https://de.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Updatehelper Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de] 2026-02-06T01:04:47Z Benutzerbeiträge MediaWiki 1.46.0-wmf.14 https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elektroauto&diff=95812234 Elektroauto 2011-11-10T08:51:02Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:1888 Flocken Elektrowagen.jpg|thumb|1888 [[Flocken Elektrowagen]], erstes deutsches Elektroauto (Rekonstruktion).]][[Datei:Jamais contente.jpg|miniatur|[[Camille Jenatzy]] in seinem Elektroauto [[La Jamais Contente]], 1899]]<br /> [[Datei:TeslaRoadster-front.jpg|miniatur|[[Tesla Roadster]]]]<br /> [[Datei:NASA Apollo 17 Lunar Roving Vehicle.jpg|miniatur|Ein [[Lunar Roving Vehicle|Boeing Lunar Roving Vehicle]], eines der drei [[Mondauto]]s der [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]], ein Elektroauto; [[Eugene Cernan]], [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;17]]-Mission am 11.&amp;nbsp;Dezember 1972]]<br /> [[Datei:Bergmann Paketzustellwagen Nuernberg 13032010.JPG|miniatur|[[Theodor Bergmann (Unternehmer)|Bergmann]] Paketzustellwagen BEM 2500 mit Elektromotor, gebaut zwischen 1922 und 1927, Leistung 20&amp;nbsp;PS, Geschwindigkeit 20&amp;nbsp;km/h, Nutzlast 2,5&amp;nbsp;t, im [[Museum für Kommunikation Nürnberg|Museum für Kommunikation]] in [[Nürnberg]]]]<br /> <br /> '''Elektroauto''' (E-Auto) bezeichnet ein durch [[elektrische Energie]] angetriebenes [[Automobil]]. Zu Beginn der Entwicklung des Automobils spielten Elektroautos eine wichtige Rolle. Seit zirka 1990 erobern Automobile mit elektrischem Antrieb auch wieder den gemischten Straßenverkehr. Zwischenzeitlich hatte sich diese Antriebsart auf Anwendungen in Innenräumen oder Industrieanwendungen zurückgezogen.<br /> Der Begriff [[Elektromobilität]] bezeichnet in Politik und Medien das System, welches den Einsatz und die Rahmenbedingungen für [[Elektrofahrzeug]]e beschreibt.<br /> <br /> == Grundlegendes ==<br /> Alle Elektroautos treiben die Räder über einen Elektromotor an. Ob das direkt mit Radnabenmotoren geschieht oder über ein Getriebe, ob mit oder ohne Kupplung, und mit oder ohne verschiedene Gänge, ist jedoch nicht einheitlich festgelegt. Das ist Sache des Herstellers. <br /> <br /> Die Kategorisierung von Elektroautos wird jedoch vor allem nach den verschiedenen Arten der denkbaren Stromspeicherkonzepte vorgenommen. Das Speicher- oder Stromerzeugungskonzept legt somit fest, wie die Elektrofahrzeuge benannt werden. <br /> <br /> Die Antriebsenergie wird entweder in Form von aufladbaren [[Akkumulator]]en im Fahrzeug mitgeführt; nicht-wiederaufladbare [[Batterie (Elektrotechnik)|Batterie]]n sind eine Ausnahme (zum Beispiel beim [[Lunar Roving Vehicle|Mondauto]]) oder in Form von flüssigen oder gasförmigen Kraftstoffen die mittels [[Brennstoffzelle]]n oder mittels eines Strom-Generators umgewandelt werden. [[Brennstoffzellenfahrzeug]]e, serielle [[Hybridelektrokraftfahrzeug]]e und Fahrzeuge mit [[Dieselelektrischer Antrieb|dieselelektrischem Antrieb]] nutzen verschiedene Kraftstoffe als Primärenergie, um daraus den Antriebsstrom herzustellen. Beim selten anzutreffenden [[Gyroantrieb]] wird die Antriebsenergie mechanisch in einem Schwungrad gespeichert, bis sie von einem Generator in elektrische Energie für die Fahrmotoren umgewandelt wird. [[Solarfahrzeug]]e gewinnen den Strom direkt aus Sonnenlicht mittels Solarzellen auf ihren Oberflächen.<br /> <br /> Der Elektroantrieb ist dem weit verbreiteten Antrieb mit [[Verbrennungsmotor]]en in vielen Eigenschaften überlegen. Dazu zählen beispielsweise der viel höhere [[Wirkungsgrad]] sowie die vorteilhafte Drehmoment- und Leistungscharakteristik des [[Elektromotor]]s, der zumeist einfachere Aufbau des [[Antriebsstrang]]s und die fast vollständige lokale Emissionsfreiheit in Bezug auf Schadstoffe und Lärm. Ebenso treten keinerlei Vibrationen wie bei Verbrennungskraftmaschinen auf. Im Vergleich zu Fahrzeugen mit Verbrennungsmotoren verfügen aktuell ausgeführte Elektrofahrzeuge jedoch zumeist über erheblich geringere [[Reichweite (Transportwesen)|Reichweiten]]. Dies ist in erster Linie auf die vergleichsweise geringeren Energiemengen zurückzuführen, die beim derzeitigen Stand der Technik in Energiespeichern mitgeführt werden können. Die Akkumulatorentechnologie erlebte zwar in den letzten Jahren eine intensive Weiterentwicklung, etwa durch die Anforderungen tragbarer Elektronikgeräte wie [[Notebook]]s und [[Mobiltelefon]]e, wodurch höhere Energiedichten, ein schnelleres Aufladen und eine höhere Sicherheit erreicht werden konnten. Dennoch verbleibt die [[Energiedichte#Energiedichte von Energiespeichern|Energiedichte]] von [[Akkumulator]]en immer noch deutlich unter der von Flüssigbrennstoffen wie [[Motorenbenzin|Benzin]].<br /> Das betrifft sowohl den Gewichtsvergleich (Energie pro Kilogramm Speichergewicht) als auch den Volumenvergleich (Energie pro Liter Speichervolumen). <br /> <br /> Viele [[Autohersteller]] und einige Markteinsteiger investieren erhebliche Entwicklungsressourcen in Elektroautos.&lt;ref name=&quot;winterkornElektroautoIstDieZukunft&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;weberElektroautoZukunftstechnologie&quot; /&gt; Seitens der deutschen Legislative wird zurzeit erheblicher Druck auf die Hersteller von Automobilen ausgeübt, ihre Entwicklungsanstrengungen zu intensivieren (Nationaler Entwicklungsplan Elektromobilität). So will die [[Bundesregierung (Deutschland)|deutsche Bundesregierung]] „[…], dass bis 2020 nicht weniger als eine Millionen und bis 2030 sogar sechs Millionen Elektrofahrzeuge auf den deutschen Straßen unterwegs sind.“&lt;ref&gt; Dr. Norbert Röttgen Bundesminister für Umwelt Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit, zit. Nach: '' Erneuerbar mobil, Marktfähige Lösung für eine klimafreundliche Elektromobilität '' S.6, BMU, 1.Auflage, Berlin März 2011.&lt;/ref&gt; Gründe hierfür bestehen in der gewünschten Reduzierung der Abhängigkeit vom Erdöl sowie in der Verminderung der verkehrsbedingten CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-Emissionen.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.elektromobilitaet2008.de/ Nationaler Entwicklungsplan Elektromobilität]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Zwar würde der Umbau der Infrastruktur CO2-Emission mit sich bringen, doch die langfristige Nutzung von Elektroautos würde zur Verminderung des Treibhauseffekts beitragen.&lt;ref&gt; Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung: '' Elektromobilität- das Auto neu denken '' Bonn, Berlin 2010&lt;/ref&gt; Auch die österreichische Bundesregierung möchte die Anzahl der Elektroautos auf Österreichs Straßen erhöhen, bis 2020 auf 200.000. &lt;ref&gt;[http://diepresse.com/home/panorama/klimawandel/570895/200000-EAutos_Ziel-der-Regierung-nur-schoener-Traum 200.000 E-Autos: Ziel der Regierung nur schöner Traum]&lt;/ref&gt; Aus heutiger Sicht scheinen sowohl die deutschen, als auch die österreichischen Ziele nicht erreichbar zu sein.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/0,1518,762421,00.html Regierung droht E-Auto-Ziel klar zu verfehlen]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Einsatzgebiete und Fahrzeugkonzepte ==<br /> Die Entwicklung von Elektroautos lässt sich grob in folgende Richtungen unterteilen.<br /> <br /> * ''Industriefahrzeuge:'' [[Elektrokarren|elektrische Lastkarren]] und automobile [[Flurfördergerät]]e sind etabliert und fahren in vielen gewerblichen Bereichen, meist außerhalb des allgemeinen Straßenverkehrs, häufig auch innerhalb von Gebäuden. In der Schweiz beherrschen sie an einigen wenigen Orten (zum Beispiel Zermatt – siehe weiter unten) den gesamten Verkehr.<br /> * Die ''Entwicklung neuer PKW'', darunter auch die [[Leichtelektromobil]]e, die sehr sparsam mit [[Energie]] umgehen, damit befriedigende Reichweiten erzielt werden können. Diese Neuentwicklungen können in zwei Untergruppen aufgeteilt werden:<br /> ** ''Stadtfahrzeuge'' mit einer Höchstgeschwindigkeit von bis zu 60&amp;nbsp;km/h. Beispiele dafür sind die Fahrzeuge der Firma [[Global Electric Motorcars]], [[Twike]] und [[CityEL]]. Die letztgenannten sind die meistverkauften Elektro-PKW in Europa. Diese Fahrzeuge benötigen typischerweise im Alltag etwa 4–10&amp;nbsp;kWh elektrische Energie für eine Strecke von 100&amp;nbsp;km. Dabei spielen auch Gedanken an eine Anpassung der Fahrzeuge an das Mobilitätsverhalten (hauptsächlich Kurzstreckenverkehr) eine Rolle.<br /> ** ''Autobahntaugliche Elektrofahrzeuge'', die mindestens 60&amp;nbsp;km/h schaffen. Beispiele dafür sind der [[Think City]], der [[Lightning GT]], [[Tesla Roadster]], [[Stromos]], e-WOLF e1 und der [[Smart Fortwo|Elektro-Smart]]. Die Motoren dieser Fahrzeuge haben häufig eine hohe [[Nennleistung]]. Diese jedoch wird nicht nur für die Beschleunigung benötigt, sondern ebenso für die Rekuperierung von Bremsleistung. Über die elektrische Verzögerung des Fahrzeugs hinaus haben die Fahrzeuge jedoch auch noch mechanische Bremsen, da die maximale Bremsleistung ein mehrfaches der maximalen Beschleunigungsleistung betragen kann. Die beim elektrischen Bremsen umgewandelte Bremsenergie wird rekuperiert und im Akku eingespeichert und steht somit für den Antrieb wieder zur Verfügung.<br /> * ''Umbau herkömmlicher Autos'' zu Elektrofahrzeugen mit dem Ziel, ähnliche Fahr- und Fahrzeugeigenschaften wie mit einem Verbrennungsmotor zu erreichen. Dieser Weg wird vor allem von den französischen Herstellern [[Renault]] und PSA ([[Citroën]], [[Peugeot]]) beschritten. Diese Fahrzeuge benötigen im Alltag typischerweise etwa 12–20&amp;nbsp;kWh elektrische Energie für eine Strecke von 100&amp;nbsp;km. Die in Zusammenarbeit mit ZF sachs und Continental bereits produzierten Fahrzeuge mit hybridem Antrieb sind seit 2005 wegen ihrer Sparsamkeit im städtischen Verkehr bekannt geworden.Dazu werden bei einem einfachen PKW Tank und Verbrennungs-Motor ausgebaut und stattdessen ein Elektromotor und Akku eingebaut. Dabei bleibt das Schaltgetriebe im Auto, das ein Elektroauto normalerweise nicht benötigt.<br /> * ''Studien- und Experimentalfahrzeuge'' sind häufig Prototypen, die mittels modernster Technik akzeptable Reichweiten bzw. Höchstleistungen bei Geschwindigkeit und Beschleunigung erreichen. Zum Beispiel [[Dragster]] mit Elektroantrieb, der [[Keio University Eliica]], [[AC&amp;nbsp;Propulsion tzero]], [[Venturi Fétish]] und [[Wrightspeed&amp;nbsp;X1]]. In diese Kategorie fallen auch [[Solarfahrzeug]]e, die explizit für Wettbewerbe (zum Beispiel in der Schweiz, in der australischen Wüste oder quer durch die USA) gebaut werden.<br /> <br /> &lt;gallery&gt;<br /> Datei:Mafi Elektrokarre vl.jpg|Elektrokarren von Mafi<br /> Datei:GEM e4.jpg|Fahrzeug von [[Global Electric Motorcars]]<br /> Datei:Elektroautos Smart und iMiEV.JPG|Elektroautos Mitsubishi i-MiEV und Smart&amp;nbsp;ed<br /> Datei:NYPD-Elektroauto.jpg|Elektroauto der [[NYPD|Polizei von New York City]]<br /> Datei:WrightspeedOverview4881.jpg|[[Wrightspeed X1]]: 0&amp;nbsp;auf 96&amp;nbsp;km/h (60&amp;nbsp;mph) in 3&amp;nbsp;Sekunden<br /> &lt;/gallery&gt;<br /> <br /> == Geschichte ==<br /> In der Frühzeit der [[Automobil]]e waren die Elektroautos den Autos mit [[Verbrennungsmotor]] insgesamt überlegen. So ist der [[Wirkungsgrad]] von Elektromotoren höher als der von Verbrennungsmotoren.<br /> <br /> Erst nach 1900 wurden die Fahrzeuge mit Elektromotor von solchen mit Verbrennungsmotor schrittweise verdrängt. Elektrowagen mit ihren schweren Akkus mit langer Ladezeit konnten mit der Reichweite von Wagen mit Kraftstoffmotoren nicht mithalten. Ein weiterer Aspekt war die Erfindung des elektrischen [[Anlasser]]s für Ottomotoren und sein folgender Einbau in Fahrzeuge. Damals wie heute gibt es [[Elektrokarren]], die wie kleine [[Lastkraftwagen|Lkw]] dem Warentransport in Werksgeländen und auch auf der Straße dienen. Fortschritte bei der Akkutechnik und die Lage der Energiemärkte führten in den neunziger Jahren zu einem neuen Interesse an Elektroautos, die sich in einer Reihe von [[Prototyp (Technik)|Prototypen]] und sogar neuen Modellreihen niederschlägt.<br /> <br /> === Anfänge (ab 1821) ===<br /> Die Entwicklung des [[Elektroantrieb]]s bestimmte die Anfänge der Elektroautos wesentlich. [[Michael Faraday]] zeigte 1821, wie mit dem [[Elektromagnetismus]] eine kontinuierliche Rotation erzeugt werden konnte. Ab den 1830er Jahren entstanden aus den unterschiedlichsten [[Elektromotor]]en-Typen und [[Batterie (Elektrotechnik)|Batterie]]-Varianten verschiedene [[Elektrofahrzeug]]e und Tischmodelle, beispielsweise von Sibrandus Stratingh und [[Thomas Davenport]]. Davenport testete seinen Elektromotor an einer Modelllok, die er auf einem Schienenkreis von etwa einem Meter Durchmesser ihre Runden drehen ließ. Am 29. April 1851 führte man eine Probefahrt mit einer echten Elektrolok durch, die auf einer technischen Idee von [[Charles Grafton Page]] beruhte. Die von zwei 20&amp;nbsp;PS starken Elektromotoren mit Hilfe einer voluminösen Batterie auf die Schienen gebrachte Kraft führte zwar zu einer Spitzengeschwindigkeit von bis zu 31&amp;nbsp;km/h, die von der Lok jedoch nur vorübergehend geleistet wurde. Eine 1836 erfundene Batterie war das [[Daniell-Element]], 1839 folgte die verbesserte Batterie von [[William Grove]] und ab 1860 gab es wiederaufladbare [[Bleiakkumulator]]en. Sie gehen auf die Erfindung durch den Franzosen [[Gaston Planté]] im Jahr 1859 zurück.<br /> <br /> === Erste Elektrofahrzeuge (ab 1881) ===<br /> Bei der Entwicklung der ersten [[Elektrofahrzeug]]e wurden folgende Fahrzeugtypen als Ausgangsbasis verwendet:<br /> * [[Fahrrad]] ([[Zweirad]], [[Dreirad]]) ⇒ [[Elektrofahrrad]], [[Elektrodreirad]], [[Pedelec]], [[Elektromotorrad]], [[Elektromotorroller]], <br /> * [[Kutsche]] (einachsig, zweiachsig) ⇒ [[Elektroauto]] ([[PKW]]), [[Omnibus|Bus]]<br /> <br /> [[Datei:Trouve trike 1881a.jpg|miniatur||1881 [[Trouvé Tricycle]], Paris]]<br /> ==== Trouvé ====<br /> Das erste ‚offiziell’ anerkannte [[Elektrofahrzeug]] stammt von M. [[Gustave Trouvé]] in [[Paris]] aus dem Jahr 1881 (und wird oft mit dem nachfolgenden Fahrzeug von Ayrton und Perry verwechselt).&lt;ref&gt;2007 - 2011 Achmed A. W. Khammas In: ''Buch der Synergie''.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> . <br /> '''[[Gustave Trouvé]]''' fuhr 1881 mit einem dreirädrigen [[Fahrrad]] ([[Starley]] Coventry) durch Paris, das er als Prüfstand für die Elektromotoren, die er baute verwendete. Als [[Gustave Trouvé]] 1881 auf der [[Internationalen Elektrizitätsausstellung|Internationalen Elektrizitätsausstellung]] sein '''[[Trouvé Tricycle]]''' vorstellte, war das erste '''[[Elektrofahrzeug]]''' praxisreif. 12 km/h leistete dieses weltweit erste Gefährt seiner Art. <br /> <br /> Trouvé schuf mit seinem Elektrodreirad 112 Jahre nach dem ersten dreirädrigen [[Dampfwagen]] von [[Nicholas Cugnot]] von 1769 die zweite [[maschine]]lle Antriebsart von Fahrzeugen, während 5 Jahre später [[Carl Benz]] mit seinem dreirädrigen [[Benz Patent-Motorwagen Nummer 1]] mit [[Verbrennungsmotor]] die dritte Antriebsart erfand, die sich fast vollständig durchsetzte.<br /> <br /> Trouvé war damit einem anderen, ebenfalls 1881 vorgestellten Elektrofahrzeug, das mit einer Weiterentwicklung des Blei-Akkus Plantés durch [[Camille Alphonse Faure]] ausgestattet war, voraus.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Elektrisches Tricycle.jpg|thumb|1882 Ayrton &amp; Perry Elektrodreirad ]]<br /> <br /> ==== Ayrton &amp; Perry ====<br /> Ein Jahr später bauen zwei englische Professoren, '''[[William Edward Ayrton]] und [[John Perry]]''', ein elektrisches Dreirad mit zwei großen Rädern an der Vorderachse, einem kleinen Rad hinten. Die Geschwindigkeit wurde durch einzelnes Zu- und Abschalten der 10 Blei-Säure-Batterien (System [[Gaston Planté]]) geregelt. Diese hatten eine Kapazität von 1 1/2 kWh und eine Spannung v. 20 Volt. Der Motor leistete 1/2 PS. Dieses Fahrzeug hatte eine Reichweite bis zu 40 km und erreichte eine Höchstgeschwindigkeit von ca. 14 km/h.&lt;ref&gt;The electric car: development and future of battery, hybrid and fuel-cell cars<br /> von Michael Hereward Westbrook,Institution of Electrical Engineers,Society of Automotive Engineers&lt;/ref&gt; Es ist das erste Fahrzeug mit elektrischem Licht. Eine Rekonstruktion dieses Fahrzeuges ist im <br /> [[Museum Autovision]] ausgestellt.<br /> .&lt;ref&gt;http://www.premiumpresse.de/erstes-elektroauto-der-welt-faehrt-wieder-PR1539777.html Pressemitteilung (1539777)<br /> premiumpresse&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==== Siemens ====<br /> [[Datei:First Trolleybuss of Siemens in Berlin 1882 (postcard).jpg|miniatur|[[Elektromote]] von [[Werner Siemens]], Berlin 1882, erster [[Oberleitungsbus]] der Welt]]<br /> Am 29.&amp;nbsp;April 1882 führte '''[[Werner Siemens]]''' in [[Berlin-Halensee|Halensee]] bei [[Berlin]] einen elektrisch angetriebenen Kutschenwagen, [[Elektromote]] genannt, auf einer 540 Meter langen Versuchsstrecke vor. Es war der erste [[Oberleitungsbus]] der Welt.<br /> <br /> === Erste Elektroautos ===<br /> ==== Jeantaud ====<br /> Es wird berichtet; dass 1881 der Pariser Wagenbauer '''[[Charles Jeantaud]]''' mit einem elektrisch angetriebenen [[Tilbury (Kutsche)]] ein paar Meter zurücklegte. Der Tilbury ist ein leichter, einachsiger Gig, der für diesen Zweck vermutlich mit einem dritten Rad und einer Lenkung versehen wurde. Andere Quellen&lt;ref&gt;[Pierre Souvestre: Histoire de l'Automobile, Paris 1907, auf Seite 120&lt;/ref&gt; schreiben, dass dieses Fahrzeug nicht gefahren ist, sondern nur ausgestellt wurde.<br /> ==== Flocken ====<br /> <br /> [[File:1888 Flocken Elektrowagen sw.jpg|miniatur|1888 Flocken-Elektrowagen]]Das erste bekannte deutsche Elektroauto baute 1888 die Coburger [[Maschinenfabrik A. Flocken]]. Es wird vermutet, dass es sich bei diesem '''vierrädrigen Elektroauto''' um den '''weltweit ersten elektrisch angetriebenen PKW ([[Personenkraftwagen]])''' handelt.<br /> <br /> ''Hinweis: [[Personenkraftwagen]] sind Fahrzeuge zur Personenbeförderung mit mindestens vier Rädern nach der Richtlinie 70/156/EWG.''<br /> <br /> Eine Rekonstruktion des [[Flocken Elektrowagen]] wurde am 10. März 2011 in Stuttgart erstmals der Öffentlichkeit präsentiert.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.retropromotion.de/pdf/PM_06_Jan_2011_Flocken_deutsch.pdf Pressemitteilung Januar 2011, Messe Stuttgart (PDF)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==== Sonstige ====<br /> Unter den weiteren Herstellern von Elektroautos ist der US-Amerikaner William Morrison hervorzuheben. Seine an einer Kutsche orientierten Fahrzeuge ([[Elektrobus]]) fanden eine größere Verbreitung. Acht Batterien lieferten Strom für einen 2,5&amp;nbsp;PS starken Elektromotor, ausreichend für ein Tempo von 10–12&amp;nbsp;km/h.&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20100428131458/http://www.rwe.com/web/cms/de/45876/rwe-magazin/rwe-magazin-archiv/archiv-2008/ausgabe-3/mit-vollgas-in-die-zukunft/die-geschichte-der-elektroautos/ RWE Magazin, Ausgabe 3/2008], abgefragt am 13. Juli 2010&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> === Die große Zeit der Elektroautos (1892–1940) ===<br /> [[Datei:Elektrische-Droschke.png|miniatur|Elektrische Droschke, Höchstgeschwindigkeit: 25&amp;nbsp;km/h]]<br /> [[Datei:Lohner Porsche.jpg|miniatur|Der Allrad-Rennwagen von [[Lohner-Porsche]], im selben Jahr aufgebaut wie der Star der [[Weltausstellung]] in [[Paris]] 1900]]<br /> [[Datei:Museum Autovision Elektroauto der Detroit Motor Company.JPG|miniatur|EV-Opera-Car, Modell 68/17&amp;nbsp;B, [[Detroit Electric]], Michigan (USA), Baujahr 1909]]<br /> [[Datei:Hansa-Lloyd CL5.jpg|miniatur|Hansa-Lloyd Elektro-Lastwagen CL5 oder DL5, Baujahr 1923]]<br /> 1897 fand die Gründungsversammlung des ''Mitteleuropäischen Motorwagen-Vereins'' in Berlin statt. Dessen Präsident Oberbaurat a.&amp;nbsp;D. Klose, führte am 30.&amp;nbsp;September 1897 aus: „Als Motorfahrzeuge, welche ihre Energie zur Fortbewegung mit sich führen, machen sich zur Zeit drei Gattungen bemerkenswert, nämlich: durch Dampf bewegte Fahrzeuge, durch Oelmotoren bewegte Fahrzeuge und durch Elektrizität bewegte Fahrzeuge. Die erste Gattung dürfte voraussichtlich in Zukunft hauptsächlich für Wagen auf Schienen und schwere Straßen-Fahrzeuge in Betracht kommen, während das große Gebiet des weiten Landes von Oelmotorfahrzeugen durcheilt werden und die glatte Asphaltfläche der großen Städte wie auch die Straßenschiene von mit Sammlerelektrizität getriebenen Wagen belebt sein wird.“&lt;ref&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;http://de.oocities.com/jayedelman/porsche.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{Toter Link}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==== Deutschland==== <br /> '''Elektroautohersteller:''' Andreas, Dixi/[[Wartburg]], Elektra, [[Fahrzeugfabrik Eisenach]], Fiedler, [[Flocken]], Geha, Geist, Hagen, [[Henschel]], [[Hercules]], KAW, KEW/ABAM, Kliemt, Kruse, [[Kühlstein]], [[Lloyd (Automarke)|Lloyd]], Lux, Maier, Maxwerke, [[MBB]], Namag, Pflüger, Scheele, [[Siemens]], Stoewer, Vulkan. Siehe auch: [[Liste der Elektroautos]]<br /> <br /> Dem ehemaligen Mitarbeiter von [[Lanz]], [[Mannheim]] und Erfinder [[Andreas Flocken]] ist es zu verdanken, dass Deutschland 2013 '''&quot;125 Jahre Elektroauto&quot;''' feiern kann.<br /> <br /> ==== USA ====<br /> Um 1900 waren in den USA 40 % der Automobile [[Dampfwagen]], 38 % Elektrowagen und 22 % Benzinwagen. In New York gab es 1901 sogar 50 % Elektroautos und 30 % Dampfwagen; die restlichen waren Naphta-, Acetylen- und [[Druckluftauto|Pressluftwagen]]. Der Höhepunkt der Elektroautowelle wurde 1912 erreicht: 20 Hersteller bauten 33.842 Elektroautos.&lt;ref&gt;Kurt Möser: ''Geschichte des Autos'', Kapitel ''Dampf, Benzin, Elektrizität: Die Konkurrenz der Systeme'', Seite 52, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt/New York, 2002, ISBN 3-593-36575-8.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Bekannte US-Elektroautohersteller dieser Zeit waren [[Detroit Electric]], [[Columbia Automobile Company]], [[Baker Motor Vehicle]] und [[Studebaker Electric]]. [[Henry Ford]] entwickelte auch das [[Ford Model T]] als Elektroauto. Es kam aber nicht zur Serienproduktion. <br /> <br /> Allein die Firma [[Detroit Electric]] produzierte von 1907 bis 1941 insgesamt 12.348 Elektroautos und 535 Elektro-LKW.&lt;ref&gt;schoene-aktien.de: ''[http://www.schoene-aktien.de/detroit_alte_aktien.html USA Autohersteller Detroit - historische alte Aktien und Wertpapiere]'', Zugriff am 15. Mai 2010&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==== Österreich ====<br /> Im Jahr 1900 trat auch der in der Elektrobranche tätige [[Ferdinand Porsche]] auf der [[Weltausstellung]] in [[Paris]] mit einem Elektrowagen in das Rampenlicht der Öffentlichkeit, den er im Auftrag von Lohner konstruiert hatte. Der [[Ludwig Lohner|Lohner]]-Porsche verfügte über [[Radnabenmotor]]en an den Vorderrädern. Porsche sah den größten Vorteil des Elektroantriebs darin, dass weder Getriebe noch sonstige mechanische Elemente zur Kraftübertragung erforderlich waren. Auch die ansonsten geringe Reichweite des Autos hatte ihn gedanklich beschäftigt, weshalb er funktional einen Elektro- mit einem Verbrennungsmotor verband. Der Benzinmotor lieferte über einen Generator Strom für den Akkumulator, der seinerseits den Elektromotor speiste. Noch im selben Jahr 1900 wurde auch eine Rennversion gebaut, die mit einem 1800&amp;nbsp;kg schweren Akku ein Spitzentempo von 60&amp;nbsp;km/h erreichte. Diese Variante besaß an allen vier Rädern den Radnabenmotor.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.autowallpaper.de/Wallpaper/Porsche/Lohner-Porsche-Elektromobil/Lohner-Porsche-Elektromobil.htm ''Lohner-Porsche – mit elektrischem Radnabenantrieb'']&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> ==== Italien ====<br /> 1905 wurde in [[Turin]] die Società Torinese Automobili Elettrici ([[STAE]]) gegründet, die eine Lizenz der Compagnie Parisienne des Voitures Electriques nutzte.&lt;ref&gt;Hugo Wyss: ''Alpine Sections celebrate 125 years with transport analysis'', IEEE region 8 News, August 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> ==== Niedergang ====<br /> Der Niedergang der Elektroautos setzte in den 1910er Jahren ein, als das Starten von Benzinern nicht mehr durch Ankurbeln sondern das Betätigen des Anlassers viel bequemer wurde. Werbung und das Angebot billigen Öls waren weitere Faktoren für den Nachfragerückgang bei den laufruhigen Transportmitteln.<br /> <br /> ==== Historische Geschwindigkeitsrekorde ====<br /> Den ersten [[Geschwindigkeitsrekord]] für ein Landfahrzeug stellte der französische [[Autorennfahrer]] [[Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat]] am 18.&amp;nbsp;Dezember 1898 mit dem Elektroauto ''Jeantaud Duc'' von [[Charles Jeantaud]] in [[Achères (Yvelines)|Achères]], Departement [[Yvelines]] nahe [[Paris]] auf. Die erreichte Geschwindigkeit war 62,78&amp;nbsp;km/h. Dieser wurde am 17.&amp;nbsp;Januar 1899 von dem Belgier [[Camille Jenatzy]] am selben Ort mit dem Elektroauto ''CGA Dogcart'' mit 66,66&amp;nbsp;km/h gebrochen. Am selben Tag, am gleichen Ort, holte Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat mit der Duc und 70,31&amp;nbsp;km/h den Rekord für sich und Jeantaud zurück. Zehn Tage später ging der Geschwindigkeitsrekord in Achères wieder an den CGA Dogcart, der nun von Camille Jenatzy gefahren wurde, und zwar mit 80,35&amp;nbsp;km/h. Am 4.&amp;nbsp;März holte Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat mit dem ''Jeantaud Duc Profilée'' sich und Jeantaud zum dritten Mal den Rekord mit 92,78&amp;nbsp;km/h. Dieser Rekord ging an Camille Jenatzy verloren, der mit seinem Elektroauto [[La Jamais Contente]] als erster Mensch über 100&amp;nbsp;km/h, nämlich 105,88&amp;nbsp;km/h fuhr.&lt;ref&gt;{{RömppOnline|Name=Elektroauto|Datum=20. Juni 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> === Übergang (1940–1990) ===<br /> Eine Nische, in der sie bis heute überlebten, fanden Elektroautos als kleine [[Lieferwagen]] für die tägliche Anlieferung von Milchflaschen in [[Vereinigtes Königreich|Großbritannien]] und Teilen der [[Vereinigte Staaten|Vereinigten Staaten]], den ''[[milk float]]s''. Vor allem in Großbritannien fuhren über Jahrzehnte einige Zehntausend dieser Wagen im ganzen Land. Die führenden Hersteller von milk floats in Großbritannien im 20. Jahrhundert waren Smith’s, [[Wales &amp; Edwards]], Morrison Electriccars, M&amp;M Electric Vehicles, Osborne, Harbilt, [[Brush Motor Car Company|Brush]], [[Bedford (Fahrzeughersteller)|Bedford]] and [[Leyland Motors|Leyland]]. Mit dem Rückgang der Hauslieferungen blieben nur [[Bluebird Automotive]], [[Smith Electric Vehicles]] und Electricar Limited übrig. Smith Electric Vehicles ist (2008) der größte Hersteller von Vans und Lastkraftwagen mit Elektroantrieb.<br /> <br /> In Berlin wurden 1953 Briefkastenentleerungsfahrzeuge für die Post mit Elektroantrieb in Betrieb genommen.&lt;ref&gt;Fotobeschreibung aus dem Bundesarchiv: …&amp;nbsp;''eine Konstruktion von Ingenieur Rebbel- wurden bei IFA-Werdau gebaut''&amp;nbsp;… [[:Datei:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-21519-0005, Neue Fahrzeuge der Deutschen Post.jpg]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In den Vereinigten Staaten überlebten Elektrofahrzeuge als so genannte Nachbarschaftsfahrzeuge. Hier handelt es sich um kleine Fahrzeuge, die wegen geringer Geschwindigkeit erleichtert zugelassen werden.&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20071204151327/http://www.evworld.com/evguide.cfm?evtype=nev ''EV World Electric Car Guide: Neighbourhood Electric Vehicles''] EV-World-Internetportal&lt;/ref&gt; Ein großer US-Hersteller für leichte Personentransporter ist die Firma [[Global Electric Motorcars]].<br /> <br /> Bei einem [[Carsharing]]-Versuch in [[Amsterdam]], der 1974 gestartet wurde, waren Elektroautos des Erfinders [[Luud Schimmelpennink]] als Transportmittel im Einsatz. Das dreirädrige Zwei-Personen-Auto erzielte 30 km/h und seine Batterien konnten an Stationen binnen sieben Minuten aufgeladen werden. Das „Witkar“-Projekt blieb indessen ohne nachhaltige Resonanz und wurde mangels Zielerreichung 1986 aufgegeben.<br /> <br /> === Renaissance (1990 bis heute) ===<br /> [[Datei:General Motors EV1 im Museum Autovision.jpg|miniatur|[[General Motors EV1]], der in dem Dokumentarfilm [[Who killed the electric car?]] verewigt wurde]]<br /> [[Datei:PSA-Elektrantriebssatz.JPG|miniatur|Antriebssatz wie er in den 10.000 Elektroautos der PSA verwendet wurde]]<br /> [[Datei:Tatra Beta 05.JPG|miniatur|[[Tatra Beta]], Anfang der 1990er Jahre entwickelt]]<br /> [[Datei:Mahindra Reva Electric Car.jpg|miniatur|Ein [[REVA#Die Modelle NXG und NXR|Mahindra REVA NXG]] Elektrofahrzeug in Indien]]<br /> <br /> Bestrebungen, Elektromotoren im Automobilbau für den Antrieb einzusetzen, wurden verstärkt nach der durch den [[Zweiter Golfkrieg|Golfkrieg]] ausgelösten [[Ölkrise]] der 1990er Jahre und dem danach wachsenden Umweltbewusstsein in Angriff genommen, unterstützt von neuen Akkumulatoren, die die Bleiakkus ablösen konnten und führen zur Entwicklung einer Vielzahl von Elektroautos, die auf dem Automarkt angeboten wurden (siehe [[Liste der Elektroautos]]).<br /> <br /> Seit 1994 wird der [[CityEL]] von dem Vorläufer der [[Smiles|Smiles AG]] in Aub bei Würzburg produziert. Die Anfänge des Fahrzeugs liegen sogar noch weiter zurück, schon 1987 wurde das Fahrzeug entworfen und erste Modelle des Vorläufers MiniEL in Dänemark produziert.<br /> Seit ungefähr derselben Zeit wird der [[Twike]] hergestellt, der ursprünglich in der Schweiz hergestellt und entwickelt wurde und heute in Rosenthal bei Marburg in Deutschland von der [[Fine Mobile|FINE Mobile GmbH]] hergestellt wird.<br /> <br /> Das Elektrofahrzeug [[Sam (Elektroauto)|SAM]] ist ursprünglich ein Entwicklungsprojekt einer Schweizer Fachhochschule und wurde zuerst mit Bleiakkus verkauft. Seit einer Neuentwicklung mit Lithiumbatterien vor wenigen Jahren ist der Relaunch erfolgreich gestartet, heute wird das Fahrzeug in Polen produziert, unter anderem ist ein Schweizer im dreiköpfigen Konsortium der Eigentümer vertreten. Generalimporteur in Deutschland ist die Firma Elemo.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.elemo.eu/ ''SAM EV II – das andere Elektroauto''] elemo Elektrofahrzeuge&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Mit dem [[Golf CitySTROMer]] versuchte VW sich zwischen 1992 und 1996&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.solarmobil.net/download/update.pdf CitySTROMer eingestellt, in: Solarmobil Aktuelle Meldungen] (PDF)&lt;/ref&gt; an einer Elektroversion des Golfs. Er war für die großen Energieversorger gedacht und wurde nach nur 120 Stück eingestellt.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.elektromobil-dresden.de/html/citystromer.html ''Golf CitySTROMer''] Elektromobil-Dresden-Internetportal&lt;/ref&gt; Die Daten wurden von der [[Forschungsstelle für Energiewirtschaft]] geprüft und ein Wirkungsgrad von 49 % festgestellt. Der Energieverbrauch lag bei rund 25&amp;nbsp;kWh/100&amp;nbsp;km&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ffe.de/taetigkeitsfelder/mobilitaet-und-alternative-antriebskonzepte/77-untersuchung-eines-golf-citystromer ''FFE testet CitySTROMer''] FfE – Forschungsstelle für Energiewirtschaft e.&amp;nbsp;V.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[PSA Peugeot Citroën]] produzierte zwischen 1995 und 2005 etwa 10.000 elektrisch angetriebene Automobile (Saxo, Berlingo, 106, Partner), die nur in Frankreich, den BeNeLux und England angeboten wurden. Die Produktion musste jedoch eingestellt werden, als die EU die Verwendung von [[Nickel-Cadmium-Akku]]s untersagte, die in den Elektro-PSA zum Einsatz kamen.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/0,1518,561810,00.html ''Öko-Flitzer: Spritpreisschock macht Elektroauto-Techniker kreativ''.] In: ''[[Spiegel Online]]'', Zugriff am 15. Mai 2010&lt;/ref&gt; Ein neues [[Berlingo]]-Modell mit elektrischem Antrieb wurde bereits von der Kooperation PSA mit [[Venturi Automobiles|Venturi]] 2009 realisiert&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wattgehtab.com/transporter-und-lkws/psa-venturi-elektro-berlingo-ab-herbst-lieferbar-2307 ''PSA-Venturi: Elektro-Berlingo ab Herbst lieferbar.]'' Meldung vom 6. Februar 2009 bei Wattgehtab.com.&lt;/ref&gt; und in einer Auflage von 1000 Stück für die französische Post produziert.&lt;ref&gt;Motor-Talk.de: [http://www.motor-talk.de/forum/von-shanghai-nach-paris-mit-einem-citroen-berlingo-venturi-elektro-t2805053.html ''Von Shanghai nach Paris mit einem Citroen Berlingo (Venturi) elektro.''] Meldung vom 15. Juli 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; Ab Ende 2011 wird PSA einen leicht modifizierten [[Mitsubishi i MiEV]], der seit Juni 2009 in Japan in Serie hergestellt wird, in Europa als ''Peugeot iOn'' und ''Citroën C-ZERO'' - lediglich für gewerbliche Kunden - verkaufen bzw. verleasen.&lt;ref&gt;Peugeot.de: [http://www2.peugeot.de/showrooms/pdf/modellkatalog_ion.pdf ''Modellkatalog Peugeot iOn''], abgerufen am 18. Mai 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Von 1996 bis 1999 baute [[General Motors]] mit dem [[General Motors EV1|General Motors Electric Vehicle&amp;nbsp;1, GM&amp;nbsp;EV1]] ein Serien-Elektromobil in einer Auflage von etwa 1100 Stück. Nicht nur die Produktion dieser beiden, sondern auch anderer Elektroautos wurde, so die Behauptung der jeweiligen Hersteller, aus „mangelnder Nachfrage“ eingestellt. Im Widerspruch dazu steht das Angebot von Umweltschutzorganisationen und -aktivisten, große Auflagen abzunehmen. Da die Fahrzeuge den Endabnehmern ausschließlich auf Leasing-Basis überlassen wurden, konnte GM nach einem Politikwechsel einer Vertragsverlängerung widersprechen und die noch voll funktionstüchtigen Wagen –&amp;nbsp;teilweise zwangsweise&amp;nbsp;– einziehen und verschrotten lassen. Vereinzelt sehen Anhänger des Konzepts Elektroauto die Ursache für den bisher nur geringen Markterfolg in Verschwörungstheorien und werfen beispielsweise der Automobilindustrie vor, auf Druck der Öl-Interessengruppen („Öl-Mafia“) das Elektroautoprojekt vorzeitig aufgegeben zu haben. 2009 geriet General Motors nicht zuletzt wegen einer zu verbrauchsintensiven Flotte in finanzielle Probleme und kündigte an, wie weltweit auch andere Autohersteller, ab 2010 [[Hybridauto]]s&lt;ref name=&quot;gm-volt&quot;&gt;[http://www.pm-magazin.de/de/vermischtes/vm_id312.htm PM: Chevrolet E-Volt: General Motors will reines Elektroauto bauen:]&lt;/ref&gt; zu fertigen. Als Ergebnis dieser Entwicklung ist das Mischhybridauto&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/0,1518,723091,00.html ''Chevrolet Volt: Wie elektrisch fährt dieses Elektroauto?''] In: ''[[Spiegel Online]]'', 15. Oktober 2010&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://jalopnik.com/5661051/how-gm-lied-about-the-electric-car ''How GM &quot;Lied&quot; About The Electric Car''] Jalopnik-Internetportal, 11. Oktober 2010 (in englischer Sprache)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.teczilla.de/chevy-volt-elektroauto-hybrid-oder-was/13252 ''Chevy Volt: Elektroauto, Hybrid oder was?''] TecZilla-Internetportal, 18. Oktober 2010&lt;/ref&gt; [[Chevrolet Volt]] seit Dezember 2010 auf dem US-amerikanischen Markt erhältlich.&lt;ref name=&quot;FirstRetailDelivery&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.plugincars.com/first-chevy-volts-reach-customers-will-out-deliver-nissan-december-106575.html|title=First Chevy Volts Reach Customers, Will Out-Deliver Nissan in December |publisher=plugincars.com|date=2010-12-16|accessdate=2010-12-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Ab 2004 wurden vor allem von kleineren, unabhängigeren Firmen Elektroautos entwickelt, wie beispielsweise der Sportwagen [[Tesla Roadster]] oder der Elektro-Porsche ([[Greenster]]) von [[Ruf Automobile|Ruf]]. Ab 2007 ging der Kleinwagen &quot;Mega e-City&quot; des französischen Kleintransporterherstellers [[Aixam|AIXAM]] mit einer Bleibatterie in Serie, der eine max. Reichweite von ca. 65 km aufweist. Viele etablierte Hersteller kündigten Neuentwicklungen an (siehe auch [[Liste der Elektroautos]]). <br /> <br /> Ab Ende 2011 wird [[Renault]] vier verschiedene Elektrofahrzeuge vom Kleinwagen bis hin zum Mittelklasse-PKW jeweils in einer Großserienproduktion in Europa zunächst nur in Frankreich anbieten.&lt;ref&gt;Benjamin Bessinger: ''[http://www.rp-online.de/auto/news/Marktreifes-Elektroauto-fuer-20000-Euro_aid_970281.html Renault Zoe ab 2011. Marktreifes Elektroauto für 20.000 Euro.]'' Meldung bei rp-online vom 7. März 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Falk: ''[http://www.emissionslos.com/auto/3640-renault-elektroautos-dhl-ubernimmt-die-batterie-logistik.html Renault Elektroautos: DHL übernimmt die Batterie-Logistik.]'' Meldung bei emissionslos.com vom 30. Juni 2011.&lt;/ref&gt; Ab 2012 soll dann auch die Markteinführung in anderen europäischen Ländern erfolgen.<br /> <br /> Einige der Elektroautos von Renault können auch am '''Wechselakkusystem''' von [[Better Place]] teilnehmen.&lt;ref&gt;Vieweg, Christof: E-Autos; Heidelberg, Delius Klasing Verlag, 2010, ISBN: 978-3-7688-3235-9&lt;/ref&gt; Zitat: <br /> <br /> &quot;Better Place ... hat bei Renault bereits 100000 Elektroautos verbindlich bestellt und baut ab 2011 in Dänemark, Israel, Australien und an der US-Westküste die notwendige Infrastruktur auf. Dazu gehören neben Stromtankstellen auch so genannte Quickdrop-Stationen, wo Autofahrer leere Akkus gegen frische Akkus austauschen können. Dies geschieht vollautomatisch und soll nicht länger als ein herkömmlicher Benzin- oder Diesel-Tankstopp dauern.