up submarine ambushes. Two Italian battleships, three cruisers and two destroyer flotillas had left harbour, more cruisers, destroyers and torpedo boats following. Force D was attacked on the night of 26/27 November but the attack was so ineffectual that the British did not notice. On 27 November, aircraft from Force F spotted the Italian battle fleet, the force headed for Force D and prepared to defend the merchant ships, in what became a confused and inconclusive engagement. Two Italian submarines attacked three cruisers in the Sicilian Narrows as they waited for the eastbound convoy on the night of 27/28 November to no effect and the two ships for Malta arrived on 29 November, as Force H returned to Gibraltar and the through convoy and naval ships reached Alexandria.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=97–105}}<br /> <br /> ===December===<br /> <br /> Convoy MW 5A with ''Lanarkshire'' and ''Waiwera'' carrying supplies and munitions and convoy MW 5B of ''Volo'', ''Rodi'' and ''Devis'', the tanker ''Pontfield'', ''Hoegh Hood'' and ''Ulster Prince'' from Alexandria with a covering force of a battleship, two cruisers, destroyers and corvettes reached Malta on 20 December and convoy ME 5 with the empty ''Breconshire'', ''Memnon'', ''Clan Macaulay'' and ''Clan Ferguson'' were collected by the covering force and returned to Alexandria.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=106–108}} Convoy MG 1 with ''Clan Forbes'' and ''Clan Fraser'' reached Gibraltar from Malta escorted by the battleship and four destroyers.{{sfn|Hague|2000|pp=192–193}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=107}}<br /> <br /> ==1941==<br /> <br /> ===January===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Excess====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Excess}}<br /> <br /> [[File:SM 79 attacking Malta convoy MIWM FLM 003795.jpg|thumb|{{centre|An Italian [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.79]] during an attack}}]]<br /> Operation Excess delivered one ship from Gibraltar to Malta and three to [[Piraeus]]. The operation was coordinated with Operation MC 4, consisting of convoy MW {{frac|5|1|2}} of ''Breconshire'' and ''Clan Macaulay'' from Alexandria to Malta, and convoys ME 6, a return journey of ME {{frac|5|1|2}} with ''Lanarkshire'' and ''Waiwera'' and ME 6, with ''Volo'', ''Rodi'', ''Pontfield'', ''Devis'', ''Hoegh Hood'', ''Trocas'' and {{RFAux|Plumleaf|A78|6}}. The convoys arrived safely with {{convert|10000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies. The Royal Navy lost the cruiser {{HMS|Southampton|83|6}}; the cruiser {{HMS|Gloucester|62|6}} and aircraft carrier {{HMS|Illustrious|87|6}} were badly damaged and a destroyer was damaged beyond repair.{{sfn|Thomas|1999|p=65}} This was the first action to involve the ''Luftwaffe''. The Italian torpedo boat [[Italian torpedo boat Vega|''Vega'']] was sunk in the course of the operations.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=110–111, 113–114, 125–126}}<br /> <br /> ===February===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MC 8====<br /> <br /> Operation MC 8 from 19–21 February, ran troops, vehicles and stores to Malta in the cruisers ''Orion'', ''Ajax'' and ''Gloucester'' and the Tribal-class destroyers ''Nubian'' and ''Mohawk'', covered by ''Barham'', ''Valiant'', ''Eagle'', ''Coventry'', ''Decoy'', ''Hotspur'', ''Havock'', ''Hereward'', ''Hero'', ''Hasty'', ''Ilex'', ''Jervis'', ''Janus'' and ''Jaguar''. The return journey to Alexandria with the unloaded ''Breconshire'' and ''Clan Macaulay'' by 23 February was uneventful.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=131}}<br /> <br /> ===March===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MC 9====<br /> <br /> Operation MC 9 covered convoy MW 6 consisting of ''Perthshire'', ''Clan Ferguson'', ''City of Manchester'' and ''City of Lincoln'', which sailed from Alexandria on 19 March, the escorts sailing a day later, covered by the Mediterranean Fleet until the night of 22/23 March. The ships sailed by indirect routes and bad weather enabled the convoy to evade Axis air reconnaissance. The ships arrived at Malta but two ships were bombed while berthed in harbour. No merchant ships were waiting to return from Malta and a cruiser and a destroyer were damaged during the passage but the escorts reached Egypt on 26 March.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=423}}<br /> <br /> ===April===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Winch and convoy ME 7====<br /> <br /> Hurricanes delivered to Gibraltar on ''Argus'' were put on board ''Ark Royal'', which sailed on 2 April, escorted by the battleship ''Renown'' a cruiser and five destroyers. The Hurricanes were flown off on 3 April and all arrived, Force H returning safely to Gibraltar on 4 April. Stores and ammunition were run to Malta in Operations MC 8 and MC 9. On 18 April, the Mediterranean Fleet sailed from Alexandria to Suda Bay in Crete with ''Breconshire'' carrying oil and aviation fuel for Malta. Late on 19 April, the Malta Strike Force destroyers sailed with convoy ME 7 of four empty cargo ships. ''Breconshire'' made a run into Malta and the destroyers returned after joining in a shore bombardment by the main fleet. The cruiser ''Gloucester'', which had a long range, joining the force.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=156–157, 160, 162–163}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Dunlop====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Dunlop|Battle of the Tarigo Convoy}}<br /> <br /> In Operation Dunlop, {{HMS|Ark Royal|91|6}} sailed from Gibraltar on 24 April and flew off 24 Hurricanes at dawn on 27 April. [[Bristol Blenheim]]s and [[Bristol Beaufighter|Beaufighters]] were also flown direct from Gibraltar. Three battleships and an aircraft carrier covered the fast transport ''Breconshire'' (now commissioned into the RN) from Alexandria to Malta. The operation was coordinated with the four-ship convoy ME 7 from Malta to Alexandria.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=164–166, 250}} On 16 April, the value of Malta for offensive operations was shown when four destroyers of the 14th Flotilla (the Malta Striking Force), recently based in the island, sank a five-ship Axis convoy of {{convert|14000|LT|t|abbr=on}} and its escorts in the Battle of the Tarigo Convoy.{{sfn|Greene|Massignani|2002|pp=162–164}}{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=431}}{{efn|An ''Afrika Korps'' convoy (the Tarigo convoy) of the German ships ''Aegina'', ''Arta'', ''Adana'' and ''Iserlhon'', with 3,000 troop reinforcements on board, the Italian ''Sabaudia'' loaded with ammunition and three Italian destroyer escorts was sunk by the destroyers ''Jervis'', ''Janus'', ''Nubian'' and ''Mohawk'', near the [[Kerkennah Islands]] off [[Tunisia]]; ''Mohawk'' was also sunk but the success showed the value of Malta as an offensive base. Churchill ordered that the Italian supply route to Tripoli be cut off and even suggested using the battleship ''Barham'' to block the harbour.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=158–159}}}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Temple====<br /> During Operation Temple, the freighter ''Parracombe'' sailed for Malta from Gibraltar on the night of 28/29 April, disguised as a Spanish merchantman and later as the Vichy steamer ''Oued-Kroum''. The vessel was lost on 2 May after striking a mine, which blew off the forepart of the ship. The ship sank with 21 Hurricanes, equipment, ammunition and military freight; another ship reached Alexandria from Malta as convoy MD 3.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=165–167}}<br /> <br /> ===May===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Tiger and Splice====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Tiger (1941)|Operation Splice}}<br /> <br /> [[File:Strait of Sicily map.png|thumb|{{centre|Strait of Sicily}}]]<br /> In Operation Tiger, convoy WS 8 sailed from Gibraltar to Alexandria, combined with a supply run to Malta by six destroyers of Force H. Five {{convert|15|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}} merchant ships passed Gibraltar on 6 May accompanied by Force H, along with a battleship and two cruisers en route to Alexandria. The destroyers from Force H participated in the convoy operation as far as Malta. The fleet at Alexandria sailed westwards, bombarded Benghazi on the night of 7/8 May and rendezvoused with the convoy {{convert|50|nmi|mi km|abbr=on}} south of Malta late on 9 May.