&quot; Zitat Ende.<br /> <br /> Es wird weiter gesagt, dass der Autofahrer in die Quickdrop-Station wie in eine Waschstraße einfährt, und dann ein Roboter die leere Batterie von unten her entnimmt und ein zweiter eine voll geladene einsetzt.<br /> <br /> Betreffend '''Wechselakkusystem''' siehe auch [[Elektromobilität#Ladesysteme]].<br /> <br /> Weiterentwickelt wird auch das [[Hybridelektrokraftfahrzeug|Hybridauto]], das einen Verbrennungsmotor mit dem Elektromotor kombiniert. Fachleute sehen diese Technik jedoch nur als Übergangslösung hin zum reinen Elektromotor.<br /> <br /> Man plant auch mit Hilfe der Akkus von Elektroautos die Nutzung von regenerativer Energie einfacher zu machen, da regenerative Energie nur unregelmäßig vorhanden ist. Daher ist es von großer Relevanz diese regenerativ erzeugte Energie zu speichern um diese so besser ausnutzen zu können. Deshalb sollen die Akkus der Elektroautos als flexible [[Vehicle to Grid|Energiespeicher]] zur Verfügung stehen, wenn man den Akku seines Autos auflädt. Wenn Energie ins Netz eingespeist wird, aber wenig benötigt wird, nimmt der Akku Energie auf. Wird Energie benötigt, aber wenig ins Netz eingespeist, gibt der Akku Energie ab. Damit man aber nicht mit leerem Akku losfährt, weil gerade wenig Energie ins Netz eingespeist wurde, stellt man die Uhrzeit ein, wann der Akku voll sein soll. Dies könnte eventuell übers Internet geschehen.&lt;ref&gt; BMU: '' Erneuerbar mobil, Marktfähige Lösung für eine klimafreundliche Elektromobilität '' 1.Auflage, Berlin März 2011, S. 10,.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Es gibt auch Planungen, die Autos während der Fahrt oder beim Warten an Kreuzungen aufzuladen, indem man mit Hilfe in der Straße eingebauter, induktiver Ladestationen die Akkus nachlädt.&lt;ref&gt; BMU: '' Erneuerbar mobil, Marktfähige Lösung für eine klimafreundliche Elektromobilität '' 1.Auflage, Berlin März 2011, S. 9,.&lt;/ref&gt; Allerdings sinkt der Wirkungsgrad dieser Version des Ladens mit steigender Geschwindigkeit. So wäre ein Aufladen des Akkus während der Fahrt nur bei sehr niedriger Geschwindigkeit oder im Stand rentabel.&lt;ref&gt; publish industry Verlag GmbH: '' Mobility 2.0'' Ausgabe 01, Freising 2011 , S. 22.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Fahrzeugtechnik ==<br /> Elektroautos unterscheiden sich grundsätzlich von herkömmlichen Fahrzeugen, was Antriebsaggregate und Energiespeicher betrifft. Die Unterschiede betreffen jedoch auch andere Komponenten in weitreichendem Maße. Im Unterschied zur [[Verbrennungskraftmaschine]] werden viele Aggregate jeweils über eigenständige (als elektrische [[Aktor]]en fungierende) [[Elektromotor]]en bewegt und nicht über einen mechanischen Abtrieb vom Hauptmotor. Ein Grund dafür ist, dass im Stillstand oder Freilaufbetrieb der Elektromotor im Unterschied zur Verbrennungskraftmaschine nicht läuft und daher keine Energie den [[Hilfsaggregat]]en zur Verfügung stellen kann.<br /> <br /> Ein zweiter wesentlicher Punkt betrifft das sogenannte &quot;Packaging&quot;, die Anordnung der Komponenten. Beim Fahrzeugaufbau mit Verbrennungsmotor werden viele Komponenten um den Antrieb herumdrapiert, während beim Elektroauto der Motor wesentlich weniger Volumen beansprucht, die Luftkühler kleiner sind und das Akkusystem flach in den untersten Bereich der Karosserie integriert werden kann. Dadurch ergeben sich wesentliche Unterschiede für die Fahrzeugtechnik:<br /> * aerodynamischere Frontpartie aufgrund kleinerer Lufteinlässe für Kühler möglich&lt;ref&gt;[http://solar-sicherheit.de/2010-genferautosalon8/imievkuehler.htm Kühler iMIEV]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * Platz für eine [[Unfall|Crash]]-freundliche Ausgestaltung des Vorderwagens (Raum für [[Verstrebung]]en und Kontakt-Platten)&lt;ref&gt;[http://cdn.images.autocar.co.uk/612x408FFFFFF/NonCar/101111134253397612x408.jpg Bild Tesla Model-S Vorderwagen]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * tieferer [[Schwerpunkt]] durch schweres Akkusystem im [[Unterboden]]&lt;ref&gt;Susanne Wegmann: [http://www.ecs-five.ch/ecs/d/tipp.htm ''E-Mobile-Kauftipps''] ECS-FIVE-Internetportal&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * keine [[Getriebetunnel]] bei [[Hinterradantrieb]] nötig, da der Motor dabei nicht vorne sein muss (allerdings wird der Akku in nicht wenigen Modellen gerade dorthin platziert.&lt;ref&gt;Klaus Nüchter: [http://www.sauberer-stadtverkehr.info/files/schauplatz_mobilitaet/melk/Mobilitaetssymposium%20Vortrag%20Nuechter.pdf ''Opels Weg zu „Null“ Emissionen''] (PDF) Mobilitätssymposium, Vortrag, S. 9&lt;/ref&gt; Doch vielleicht ist dies auch nur eine Anpassungslösung für [[Karosserie]]n, die für die Aufnahme von Verbrennungsmotoren konzipiert worden sind.)<br /> * Aufgrund fehlender [[Abwärme]] muss das Fahrzeug besser isoliert bzw. Wärme aus der [[Abluft]] zurückgewonnen werden,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.mute-automobile.de/beteiligte/lehrstuehle/lehrstuhl-fuer-thermodynamik.html ''Energieoptimierung der Fahrgastzelle'' | ''Effizientes Heiz-/Kühlkonzept''] Projekt MUTE, Lehrstuhl für Thermodynamik, Technische Universität München&lt;/ref&gt; um die Reichweite durch eine elektrische Beheizung nicht zu stark zu verringern.&lt;ref&gt;Bernd Kling: [http://www.teczilla.de/bosch-redet-ueber-das-elektroauto/12385 ''Bosch redet über das Elektroauto''] TecZilla-Internetportal, 28. Juli 2010&lt;/ref&gt; Ein komplexes [[Wärmemanagement]] –&amp;nbsp;auch um Überhitzung im Sommer zu vermeiden&amp;nbsp;– scheint nötig zu sein.<br /> * die Elektrifizierung der Aggregate ([[Bremse]]n, [[Lenkung]]) erleichtert es, einen automatischen Betrieb bzw. Assistenzlösungen zu verwirklichen, die überdies auch noch schneller reagieren.&lt;ref&gt;Wolf-Henning Scheider: [http://www.bosch-presse.de/presseforum/modules/oragetblob.dll/RF00047.pdf?db=TBWebDB&amp;item=TBWebDB_texpdf&amp;id=4114,1&amp;dispo=a ''Die Elektrifizierung des automobilen Antriebs – Technik, Status und Perspektiven''.] (PDF) Vortrag zum 59. Internationalen Motorpressekolloquium, Boxberg, Juni 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * Es ist kein Ölwechsel nötig, weil ein Elektromotor ohne Öl funktioniert, da gerade ein Drehstrommotor, wie er in den meisten Elektroautos verwendet wird, mit nur sehr wenig Reibung arbeitet.<br /> <br /> <br /> Aufgrund der vorangehend angedeuteten konstruktiven Randbedingungen ist eine Umrüstung eines herkömmlichen [[PKW]] in ein Elektroauto eine suboptimale Lösung im Hinblick auf [[Sicherheit]] und [[Wirtschaftlichkeit|Effizienz]].<br /> <br /> Umstritten sind folgende Konstruktionsthesen:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.effiziente.st/PiA.html Studie Paradigmenwechsel in der Antriebstechnik im Rahmen des A3 Programms des bm:vit 2009]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Behauptet wird,<br /> <br /> * die geringere [[Lebensdauer (Technik)|Lebensdauer]] des Akkusystems im Vergleich zu vielen anderen nicht verschleißenden Fahrzeugkomponenten erfordere eine Austauschbarkeit des Akkusystems;<br /> * das [[Fahrwerk]] mit Antrieb, als Einheit gesehen, könne verschiedene Aufbauten während seiner [[Nutzungsdauer]] zulassen, ggf. auch saisonal, etwa innerhalb von Zeitabschnitten eines Jahres;<br /> * die Grenzen des Elektroantriebs in puncto Geschwindigkeit und [[Reichweite (Transportwesen)|Reichweite]] würden eine niedrigere [[bauartbedingte Höchstgeschwindigkeit]] zulassen und damit mildere [[Sicherheitsstandard]]s ermöglichen, was zu geringerer [[Masse (Physik)|Masse]] und damit zu geringerer Akkusystemgröße führe;<br /> * die [[Autonomie]] des Fahrers (Leistungsanforderung) könne während des Fahrbetriebs des Fahrzeugs zugunsten der Reichweite, aber auch zugunsten der Haltbarkeit des Akkusystems beschnitten werden;<br /> * das Platz und Gewicht sparende Integrieren des Akkusystems in den Fahrzeugaufbau würde infolge der unterschiedlichen [[Lebenserwartung]]en der Komponenten das Fahrzeug frühzeitig in Summe obsolet machen;<br /> * die Ausgestaltung der Fahrzeugoberfläche als photovoltaischer Energieerzeuger würde die Integration von kleinen und kostengünstigen Leistungsoptimierern in einzelnen Modulen (von sogenannten &quot;[[Maximum Power Tracker]]n&quot;) erforderlich machen;<br /> * [[Ultraleichtfahrzeug]]e könnten auch von einer Verschieblichkeit des Akkusystems profitieren, um den [[Schwerpunkt]] zu verschieben und den Komfort (Querneigung) zu verbessern;<br /> * der Wegfall der [[Kardanwelle]] (Mitteltunnel), die geringere Bauart-bedingte Höchstgeschwindigkeit und die bessere (nämlich elektrische) Regelbarkeit des Fahrwerks würden es erlauben, die Fahrzeuge schmaler zu bauen.<br /> <br /> === Antrieb inklusive Steuerungs- und Regelungselektronik ===<br /> Elektromotoren stellen im Gegensatz zu Verbrennungsmotoren ihre Nennleistung über einen weiten Drehzahlbereich stufenlos zur Verfügung. Bereits bei Stillstand und kleinen Drehzahlen (also beim Anfahren) steht das maximale Drehmoment zur Verfügung. Dieses kann bis zu einer durch die Bauart und Betriebsspannung bestimmten Drehzahl genutzt werden. Bei weiter steigender Drehzahl fällt dann das Drehmoment entlang einer Hyperbel ab. Infolge des großen Drehzahlbereichs werden prinzipiell weder ein manuell betätigtes [[Fahrzeuggetriebe|Schaltgetriebe]] noch ein Automatikgetriebe oder eine [[Kupplung]] benötigt, da Elektromotoren ohne Probleme in zwei Richtungen laufen können. Auch das Rückwärtsfahren ist ohne Schaltgetriebe möglich. Elektromotoren laufen selbstständig an. Ein gesonderter [[Anlasser]]motor ist daher genauso wenig erforderlich wie ein Generator („Lichtmaschine“). Allerdings werden Getriebe, insbesondere unter Last schaltbare Zwei-Gang-Getriebe, für eine optimale Drehmomentübertragung auf die Antriebsräder, insbesondere bei Fahrzeugen mittleren und größeren Gewichts (ab circa 700 Kilogramm aufwärts), durchaus in Betracht gezogen. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.auto.de/magazin/showArticle/article/60829/Neues-Getriebe-fuer-Elektoautos-Ein-Zwei-Gaenge-Menue ''Neues Getriebe für Elektoautos - Ein Zwei-Gänge-Menü''] www.auto.de-Internetportal, Rubrik &quot;Automagazin&quot;, 22. September 2011&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Elektromotoren sind einfacher aufgebaut und besitzen erheblich weniger bewegliche Teile als Verbrennungsmotoren. [[Ölwechsel]] sind nicht notwendig. Üblicherweise werden als mechanische Lager zur drehbaren Lagerung der Läufer in den E-Motoren Wälzlager mit Fettschmierung vorgesehen. Daher arbeiten elektrisch betriebene Kraftfahrzeuge hinsichtlich der Antriebseinheit in der Regel wartungsarm. Elektromotoren werden meist [[Luftkühlung|luftgekühlt]], in einigen Fällen kommt auch [[Wasserkühlung]] zur Anwendung. Ein Elektrofahrzeug benötigt keinen [[Kraftstofftank]] und keine [[Kraftstoffpumpe]], jedoch einen Fahrregler ([[Leistungselektronik]]) und, sofern das Wiederaufladen des Akkusystems an Stromtankstellen für das Fahrzeug vorgesehen ist, einen Akku-Schnelllader.<br /> <br /> Die Einsparung an Gewicht durch den Wegfall diverser Baugruppen gegenüber dem Verbrennungskraftmaschinenantrieb wird deutlich überkompensiert durch das hohe Gewicht der [[Akkumulator|Akkus]]. Die Energiedichte eines Akkus ist erheblich geringer als die von Kraftstoff.<br /> <br /> Ein Konzept für den Antrieb ist der [[Radnabenmotor]]. Dabei ist jedes Rad mit einem eigenen Motor ausgestattet, der sich in der Regel innerhalb der Felge befindet. Bei dieser Art des Antriebes entfallen die zentrale Motoreinheit sowie die [[Antriebsstrang|Antriebsstränge]] hin zu den Rädern, was den Gesamtaufbau vereinfacht. Jedoch wird dabei eine höhere ungefederte Masse in Kauf genommen und die Motoren sind stärker den Umwelteinflüssen ausgesetzt.<br /> <br /> Als Antrieb für Elektroautos kommen verschiedene Antriebstypen in Frage. Steht ein sparsamer Umgang mit elektrischer Energie und Leistungselektronik-Werkstoffen bei der Fahrzeugkonstruktion im Vordergrund, so nimmt die [[umrichter]]geführte permanentmagneterregte [[Drehstrom-Synchronmaschine|Dreiphasen-Synchronmaschine]] eine Vorzugsstellung ein. Synchronmaschinen als Antriebsaggregat besitzen gegenüber Gleichstrommaschinen (mittlerer Leistung) den Vorteil, dass sie keine mechanischen [[Kohlebürste|Schleifkontakte]] für die [[Kommutierung]] benötigen, wodurch sie erheblich weniger verschleißanfällig sind und weniger Wartung benötigen.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nettec.eu/internetmarketing/elektrotechnik/237-drehstrommotoren/ ''Die Funktionsweise von Drehstrommotoren'']. Website von nettec. Abgerufen am 12. September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt; Der Umrichter arbeitet bei dieser Antriebsart im motorischen Betrieb als Dreiphasen-Wechselrichter, während er bei der Rekuperation im generatorischen Betrieb als Gleichrichter fungiert. Beim Schnell-Aufladen der Akkuzellen der [[Traktionsbatterie]] aus einem leistungsfähigen 400-V-Drehstromnetz kann der Umrichter zur Gleichrichtung eingesetzt werden, was sich bei entsprechend vorhandener Umrichterleistung - im Vergleich zum Aufladen mit haushaltsverträglichen 230-V-Ladegeräten - günstig in Bezug auf die erreichbare Ladegeschwindigkeit auswirkt. In bestimmten Fällen sind jedoch nur 230V-Wechselstrom-Normalladesysteme, nicht 400V-Drehstrom-Schnellladesysteme in Elektroautos integriert; Schnellladesysteme werden dann vielmehr ''extern'' an das jeweilige Fahrzeug angeschlossen. Das bedeutet, dass bei dieser Konstellation das Schnellladegerät in einer Ladesäule integriert sein kann, welche im Bedarfsfall mit dem Auto aufgesucht wird. Die Integration eines Schnellladesystems in ein Elektroauto ist jedoch ebenso ohne Weiteres möglich, wenn dies in der Konstruktionsphase einbezogen wird &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.alternative-motion.de/magazin/news/3323/integrierte_ladestationen_im_elektroauto.html ''Integrierte Ladestationen im Elektroauto'']{{dead link|date=September 2011}} AlternativeMotion-Internetportal, 24. November 2010&lt;/ref&gt; und der Umrichter, der für das zu entwerfende Elektroauto vorgesehen ist, genügend Leistung besitzt. Allerdings kann dies zu einer Erhöhung von Größe und Gewicht des zu entwerfenden Fahrzeugs führen, was angesichts der vorhandenen Reichweitenprobleme eher abträglich ist. &lt;ref group=&quot;Anmerkung&quot;&gt;Fachleute wie Dr. Martin März vom Fraunhofer-Institut für Integrierte Systeme und Bauelementetechnologie Nürnberg empfehlen daher, Schnellladesysteme vorzugsweise in Fahrzeug-externen Ladesäulen unterzubringen. Vgl. hierzu: ''Power an Bord'' In: &quot;Beilage Elektromobilität&quot; des Periodicums &quot;Weiter vorn&quot; des Forums Elektromobilität e.V., S. 16, auch online zugänglich: [http://www.fraunhofer.de/Images/Beilage-Elektromobilitaet_tcm7-85075.pdf http://www.fraunhofer.de/Images/Beilage-Elektromobilitaet_tcm7-85075.pdf] (PDF). Als Beispiele der praktischen Realisierung solcher Fahrzeug-externen Ladesäulen mit integriertem Schnelllader lassen sich hier das Modell &quot;EV Quick Charger&quot; der Firma Takaoka Electric aus Japan, die Modelle &quot;Combi-Station&quot; von RWE und &quot;Charge CP700A&quot; von Siemens aus Deutschland, das Modell &quot;FastCharge&quot; der Firma Chargemaster aus England und das Modell &quot;Terra&quot; der Firma ABB Epyon aus den Niederlanden nennen; ferner existieren das Modell &quot;Blink&quot; der Firma Ecotality, das Modell &quot;QC 50 DC&quot; der Firma Efacec sowie das Modell &quot;Charge Point&quot; der Firma Coulomb Technologies sowie die Modelle der Firma AeroVironment, letztere stammen aus den USA.&lt;/ref&gt; Die Elektromotoren, genauer gesagt, die permanentmagneterregten Synchronmaschinen, gelten als ausgereift. Alternativ zum umrichtergeführten Synchronmaschinenantrieb kommen als Antrieb in Kleinfahrzeugen auch [[Bürstenloser Gleichstrommotor|bürstenlose Gleichstrommotoren]] mit Regelung zum Einsatz. Dabei muss dann die Kommutierung durch eine elektronische Schaltung bewerkstelligt werden. Als weitere Alternative zum umrichtergeführten Synchronmaschinenantrieb kommt auch der umrichtergeführte Asynchronmaschinenantrieb in Frage. Der umrichtergeführte Asynchronmaschinenantrieb mit Kurzschlussläufer, ausgeführt als Doppelstabläufer, kann gegenüber dem umrichtergeführten Synchronmaschinenantrieb Vorteile erzielen, wenn das anzutreibende Fahrzeug entweder ein hohes Losbrech-Drehmoment besitzt oder aber, wenn besonders im unteren Drehzahlbereich hohe Beschleunigungswerte gefordert werden, also etwa dann, wenn das Fahrzeug eine hohe [[Agilität]] aufweisen soll. Im Prinzip lässt sich natürlich jede [[Drehmoment-Drehzahl-Kennlinie]] für Servo-Antriebszwecke mit entsprechender Regelungselektronik ausregeln.<br /> <br /> ==== Nutzbremsung ====<br /> Elektromotoren eignen sich im Generatorbetrieb zur Rückwandlung der kinetischen Energie (Bewegungsenergie) in elektrische Energie. Die Energie fällt dabei im Falle von scharfen Bremsmanövern sehr plötzlich an, was eine hohe elektrische Leistung bedeutet und in Abhängigkeit des optimalen Ladeprofils der mitgeführten Batterien die Energieeffizienz der Nutzbremsung stark beeinträchtigen kann. Diese Funktion als [[Nutzbremse]], auch [[Rekuperation (Technik)|Rekuperation]] genannt, spart bei häufigem Starten und Stoppen sowie beim Bergabfahren Energie, die sonst über mechanische Bremsen oder die Motorbremse in Wärme umgewandelt wird. Im Langstreckenverkehr fällt dieser Effekt aufgrund der relativ geringeren Bremsvorgänge deutlich geringer aus als im Stadt- bzw. Kurzstreckenverkehr. Da die Leistungsfähigkeit der elektrischen Maschine und der Elektronik begrenzt ist, kann bei scharfen Bremsmanövern nur ein Teil der Bremsenergie gespeichert werden. Je sanfter der Bremsvorgang, umso größer der Anteil der zurückgespeisten Bremsenergie. So kann innerstädtisch bis zu 30 % Energie eingespart werden.&lt;ref&gt;publish industry Verlag GmbH: ''Mobility 2.0'' Ausgabe 01, Freising 2011, S. 42.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==== Verbrauch und Wirkungsgrad ====<br /> Die Menge der nötigen Antriebsenergie eines Fahrzeuges ist vor allem von den Parametern [[Luftwiderstand|Luft-]] und [[Rollwiderstand]] sowie der Fahrzeugmasse abhängig. Die Antriebsart ist als Bestandteil der Fahrzeugmasse ebenfalls relevant, da die Massen von Akkumulatoren und Flüssigtreibstoffen bei gleicher Reichweite des Fahrzeugs unterschiedlich sind (siehe auch [[Energiedichte#Beispiele|Energiedichte von Energiespeichern]]).<br /> <br /> Elektromotoren haben einen sehr hohen [[Wirkungsgrad]] und daher weniger Energieverluste als konventionelle Antriebe mit Verbrennungsmotoren. Dies wirkt sich insbesondere im Teillastbetrieb aus. Hier ist der Wirkungsgradunterschied im Vergleich zum Verbrennungsmotor besonders hoch. Da Automobile im Stadtverkehr fast immer mit [[Teillast]] fahren, ist der Elektroantrieb hier besonders geeignet. Außerdem verbraucht ein Elektromotor während des Fahrzeugstillstands keine Energie. Elektrofahrzeuge können die Fähigkeit besitzen, beim Bremsen durch [[Nutzbremsung]] einen Teil der Antriebsenergie zurückzugewinnen. Jedoch müssen dabei Verluste bei der Gewinnung, Übertragung und Speicherung der elektrischen Energie in eine Gesamtbetrachtung einbezogen werden. Genaue Verbräuche nach genormten [[Fahrzyklus|Fahrzyklen]] liegen bei Elektrofahrzeugen nur selten vor.<br /> <br /> Betrachtet man den Wirkungsgrad der Fahrzeuge in Bezug zur direkt zugeführten Energie (zum Beispiel ab Tankstelle beziehungsweise Steckdose), dann entscheidet die Effizienz der im Fahrzeug erfolgten Energieumwandlung über den Wirkungsgrad. Da [[Elektromotor]]en typischerweise [[Wirkungsgrad#Beispiele|Wirkungsgrade]] von 85 % bis 95 % und auch die zugehörige Elektronik bis 95 % aufweisen, sind Elektroantriebe den Verbrennungsmotoren mit Wirkungsgraden von maximal 35 % beim Benzinmotor oder maximal 45 % beim Dieselmotor deutlich überlegen, weil bei einem Verbrennungsmotor ein Großteil der Energie in Wärme umgewandelt wird.&lt;ref&gt; BMU: '' Erneuerbar mobil, Marktfähige Lösung für eine klimafreundliche Elektromobilität.'' 1.Auflage, Berlin März 2011, S. 14.&lt;/ref&gt; In Fahrzeugen verwendete Elektromotoren zeigen über die ganze Lastkurve einen sehr guten Wirkungsgrad, während bei Verbrennungsmotoren im Teillastbereich der Wirkungsgrad besonders stark sinkt. Dies kann jedoch durch Verluste beim Laden und Betrieb der Akkus sowie dem Wirkungsgrad des Stromerzeugers mehr als kompensiert werden. Im theoretischen Idealfall geht beim Stop-and-Go-Verkehr nur wenig Energie verloren (Rollreibung und Verluste im Motor, Batterie und Antrieb).<br /> <br /> Diese Sichtweise blendet jedoch die Verluste bei der Bereitstellung der elektrischen Energie aus. Will man den Wirkungsgrad des Gesamtsystems &quot;Auto&quot; betrachten, muss man auch die vorgelagerten Verluste bei [[Energiewandlung]]en und von [[Energieübertragung]]en betrachten. Da die [[Wirkungsgrad]]e der traditionellen Stromkraftwerke in Bezug auf den [[Primärenergie]]einsatz, diese sind je nach Kraftwerkstyp verschieden, überwiegend zwischen 30 % und 60 % liegen und die Leitungsverluste im Stromnetz zu Buche schlagen, liegt der [[Primärenergieverbrauch]] um ein Vielfaches über dem eigentlichen Stromverbrauch. Der [[Primärenergiebedarf|Primärenergiefaktor]] (also die Angabe um wie viel mehr Primärenergie eingesetzt wird, als elektrische Energie genutzt werden kann) liegt in Deutschland gemäß [[Energieeinsparverordnung]] bei 2,7. Damit liegt der Wirkungsgrad in Bezug auf den Primärenergieeinsatz von Autos mit Verbrennungsmotoren und Elektromotoren auf ähnlichem Niveau. Dieses Verhältnis verlagert sich jedoch bei zunehmender Erneuerung des Kraftwerksparks zugunsten der Elektrofahrzeuge, weil neuere Kraftwerke höhere Wirkungsgrade haben und weil der Anteil an erneuerbarer Energie im Stromnetz stetig steigt. Völlig unabhängig lässt sich dieses Verhältnis zugunsten des Elektrofahrzeugs gestalten, wenn dessen Betreiber beispielsweise die Energieversorgung des Fahrzeugs aus erneuerbaren Energiequellen sichert, beispielsweise indem er sich in einen Windpark einkauft.<br /> <br /> Der Vergleich der Gesamtwirkungsgrade ist sinnvoll, solange ein hoher Anteil fossiler Brennstoffe im Energiemix der Stromerzeugung vorhanden ist. Wird in einem Land, wie zum Beispiel Norwegen der Strom überwiegend aus Wasserkraft gewonnen, spielt der Wirkungsgrad in Bezug auf die Kohlendioxid-Emissionen eine viel kleinere Rolle. Trotzdem, oder gerade bei einem hohen Anteil an regenerativen Energiequellen, ist der Gesamtwirkungsgrad aus wirtschaftlichen Aspekten essentiell, da gerade die regenerativen Energien heutzutage noch teurer als die fossilen sind.<br /> <br /> === Batterie-Management-System ===<br /> Für die Akkumulatoren werden [[Batteriemanagementsystem]]e (BMS) verwendet, welche die „Lade- und Entladesteuerung, Temperaturüberwachung, Reichweitenabschätzung und Diagnose“&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.zukunft-elektroauto.de/pageID_8368725.html ''Technologie der Elektrofahrzeuge''] zukunft-elektroauto.de-Internetportal&lt;/ref&gt; übernehmen.<br /> <br /> === Energiespeicher ===<br /> Zentraler Punkt in der Entwicklung von Elektroautos ist der [[Energiespeicher]], da ein Automobil –&amp;nbsp;anders als etwa Schienenfahrzeuge&amp;nbsp;– während der Fahrt nicht mit dem allgemeinen Stromnetz verbunden sein kann. Erst durch leistungsfähige Energiespeicher mit einer hohen Energiedichte können Elektroautos Reichweiten erzielen, die denen von verbrennungsmotorisch angetriebenen Autos ebenbürtig sind. Reichweiten von bis zu 500&amp;nbsp;km sind nach heutigem Stand realisierbar. <br /> <br /> In der folgenden Tabelle wird verglichen, welchen Treibstoffvorrat ein Auto bei unterschiedlichen Antriebsarten laden und transportieren muss, um ohne Nachzutanken etwa 400&amp;nbsp;km weit zu fahren. Dafür benötigt man etwa 50&amp;nbsp;kWh Antriebsenergie (siehe [[Kraftstoffverbrauch]]). Es fließen Schätz- und Mittelwerte ein, daher gilt bei allen Zahlenwerten eine Toleranz von etwa ±30 %.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |- class=&quot;hintergrundfarbe5&quot;<br /> !Treibstoff||Energiedichte&lt;br /&gt;(kWh/kg)||Antriebskomponente||mittlerer&lt;br /&gt;Wirkungsgrad des Antriebs||Gesamtmasse des&lt;br /&gt;Energiespeichers in kg&lt;br /&gt;für 50 kWh nutzbare&lt;br /&gt;Energie<br /> |-<br /> |Strom aus [[Bleiakkumulator]]||0,03||Elektromotor&lt;br /&gt;mit Nutzbremse||95 %&lt;br /&gt;bis zu 97 %||1350<br /> |-<br /> |Strom aus&lt;br /&gt;[[Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulator]]||0,13||Elektromotor&lt;br /&gt;mit Nutzbremse||95 %&lt;br /&gt;bis zu 97 %||311<br /> |-<br /> |[[Dieselkraftstoff]]||11,8||Dieselmotor&lt;br /&gt;mit [[Getriebe]]||25 %&lt;br /&gt;23,5 %||18 (+50 Tankbehälter)<br /> |-<br /> |[[Superbenzin]]||12,0||Ottomotor&lt;br /&gt;mit Getriebe||15 %&lt;br /&gt;14 %||29 (+50 Tankbehälter)<br /> |-<br /> |Flüssiger [[Wasserstoff]]||33,3||[[Wasserstoffspeicherung]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Brennstoffzelle]] PAFC&lt;br /&gt;Elektromotor||&lt;br /&gt;38 %&lt;br /&gt;95 %||4,1 (+Tankbehälter)<br /> |-<br /> |[[Wasserstoffspeicherung#Druckwasserstoffspeicherung|Druckwasserstoff]] 700 bar||||[[Wasserstoffspeicherung]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Brennstoffzelle]] PEMFC&lt;br /&gt;Elektromotor||&lt;br /&gt;60%&lt;ref name=&quot;toyota&quot;&gt;[http://www.heise.de/autos/artikel/Probefahrt-im-Toyota-FCHV-adv-1288641.html Probefahrt im Toyota FCHV adv] (Quelle: Heise Stand: 29. Juli 2011)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;95 %||3 (+125&lt;ref&gt;[http://auto-presse.de/autonews.php?newsid=91335 Opel setzt auf Wasserstoff (Stand: 6. April 2011)]&lt;/ref&gt; Tankbehälter)<br /> |}<br /> Anmerkungen:<br /> * Bei Nutzbremsung wird der Energiespeicher aufgeladen. Das Ersparnis hängt dabei maßgeblich von der Fahrweise ab, darüber hinaus von der Dimensionierung der Antriebe und dem Wirkungsgrad der Leistungselektronik.<br /> * Die Energiedichte bei Benzin, Diesel und Wasserstoff ist als unterer [[Heizwert]] angegeben. Mit geeigneten Maschinen kann auch der obere Heizwert bzw. [[Brennwert]] des Kraftstoffs genutzt werden, der ca. 10 % höher ist.<br /> * Diesel- und Ottomotor laufen nicht ständig bei optimaler Drehzahl und Belastung, deshalb liegen die mittleren Wirkungsgrade deutlich unter den Maximalwirkungsgraden 45 % bzw. 30 %. Der Wirkungsgrad ist hier auf den unteren Heizwert des Treibstoffs bezogen.<br /> * Bei Akkus ist die Masse des Behälters im Wert der Energiedichte bereits enthalten, bei Diesel, Benzin und Wasserstoff muss er addiert werden. Aufgrund der leichten Elektromotoren, des Wegfalls eines Schaltgetriebes und der Startbatterie ergeben sich beim Elektrofahrzeug weitere Gewichtseinsparungen, die hier nicht berücksichtigt sind.<br /> <br /> ==== Akkumulatoren ====<br /> Für die [[Energiespeicher#Vergleich von Technologien zur Speicherung elektrischer Energie|Energiespeicher]] gibt es verschiedene Konzepte: Favorisiert wird derzeit (2010) der [[Akkumulator]] (u.&amp;nbsp;a. [[NiMH]] und [[Li-Ion]], [[Zebra-Batterie]]).<br /> <br /> Verfügbare Akkumulatoren haben zumeist eine relativ kurze Lebensdauer. Diese lässt sich mit der [[Zyklenfestigkeit]] definieren. Das ist die maximal mögliche Anzahl von Ladungen und Entladungen bis zu einem deutlichen Verlust an Kapazität. Sie ist abhängig von Typ und Beanspruchung des Akkus. Übliche Bleiakkus, die als Starterbatterien für Verbrennungsmotoren dienen, sind nicht auf hohe Zyklenfestigkeit optimiert und sind für Antriebszwecke deshalb ungeeignet. Bleiakkus speziell für [[Traktion (Straßenfahrzeuge)|Traktion]]szwecke sind besser geeignet, haben aber immer noch zu geringe Zyklenfestigkeit. Bei geparkten und bei fahrenden Elektroautos müssen die Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulatoren bei tiefen Temperaturen gewärmt (nur Lithium-Polymer-Akkus) und bei hohen Temperaturen gekühlt werden.<br /> <br /> Reichweiten von 300&amp;nbsp;km bis 500&amp;nbsp;km und mehr werden erst durch den Einsatz von Akkumulatoren auf Lithiumbasis ([[Lithium-Ionen-Akku]] bzw. [[Lithium-Polymer-Akku]] und in Zukunft [[Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulator#Lithium-Luft-Akkumulator|Lithium-Luft-Akkumulator]]) möglich, die eine wesentlich höhere Energiedichte bei gleichzeitig reduziertem Gewicht haben. Theoretisch kann zwar bei jedem Fahrzeug, das bisher mit Blei- oder Nickel-Cadmium-Akkumulatoren fährt, diese gegen Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulatoren ausgetauscht und das entsprechende Ladegerät nachgerüstet werden, um ein Vielfaches der ursprünglichen Reichweite zu erzielen. Der Austausch ist jedoch noch sehr kostspielig: Ein Akkusatz mit 10&amp;nbsp;kWh Kapazität kostet 2011 etwa 3500&amp;nbsp;€. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.green-motors.de/autonews/110503456 ''Elektroautos: Das Manko der Batterien''] www.green-motors.de-Internetportal, 3. Mai 2011&lt;/ref&gt; Beim Austausch alter Lithium-Ionen-Akkus gegen neue muss ein solcher Austausch allerdings nicht mehr zwingend gleichermaßen kostspielig werden. Mittlerweile gibt es nämlich intelligente [[Batterie-Management-System]]e, die es gestatten, Teilblöcke der [[Traktionsbatterie]], in welchen in der Regel eine kleine Anzahl galvanischer Einzelzellen zusammengefasst sind, einzeln auszutauschen. Das bedeutet, dass mit Hilfe solcher BMS nur einzelne defekte Teilblöcke ausgetauscht werden müssen und nicht mehr der komplette Akkusatz. Es ist derzeit allerdings noch nicht für jeden Hersteller selbstverständlich, dass derartige fortgeschrittene Batterie-Management-Systeme in die Konstruktion neuer Elektroautomodelle integriert werden.<br /> <br /> Bei weiter sinkenden Kosten für Batterie-Management-Systeme sollten nicht nur Teilblöcke überwacht werden können, sondern jede einzelne Zelle. Statt Austausch der defekten Zelle sollte diese nur stillgelegt werden können und damit erheblich Kosten gespart werden.<br /> <br /> Die meisten Elektrofahrzeuge eignen sich hauptsächlich für den Einsatz in der Stadt und auf Kurzstrecken. In der Vergangenheit nutzten die meisten Elektroautos Akkumulatortypen (Pb, NiCd), die lediglich für einen Betrieb von etwa einer Stunde mit Höchstgeschwindigkeit reichten oder mit denen mit einer Ladung 40 bis 130&amp;nbsp;Kilometer zurückgelegt werden konnten. Um diese Reichweiten zu erzielen, wurden Energiesparmaßnahmen wie Leichtbau und der Verzicht auf Sonderausstattungen eingesetzt.<br /> <br /> Die im Vergleich zum Tankvorgang beim Verbrennungsmotor langen Ladezeiten der Akkumulatoren sind weitere Nachteile. Der Stadtwagen [[Mitsubishi]] i [[MIEV]] wurde mit noch einmal verbessertem Lithium-Ionen-Akkusatz von 130&amp;nbsp;km auf eine Reichweite von 160&amp;nbsp;km gebracht. Dabei bietet die Technik der Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulatoren noch erhebliche Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten. Volkswagen hat auf der [[Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung|IAA]] 2009 seinen Stadtwagen [[E-Up!]] vorgestellt, der ab 2013 in Serie gehen soll und mit Li-Ion-Batterien ausgestattet eine Reichweite von 130&amp;nbsp;km bietet. Weiterhin wurde auf der Gründungsveranstaltung „Nationale Plattform Elektromobilität“ im Mai 2010 in Berlin der neue Golf Blue-E-Motion für das Jahr 2013 angekündigt. Dieser soll mit einem 85&amp;nbsp;kW/115&amp;nbsp;PS starken Elektromotor ausgestattet sein und über eine Reichweite von 150&amp;nbsp;km verfügen.&lt;ref&gt;greenmotorsblog.de: ''[http://www.greenmotorsblog.de/?p=131 Elektroautos – VW bringt Golf mit Elektroantrieb 2013]'', Zugriff am 15. Mai 2010&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.focus.de/auto/neuheiten/kompakte/vw-golf-blue-e-motion-bestseller-ab-2013-elektrisch_aid_504410.html VW Golf Blue-E-Motion: Bestseller ab 2013 elektrisch - Kompaktwagen - FOCUS Online&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt; Im Hause VW rechnet man nicht damit, dass Elektromobile vor 2020 eine wirtschaftlich bedeutende Produktionsmenge erreichen werden. Es wird zwar davon ausgegangen, dass bis dahin die komplette VW-Flotte einen Elektromoter besitzt, aber nur ein kleiner Anteil davon (ca. 3%) reine Elektroautos sein werden.&lt;ref&gt;{{Internetquelle | url=http://www.fr-online.de/wirtschaft/kein-vw-mehr-ohne-elektroantrieb/-/1472780/8381182/-/ | titel=Kein VW mehr ohne Elektroantrieb| zugriff=2011-05-02}}{{dead link|date=September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Am 26. Oktober 2010 ist erstmals ein alltagstaugliches Elektroauto von München nach Berlin gefahren, teilten das Technologieunternehmen DBM Energy und der Stromanbieter lekker Energie in Berlin mit. Die 605 Kilometer, die der speziell umgebaute Audi A2 mit einer Durchschnittsgeschwindigkeit von 98&amp;nbsp;km/h bei kühlen Temperaturen zurücklegte, sind (unter den vorliegenden Bedingungen) die weiteste jemals ohne Ladestopp gefahrene Strecke. Forschern der in Berlin ansässigen DBM Energy GmbH sei es gelungen, einen neuartigen Hochleistungsakku zu entwickeln,&lt;ref&gt;[http://dbm-energy.com/index.php?ms=NeuerSuperakkuWeistDenWeg&amp;PHPSESSID=fkocazuf&amp;ft=1261394144 ''Neuer Superakku weist den Weg in eine umweltfreundlichere Zukunft der Energiespeicherung'']&lt;/ref&gt; der im Bereich leistungsorientierter Anwendungen neue Maßstäbe setzt. Laut DBM kann im Vergleich zu traditioneller Akku-Technologie eine Leistungssteigerung von bis zu 400 % erreicht werden. Mit einem garantierten Wirkungsgrad über 95 % ist eine Energiekostenersparnis von bis zu 70 % möglich.&lt;ref&gt;[http://hallo.news352.lu/edito-46179-deutsches-elektroauto-legt-weltrekord-strecke-zurck.html ''Deutsches Elektroauto legt Weltrekord-Strecke zurück''] news 352 Luxemburg, 26. Oktober 2010&lt;/ref&gt; Der ADAC äußert jedoch ernsthafte Zweifel an der Seriosität der Behauptungen bezüglich dieser Testfahrt und des verwendeten Akkus,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.adac.de/infotestrat/adac-im-einsatz/motorwelt/Wunderbatterie.aspx?ComponentId=53829&amp;SourcePageId=5928 ''Blog-Diskussion: Rätsel um die Wunder-Batterie''] ADAC, Rubrik „Info, Test &amp; Rat“&lt;/ref&gt; zumal das &quot;Lekker-Mobil&quot; im Dezember unter bislang nicht geklärten Umständen verbrannte.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/0,1518,740135,00.html ''Verbranntes Weltrekord-Auto: Brüderle lässt Wunderakku prüfen''.] In: ''[[Spiegel Online]]'', 18. Januar 2011&lt;/ref&gt; Die Zweifel an der Batterie gründen unter anderem auch auf der behaupteten Energiedichte von weit über 300&amp;nbsp;Wh/kg. Inzwischen hat auch Bundeswirtschaftsminister Rainer Brüderle eine Untersuchung durch die [[Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung]] (BAM) angeordnet. Nichtsdestoweniger klingen die Erklärungen, die DBM-Energy-Chef Mirko Hannemann vor dem Hintergrund der nicht geklärten Umstände des Brandes zu den Geschehnissen gemacht hat, durchaus plausibel und nachvollziehbar.&lt;ref&gt;Franz Rother: [http://www.wiwo.de/blogs/wattgetrieben/2011/01/19/dbm-energy-grunder-hannemann-wir-haben-nichts-unrechtes-getan/ ''DBM Energy-Gründer Hannemann: “Wir haben nichts Unrechtes getan”''] Wattgetrieben-Blog der Zeitschrift &quot;Wirtschaftswoche&quot;, 19. Januar 2011&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;br&gt;Etwa um den 30. März 2011 sind die Untersuchungsergebnisse der ''Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung'' (BAM) und der DEKRA zum Akkusystem von DBM-Energy vorgelegt worden. Danach hat das sogenannte &quot;Kolibri-Akkusystem&quot; die sicherheitstechnischen Tests sowie die Reichweitentests im eingebauten Zustand in einem Fahrzeug seitens der beiden Institutionen bestanden. &lt;ref&gt;Henrik Mortsiefer: [http://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/berliner-batteriebauer-dbm-legt-nach/4011008.html ''Berliner Batteriebauer DBM legt nach''] Der Tagesspiegel (Online-Ausgabe), Rubrik &quot;Wirtschaft&quot;, 31. März 2011&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://auto.t-online.de/rekord-elektrofahrt-die-batterie-war-einwandfrei/id_45408212/index ''Rekord-Elektrofahrt: Die Batterie war einwandfrei''] auto.t-online.de-Internetportal, 1. April 2011&lt;/ref&gt; Prof. Dr. Volkmar Schröder von der BAM bestätigte die Ergebnisse in puncto Sicherheit des Akkusystems. &lt;ref&gt;Marc Kudling: [http://www.wattgehtab.com/batterie/unabhangige-test-bestatigen-rekordfahrt-des-lekker-mobils-von-dbm-2997 ''Unabhängige Tests bestätigen Rekordfahrt des „lekker-Mobils“ von DBM ''] wattgehtab-Internetportal, 1. April 2011&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> Die Zeitschrift &quot;AutoBILD&quot; hält dagegen die Zweifel an der Rekordfahrt des sogenannten &quot;Lekker-Mobils&quot; für noch nicht entkräftet, da im Versuchsfahrzeug der DEKRA nicht ein Akkusystem mit gleicher, sondern kleinerer Ladekapazität als beim &quot;Lekker-Mobil&quot; verwendet wurde und die Ladekapazitäten nicht einfach hochgerechnet werden können, so AutoBILD.&lt;ref name=&quot;www.autobild.de_Lekker_Mobil&quot;&gt;[http://www.autobild.de/artikel/lekker-mobil-zweifel-bleiben-1600708.html ''Lekker Mobil: Zweifel bleiben: Tricksen, täuschen, tarnen''] AutoBILD online, 6. April 2011&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Das Versuchsfahrzeug der DEKRA hat mit ca. 36% kleinerer Akkuladekapazität ( ca. 63 kWh an Stelle von ca. 99 kWh) eine Reichweite von 454,82 km auf dem Rollenprüfstand erbracht. Bei Annahme einer linearen Skalierung würde dies bei dem größeren Akku eine Reichweite von über 714 km und somit 18% mehr als bei der Rekordfahrt entsprechen.&lt;ref&gt;{{Internetquelle | url=http://www.themenportal.de/unternehmen/kolibri-technologie-der-dbm-energy-besteht-sicherheitstechnische-untersuchungen-und-leistungstests-14284 | titel=KOLIBRI Technologie der DBM Energy besteht sicherheitstechnische Untersuchungen und Leistungstests! | zugriff=2011-04-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;Für das Jahr 2011 hat DBM-Energy-Chef Hannemann geplant, in Sachen Langstreckenfahrten noch nachzulegen: er beabsichtigt, mit einem Elektroauto eine Fahrt über eine Distanz von 1000 Kilometern durchzuführen. &lt;ref&gt;Frank Mertens: [http://www.autogazette.de/unternehmen/interviews/--Unsere-Technologie-kann-so-schlecht-nicht-sein---322974.html ''DBM Energy-Chef Mirko Hannemann: «Unsere Technologie kann so schlecht nicht sein»''] www.autogazette.de-Internetportal, Rubrik &quot;Unternehmen&quot;, Sektion &quot;Interviews&quot;, 10. Juni 2011&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> In der Zeit vom 18.–20. Januar 2011 hat der japanische Kleinserienhersteller TGMY auf der Dritten Elektro- und Hybridantriebssystem-Technikausstellung in Tokio sein neuestes Modell, den [[TGMY Himiko]], vorgestellt. Dieser Roadster, der aus einem umgebauten [[Mitsuoka Himiko]] (aufbauend auf dem [[Mazda NC MX-5]]-Fahrgestell) hervorgegangen ist, ist mit einem System aus Lithium-Polymer-Akkus bestückt und erreicht eine Reichweite von 550&amp;nbsp;km. &lt;ref&gt;[http://en.akihabaranews.com/83488/environment/tgmy%E2%80%99s-ev-himiko-gives-550km-on-a-single-charge-to-your-mazda-roadster-mitsuoka ''TGMY’s EV Himiko gives 550km on a Single charge to your Mazda Roadster Mitsuoka''] Akihabara News, 7. Februar 2011 (in englischer Sprache)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.grueneautos.com/2011/02/tgmy-ev-himiko-retro-elektroauto-mit-550-km-reichweite/ ''TGMY EV Himiko: Retro-Elektroauto mit 550&amp;nbsp;km Reichweite''] GrüneAutos-Internetportal, 7. Februar 2011&lt;/ref&gt; Dies übertrifft den 2012 in Großserie gehenden [[Tesla Model S]], der in seiner Langstreckenvariante eine Reichweite von bis zu 300 Meilen (= 482&amp;nbsp;km) erreicht. &lt;ref&gt;Mike Karagozian: [http://www.examiner.com/ford-in-national/tesla-model-s-promises-up-to-300-miles-on-a-single-charge ''Tesla Model S sedan range is up to 300 miles on a single charge''] examiner.com-Internetportal, 17. Januar 2011 (in englischer Sprache)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==== Brennstoffzellen ====<br /> Beim Einsatz von [[Brennstoffzelle]]n wird die Energie in Form von Wasserstoff oder niedermolekularen [[Alkohole]]n ([[Methanol]], [[Ethanol]]) im Fahrzeug mitgeführt. Brennstoffzellen sind kommerziell bereits verfügbar, [[Brennstoffzellenfahrzeug]]e beschränken sich jedoch derzeit noch auf Kleinserien.<br /> <br /> Das Nachtanken gestaltet sich ähnlich wie bei benzin- oder gasbetriebenen Verbrennungmotorfahrzeugen. Insgesamt erreicht der Verbund Brennstoffzelle/Tank eine höhere Energiedichte als Akkumulatoren. Für Brennstoffzellen notwendiger Kraftstoff muss hergestellt, transportiert und über ein noch aufzubauendes Tankstellennetz vertrieben werden. Diese Kraftstoffe können aus fossilen Rohstoffen, aus Biomasse oder mittels elektrischer Energie ([[Elektrolyse]]) gewonnen werden.<br /> <br /> Im Vergleich der Wirkungsgrade bei elektrischer Energie als Primärenergie ergibt sich für die wasserstoffbetriebene Brennstoffzelle ein geringerer Wirkungsgrad als für den Akkumulator:<br /> * Der Wirkungsgrad der [[Elektrolyse]] ([[Wasserstoffherstellung]]) beträgt ca. 70 %, die Verluste durch Verdichtung auf 700 bar betragen 12% und die Brennstoffzellen (PEM) schaffen im Normalbetrieb nicht über 60 %&lt;ref name=&quot;toyota&quot; /&gt;, was ohne Wasserstoffverluste einen Gesamtwirkungsgrad von 37 % ergibt.<br /> * Ein Akkumulator erreicht bei einem Wirkungsgrad der Netzdurchleitung von 92 % und des Ladegerätes von 85 % bei einem NiMH-Akkumulator mit 60 % eine Effizienz von insgesamt 47 %, beim [[Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulator]] (bis über 90 %) ergibt sich bis zu ca. 70 %.<br /> <br /> Trotz des schlechteren Wirkungsgrades bei der Energiebereitstellung liegt der Vorteil des Wasserstoffs in der höheren [[Energiedichte]]. Um eine Reichweite von 500 km zu erzielen errechnet sich das Batteriegewicht von [[Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulator|Lithium-Ionen-Akkus]] bei einem Energiegehalt von [[Elektroauto#Energiespeicher|0,13 kWh/kg]] und dem Verbrauch eines Mittelklassefahrzeugs wie dem [[Chevrolet Volt]] von [[Chevrolet Volt#Elektrischer Verbrauch|22,4 kWh/100 km]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wattgehtab.com/hybridautos/epa-gibt-offizielle-verbrauchswerte-des-chevrolet-volt-bekannt-2837 EPA gibt Verbrauchswerte des Chevrolet Volt bekannt (Stand: 25. November 2010)]&lt;/ref&gt; auf 862 kg (ohne das zusätzlich erforderliche Kühlsystem). Ein komplettes Wasserstofftanksystem für die gleiche Reichweite wiegt nur 125 kg.&lt;ref&gt;[http://auto-presse.de/autonews.php?newsid=91335 Opel setzt auf Wasserstoff (Stand: 6. April 2011)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Der Autohersteller Ford gab am 24. Juni 2009 bekannt, dass die Arbeiten an Brennstoffzellen eingestellt werden. Ford setzt in Zukunft auf Akkus und Elektromotor.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.handelsblatt.com/unternehmen/industrie/autobranche-kippt-zukunftstechnologie;2389249 ''Brennstoffzelle: Autobranche kippt Zukunftstechnologie''] Handelsblatt, 24. Juni 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Im Dezember 2010 erklärte Ford allerdings, dass intern weiter an der Brennstoffzelle gearbeitet werde.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.motorkultur.com/de/home/visionen/15-via-blog/10385-brennstoffzellenantrieb--ford-ist-nun-doch-wieder-im-rennen.html Ford ist wieder im Rennen] Stand: 27. Dezember 2010&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Im April 2011 erklärte Opel dass batteriegestützte Elektrofahrzeuge wegen der kurzen Reichweiten und der langen Ladezeiten nur für den Nahbereich als sinnvoll betrachtet werden. Der mit Wasserstoff betriebenen Brennstoffzelle werden langfristig durchaus bessere Zukunftschancen eingeräumt. Opel kündigt an ab 2015 erste Fahrzeuge mit Brennstoffzellenantrieb in Serie zu fertigen und den Aufbau einer flächendeckenden Infrastruktur für [[Wasserstofftankstelle]]n parallel zur Markteinführung voranzutreiben. Im Zusammenhang mit der [[Energiewende]] und dem Kernkraftausstieg wird erwogen überschüssige Energie aus [[Windkraftanlage|Wind-]] und [[Solaranlage|Solarkraftwerken]] zur Produktion von [[Windgas]] zu verwenden. Ein erstes Pilotprojekt ist mit dem Windkrafterzeuger [[Enertrag]] geplant.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.brennstoffzelle-nrw.de/index.php?id=56&amp;no_cache=1&amp;tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=290&amp;tx_ttnews%5B%20backPid%5D%20=65&amp;cHash=b315be3259 Opel setzt auf Elektroantrieb ohne Akku] (Stand: 12. April 2011)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Die Fahrzeughersteller [[Toyota]], [[Nissan]], [[Mercedes-Benz]] und [[Honda]] haben die Produktionskosten für wasserstoffgetriebene Fahrzeuge inzwischen drastisch reduziert. [[Toyota]] plant den Einsatz von Großserien in [[Japan]] ab 2015 in Verbindung mit zahlreichen Wasserstofftankstellen in den japanischen Metropolregionen.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.japanmarkt.de/index.php/unternehmen/automobil/massenmarkt-fur-wasserstoff-komm/#more-8210 Massenmarkt für Brennstoffzelle startet in Japan 2015] (Quelle: Deutsche Industrie- und Handelskammer in Japan Stand: 14. Januar 2011)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Um die Alltagstauglichkeit des Wasserstoffantriebes nachzuweisen, hat [[Mercedes-Benz]] eine Weltumrundung mit mehreren Brennstoffzellenfahrzeugen der B-Klasse erfolgreich abgeschlossen. Bereits 200 Serienfahrzeuge dieses Typs sind 2010 an Kunden ausgeliefert worden.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.heise.de/autos/artikel/Mercedes-B-Klasse-F-Cell-auf-Weltreise-1180273.html Mercedes B-Klasse F-Cell auf Weltreise] (Quelle: Heise Stand: 31. Januar 2011)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Daimler AG|Daimler]], wird die Serienfertigung von Brennstoffzellenfahrzeugen entgegen der ursprünglichen Planung um ein Jahr auf 2014 vorziehen. Der Preis soll nur etwa 20% über dem eines Fahrzeugs mit Verbrennungsmotor liegen.&lt;ref name=&quot;daimler&quot;&gt;[http://www.heise.de/autos/artikel/Daimler-baut-ab-2014-Brennstoffzellenautos-in-Grossserie-1254967.html Daimler baut ab 2014 Brennstoffzellenautos in Grossserie] (Quelle: Heise Stand: 3. Juni 2011)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==== Kondensatoren ====<br /> [[Datei:Expo 2010 Electric Bus.jpg|miniatur|Capabus beim Aufladen in der Haltestelle auf der Expo 2010 in Shanghai]]<br /> In Shanghai/China gibt es experimentelle Autobusse, die Superkondensatoren als einzigen Speicher der Antriebsenergie verwenden und in den Haltestellen aufladen. Es gibt Versuche, Kondensatoren und Akkumulatoren zu kombinieren.&lt;ref&gt;Tyler Hamilton: [http://www.heise.de/tr/Neustart-fuer-Bleibatterie--/artikel/102976/0/102 ''Neustart für Bleibatterie''] Technology Review, 11. Februar 2008&lt;/ref&gt; Der Kondensator übernimmt hierbei die Spitzenlast und schont damit den Akkumulator. [[Doppelschicht-Kondensator]]en sind als [[Energiespeicher]] dem [[Akkumulator]] zwar insbesondere in der [[Leistungsdichte]] und praktisch allen Kennwerten außer der [[Energiedichte]] weit überlegen, sie erreichen jedoch nur etwa 5&amp;nbsp;Wh/kg und sind damit etwa um den Faktor 10 schlechter als Akkumulatoren. Kondensatoren haben kaum eine Beschränkung beim Lade- und Entladestrom. Dies ist beim [[Nutzbremse]]n und Anfahren ein Vorteil. Der [[Wirkungsgrad]] eines Kondensators beträgt nahezu 100 %, da keine chemische Umwandlung stattfindet, jedoch gibt es eine ständige [[Selbstentladung]], die typischerweise höher als die von Akkumulatoren ist. Es gibt keinen [[Memory-Effekt (Akkumulator)|Memory-Effekt]] oder Beschränkung der Anzahl der Ladezyklen und es kann in jedem Ladezustand geladen oder entladen werden. Wegen des anderen Spannungsverlaufes eines Kondensators (lineare Entladung bis 0&amp;nbsp;V) können Akkumulatoren jedoch nicht einfach gegen Kondensatoren getauscht werden – andere Fahrtregler für stark variable und niedrige [[elektrische Spannung]]en sind notwendig, da sonst nur ein kleiner Teil der gespeicherten Energie genutzt werden kann.<br /> <br /> ==== Reichweitenvergrößerung – Hybridantrieb ====<br /> [[Datei:Acp tzero DSC00467.jpg|miniatur|Generatorenanhänger als Idee von [[AC Propulsion]] zur Lösung des Reichweitenproblems an den Tagen, an denen die Batteriereichweite zu gering ist: Genset trailer]]<br /> <br /> Da die Akkutechnik noch keine großen Reichweiten erlaubt, die Ladezeiten pro Vollaufladung bis zu acht Stunden dauern und die Stromtankstellendichte noch sehr gering ist, werden teilweise Zusatzgeräte zur Erzeugung von elektrischem Strom im Fahrzeug eingesetzt. Diese „(Reichweiten)verlängerer“ werden häufig ''Range Extender'' genannt. Im einfachsten Fall wird dabei ein [[Notstromaggregat]] im Fahrzeug mitgeführt. Nach genau dem gleichen Prinzip arbeitet der [[Hybridelektrokraftfahrzeug|serielle Hybridantrieb]], jedoch mit fest installiertem Stromerzeuger. Die nebenstehende Grafik zeigt schematisch den Aufbau eines seriellen Hybridantriebs. [[Datei:serieller_hybrid.jpg|miniatur|Serieller Hybrid, schematisch]] <br /> <br /> [[Hybridelektrokraftfahrzeug|Hybridfahrzeuge]] werden für eine größere Marktverbreitung von Fahrzeugen mit Elektromotoren favorisiert. Die Kombination von Elektroantrieb, Generator, Akkumulator und Verbrennungsmotor erlaubt eine große, von Aufladepunkten unabhängige Reichweite. Teilweise kann der Akkumulator auch direkt am Stromnetz aufgeladen werden (Plug-in-Hybrid). Kritisiert hat diese Entwicklungslinie [[Honda]]s Präsident [[Takeo Fukui]]: Er betrachte diese Fahrzeuge als akkubetriebene Elektrofahrzeuge, die überflüssigerweise einen Verbrennungsmotor und Benzintank mit sich herumschleppen.&lt;ref&gt;heise.de: ''[http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Hybrid-oder-Elektroauto-Hersteller-eroeffnen-neue-Diskussion-188848.html heise online - Hybrid oder Elektroauto? Hersteller eröffnen neue Diskussion]'', Zugriff am 15. Mai 2010&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Lösungsansätze, um diese Zusatzlast im Kurzstreckenbetrieb zu vermeiden, gibt es zum Beispiel von [[Mindset]] oder [[AC Propulsion]]. Sie setzen beide auf Generatoren, die bei Bedarf in oder an das Elektroauto angebaut werden können, wobei Mindset die Entwicklung seines Elektroautoprojektes 2009 weitgehend eingestellt hat.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spirtavert.com/pdf/MIND_PR_Interim_Report_2009_de.pdf Halbjahresbericht 2009]{{dead link|date=September 2011}} (PDF) Mindset Holding, 22. September 2009 (insb. Seite 8, Kapitel „Fortführung“)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20100221051343/http://www.zisch.ch/navigation/top_main_nav/nachrichten/zentralschweiz/luzern/detail.htm?client_request_className=NewsItem&amp;client_request_contentOID=331417 ''Geldnöte: Machtkämpfe erschüttern Mindset''.] In: ''[[Neue Luzerner Zeitung]]'', zisch.ch, 16. Februar 2010&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.zisch.ch/navigation/top_main_nav/nachrichten/zentralschweiz/luzern/detail.htm?client_request_className=NewsItem&amp;client_request_contentOID=333582 ''Elektroautos: Mindset schreibt tiefrote Zahlen''.]{{dead link|date=September 2011}} In: ''Luzerner Zeitung'', zisch.ch, 1. April 2010&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Als Alternative zu Benzin- oder Dieselgeneratoren werden [[Brennstoffzelle]]n als Energielieferant gesehen. Dieser stehen gegenwärtig aber die Nachteile der Brennstoffzelle wie geringe Lebensdauer, hohen Kosten, fehlendes Tankstellennetzwerk und geringe Reichweite entgegen (siehe auch [[Brennstoffzellenfahrzeug]]).<br /> <br /> Bei [[Niedrigenergiefahrzeug]]en kann auch über Solarzellen die Reichweite vergrößert werden. Ein zusätzlicher Pedalantrieb bei Leichtfahrzeugen kann einen reinen Elektroantrieb unterstützen (zum Beispiel [[Twike]]).<br /> <br /> === Fahrzeugemissionen ===<br /> Elektroautos sind als [[Emissionsfreies Fahrzeug|emissionsfreie Fahrzeuge]] insbesondere dort sinnvoll, wo es gilt, lokale Schadstoffemissionen zu reduzieren (z.&amp;nbsp;B. zur Bekämpfung von [[Smog]]). Sie erfüllen die &quot;zero emission&quot;-Vorschriften, die in [[Kalifornien]] seit 1990 zur Luftreinhaltung gelten.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/zevprog.htm California Air Resources Board]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Beim [[Straßenverkehrslärm|Verkehrslärm]] lassen sich zum Teil [[Lärmbekämpfung|Lärmminderungen]] erreichen. Elektromotoren sind zumeist sehr leise, was daran liegt, dass sie keine lauten explosionsartigen Verbrennungen zur mechanischen Energieerzeugung, wie zum Beispiel Dieselmotoren, nutzen. Lärmreduzierungen machen sich hier vor allem bei [[Lastkraftwagen]] und motorbetriebenen [[Zweirad|Zweirädern]] bemerkbar. Die zunehmend dominierenden [[Reifen-Fahrbahn-Geräusch]]e entsprechen dagegen denen üblicher Antriebe. Etwa 50 % der Bevölkerung sind derart durch Verkehrslärm beeinträchtigt, dass Schäden an Körper und Psyche zu befürchten sind. 15 % sind sogar gefährdet, Herz-Kreislaufprobleme davon zu tragen.&lt;ref name=&quot;VDE_2010_8&quot;&gt; VDE: '' Elektrofahrzeuge: Bedeutung, Stand der Technik, Handlungsbedarf,.'' Frankfurt 2010, S. 8.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Feinstaub]]-Emissionen bleiben nur gering durch [[Reifen]]abrieb und [[Bremse|Bremsvorgänge]] erhalten. Letztere werden teilweise durch [[Rekuperation (Technik)|Energie-Rückgewinnungs-Systeme]] vermindert. Doch ein großer Teil würde durch die fehlenden Abgase der Verbrennungsmotoren verschwinden, die zu schweren Atemwegserkrankungen führen können.&lt;ref name=&quot;VDE_2010_8&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> Elektrofahrzeuge können je nach [[Primärenergie]]einsatz [[Emission (Umwelt)|Emissionen]] für ihren Betrieb vom Fahrzeug weg zu den [[Kraftwerk]]en verlagern, in denen der Strom für ihren Betrieb produziert wird. Sie können auch insgesamt stark verringert werden, wenn emissionsfreie oder [[Regenerative Energie|regenerative]] Primärenergien, wie [[Windenergie]], [[Photovoltaik]] oder [[Bioenergie]]n eingesetzt werden.<br /> <br /> Bei Betrachtungen zur Umwelt- und CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-Belastung muss die Produktion des für das Auto verwendeten Stroms betrachtet werden. Beispielsweise bedeutet der deutsche [[Strommix]] 2007 eine CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-Emission von 550 Gramm CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; pro kWh. Bei dieser Betrachtungsweise ist die Klimabilanz von Elektroautos in Deutschland in etwa gleich wie bei Autos mit Verbrennungsmotor.&lt;ref&gt;Martin Pehnt et al.: [http://www.wupperinst.org/uploads/tx_wiprojekt/Energiebalance-AP5.pdf ''Elektromobilität und Erneuerbare Energien''] (PDF) Arbeitspapier Nr. 5 im Rahmen des Projekts „Energiebalance&amp;nbsp;…“; Wuppertal-Institut für Klima, Umwelt, Energie, S. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Bei Verwendung von [[Ökostrom]] schneiden Elektroautos deutlich besser ab.<br /> <br /> === Elektronische Schnellabschaltung gegen Stromschlag als Unfallschutz ===<br /> Nicht wenige Elektroautos besitzen &quot;Hochvolt&quot;-Technik an Bord (welche Spannungen im &quot;oberen Niederspannungsbereich&quot; anliegen lässt), was oftmals konstruktiv gewollt ist, um hohe Leistungen bei relativ kleinen Strömen beziehen zu können - bei einer gleichzeitigen Inkaufnahme von hohen [[Betriebsspannung]]en an [[Traktionsbatterie]] und [[Leistungselektronik]]. Um bei Unfallereignissen Fahrzeuginsassen, Helfer und Rettungskräfte vor [[Stromschlag|Stromschlägen]] zu schützen, muss eine Erschütterungssensor-gesteuerte Abschaltelektronik innerhalb von 150 Millisekunden nach dem Aufprall die Batterie vom Auto-internen [[Stromnetz]] trennen können. Dies gilt als technische Maßgabe, resultierend aus einschlägigen [[Unfallverhütungsvorschrift]]en, die international Beachtung finden. &lt;ref&gt;Ralf Awitt: [http://www.alternative-motion.de/magazin/news/3121/probleme_mit_hybrid-_und_elektroautos.html ''Probleme mit Hybrid- und Elektroautos'']{{dead link|date=September 2011}} AlternativeMotion-Internetportal, 30. August 2010&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Wirtschaftlichkeit ==<br /> Den sehr niedrigen Betriebskosten von Elektrofahrzeugen stehen noch hohe Anschaffungskosten infolge teurer Kleinserienfertigung gegenüber. Der Energiebedarf des I-MiEV beträgt im Betrieb 10,7&amp;nbsp;kWh pro 100&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.emission-zero.de/mitsubishi.php?ref=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.de%2Furl%3Fsa%3Dt%26source%3Dweb%26cd%3D1%26ved%3D0CBkQFjAA%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.emission-zero.de%252Fmitsubishi.php%26rct%3Dj%26q%3Di-miev%2520verbrauch%252010%252C7%26ei%3DEyRuTrfPOMTGswaJm_37BA%26usg%3DAFQjCNEndRWkIAXgP-Fucv2MUyd1R7rnsQ&amp;scr=1280x1024 ''Mitsubishi i MiEV'']. Website von emission-zero. Abgerufen am 12. September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt; Diese Menge kostete am 1. März 2011 bei den Stadtwerken in Clausthal-Zellerfeld 2,60 €.<br /> <br /> Die Akkumulatoren verursachen einen großen Teil der Anschaffungskosten, sie besitzen eine begrenzte Lebensdauer und müssen nach einigen Jahren ersetzt werden. Eine Kilowattstunde elektrische Speicherkapazität kostet bei Verwendung von Lithium-Ionen-Zellen derzeit 700 bis 1000 Euro.&lt;ref name=&quot;ratgeberelektromobilitaet&quot;&gt;[http://www.energietarife.com/index.php?elektro-autos energietarife.com:] Elektromobilität: Die Autos der Zukunft schon heute&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Bleiakkumulator]]en sind deutlich kostengünstiger, haben allerdings eine beschränkte Lebensdauer zwischen 5.000 und 50.000&amp;nbsp;km. Die mittlerweile verbotenen [[Nickel-Cadmium-Akkumulator]]en waren teuer, hatten dafür aber eine sehr hohe Lebensdauer, die erfahrungsgemäß zwischen 100.000 und 250.000&amp;nbsp;km lag.<br /> <br /> Beispiel: Der [[CityEL]] ist ein elektrisches [[Leichtkraftfahrzeug]] mit Platz für eine Person. Mit Bleiakkumulatoren beträgt seine übliche Reichweite zwischen 40 und 60&amp;nbsp;km, mit [[Nickel-Cadmium-Akkumulator]]en steigt sie auf etwa 70-80&amp;nbsp;km. Ein Versuch mit Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulatoren brachte eine Reichweite von etwa 300&amp;nbsp;km. Die Anschaffungskosten dafür betrugen allerdings schon etwa 5000&amp;nbsp;€. Bei diesem Versuch war die maximale Beladung mit Akkumulatoren jedoch noch nicht erreicht; würde man diese &lt;!-- ist das so gemeint, dass man dann kein Gepäck mehr mitnehmen könnte?--&gt;vollständig ausnutzen, wären etwa 450&amp;nbsp;km pro Ladung möglich.<br /> <br /> Schon jetzt werden bei modernen Elektrofahrzeugen mit Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulatoren die erheblichen Mehrkosten für den Akkumulator durch den höheren Gesamtwirkungsgrad und die dadurch erheblich niedrigeren Energiekosten weitgehend ausgeglichen.<br /> <br /> === Zyklusfestigkeit der Akkusysteme ===<br /> Aufgrund der hohen Preise für die Akkumulatoren hängt die Wirtschaftlichkeit des Elektroautos entscheidend von der [[Zyklusfestigkeit]] der Akkus ab, d.&amp;nbsp;h. wie oft sie wiederaufgeladen werden können, ehe sie unbrauchbar werden.<br /> <br /> Erfahrungen mit Akkus im [[schnurlosen Telefon]] und in Computern haben gezeigt, dass ihre Lebensdauer wesentlich von guter Beschaltung abhängt. [[Batteriemanagementsystem]]e (BMS) sind bei Akkumulatoren mit vielen Zellen unabdingbar. Sie verhindern die schädliche und eventuell sicherheitskritische Überladung oder [[Tiefentladung]] der Akkuzellen. Sehr zu empfehlen ist die Überwachung jeder einzelnen Zelle, damit reagiert werden kann, bevor weitere Zellen geschädigt werden.<br /> <br /> Damit beim Ausfall einer einzelnen Zelle nicht das gesamte Akkusystem erneuert werden muss, sollten diese einzeln austauschbar sein.<br /> <br /> == Marktentwicklung ==<br /> Studien gehen davon aus, dass die Ära des Verbrennungsmotors aus Kostengründen zu Ende geht und er eventuell durch den Elektromotor ersetzt wird.&lt;ref name=&quot;gm-volt&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.3sat.de/nano/astuecke/123388/index.html nano 3sat] Elektroautos werden von 2015 an zum Massenphänomen&lt;/ref&gt; Der Vorstandsvorsitzende von VW [[Martin Winterkorn]] sieht im Elektroauto die Zukunft der Automobilindustrie.&lt;ref name=&quot;winterkornElektroautoIstDieZukunft&quot;&gt;[http://www.spiegel.de/wirtschaft/0,1518,559897,00.html spiegel.de:] VW-Chef Winterkorn sieht im Elektroauto die Zukunft der Automobilindustrie.&lt;/ref&gt; Teilweise wird schon ein Elektroauto-Boom gesehen, wobei der prognostizierte Marktanteil bei VW für 2020 auf nur 2 bis 3 % geschätzt wird.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/0,1518,560422,00.html spiegel.de:] ELEKTROAUTO-BOOM: Eine Branche unter Strom&lt;/ref&gt; Auch Daimler-Entwicklungsvorstand [[Thomas Weber (Ingenieur)|Thomas Weber]] meint, dass der Elektroantrieb die Zukunftstechnologie schlechthin sei.&lt;ref name=&quot;weberElektroautoZukunftstechnologie&quot;&gt;[http://www.wiwo.de/technik/das-ist-die-zukunftstechnologie-schlechthin-298652/ wirtschaftswoche.de:] Thomas Weber im Interview: &quot;Das ist die Zukunftstechnologie schlechthin&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> === Deutschland ===<br /> Deutschland kann auf eine langjährige Tradition im Elektro-Automobilbau zurückblicken. <br /> Vor über 100 Jahre gab es in Deutschland schon ca. 30 Automobilfirmen, die Elektroautos produzierten.<br /> Nur zwei Jahre nach &quot;125 Jahre Automobil&quot; kann Deutschland 2013 '''&quot;125 Jahre deutsches Elektroauto&quot;''' feiern.<br /> Laut dem Entwicklungsplan Elektromobilität sollen bis 2020 eine Million Elektrofahrzeuge auf deutschen Straßen unterwegs sein. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.wissen-elektroauto.de/2010-06-22/elektroautos-als-speicher-im-netz-zum-rueckspeisen-nutzen/&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> === Europa ===<br /> Die britische Labour-Regierung verkündet einen Plan, der die Einführung von Elektroautos durch massive staatliche Fördermaßnahmen unterstützen und damit die CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-Ziele erreichen helfen soll.&lt;ref&gt;Alok Jha: [http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/apr/16/green-cars-transport-incentives-emissions/print ''Labour’s £5,000 sweetener to launch electric car revolution. Ultra-green vehicles at heart of £250m plan to slash UK's carbon emissions''] The Guardian 16. April 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Der Markt für Elektroautos ist entgegen der Medienpräsenz des Themas klein. Bei insgesamt 3,8 Mio. Neuzulassungen 2009 wurden nur 162 Elektroautos neu in den Verkehr gebracht (2008: 36 Neuzulassungen). Am Jahresende 2009 waren in Deutschland 1588 solcher Fahrzeuge zugelassen.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kba.de/cln_015/nn_269000/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Bestand/EmissionenKraftstoffe/2010__b__emi__eckdaten__absolut.html Statistik des KBA zum 1. Januar 2010]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kba.de/cln_005/nn_191064/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Neuzulassungen/EmissionenKraftstoffe/2009__n__emi__eckdaten__absolut.html KBA: Neuzulassungen 2009]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kba.de/nn_191064/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Neuzulassungen/EmissionenKraftstoffe/2008__n__emi__eckdaten.html KBA: Neuzulassungen 2008]&lt;/ref&gt; Im Jahr 2010 wurden 541 Elektroautos neu zugelassen.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kba.de/cln_005/nn_191064/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Neuzulassungen/EmissionenKraftstoffe/2010__n__emi__eckdaten__absolut.html KBA: Neuzulassungen 2010]&lt;/ref&gt; Am Jahresende 2010 waren damit 2307 Elektroautos zugelassen. Zusätzlich waren 37.256 Hybrid-Fahrzeuge registriert.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kba.de/cln_015/nn_269000/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Bestand/EmissionenKraftstoffe/2011__b__emi__eckdaten__absolut.html Statistik des KBA zum 1.Januar 2011]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In Deutschland sollen laut eines Beschlusses der Bundesregierung aus dem Jahr 2009 bis 2020 eine Million Elektroautos fahren. Dieses Vorhaben hat auch Bundeskanzlerin Merkel im Monat Mai 2011 bekräftigt und stellte eine noch stärkere Förderung ab 2012 in Aussicht. Heute kann man Elektrofahrzeuge, die in Serie (zumeist in Handarbeit) hergestellt werden, von verschiedenen Herstellern käuflich erwerben (siehe [[Liste der Elektroautos]]).<br /> <br /> === China ===<br /> [[Datei:BYD Electric Taxi.jpg|miniatur|Elektrotaxi in Shenzhen (BYD e6)]]<br /> <br /> Wie die ''[[New York Times]]'' Anfang 2009 meldete, hat die chinesische Regierung einen Plan angenommen, der [[Volksrepublik China|China]] binnen drei Jahren zum Weltmarktführer in der Produktion von teilweise und gänzlich mit Elektroenergie betriebenen Kraftfahrzeugen machen soll.&lt;ref&gt;Keith Bradsher: [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/02/business/global/02electric.html?hp=&amp;pagewanted=print ''China Vies to Be World’s Leader in Electric Cars''] New York Times, 1. April 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Führend sind in China dabei die Unternehmen [[BYD Auto|BYD]] (Shenzhen) mit den Modellen f3DM (Dualmodus) und [[BYD e6|e6]] sowie [[Geely]] (Hangzhou) mit dem Elektro-Modell Panda. In Hongkong wurde 2009 das Elektroauto MyCar vorgestellt, das von der EuAuto Technology Limited zusammen mit der Hongkong Polytec University entwickelt wurde. Das ebenso zur Hongkonger Mei Lun Group gehörende Unternehmen Bente produziert mehrere Elektroautos in der Provinz Anhui.<br /> <br /> In China hat die Regierung im Jahr 2008 eine Kampagne unter dem Motto „Zehn Städte, Eintausend Fahrzeuge“ gestartet.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/ ''Power point to boost green buses and cars''.] In: ''China Daily'' 8./9. Mai 2010, S. 4&lt;/ref&gt; Mit dem Plan einer Inbetriebnahme von 1000 Fahrzeugen jedes Jahr in mindestens zehn Städten sollen die Menschen zum Kauf von Elektroautos angeregt werden. Am 17. Mai 2010 wurden die ersten 30 Elektroautos vom Typ [[BYD e6|e6]] von BYD als Taxis in Shenzhen in Betrieb genommen. Bis Jahresende soll die Anzahl auf 100 erhöht werden.&lt;ref&gt;[http://nf.nfdaily.cn/nfrb/content/2010-05/18/content_12005417.htm ''Elektrotaxis in Shenzhen in Betrieb genommen''.] In: Nanfangdaily.com, 18. Mai 2010 (chinesisch)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Während der [[Expo 2010]] werden für den Verkehr auf dem Expo-Gelände 120 Elektrobusse von Volvo sowie 100 kleinere Elektro-Spezialfahrzeuge NAC der Nanjing Automobile Group mit 4–11 Sitzen eingesetzt. Der Ladevorgang an der Hauptladestelle dauert bei den Bussen 8 Stunden, womit eine Reichweite von 100 Kilometern erreicht wird. Ferner ist der Austausch der Akkus möglich. An den Haltestellen in der Expo-Avenue ist ein kurzzeitiges Aufladen bis zu 5 Minuten möglich. Nach der Expo sollen diese Busse in Shanghai zum Einsatz kommen.&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20100523204113/http://www.shanghaidaily.com/sp/article/2010/201004/20100415/article_434303.htm ''Electric Expo buses start trial runs''.] In: ''Shanghai Daily'', 15. April 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;gallery&gt;<br /> Datei:BYD 02.JPG|BYDs f3DM mit Dualantrieb auf der High-Tech-Fair in Shenzhen, November 2009<br /> Datei:BYD 03.JPG|BYDs Elektroauto e6 auf der High-Tech-Fair in Shenzhen, November 2009<br /> Datei:Geely Panda Electrocar.JPG|Geelys Elektroauto Panda 2009<br /> Datei:MyCar Hongkong.JPG|Hongkonger Elektroauto MyCar 2009<br /> &lt;/gallery&gt;<br /> <br /> === Vereinigte Staaten ===<br /> Im Jahr 2011 waren in Texas und Kalifornien bereits zehn E-Busse im Betrieb. Bei den eingesetzten Fahrzeugen &quot;kann das Nachladen auch direkt an ausgewählten Haltestellen erfolgen, während Passagiere aus- und einsteigen&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url= http://www.heise.de/tr/artikel/Der-E-Bus-der-Zukunft-1263030.html|title= Nähert sich ein Bus einer Ladestation, übernimmt diese mittels drahtloser Kommunikation die Kontrolle über das Fahrzeug und stoppt es, wenn es sich genau unter dem Ladebügel befindet. Auf diese Weise kann das Nachladen auch direkt an ausgewählten Haltestellen erfolgen, während Passagiere aus- und einsteigen |accessdate=2011-06-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Energiewirtschaftliche Aspekte und Elektromobilität ==<br /> {{Hauptartikel|Elektromobilität}}<br /> <br /> [[Elektromobilität]] ist ein politisches Schlagwort, das vor dem Hintergrund der Nutzung von Elektrofahrzeugen für den Personen- und Güterverkehr, sowie der Bereitstellung der zum Aufladen am Stromnetz benötigten Infrastruktur ([[Stromtankstelle]]n) genutzt wird.<br /> Das Wort Elektromobilität ist auch ein Sammelbegriff für die Besonderheiten (z.&amp;nbsp;B. Einschränkungen), die Elektrofahrzeuge im Alltag bislang haben.<br /> <br /> Weltweit gibt es einige Orte, in denen Kraftfahrzeuge mit Verbrennungsmotoren nicht zugelassen sind und die oft als [[autofrei]] bezeichnet werden. Dazu zählen beispielsweise verschiedene schweizerischen Orte. Zugelassen sind dort häufig nur Elektrofahrzeuge. Von diesen zumeist kleinen und schmalen Elektrofahrzeugen sind jedoch viele unterwegs, für Handwerker, als Lieferfahrzeuge, als Taxis oder Hotelzubringer. Auch auf den deutschen Nordsee-Inseln [[Helgoland]], [[Juist]] und [[Wangerooge]] besteht gemäß [[Straßenverkehrs-Ordnung (Deutschland)|StVO]] ein grundsätzliches Fahrzeugverbot. Die wenigen Fahrzeuge, die auf der Insel verkehren dürfen, sind überwiegend Elektrofahrzeuge.<br /> <br /> === Ladestationen und Infrastruktur ===<br /> <br /> [[Datei:Eletric fuel station.jpg|miniatur|links|[[Stromtankstelle]] in Freiburg im Breisgau]]<br /> [[Datei:Elektrotankstelle Reykjavik 1.jpg|miniatur|Stromtankstelle in [[Reykjavík]]]]<br /> [[Datei:Elektrotankstelle Reykjavik 2.jpg|miniatur|Verkehrsschild: Hinweis auf Stromtankstelle (Reykjavík)]]<br /> <br /> Prinzipiell können die meisten Elektroautos (zumindest im normalen langsamen Lademodus) an jeder Steckdose aufgeladen werden.<br /> Eine normale sogenannte Schukosteckdose liefert bis 16 [[Ampere]] x 230 [[Volt]] = ca. 3,6 [[Watt (Einheit)|kW]], eine sogenannte Kraftsteckdose mit drei Phasen das Dreifache, ca. 10 kW.<br /> Es ist damit zu rechnen, dass mit steigender Verbreitung von Elektroautos Arbeitgeber, Restaurants und größere Einzelhändler Lademöglichkeiten anbieten werden, eine standardisierte Abrechnungsmöglichkeit sollte es dazu geben.<br /> <br /> Das Netz von öffentlich zugänglichen Akkuladestellen für Elektrofahrzeuge ist jedoch bisher sehr dünn und lange Ladezeiten der Akkumulatoren erfordern bei längeren Reisen eine sorgfältige Weg- und Zeitplanung. Seit einigen Jahren gibt es das ursprünglich in der Schweiz entstandene [[Park &amp; Charge]]-System der öffentlichen Stromtankstellen für E-Mobile. Die Tankstellen sind über einen europaweit einheitlichen Schlüssel zugänglich und liefern je nach Ausführung und Absicherung standardmäßig 3,5&amp;nbsp;kW oder 10&amp;nbsp;kW. Eine Authentifizierung über weit verbreitete Bankomatkarten ist jedoch auch eine mögliche Lösung.<br /> <br /> Wechselakkusysteme wurden nur in seltenen Fällen eingerichtet, meistens für lokal gebundene Flottenfahrzeuge. Jedoch gibt es in Ländern wie [[Israel]] und [[Dänemark]] große Projekte für ein Netz von Ladestationen und Akkuwechselstationen, beispielsweise das der Firma [[Better Place]]. Die Akkus gehören hier der Akkuwechselstation und werden auf Basis eines Pfandsystems ausgetauscht.<br /> <br /> Eine weitere Variante Elektroautos zu laden, ist das Ladesystem in die Fahrbahn einzubauen und so während der Fahrt, auf einem einige Kilometer langen Abschnitt der Straße, oder beim Parken mittels [[Elektromagnetische Induktion|Induktion]] berührungsfrei Energie zu übertragen.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.iav.com/de/index.php?we_objectID=15760 Ingenieurgesellschaft Auto und Verkehr: Strom aus der Straße - Vision berührungslose Energieversorgung von Elektroautos]&lt;/ref&gt; Diese Systeme werden bisher hauptsächlich im geschlossenen industriellen Bereich realisiert, weil im normalen Straßenverkehr viel zu geringe Strommengen übertragen werden können.<br /> <br /> Zuletzt kann auch eine berührungshafte (Oberleitung) oder berührungslose (induktiv) Ladung an Haltepunkten erfolgen, z.&amp;nbsp;B. an Bushaltestellen.<br /> <br /> === Energieversorgung ===<br /> [[Datei:EWE E3 01.JPG|miniatur|[[EWE AG|EWE]] E3]]<br /> <br /> 2006 verbrauchte der gesamte Personenverkehr auf der Straße 488 TWh Primärenergie.&lt;ref&gt;Umwelt Bundesamt, 'DATEN ZUM VERKEHR', Ausgabe 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Wegen der Wirkungsgradverluste beim Verbrennungsmotor entspricht dies etwa einer Energiemenge von rund 163 TWh, die durch Batterien eines Elektroantriebs bereitgestellt werden müsste. Im Vergleich zur Bruttostromerzeugung 2009 in Deutschland von 597 TWh&lt;ref&gt;Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und<br /> Technologie, 'Energie in Deutschland-Trends und Hintergründe zur Energieversorgung', Stand August 2010&lt;/ref&gt; müsste also durch die vollständige Elektrifizierung des PKW-Parks die Stromerzeugung um etwa 27% gesteigert werden.<br /> <br /> Im Falle der von der Bundesregierung für 2020 angestrebten Zahl von einer Million Elektroautos, was einem Anteil von etwa 2 % aller Fahrzeuge entspricht, sind rund 3 TWh an elektrischer Energie aufzubringen, was einem halben Prozent des derzeitigen deutschen Strombedarfs entspricht. Der gesamte, deutschlandweite elektrobetriebene [[öffentlicher Nahverkehr|öffentliche Nah-]] und [[Fernverkehr]] benötigt rund 15 TWh Strom pro Jahr, entsprechend knapp 3 % des Bruttostromverbrauchs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elektroautoverbrauch&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author = Löser, R. | title = Autos der Zukunft (Serie, Teil III): Elektroautos die rollenden Stromspeicher | year = 2009 | journal = [[Spektrum der Wissenschaft]] | volume = 04/09 | issue = | pages = 96-103 | pmid = }}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Eine Elektromobilität, die auf erneuerbare Energien gestützt ist, soll die Umweltbelastung durch den Straßenverkehr deutlich verringern. Der Energiebedarf eines Elektrofahrzeugs kann durch Solarstrom, Windenergie oder Wasserkraft gedeckt werden.