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=437}}{{efn|During the night, two of the ships hit mines, {{SS|Empire Song||2}} blowing up and the other ship being damaged but continuing; the four surviving ships arrived at Alexandria.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=437, 440}}}} In Operation Splice, a Club Run from 19 to 22 May, 48 more Hurricanes were flown off ''Ark Royal'' and {{HMS|Furious|47|2}} on 21 May and all reached Malta. Slow convoy MW 7B with two tankers sailed from Egypt for Malta with {{convert|24000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of fuel oil, followed by fast convoy MW 7A with six freighters escorted by five cruisers, three destroyers and two corvettes. ''Abdiel'' and ''Breconshire'' sailed with the main fleet and all the ships reached Grand Harbour on 9 May preceded by a minesweeper, which detonated about twelve mines.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=172–173}} In May, the ''Luftwaffe'' transferred ''Fliegerkorps'' X from Sicily to the Balkans, relieving pressure on Malta and the British convoys until December.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=519}}<br /> <br /> ===June===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Rocket====<br /> <br /> A Club Run from 5 to 7 June delivered 35 Hurricanes to Malta, guided by eight Blenheims from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=177}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Tracer====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Tracer (1941)}}<br /> <br /> In June, the new carrier {{HMS|Victorious|R38|6}} replaced ''Furious'' on Club Runs and ''Furious'' began to ferry fighters from Britain to Gibraltar. On 13 June, ''Ark Royal'' and ''Victorious'' began Operation Tracer when they sailed from Gibraltar into the western Mediterranean escorted by Force H and on 14 June flew off 47 Hurricanes to Malta guided by four Hudsons from Gibraltar, 43 of the Hurricanes reached Malta.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=177}}{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=423, 518}}<br /> <br /> ====Operations Railway I and II====<br /> <br /> On 26 June ''Ark Royal'' and ''Furious'' sailed again with 22 Hurricanes, guided to Malta by Blenheims from Gibraltar; all arrived at Malta in bad weather and a Hurricane crashed on landing. Force H reached port on 28 June, ''Furious'' having steamed back to Britain to collect more Hurricanes, some of which were put aboard ''Ark Royal''. Crated aircraft were assembled on ''Furious'' as it joined Force H for Operation Railway II and on 30 June, 26 Hurricanes took off from ''Ark Royal''. The second fighter to take off from ''Furious'' skidded a fuel tank fell off and caught fire as the Hurricane went overboard, killing nine men and injuring four more before the fire was extinguished; it took until the early afternoon for the 35 remaining Hurricanes to land at Malta, having been guided by six Blenheims. During the month 142 aircraft reached Malta, some of which continued on to Egypt.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=177}}{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=423, 518}}<br /> <br /> ===July===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Substance====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Substance}}<br /> <br /> In Operation Substance, convoy GM 1 of six ships containing 5,000 soldiers, ran from Gibraltar to Malta, escorted by six destroyers, covered by the battleship {{HMS|Nelson|28|2}} and three cruisers from the Home Fleet and Force H comprising ''Ark Royal'', {{HMS|Renown|1916|2}} and several cruisers and destroyers. The convoy reached Gibraltar from Britain on 19 July and sailed for Malta on 21 July, except for the troopship {{RMS|Leinster||6}} which ran aground and had to return to Gibraltar with its 1,000 troops and the RAF ground crews destined for Malta. The Eastern Fleet sortied from Alexandria as a diversion and eight submarines watched Italian ports and patrolled the routes that an Italian sortie was expected to use. Force H was to return to Gibraltar at the Sicilian Narrows and the close escort of three cruisers, ''Manxman'' and ten destroyers would continue to Malta. During the convoy operation, ''Breconshire'' and six other empty ships at Malta were independently to return to Gibraltar in Operation MG 1. On 23 July, south of Sardinia, Italian air attacks began, a cruiser was hit and had to return to Gibraltar; a destroyer was so badly damaged that it was sunk by the British but the air cover from ''Ark Royal'' enabled the convoy to reach the Skerki Channel by late afternoon. The covering force turned for Gibraltar and the rest of the ships sailed on as more ''Regia Aeronautica'' aircraft attacked, forcing another damaged destroyer to drop out and return to Gibraltar. By turning north the convoy evaded Italian aircraft sent to attack during the night but on the night of 23/24 July, the {{nowrap|12,000 GRT}} steamer {{SS|Sydney Star||2}} was torpedoed by an Italian [[MAS (boat)|MAS boat]] and crippled but the Australian destroyer {{HMAS|Nestor|G02|6}} assisted her safe arrival to harbour and she was seaworthy again by September. The cruisers sailed ahead to disembark troops and equipment and begin their return that evening and the convoy and its destroyer escort arrived later on 24 July. All of the ships of MG 1 had managed to reach Gibraltar and the covering force was joined by the cruiser escorts and all reached Gibraltar on 27 July, An raid on 26 July by Italian midget submarines, MAS boats and aircraft on the transports in [[Grand Harbour]] failed, with the attacking force almost destroyed and {{convert|65000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies were landed.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=184–185, 206–208, 212–213, 218}} On 31 July, three cruisers and two destroyers sailed from Gibraltar with the troops and stores left behind on ''Leinster'' arrived on 2 August, departed the same day and reached Gibraltar on 4 August.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=521–523}}<br /> <br /> ===September===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Status I and II, Operation Propeller====<br /> <br /> [[File:HMS Birmingham convoy.jpg|thumb|Three British cruisers during Operation Halberd]]<br /> ''Ark Royal'' and ''Furious'' flew off over 50 Hurricanes to Malta in Operation Status I and Status II, forty-nine arriving; several Blenheims flew direct from Gibraltar at the same time, to build up the Malta striking force to use the munitions delivered in Operation Substance.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=524}} The merchantman {{ship|SS|Empire Guillemot}} reached Malta from Gibraltar in Operation Propeller and another ship completed the trip independently.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=218–219}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Halberd====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Halberd}}<br /> In Operation Halberd, the eastbound convoy GM 2 with nine {{convert|15|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}} merchant ships, carrying {{convert|81000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of supplies and 2,600 troops from Gibraltar, was accompanied by the battleships ''Nelson'', {{HMS|Rodney|29|2}}, {{HMS|Prince of Wales|53|2}} (all detached from the Home Fleet), ''Ark Royal'', five cruisers, and eighteen destroyers. The British staged diversions in the eastern Mediterranean and submarines and aircraft watched Italian naval and air bases. Attacks on the convoy by the ''Regia Aeronautica'' began on 27 September, demonstrating more skill and determination than earlier encounters. An Italian torpedo bomber hit ''Nelson'' with an [[aerial torpedo]] and reduced her speed. Later air attacks were deterred by the anti-aircraft fire of the British destroyer screen. British reconnaissance aircraft reported the Italian Fleet had left harbour and was on an interception course and the British covering force, less ''Nelson'', was sent to engage. ''Ark Royal'' launched her torpedo bombers but the Italian turned back, and the aircraft failed to make contact; at about {{nowrap|7:00 p.m.