<br /> <br /> Eine binnengestützte Windkraftanlage speist pro Jahr etwa 1,75 GWh pro MW Nennleistung ins Netz ein. Bei einem Verbrauch eines Elektrofahrzeugs von 15&amp;nbsp; kWh auf 100&amp;nbsp;km&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20090218133242/http://teslamotors.com/efficiency/well_to_wheel.php Tesla Motors Website], abgerufen am 17. August 2009&lt;/ref&gt; kann eine 2&amp;nbsp;MW-Anlage den Energiebedarf von 1400 bis 1600 Elektrofahrzeugen decken. Bei Baukosten von Windkraftanlagen von etwa 1 Mio € pro MW Nennleistung belaufen sich die einmaligen anteiligen Kosten für jedes Elektrofahrzeug auf 1200 bis 1400 €.<br /> <br /> Das Konzept [[Vehicle to Grid]] (Fahrzeug im Netz) sieht vor, die Energiespeicher in Elektro- und [[Hybridelektrokraftfahrzeug|Hybridautos]] für das öffentliche Stromnetz nutzbar zu machen, da auch Elektroautos mehr parken als fahren und die meiste Zeit mit einer Ladestation verbunden sein können. So können die Schwankungen bei der Erzeugung von Elektrizität aus erneuerbaren Energien gepuffert, oder [[Spitzenlast]]en ausgeglichen werden. Dies erhöht allerdings den Akkumulatorenverschleiß, was durch ein entsprechendes Abrechnungsmodell ausgeglichen werden kann.<br /> <br /> Um damit die komplette Pufferkapazität der deutschen [[Pumpspeicherkraftwerk]]e (etwa 37,7GWh) zu erreichen, müssten sich etwa 3,77 Mio. Elektrofahrzeuge mit je 10kWh ihrer Batteriekapazität beteiligen.&lt;ref&gt;3,77Mio * 10kWh = 37,7GWh&lt;/ref&gt; Bei oben angegebenen 15kWh/100km entspricht das ca. 65km Reichweite. Eine Umstellung des kompletten deutschen PKW-Bestands von ca. 42 Mio. Autos&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kba.de/cln_030/nn_191172/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Bestand/FahrzeugklassenAufbauarten/2011__b__fzkl__eckdaten__absolut.html KBA Statistik: Fahrzeugklassen und Aufbauarten - Deutschland und seine Länder am 1. Januar 2011]&lt;/ref&gt; auf Elektroautos würde also diese Pufferkapazität schon ergeben, wenn im Schnitt jedes Fahrzeug nur 1kWh (entsprechend 6,5km Reichweite) volatil im Netz zur Verfügung stellt.&lt;ref&gt;42Mio * 1kWh = 42GWh &amp;gt; 37,7GWh&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Aktuell (2011) erhältliche Elektro-Kleinwagen haben in der Praxis einen Verbrauch von im Schnitt weniger als 13kWh/100km.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spritmonitor.de/de/uebersicht/31-Mitsubishi/0-Alle_Modelle.html?fueltype=5&amp;vehicletype=1&amp;constyear_s=2009&amp;constyear_e=2013&amp;power_s=44&amp;power_e=54&amp;minkm=1 Durchschnittsverbrauch Mitsubishi iMiev auf Spritmonitor.de]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> === Verkehrsfinanzierung und Steuern ===<br /> Mit einem zunehmenden Anteil von Elektrofahrzeugen am Straßenverkehr wird es zu einem Umbau der Straßenfinanzierung kommen. Derzeit werden in Deutschland auf Kraftstoffe [[Energiesteuer]]n (früher: Mineralölsteuer) erhoben, die auch dem Ausbau und Erhalt des Straßennetzes dienen sollen. Diese betragen bei [[Motorenbenzin|Benzin]] derzeit 7,3 Ct/kWh (bezogen auf den Heizwert Hu) oder rund 80 Ct/kg. Um diese Steuereinnahmen zu erhalten, müsste auch für Strom, der zum Antrieb von Fahrzeugen verwendet wird, eine entsprechende Steuer erhoben werden. Strom ist in Deutschland heute zu etwa 40 % mit Steuern und Abgaben belastet, was bei Haushaltsstrom etwa 8 Ct/kWh entspricht. Aufgrund des geringeren Energiebedarfs des Elektrofahrzeugs ergibt sich eine deutliche Verringerung der Steuereinnahmen pro gefahrenem Kilometer. Bei steigendem Bestand an Elektrofahrzeugen ergeben sich mit den derzeitigen Steuersätzen also Mindereinnahmen für den Staatshaushalt.<br /> <br /> == Siehe auch ==<br /> * [[Liste der Elektroautos]]<br /> * [[Alternative Antriebstechnik]]<br /> * [[Hybridelektrokraftfahrzeug]]<br /> * [[Elektromotorrad]]<br /> <br /> == Literatur ==<br /> * Erich Sauer: ''Elektroauto: Neue energietechnische Aspekte, Betriebsverhalten, Umweltschutz.'' Verlag TÜV Rheinland, Köln 1985, ISBN 3-88585-215-2<br /> * Jean-Régis Hadji-Minaglou: ''Antriebskonzepte mit permanenterregten Synchronmotoren für den Einsatz im Elektrofahrzeug.'' Verlag A. H. Shaker, Aachen (zugleich Dissertation TH Aachen) 1994, ISBN 3-8265-0314-7<br /> * B. Willer, R. Knorr: ''Test und Beurteilung existierender Bordladegeräte für Elektrostraßenfahrzeuge.'' (FAT-Schriftenreihe Nr. 145) Forschungsvereinigung Automobiltechnik (FAT), Frankfurt am Main 1999<br /> * Andreas Reif: ''Entwicklung eines integrierten automatisiert schaltenden Getriebes zum Einsatz in Elektrostraßenfahrzeugen.'' (Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Reihe 12, Bd. 477) VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf (zugleich Dissertation U Kaiserslautern) 2001, ISBN 3-18-347712-2<br /> * Sandeep Dhameja: ''Electric vehicle battery systems.'' Newnes, Boston 2002, ISBN 0-7506-9916-7 (in englischer Sprache)<br /> * James Larminie, John Lowry: ''Electric vehicle technology explained.'' Wiley, Chichester 2003, ISBN 0-470-85163-5 (in englischer Sprache)<br /> * Günter Götting: ''Dynamische Antriebsregelung von Elektrostraßenfahrzeugen unter Berücksichtigung eines schwingungsfähigen Antriebstrangs.'' Verlag A. H. Shaker, Aachen (zugleich Dissertation TH Aachen) 2004, ISBN 3-8322-2804-7<br /> * Oskar Wallmark: ''Control of permanent-magnet synchronous machines in automotive applications.'' Dissertation. Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg 2006 ISBN 91-7291-846-2 (in englischer Sprache)<br /> * Klaus Hofer: ''Elektrotraktion: elektrische Antriebe in Fahrzeugen.'' VDE-Verlag, Berlin 2006, ISBN 978-3-8007-2860-2<br /> * Gerhard Babiel: ''Elektrische Antriebe in der Fahrzeugtechnik: Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch.'' 2. verb. und erw. Auflage, Vieweg+Teubner, Wiesbaden 2009, ISBN 978-3-8348-0563-8<br /> * Franz W. Peren, Nicola Sundermann, Beate Wittop: ''Das Elektroauto und sein Markt.'', Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1997, ISBN 978-3-5933-5700-3<br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> *{{Commonscat|Electrically-powered automobiles}}<br /> *{{Wikinews|Portal:Elektroautos}}<br /> <br /> Elektromobilität:<br /> * [http://www.dgs.de/fileadmin/files/FASM/TE-120.pdf dgs.de, Studie zur Elektromobilität] (PDF; 124 kB)<br /> * [http://www.cleanthinking.de/elektroauto-geschichte/ Geschichte des Elektroautos]<br /> * [http://www.siemens.de/elektromobilitaet/elektromobilitaet.html Elektromobilität, Siemens AG mit Download des 2. NPE-Berichts als pdf vom 16. Mai 2011]<br /> <br /> Studien, Allgemeines:<br /> * [http://www.ffe.de/taetigkeitsfelder/mobilitaet-und-alternative-antriebskonzepte/82-elektrostrassenfahrzeuge Studie über die elektrizitätswirtschaftliche Einbindung von Elektrostraßenfahrzeugen]<br /> * [http://www.agenda21-treffpunkt.de/lexikon/Elektroauto.htm Klimabilanz und Nachhaltigkeit von Elektroautos: Agenda21-Treffpunkt]<br /> <br /> <br /> Sonstiges:<br /> * [http://vorort.bund.net/suedlicher-oberrhein/elektromobilitaet-elektroauto.html Elektroauto: Eine Kritik des BUND und der Umweltverbände]<br /> * [http://www.dctp.tv/nzz-mobile-welt/grosse-hoffnung-leere-batterien NZZ Format: Video zur Geschichte des Elektroautos (30 min)]<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> <br /> == Anmerkungen ==<br /> &lt;references group=&quot;Anmerkung&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Kategorie:Antriebstechnik]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Umwelttechnik]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Automobilbauart]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Elektrischer Fahrzeugantrieb]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Elektroauto| ]]<br /> <br /> [[ar:سيارة كهربائية]]<br /> [[bg:Електрическа кола]]<br /> [[cs:Elektromobil]]<br /> [[da:Elbil]]<br /> [[el:Ηλεκτρικό αυτοκίνητο]]<br /> [[en:Electric car]]<br /> [[eo:Elektra aŭtomobilo]]<br /> [[et:Elektriauto]]<br /> [[fa:خودروی برقی]]<br /> [[fi:Sähköauto]]<br /> [[fr:Voiture électrique]]<br /> [[hu:Elektromos autó]]<br /> [[id:Mobil listrik]]<br /> [[io:Elektromobilo]]<br /> [[it:Auto elettrica]]<br /> [[ja:電気自動車]]<br /> [[ka:ელექტრომობილი]]<br /> [[ko:전기자동차]]<br /> [[nl:Elektrische auto]]<br /> [[nn:Elbil]]<br /> [[no:Elbil]]<br /> [[ro:Automobil electric]]<br /> [[ru:Электромобиль]]<br /> [[sk:Elektromobil]]<br /> [[sl:Električni avtomobil]]<br /> [[sv:Elbil]]<br /> [[ta:மின் தானுந்து]]<br /> [[tr:Elektrikli otomobil]]<br /> [[uk:Електромобіль]]<br /> [[ur:برقی گاڑی]]<br /> [[zh:电动车]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Selbstdichtender_Treibstofftank&diff=95812148 Selbstdichtender Treibstofftank 2011-11-10T08:48:09Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Weblinks */</p> <hr /> <div>'''Selbstabdichtende Treibstofftanks''' wurden im [[Zweiter Weltkrieg|Zweiten Weltkrieg]] entwickelt, um insbesondere bei Tanks von [[Militärflugzeug]]en nach Beschuss den Verlust von Treibstoff und die Entzündung zu verhindern. Heute wird die Technik auch bei [[Motorsport]]fahrzeugen, bei gepanzerten [[Panzer|militärischen]] und [[Sonderschutzfahrzeug|zivilen]] Fahrzeugen verwendet.<br /> <br /> == Zweiter Weltkrieg ==<br /> Versuche, Treibstofftanks von Flugzeugen zu panzern, stellten sich wegen der Gewichtserhöhung schnell als undurchführbar heraus. Während der Untersuchungen von Schäden stellte sich heraus, dass die Austrittslöcher durch die ins Trudeln geratenen Projektile meist größer als die Einschusslöcher waren.<br /> <br /> Die erste Generation selbstabdichtender Tanks wurde von dem britischen Unternehmen ''Fireproof Tanks'' (heute Teil von [[GKN (Unternehmen)|GKN]]) entwickelt und in britischen Flugzeugen der Typen [[Supermarine Spitfire]], [[Hawker Hurricane]] und [[Avro Lancaster]] eingesetzt. Diese Tanks waren innen oder außen mit einer Schicht überzogen, die sich nach einem Treffer zusammenzog und so die Öffnung verschloss.<br /> <br /> Ab Ende 1939 wurde bei deutschen Jagdflugzeugen und Bombern standardmäßig ein Verfahren eingesetzt, das aus drei den Tank auskleidenden Schichten bestand. Von innen nach außen waren dies:<br /> *3 mm [[Leder|Chrom-Leder]]<br /> *3 mm nicht [[Vulkanisation|vulkanisiertes]] Gummi<br /> *0,5 mm leicht vulkanisiertes Gummi<br /> Trat nach einem Durchschuss Treibstoff aus dem Tank aus, so setzte dieser eine chemische Reaktion in Gang, die das nicht vulkanisierte Gummi quellen ließ und so den Tank abdichtete. Als jedoch die [[Royal Air Force]] die [[Hispano-Suiza HS.404|20-mm-Hispano Kanone]] als Jägerbewaffnung einführte, war dieses Verfahren nicht mehr in der Lage, die entstehenden großen Beschusslöcher abzudichten.&lt;ref&gt;Alfred Price: ''Heinkel He 111, International Air Power Review''. Vol. 26, S. 138&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> 1941 erhielt James Merrill, ein Chemiker von [[Goodyear Tire &amp; Rubber Company|Goodyear]] das Patent für ein dem deutschen sehr ähnliches Verfahren. Dabei handelte es sich um eine zweilagige Gummibeschichtung im Inneren des Tanks. Die innere Schicht aus [[Vulkanisierung|vulkanisiertem]] Gummi war für den Kraftstoff undurchlässig, während die zweite Schicht nicht vulkanisiert war. Wurde die undurchlässige Schicht zerstört, kam das nicht vulkanisierte Gummi mit dem Kraftstoff in Kontakt, quoll dadurch auf und verschloss die beschädigte Stelle. Dieses Funktionsprinzip setzte sich schließlich durch. Ab 1942 wurde der Tank zunächst in Flugzeuge vom Typ [[Chance Vought F4U]], später auch in andere Typen eingebaut. Ebenfalls 1942 entwickelte ''Fireproof Tanks'' den ersten flexiblen Flugzeugtank als Zusatztank für die Spitfire MkIX. Dieses Modell war ebenfalls selbstabdichtend und bestand aus verschiedenen Gummischichten. Zahlreiche Flugzeuge wurden mit den neuen Tanks ausgerüstet. Bis zum Ende des Krieges wurden aber weiterhin zahlreiche Flugzeuge mit konventionellen Tanks hergestellt.<br /> <br /> Die weitere Entwicklung während des Zweiten Weltkrieges konzentrierte sich darauf, die selbstabdichtenden Tanks auch widerstandsfähig gegen den plötzlichen Überdruck zu machen, der mit einem Geschosstreffer einhergeht.<br /> <br /> == Neuere Modelle ==<br /> Die meisten Militärflugzeuge verfügen heute über selbstabdichtende Tanks, wenn auch nur noch teilweise die Technik aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg verwendet wird. Insbesondere für Flugzeuge mit großen Flughöhen ist sie ungeeignet, weil die Tanks in diesem Fall unter Druck stehen müssen. Eine Alternative ist das [[Schaum|Ausschäumen]] beschädigter Tanks, wodurch in den einzelnen Schaumzellen keine ausreichend große Menge des Treibstoff-Luft-Gemisches verbleibt, um zu einer Explosion führen zu können. Alternativ können leere Tankzellen auch mit einem nicht brennbaren Gas befüllt werden, welches das explosive Treibstoffgas verdrängt oder unschädlich macht. Dieses Verfahren kommt unter anderem bei der [[Lockheed Martin F-22]] zum Einsatz.<br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> * [http://www.oocities.org/capecanaveral/hangar/8217/fgun/fgun-ar.html Emmanuel Gustin: ''Fighter Armour'' bei geocities.com] (englisch)<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Kategorie:Luftfahrttechnik|Selbstabdichtender Treibstofftank]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Kraftstoffbehälter]]<br /> <br /> [[en:Self-sealing fuel tank]]<br /> [[fr:Réservoir de carburant auto-obturant]]<br /> [[it:Serbatoio autosigillante]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GG_Allin&diff=95812091 GG Allin 2011-11-10T08:45:57Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>'''GG Allin''', mit bürgerlichem Namen '''Kevin Michael Jesus Allin''' (* [[29. August]] [[1956]] in [[Lancaster (New Hampshire)|Lancaster]], [[New Hampshire]], [[USA]]; † [[28. Juni]] [[1993]] in [[New York City|New York]]) war ein US-amerikanischer [[Rock (Musik)|Rock]]- und [[Punk (Musik)|Punkmusiker]].<br /> <br /> Seine Shows, die er ebenso wie seine Aufnahmen mit stets wechselnden Mitmusikern bestritt, waren extreme [[Performance (Kunst)|Performances]] unter Einbeziehung des Publikums; unter anderem attackierte er sein Publikum, verstümmelte sich selbst auf der Bühne, aß seine eigenen Exkremente oder masturbierte. <br /> <br /> Die Texte seiner Songs handelten meist von Gewalt, Menschenhass und brutalen sexuellen Phantasien mit Blut, Urin und Kot und schreckten selbst vor Kindervergewaltigungen und Mord und Vergewaltigung der eigenen Familie nicht zurück. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.oocities.org/ekx001/SXR.html Texte]&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> In den späten 1980ern und frühen 1990ern war er Gast vieler Talkshows, in denen er seine Vision einer Mission für den [[Rock ’n’ Roll]] kundtat: Er wollte ''„die Gefahr zurück zum Rock n Roll“'' bringen, den Krieg im Rock-’n’-Roll-Untergrund erklären und sein Vorhaben darstellen, dass er auf der Bühne [[Suizid]] begehen und einen möglichst großen Teil des Publikums &quot;mitnehmen&quot; wolle. <br /> <br /> Kevin Michael Allin alias GG Allin starb 1993 in New York nach einem vorzeitig abgebrochenen Konzert an einer Überdosis [[Heroin]]. <br /> <br /> == Veröffentlichungen ==<br /> <br /> === Alben (Auswahl) ===<br /> * ''Always Was, Is And Always Shall Be'' (als GG Allin and the Jabbers) - 1980<br /> * ''Eat My Fuc'' (als GG Allin and the Scumfucs) - 1983<br /> * ''You Give Love a Bad Name'' (als GG Allin and the Holy Men) - 1987<br /> * ''Freaks, Faggots, Drunks and Junkies'' - 1988<br /> * ''Murder Junkies'' (als GG Allin and [[Antiseen]]) - 1991<br /> * ''Brutality and Bloodshed for All'' (als GG Allin and the Murder Junkies) - 1993<br /> <br /> === Videos ===<br /> * ''Hated: GG Allin and the Murder Junkies'' - 1994 (Regie: [[Todd Phillips]])<br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> <br /> * [http://www.ggallin.com offizielle Website]<br /> * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u2LvZd_9aMU&amp;search=jerry%20springer Auftritt in der Jerry Springer Show (Video-Stream)]<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Allin, GG}}<br /> [[Kategorie:US-Amerikaner]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Rockmusiker]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Punk-Sänger]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Schlagzeuger]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Performancekünstler]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Pseudonym]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Mann]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Geboren 1956]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Gestorben 1993]]<br /> <br /> {{Personendaten<br /> |NAME=Allin, GG <br /> |ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Allin, Kevin Michael<br /> |KURZBESCHREIBUNG=US-amerikanischer Rock- und [[Punk]]musiker<br /> |GEBURTSDATUM=29. August 1956<br /> |GEBURTSORT=[[Lancaster (New Hampshire)|Lancaster]], [[New Hampshire]], [[USA]]<br /> |STERBEDATUM=28. Juni 1993<br /> |STERBEORT=[[New York City|New York]]<br /> }}<br /> <br /> [[da:GG Allin]]<br /> [[en:GG Allin]]<br /> [[es:GG Allin]]<br /> [[fi:GG Allin]]<br /> [[fr:GG Allin]]<br /> [[he:ג'י ג'י אלין]]<br /> [[hu:GG Allin]]<br /> [[it:GG Allin]]<br /> [[ja:GGアリン]]<br /> [[no:GG Allin]]<br /> [[pt:GG Allin]]<br /> [[ru:GG Allin]]<br /> [[sk:GG Allin]]<br /> [[sv:GG Allin]]<br /> [[uk:GG Allin]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Selbstdichtender_Treibstofftank&diff=95811997 Selbstdichtender Treibstofftank 2011-11-10T08:42:52Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Weblinks */</p> <hr /> <div>'''Selbstabdichtende Treibstofftanks''' wurden im [[Zweiter Weltkrieg|Zweiten Weltkrieg]] entwickelt, um insbesondere bei Tanks von [[Militärflugzeug]]en nach Beschuss den Verlust von Treibstoff und die Entzündung zu verhindern. Heute wird die Technik auch bei [[Motorsport]]fahrzeugen, bei gepanzerten [[Panzer|militärischen]] und [[Sonderschutzfahrzeug|zivilen]] Fahrzeugen verwendet.<br /> <br /> == Zweiter Weltkrieg ==<br /> Versuche, Treibstofftanks von Flugzeugen zu panzern, stellten sich wegen der Gewichtserhöhung schnell als undurchführbar heraus. Während der Untersuchungen von Schäden stellte sich heraus, dass die Austrittslöcher durch die ins Trudeln geratenen Projektile meist größer als die Einschusslöcher waren.<br /> <br /> Die erste Generation selbstabdichtender Tanks wurde von dem britischen Unternehmen ''Fireproof Tanks'' (heute Teil von [[GKN (Unternehmen)|GKN]]) entwickelt und in britischen Flugzeugen der Typen [[Supermarine Spitfire]], [[Hawker Hurricane]] und [[Avro Lancaster]] eingesetzt. Diese Tanks waren innen oder außen mit einer Schicht überzogen, die sich nach einem Treffer zusammenzog und so die Öffnung verschloss.<br /> <br /> Ab Ende 1939 wurde bei deutschen Jagdflugzeugen und Bombern standardmäßig ein Verfahren eingesetzt, das aus drei den Tank auskleidenden Schichten bestand. Von innen nach außen waren dies:<br /> *3 mm [[Leder|Chrom-Leder]]<br /> *3 mm nicht [[Vulkanisation|vulkanisiertes]] Gummi<br /> *0,5 mm leicht vulkanisiertes Gummi<br /> Trat nach einem Durchschuss Treibstoff aus dem Tank aus, so setzte dieser eine chemische Reaktion in Gang, die das nicht vulkanisierte Gummi quellen ließ und so den Tank abdichtete. Als jedoch die [[Royal Air Force]] die [[Hispano-Suiza HS.404|20-mm-Hispano Kanone]] als Jägerbewaffnung einführte, war dieses Verfahren nicht mehr in der Lage, die entstehenden großen Beschusslöcher abzudichten.&lt;ref&gt;Alfred Price: ''Heinkel He 111, International Air Power Review''. Vol. 26, S. 138&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> 1941 erhielt James Merrill, ein Chemiker von [[Goodyear Tire &amp; Rubber Company|Goodyear]] das Patent für ein dem deutschen sehr ähnliches Verfahren. Dabei handelte es sich um eine zweilagige Gummibeschichtung im Inneren des Tanks. Die innere Schicht aus [[Vulkanisierung|vulkanisiertem]] Gummi war für den Kraftstoff undurchlässig, während die zweite Schicht nicht vulkanisiert war. Wurde die undurchlässige Schicht zerstört, kam das nicht vulkanisierte Gummi mit dem Kraftstoff in Kontakt, quoll dadurch auf und verschloss die beschädigte Stelle. Dieses Funktionsprinzip setzte sich schließlich durch. Ab 1942 wurde der Tank zunächst in Flugzeuge vom Typ [[Chance Vought F4U]], später auch in andere Typen eingebaut. Ebenfalls 1942 entwickelte ''Fireproof Tanks'' den ersten flexiblen Flugzeugtank als Zusatztank für die Spitfire MkIX. Dieses Modell war ebenfalls selbstabdichtend und bestand aus verschiedenen Gummischichten. Zahlreiche Flugzeuge wurden mit den neuen Tanks ausgerüstet. Bis zum Ende des Krieges wurden aber weiterhin zahlreiche Flugzeuge mit konventionellen Tanks hergestellt.<br /> <br /> Die weitere Entwicklung während des Zweiten Weltkrieges konzentrierte sich darauf, die selbstabdichtenden Tanks auch widerstandsfähig gegen den plötzlichen Überdruck zu machen, der mit einem Geschosstreffer einhergeht.<br /> <br /> == Neuere Modelle ==<br /> Die meisten Militärflugzeuge verfügen heute über selbstabdichtende Tanks, wenn auch nur noch teilweise die Technik aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg verwendet wird. Insbesondere für Flugzeuge mit großen Flughöhen ist sie ungeeignet, weil die Tanks in diesem Fall unter Druck stehen müssen. Eine Alternative ist das [[Schaum|Ausschäumen]] beschädigter Tanks, wodurch in den einzelnen Schaumzellen keine ausreichend große Menge des Treibstoff-Luft-Gemisches verbleibt, um zu einer Explosion führen zu können. Alternativ können leere Tankzellen auch mit einem nicht brennbaren Gas befüllt werden, welches das explosive Treibstoffgas verdrängt oder unschädlich macht. Dieses Verfahren kommt unter anderem bei der [[Lockheed Martin F-22]] zum Einsatz.<br /> <br /> == Weblinks ==<br /> * [http://www.oocities.org/capecanaveral/hangar/8217/fgun/fgun-ar.html Emmanuel Gustin: ''Fighter Armour'' bei geocities.com] (englisch)<br /> <br /> == Einzelnachweise ==<br /> &lt;references /&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Kategorie:Luftfahrttechnik|Selbstabdichtender Treibstofftank]]<br /> [[Kategorie:Kraftstoffbehälter]]<br /> <br /> [[en:Self-sealing fuel tank]]<br /> [[fr:Réservoir de carburant auto-obturant]]<br /> [[it:Serbatoio autosigillante]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ricardo_Brinzoni&diff=130871293 Ricardo Brinzoni 2010-08-13T13:42:23Z <p>Updatehelper: bad link repair / update (and possibly minor cleanup) using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>'''Ricardo Brinzoni''' (October 6, 1945 &amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;October 24, 2005) was an [[Argentina|Argentine]] military officer, serving as Argentina's Chief-of-staff.<br /> <br /> Born in [[Buenos Aires]], Brinzoni entered Military School on 1963, and trained as a [[paratrooper]], qualifying in December 1964. He built a career in the military and reached the rank of [[Brigadier General]] in 1990. In the 1990s he served as [[military attaché]] in [[Uruguay]]. On December 13, 1999, [[President of Argentina|President]] [[Fernando de la Rúa]] appointed Brinzoni as Army Chief-of-staff and a [[Lieutenant General]].<br /> <br /> During the [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional|military government]] of 1976&amp;ndash;1983, Brinzoni was Secretary-General of the military government of [[Chaco Province]]. After the return to democracy, he was accused of involvement in the ''[[Massacre of Margarita Belén]]'', in which 22 political prisoners were executed on December 13, 1976.<br /> <br /> While in command of the Army he suggested bringing together [[human rights]] groups, the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] and the Army to form a &quot;reconciliation panel&quot; in order to find out the whereabouts of the &quot;[[desaparecidos]]&quot;. Nevertheless he was heavily criticised for defending the repression and [[Dirty War|military illegal actions]] of the military government, for allegedly protecting the officers involved, and for setting back the reconciliation process that had been started by his predecessor, [[Martín Balza]]. Brinzoni courted further controversy when it was revealed that his lawyer during this period, Juan Enrique Torres Bande, was a member of the [[neo-Nazi]] [[New Triumph Party]]. [http://ar.oocities.com/veaylea2000/verbitsky/01-04-29nuevotriunfo.htm]<br /> <br /> Following [[Néstor Kirchner]]'s inauguration as President in 2003, Brinzoni was retired and replaced by [[Roberto Bendini]]. Brinzoni subsequently issued several public statements criticising Kirchner's government.<br /> <br /> Brinzoni was married to the former Lidia María Rosa Odino; they had<br /> three children and two grandchildren. He died of [[pancreatic cancer]] in Buenos Aires in 2005, aged 60.<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Brinzoni, Ricardo}}<br /> [[Category:1945 births]]<br /> [[Category:2005 deaths]]<br /> [[Category:Argentine generals]]<br /> [[Category:Deaths from pancreatic cancer]]<br /> [[Category:People from Buenos Aires]]<br /> [[Category:Operatives of the Dirty War]]<br /> [[Category:Cancer deaths in Argentina]]<br /> <br /> {{Argentina-mil-bio-stub}}<br /> <br /> [[es:Ricardo Brinzoni]]<br /> [[sl:Ricardo Brinzoni]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Opera_window&diff=163258265 Opera window 2010-08-13T06:49:24Z <p>Updatehelper: /* History */bad link repair / update (and possibly minor cleanup) using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:1977-Matador Barcelona-opera window.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Opera window and padded Landau roof on a [[AMC Matador]] Barcelona coupe]]<br /> <br /> '''Opera Windows''' are small [[porthole]] sized side windows in the [[C-pillar]] of some cars. Typically offered in unison with a [[vinyl roof]], they were a very common design feature of [[USA|American]] [[automobile]]s during the 1970s. The design was new at the time, &quot;... and would prove to be very popular, indicated by its imitation by almost every domestic manufacturer. The opera window was a fixed rear side window surrounded by a vinyl roof.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.conceptcarz.com/vehicle/z11551/default.aspx Cadillac Eldorado story], Retrieved on October 22, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Automotive design]]ers hoped that incorporating opera windows in their cars would serve as a marketing tool by helping to evoke in consumers' minds the elegance and romance of a night at the [[opera]].<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[Image:1973 Dodge Charger SE opera windows.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Triple opera window on 1973 [[Dodge Charger (B-body)|Dodge Charger]] SE coupe]]<br /> [[Image:Lincoln Continental Town Coupe roof.jpg|thumb|250px|Lincoln Continental Town Coupé - '''&quot;Landau&quot;''' vinyl]]<br /> This design element was used during the classical era of automobile styling. For example, “...the [[Elcar]] in 1924 was good looking...and even a fabric top in the style of a brougham with oval opera windows framed by landau bars....&lt;ref&gt;William S. Locke (2000) Elcar and Pratt Automobiles: The Complete History, McFarland &amp; Company, ISBN 0786409568, page 71.&lt;/ref&gt; Opera windows saw their demise in the 1930s. Perhaps the most notable return was the &quot;porthole&quot; in the 1956-57 [[Ford Thunderbird]]. It was provided as an option to improve rear-quarter visibility with the removable hardtop in place...&lt;ref&gt;see the 1955-1957 [[Ford Thunderbird]], Retrieved on July 7, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; Opera windows were once again reintroduced on the 1972 [[Lincoln Continental Mark IV]] as an optional luxury feature, but it was almost universally ordered. <br /> <br /> During the 1970s they became a very common design element. “...The hottest thing going was the &quot;porthole&quot; window in the rear side pillar - called &quot;opera windows&quot; that came in during the horse and buggy [era]...&lt;ref&gt;Robert Szudarek (2000) The First Century of the Detroit Auto Show, SAE, ISBN 0768005027, page 210.&lt;/ref&gt; Most often, they were applied on two-door [[hardtop]] or [[coupé]] models and in all types of vehicles, from economy [[Compact car|compacts]] to [[Luxury vehicle|luxury]] brands. They also “were recognition elements” in the specialty, personal-sized car market.&lt;ref&gt;Paul A. Herd and Mike Mueller (1994) Charger, Road Runner, and Super Bee, MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company ISBN 0879388447, Page 119.&lt;/ref&gt; Practically all cars in the [[Personal luxury car|personal luxury]] market offered these windows as part of their seemingly vintage-oriented styling.<br /> <br /> The windows were intended to offset the significant [[Blind spot (automobile)|blind spots]] created by the very wide C-pillars that were characteristic of American cars produced at this time. Even narrow opera windows helped rear visibility.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allpar.com/model/magnum-dodge.html Dodge Magnum story], Retrieved on October 22, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; In an age of decreasing dimensions and increasingly common use of non-opening rear side windows on 2-door models, the small opera windows helped rear passengers to be somewhat less [[Claustrophobia|claustrophobic]]. <br /> <br /> These windows were usually non-functional; however, in the case of the [[AMC Matador]] coupe [[NASCAR]] racers, the small windows that came with the Barcelona II [[trim package]] actually helped to clean up the [[aerodynamics]] when such windows were open to the wind under racing conditions.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.oocities.com/mmbb444/page3.html AMC Matador small window for NASCAR], Retrieved on October 22, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In some cars, an additional feature was the so-called '''opera light''' that was mounted on the outside of the B-pillar or C-pillar and lit up when the exterior lights were turned on. (See 1980s Lincoln Town Car or high-end models of the 1988-1990 Oldsmobile 88).<br /> <br /> Opera windows had fallen into disuse by the mid-1980s, as changing automotive styles moved away from the upright [[notchback]]. Smaller, more aerodynamic cars made opera windows appear gaudy or out of place. Contemporary examples of opera windows are sometimes found on modified or [[Custom car|customized]] automobiles.<br /> <br /> ==Cars with opera windows==<br /> <br /> This is a partial list of models that had opera windows as standard or optional feature:<br /> * [[AMC Concord]] (1978-1982 Coupe, 1980-1983 4-door sedan)<br /> * [[AMC Matador]] (1976-78 Coupe)<br /> * [[Cadillac]] (Coupe DeVille after 1973; 1971-78 Eldorado) <br /> * [[Chevrolet Monte Carlo]] (1973–1980)<br /> * [[Chrysler Cordoba]]<br /> * [[Chrysler TC by Maserati]] (1989–1991)<br /> * [[Dodge Charger (B-body)]] (1973–1977)<br /> * [[Dodge Magnum]] (1978–1979)<br /> * [[Dodge Mirada]] (1980–1983)<br /> * [[Ford Elite]]<br /> * [[Ford Granada]] (coupe)<br /> * [[Ford Mustang II]] Ghia<br /> * [[Ford Thunderbird]]<br /> * [[Lincoln Continental]]<br /> * [[Lincoln Mark series]]<br /> * [[Mazda RX-5]] (1975- 1980)<br /> * [[Mercury Cougar]]<br /> * [[Oldsmobile Toronado]] (1974-78)<br /> * [[Daihatsu Mira]] (1980–1985)<br /> * [[Ford Torino]] (1974-1976)<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[Quarter glass]]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Automotive styling features]]<br /> [[Category:Car windows]]<br /> <br /> [[fr:opera window]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivi%C3%A8re_Moisie&diff=91196450 Rivière Moisie 2010-08-13T06:04:12Z <p>Updatehelper: bad link repair / update (and possibly minor cleanup) using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Paddling Moisie.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Canoe trip on Moisie River]]<br /> [[Image:Moisie Katchapahun Fish Ladder.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Katchapahun Rapid with Fish Ladder]]<br /> The '''Moisie River''' is a [[river]] in eastern [[Quebec]]. Called and known as the [[Nahanni]] of the [[East]], it is one of the most beautiful wild rivers of North [[Americas|America]]&lt;ref name=guide&gt;{{cite book | author = FQCK | title = Guide des parcours canotables du Québec, Tome II | year = 2000 | pages = 155 | isbn = 2-89000-504-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It flows south from Lake Opocopa near the [[Labrador]] border to the north shore of the [[Saint Lawrence River]] [[east]] of [[Sept-Îles, Quebec]]. The town of [[Moisie, Quebec|Moisie]] is located at its mouth. The [[river]] is 410&amp;nbsp;km in length and drains an area of 19,200&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The length calculated from most commonly used starting point of [[Canoe camping|canoe trips]]&lt;ref name=Laco&gt;{{cite web | first = Lester | last = Kovac | url = http://www.oocities.com/lester_kovac/moisie.htm | title = Lower Pékans/Lower Moisie 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, bridge of [[Quebec Route 389|highway 389]] over Pékans River (at {{coord|52|43|48.19|N|67|24|47.31|W|display=inline}}<br /> ) is 373&amp;nbsp;km&lt;ref name=leduc&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.cartespleinair.org/ | title = Quebec Canoe Maps}}&lt;/ref&gt;. <br /> <br /> The [[river|river's]] name is said to originate from an old [[French language|French]] word ''moïse'' or ''moyse'' meaning &quot;marshy banks&quot; or &quot;moist banks&quot;&lt;ref name=guide/&gt;.<br /> <br /> The [[Innu]] call it &quot;Mishtashipu&quot;, &quot;Great River&quot;. As they have done for thousands of years, they continue to use the river to reach their northern [[hunting]] and [[fishing]] grounds. Large parts of the river were also protected by private [[fishing]] clubs. There were a number of attempts in recent times to develop [[hydroelectric]] projects on the '''Moisie'''. However, in 2003, the [[Quebec]] [[government]] protected a large part of the river's watershed as an aquatic reserve. This prevents activities such as [[logging]], [[mining]] and power projects, but permits traditional uses such as [[hunting]] and [[fishing]].<br /> <br /> This [[river]] is the most important [[spawn (biology)|spawning]] grounds for the [[Salmon|Atlantic Salmon]] in eastern [[North America]].<br /> <br /> The '''Moisie river''' is popular for experienced [[canoeists]] having a taste for [[whitewater]]. This mighty [[river]] flows through a deep [[valley]] of [[glacial]] origin. The width of [[valley]] varies considerably. The continued and almost uninterrupted impressive [[panoramas]] of [[mountains]] and [[cliffs]] make this an unforgettable [[Canoe camping|canoe expedition]]&lt;ref name=guide/&gt;&lt;ref name=Laco/&gt;. The [[Quebec North Shore &amp; Labrador Railway]] follows the lower section of the '''Moisie river''' and provides access to the [[Quebec]]-[[Labrador]] [[plateau]] from which [[canoeists]] can reach its [[headwaters]]. <br /> <br /> '''Moisie''' tributaries include&lt;ref name=leduc/&gt;:<br /> * Rivière aux Pékans<br /> ** Carheil River (via Pékans)<br /> * Nipissis River<br /> * Caopacho River<br /> * Ouapetec River<br /> * Joseph River<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[List of Quebec rivers]]<br /> <br /> {{coord|51|28|21.5|N|66|16|46.7|W|display=title}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Rivers of Quebec]]<br /> [[Category:Sept-Îles, Quebec]]<br /> <br /> [[fr:Moisie (rivière)]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Percy_FitzPatrick&diff=117981562 James Percy FitzPatrick 2010-08-13T02:14:24Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Education */deadlink update(and possibly cleanup) using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Writer &lt;!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox Writer/doc]] --&gt;<br /> | name = Sir James Percy FitzPatrick, KCMG<br /> | image = Percy Fitzpatrick, gerbera.jpg<br /> | caption = Sir James Percy FitzPatrick<br /> | imagesize = 200px<br /> | pseudonym = Percy FitzPatrick<br /> | birthdate = {{birth date|1862|07|24|df=y}}<br /> | birthplace = [[King William's Town]], [[Cape Colony]]<br /> | deathdate = {{death date and age|1931|01|24|1862|07|24|df=y}}<br /> | deathplace = [[Uitenhage|Amanzi, Uitenhage]], [[Union of South Africa]]<br /> | occupation = Author, politician, mining [[financier]], farmer <br /> | nationality = [[South African]]<br /> | period = 1907 - 1931<br /> | genre = [[Non-fiction]]<br /> | subject =South Africa<br /> | website = }}<br /> <br /> Sir '''James Percy FitzPatrick, [[Order of Saint Michael and Saint George|KCMG]]''' (24 July 1862 - 24 January 1931), known as '''Percy FitzPatrick''', was a South African author, politician, mining [[financier]] and pioneer of the fruit industry. His children's book ''[[Jock of the Bushveld]]'' (1907) is a classic African story read by generations.&lt;ref&gt;''Jock of the Bushveld''. Edited by Phillida Brooke Simons, Angus McBride. 1997. Rear cover: &quot;..one of Africa's classic tales and has been enjoyed by generations.