}}, GM 2 reached the Narrows.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=529–530}}<br /> <br /> The five cruisers and nine of the destroyers continued for Malta as the covering force changed course. The British made course for Sicily, which enabled them to skirt minefields laid by the Italians in the channel between Sicily and the North African coast. During the night the moon was bright and Italian torpedo bombers managed to hit the {{nowrap|10,000 GRT}} transport {{SS|Imperial Star||2}} with an aerial torpedo. Attempts to tow the ship to Malta failed; her troops were taken off and the ship was scuttled. During the morning of 28 September, the convoy came into range of Malta-based fighters. The rest of the convoy reached Malta at {{nowrap|1:30 p.m.}} and landed {{convert|85000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies. Halberd was the last convoy operation of 1941.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=530–531}}&lt;!--Del the rest; it's about the siege, or Med ops, not the supply convoys--&gt;<br /> <br /> ===October===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Callboy and MG 3====<br /> <br /> {{main|Force K#Force K (1941)|l1=Force K|Operation Callboy|Operation MG 3}}<br /> <br /> On 16 October, Force H covered Operation Callboy, another Club Run by ''Ark Royal'', to fly off thirteen Swordfish and Albacore torpedo bombers for Malta, delivered to Gibraltar by ''Argus''.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=532–533}} On 12 October, the cruisers {{HMS|Aurora|12|6}} and {{HMS|Penelope|97|2}} had sailed from Scapa Flow for Malta and were joined by the destroyers {{HMS|Lance|G87|6}} and {{HMS|Lively|G40|2}} of Force H at Gibraltar, reaching the island on 21 October. The squadron was named Force K (reviving a title used in 1939) for operations against the Italian supply route to North Africa. Operation MG 3 was a convoy planned to despatch the Halberd merchant ships from Malta but the ships sailed in succession. Two departed on 16 October but one ship had to turn back with engine trouble. The second ship was covered by the fleet movements of Operation Callboy which reached the flying off point on 17 October and arrived on 19 October, having dodged a torpedo bomber attack. Two cruisers and two destroyers of Force H loaded equipment and ammunition for Malta as soon as they got back to Gibraltar and sailed again on 20 October and arrived at Grand Harbour in Malta the next day. Two of the empty ships from Malta sailed on 21 October and arrived at Gibraltar despite air attacks and the ship with engine trouble left Malta again on 22 October to be watched over by Catalina flying boats but failed to arrive; an Italian radio broadcast claimed a British merchant ship, which was taken to mean the ship bound for Gibraltar. The fourth ship sailed on 24 October but was attacked by an Italian aircraft and recalled, having been spotted so quickly.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=240–243}}{{efn|''Empire Guillemot'' had sailed close to the African shore but on 23 October was caught by three Italian bombers and sunk. The crew tried to sail on to Gibraltar in two lifeboats but were eventually forced ashore and the survivors were interned by the Vichy French.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=242–243}}}}<br /> <br /> ===November===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Perpetual====<br /> <br /> Force K of two cruisers and two destroyers sailed from Malta on 8 November and sank the merchant ships of an Axis convoy off Cape Spartivento.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=532}}{{efn|Force K sank seven merchantmen and one of its destroyer escorts; the force was back at Malta by the afternoon of 9 November and the submarine ''Upholder'' from Malta sank another destroyer.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=532–533}}}} On 10 November, ''Ark Royal'' and ''Argus'' sailed from Gibraltar and flew off thirty-seven Hurricanes for Malta, thirty-four arriving on the island; seven Blenheims flew direct from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=243–245}} On 13 November, ''Ark Royal'' was torpedoed and sank the next day, {{convert|25|nmi|mi km|abbr=on}} from Gibraltar.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=533}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Astrologer====<br /> <br /> Operation Astrologer (14–15 November 1941), an attempt to supply Malta by two unescorted freighters, [[List of Empire ships (E)|''Empire Pelican'']] and {{SS|Empire Defender||2}} disguised as neutral Spanish then French ships. ''Empire Pelican'' passed Gibraltar on 12 November and sailed close to the Moroccan, Algerian and Tunisian coasts but was spotted by Italian aircraft at early on 14 November south of [[Galite Islands]] and sunk by torpedo bombers. ''Empire Defender'' was sunk at sunset the nest day in the same place; Astrologer was the last attempt to send merchant ships to Malta from the west for six months.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=250–251}}<br /> <br /> ====Operations Chieftain and Landmark====<br /> <br /> During Operation Crusader in the Western Desert, a bogus Malta convoy GM 3, was assembled for Operation Chieftain, an attempt to divert Axis aircraft away from the land battle. Five merchantmen, the oiler ''Brown Ranger'' a sloop, a destroyer and three corvettes left Gibraltar on 16 November, the freighters to turn back after dark and return independently, while the escorts continued for a two day anti-submarine sweep. One of the corvettes had engine trouble, sailed late and sank a German U-boat. Force K contributed to the deception by sailing westwards from Malta to simulate a rendezvous with GM 3 then reversing course overnight to reach Malta again on 19 November. A second diversion force left Malta in Operation Landmark early on 21 November, feigning a voyage to Alexandria to escort four merchant ships and for added verisimilitude the battle squadron at Alexandria sailed as if to meet the ships from Malta. The German ''[[B-Dienst]]'' (Observation Service) learnt from British naval signals that Force K was at sea but an Italian convoy and escorts were ordered to port rather than risk battle.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=253–256}}<br /> <br /> ===December===<br /> <br /> ====Operations MF 1 and MD 1====<br /> <br /> To alleviate a fuel oil shortage on Malta, [[MV Breconshire|MV ''Breconshire'']] was escorted from Malta on 5 December by a cruiser and four destroyers of Force K in Operation MF 1 towards Alexandria; next day, a cruiser and two destroyers left Alexandria. During the evening of 6 December the cruiser and two destroyers returned to Malta and two destroyers carried on with ''Breconshire'', meeting the cruiser and two destroyers from Alexandria at dawn on 7 December. Two destroyers went on to Malta and ''Breconshire'' continued to Alexandria accompanied by the cruiser and its two destroyers, reaching Alexandria on 8 December, less the cruiser which was detached to help a sloop damaged by air attack of Tobruk. ''Breconshire'' was filled with {{convert|5000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of boiler oil and every space was filled with supplies. On 15 December, MD 1 began when ''Breconshire'' sailed for Malta with three cruiser and eight destroyer escorts. During the night ''Breconshire'' was slowed by engine trouble and on 16 December the force headed west in daylight without zig-zagging. After dark a cruiser and two destroyers turned back and made spurious wireless broadcasts to simulate the battle fleet at sea. Destroyers left Malta on 16 December and at {{nowrap|6:00 p.m.}} Force K comprising two cruisers and two destroyers sailed to meet ''Breconshire'' and escort it into Grand Harbour.