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Percy FitzPatrick was born in [[King William's Town]], the eldest son of James Coleman FitzPatrick, who was a [[judge]] of the [[Supreme Court]] of the [[Cape Colony]], and Jenny FitzGerald. Both were originally from Ireland. Two of James Coleman FitzPatrick's other sons were killed in action - Thomas in the [[Matabele Rebellion]] and George in the [[Second Anglo-Boer War]] (serving with the [[Imperial Light Horse]]). <br /> <br /> ==Education==<br /> James Percy FitzPatrick was first educated at [[Downside School]] and St. Gregory's College, near [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]], England, and later at St. Aidan's College [http://uk.oocities.com/wapenskild/StAidans.html], [[Grahamstown, South Africa]].<br /> <br /> ==Career==<br /> After his father's death in 1880, Percy FitzPatrick left college in order to support his mother and her family. He travelled to the Eastern [[South African Republic|Transvaal]] goldfields in 1884, where he worked as a storeman, [[prospector]]'s assistant and journalist as well as an [[ox-wagon]] transport-rider from the former [[Maputo|Lourenço Marques]] to [[Lydenburg]] and [[Barberton, Mpumalanga|Barberton]]. He later became editor of the ''Gold Fields News'' in Barberton. An account of FitzPatrick's adventures during this time, ''[[Jock of the Bushveld]]'', was published in 1907. <br /> <br /> He also authored ''The Transvaal from Within'',&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16494 ''The Transvaal from Within'']&lt;/ref&gt; which greatly influenced public opinion in Great Britain{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} in the years leading up to the [[Anglo-Boer War]]. It emphasized [[Uitlander]] grievances and advocated British intervention in the [[South African Republic]] (ZAR).&lt;ref name=&quot;barberton.info&quot;&gt;[http://www.barberton.info/history_personalities_percy_fitzpatric.htm Barberton website]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1892 FitzPatrick became the head of intelligence in the Johannesburg offices of Hermann Eckstein and Company (part of Wernher-Beit and Company).&lt;ref name=&quot;barberton.info&quot;/&gt; FitzPatrick became the secretary of the Reform Committee in [[Johannesburg]] in 1895.&lt;ref name=&quot;barberton.info&quot;/&gt; The Committee conspired to overthrow [[Paul Kruger]]'s [[South African Republic]] government from 1895 to 1896. FitzPatrick also acted as go-between the Committee and Cecil John Rhodes and [[Leander Starr Jameson]] in [[Cape Town]]. On 29 December 1895, Jameson led a failed raid from the Bechuanaland Protectorate (modern-day [[Botswana]]) to aid the conspirators in Johannesburg, but was stopped at [[Doornkop, Gauteng|Doornkop]] on 2 January 1896 [[Jameson Raid]]. FitzPatrick was charged with the others for high treason. Although sentenced to two years' imprisonment and a £2,000 fine, he was released in May 1896.&lt;ref name=&quot;barberton.info&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> At the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902) FitzPatrick helped to establish the [[Light Horse Regiment|Imperial Light Horse Regiment]]. Prevented by ill health from active service, he remained during the war in Britain as Official Adviser on South African Affairs to the British Government. Percy FitzPatrick was knighted in 1902 as a [[Order of Saint Michael and Saint George|Knight Commander of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George]].&lt;ref name=&quot;barberton.info&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> He served as one of eight Transvaal representatives in the national convention of 1908-9, where four British colonies were consolidated into the Union of South Africa. He went on to serve as a [[Member of Parliament|member]] of the [[Parliament of South Africa|parliament]] of the [[Union of South Africa]], and successfully defended his Pretoria seat in 1906 and 1910. FitzPatrick and General [[J.B.M. Hertzog]] worked out the agreement that recognized English and Dutch as the official languages of the Union.&lt;ref name=&quot;barberton.info&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> FitzPatrick kept wild animals that he brought back to Johannesburg after hunting trips at what now is Zoo Lake. Some of these animals formed the first stock of the [[Johannesburg Zoo]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.joburg.org.za/nov_2002/nov4_zoolake.stm Johannesburg Zoo website, November 2002]&lt;/ref&gt; He also helped establish citrus farming in South Africa.&lt;ref name=&quot;barberton.info&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> Sir James Percy FitzPatrick died in [[Uitenhage|Amanzi, Uitenhage]], [[Union of South Africa]] in 1931, aged 68, from undisclosed causes. He was buried at &quot;The Look Out&quot; &lt;small&gt;{{coord|33|28|25|S|25|36|20|E|type:mountain}}&lt;/small&gt;, north of Uitenhage. The site offers a spectacular view of the Sunday's River Valley below.<br /> <br /> ==Publications==<br /> * ''Through Mashonaland with Pick and Pen'' (based on [[Randolph Churchill]]'s 1891 Rhodesian expedition, led by FitzPatrick)<br /> * {{gutenberg|no=16494|name=The Transvaal from Within by J. P. FitzPatrick}}, 1899<br /> * ''[[Jock of the Bushveld]]'' (based on FitzPatrick's transport riding days, was first published in 1907 upon persuasion by his friend [[Rudyard Kipling]]. The book has so far run through 91 editions and impressions)<br /> * ''South African Memories'' (published posthumously)<br /> <br /> ==Interesting facts==<br /> * The [[Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology]] was founded at the [[University of Cape Town]] in 1959 by Mrs. Cecily K. Niven, daughter and only surviving child of Percy FitzPatrick, for the study of the living birds of Africa. <br /> * The [[Percy FitzPatrick Award]] is an award for the best South African children's book in English and was initiated in 1970.<br /> <br /> ==External references==<br /> * [http://www.gerbera.org/barberton-characters.html Personalities of the Barberton gold run]<br /> * [http://www.umjindi.org/pages/history/history_personalities_percy_fitzpatric.htm Sir James Percy FitzPatrick, KCMG]<br /> * {{gutenberg author| id=J._P._Fitzpatrick | name=J. P. FitzPatrick}}<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Fitzpatrick, James Percy}}<br /> [[Category:1862 births]]<br /> [[Category:1931 deaths]]<br /> [[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George]]<br /> [[Category:Old Gregorians]]<br /> [[Category:South African writers]]<br /> [[Category:South African businesspeople]]<br /> [[Category:South African Roman Catholics]]<br /> [[Category:South African people of Irish descent]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ivor_Cutler&diff=114078090 Ivor Cutler 2010-08-13T02:10:09Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */deadlink update(and possibly cleanup) using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox musical artist &lt;!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject Musicians --&gt;<br /> | Name = Ivor Cutler<br /> | Img = Cutlerportrait.jpg<br /> | Img_capt = <br /> | Img_size = &lt;!-- Only for images narrower than 220 pixels --&gt;<br /> | Landscape = yes<br /> | Background = solo_singer<br /> | Birth_name = <br /> | Alias = <br /> | Born = {{birth date|1923|1|15|df=y}}<br /> | Died = {{death date and age|2006|3|3|1923|1|15|df=y}}<br /> | Origin = [[Glasgow]], Scotland<br /> | Instrument = [[Harmonium]]<br /> | Genre = [[Spoken word]], [[Trad jazz]], [[Comedy rock]]<br /> | Occupation = Poet, Songwriter, [[Humorist]]<br /> | Years_active = 1959 - 2004<br /> | Label = [[Virgin Records|Virgin]], [[Rough Trade Records|Rough Trade]], [[Creation Records|Creation]]<br /> | Associated_acts = <br /> | URL = <br /> | Notable_instruments = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Ivor Cutler''' (15 January 1923 &amp;ndash; 3 March 2006) was a Scottish poet, songwriter and [[humorist]]. He became known for his regular performances on BBC radio, and in particular his numerous sessions recorded for [[John Peel]]'s influential radio programme, and later for [[Andy Kershaw]]'s programme. He appeared in [[the Beatles]]' ''[[Magical Mystery Tour (film)|Magical Mystery Tour]]'' film in 1967 and on [[Neil Innes]]' television programmes. Cutler also wrote books for children and adults and was a teacher at [[A. S. Neill]]'s [[Summerhill School]] and for 30 years in inner-city schools in London.<br /> <br /> In live performances Cutler would often accompany himself on a [[harmonium]]. [[Phyllis King]] appears on several of his records, and for a number of years was a part of his concerts. She usually read small phrases but also read a few short stories. The two starred in a BBC radio series, ''King Cutler'', in which they performed their material jointly and singly. Cutler was known to have had a long term relationship with King, but they never married or set up home together. Cutler also collaborated with pianist [[Neil Ardley]] and singer [[Robert Wyatt]].<br /> <br /> Cutler was an anti-intellectual and noted [[eccentric]], dressing in a distinctive style including [[plus-fours]] and hats adorned with many badges, travelling mainly by [[bicycle]] and often communicating by means of sticky labels printed with &quot;Cutlerisms&quot;, one of which, &quot;never knowingly understood&quot; came to be summary applied by supporters and detractors alike. Others included &quot;Kindly disregard&quot;, reserved for official correspondence, and &quot;to remove this label take it off&quot;, designed to confuse [[pedant]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article738107.ece Obituary], [[The Times]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Many of Cutler's poems and songs involve conversations delivered as a monologue and, in these, one party is often Cutler as a child, a part of his intended &quot;bypassing the intellect&quot;. Cutler describes poverty and neglect from his parents with great stoicism. He focuses on acceptance and gratitude for the basic elements of life, nature and love, which allows him to make points about mother-love in particular. The humour develops from the child's curiosity and the playful or self-serving lies the parent tells him to get, for example, a chore done or simply to stop the incessant questions. Cutler recited his poems in a gentle Scottish burr, and this, combined with the absurdity of the subject matter, is a mix that earned him a faithful cult following.&lt;ref name=&quot;telegraph&quot;&gt;[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/03/07/db0701.xml Obituary] (7 Mar. 2006). ''The Daily Telegraph''.&lt;/ref&gt; John Peel once remarked that Cutler was probably the only performer whose work had been featured on Radio 1, 2, 3 and 4&lt;ref&gt;John Peel programme, circa 1986&lt;/ref&gt;. Cutler was a member of the [[Noise Abatement Society]] and the [[Voluntary Euthanasia Society]]. He retired from performing in 2004, and died on 3 March 2006.&lt;ref name=&quot;espiner&quot;&gt;Espiner, Mark (7 Mar. 2006). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,,1725211,00.html Obituary]. ''The Guardian''.&lt;/ref&gt; The reception room of his home contained a number of pieces of ivory cutlery, deliberately intended as a pun on his name.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2006/mar/07/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Cutler was born in [[Glasgow]] into a middle-class [[Jew]]ish family of eastern European descent. He cited his childhood as the source of his artistic temperament, recalling a sense of displacement when his younger brother was born: &quot;Without that I would not have been so screwed up as I am, and therefore not as creative.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;bbcnews&quot;&gt;BBC News (7 Mar. 2006). &quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4781980.stm Cult poet Ivor Cutler dies at 83]&quot;. Retrieved 10 Mar. 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1939 Cutler was evacuated to [[Annan, Dumfries and Galloway|Annan]]&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;guardian&quot;&gt;Guardian (7 Mar. 2006). &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,,1725211,00.html Unassuming master of offbeat humour whose eccentric take on the world entertained generations]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;. He joined the [[Royal Air Force]] as a navigator in 1942 but was soon dismissed for &quot;dreaminess&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;telegraph&quot; /&gt; He moved to London where he was employed by the [[Inner London Education Authority]] to teach music, dance, drama and poetry to 7- to 11-year-olds.&lt;ref name=&quot;mason&quot;&gt;Mason, Stewart. &quot;[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:23520rjac48n~T1 Biography]&quot;. Allmusic. Retrieved 10 Mar. 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; Cutler's deeply held views on humanity meant he disliked [[corporal punishment]], and on leaving a teaching job he held in the 1950s, he cut up his [[tawse]] and handed the pieces to the class.&lt;ref name=&quot;smith&quot;&gt;Smith, Claire (13 Mar. 2004). &quot;[http://news.scotsman.com/features.cfm?id=288522004 Survival of the wittiest]&quot;. ''The Scotsman''.&lt;/ref&gt; He was married briefly and had two children.<br /> <br /> ==Musical career==<br /> Cutler began writing songs and poetry in the late 1950s, making the first of many appearances on BBC radio on the [[BBC Home Service|Home Service]], where he featured on the ''Monday Night at Home'' programme on 38 occasions between 1959 and 1963.&lt;ref name=&quot;mason&quot;/&gt; He gained popularity playing songs where he would often accompany himself on the [[harmonium]],&lt;ref name=&quot;mason&quot; /&gt; and this success led to the release of a series a records starting with 1959's ''Ivor Cutler of Y'Hup'' EP. Cutler continued to make appearances on the BBC's programmes during the 1960s, and as a result of an appearance on the television show ''Late Night Line-Up'', he was noticed by [[Paul McCartney]], who invited Cutler to appear in [[the Beatles]]' ''[[Magical Mystery Tour (film)|Magical Mystery Tour]]'' film.&lt;ref name=&quot;espiner&quot;/&gt; In the film, Cutler plays bus conductor Buster Bloodvessel, who becomes passionately attracted to [[Ringo Starr]]'s Aunt Jessie. Following this film role, Cutler recorded a second LP. ''[[Ludo (album)|Ludo]]'' (1967), produced by the Beatles' [[George Martin]], and credited to the Ivor Cutler Trio, made up of Cutler with bassist Gill Lyons and percussionist Trevor Tomkins. The LP, taking inspiration from [[trad jazz]] and [[boogie-woogie (music)|boogie-woogie]], sees Cutler playing the piano as well as his usual harmonium, and is considered the most traditionally musical of all his records.&lt;ref name=&quot;mason&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> ''Ludo'' did not enjoy great commercial success, and after its release Cutler continued to perform for BBC radio, recording the first of his sessions for [[John Peel]] in 1969. Cutler's work on Peel's shows would introduce him to successive generations of fans, and in the early 1990s, Cutler said, &quot;Thanks to Peel, I gained a whole new audience, to the amazement of my older fans, who find themselves among 16-to-35s in theatres, and wonder where they came from.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;garner&quot;&gt;Garner, Ken (1993). ''In Session Tonight''. London: BBC Books. ISBN 0-563-36452-1&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> [[Image:Ivor Cutler 1973.jpg|thumb|right|Ivor Cutler at his flat in Gospel Oak, N.London; photo taken by [[Roger Kohn]] in 1973.]]<br /> In the 1970s, [[Neil Ardley]] had Cutler sing on his ''A Symphony of Amaranths'' LP (1971),&lt;ref name=&quot;gibson&quot;&gt;Gibson, David (3 Apr. 1995). &quot;[http://www.ivorcutler.org/collection.html Cutler Collection]&quot;. Retrieved 10 Mar. 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; and former-[[Soft Machine]] singer [[Robert Wyatt]] asked Cutler to play harmonium and sing on two of the tracks on his ''[[Rock Bottom (album)|Rock Bottom]]'' LP (1974). The collaboration with Wyatt led to Cutler being signed to Wyatt's record label [[Virgin Records]], for whom Cutler recorded three LPs in the mid-1970s: ''[[Dandruff (album)|Dandruff]]'' (1974), ''[[Velvet Donkey]]'' (1975) and ''[[Jammy Smears]]'' (1976). (It also led to Wyatt covering Cutler's &quot;Go and sit upon the grass&quot;, from ''Velvet Donkey'', as &quot;Grass&quot; on his 1981 ''Nothing Can Stop Us'' album.) Each of these discs intersperses Cutler's poems and songs with readings by his performing companion [[Phyllis King]]. <br /> <br /> During the decade Cutler used his sessions for John Peel to introduce numerous episodes of his ''Life in a Scotch Sitting Room'' series, culminating in the 1978 LP ''[[Life in a Scotch Sitting Room, Vol. 2]]'' (Volume 1 was a track on the 1974 album ''[[Dandruff (album)|Dandruff]]''), regarded as a particularly autobiographical work,&lt;ref name=&quot;mason&quot;/&gt; on which Cutler recounts tales from his childhood amid an environment of exaggerated Scottishness. Cutler also produced the work as a book, which was published in 1984 with illustrations by [[Martin Honeysett]].&lt;ref name=&quot;gibson&quot;/&gt; He also collaborated with Portal artist Frances Broomfield on an illustrated alphabet book, which was never completed.<br /> <br /> Cutler contributed the track &quot;Brooch Boat&quot; to the cult 1980 album ''Miniatures'', produced and edited by [[Morgan Fisher]], which consisted entirely of one-minute-long recordings. In the 1980s, [[Rough Trade Records]] released three LPs&amp;mdash;''[[Privilege (album)|Privilege]]'' (1983), ''[[Prince Ivor]]'' (1986) and ''[[Gruts]]'' (1986). He also released the single &quot;Women of the World&quot;, recorded with Linda Hirst, through the label in 1983. Cutler enjoyed further interest from the [[Creation Records|Creation]] record company in the 1990s, best known at the time as [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]]' record label. The label released two new volumes of poems and spoken word work: ''[[A Wet Handle]]'' (1997) and ''[[A Flat Man]]'' (1998).<br /> <br /> ==Discography==<br /> *''Ivor Cutler of Y'Hup'' EP (1959)<br /> *''Who Tore Your Trousers?'' (1961)<br /> *''Get Away from the Wall'' EP (1961)<br /> *''[[Ludo (album)|Ludo]]'' (1967)<br /> *''[[Dandruff (album)|Dandruff]]'' (1974)<br /> *''[[Velvet Donkey]]'' (1975) <br /> *''[[Jammy Smears]]'' (1976)<br /> *''[[Life in a Scotch Sitting Room, Vol. 2]]'' (live) (1978)<br /> *''[[Privilege (album)|Privilege]]'' (1983)<br /> *''[[Prince Ivor]]'' (1986)<br /> *''[[Gruts]]'' (1986)<br /> *''Peel Sessions'' EP (1989)<br /> *''[[A Wet Handle]]'' (1997)<br /> *''[[A Flat Man]]'' (1998)<br /> *''An Elpee and Two Epees''&lt;ref name=&quot;elpee&quot;&gt;''An Elpee and Two Epees'' is a CD compilation of Cutler's first three releases.&lt;/ref&gt; (2005)<br /> <br /> ==Bibliography==<br /> ;Poetry<br /> *''Many Flies Have Feathers'' (1973). Trigram Press.<br /> *''A Flat Man'' (1977). Trigram Press. ISBN 0-85465-053-9<br /> *''Private Habits'' (1981). Arc Publications. ISBN 0-902771-89-2<br /> *''LARGE et Puffy'' (1984). Arc Publications. ISBN 0-902771-70-1<br /> *''Fresh Carpet'' (1986). Arc Publications. ISBN 0-902771-68-X<br /> *''A Nice Wee Present from Scotland'' (1988). Arc Publications. ISBN 0-902771-73-6<br /> *''A Fly Sandwich and Other Menu'' (1991). Methuen. ISBN 0-413-65940-2<br /> *''Is That Your Flap, Jack?'' (1992). Arc Publications. ISBN 0946407762 <br /> *''A Stuggy Pren'' (1994). Arc Publications. ISBN 0-946407-94-0<br /> *''A Wet Handle'' (1996). Arc Publications. ISBN 1-900072-06-8<br /> *''South American Bookworms'' (1999). Arc Publications. ISBN 1-900072-35-1<br /> *''Scots Wa' Straw'' (2003). Arc Publications ISBN 1-900072-94-7<br /> <br /> ;Prose<br /> *''Cockadoodledon't!!!'' (1966). Dennis Dobson.<br /> *''Life in a Scotch Sitting Room, Vol.2'' (1984). Methuen. ISBN 0-413-73580-X<br /> *''Gruts'' (1986). Methuen. ISBN 0-413-40810-8<br /> *''Fremsley'' (1987). Methuen. ISBN 0-413-15540-4<br /> *''Glasgow Dreamer'' (1990). Methuen. ISBN 0-413-73600-8<br /> <br /> ;Children's books<br /> *''Meal One''. Armada Lions.<br /> *''Balooky Klujypop''. Heinemann.<br /> *''The Animal House''. Armada Lions.<br /> *''The Vermillion Door'' (1984). Walker Books.<br /> *''The Pomegranate Door'' (1984). Walker Books.<br /> *''Herbert the Chicken'' (1984). Walker Books.<br /> *''Herbert the Elephant'' (1984). Walker Books.<br /> *''Herbert the Questionmark'' (1984). Walker Books.<br /> *''Herbert the Herbert'' (1984). Walker Books.<br /> *''One and a Quarter'' (1987). ISBN 0-233-98060-1<br /> *''Herbert: 5 Stories'' (1988). Walker Books. ISBN 0-7445-4778-4<br /> *''Grape Zoo'' (1991). Walker Books. ISBN 0-7445-2327-3<br /> *''Doris the Hen'' (1992). Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-93354-6<br /> *''The New Dress'' (1995). The Bodley Head. ISBN 0-370-31873-0<br /> <br /> ;Other<br /> *''Befriend a Bacterium: Stickies by Ivor Cutler'' (1992). Pickpocket Books. ISBN 1-873422-11-3 (A collection of stickers that Cutler used to hand out to people).<br /> <br /> ==DVD video==<br /> *''Looking for Truth with a Pin'' (2005) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0455564/ (IMDB entry)]<br /> <br /> ==Notes and references==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.ivorcutler.org/ The Works of Ivor Cutler]<br /> *[http://www.issue.demon.co.uk/poetry/cutler/ Ivor Cutler: An Introduction]<br /> *[http://www.guardian.co.uk/arts/homeentertainment/story/0,12830,1123719,00.html Interview - The Cult of Cutler] &amp;mdash; [[The Guardian]], 16 January 2004<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/davidserjeant/ivor.html Further interviews]<br /> *[http://www.benbecula.com/archive/ivor_cutler.shtml Benbecula Records article]<br /> *[http://pages.eidosnet.co.uk/chrishc/ivor.htm Complete 1969 Peel Session in MP3 to download]<br /> *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/johnpeel/artists/i/ivorcutler/ John Peel Sessions - Ivor Cutler]<br /> *{{imdb name|id=0193922}}<br /> <br /> {{Persondata<br /> |NAME=Cutler, Ivor<br /> |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=<br /> |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Scottish poet, humorist<br /> |DATE OF BIRTH=15 January 1923<br /> |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Glasgow]], Scotland<br /> |DATE OF DEATH=3 March 2006<br /> |PLACE OF DEATH=<br /> }}<br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Cutler, Ivor}}<br /> [[Category:1923 births]]<br /> [[Category:2006 deaths]]<br /> [[Category:People from Glasgow]]<br /> [[Category:Scottish poets]]<br /> [[Category:Scottish songwriters]]<br /> [[Category:Jewish poets]]<br /> [[Category:Scottish Jews]]<br /> [[Category:Creation Records artists]]<br /> [[Category:Scottish comedians]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivi%C3%A8re_George&diff=87252599 Rivière George 2010-08-13T01:36:12Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */deadlink update(and possibly cleanup) using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Geobox|River|category_hide=yes<br /> &lt;!-- *** Name section *** --&gt; <br /> | name = George River<br /> | other_name = ''Rivière George''<br /> | other_name1 = <br /> | other_name2 = <br /> | etymology = <br /> &lt;!-- *** Map section *** --&gt;<br /> | map = George map.png<br /> | map_caption = Map of the George River basin<br /> &lt;!-- General section *** --&gt;<br /> | country = Canada<br /> | country_flag = True<br /> | state = Quebec<br /> | state_flag = True<br /> | state_type = Province<br /> | region = Nord-du-Québec<br /> | length = 565<br /> | length_round = 0<br /> | length_note = &lt;ref name=Atlas&gt;Natural Resources Canada, Atlas of Canada - [http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/learningresources/facts/rivers.html Rivers]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> | watershed = 41700<br /> | watershed_round = -2<br /> | watershed_note = &lt;ref name=Atlas/&gt;<br /> | discharge_location = <br /> | discharge = 940<br /> | discharge_round = -2<br /> | discharge_note = &lt;ref name=Atlas/&gt;<br /> | discharge_max_note = <br /> | discharge_max = <br /> | discharge_min_note = <br /> | discharge_min = <br /> | discharge1_location =<br /> | discharge1 =<br /> &lt;!-- *** Source *** --&gt;<br /> | source = Lake Jannière<br /> | source_location = [[Lac-Juillet, Quebec|Lac-Juilet Unorg. Territory]]<br /> | source_district = [[Caniapiscau Regional County Municipality, Quebec|Caniapiscau RCM]]<br /> | source_state = <br /> | source_country = <br /> | source_elevation = 488<br /> | source_lat_d = 54<br /> | source_lat_m = 51<br /> | source_lat_s = 30<br /> | source_lat_NS = N<br /> | source_long_d = 63<br /> | source_long_m = 55<br /> | source_long_s = 30<br /> | source_long_EW = W<br /> &lt;!-- *** Mouth *** --&gt;<br /> | mouth_name = Ungava Bay<br /> | mouth_location = 18 km NW of [[Kangiqsualujjuaq, Quebec|Kangiqsualujjuaq]]<br /> | mouth_region = Kativik<br /> | mouth_state = <br /> | mouth_country = <br /> | mouth_elevation = 0<br /> | mouth_lat_d = 58<br /> | mouth_lat_m = 49<br /> | mouth_lat_s = 00<br /> | mouth_lat_NS = N<br /> | mouth_long_d = 66<br /> | mouth_long_m = 10<br /> | mouth_long_s = 00<br /> | mouth_long_EW = W<br /> &lt;!-- *** Tributaries *** --&gt;<br /> | tributary_left = <br /> | tributary_left1 = <br /> | tributary_left2 = <br /> | tributary_right = <br /> | tributary_right1 = <br /> | tributary_right2 = <br /> &lt;!-- *** Image *** ---&gt;<br /> | image = 1362 LK George River (pano).jpg<br /> | image_size = <br /> | image_caption = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''George River''' ({{lang-iu|''Kangirsualujjuap Kuunga'' (river of the great bay)}}, [[Naskapi]]: ''Mushuan Shipu'' (River without trees), [[Innu-aimun|Innu]]: ''Metsheshu Shipu'' (Eagle River))&lt;ref name=&quot;guide&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author = FQCK | title = Guide des parcours canotables du Québec, Tome II | year = 2008 | pages = 234–235 | isbn = 2-89000-504-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;) is a river in northern [[Quebec]], [[Canada]], that flows from Lake Jannière mainly north to [[Ungava Bay]].<br /> <br /> The George is a big and wide [[river]]. It offers relatively easy and inexpensive access to [[Ungava Bay]], compared to other major rivers of this area, making it popular for [[canoe camping]] trips.<br /> <br /> == Geography ==<br /> The George River originates about {{km to mi|175}} east of [[Schefferville]] in Lake Jannière, between [[bogs]] and [[swamps]]. The headwater [[lakes]] are shallow, connected by rushing [[rapids]]. After Lake Advance, the river runs through heavy [[whitewater]] until it reaches Indian House Lake (Naskapi: ''Mushuan Nipi'' (The big lake in the barrens)&lt;ref name=&quot;Coady_p150&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author = Lawrence W. Coady | title = The Lost Canoe: A Labrador Adventure | year = 2008 | page = 150 | isbn = 978-1-55109-658-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;), which stretches {{km to mi|60}} if measured by [[National Topographic System|Canadian topo maps]], or {{km to mi|100}} if measured by its flatwater character.<br /> <br /> After Indian House Lake, the George really starts to flow. It offers an abundance of [[rapids]] with various levels of difficulty until it reaches [[Kangiqsualujjuaq]] close to [[Ungava Bay]]. Because of its easy access, many people without the necessary experience and skills have travelled this river and unfortunately some lost their lives. The river is big and powerful - the [[French language|French]] word &quot;''Fleuve''&quot;, also used to describe the [[Saint Lawrence River]], describes its character better than the word &quot;''Rivière''&quot;. The power of the George leaves no room for error. [[Climate|Climatic conditions]] are ideal for [[hypothermia]]. [[Canoeists]] have to contend also with serious [[tidal]] effects in the last {{km to mi|40}}.<br /> <br /> == History ==<br /> The George River was (re)named on August 12, 1811, by two [[Moravian Church|Moravian]] missionaries [[Benjamin Gottlieb Kohlmeister]] and [[George Kmoch]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Coady_p129&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author = Lawrence W. Coady | title = The Lost Canoe: A Labrador Adventure | year = 2008 | pages = 129–130 | isbn = 978-1-55109-658-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These two [[Missionary|missionaries]] came first to [[Okak, Newfoundland and Labrador|Okak]] in [[Labrador]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Coady_p129&quot;/&gt;, then to [[Ungava Bay]] with a vision to evangelize the [[Inuit]]. They wrote in their diary: &quot;We then proclaimed the name of the Kangertlualuksoak henceforth to be 'George River' &quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;guide&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Coady_p129&quot;/&gt;. The Moravian brothers wanted to honour [[George III]], king of [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] from [[1760]], who, in 1769, granted the Moravians land on the Labrador coast for permanent settlement&lt;ref name=&quot;Coady_p129&quot;/&gt;.<br /> <br /> In the winter of 1839-1840, the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] built a post called '''Fort Trial''' on the eastern shore of Indian House Lake. It was functional only until June 15, 1842.&lt;ref name=&quot;HBC&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/resource/post_rec/post15.html#219 | title=Hudson's Bay Company Archives | accessdate=2009-01-30 | publisher=Manitoba Government}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Coady_p161&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author = Lawrence W. Coady | title = The Lost Canoe: A Labrador Adventure | year = 2008 | page = 161 | isbn = 978-1-55109-658-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; Well into the twentieth century, this lake appeared as &quot;Erlandson's Lake&quot; on charts, and Fort Trial was often referred to in HBC correspondence as &quot;Erlandson's Post&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;Coady_p154&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author = Lawrence W. Coady | title = The Lost Canoe: A Labrador Adventure | year = 2008 | page = 154 | isbn = 978-1-55109-658-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; named after Erland Erlandson, HBC clerk and the first European to travel overland from [[Hudson Strait]] to the [[Atlantic]] coast.&lt;ref name=&quot;Erland&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&amp;id_nbr=4973&amp;&amp;PHPSESSID=s9cmu40404t25oo3o9iojuno46 | title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online | accessdate=2009-01-30 | author=Alice M. Johnson | publisher=University of Toronto/Université Laval | date=2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The George River was associated with the ill-fated [[Leonidas Hubbard]] expedition of 1903 and the subsequent successful [[canoe]] expeditions of [[Mina Hubbard]] and [[Dillon Wallace]] in 1905, and [[Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard|Hesketh Prichard]] in 1910.<br /> <br /> ==Image gallery==<br /> &lt;gallery&gt;<br /> Image:Indian House Lake (panorama).jpg|Indian House Lake<br /> Image:LK Abandoned USA Army weather station.jpg|Abandoned [[USA Army]] [[weather station]] on Indian House Lake<br /> Image:0695 LK Campsite on Indian House Lake.jpg|[[Campsite]] on Indian House Lake<br /> Image:Campsite on George River, Quebec panorama.jpg|Campsite on Indian House Lake<br /> Image:1009 George River (pano).jpg|George River<br /> Image:1100 LK George River (pano).jpg|George River<br /> Image:1120 LK Caribou swimming across George River.jpg|[[Caribou]] swimming across George River<br /> Image:1245 LC Hike to Kashapuatshitik Lake.jpg|George River<br /> Image:1420 LK Hike to Pyramid Peak.jpg|George River<br /> Image:1485 LC Hike to Pyramid Peak (pano).jpg|George River<br /> Image:1549 LK Campsite at Helik Rapid.jpg|Campsite at Helik Rapid<br /> Image:1934 LK Elson Rapid.jpg|Elson Rapid<br /> Image:1956 LK Campsite on George River (pano).jpg|Campsite on George River<br /> Image:2273 LK Helen Falls (pano).jpg|Helen Falls<br /> Image:2327 LK Sarvakallak Rapid (pano).jpg|Sarvakallak Rapid<br /> Image:2558 LK Ford Island.jpg|Ford Island<br /> Image:2700 LK Sunset on Ungava Bay.jpg |Sunset on George River<br /> &lt;!-- Deleted image removed: Image:3062 LK Kangiqsualujjuaq (small pano).jpg|[[Kangiqsualujjuaq]] --&gt;<br /> Image:2772 LK Kangiqsualujjuaq (pano).jpg|[[Kangiqsualujjuaq]] Harbour at high tide<br /> Image:3001 LC Kangiqsualujjuaq hike.jpg|[[Kangiqsualujjuaq]]<br /> &lt;/gallery&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> * [http://www.oocities.com/lester_kovac/george2008.htm De Pas/George 2008 canoe trip]<br /> <br /> [[Category:Rivers of Quebec]]<br /> [[Category:Hudson's Bay Company trading posts]]<br /> <br /> [[es:Río George (Quebec)]]<br /> [[fr:Rivière George]]<br /> [[no:George (elv)]]<br /> [[pl:George (rzeka)]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Featherstone_Castle&diff=153076440 Featherstone Castle 2010-08-13T01:07:44Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */deadlink update(and possibly cleanup) using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{infobox UK feature<br /> |official_name = Featherstone Castle<br /> |shire_county/state = Northumberland<br /> |country = England<br /> |nation = UK<br /> |map_name = United Kingdom Northumberland<br /> |static_image = Featherstone Castle.jpg<br /> |static_image_caption = Featherstone Castle, 2005<br /> |static_image_2 = <br /> |static_image_caption_2 = <br /> |os_grid_reference = NY674610<br /> |latitude = 54.943<br /> |longitude = -2.510<br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Featherstone Castle''', a [[Listed building|Grade I listed building]], is a large [[Gothic architecture|Gothic style]] country [[mansion]] situated on the bank of the [[River Tyne|River South Tyne]] about {{convert|3|mi|0}} southwest of the town of [[Haltwhistle]] in [[Northumberland]], [[England]].<br /> <br /> In the 11th century the [[manor house]] on this site belonged to the Featherstonehaugh family. It has played an important role in the battles between the English and the Scots. Originally a 13th-century hall house, a square three-storey [[peel tower|pele tower]] was added in 1330 by Thomas de Featherstonehaugh. A survey from the year 1541 reported the property to be a [[tower house|tower]] in good repair, occupied by Thomas Featherstonehaugh.<br /> <br /> The earliest recorded history of this area derives from the Roman occupation period; in 122 [[Anno Domini|AD]], the Romans erected [[Hadrian's Wall]], the course of which lies several kilometres to the north of Featherstone Castle. <br /> <br /> ==Post medieval==<br /> In the 17th century the property was acquired by Sir William Howard (father of the 1st [[Earl of Carlisle]]) and was remodelled and substantially enlarged.<br /> <br /> The house was repurchased from the Earl of Carlisle in 1711 by Matthew Featherstonehaugh (1662-1762). A survey of 1715 disclosed 'an ancient and well-built structure'. The family remained in occupation until [[Sir Matthew Fetherstonhaugh, 1st Baronet|Sir Matthew Fetherstonhaugh]] sold the property to [[James Wallace (politician)|James Wallace]] about 1789. His son [[Thomas Wallace, 1st Baron Wallace|Thomas Wallace]] carried out further alterations between 1812 and 1830. Lord Wallace bequeathed the estate to his nephew Colonel [[James Hope (1807–1854)|James Hope]] (1807–1854), (son of the [[Marquess of Linlithgow|Earl of Hopetoun]]), who changed his name to Hope-Wallace.<br /> <br /> The various alterations to the structure have resulted in a large [[Crenellation|castellated]] and complex [[English country house|country house]], rectangular in form with a central courtyard and towers at each angle.<br /> <br /> The property was sold in 1950 and became a school. In 1961 it was converted to a residential conference and activity centre for young people and students.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> *[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Details/Default.aspx?id=240698&amp;mode=quick English Heritage: Images of England. Photograph and detailed architectural description]<br /> *[http://www.ecastles.co.uk/philipdavis/English%20sites/2556.html The Gatehouse Gazetteer Featherstone Castle ]<br /> *Plantagenet Somerset Fry, ''The David &amp; Charles Book of Castles'', David &amp; Charles, 1980. ISBN 0-7153-7976-3<br /> * ''A History of Northumberland'' (1840) Rev JC Hodgson Pt2 Vol3 pp353-8<br /> *[http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18177 C. Michael Hogan (2007) ''Hadrian's Wall'', ed. A. Burnham, The Megalithic Portal]<br /> *Stephen Johnson (2004) ''Hadrian's Wall'', Sterling Publishing Company, Inc, 128 pages, ISBN 0713488409<br /> *[http://www.sine.newcastle.ac.uk/view_structure_information.asp?struct_id=111 Structures of the North East]<br /> *[http://www.northofthetyne.co.uk/Featherstone.html Images of Featherstone castle]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> {{commonscat}}<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/caseallen/travel/region/fstone.html Featherstone Castle 1]<br /> *[http://www.featherstone-society.com/sites-history/featherstone_castle.htm Photographs]<br /> <br /> {{Castles in North East England}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Castles in Northumberland]]<br /> [[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Northumberland]]<br /> [[Category:Grade I listed castles]]<br /> [[Category:Houses in Northumberland]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:NetEase&diff=77776549 Diskussion:NetEase 2010-08-13T00:10:49Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>== &quot;&quot;&quot;laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich.&quot;&quot;&quot; ==<br /> <br /> <br /> Die Angabe ist falsch oder missverständlich. <br /> 1,8 Millionen Besucher täglich oder 1,8 Milliarden Besucher jährlich würde besser passen.<br /> Es könnte ein sehr grober schätzwert seinwie viele verschieden Menschen die seite besuchen. <br /> Allerdings wäre es dann sehr gering:<br /> <br /> In China leben ca 1350 Millionen Menschen.<br /> Die hier veröffentlich Angabe behauptet also dass in China höchstens jeder 750ste jährlich diese Seite besucht (welche dort eine <br /> der meistbesuchten Seiten ist)<br /> <br /> <br /> Anhand des Alexa ranking würde ich davon ausgehen, dass die Anzahl verschiedener Besucher bzw IPAdressen, welche die Website jeden Tag zählt eine 7 stellige Zahl ist. <br /> <br /> <br /> Bitte schaut mal folgendes an <br /> http://traffic.alexa.com/graph?&amp;w=400&amp;h=220&amp;o=f&amp;c=1&amp;y=r&amp;b=ffffff&amp;r=2y&amp;u=163.com&amp;&amp;u=baidu.com&amp;u=google.cn&amp;<br /> <br /> <br /> http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/163.com#trafficstats<br /> <br /> 163.com hat also in China eine mit den großen Suchmaschinen Baidu und google nahkommende Besucheranzahl und ist weltweit nach Alexa traffic rang ca. platz 50 aller websites und platz 7 in China &lt;small&gt;(''nicht [[Hilfe:Signatur|signierter]] Beitrag von'' [[Benutzer:Updatehelper|Updatehelper]] ([[Benutzer Diskussion:Updatehelper|Diskussion]]&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;[[Spezial:Beiträge/Updatehelper|Beiträge]]) 00:35, 29. Dez. 2009 (CET)) &lt;/small&gt;<br /> :Und wie wollen wir jetzt herausfinden wie viele wirklich auf der Seite drauf sind täglich/jährlich?--[[Benutzer:Fußballmeister|Fußballmeister]] 21:12, 13. Jan. 2010 (CET)<br /> <br /> nun ja, die 3% von Alexa sind schwer bestechlich, täglich surfen mindestens 500 Millionen Menschen somit lässt sich mit ausreichender Treffersicherheit sagen dass täglich mehr als 15 Millionen auf 163.com landen.<br /> Wie viele verschiedene es dann im jahr (zwischen 15Million und dem 365 fachen) ist eine wesentlich schwierigere Frage.<br /> Sicher ist aber dass die 1.8 Millionen Schätzung Quatsch ist. --[[Benutzer:Updatehelper|Updatehelper]] 02:10, 13. Aug. 2010 (CEST)</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:NetEase&diff=77776538 Diskussion:NetEase 2010-08-13T00:10:12Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>== &quot;&quot;&quot;laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich.&quot;&quot;&quot; ==<br /> <br /> <br /> Die Angabe ist falsch oder missverständlich. <br /> 1,8 Millionen Besucher täglich oder 1,8 Milliarden Besucher jährlich würde besser passen.<br /> Es könnte ein sehr grober schätzwert seinwie viele verschieden Menschen die seite besuchen. <br /> Allerdings wäre es dann sehr gering:<br /> <br /> In China leben ca 1350 Millionen Menschen.<br /> Die hier veröffentlich Angabe behauptet also dass in China höchstens jeder 750ste jährlich diese Seite besucht (welche dort eine <br /> der meistbesuchten Seiten ist)<br /> <br /> <br /> Anhand des Alexa ranking würde ich davon ausgehen, dass die Anzahl verschiedener Besucher bzw IPAdressen, welche die Website jeden Tag zählt eine 7 stellige Zahl ist. <br /> <br /> <br /> Bitte schaut mal folgendes an <br /> http://traffic.alexa.com/graph?&amp;w=400&amp;h=220&amp;o=f&amp;c=1&amp;y=r&amp;b=ffffff&amp;r=2y&amp;u=163.com&amp;&amp;u=baidu.com&amp;u=google.cn&amp;<br /> <br /> <br /> http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/163.com#trafficstats<br /> <br /> 163.com hat also in China eine mit den großen Suchmaschinen Baidu und google nahkommende Besucheranzahl und ist weltweit nach Alexa traffic rang ca. platz 50 aller websites und platz 7 in China &lt;small&gt;(''nicht [[Hilfe:Signatur|signierter]] Beitrag von'' [[Benutzer:Updatehelper|Updatehelper]] ([[Benutzer Diskussion:Updatehelper|Diskussion]]&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;[[Spezial:Beiträge/Updatehelper|Beiträge]]) 00:35, 29. Dez. 2009 (CET)) &lt;/small&gt;<br /> :Und wie wollen wir jetzt herausfinden wie viele wirklich auf der Seite drauf sind täglich/jährlich?--[[Benutzer:Fußballmeister|Fußballmeister]] 21:12, 13. Jan. 2010 (CET)<br /> <br /> nun ja, die 3% von Alexa sind schwer bestechlich, täglich surfen mindestens 500 Millionen Menschen somit lässt sich mit ausreichender Treffersicherheit sagen dass täglich mehr als 15 Millionen auf 163.com landen<br /> Wie viele verschiedene es dann im jahr (zwischen 15Million und dem 365 fachen) ist eine wesentlich schwierigere Frage.<br /> Sicher ist aber dass die 1.8 Millionen Schätzung Quatsch ist.</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conception_(Band)&diff=87471825 Conception (Band) 2010-08-12T23:34:07Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{References|date=January 2008}}&lt;br&gt;<br /> {{Infobox musical artist | &lt;!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject Musicians --&gt;<br /> | Name = Conception<br /> | Img =<br /> | Background = group_or_band<br /> | Alias =<br /> | Origin = [[Raufoss]], [[Norway]]<br /> | Genre = [[Power metal]]&lt;br&gt;[[Progressive metal]]<br /> | Years_active = 1989 - 1998, 2005<br /> | Label = [[Noise Records (Germany)|Noise Records]]<br /> | Associated_acts = [[Kamelot]], [[ARK (band)|Ark]], [[Crest of Darkness]]<br /> | URL = [http://www.rollthefire.com/ www.rollthefire.com]<br /> | Current_members = [[Roy Khan]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Tore Østby]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Ingar Amlien]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Arve Heimdal]]<br /> | Past_members = See: [[#Former members|Former members section]]<br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Conception''' is a [[power metal|power]]/[[progressive metal]] band from [[Raufoss]], [[Norway]].<br /> <br /> ==Band history==<br /> ===Formation and Record Label===<br /> The band was formed in [[Norway]] in 1989 by guitarist [[Tore Østby]], singer [[Dag Østby]], drummer [[Werner Skogli]] and bassist [[Freddy Samsonstuen]]. In 1990, after a demo tape, [[Arve Heimdal]] replaced Werner Skogli and [[Ingar Amlien]] replaced Freddy Samsonstuen. A year later, Dag Østby quit, and the band was forced to search for a new vocalist. After many auditions, the band hooked up with [[Roy Khan]], an opera singer (who had to wear a wig because he didn't feel comfortable with having longer hair). To record their first album, [[The Last Sunset (album)|''The Last Sunset'']], they formed their own record label, CSF Records. However, after talks and negotiations, ''Conception'' signed with [[Noise Records (Germany)|Noise Records]] in 1993 and recorded their second album ''[[Parallel Minds]]''. In 1995, they released their third album, ''[[In Your Multitude]]'' and their fourth and final album, [[Flow (Conception album)|''Flow'']], in 1997.<br /> <br /> Their somewhat short-lived career (the band disbanded in 1997-8) was characterized by a unique sound in the power/progressive metal genre (which was slightly altered with their last studio release, ''[[Flow (Conception album)|Flow]]''), notable for Østby's occasional integration of elements of flamenco (which he would continue in his later work with [[ARK (band)|ARK]]) and Khan's unique vocals.<br /> <br /> ===Reunion===<br /> Conception was reunited in 2005, playing the important [[USA|American]] [[Progressive rock|prog]] [[Heavy metal music|metal]] festival [http://www.progpowerusa.com/ Prog Power USA 2005] on Friday, September 16 and [[Norway|Norwegian]] [http://www.screammagazine.com/ Scream Magazine's] 15 Years &amp; 100 Issues Festival on Saturday, October 1, bringing guitarist Tore Østby ([[ARK (band)|Ark]]), singer Roy Khan (now lead singer of [[Kamelot]]) and the rest of the band back together. The project is still on hold, however, as most members are currently occupied with their own bands.<br /> <br /> A rumour circulated in late 2008 about a possible reunion, however these were proven false in 2009 when Tore Østby and John Macaluso reformed [[ARK (band)|ARK]].<br /> <br /> ==Line-up==<br /> ===Last known lineup===<br /> * [[Tore Østby]] - Guitar<br /> * [[Ingar Amlien]] - Bass<br /> * [[Arve Heimdal]] - Drums<br /> * [[Roy Khan]] - Vocals<br /> * [[Trond Nagell-Dahl]] - Keyboards<br /> <br /> ===Former members===<br /> * [[Hans Christian Gjestvang]] - Keyboards<br /> * [[Dag Østby]] - Vocals<br /> * [[Werner Skogli]] - Drums<br /> * [[Freddy Samsonstuen]] - Bass<br /> * [[Halvor Holter]] - Keyboards<br /> * [[Lars Christian Narum]] - Keyboards<br /> <br /> ==Discography==<br /> {| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''Date of Release'''<br /> |&lt;center&gt;'''Title'''&lt;/center&gt;<br /> |&lt;center&gt;'''Label'''&lt;/center&gt;<br /> |'''Type of Release'''<br /> |-4<br /> |1991, 1994 (Reissue)<br /> |[[The Last Sunset (album)|''The Last Sunset'']]<br /> |CSF Records<br /> |CD<br /> |-<br /> |1993<br /> |''[[Parallel Minds]]''<br /> |[[Noise Records (Germany)|Noise Records]]<br /> |CD<br /> |-<br /> |1995<br /> |Guilt / Sundance<br /> |Noise Records<br /> |EP (12&quot; Vinyl)<br /> |-<br /> |1995<br /> |''[[In Your Multitude]]''<br /> |Noise Records<br /> |CD<br /> |-<br /> |1997<br /> |[[Flow (Conception album)|''Flow'']]<br /> |Noise Records<br /> |CD<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> * [http://www.rollthefire.com/ Official Conception website]<br /> * [http://www.oocities.com/SunsetStrip/Palladium/1360/ Semi-official Conception website]<br /> * [http://www.myspace.com/conceptionmusic Conception] at [[MySpace]]<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Conception}}<br /> [[Category:Norwegian progressive metal musical groups]]<br /> [[Category:Norwegian power metal musical groups]]<br /> [[Category:Musical groups established in 1989]]<br /> <br /> [[es:Conception]]<br /> [[it:Conception (gruppo musicale)]]<br /> [[no:Conception]]<br /> [[pl:Conception (grupa muzyczna)]]<br /> [[fi:Conception (yhtye)]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Castle_Chanonry_of_Ross&diff=164121227 Castle Chanonry of Ross 2010-08-12T22:05:47Z <p>Updatehelper: /* 17th century and Civil War */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>'''Castle Chanonry of Ross''', also known as '''Seaforth Castle''', was located in the town of [[Fortrose]], to the north-east of [[Inverness]], [[Highland (council area)|Highland]], [[Scotland]]. Nothing now remains of the castle. The castle was also known as '''Canonry''' or '''Chanonrie''' of [[Ross]], the former [[counties of Scotland|county]].<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> ===16th century, medieval period===<br /> The Castle no longer stands however it is known that it was a rectangular tower house built by the [[John Fraser (bishop)|Bishop Fraser]] between 1497 and 1507.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.blackisle.org/castleofchanonry.htm&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1569 a feud arose between the [[Clan Mackenzie]] and [[Clan Munro]], who by this time were among the most powerful clans in [[Ross-shire]]. The trouble arose when [[John Leslie, Bishop of Ross]], made over to his cousin Leslie, the Laird of Balquhair, the right and title to the castle at Chanonry together with the castle lands. Bishop Leslie had been secretary to the deposed [[Mary, Queen of Scots]] and there was strong feeling against episcopacy in Scotland. He therefore felt it best to get the church property under his bishopric passed into his family's hands to preserve some of the important privileges that came with being a bishop. Not withstanding this grant the Regent Moray, acting in the name of the infant King [[James VI of Scotland]] gave the custody of the castle to [[Munros of Milntown|Andrew Munro, 5th of Milntown]]. <br /> <br /> James Stewart, Earl of Moray, who was the illegitimate son of King [[James V of Scotland]] and the most powerful man in Scotland, promised Bishop Leslie that in return for ceding the castle and lands he would give him some of the lands of the barony of Fintry in Buchan. This scheme, however, became somewhat interrupted when, in January 1570, the [[Regent Moray]] was shot dead, preventing Andrew Munro of Milntown from obtaining the title to the castle and lands of Chanonry, but that did not deter him from occupying them as though he did. <br /> <br /> The Mackenzies were not particularly pleased to see their powerful neighbours, the Munros, in possession of this castle and recognizing the inherent weakness in Munro's title, or lack of it, they purchased from Leslie the legal title and rights and proceeded to demand possession of their rightful property from Munro. However Munro would not cede.<br /> <br /> Munro decided to stay put and made a new approach to the new regent, [[Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox]] who seeing the justice of the situation supported Munro. The situation became even more complex when the unfortunate Earl of Lennox was also shot and killed in September 1571. The next regent, [[John Erskine, 18th Earl of Mar]], subsequently also gave his approval to Andrew Munro to retain possession of the castle.<br /> <br /> The Mackenzies regarded the Munros as wrongful possessors of their property which they had legally purchased from Leslie. They therefore laid siege to the castle. The Munros defended the castle for three years with the loss of many lives on both sides. Finally in 1573 the Munros peacefully passed the castle to the Mackenzies under an Act of Pacification, in the terms of which Munro was awarded compensation for his expenses in occupying the castle. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.electricscotland.com/mackenzie/images/CHAPT.05.pdf CHAPTER 5&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/m/munro2.html Clan MUNRO&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.electricscotland.com/history/genhist/hist33.html Doings of Mackay and the Earl of Caithness&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Sir Robert Gordon (1580 - 1656) writes of the feud in his book &quot;Genealogical History of the Earldom of Sutherland&quot;:<br /> <br /> ''The Munros defended and keipt the Castle for the space of thrie yeirs, with great slaughter on either syd, vntill it was delyvered to the Clanchenzie, by the Act of Pacification. And this wes the ground beginning of the feud and hartburning, which to this day, remaynes between the Clanchenzie and Munrois'' &lt;ref&gt;Genealogical History of the Earldom of SutherlandBy Sir Robert Gordon of Gordonstoun (1580 - 1656)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In Alexander MacKenzie's book ''The History of the MacKenzies'', published in 1890, he claims that an attempted sortie by the Munros for fish at a nearby loch was foiled and as a result the MacKenzies took control of the castle. &lt;ref&gt;History of the MacKenzies of Kintail by Alexander MacKenzie&lt;/ref&gt; Although it is recorded by Sir Robert Gordon's earlier account to have been handed over peacfully under King [[James VI]]. This affair was probably part of wider political intrigue and the rival claims of the King's and Queen's parties which ended with the 'pacification' of Perth in 1573.<br /> <br /> ===17th century and Civil War=== <br /> <br /> Later during the 17th century, during the Civil War the Clan MacKenzie chief who was still in possession of the castle was now known as the [[Earl of Seaforth]]. However in 1646 [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]] laid siege to the castle and took it from the MacKenzies after a siege of four days.<br /> &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.electricscotland.com/history/genhist/hist46.html 1645 - 1649 (Part 1)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1649 the MacKenzies retook the Castle Chanonry of Ross from the Parliamentary forces. However the Parliamentary forces soon after took the MacKenzie's 'Red Castle' and hanged the garrison. &lt;ref&gt;http://website.lineone.net/~indexer/suter04.html&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At this period of time the people of the district became firm adherents of the King's party. <br /> <br /> A 17th century poem, written by [[Brahan Seer]], concerning the Castle Chanonry of Ross predicted that: &quot;The day will come when, full of the Mackenzies, it will fall with a fearful crash. This may come to pass in several ways. The Canonry is the principle burying-place of the Clan, and it may fall when full of dead Mackenzies, or when a large concourse of the Clan is present at the funeral of a great chief.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.oocities.com/Athens/Forum/8287/seer2.html#0 The Brahan Seer - His Prophecies&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Interestingly the castle was reduced to rubble during the Jacobite Uprisings in the 18th century. Although it is not known who was responsible for this.<br /> <br /> ===The castle today===<br /> <br /> The castle itself no longer stands. However, the street it was on is now known as Castle Street. Nearby, built into the outside wall of an extremely old ware house is a stone known as a 'Dormer Pediment'. The stone consists of a coat of arms and some initials. The initials read CBS which stand for 'Countess Barbara of Seaforth'. Barbara was the wife of George MacKenzie, second [[Earl of Seaforth]] (1633-1651). It is possible that this stone is the only surviving relic of the castle. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.blackisle.org/castleofchanonry.htm castleofchanonry&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> <br /> *[[Castles in Scotland]]<br /> *[[Castles in the United Kingdom]]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/m/munro2.html Clan Munro @ Electric Scotland]<br /> *[http://www.electricscotland.com/history/genhist/hist33.html Highland History @ Electric Scotland]<br /> *[http://www.electricscotland.com/history/genhist/hist46.html Highland History @ Electric Scotland]<br /> *[http://www.blackisle.org/castleofchanonry.htm Castle of Chanonry]<br /> *[http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/m/munro2.html http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/m/munro2.html]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> *{{cite web |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/14335/details/seaforth+castle/ |title=Seaforth Castle, Site Number NH75NW 19 |work=[[CANMORE]] |publisher=[[RCAHMS]] |accessdate=2009-09-04}}<br /> <br /> {{coord|57|34|56|N|4|07|50|W|region:GB|display=title}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Castles in Highland|Chanonry of Ross]]<br /> [[Category:Clan Mackenzie]]<br /> [[Category:Clan Munro]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carrickmines_Castle&diff=181664326 Carrickmines Castle 2010-08-12T21:56:55Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>'''Carrickmines Castle''' is a controversial archaeological site in [[Carrickmines]], [[County Dublin]], in eastern [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]. The castle was built in the medieval period to protect the [[England|English]]-ruled [[the Pale|Pale]] around [[Dublin]]. <br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Carrickmines Castle was the site of an [[Hiberno-Norse]] settlement which during the 12th century became a fortified [[Norman Ireland|Norman]] castle and village, on the frontier between Dublin and Wicklow, Ireland. Guarding the southern plains, this fortress was once a central medallion in the necklace of the Norman castles and outposts dotted along the outskirts of The Pale &amp;mdash; the area around Dublin under English rule during the medieval period. <br /> <br /> As a major fortress, it had an extensive curtain wall flanked by towers protecting an area of some acres. Within this was settlement with a variety of wooden and stone buildings, mills, and a keep or hall house in the centre. The site still contains impressive defences, hewn into bedrock, and human remains from when the castle was overwhelmed in [[1642 in Ireland|1642]].<br /> <br /> In the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]], the Catholic Walshs who owned the Castle sided with the native Irish and the Confederate attempt to create the first independent Irish parliament. They paid dearly &amp;mdash; as a focus of the [[Irish Confederate Wars]], the Castle was besieged by English forces, and when it was retaken over 300 of the Walsh, O'Byrne, and O'Tooles were massacred.<br /> <br /> ==M50 motorway and &quot;The Carrickminders&quot;==<br /> <br /> The ruins of the castle were the subject of a long running dispute before the [[M50 motorway (Ireland)|M50 motorway]] was built through the site of the castle. It began in 2002 when activists, including Vincent Salafia and Gordon Lucas, who called themselves the &quot;Carrickminders&quot; camped out on the castle's ruins to prevent them being removed to make way for the motorway. They were joined by preservationists, including Professor Sean Duffy, Head of the Department of History at Trinity College Dublin and Dr. Mark Clinton, who was the archaeologist employed by the National Roads Authority as Site Director. They argued that the site's potential for historical study has not been fully realised. They questioned why the line of the M50 rerouted through the castle in 1998 when the proposed new road was originally routed around it in 1983 on the advice of a state agency?<br /> <br /> In 2005 both the [[M50 motorway (Ireland)|M50 motorway]] and the junction were completed.<br /> [[Image:January 2004 Carrickminders.jpg|thumb|The site before the road came through]]<br /> <br /> ==Supreme Court ruling==<br /> The [[Supreme Court of Ireland|Supreme Court]] according to ''[[The Irish Times]]'' on 26 July 2006&lt;ref&gt;http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2006/0726/pf1153813780603.html&lt;/ref&gt; unanimously upheld the constitutionality of new laws enacted to achieve the preserving the Carrickmines Castle site.<br /> <br /> While noting that the new legislation &amp;mdash; S 8 of the National Monuments (Amendment) Act 2004 &amp;mdash; &quot;removes a bundle of protections&quot; from national monuments, the five-judge court found the [[Oireachtas]] is not prohibited under the [[Constitution of Ireland]] from enacting such laws.<br /> <br /> The Court found that in issuing directions, the [[Minister for the Environment, Heritage and Local Government]] was entitled to balance the benefits of archaeological preservation against the wider public interest that would accrue as a result of the road development.<br /> <br /> Section 8 effectively provided that the works affecting the Carrickmines Castle site were to be carried out on the Minister's directions. Provided the Minister exercised his discretion under section 8 in a constitutional manner, he could give such directions as he thought fit, the Court found.<br /> <br /> This effectively meant that the works at Carrickmines Castle were no longer to be regulated under the National Monuments Acts, the court said. Carrickmines Castle, it noted, was accepted as being a national monument and the road works would mean a large part of a moat discovered at the site would cease to exist.<br /> <br /> Under section 8, [[Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council]], as landowner, did not need consent from any statutory body for undertaking the works and Oireachtas approval was not necessary. There was also no requirement to obtain a licence under the 1930 National Monuments Act and [[An Bord Pleanála]] was precluded from considering whether proposed works were likely to have a significant effect on the environment and from directing an environmental impact statement.<br /> <br /> There was &quot;only the requirement that the works be carried out on the directions of the minister&quot;, the court said. It rejected claims that those directions &amp;mdash; issued by the Minister, Dick Roche, in August, 2004 &amp;mdash; breached provisions of European Commission environmental directives and were therefore null and void.<br /> <br /> The Supreme Court was delivering its judgement on an appeal against the High Court's rejection in September 2004 of a challenge by Dominic Dunne, Collins Square, Benburb, Dublin, both to section 8 and to the ministerial directions. Dunne indicated that he intends to take his case to the [[European Court of Justice]].<br /> <br /> ==Corruption allegations==<br /> On July 26, 2006, the Criminal Assets Bureau successfully obtained a High Court order freezing land assets of {{convert|107|acre|km2}} at Carrickmines, County Dublin owned by Jackson Way Properties Ltd and preventing their sale. The CAB contended that these lands had been rezoned on December 16, 1997 by [[Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council]] from agricultural to industrial after [[Frank Dunlop]] bribed and made corrupt payments to councillors to secure their support in the rezoning vote. That vote increased the value of just {{convert|17|acre|m2}} of the property from €8 million to €61 million. The CAB interviewed and took statements from Frank Dunlop for use as a witness against a number of property developers.<br /> <br /> The lands in question have been the subject of investigation by [[The Mahon Tribunal]] in 2003 and 2004.<br /> <br /> &lt;gallery&gt;<br /> Image:January 2004Carrickminders.jpg|Ancient remains - of The Carrickminders camp, January 2004<br /> Image:January Carrickminders 002.jpg|Minding the Carrickminders<br /> Image:January C'mines2004 009c.jpg|Water feature discovered<br /> &lt;/gallery&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/carrickmines Carrickminders mailing list operated by Vincent Salafia]<br /> * [http://www.oocities.com/carrickmines_castle/Carrickmines_Castle.html Carrickmines Castle Homepage]{{Dead link|date=August 2010}} <br /> <br /> {{Historic Irish houses}}<br /> <br /> {{Coord missing|County Dublin}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Castles in County Dublin]]<br /> [[Category:Dún Laoghaire]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caister_Castle&diff=139206279 Caister Castle 2010-08-12T21:46:04Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Caister Castle.jpg|thumb|Caister Castle]]<br /> '''Caister Castle''' is a 15th-century [[moat]]ed castle situated in the parish of [[West Caister]], some [[1 E3 m|5 km]] north of the town of [[Great Yarmouth]] in the [[England|English]] county of [[Norfolk]] ({{gbmapping|TG504123}}).<br /> <br /> The castle had a [[1 E2 m|100 ft (33 m)]] high [[tower]] and was built between 1432 and 1446 by Sir [[John Fastolf]], who was the inspiration for [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Falstaff]].'' Fastolf was the recipient of one of the five licences to crenellate, authorising the building of a fortified dwelling, issued by [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], during his 50 years' reign. The castle suffered severe damage in 1469 when it was [[Siege|besieged]] and captured by the [[Duke of Norfolk]]. The castle, other than the tower, fell into ruin after 1600 when a new house was built nearby. <br /> <br /> The castle's tower is still intact and can be climbed by visitors. <br /> <br /> ==Paston Letters==<br /> <br /> The castle features extensively in the '[[Paston Letters]]', a unique collection of family correspondence covering the period of the [[Wars of the Roses]], documenting the Paston family's struggles to climb and maintain position on the English social ladder. John Paston was a close confidante and advisor to Sir [[John Fastolf]]. Sir John died childless, and intestate; the castle was one of many properties in his estate. John Paston, with some justification, claimed to be his heir; this put him in direct conflict with various major players of the time, such as the [[John de Mowbray, 4th Duke of Norfolk|Duke of Norfolk]]. As a result the castle was besieged in August 1469 by the Duke - in pursuit of his own claim of ownership - and defended by John Paston junior and approximately 30 men. The two month defence was unsuccessful, resulting in the death of one of the Paston's longest serving servants by a crossbow wound and the loss of the castle to the Duke. Some years later, the castle was ultimately returned to the Paston family's ownership.<br /> <br /> ==Caister Castle Motor Museum==<br /> <br /> The '''Caister Castle Motor Museum''' features a private collection of veteran, vintage, classic, sports and touring automobiles and motorcycles. The museum also displays bicycles, horse-drawn vehicles, pedal cars, agriculture equipment and transportation items. The exhibits are located in a purpose-built building. <br /> <br /> Admission to the castle includes the museum, castle tower and grounds.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> *[http://www.castleuk.net/castle_lists_east_anglia/134/caistercastle.htm Caister Castle 1]<br /> *[http://www.ecastles.co.uk/caister.html Caister Castle 2]<br /> *[http://www.caistercastle.co.uk Caister Castle Motor Museum]<br /> *Fry, Plantagenet Somerset, ''The David &amp; Charles Book of Castles'', David &amp; Charles, 1980. ISBN 0-7153-7976-3<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[Paston, Norfolk]]<br /> *[[Oxnead]]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> {{commonscat}}<br /> {{oscoor gbx|TG502125}}<br /> *[http://www.caistercastle.co.uk Caister Castle] - official site including the Motor Museum<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/jojogoob/Caister.htm Description of Caister Castle]<br /> <br /> &lt;BR&gt;<br /> [[Category:Castles in Norfolk]]<br /> [[Category:Ruins in Norfolk]]<br /> [[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Norfolk]]<br /> [[Category:Museums in Norfolk]]<br /> [[Category:Automobile museums in England]]<br /> [[Category:Transport museums in England]]<br /> {{England-castle-stub}}</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cadeby_Light_Railway&diff=152152623 Cadeby Light Railway 2010-08-12T21:45:24Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox rail<br /> |railroad_name=Cadeby Light Railway<br /> |gauge={{RailGauge|24}}<br /> |start_year=1963<br /> |end_year=2005<br /> |length=97 yards<br /> |hq_city=Cadeby<br /> |locale=[[England]]<br /> |successor_line=abandoned<br /> }}<br /> [[Image:PixieAtCadeby.jpg|thumb|''Pixie'' at Cadeby in 1981]]<br /> [[Image:Last1 3.JPG|thumb|The last train at Cadeby, 2006]]<br /> The '''Cadeby Light Railway''' was a [[narrow gauge railway]] in the garden of the [[rectory]] in [[Cadeby, Leicestershire]].<br /> <br /> In the early 1960s the [[Edwin Boston|Reverend Teddy Boston]] became rector of All Saints' Church, Cadeby. Boston was a lifelong [[railfan|railway enthusiast]] and wanted to build a miniature railway in his new garden, but the cost proved prohibitive. Instead he searched for a full sized narrow gauge locomotive. In 1962 he purchased ''Pixie'' a [[W.G. Bagnall]] 0-4-0ST from the Cranford quarry. The quarry owners donated a short length of track and two wagons and the Cadeby Light Railway was opened.<br /> <br /> Over the years, the Rev. Boston built an extensive collection of ex-industrial narrow gauge rolling stock which ran on the extremely short line in his garden. Although the Rev. Boston died in 1986 his widow Audrey kept the railway open for nearly twenty years, holding regular open days. The railway finally closed in 2005, subsequently the majority of the collection has been amalgamated with the [[Moseley Railway Trust]] at the [[Apedale Community Country Park]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> *{{cite book<br /> | author =The Rev E. R. Boston MA<br /> | title =Rails Round the Rectory - The story of the Cadeby Light Railway<br /> | publisher =The Book House<br /> | date =1973<br /> | location =Loughborough<br /> | isbn=0 902520 03 2 }}<br /> <br /> * {{cite book| author=Thomas, Cliff|title=The Narrow Gauge in Britain &amp; Ireland| publisher=Atlantic Publishers| year=2002|isbn=1-902827-05-8}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.ovlr.org/Rooth/MR.ParsonRR.html The Rev. Edwin Richard &quot;Teddy&quot; Boston - an appreciation - by Mike Rooth]<br /> *[http://www.ovlr.org/Rooth/MR.SteamTractor.2.html Steam rally appearance by &quot;Fiery Elias&quot;]<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/martinclutt/awdry/teddyboston.htm Photo of the Rev. Boston on 'Pixie', with All Saints' Church behind]<br /> *[http://www.britishpathe.com/product_display.php?canisternumber=&amp;sortnumber=&amp;filmid=403.08&amp;szin=&amp;group=&amp;decade=&amp;date1=&amp;date2=&amp;date3=&amp;datefrom=&amp;dateto=&amp;choice=all&amp;description=Enter+search+word%28s%29+here&amp;searchword=Enter+a+search+word+here&amp;choice1=all&amp;title=Enter+a+film+title+here&amp;choice2=all&amp;keywords=Enter+key+words+here&amp;choice3=all&amp;summary=Enter+a+summary+search+here&amp;advanced.x=0&amp;advanced.y=0 &quot;Railway Vicar&quot; (free video download)] – April 1967 feature by British Pathe about Teddy Boston and his OO gauge model railway.<br /> *[http://www.cadebysteam.co.uk/history.html Teddy Boston's involvement in the forming of the Cadeby Steam &amp; Country Fayre]<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> <br /> * [[Moseley Railway Trust]]<br /> * [[British narrow gauge railways]]<br /> * [[Trevor the Traction Engine]]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Category:Two foot gauge railways]]<br /> <br /> <br /> {{UK-rail-stub}}</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0smet_G%C3%BCney&diff=153345791 İsmet Güney 2010-08-12T21:44:32Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox artist <br /> | name = İsmet Vehit Güney<br /> | nationality = [[Turkish Cypriot]]<br /> | field = [[Arts]], [[Cartoons]], [[Design]] <br /> | works = [[Kyrenia]] Harbour<br /> }}<br /> '''İsmet Vehit Güney''' (1932 - 23 June 2009&lt;ref name=cm/&gt;), was a [[Cyprus|Cypriot]] [[artist]], [[cartoonist]], [[teacher]] and [[Painting|painter]]. He is best known as the designer of the modern [[flag of Cyprus|flag]] of the [[Republic of Cyprus]], the country's [[Coat of arms of Cyprus|coat of arms]] and the original [[Cypriot pound|Cyprus lira]] in 1960.&lt;ref name=cm/&gt; Güney's design is unique, as the Republic of Cyprus' is the only country in the world to display a map on its flag.&lt;ref name=cm/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Biography==<br /> ===Background===<br /> Güney was born in 1932 in [[Limassol]], [[Cyprus]].&lt;ref name=cm&gt;{{cite news |first=Stefanos|last=Evripidou|title=Cyprus flag designer dies |url=http://www.cyprus-mail.com/cyprus/cyprus-flag-designer-dies|work=[[Cyprus Mail]]|publisher=|date=2009-06-25 |accessdate=2009-07-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; He began painting while he was a student in high school. After graduating from the Teachers Training College, he started working as an arts teacher in 1948. <br /> <br /> From 1948 to 1977 he attended [[Lefkoşa Erkek Lisesi]] studying Art and History. In 1956, he met artist [[Ibrahim Çallı]] and worked with him until 1960.<br /> <br /> In 1947, Güney became the first [[Turkish Cypriot]] painter to open a solo [[art exhibition]].&lt;ref name=cm/&gt; Güney participated had many solo exhibitions as well as participating in group exhibitions both in Cyprus and abroad. In 1967, a scholarship enabled him to study at Belfast Queen's University's Stranmills College. In 1986 he had a grand retrospective exhibition in Nicosia. Towards the end of his life he worked on graphics and color-separation in North Cyprus.<br /> <br /> == Creation of the Cyprus flag==<br /> [[File:Flag of Cyprus.svg|right|thumb|[[File:FIAV 111111.svg|23px]] Flag ratio: 3:5]]<br /> <br /> Before the [[flag of Cyprus]] was introduced, the flags of [[Turkey]] and [[Greece]] were used. The current flag was created as the result of a design competition in 1960. Under the constitution, the flag should not include either red or blue colors (the colours of the flag of Turkey and the flag of Greece), nor portray a cross or a crescent. All participants deliberately avoided use of these four elements in an attempt to make the flag &quot;neutral&quot;. Thus the Greek blue and Turkish red were avoided by Güney and the other design competitors.&lt;ref name=cm/&gt;<br /> <br /> The winning design was based on the proposal by İsmet Güney. The design was chosen by [[Makarios III]], the [[President of the Republic of Cyprus]], with the consent of [[Fazil Küçük]], the then Vice-President, in 1960.&lt;ref name=cm/&gt;<br /> <br /> The white flag was chosen for the young Cyprus as a sign of [[peace]] among the two communities living there (Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots). The map of the island is golden yellow, for the sake of easier reproduction of what was originally intended to be a colour of [[copper]], a metal that the island got its name from. Most probably, since there is no brownish-reddish-copper colour in heraldry, the map was changed to golden. The two green olive branches symbolize peace between the two communities of the island.<br /> <br /> Currently, only the government-controlled southern part of Cyprus uses Guney's original since the division of the island in 1974.&lt;ref name=cm/&gt;<br /> <br /> Guney sought payment from the government of the Republic of Cyprus for his flag design, in addition to [[Royalties|compensation]] for its [[copyright]] use in 2006.&lt;ref name=cm/&gt; Güney was reportedly promised £20 a year by Makarios for designing the [[national flag]], but he was never paid for his work, according to reports by the [[Turkish Cypriot]] media.&lt;ref name=cm/&gt; Guney had hired a [[Greek Cypriot]] [[law firm]] to take his case, and had stated that he would take his case to the [[European Court of Human Rights]] if needed.&lt;ref name=cm/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> İsmet Güney died of [[cancer]] on June 23, 2009, at the age of 77.&lt;ref name=cm/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://ismetvahitguney.com Ismet Vehit Güney] <br /> *[http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/culture/mofa/painting/guney/index.html Ismet Vehit Güney] <br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/ismailkartoon/ismetvguney.htm Ismail KARcomic sitesi] <br /> *[http://www.kibris.net/kktc/sanatcilarimiz/karikatur/huseyin-cakmak/karikatur_sanati_eng.htm Huseyin Çakmak]<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Guney, Ismet}}<br /> [[Category:1932 births]]<br /> [[Category:2009 deaths]]<br /> [[Category:Turkish Cypriots]]<br /> [[Category:Cypriot artists]]<br /> [[Category:Flag designers]]<br /> [[Category:Cypriot educators]]<br /> [[Category:Cypriot cartoonists]]<br /> [[Category:Cypriot painters]]<br /> <br /> [[nl:İsmet Güney]]<br /> [[tr:İsmet Güney]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azo_von_Iberien&diff=181638226 Azo von Iberien 2010-08-12T19:11:33Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Modern interpretation */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>''For other uses, see [[Azo]]''<br /> <br /> '''Azo''' ({{lang-ka|აზო}}; or '''Azoy''', აზოჲ) also known as '''Azon''' (აზონი) was a legendary ruler of [[Georgians]] of ancient [[Kartli]] ([[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] authors) claimed by medieval [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] annals to have been installed by [[Alexander the Great]], [[List of kings of Macedon|king]] of [[Macedon]] ([[reign|r.]] 336–323 BC). <br /> == Medieval tradition ==<br /> His name and origin are differently given by the medieval Georgian chronicles. While ''[[The Conversion of Kartli]]'' calls him Azo(y) and makes him the scion of a preexisting dynasty in [[Arian-Kartli]], ''[[Georgian Chronicles|The Life of Kartli]]'' knows him as Azon and brands him a Macedonian outsider. Azo and Azon unquestionably represent the same figure and both sources credit his position to Alexander’s mythic expedition into inner Georgia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rapp-270&quot;&gt;Rapp, p. 270.&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> According to ''The Conversion of Kartli'', Azo was the son of an unnamed king of Arian-Kartli, who was brought, together with followers, to Kartli proper by Alexander and installed as the first king (''mep'e'', მეფე) at [[Mtskheta]] after the conquest of this city. He also transplated the cults of [[Gatsi and Gaim]] to Kartli. ''The Life of Kartli'' enshrines no such tradition. Rather, it maintains that Azon, son of Iaredos (unattested in The Conversion of Kartli), was neither a king nor even a Georgian. He is reported to have conquered Mtskheta with 100,000 Macedonians (&quot;Romans&quot;). In addition, Alexander commanded Azon to worship seven [[celestial bodies]] (the [[Sun]], the [[Moon]], and five &quot;stars&quot;, i.e., [[planets]]) and to serve the &quot;invisible God, the creator of the universe&quot;. This version has Azon, depicted as a tyrant, subsequently deposed and killed by [[Pharnavaz I of Iberia|Pharnavaz]], the member of the local ruling clan ([[Pharnabazid Dynasty|P’arnavaziani]]), whose father and uncle were killed by Azon.&lt;ref&gt;Rapp, p. 269.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Rapp-270&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> == Modern interpretation ==<br /> The identification of Azo/Azon is one of the most complex and contentious enigmas of early Georgian history. His rule is conventionally dated by the Georgian scholar Sergi Gorgadze to 330-272 BC, though this chronology lacks precision.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rapp-273&quot;&gt;Rapp, p. 273.&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Despite their differences, the two medieval traditions concur that kingship was established in Mtskheta in the early [[Hellenistic period]] and this is verified in non-Georgian sources.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rapp-273&quot;/&gt; The legend of Alexander's Iberian campaign has also been preserved in Armenian historical tradition, particularly in ''[[History of Armenia (Moses of Chorene)|The History of the Armenians]]'' by [[Moses of Chorene]] (probably the 5th century). Moses speaks of &quot;Mithridates, [[satrap]] of [[Darius III of Persia|Darius]]&quot; (identifiable with [[Mithridates I of Pontus]]) installed by Alexander to rule over the Georgians. Professor [[Giorgi Melikishvili]] has drawn several parallels between the stories of the Azon of the Georgian chronicles and the Mithridates of the Armenian tradition.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kavtaradze&quot;&gt;Kavtaradze, Giorgi L. [http://www.oocities.com/komblema/orte.htm#_ftnref51 Georgian Chronicles and the raison d'étre of the Iberian Kingdom (Caucasica II).], pp. 177-237. ''Orbis Terrarum, Journal of Historical Geography of the Ancient World'' 6, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Several modern scholars believe Azo’s story indirectly suggests the migration of the early Georgian tribes to the northwest and blending of [[Anatolia]]n elements with the tribes living in Kartli proper.&lt;ref&gt;[[Cyril Toumanoff|Toumanoff, Cyril]] (1963), ''Studies in Christian Caucasian History'', p. 89. [[Georgetown University Press]].&lt;/ref&gt; On the other hand, the version of ''The Life of Kartli'', which anachronistically refers to Azon's entourage as &quot;Romans&quot;, might well have reflected the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] activities in Iberia, presumably those of the [[Flavian dynasty|Flavian]] period (A.D. 69-96), which have surprisingly been ignored by the Georgian annals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kavtaradze&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Lerner, Constantine B. (2001) [http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/vol16/tbilisi.pdf The 'River of Paradaise' and the Legend about the City of Tbilisi: A Literary Source of the Legend], p. 76. ''Folklore'' Vol. 16.&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Some modern historians have also attempted to equate Azon (note that the name terminates in the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[suffix]] –ου) with the [[Jason]] of the [[Argonauts|Argonautic]] cycle.&lt;ref&gt;Rapp, pp. 269-270.&lt;/ref&gt; According to the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] historian [[Tacitus]], the Iberians &quot;claimed [[Thessalian]] origin, dating from the time when Jason, after leaving with [[Medea]] and their children, returned to the empty palace of [[Aeëtes]] and the kingless [[Colchis|Colchians]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Grant, Michael (1973), ''The Annals of Imperial Rome'', p. 217. Penguin Classics, ISBN 0-14-044060-7&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Notes ==<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> == References ==<br /> *Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), ''Studies In Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts''. Peeters Bvba ISBN 90-429-1318-5.<br /> <br /> [[Category:Legendary Alexander the Great]]<br /> [[Category:Monarchs of Georgia (country)]]<br /> [[Category:4th-century BC rulers]]<br /> [[Category:3rd-century BC rulers]]<br /> <br /> [[fr:Azon de Mtskheta]]<br /> [[he:אזו (נסיך גאורגי)]]<br /> [[ka:აზო]]<br /> [[ru:Азон]]<br /> [[fi:Azo (Georgia)]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armazi&diff=192914854 Armazi 2010-08-12T10:26:22Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Mtskheta.png|thumb|200px|Location map of the [[Mtskheta|Mtskheta District]] where Armazi is located.]]<br /> {{other|Armazi (disambiguation)}}<br /> '''Armazi''' ({{lang-ka|არმაზი}}) is a locale in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], 2 km northwest of [[Mtskheta]] and 22 km north of [[Tbilisi]]. A part of historical Greater Mtskheta, it is a place where the ancient city of the same name and the original capital of the early Georgian kingdom of [[Kartli]] or [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] was located. It particularly flourished in the early centuries of the [[Anno Domini]] and was destroyed by the [[Arab]] invasion in the 730s.<br /> <br /> == Archaeology ==<br /> [[Image:Armazi Palace.jpg|thumb|300px|The ruins of the six-column hall in the Armazi palace on Mt. Bagineti (1st century BC).]]<br /> Minor excavations on the territory of Armazi carried out in 1890 revealed the plinth of adobe town walls, with stone steps, and cleared the two-room structure, where fragments of a woman's torso of the 1st century AD were discovered. From 1943 to 1948 large-scale excavation was undertaken under [[Andria Apakidze]] of the [[Georgian Academy of Sciences]], resumed in 1985 and continuing. These have shown that the adobe town walls and towers, built upon a plinth of hewn stone in the first half of the 1st century AD, surrounded the hill top and the side sloping down towards the river, an area of 30 ha. The land within the walls was terraced and various buildings were sited on the terraces.<br /> <br /> The three major cultural layers have been identified: the earliest dates back to the 4th-3rd century BC (Armazi I), the middle one is from the 3rd-1st century BC (Armazi II), and the relatively newer structure belongs to the 1st-6th century AD (Armazi III). Armazi I is constructed of massive stone blocks forming an impregnable base but were finished off by less durable mud brick. It also contains a great hall of six columns with a tiled roof. Armazi II is noted for a temple with an apse. Armazi III is the richest layer constructed of elegantly cut stone blocks, joined together with lime mortar and metal clamps. Among the surviving structures are the royal palace, several richly decorated tombs, a bathhouse and a small stone mausoleum.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iranica&quot;&gt;[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]]. [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f4/v2f4a070.htm &quot;Armazi&quot;.] ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] Online Edition''. Accessed on September 13, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The area is now a state-protected field museum administered as a part of the National Archaeology Museum-Reserve of Greater Mtskheta.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.georgianmuseums.ge/MuseumEn/Musums/mtskheta/Didi_mcxeta.html Georgian Museums: National Archaeology Museum-Reserve of Greater Mtskheta.] ''Ministry of Culture, Monuments Protection and Sports of Georgia''. Accessed on September 13, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == History ==<br /> [[Image:Armazi Citadel ruins, Georgia.jpg|thumb|270px|The ruins of the Armazi citadel]] <br /> Archaeological evidences testify that the ancient Armazi was far more extensive than it is today. Armazi's strategic situation was dictated by its ready access to the [[Daryal Pass]], the main road over the [[Greater Caucasus]], through which the [[Scythians]] invaded the ancient [[Near East]].<br /> <br /> The name of the city and its dominant [[acropolis]], Armaz-Tsikhe (literally, &quot;citadel of Armazi&quot;; არმაზციხე), is usually taken to derive from [[Armazi (god)|Armazi]], the chief [[deity]] of the pagan Iberian pantheon. The name first appears in the early medieval Georgian annals though it is clearly much older and reflected in the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] name Armastica or Harmozica of [[Strabo]], [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], [[Ptolemy]] and [[Dio Cassius]]. According to a collection of medieval Georgian chronicles, Armaztsikhe was founded, in the 3rd century BC, by the semi-legendary king [[Pharnavaz I of Iberia]] at the place hitherto known as [[Kartli]]. This fortress stood on the modern-day Mount Bagineti, on the right bank of the [[Mtkvari River]] (Kura), at its confluence with the [[Aragvi River|Aragvi]]. The other citadel, [[Tsitsamuri]] (წიწამური) or Sevsamora of the Classical authors, stood just opposite, on the left bank of the Aragvi and controlled the road towards [[Mount Kazbek]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Iranica&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> Even after the rise of Mtskheta as a capital of Iberia, Armazi remained the holy city of Iberian [[paganism]] and one of the defenses of Mtskheta. The fortress was captured by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] general [[Pompey]] during his 65 BC campaign against the Iberian king [[Artag]]. A ruined structure over the Mtkvari River dates from that time and is still called &quot;Pompey's bridge&quot;. Armazi's heyday came when Iberia was allied with the Roman emperors. A stone [[stele]] unearthed at Armazi in 1867 reports that the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Vespasian]] fortified Armazi for the Iberian king [[Mithridates I of Iberia|Mithridates I]] in 75 AD.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sherk&quot;&gt;Sherk, Robert K. (1988), ''The Roman Empire: Augustus to Hadrian'', p. 128-9. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521338875.&lt;/ref&gt; This defense wall constructed in a unique position to block the southern exit of the Daryal Pass before it widens into the plain of modern Tbilisi was presumably a preventive measure against the [[Alans]] who frequently raided the Roman frontiers from across the Caucasus.<br /> <br /> During this period, Armazi was governed by a hereditary [[pitiakhsh]], whose rank approximated to that of [[viceroy]] or [[satrap]], and was second in the official Iberian hierarchy after the king. The excavations of the hereditary necropolis of this dynasty yielded [[engraved gem]]s bearing portraits of two of these viceroys, [[Asparukh (name)|Asparukh]] (probably the contemporary of the Roman emperor [[Hadrian]], 117-138 AD) and Zevakh ([[Floruit|fl.]] 150 AD), a rare example of authentic, pre-Christian Georgian portraiture.&lt;ref&gt;[[Lang, David Marshall]]. [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/ &quot;Asparukh&quot;]. ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] Online Edition''. Accessed on September 13, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] inscriptions from Armazi mention also the royal architect and the [[epitropos]] (&quot;[[Lord Chamberlain]]&quot;). <br /> {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 0em; margin-right: 1em; font-size: 85%; background:#f1f5fc; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Deciphered and published by Professor [[Giorgi Tsereteli]] in 1941, the Armazi bilingual [[epitaph]] runs:&lt;br&gt;&quot;I am Serapita, daughter of Zevakh the younger, pitiakhsh of Pharsman the king, and wife of Iodmandagan the victorious, winner of many conquests, master of the court of Ksefarnug, the great king of the Iberians, and son of Agrippa, master of the court of King Farsman. Woe, woe, for the sake of her who was not of full age, whose yeas were not completed, and so good and beautiful that no one was like her in excellence; and she died at the age of twenty-one.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Yarshater, Ehsan (ed., 1983), ''The Cambridge History of Iran'', p. 525. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 052120092X.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> |}<br /> Armazi played a central role in ancient Georgian cultural life and in the evolution of local epigraphy in Georgia, prior to the invention of the [[Georgian alphabet]] in the 4th-5th century. Among a number of curious inscriptions found at Armazi, the most important is the bilingual [[Greek alphabet|Greco]]-Aramaic tombstone inscription commemorating the short-lived Serapita and her noble lineage. It contains an unusual, in its ductus and some of its forms, version of the Aramaic alphabet which came to be known as the &quot;Armazi script&quot; although it can also be found outside Armazi, in other parts of Georgia.<br /> <br /> With the transfer of the Georgian capital to [[Tbilisi]] in the late 5th or early 6th century, Armazi went into a gradual decline. It still had its own high-ranking commandant, a post held in A.D. 545 by a certain Wistam. The city was finally destroyed and razed to the ground in 736 by the [[Arab]] commander [[Marwan ibn Muhammad]] (the future [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] Marwan II).&lt;ref name=&quot;Iranica&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> The city of Armazi has never been revived since then, but a [[Georgian Orthodox]] monastery of [[St. Nino]] was constructed there between 1150 and 1178. This is a six-apse [[hall church]] which, as well as its associated structures, is now largely in ruins and only some fragments of the 12th-century murals have survived.<br /> <br /> == See also ==<br /> *[[Dzalisi]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> <br /> *{{ge icon}} [http://www.mtskheta-mtianeti.gov.ge/?m=6&amp;sm=1&amp;ssm=4#a7 Historical monuments of the Mtskheta District]. The [[Mtskheta-Mtianeti]] Regional Administration. <br /> *[http://www.osgf.ge/armazi/armazibl.htm The Bilingual Inscription from Armazi (1st century AD) (Greek and Aramaic texts with German translation)] The Armazi Project. [[Open Society Institute|Open Society – Georgia Foundation]].<br /> *[http://www.itic.org.ge/udabno/bagin_e.htm Ruins on Mount Bagineti]. Fund &quot;Udabno&quot;. <br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/revaz_zhghenti/bagineti/index.htm Mt. Bagineti] ([http://www.webcitation.org/5knIvvjsk Archived] 2009-10-25). Photos by Revaz Zhghenti.<br /> <br /> {{coord|42|10|N|44|23|E|display=title|region:GE_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Archaeological sites in Georgia (country)]]<br /> [[Category:Museums in Georgia (country)]]<br /> [[Category:Former cities in Georgia (country)]]<br /> [[Category:Razed cities]]<br /> <br /> [[ca:Armazi]]<br /> [[ka:არმაზციხე]]<br /> [[ru:Армази (город)]]<br /> [[fi:Armazi (kaupunki)]]<br /> [[uk:Армазі]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apostell%C3%B6ffel&diff=94337009 Apostellöffel 2010-08-12T10:22:10Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Apostle_spoons_six.jpg|thumb|A set of Apostle spoons]]<br /> [[File:Apostle_spoon_detail.jpg|thumb|upright=0.3|The handle of an Apostle spoon]]<br /> <br /> An '''apostle spoon''' is a [[spoon]] (usually [[silver]] or [[plating|silver-plated]], but sometimes of other metals, such as [[pewter]]) with an image of an [[Twelve apostles|apostle]] or other [[Christianity|Christian]] religious figure as the termination of the handle, each bearing his distinctive emblem. Apostle spoons were particularly popular in Pre-[[Reformation]] times when belief in the services of a patron saint was still strong. They symbolize the [[Last Supper]] of Christ in the company of the Apostles. Apostle spoons were especially popular in England, but were also found in large numbers in Germany.&lt;ref&gt;T. Wilson, 'Spoons with a Taste of History', [[The British Museum Friends|British Museum Society]] Bulletin, 46 (July 1984), pp. 24-2&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Originating in early-fifteenth century in [[Europe]] as spoons used at table (often produced in sets of thirteen, the thirteenth, showing [[Jesus]], usually being referred to as the 'Saviour' or 'Master' spoon). The [[British Museum]] in [[London]] has a set from [[England]] dating from 1536-7 which has a figure of the [[Virgin Mary]] on the thirteenth spoon.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_mla/s/set_of_silver_apostle_spoons.aspx] Set of silver 'Apostle' spoons on the [[British Museum]] website&lt;/ref&gt; By the sixteenth century they had become popular as [[baptism]]al presents for [[godparent|godchildren]], but were dying out by the 1660s. In some communities this tradition continued until at least the mid-twentieth century. <br /> <br /> They first appeared as a bequest in the will of one Amy Brent who, in 1516, bequeathed &quot;XIII sylver spones of J' hu and the XII Apostells&quot;. They are alluded to by the dramatists [[Ben Johnson]], [[Thomas Middleton]], [[Francis Beaumont]], and [[John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher]]. [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] refers to it in [[Henry VIII (play)|Henry VIII]], Act 5, Scene 3, where Cranmer declines to be sponsor for the infant Elizabeth because of his lack of money. King Henry banters him with &quot;Come, come, my lord, you'd spare your spoons.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01626b.htm] The history of Apostle spoons on newadvent.org&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Sets of the twelve apostles are not common, and complete sets of thirteen, with the figure of [[Jesus]] on a larger spoon, are still rarer.<br /> <br /> ==Attributes==<br /> <br /> Apostle spoons can be known by the attribute mentioned in the following list:<br /> <br /> *1 the [[Jesus|Master]]: cross and orb <br /> *2 [[Saint Peter]]: a sword or a key, sometimes a fish<br /> *3 [[Saint Andrew]]: a cross<br /> *4 [[James, son of Zebedee|Saint James the Greater]]: a pilgrim's staff<br /> *5 [[John the Evangelist|St. John]]: the cup of sorrow<br /> *6 [[Philip the Apostle|Saint Philip]]: a staff<br /> *7 [[Bartholomew the Apostle|Saint Bartholomew]]: a knife<br /> *8 [[Thomas the Apostle|Saint Thomas]]: a spar<br /> *9 [[Saint Matthew]]: an axe or halbert<br /> *10 [[James the Less|Saint James the Lesser]]: a fuller's bat<br /> *11 [[Jude the Apostle|Saint Jude]]: a square<br /> *12 [[Simon the Zealot|Saint Simon Zealotes]]: a long saw<br /> *13 [[Judas Iscariot]]: a bag of money<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> <br /> * William Hone, ''The Everyday Book'' and ''Table Book'' (1831)<br /> * W. J. Cripps, ''Old English Plate'' (9th ed., 1906)<br /> * {{1911}}<br /> * {{Catholic}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.christeningsilver.com/Christening-Gift-Cutlery/Traditional-Silver-Apostle-Spoon-1087.aspx Christening Silver Apostle Spoons] - Apostle Spoon Retailer<br /> *[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0951-0788(191308)23%3A125%3C283%3ASSITEO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L Some Steps in the Evolution of the Apostle Spoon H. D. Ellis The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 23, No. 125 (Aug., 1913), pp. 283-285+287]<br /> *{{CathEncy|wstitle=Apostle Spoons}}<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/Paris/Rue/1975/apostle.html Apostle spoons &amp;mdash; includes photographs] ([http://www.webcitation.org/5kmz0N2Hf Archived] 2009-10-25)<br /> <br /> [[Category:Spoons]]<br /> [[Category:Christian symbols]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Book_of_Ballymote&diff=82075373 Book of Ballymote 2010-08-12T08:45:45Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Book of Ballymote 008r.jpg|thumb|260px|fol. 8r]]<br /> The '''Book of Ballymote''' (''Leabhar Bhaile an Mhóta'', [[Royal Irish Academy|RIA]] MS 23 P 12, 275 foll.), named for the parish of [[Ballymote]], [[County Sligo]], was written in 1390 or 1391.<br /> <br /> It was produced by the scribes Solam Ó Droma, Robertus Mac Sithigh and Magnus Ó Duibhgennain, on commission by [[Tonnaltagh McDonagh]], in the possession of whose clan the manuscript remained until 1522, when it was purchased by [[Aed Óg O'Donnell]], prince of [[Tír Conaill]], for 140 milch cows. In 1620 it was given to [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]], [[Dublin]], but was subsequently stolen from the library, and only returned to the [[Royal Irish Academy]] upon its foundation in 1785 by [[Chevalier O'Gorman]] who allegedly purchased it from a millwright's widow in [[Drogheda]] for 20 pounds. <br /> <br /> The first page of the work contains a drawing of [[Noah's Ark]]. The first written page is lost, and the second page describes the ages of the world. After this follows <br /> *a description of the history of the [[History of the Jews]] (2r)<br /> *a life of [[Saint Patrick]] (6r)<br /> *a copy of the ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn]]'' (8r) &lt;!--43r--&gt;<br /> *''[[Tecosca Cormaic]]'' &quot;The Instructions of King Cormac&quot; and other stories concerning king [[Cormac mac Airt]]<br /> *[[Triads of Ireland]]<br /> *stories of [[Fionn Mac Cumhail]] and [[Brian Borumh]]<br /> *various genealogies of clans and kings<br /> **Christian kings of Ulster (34v)<br /> **Christian kings of Leinster (35v)<br /> **Christian kings of Connaught (37v)<br /> **of the Munster families (97r)<br /> **[[Dál gCais]] (102v)<br /> *rules of the different measures of Irish versification (157r)<br /> *the only known copy of the ''[[Auraicept na n-Éces]]'', or &quot;scholars' primer&quot;(169r)<br /> *the ''[[Lebor na gCeart]]'' (Book of Rights) (181r)<br /> The book ends with various Greek and Latin fragments on the fall of [[Troy]], including a fragment of the [[Aeneid]].<br /> <br /> ==Editions==<br /> *Robert Atkinson. NY: AMS Press. ISBN 0-404-17535-X<br /> *O'Donovan, The Book of Rights, ed. and trans. 1847.<br /> *The Book of Ballymote: Photographic facsimile with introduction by R. Atkinson, (Dublin 1887).<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> * McDonagh, James, ''History of Ballymote and the Parish of Emlaghfad'' (1998). [http://homepage.tinet.ie/~jhiggins/book.html]<br /> * Harrison, A.: 'Leabhar Bhaile an Mhóta ag tús an 18ú aois', Éigse 23 (1989), 147-50.<br /> * Ó Concheanainn, T.: 'The Book of Ballymote', Celtica 14 (1981), 15-25.<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://homepage.tinet.ie/~jhiggins/book.html The Book of Ballymote] (excerpt of McDonagh 1998)<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/irish/BB-index.htm Genealogies from the Book of Ballymote]<br /> *[http://www.ria.ie/library+catalogue/ballymote.html Leabhar Bhaile an Mhóta] (ria.ie)<br /> *[http://staffweb.itsligo.ie/staff/jforan/Irish_project/Alt14/ALT14A.HTM Leabhar Bhaile an Mhóta]<br /> *[http://www.isos.dias.ie/english/index.html Irish Sript on Screen] has a facsimile<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Book Of Ballymote}}<br /> [[Category:1390s books]]<br /> [[Category:History of County Sligo|Ballymote]]<br /> [[Category:Early Irish literature]]<br /> [[Category:European history books]]<br /> [[Category:Irish manuscripts]]<br /> [[Category:Illuminated manuscripts]]<br /> [[Category:Irish texts]]<br /> [[Category:Royal Irish Academy Library]]<br /> [[Category:Medieval literature]]<br /> [[ru:Баллимотская книга]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BOAC-Flug_781&diff=129228513 BOAC-Flug 781 2010-08-12T08:43:41Z <p>Updatehelper: /* References */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Airliner accident|name=BOAC Flight 781<br /> |Crash image=&lt;!-- DH Comet 1 G-ALYP.jpg --&gt;<br /> |Image caption=&lt;!-- The de Havilland DH-106 Comet 1 G-ALYP (&quot;Yoke Peter&quot;) --&gt;<br /> |Date=10 January 1954<br /> |Type=In-flight metal fatigue failure <br /> |occurrence_type=Accident<br /> |Site=Mediterranean off [[Elba]] <br /> |Origin=[[Kallang Airport]], [[Singapore]]<br /> |Last stopover=[[Ciampino Airport]], [[Rome]], [[Italy]]<br /> |Destination=[[London Heathrow Airport]], [[London]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom]]<br /> |Fatalities=35 <br /> |Injuries=0 <br /> |Aircraft Type=de Havilland DH-106 Comet 1 <br /> |Operator=[[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] <br /> |Tail Number={{airreg|G|ALYP|disaster}} <br /> |Ship Name=&quot;Yoke Peter&quot;<br /> |Passengers=29 <br /> |Crew=6 <br /> |Survivors = 0 <br /> }}<br /> On 10 January 1954, [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] '''Flight 781''' a [[de Havilland Comet|de Havilland DH.106 Comet 1]] registered ''G-ALYP'', took off from [[Ciampino Airport]] in [[Rome, Italy]], en route to [[Heathrow Airport]] in [[London]], [[England]], on the final leg of its flight from [[Singapore]]. At about 10:00 [[GMT]], the aircraft suffered an [[explosive decompression]] at altitude and crashed into the Mediterranean Sea, killing everyone on board.<br /> <br /> ==Passengers==<br /> Of the 29 passengers, 10 were children.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/10/newsid_2709000/2709957.stm 1954: Comet jet crashes with 35 on board],&quot; ''[[BBC]]''&lt;/ref&gt; [[Chester Wilmot]], a prominent Australian journalist and military historian working for the [[BBC]], was one of those killed.<br /> <br /> ==Flight and disaster==<br /> Gerry Bull, a former BOAC engineer, said that when he inspected the aircraft in Rome he looked for &quot;incidental damage.&quot; He did not find any, so he believed Flight 781 was fit for flight. Bull and the same team of engineers later examined [[South African Airways Flight 201]] before its final flight.&lt;ref name=&quot;Secondsdisaster&quot;&gt;&quot;Comet Air Crash&quot; (&quot;Crash of the Comet&quot;). ''[[Seconds From Disaster]]''.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On 10 January 1954, the flight took off at 09:34 GMT for the final stage flight to London. 31-year old Alan Gibson, who served as the captain, was one of the youngest pilots at BOAC.&lt;ref name=&quot;Secondsdisaster&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> At about 09:50 GMT a passing BOAC [[Canadair North Star|Argonaut]] ''G-ALHJ'' was in contact with Captain Gibson. During a radio communication about weather conditions, the conversation was abruptly cut-off. The last words heard from Captain Gibson were &quot;George How Jig, did you get my..&quot;. About this time wreckage was seen falling into the sea by a fisherman.<br /> <br /> Heathrow Airport initially listed Flight 781 as being delayed; around 1:30 PM the airport took the flight off of the arrivals board.&lt;ref name=&quot;Secondsdisaster&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Search, recovery and investigation==<br /> That day's edition of ''The New York Times'' carried a piece about the accident.<br /> {{cquote|Thirty-five persons were almost certainly killed when a British Comet jet airliner crashed into the sea this morning about halfway between the islands of [[Elba]] and [[Montecristo]], off the Italian western coast. Fifteen bodies had been recovered at a late hour tonight and there was slight hope that there were any survivors among the 29 passengers and six crewmen on the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] plane. <br /> <br /> However, the search continued in the sub-zero weather and rising seas. No official passenger list was made available in Rome pending notification of the next of kin. According to unofficial reports, there were no Americans aboard. The passengers included 17 men, eight women, three children and an infant. The crew included a stewardess.|4= ''The New York Times''|5=January 11, 1954}}<br /> <br /> At first the task of finding out what happened was difficult. In 1954, there were no black boxes, no [[Cockpit Voice Recorder|cockpit voice recorders]] or [[Flight Data Recorder|flight data recorders]] so there was no way of knowing what was going on. Established protocol for aircraft accident investigation did not exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;Secondsdisaster&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> An extensive search for the aircraft was organised including the [[Royal Navy]] ship {{HMS|Barhill|Z 225|6}} and the civilian salvage vessel [[RFA Sea Salvor (A503)|''Sea Salvor'']] from [[Malta]].<br /> <br /> Witnesses to the crash were a group of Italian fishermen who were preparing to do their catch. Upon seeing the plane's remnants falling into the water, the fishermen rushed to the scene to recover the bodies and to find possible survivors, of which there were none. In order to find more evidence concerning the cause of the crash, the bodies were brought to the coroner for autopsy. During the examination, the pathologist Antoni Fornari discovered a distinct pattern of injuries, which were also identified as the cause of death, in most of the victims. Fornari found broken limbs and damaged limbs, which occurred after death. These injuries consisted of fractured skulls and ruptured and otherwise damaged lungs. Fornari found no evidence of an explosion, and he felt confused by the pattern of injuries.&lt;ref name=&quot;Secondsdisaster&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> The ruptured lungs were a sure indicator that the air cabin depressurised because the [[Explosive decompression|sudden decrease in pressure]] would cause the lungs to expand until they rupture. In order to support the theory and also to confirm the cause of the skull fractures, the crash was simulated at the [[Royal Aircraft Establishment]] in Farnborough, using the same conditions of the actual plane prior to crash. To do this experiment, a model fuselage was constructed similar to that of the Comet. <br /> <br /> Dummies were also seated within the fuselage to simulate possible movements of passengers during the crash. To simulate the crash, the investigators deliberately ruptured the model by increasing the air pressure within it until it exploded. The movement of the dummies within the air cabin at the moment of explosion was conclusive of skull fracture as they were thrown out of their seats and slammed head-first into the ceiling. <br /> <br /> Wreckage of the aircraft was eventually found on the sea floor and subsequently raised and transported to the [[Royal Aircraft Establishment]] for investigation. Upon examination of the wreckage it became obvious that the aircraft had broken up in mid-air, and initially it was thought that the aircraft might have been brought down by a bomb. Suspicion then shifted to the possibility of an engine [[turbine]] explosion and modifications were put in hand to encase the turbine ring in other Comets with [[armour]] plate, to contain a possible disintegrating turbine disk. <br /> <br /> In the meantime, all Comets were to be grounded until these modifications had been carried out. The possibility of failure of the [[Cabin pressurization|pressure cabin]] had been considered but then discounted due to the Comet's cabin having been designed to a considerably higher strength than was considered necessary at the time.<br /> <br /> The following day, the ''New York Times'' reported that BOAC had withdrawn all Comets from service.<br /> {{cquote|The British Overseas Airways Corporation temporarily withdrew from service tonight all de Havilland Comet jet airliners as an aftermath of the crash of a Comet yesterday near the island of Elba. This suspension of jet service by Britain's one big overseas airline was followed promptly by similar action by the two French airlines that use the Comet — [[Air France]] and [[Union Aero Maritime des Transports]].<br /> <br /> The B. O. A. C. described its action as 'a measure of prudence to enable a minute and unhurried technical examination of every aircraft in the Comet fleet to be carried out at maintenance headquarters at London airport.' It was emphasized that the step did not constitute a 'grounding.' It was taken after consultation with Alan T. Lennox-Boyd, [[Secretary of State for Transport|Transport Minister]], and had his concurrence - but was not Government-ordered.<br /> <br /> The airline has seven Comets. Three are abroad on the outward end of their runs—at [[Singapore]], [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]] and [[Tokyo]]. They will be flown back without passengers, but with mail and airline personnel. The corporation intends to fly the Comet routes with piston engine aircraft so that no service wall be left unfilled. The measure taken against the Comet after more than a year and a half of airline experience is drastic and expensive for the airline. But it has been taken elsewhere in similar cases against planes like the [[Lockheed_Constellation|Constellation]] and [[Douglas DC-6]], which, when restored to service, maintained enviable records for safety.|4= ''The New York Times''|5=January 12, 1954}}<br /> <br /> While the investigation continued, BOAC desperately tried to get Comets back in service, and on 23 March it succeeded. BOAC's chairman commented on television, &quot;We obviously wouldn't be flying the Comet with passengers if we weren't satisfied conditions were suitable.