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=263–264, 267–268}}<br /> <br /> During the afternoon, an Italian battleship convoy was spotted and every seaworthy ship at Malta was ordered out to bring in ''Breconshire''. Only one cruiser and two destroyers were operational but they met the oncoming force before dawn on 17 December and the ships made a circle round ''Breconshire''; the ''Luftwaffe'' and ''Regia Aeronautica'' attacked through the afternoon with bombs and torpedoes. As night was falling, three Italian battleships two cruisers and ten destroyers appeared and ''Breconshire'' and two escorts were diverted to the south-west as the rest of the British ships turned towards the Italian fleet. With the escorts between the Italians and ''Breconshire'', the ship was handed over to Force K as it arrived and set a smoke screen. The opposing ships diverged in the dark and Force K turned for Malta with ''Breconshire''; the rest of the ships returned to Alexandria and the Italian freighters reached Libya. Force K and ''Breconshire'' spent 18 December under air attack, until Malta Hurricanes arrived in the afternoon and at around {{nowrap|3:00 p.m.}} the ships arrived in Malta.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=268–270}}<br /> <br /> ==1942==<br /> <br /> ===January===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MF 2====<br /> <br /> [[File:HMS Dido (37).jpg|thumb|{{centre|HMS ''Dido'' at anchor on the Firth of Forth, showing the elevation of its [[QF 5.25 inch gun]]s}} ]]<br /> On 5 January, the fast supply ship {{HMS|Glengyle||6}} was escorted from Alexandria by the 15th Cruiser Squadron (Force B, Rear Admiral [[Philip Vian]]), comprising the [[Dido-class cruiser|''Dido''-class]] [[light cruiser]]s ''Naiad'', ''Dido'' and ''Euryalus'' and six destroyers and exchanged with ''Breconshire'' from Malta. The cruisers served as a bluff, in the absence of bigger ships capable of challenging a sortie by the ''Regia Marina''.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=44}}{{efn|The [[Dido-class cruiser]]s were equipped with a main armament of [[Dual-purpose gun|dual-purpose]] [[QF 5.25 inch gun]]s and had been designed for convoy protection and service in the Mediterranean.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=44}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=485}}}}&lt;!--not trivia, pertinent to their use in this way--&gt; ''Breconshire'' had sailed from Malta on 6 January escorted by four destroyers of Force C; the two forces met on 7 January and Force C with ''Glengyle'' reached Malta on 8 January, Force B with ''Breconshire'' arriving at Alexandria the next day.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=279–280}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation MF 3====<br /> On 16 January the convoys MW8A and MW8B with two ships each, sailed from Alexandria in Operation MF3, accompanied by the [[Cruiser#Anti-aircraft cruisers|Anti-aircraft cruiser]] {{HMS|Carlisle|D67|6}} and two [[Destroyer squadron#Royal Navy|destroyer divisions]].{{efn|''Carlisle'' had been converted to an anti-aircraft ship with eight 4-inch dual purpose guns in 1940 and had been allotted to the 15th Cruiser Squadron in May 1940.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=295}}}} The 15th Cruiser Squadron sailed on 17 January to join the escort force for both convoys. Force K (still short ''Aurora'') departed Malta to rendezvous with the convoy on 18 January. The 6,655-ton ''Thermopylae'' of MW8A developed mechanical faults and was diverted to Benghazi but was severely damaged by bombing ''en route'' and had to be scuttled. On 17 January, the destroyer {{HMS|Gurkha|G63|6}} was torpedoed by {{GS|U-133|1941|2}}; the Dutch destroyer {{HNLMS|Isaac Sweers||6}} towed her clear of blazing oil, allowing most of her crew to be rescued before the ship sank. The three remaining freighters reached Malta, air attacks on the ships being intercepted by fighters from [[No. 201 Group RAF|No. 201 (Naval Co-operation) Group]] based in Cyrenaica, the convoy and escorts' anti-aircraft guns; once the convoy was in range. Hurricanes from Malta also provided air cover and the ships docked on 19 January. As soon as it was certain that the Italian fleet was still in port, the 15th Cruiser Squadron and its destroyers turned for Alexandria and arrived on 20 January.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=280–281}} On 26 January, in a similar operation, ''Breconshire'' and escorts from Alexandria met two ships which had sailed from Malta on 25 January transporting service families from Malta with escorts from Force K, which escorted ''Breconshire'' back to the island on 27 January; on 28 January, the force from Alexandria returned with the two ships from Malta.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=282}}<br /> <br /> ===February===<br /> <br /> ====Operation MF 5====<br /> <br /> [[File:Tunisia - Sicily - South Italy.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Satellite image of Sardinia, Italy, Sicily, Malta and Tunisia}}]]<br /> During German air raids on Malta on 12 February, {{HMS|Maori|F24|6}} was sunk at her moorings in Grand Harbour.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=284}} On the same day, a three ship convoy MW 9, escorted by ''Carlisle'' and eight destroyers, sailed from Alexandria in [[Operation MF5]]; several hours later, two cruisers from 15th Cruiser Squadron, escorted by eight destroyers, sortied. On 13 February, ''Breconshire'', accompanied by cruiser and six destroyers, departed with three ships [[Ballast|in ballast]], bound for Alexandria. On 14 February, {{SS|Clan Campbell|1937|6}} was bombed and forced to seek shelter in [[Tobruk]], [[Cameron-class steamship|''Clan Chattan'']] was bombed, caught fire and [[Scuttling|scuttled]] in the afternoon; [[Union-Castle Line|''Rowallan Castle'']] was near-missed, disabled and taken under tow but scuttled by ''Lively'' after it was realised she could not reach Malta before dark: the escort had been warned the Italian battleship {{Ship|Italian battleship|Caio Duilio||2}} had sailed from Taranto to intercept the convoy.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=48}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=285–286}}<br /> <br /> ===March===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Spotter====<br /> <br /> {{see also|Second Battle of Sirte}}<br /> <br /> {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=right style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em&quot;<br /> |+Convoy MW 10&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;westbound, March 1942&lt;/small&gt;{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=73}}<br /> |-<br /> ! Type<br /> ! No.<br /> ! Sunk<br /> ! Dgd<br /> |-<br /> | Cruisers ||align=&quot;center&quot;|4||align=&quot;center&quot;|—||align=&quot;center&quot;|3<br /> |-<br /> | AA Ships ||align=&quot;center&quot;|1||align=&quot;center&quot;|—||align=&quot;center&quot;|—<br /> |-<br /> | Destroyers ||align=&quot;center&quot;|18||align=&quot;center&quot;|3||align=&quot;center&quot;|2<br /> |-<br /> | Submarines ||align=&quot;center&quot;|5||align=&quot;center&quot;|1||align=&quot;center&quot;|—<br /> |-<br /> | Freighters ||align=&quot;center&quot;|4||align=&quot;center&quot;|1||align=&quot;center&quot;|—<br /> |-<br /> | Freighters&lt;br&gt;arriving ||align=&quot;center&quot;|3||align=&quot;center&quot;|3 in&lt;br&gt;dock||align=&quot;center&quot;|—<br /> |}<br /> On 6 March, Operation Spotter, a Club Run by the aircraft carriers ''Eagle'' and ''Argus'' flew off the first 15 Spitfire reinforcements for Malta. An earlier attempt had been abandoned but the right external ferry tanks were fitted; seven Blenheims flew direct from Gibraltar. On 10 March, the Spitfires flew their first sorties against a raid by Ju 88s escorted by Bf 109 fighters.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=291}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation MG 1====<br /> Operation MG 1 began with convoy MW 10 of four ships sailing from Alexandria at {{nowrap|7:10 a.m.}} on 20 March, each with a navy liaison party and [[Defensively equipped merchant ship]] (DEMS) gunners, supplemented by service passengers. The convoy was escorted by Force B, the cruisers {{HMS|Cleopatra|33|6}}, {{HMS|Dido|37|2}}, {{HMS|Euryalus|42|2}}, the anti-aircraft cruiser ''Carlisle'' and the six ships of the [[22nd Destroyer Flotilla]]. The 5th Destroyer Flotilla sailed from Tobruk on an anti-submarine sweep, before joining the convoy on 21 March. ''Clan Campbell'' struggled to keep up because of engine trouble and the convoy timetable was not met. Several British submarines participated near Messina and Taranto to watch for Italian ships. [[Long Range Desert Group]] parties were to attack the airfields at Martuba and Tmimi in Cyrenaica as RAF and FAA aircraft bombed them to ground Ju 88 bombers; 201 Group RAF provided air cover and reconnaissance of the convoy route. A club run, Operation Picket was to use ''Argus'' and ''Eagle'', with Force H as a decoy, but the Spitfire ferry tanks were found to be defective and the operation was called off.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=293–295}}<br /> <br /> On 22 March, when MW 10 was through Bomb Alley, news arrived that an Italian squadron had sailed and from {{nowrap|10:35 a.m. – 12:05 p.m.}} five Italian torpedo bomber attacks were made but with no hits. In the afternoon, German and Italian air attacks began, with bombs and torpedoes, again to no effect. Smoke was seen at {{nowrap|2:10 p.m.}} and the escorts moved to intercept in rough seas as the convoy was hidden by a smoke screen. Italian cruisers commenced fire, then turned to lure the British cruisers towards ''Littorio''; the British did not take the bait. The exchange was the beginning of the Second Battle of Sirte and Axis aircraft concentrated on the convoy, which manoeuvred so effectively that no ship was hit, but the ships and close escort fired much of their ammunition. During the battle near the convoy, the escorts kept laying smoke screens and the Italians came within {{convert|8|nmi|mi km|abbr=on}} as Force B dodged around in the smoke, attacking at every opportunity.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=300, 303}}<br /> <br /> German air attacks continued and Force B turned for Alexandria, very short of fuel as Force K joined the convoy for the last leg. The convoy had been ordered to disperse, three ships diverting southwards and ''Clan Campbell'' making straight for Grand Harbour, the diversions being calculated to bring the ships back together just short of Malta by daylight on 23 March. The detours were a mistake and ''Pampas'' was hit by a bomb during the morning but kept going, reaching Malta. ''Talabot'' was also frequently attacked but arrived undamaged, except from some small bombs dropped by a Bf 109 fighter-bomber. ''Clan Campbell'' was sunk {{convert|20|nmi|mi km|abbr=on}} from Malta and ''Breconshire'', after being taken in tow by destroyers and tugs several times, reached Marsaxlokk harbour on 25 March. Unloading of the ships was very slow and ''Luftwaffe'' attacks on 26 March sank ''Breconshire'' in the evening and continued bombing Valletta harbour into the night. ''Talabot'' and ''Pampas'' were set on fire before unloading, only {{convert|4952|ST|t|abbr=on}} of the {{convert|29500|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies were landed and several destroyers were seriously damaged.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=306–316}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Picket====<br /> <br /> On 22 March, a Club Run by ''Argus'' and ''Eagle'' covered by Force H sailed from Gibraltar to deliver Spitfires to Malta and to divert attention from MG 1. Two Italian submarines spotted the British ships and one fired torpedoes at ''Argus'' with no effect but the operation was cancelled when the long range fuel tanks of the Spitfires were found to be defective. The operation was repeated on 27 March and sixteen Spitfires were flown off for Malta, the ships returning to Gibraltar on 30 March.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=295, 317}}<br /> <br /> ===April===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Calendar====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Calendar}}<br /> <br /> The island had ceased to be an effective offensive base and Axis convoys were mostly untroubled. Several submarines and destroyers were bombed and sunk in harbour and naval units were ordered to leave for Gibraltar or Alexandria. Not all arrived safely. Forty-seven Spitfires were flown off to Malta from the [[United States Navy|American]] carrier {{USS|Wasp|CV-7|6}}, escorted by the battlecruiser ''Renown'', cruisers {{HMS|Cairo|D87|6}} and {{HMS|Charybdis|88|2}} and six British and US destroyers. Most of the aircraft were destroyed on the ground by bombing.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=320–322}}<br /> <br /> ===May===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Bowery and LB====<br /> <br /> {{main|Operation Bowery|Operation LB}}<br /> <br /> In Operation Bowery, 64 Spitfires were flown off ''Wasp'' and ''Eagle''. A second batch of 16 fighters were flown off ''Eagle'' in Operation LB.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=321–322, 328}}<br /> <br /> ===June===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Style====<br /> On 20 May, {{SS|Empire Conrad||6}} departed from [[Milford Haven]], [[Wales]] with a cargo of 32 Spitfires in cases. The aircraft were all Spitfire Mk VcT. Also on board were the ground crew who were to assemble them, a total of over 110 men. ''Empire Conrad'' was escorted by the 29th ML Flotilla and the [[corvette]] {{HMS|Spirea|K08|6}}. The convoy was later joined by the [[minesweeper (ship)|Minesweepers]] {{HMS|Hythe|J194|6}} and {{HMS|Rye|J76|2}}. ''Empire Conrad'' arrived at Gibraltar on 27 May. The aircraft were transferred to the aircraft carrier {{HMS|Eagle|R05|6}} where they were assembled. On 2 June, ''Eagle'' departed from Gibraltar escorted by the cruiser ''Charybdis'' and destroyers {{HMS|Antelope|H36|6}}, {{HMS|Ithuriel|H05|2}}, {{HMS|Partridge|G30|2}}, {{HMS|Westcott|D47|2}} and {{HMS|Wishart|D67|2}}. On 3 June, the aircraft were flown off ''Eagle'', bound for Malta. Twenty-eight arrived safely, with the other four being shot down en route.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=211, 328}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Julius (Harpoon and Vigorous)====<br /> <br /> {{Main|Operation Harpoon (1942)|Operation Vigorous}}<br /> <br /> [[File:STS059-238-074 Strait of Gibraltar.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Satellite photograph of the Straits of Gibraltar, the starting point for Operation Harpoon}}]]<br /> The arrival of more Spitfires from ''Eagle'' and the transfer of German aircraft to the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Russian Front]] eased the pressure on Malta but supplies were needed. [[Operation Julius]] was planned to send convoys simultaneously from both ends of the Mediterranean.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=328–329}} The ships for Operation Harpoon sailed from Britain on 5 June and entered the Mediterranean on the night of 11/12 June. Force H had participated in the Allied invasion of Madagascar ([[Battle of Madagascar|Operation Ironclad]]) and escorts were collected from several stations to obtain one battleship, the aircraft carriers ''Eagle'' and ''Argus'', three cruisers and eight destroyers for the escort and covering force to the narrows, the close escort into Malta comprising the anti-aircraft cruiser Cairo, nine destroyers, four fleet minesweepers and six motor launches equipped for minesweeping. Once the convoy of three British, one Dutch and two US freighters carrying {{convert|43000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of supplies had been swept through the Axis minefields, the minesweepers were to remain at Malta. The fast minelayer {{HMS|Welshman|M84|6}} [{{convert|40|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}}] which looked similar to Vichy French warships, was to sail ahead with ammunition and stores; a fleet oiler {{RFAux|Brown Ranger|A169|6}} with an escort force was to sail near the convoy route, ready to refuel ships as necessary and four submarines patrolled Axis ports.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=63–64}}<br /> <br /> The ships from Gibraltar and Alexandria were intended to arrive on consecutive days. Axis naval and air forces made a corresponding maximum effort, the first attacks beginning in the morning of 12 June; one cruiser was badly damaged and one merchantman sunk. On 15 June an Italian cruiser force engaged the close escort and as Cairo and the small destroyers made smoke, the fleet destroyers attacked the Italian ships. Two of the fleet destroyers were soon disabled the remaining three managed to hit an Italian destroyer and were then joined by the cruiser and the four smaller destroyers. Dive-bombers attacked the convoy soon after and one merchant ship was sunk and another damaged and taken in tow. Near noon, another air attack damaged another merchant ship and it and the ship in tow were sunk to increase the speed of the remaining two ships, which under cover of the Malta Spitfires which defeated several more air attacks, arrived with {{convert|15000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies; the destroyers ({{HMS|Bedouin|F67|6}} and the [[Poland|Polish]] {{Ship|ORP|Kujawiak||2}} were also sunk.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|pp=64–66}}{{efn|''Merlins over Malta'' ([http://merlinsovermalta.gdenney.co.uk/worldwar2/timeline/ Chronology of the Siege of Malta, 1940–43]) states that 25,000 tons were landed, enough to sustain the population for two to three months.}} A convoy of eleven merchant ships from [[Haifa]], [[Mandate Palestine|Palestine]] and [[Port Said]], Egypt sailed in Operation Vigorous and was attacked by aircraft, torpedo boats and submarines for four days, threatened by a strong Italian battle fleet and was turned back to Alexandria. The cruiser ({{HMS|Hermione|74|6}}), the destroyers ({{HMS|Hasty|H24|6}}, ''Airedale'' and ''Nestor'' were sunk along with two merchantmen.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=329–370}}<br /> <br /> ===July===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Pinpoint====<br /> <br /> The fast minelayer ''Welshman'' had been sent back to Britain for maintenance and sailed on 9 July for Gibraltar carrying powdered milk, cooking oil, fats and flour, soap and minesweeping stores. The ship left for Malta on 14 July along with an aircraft carrier two cruisers and five destroyers, ''Eagle'' flew off 31 Spitfires on 15 July. ''Welshman'' made an independent run close to the Algerian coast but was shadowed by Axis aircraft and then attacked by fighter-bombers, bombers and torpedo bombers until dusk. ''Welshman'' reached Malta on 16 July and left again on 18 July, having unloaded under cover of the Spitfires from the Club Run. Bad weather enabled the ship to evade Italian submarine ambushes and a cruiser squadron, the ship not being sighted until 19 July; the ship survived attacks by bombers and torpedo bombers to return to Gibraltar on 21 July.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=370–371}} The supplies delivered to Malta enabled the submarine ''Upholder'' to return to Malta and resume offensive patrols from the island.{{sfn|Roskill|1957|p=75}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Insect====<br /> <br /> ''Eagle'' sailed from Gibraltar with two destroyers and five destroyers on 20 July, ''Eagle'' being missed by a salvo of four torpedoes from the Italian submarine ''Dandolo'' and on 21 July another 28 Spitfires were flown off for Malta.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=371–372}}<br /> <br /> ===August===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Pedestal====<br /> <br /> {{Main|Operation Pedestal}}<br /> <br /> As supplies on Malta dwindled, particularly of aviation fuel, the largest convoy to date was assembled at Gibraltar for Operation Pedestal. It consisted of 14 merchant ships, including the large oil tanker {{SS|Ohio||6}}. These were protected by powerful escort and covering forces, totalling forty-four warships, including the aircraft carriers ''Eagle'', ''Indomitable'' and ''Victorious'' and battleships ''Nelson'' and ''Rodney''. A diversionary operation was staged from Alexandria. The convoy was attacked fiercely. Three transports reached Malta on 13 August and another on 14 August. ''Ohio'' arrived on 15 August, heavily damaged by air attacks and being towed by destroyers {{HMS|Penn|G77|6}} and {{HMS|Ledbury|L90|2}}. The rest were sunk. ''Ohio'' later broke in two in Valletta Harbour but not before much of her cargo had been unloaded. The aircraft carrier ''Eagle'', cruisers ''Cairo'' and {{HMS|Manchester|C15|2}} and the destroyer {{HMS|Foresight|H68|6}} were sunk and there was serious damage to other warships; Italian losses were two submarines and damage to two cruisers.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=283, 372–380, 386–442, 454–455, 463}}<br /> <br /> This convoy, especially the arrival of ''Ohio'', was seen as ''divine intervention'' by the people of Malta. August 15 is celebrated as the feast of the [[Assumption of Mary]] and many Maltese attributed the arrival of ''Ohio'' into Grand Harbour as the answer to their prayers.{{sfn|Castillo|2006|p=207}} It had been agreed by military commanders at the time that if supplies became any lower, they would surrender the islands (the actual date, deferred as supplies were received, was referred to as the target date).{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=283}} At that time, to stretch the supply of flour, the Maltese mixed flour with [[potato]] peelings, making a sort of brown bread. The situation became so dire that bread became white again when potato peelings ran out. Pedestal delivered {{convert|12000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of coal, {{convert|32000|LT|t|abbr=on}} freight and {{convert|11000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of oil on ''Ohio'' of the {{convert|121000|LT|t|abbr=on}} on the ships when the convoy began. The commodities landed were enough for Malta to last until mid-November.{{sfn|Castillo|2006|p=199}} The 568 survivors of the Pedestal convoy were evacuated, 207 men on three destroyers to Gibraltar and the remainder by submarine and aircraft.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=450–457}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Baritone====<br /> <br /> [[File:Baleares-rotulado.png|thumb|{{centre|Formetera in the Balearic Islands}}]]<br /> On 16 August, a cruiser and twelve destroyers escorted ''Furious'' to the area south of [[Formentera]] in the south-west of the [[Balearic Islands]], which flew off 32 Spitfires of which one crashed on take-off and two turned back, 29 Spitfires reaching Malta that afternoon.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=456–457}}<br /> <br /> ===September===<br /> <br /> Attacks on Axis convoys to North Africa using the fuel delivered by ''Ohio'' deprived the Axis armies of {{convert|300000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of supplies.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|p=455}} The submarine {{HMS|Talisman|N78|6}} was lost on a supply run from Gibraltar, either stranded in a minefield or depth-charged by Italian torpedo boats north-west of Malta on 17 September.{{sfn|DNC|1952|p=376}}<br /> <br /> ===October===<br /> <br /> Magic Carpet rides by submarine reached Malta on 2 October (''Rorqual''), 3 October (''Parthian''), and 6 October (''Clyde''), with petrol and other stores, departing for Beirut on 8 October carrying survivors from Pedestal.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=450–457}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Train====<br /> <br /> A continuous flow of new Spitfires to Malta had become necessary after the Axis air forces resorted to attacks by fighter-bombers; in another Club Run from 28 to 30 October, two cruisers and eight destroyers escorted ''Furious'' which flew off 29 Spitfires for Malta, of which two returned with engine trouble. Ten Italian submarines were patrolling but were not able to attack and Axis aircraft were held off until the afternoon of 29 October, when a Ju 88 managed to drop a bomb which landed {{convert|600|ft|m|abbr=on}} behind ''Furious''.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|pp=311–312}}<br /> <br /> ===November===<br /> <br /> ====Operations Stone Age and Crupper====<br /> <br /> {{Main|Operation Stone Age}}<br /> <br /> [[File:Fairey Albacore ExCC.jpg|thumb|{{centre|[[Fairey Albacore]]}}]]<br /> An attempt in early November to sneak an independently routed, disguised freighter to Malta from Alexandria failed; on Operation Crupper, the disguised merchant ships ''Ardeola'' (2,609 tons) and ''Tadorna'' (1,947 tons) from Gibraltar, were captured and interned at Bizerta while passing through Vichy territorial waters. The fast minelayer ''Welshman'' made a dash from Gibraltar with a cargo of dried food and torpedoes during the Allied landings in French North Africa (Operation Torch), {{HMS|Manxman|M70|2}} and six destroyers sailed from Alexandria on 11 November; both efforts succeeded.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|pp=340, 312}} On 17 November, convoy MW 13 (two US, one Dutch, and one British merchant ship, carrying {{convert|35000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies) departed Alexandria, escorted by three cruisers of the 15th Cruiser Squadron; from 18 November, this was reduced to ten destroyers. Axis air attacks began and after the main escort had detached at {{nowrap|6:00 p.m.,}} the cruiser {{HMS|Arethusa|26|6}} was torpedoed and set on fire, {{nowrap|155 men}} being killed and the ship having to be towed stern-first through gales to Alexandria. Many of the air attacks were intercepted by Allied fighters flying from desert airfields and on 20 November, MW 13 arrived, escorted by ''Euryalus'' and ten Hunt-class destroyers. By 25 November, the ships had landed an adequate quantity of aviation fuel and Magic Carpet rides were cancelled. On 20 November, the minelayer {{HMS|Adventure|M23|6}} sailed from Plymouth to Gibraltar with 2,000 depth charges for Malta and made a repeat run in December.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=340}} The success of Stone Age relieved the siege of Malta, albeit by a narrow margin because the lack of military stores and food for the population would have been exhausted by December. Malta submarines were freed to increase the number of offensive patrols, Force K was re-established with ''Dido'', ''Euryalus'' and four destroyers, a [[Motor Torpedo Boat]] flotilla arrived and [[821 Naval Air Squadron|821 Squadron]] [[Fleet Air Arm]] (FAA) with [[Fairey Albacore]]s, began operations from the island.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|pp=341–342}}{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=458–461}}<br /> <br /> ===December===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Portcullis====<br /> <br /> {{Main|Operation Portcullis}}<br /> <br /> In Operation Portcullis, the five ships of convoy MW 14 arrived from Port Said with {{convert|55000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of supplies, the first convoy to arrive without loss since 1941.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=346}} Nine more ships arrived in convoys MW 15 to MW 18, delivering {{convert|18200|ST|t|abbr=on}} of fuel and another {{convert|58500|ST|t|abbr=on}} of general supplies and military [[materiel|stores]] by the end of December; thirteen ships returned to Alexandria as convoys ME 11 and ME 12. Increased rations to civilians helped to stave off the general decline in health of the population, which had led to an outbreak of [[poliomyelitis]].{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=461–464}}<br /> <br /> ===December 1942 – January 1943===<br /> <br /> ====Operation Quadrangle====<br /> <br /> Portcullis was the last direct convoy to Malta; in Operations Quadrangle A, B, C and D, eight ships to Malta joined with ordinary west-bound convoys then rendezvoused with escorts from Force K and arrived with no loss.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=346}} In Operation Quadrangle A, convoy MW 15 of two ships was a side convoy from the new Port Said to Benghazi service. When the main convoy arrived off [[Marj|Barce]] in Libya, the ships for Malta rendezvoused with eight destroyer escorts and empty ships from the island, which were exchanged for the return voyage to Grand Harbour, MW 15 arriving on 10 December. Operation Quadrangle B covered convoy MW 16 of one tanker covered by six destroyers and a minesweeper. Four ships of MW 13 were formed into convoy MW 12 and nine destroyers departed Grand Harbour on 17 December and were attacked by JU 88s the next day to no effect. Several escorts handed over MW 12 at Barce to ships from Alexandria and took over convoy MW 17, two freighters in Operation Quadrangle C to Malta. Convoy ME 13 was omitted and convoy ME 14 with four empty ships sailed from Malta on 28 December with five destroyers and convoy MW 18 with a tanker and a merchant ship departed from Alexandria in Operation Quadrangle D with six destroyer escorts, arriving at Malta on 2 January 1943. In December, {{convert|58500|LT|t|abbr=on}} of general cargo and {{convert|18200|LT|t|abbr=on}} of fuel oil was delivered.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=463–465}}<br /> <br /> ====Operation Survey====<br /> <br /> Convoy MW 19 left Alexandria on 7 January 1943 with five freighters and a tanker with nine destroyers and survived an attack by torpedo bombers at dusk on 8 January. During a night attack, a merchantman and a destroyer were near-missed and a destroyer evaded a torpedo and on 9 January a storm slowed the tanker and the convoy missed the meeting with Force K and later made rendezvous with three Malta destroyers. As the storm abated the ships gathered speed and for most of the run to Malta Beaufighters provided air cover, one being vectored onto a He 111 during 11 January, which was attacked and driven off, the convoy arriving at Malta during the evening.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=465–466}}<br /> <br /> ==Aftermath==<br /> <br /> ===Analysis===<br /> There were 35 large supply operations to Malta from 1940–1942. Operations White, Tiger, Halberd, MF5, MG1, Harpoon, Vigorous, and Pedestal were turned back or suffered severe losses from Axis forces. There were long periods when no convoy runs were even attempted and only a trickle of supplies reached Malta by submarine or fast warship. The worst period for Malta was from December 1941 to October 1942, when Axis forces had air and naval supremacy in the central Mediterranean. Operation Pedestal from 3 to 15 August 1942 was strategically successful in that it revived Malta as an offensive base, despite the cost in warship and merchant ship losses. Offensive operations from Malta sank Axis ships carrying {{convert|300000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of supplies to the Italian and German forces in North Africa. From 31 August to 2 September the Axis forces were stopped at Alam Halfa in Egypt, defeated from 23 to 24 October and on 8 November the Allies began [[Operation Torch]] in the western Mediterranean. In early 1943, supply ships brought the usual cargoes to Malta and the equipment and stores for [[Operation Husky]], the invasion of Sicily.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=455, 467}}<br /> <br /> ===Casualties===<br /> <br /> From June 1940 to December 1943, about 1,600 civilians and 700 soldiers were killed on Malta. The RAF lost about 900 men killed, 547 aircraft on operations and 160 on the ground and Royal Navy losses were 1,700 submariners and 2,200 sailors; about 200 merchant navy men died. Of 110 voyages by merchant ships to Malta 79 arrived, three to be sunk soon after reaching the island and one ship was sunk on a return voyage. Six of seven independent sailings failed, three ships being sunk, two were interned by Vichy authorities and one ship turned back. The Mediterranean Fleet lost a battleship, two aircraft carriers, four cruisers, a fast minelayer, twenty destroyers and minesweepers and forty submarines. Many small ships were sunk and many surviving ships were damaged.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=470–471}}<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Bonner Fellers#World War II|Bonner Fellers]] - the US [[military attaché]] in Egypt whose reports to Washington were being read by the Axis<br /> * [[Mediterranean U-boat Campaign (World War II)]]<br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{Notelist}}<br /> <br /> ==Footnotes==<br /> {{Reflist|20em}}<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{refbegin}}<br /> '''Books'''<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Bartimeus|1944}}<br /> |last=Bartimeus |first=W. M. |authorlink=|title=East of Malta, West of Suez |publisher=Little, Brown |year=1944 |location=New York/Boston |oclc=1727304}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Castillo|2006}}<br /> |last=Castillo |first=Dennis Angelo |title=The Maltese Cross: A Strategic History of Malta |publisher=Greenwood |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-313-32329-4}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Greene|Massignani|2002}}<br /> |title=The Naval War in the Mediterranean 1940–1943 |last1=Greene |first1=J. |last2=Massignani |first2=A. |year=2002 |orig-year=1998 |publisher=Chatham |location=Rochester |edition=pbk. |isbn=978-1-86176-190-3}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Hague|2000}}<br /> |last=Hague |first=Arnold |authorlink=|title=The Allied Convoy System 1939–1945 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=2000 |location=Annapolis, MD |isbn=978-1-55750-019-9}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|DNC|1952}}<br /> |author=&lt;!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--&gt; |title=H. M. Ships Damaged or Sunk by Enemy Action, 3rd September, 1939 to 2nd September, 1945 |publisher=Admiralty: Director of Naval Construction |location=London |year=1952 |url=http://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/Ships%20Damaged%20or%20Sunk%20by%20Enemy%20Action_opt_0.pdf |accessdate=9 October 2016 |oclc=38570200}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Potter|Nimitz|1960}}<br /> |editor1-last=Potter |editor1-first=E. B. |editor2-last=Nimitz |editor2-first=C. W. |authorlink=Chester W. Nimitz |title=Sea Power |year=1960 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs |oclc=933965485}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Roskill|1957}}<br /> |series=History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series |title=The War at Sea 1939–1945: The Defensive |volume=I |last=Roskill |first=S. W. |authorlink=Stephen Roskill |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J. R. M. |editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler |year=1957 |orig-year=1954 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |edition=4th impr. |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RN-I/index.html |accessdate=20 September 2017 |oclc=881709135}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Roskill|1962}}<br /> |last=Roskill |first=S. W. |series=[[History of the Second World War]]: The War at Sea 1939–1945 |title=The Period of Balance |volume=II |publisher=[[HMSO]] |location=London |year=1962 |orig-year=1956 |edition=3rd impression |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RN-II/index.html |accessdate=25 November 2016 |oclc=174453986}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Thomas|1999}}<br /> |last=Thomas |first=D. A. |title=Malta Convoys |publisher=[[Pen and Sword Books]] |year=1999 |location=[[Barnsley]] |isbn=978-0-85052-663-9}}<br /> * {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Woodman|2003}}<br /> |last=Woodman |first=R. |title=Malta Convoys 1940–1943 |year=2003 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |edition=pbk. |isbn=978-0-7195-6408-6}}<br /> <br /> '''Websites'''<br /> * {{cite web |ref={{harvid|Helgason|2012}}<br /> |url=http://uboat.net/flotillas/23flo.htm |title=23rd Flotilla |first=Guðmundur |last=Helgason |website=German U-boats of WWII - uboat.net |accessdate=20 June 2012}}<br /> {{refend}}<br /> <br /> ==Further reading==<br /> '''Books'''<br /> * {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Ashley |authorlink=|title=The British Empire and the Second World War |publisher=Hambledon Continuum |year=2006 |location=London |isbn=978-1-85285-417-1}}<br /> * {{cite book |last1=Playfair |first1=Major-General I. S. O. |last2=Flynn |first2=Captain F. C. RN |last3=Molony |first3=Brigadier C. J. C. |last4=Gleave |first4=Group Captain T. P. |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=Sir James |series=History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series |title=The Mediterranean and Middle East: British Fortunes Reach Their Lowest Ebb (September 1941 to September 1942) |volume=III |publisher=Naval &amp; Military Press |location=Uckfield, UK |year=2004 |orig-year=1st. pub. HMSO: 1960 |isbn=978-1-84574-067-2 |display-authors=1}}<br /> * {{cite book |first1=Major-General I. S. O. |last1=Playfair |first2=Brigadier C. J. C. |last2=and Molony |first3=Captain F. C. |last3=with Flynn RN |first4=Group Captain T. P. |last4=Gleave |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J. R. M. |title=The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Destruction of the Axis Forces in Africa |volume=IV |series=History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series |orig-year=HMSO 1966 |year=2004 |location=Uckfield |publisher=Naval &amp; Military Press |isbn=978-1-84574-068-9 |display-authors=1}}<br /> * {{cite book |last=Richards |first=Denis |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RAF-I/UK-RAF-I-5.html |accessdate=9 October 2016 |title=Royal Air Force 1939–1945: The Fight At Odds |volume=I |location=London |publisher=[[HMSO]] |year=1974 |orig-year=1953 |edition=paperback |isbn=978-0-11-771592-9}}<br /> * {{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=D. |last2=St G. Saunders |first2=H. |title=Royal Air Force 1939–45: The Fight Avails |volume=II |year=1975 |orig-year=1954 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RAF-II/index.html |accessdate=9 October 2016 |edition=repr. |isbn=978-0-11-771593-6}}<br /> * {{cite book |title=L'aeronautica italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale |volume=II |trans-title=The Italian Air Force in WWII |last=Santoro |first=G. |authorlink= |year=1957 |publisher=Edizione Esse |location=Milano-Roma |edition=1st |others=[semi-official history] |url=http://www.avia-it.com/act/biblioteca/libri/PDF_Libri_By_AVIA/Aeronautica%20Italiana%20nella%20Seconda%20G.M.%20vol.%202%20%20-%20Santoro%20G..pdf |accessdate=9 October 2016 |oclc=60102091}}<br /> * {{cite book |title=The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force |others=Air 41/10 |number=248 |author=&lt;!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--&gt; |year=2001 |orig-year=1948 |publisher=Air Ministry |location=Richmond, Surrey |edition=Public Record Office War Histories |isbn=978-1-903365-30-4}}<br /> <br /> '''Journals'''<br /> * {{cite journal |last=Vego |first=M. |title=Major Convoy Operation To Malta, 10–15 August 1942 (Operation Pedestal) |work=Naval War College Review |volume=63 |issue=1 |date=Winter 2010 |url=https://www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/4679327a-c2e5-495e-9b97-ca231dae2516/Major-Convoy-Operation-to-Malta,-10-15-August-1942 |accessdate=9 October 2016 |issn=0028-1484}}<br /> <br /> '''Theses'''<br /> * {{cite thesis |last=Hammond |first=R. J. |title=The British Anti-shipping Campaign in the Mediterranean 1940–1944: Comparing Methods of Attack |type=PhD |url=http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.548977 |others=registration |year=2011 |publisher=University of Exeter |accessdate=31 October 2016 |docket=uk.bl.ethos.548977 |oclc=798399582}}<br /> <br /> '''Websites'''<br /> * {{cite web |last=Hague |first=Arnold |authorlink=|title=The Supply of Malta 1940–1942 |others=Part 1 |work=naval-history.com |date=4 December 2010 |url=http://www.naval-history.net/xAH-MaltaSupply01b.htm |accessdate=9 October 2016}}<br /> * {{cite web |last=Smith |first=G. |authorlink=|title=Royal Navy Vessels Lost at Sea, 1939–45 |work=naval-history.com |date=7 November 2010 |url=http://www.naval-history.net/WW2BritishLosses1Major.htm |accessdate=9 October 2016}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> {{Commons category|Malta convoys}}<br /> * [http://www.naval-history.net/WW2CampaignsItaly.htm Mediterranean naval campaign]<br /> * [http://www.hmsnaiad.co.uk/naiad_dido.html HMS Naiad - Dido Class Cruiser]<br /> * [https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://geocities.com/mike_buhagiar/convoy/convoy.html&amp;date=2009-10-25+03:45:08 Operation Harpoon]<br /> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311062547/http://members.fortunecity.com/rwbrown1942/Busterssite/id18.html Photos of Operation Pedestal]<br /> * [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=81593 Documentary film: ''Convoy to Malta'']<br /> * [http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38377.pdf MEDITERRANEAN CONVOY OPERATIONS] ([[London Gazette]])<br /> * [http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-2Epi-c4-WH2-2Epi-e.html NZETC SPITFIRES OVER MALTA]<br /> <br /> {{World War I}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Malta Convoys| ]]<br /> [[Category:Battle of the Mediterranean]]<br /> [[Category:Mediterranean Sea operations of World War II]]<br /> [[Category:Malta in World War II]]<br /> [[Category:Naval battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom]]</div>

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