&quot; But a second BOAC Comet was lost on [[April 8]]: a charter flight operating as [[South African Airways Flight 201]] took off from Rome bound for Egypt, with 14 passengers and seven crew. 33 minutes into the flight the pilot reported to be on course flying at 10,000 metres, then all contact was lost.<br /> <br /> Sir Arnold Hall, a [[Cambridge University]] scholar and scientist, was appointed as the head accident investigator.&lt;ref name=&quot;Secondsdisaster&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Metal fatigue==<br /> [[Image:Comet 1 G-ALYP - wreckage recovered png.png|thumb|right|The recovered (shaded) parts of the wreckage of ''G-ALYP'' and the site (arrowed) of the failure.]]<br /> <br /> Initial examination and reconstruction of the wreckage of G-ALYP revealed several signs of inflight break-up:<br /> *Shreds of cabin carpet were found trapped in the remains of the Comet's tail section<br /> *The imprint of a coin was found on a fuselage panel from the rear of the aircraft<br /> *Smears and scoring on the rear fuselage were tested and found to be consistent to the paint applied to the passenger seats of the Comet<br /> <br /> When most of the wreckage was recovered, investigators found that fractures started in the roof of the cabin, a window then smashed into the elevators, the rear fuselage then tore away, the outer wing structure fell, then the outer wing tips and finally the cockpit broke away and fuel from the wings set the debris on fire.<br /> <br /> To find out what caused the first failure, [[BOAC]] donated G-ALYU&lt;!-- link removed; registration assigned to other a/c --&gt; (&quot;Yoke Uncle&quot;) for testing. The airframe was put in a large water tank, the tank was filled, and water was pumped into the plane to simulate flight conditions. The experiment occurred 24 hours per day, 7 days per week. It could possibly have taken as long as five months. A ''[[Seconds From Disaster]]'' documentary episode described this task as &quot;grueling.&quot; If the hypothesis was tested in the 2000s, investigators would have used computer technology to determine the effect of pressurization.&lt;ref name=&quot;Secondsdisaster&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> After the equivalent of 3,000 flights investigators at the RAE were able to conclude that the crash had been due to failure of the pressure cabin at the forward [[Direction finding|ADF]] window in the roof. This 'window' was in fact one of two apertures for the [[Antenna (radio)|aerials]] of an electronic navigation system in which opaque [[fibreglass]] panels took the place of the window 'glass.' The failure was a result of [[metal fatigue]] caused by the repeated pressurisation and de-pressurisation of the aircraft cabin. Another fact was that the supports around the windows were riveted, not glued, as the original specifications for the aircraft had called for. The problem was exacerbated by the punch rivet construction technique employed. Unlike drill riveting, the imperfect nature of the hole created by punch riveting caused manufacturing defect cracks which may have caused the start of fatigue cracks around the rivet. The investigators examined the final piece of wreckage with a regular microscope.&lt;ref name=&quot;Secondsdisaster&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> The Comet's pressure cabin had been designed to a safety factor comfortably in excess of that required by British Civil Airworthiness Requirements (2.5x P as opposed to the requirement of 1.33x P and an ultimate load of 2x P, P being the cabin 'Proof' pressure) and the accident caused a revision in the estimates of the safe loading strength requirements of airliner pressure cabins.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Fuselage of de Havilland Comet Airliner G-ALYP.JPG|thumb|right|The fuselage roof fragment of ''G-ALYP'' showing the two ADF 'windows', on display in the Science Museum in London.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/wiki/Fuselage_of_de_Havilland_Comet_Airliner_G-ALYP | title=ObjectWiki: Fuselage of de Havilland Comet Airliner G-ALYP | publisher=Science Museum | date=24 September 2009 | accessdate=9 October 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]<br /> In addition, it was discovered that the [[Stress (physics)|stresses]] around pressure cabin apertures were considerably higher than had been anticipated, especially around sharp-cornered cut-outs, such as windows. As a result, future [[jet airliner]]s would feature windows with rounded corners, the curve eliminating a stress concentration. This was a noticeable distinguishing feature of all later models of the [[de Havilland Comet|Comet]].<br /> <br /> 52 years after the incident, Paul Withey, an aviation expert, went to the [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]] in London to examine the aircraft parts with 2000s technology. The aircraft piece was mounted on a plate. Withey received an impression of the aircraft part using a silicone-based putty. At [[Imperial College London]] in London Withey used an [[electron microscope]] to examine the putty impression of the fatigue crack. He found a manufacturing defect when zooming to 800 times and confirmed that Sir Arnold Hall's investigation was correct.&lt;ref name=&quot;Secondsdisaster&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Dramatizations==<br /> *An episode of ''[[Seconds from Disaster]]'', &quot;Crash of the Comet,&quot; focused on this and several other Comet crashes.<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> <br /> * [[Uncontrolled decompression#Notable decompression accidents and incidents|List of notable decompression accidents and incidents]]<br /> * [[Lists of accidents and incidents on commercial airliners]]<br /> * [[List of structural failures and collapses]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> * ''Air Disasters'' by Stanley Stewart - Arrow Books (UK) 1986/89 - ISBN 0-09-956200-6 <br /> * ''Report of the Public Inquiry into the causes and circumstances of the accident which occurred on the 10th January, 1954, to the Comet aircraft G‐ALYP'' - Official Report - 1955[http://www.oocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Lab/8803/fcogalyp.htm#galyp]<br /> * &quot;Seconds From Disaster&quot; &quot; Crash of the Comet&quot; on National Geographic Channel.<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> * [http://accidents-ll.faa.gov/ll_main.cfm?TabID=1&amp;LLID=28 Flight 781] is in the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration's [http://accidents-ll.faa.gov/index.cfm Lessons Learned From Transport Airplane Accidents] library.<br /> * [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?regsearch=G-ALYP&amp;distinct_entry=true Pre-crash picture of G-ALYP Flight 781]<br /> <br /> {{Aviation lists}}<br /> {{coord missing|Italy}}<br /> {{Template:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1954}}<br /> [[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by design or manufacturing errors]]<br /> [[Category:In-flight airliner structural failures]]<br /> [[Category:In-flight airliner depressurization]]<br /> [[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in Italy]]<br /> [[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1954]]<br /> [[Category:1954 in Italy]]<br /> [[Category:British Overseas Airways Corporation|Flight 781]]<br /> [[Category:Accidents and incidents involving the de Havilland Comet]]<br /> [[Category:BOAC accidents and incidents]]<br /> <br /> [[he:טיסה 781 של BOAC]]<br /> [[ja:コメット連続墜落事故]]<br /> [[nl:BOAC-vlucht 781]]<br /> [[zh:英國海外航空781號班機空難]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blenkinsopp_Castle&diff=148936348 Blenkinsopp Castle 2010-08-12T08:42:47Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox UK feature<br /> |table =<br /> |official_name = Blenkinsop Castle<br /> |shire_county/state = Northumberland<br /> |country = England<br /> |nation = UK<br /> |map_name = United Kingdom Northumberland<br /> |static_image =<br /> |static_image_caption =<br /> |static_image_2 =<br /> |static_image_caption_2 =<br /> |os_grid_reference = NY665645<br /> |latitude = 54.974<br /> |longitude = -2.525<br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Blenkinsop Castle''' is a fire-damaged, partly demolished 19th-century country mansion incorporating the ruinous remains of a 14th-century [[tower house]] located above the [[Tipalt Burn]] approximately one mile from [[Greenhead, Northumberland|Greenhead]], [[Northumberland]], [[England]]. It is a [[Listed building|Grade I listed building]] and a [[Scheduled monument|Scheduled Ancient Monument]].<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> The ancient manor of Blenkinsop was held by the eponymous Blenkinsop family from the 13th century and they created a substantial [[tower house]]. A licence to [[Crenellation|crenellate]] the house was granted on May 6, 1340.<br /> <br /> An early account by Wallis, writing prior to 1769 and quoted by Rev. J. F. Hodgson, found &quot;the west and north-west side of it protected by a very high cespititious wall and a deep foss - a vault going through it, north and south, 33 &lt;ref&gt;Hodgson copying corrects this to 53&lt;/ref&gt; feet in length, and in breadth 18½ feet: two lesser ones on the north side. The facing on the western wall has been down beyond the memory of any person yet living.&quot;<br /> <br /> ('Cespititious' in the above quote means 'turfy' or 'grass-covered', from the Latin 'caespes' meaning 'turf'.)<br /> <br /> A survey of 1541 reported the roof to be in decay and the tower not to be in good repair. The family, whilst retaining ownership, granted possession to the [[Earl of Northumberland]] and abandoned the castle for their other nearby properties at [[Bellister Castle]] and [[Blenkinsop Hall|Dryburnhaugh]].<br /> <br /> In 1727 the heiress Jane Blenkinsop married William Coulson of [[Jesmond]]. By 1832 the property was in disuse, and a mine agent's house was built adjoining the ruinous structure, probably by the architect [[John Dobson]]. In about 1877 William Blenkinsop Coulson carried out a major restoration project which created a large mansion house on the site. Shortly after these works, the Coulsons sold all their Blenkinsop estates to Edward Joicey.<br /> <br /> In the 20th century the mansion served as an hotel but major damage was caused in 1954 by a fire, and large parts of the property were demolished, on safety grounds.<br /> <br /> Today it is part home and part [[Ruins|ruin]].<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> *[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Details/Default.aspx?id=240717&amp;mode=quickID=5 English Heritage;Images of England, Image and architectural description]<br /> *Ryder, P F, ''Blenkinsop Castle'', Napper Collerton Partnership, May 1986<br /> *''A History of Northumberland'', Part 2, Volume 3, (1840), pp129-132<br /> *Fry, Plantagenet Somerset, ''The David &amp; Charles Book of Castles'', David &amp; Charles, 1980. ISBN 0-7153-7976-3<br /> * [http://www.ecastles.co.uk/philipdavis/English%20sites/2563.html The Gatehouse Gazetteer, Blenkinsop Castle]<br /> * [http://www.sine.newcastle.ac.uk/view_structure_information.asp?struct_id=37 Structures in the North East]<br /> * [http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&amp;PRN=N6118 Keys to the Past]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.northofthetyne.co.uk/Blenkinsopp.html Images of Blenkinsopp Castle]<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/Heartland/Ranch/4670/Blenkinsop_Castle.htm Blenkinsop Castle, photograph]<br /> <br /> {{Castles in North East England}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Castles in Northumberland]]<br /> [[Category:Visitor attractions in Northumberland]]<br /> [[Category:Grade II listed buildings in Northumberland]]<br /> [[Category:Houses in Northumberland]]<br /> [[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Northumberland]]<br /> [[Category:Ruins in Northumberland]]<br /> <br /> {{northumberland-geo-stub}}<br /> {{England-castle-stub}}</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NFL_1994&diff=134915623 NFL 1994 2010-08-12T07:54:00Z <p>Updatehelper: /* References */clean up or deadlink to archive update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox NFL<br /> | year = 1994<br /> | image = NFL75th.png<br /> | imagesize = 188px<br /> | caption = NFL 75th season anniversary logo<br /> | NFLchampion = [[San Francisco 49ers]]<br /> | regular_season = September 4, 1994-December 26, 1994<br /> | playoffs_start = December 31, 1994<br /> | AFCchampion = [[San Diego Chargers]]<br /> | NFCchampion = San Francisco 49ers<br /> | sb_name = XXIX<br /> | sb_date = January 29, 1995<br /> | sb_site = [[Joe Robbie Stadium]], [[Miami, Florida]]<br /> | pb_date = February 5, 1995<br /> }}<br /> The '''1994 NFL season''' was the 75th [[regular season (NFL)|regular season]] of the [[National Football League]]. To honor the NFL's 75th season, a special anniversary logo was designed and each player wore a patch on their jerseys with this logo throughout the season. Also, a selection committee of media and league personnel named a special [[NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team]], honoring the best NFL players from the first 75 seasons.<br /> <br /> The [[Arizona Cardinals|Phoenix Cardinals]] changed their name to '''''Arizona Cardinals''''' in an attempt to widen their appeal to the entire state of [[Arizona]] instead of just the [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] area.<br /> <br /> The [[Seattle Seahawks]] played their first three regular season home games at [[Husky Stadium]] because the [[Kingdome]], the Seahawks' regular home field, was undergoing repairs for damaged tiles on its roof.<br /> <br /> This was also the first season that the then-fledgling [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox Network]] televised NFL games. Fox took over the [[National Football Conference]] package from [[CBS]]. The league also signed an exclusivity agreement with the [[direct broadcast satellite]] (DBS) service [[DirecTV]] to launch [[NFL Sunday Ticket]], a [[satellite television]] subscription service that offers every regular season NFL game.<br /> <br /> The season ended with [[Super Bowl XXIX]] when the [[San Francisco 49ers]] defeated the [[San Diego Chargers]].<br /> <br /> ==Major rule changes==<br /> A package of changes were adopted to increase offensive production and scoring:<br /> *The [[two-point conversion]] after touchdowns is adopted.<br /> *The spot of the kickoff is moved from the 35-yard line to the 30-yard line.<br /> *The &quot;Neutral zone infraction&quot; foul is adopted. A play is automatically dead before the snap when a defensive player enters the neutral zone and causes an offensive player to react.<br /> *After a field goal is missed, the defensive team takes possession of the ball at the spot of the kick (instead of at the line of scrimmage) or the 20 yard line, whichever is farther from the goal line.<br /> *During field goal attempts and extra point tries, players on the receiving team cannot block below the waist.<br /> <br /> ==Throwback jerseys==<br /> The league also honored its 75th season by having each team wear [[throwback uniform]]s during selected games. The designs varied widely in their accuracy:<br /> *While no attempt was made to simulate obsolete [[leather]] helmets (which were phased out in the 1950s), teams simulating uniforms from the era of leather headgear simply removed all decals and striping from their regular hard-shell helmets.<br /> *All jerseys displayed the player's last name on the back side, though this practice did not become standard until 1970[http://www.packers.com/history/fast_facts/uniform_history/].<br /> *Many of the uniforms worn were not completely accurate displays of previous team uniforms. For example, the Buffalo Bills throwback contained a red helmet with a white buffalo logo with white (instead of gray) facemasks. However, the actual historic uniform displayed a white helmet with a red buffalo logo with gray facemasks. The New York Jets did the same, with green helmets and white logos and a black facemask (instead of gray). The Dallas Cowboys wore their current helmets. In [[2005 NFL season|2005]], the Bills began wearing an accurate representation of their 1960s throwbacks as their alternate uniform.<br /> * In some instances the fonts and typestyles used were only approximate matches at best, although the [[San Diego Chargers]] and [[Houston Oilers]]' throwbacks were completely accurate replications, including typefaces, of their first uniforms in 1960.<br /> <br /> Some teams occasionally wore theirs in additional games during the season, and the [[San Francisco 49ers]] wore them through the Super Bowl. They proved to be so popular that the [[New York Jets]], and the [[New York Giants]] eventually returned to wearing them full-time, in very slightly modified forms, soon afterwards. And after the NFL modified its rules to allow teams to wear [[alternate jersey]]s in 2002, the [[San Diego Chargers]] selected their throwbacks as their third uniforms.<br /> <br /> ==Final regular season standings==<br /> ''W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, PCT = Winning Percentage, PF= Points For, PA = Points Against''<br /> <br /> ''Clinched playoff seeds are marked in parentheses and shaded in green''<br /> &lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:48%;&quot;&gt;<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[AFC East]]'''<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;<br /> !Team!!W!!L!!T!!PCT!!PF!!PA<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(3)&lt;/sup&gt; [[Miami Dolphins]]<br /> |10||6||0||.625||389||327<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(5)&lt;/sup&gt; [[New England Patriots]]<br /> |10||6||0||.625||351||312<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Indianapolis Colts]]<br /> |8||8||0||.500||307||320<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Buffalo Bills]]<br /> |7||9||0||.438||340||356<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[New York Jets]]<br /> |6||10||0||.375||264||320<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[AFC Central]]'''<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;<br /> !Team!!W!!L!!T!!PCT!!PF!!PA<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt; [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]<br /> |12||4||0||.750||316||234<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(4)&lt;/sup&gt; [[Cleveland Browns]]<br /> |11||5||0||.688||340||204<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Cincinnati Bengals]]<br /> |3||13||0||.188||276||406<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]]<br /> |2||14||0||.125||226||352<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[AFC West]]'''<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;<br /> !Team!!W!!L!!T!!PCT!!PF!!PA<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt; [[San Diego Chargers]]<br /> |11||5||0||.688||381||306<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(6)&lt;/sup&gt; [[Kansas City Chiefs]]<br /> |9||7||0||.563||319||298<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Oakland Raiders|Los Angeles Raiders]]<br /> |9||7||0||.563||303||327<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Denver Broncos]]<br /> |7||9||0||.438||347||396<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Seattle Seahawks]]<br /> |6||10||0||.375||287||323<br /> |}<br /> &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:48%;&quot;&gt;<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#D0E7FF&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[NFC East]]'''<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;<br /> !Team!!W!!L!!T!!PCT!!PF!!PA<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt; [[Dallas Cowboys]]<br /> |12||4||0||.750||414||248<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[New York Giants]]<br /> |9||7||0||.563||279||305<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Arizona Cardinals]]<br /> |8||8||0||.500||235||267<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Philadelphia Eagles]]<br /> |7||9||0||.438||308||308<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Washington Redskins]]<br /> |3||13||0||.188||320||412<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#D0E7FF&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[NFC Central]]'''<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;<br /> !Team!!W!!L!!T!!PCT!!PF!!PA<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(3)&lt;/sup&gt; [[Minnesota Vikings]]<br /> |10||6||0||.625||356||314<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(4)&lt;/sup&gt; [[Green Bay Packers]]<br /> |9||7||0||.563||382||287<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(5)&lt;/sup&gt; [[Detroit Lions]]<br /> |9||7||0||.563||357||342<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(6)&lt;/sup&gt; [[Chicago Bears]]<br /> |9||7||0||.563||271||307<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]]<br /> |6||10||0||.375||251||351<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#D0E7FF&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[NFC West]]'''<br /> |- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;<br /> !Team!!W!!L!!T!!PCT!!PF!!PA<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt; [[San Francisco 49ers]]<br /> |13||3||0||.813||505||296<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[New Orleans Saints]]<br /> |7||9||0||.438||348||407<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Atlanta Falcons]]<br /> |7||9||0||.438||317||385<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> |align=&quot;left&quot;| [[St. Louis Rams|Los Angeles Rams]]<br /> |4||12||0||.250||286||365<br /> |}<br /> &lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Tiebreakers===<br /> *Miami finished ahead of New England in the AFC East based on head-to-head sweep (2-0).<br /> *Kansas City finished ahead of L.A. Raiders in the AFC West based on head-to-head sweep (2&amp;ndash;0).<br /> *Green Bay was the first NFC Wild Card based on best head-to-head record (3&amp;ndash;1) vs. Detroit (2&amp;ndash;2) and Chicago (1&amp;ndash;3) and better conference record (8&amp;ndash;4) than N.Y. Giants (6&amp;ndash;6).<br /> *Detroit was the second NFC Wild Card based on better division record (4&amp;ndash;4) than Chicago (3&amp;ndash;5) and head-to-head victory over N.Y. Giants (1&amp;ndash;0).<br /> *Chicago was the third NFC Wild Card based on better record against common opponents (4&amp;ndash;4) than N.Y. Giants (3&amp;ndash;5).<br /> *New Orleans finished ahead of Atlanta in the NFC West based on head-to-head sweep (2&amp;ndash;0).<br /> <br /> ==Playoffs==<br /> {{main|1994–95 NFL playoffs}}<br /> :''Home team in capitals''<br /> <br /> ===AFC===<br /> *Wild-Card playoffs: MIAMI 27, Kansas City 17; CLEVELAND 20, New England 13<br /> *Divisional playoffs: PITTSBURGH 29, Cleveland 9; SAN DIEGO 22, Miami 21<br /> *AFC Championship: San Diego 17, PITTSBURGH 13 at [[Three Rivers Stadium]], [[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]], January 15, 1995<br /> <br /> ===NFC===<br /> *Wild-Card playoffs: GREEN BAY 16, Detroit 12; Chicago 35, MINNESOTA 18<br /> *Divisional playoffs: SAN FRANCISCO 44, Chicago 15; DALLAS 35, Green Bay 9<br /> *NFC Championship: SAN FRANCISCO 38, Dallas 28 at [[Candlestick Park]], January 15, 1995<br /> <br /> ==Statistical leaders==<br /> ===Team===<br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;<br /> |'''Points scored'''||San Francisco 49ers (505)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Total yards gained'''||Miami Dolphins (6,078)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Yards rushing'''||Pittsburgh Steelers (2,180)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Yards passing'''||New England Patriots (4,444)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Fewest points allowed'''||Cleveland Browns (204)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Fewest total yards allowed'''||Dallas Cowboys (4,313)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Fewest rushing yards allowed'''||Minnesota Vikings (1,090)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Fewest passing yards allowed'''||Dallas Cowboys (2,752)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Individual===<br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;<br /> |'''Scoring'''||[[John Carney (American football)|John Carney]], San Diego (135 points)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Touchdowns'''||[[Emmitt Smith]], Dallas (22 TDs)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Most field goals made'''||John Carney, San Diego and [[Fuad Reveiz]], Minnesota (34 FGs)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Rushing'''||[[Barry Sanders]], Detroit (1,883 yards)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Passing'''||[[Steve Young (athlete)|Steve Young]], San Francisco (112.8 rating)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Passing touchdowns'''||Steve Young, San Francisco (35 TDs)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Pass receiving'''||[[Cris Carter]], Minnesota (122 catches)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Pass receiving yards'''||[[Jerry Rice]], San Francisco (1,499)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Punt returns'''||Brian Mitchell, Washington (14.1 average yards)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Kickoff returns'''||Mel Gray, Detroit (28.4 average yards)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Interceptions'''||Eric Turner, Cleveland and [[Aeneas Williams]], Arizona (9)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Punting'''||Sean Landeta, L.A. Rams (44.8 average yards)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Sacks'''||[[Kevin Greene]], Pittsburgh (14)<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Awards==<br /> {| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;<br /> |'''[[NFL Most Valuable Player Award|Most Valuable Player]]'''||[[Steve Young (athlete)|Steve Young]], [[Quarterback]], San Francisco<br /> |-<br /> |'''[[NFL Coach of the Year Award|Coach of the Year]]'''||[[Bill Parcells]], New England<br /> |-<br /> |'''[[NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award|Offensive Player of the Year]]'''||[[Barry Sanders]], [[Running Back]], Detroit<br /> |-<br /> |'''[[NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award|Defensive Player of the Year]]'''||[[Deion Sanders]], [[Cornerback]], San Francisco<br /> |-<br /> |'''[[NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year Award|Offensive Rookie of the Year]]'''||[[Marshall Faulk]], Running Back, Indianapolis<br /> |-<br /> |'''[[NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year Award|Defensive Rookie of the Year]]'''||[[Tim Bowens]], [[Defensive Tackle]], Miami<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> *''NFL Record and Fact Book'' (ISBN 1-932994-36-X)<br /> *[http://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/1991-2000 NFL History 1991-2000] (Last accessed October 17, 2005)<br /> *[http://nflhistory.net/linescores/pdf/1994.pdf 1994 season in details]<br /> *''Total Football: The Official Encyclopedia of the National Football League'' (ISBN 0-06-270174-6)<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/Colosseum/Stadium/3028/ NFL 75th Anniversary Throwbacks] ([http://www.webcitation.org/5khgLnFNr Archived] 2009-10-21)<br /> <br /> {{1994 NFL season by team}}<br /> {{NFL seasons}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:1994 Nfl Season}}<br /> [[Category:National Football League seasons]]<br /> [[Category:1994 National Football League season| ]]<br /> [[Category:1994 in American football|National Football League]]<br /> <br /> [[fr:Saison NFL 1994]]<br /> [[it:National Football League 1994]]<br /> [[pt:Temporada de 1994 da National Football League]]<br /> [[ru:НФЛ в сезоне 1994]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benutzer:Shi_Annan/Balangiga_bells&diff=185755736 Benutzer:Shi Annan/Balangiga bells 2010-08-12T05:29:59Z <p>Updatehelper: clean up or deadlink-update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Balagiga survivors.jpg|300px|thumb|right|American survivors of the [[Balangiga massacre]] pose with a Balangiga bell. Photo taken in [[Calbayog, Samar]], in April 1902]]<br /> [[Image:FE Warren bells.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Two Balangiga bells exhibited at [[Fort D.A. Russell (Wyoming)|Fort D.A. Russel]], now [[F. E. Warren Air Force Base]]]]<br /> [[Image:Madison Barracks bell.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The third Balangiga bell in the Madison Barracks at [[Sackets Harbor]], [[New York]], station of the 9th US Infantry Regiment at the turn of the 20th century. This bell is now at [[Camp Red Cloud]], their present station in Korea]]<br /> <br /> The '''Balangiga bells''' are three [[church bell]]s taken by [[United States]] forces from the town church of [[Balangiga, Eastern Samar]] in the [[Philippines]] as [[war booty]] after reprisals following the [[Balangiga massacre|Balangiga incident]] in 1901 during the [[Philippine-American War]]. One church bell is in the possession of the [[9th Infantry Regiment (United States)|9th Infantry Regiment]] at [[Camp Red Cloud]], their base in [[South Korea]],&lt;ref name=&quot;nene&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last = | first = | title =Voluntary Return of One Balangiga Bell by US Seen | url=http://www.nenepimentel.org/news/20031002_Balangiga.asp | accessdate = 2008-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;solving&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last =Borrinaga | first =Rolando | title =Solving the Balangiga bell puzzle | url=http://www.oocities.com/rolborr/balbellspuzzle.html | accessdate = 2008-03-19}}&lt;/ref&gt; while two others are on a former base of the [[11th Infantry Regiment]] at [[F. E. Warren Air Force Base]] in [[Cheyenne, Wyoming]].&lt;ref name=&quot;cbcp&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last =Medroso | first =Leonardo | title =The Bells of Balangiga: An Appeal for Support | url=http://www.cbcponline.net/borongan/html/balangiga_bells.html | accessdate = 2008-03-19}}&lt;/ref&gt; At least one of the bells had tolled to signal the surprise attack by the Filipinos while the Americans were eating breakfast. The attack claimed the lives of more than forty soldiers of the American garrison posted in the town.<br /> <br /> ==Balangiga incident==<br /> {{Main|Balangiga massacre}}<br /> On September 28, 1901, the villagers of Balangiga ambushed Company C of the [[9th Infantry Regiment (United States)|9th U.S. Infantry Regiment]], while they were at breakfast, killing an estimated 48 and wounding 22 of the 78 men of the unit, with only four escaping unhurt. The villagers captured about 100 rifles and 25,000 rounds of ammunition. An estimated 20 to 25 of the guerrillas had died in the fighting, with a similar number of wounded.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | last =Bautista | first =Veltisezar | title =The Balangiga, Samar, Massacre | url=http://www.filipinoamericans.net/balangiga_massacre.shtml | accessdate = 2008-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In reprisal, General [[Jacob H. Smith]] ordered that Samar be turned into a &quot;howling wilderness&quot; and that any Filipino male above ten years of age capable of bearing arms be shot if they refuse to surrender. From the burned-out Catholic town church, the Americans recovered three bells which they took back to the United States as [[war booty]]. The [[9th Infantry Regiment (United States)|9th U.S. Infantry Regiment]], however, maintains that the single bell in their possession was presented to the regiment by villagers when the unit left Balangiga on April 9, 1902.&lt;ref name=&quot;robson&quot;&gt;{{cite news | last =Robson | first =Seth | title =Book casts doubt on bell's history | pages = | publisher =[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] | date = 2004-07-07 | <br /> url =http://www.stripes.com/article.asp?section=104&amp;article=22261&amp;archive=true | accessdate = 2008-03-21}}&lt;/ref&gt; Smith and his primary subordinate, Major [[Littleton Waller]] of the [[United States Marine Corps]] were both [[court-martial|court-martialled]] for illegal vengeance against the civilian population of Samar. Waller was acquitted of the charges. Smith was found guilty, admonished and retired from service.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | last = | first = | title =Philippine Insurrection, 1899-1902: A Working Bibliography | url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/history/marshall/military/mil_hist_inst/p/pi2.asc | accessdate = 2008-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The bells==<br /> Balangiga, which became a parish on September 27, 1859, may have taken four years to raise the funds needed to acquire their first church bell. This is believed to be the large 1863 bell now in Wyoming. It bears what is probably an [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[emblem]] and has a mouth [[diameter]] of 31¼ inches and height of 30 inches. The name inscribed on the bell, &quot;R. San Francisco&quot;, it is believed, belonged to the parish priest at that time. <br /> <br /> The town probably acquired its second bell in 1889. The medium-sized bell, inscribed with the name of Fr. Agustin Delgado in [[Latin]] &amp;ndash; &quot;''Augustin Delcado''&quot;, is also in Wyoming. It bears a [[Franciscan]] emblem and has a mouth diameter of 27¾ inches and height of 27½ inches. <br /> <br /> The third and smallest bell may have been acquired in 1895, through the initiative of Fr. Bernardo Aparecio. This is the bell now kept by the [[9th Infantry Regiment (United States)|9th U.S. Infantry Regiment]] in Camp Red Cloud, South Korea. Estimates of its size deduce a 23-24 inch height and a mouth diameter of about 20 inches. It also bears the Franciscan emblem.&lt;ref name=&quot;solving&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> The bells at [[F.E. Warren Air Force Base]] are kept in its Trophy Park, hung from a crescent-shaped monument of brick. A glass case nearby houses the 400-year-old [[Great Britain|British]] Falcon [[cannon]] that was also taken from the village along with the bells and brought to Wyoming by the [[11th Infantry Regiment]] in 1904.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | last =Mead | first =Griver | title =For Whom the Bells Toll | pages = | publisher =AsianWeek.com | date = 2001-10-11 | url =http://asianweek.com/2001_10_05/news_bells.html | accessdate = 2008-03-21}}&lt;/ref&gt; This seven-foot cannon is described in F.E. Warren Air Force Base's fact sheets as a [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary Tudor]] cannon forged in 1557.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | last = | first = | title =Fact Sheets:F.E. Warren History | url=http://www.warren.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=4696 | accessdate = 2008-03-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; The bell in the possession of the [[9th Infantry Regiment (United States)|9th U.S. Infantry Regiment]] is kept at the 2nd Infantry Division Museum in [[Camp Red Cloud]], [[Uijeongbu]], [[South Korea]]. It had previously been displayed at the unit's [[Camp Hovey]] headquarters.&lt;ref name=&quot;robson&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Attempts at recovery==<br /> In the mid 90's, during the term of [[Fidel V. Ramos]] as Philippine President, attempts were initiated by his government to recover all or a portion of the bells from [[Bill Clinton]]'s administration.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | last = | first = | title =The Saga of the Balangiga Bells | url=http://davinci.rodal-intl.org:8020/rudy/filipinas/balangiga.html | accessdate = 2008-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | last = | first = | title =The Bells of Balangiga Revisited | url=http://www.philnews.com/2005/da.html | accessdate = 2008-03-19}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States government has been adamant that the bells are US government property, that it would take an [[Act of Congress]] to return them and that the Catholic Church has no say in the matter. For their part the [[Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines]] hold the position that the bells are inappropriate as trophies of war.&lt;ref name=&quot;cbcp&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> In 2002, the [[Senate of the Philippines|Philippine Senate]] approved Senate Resolution No. 393, authored by [[Aquilino Pimentel, Jr.]], urging the [[Gloria Macapagal Arroyo|Arroyo]] administration to undertake formal negotiations with the United States for the return of the bells.&lt;ref name=&quot;nene&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> In 2005, the bishop of [[Borongan]], [[Samar]], Bishop Leonardo Medroso and Balangiga parish priest Saturnino Obzunar wrote an open letter addressed to President [[George W. Bush]], the [[United States Congress]] and the [[Helsinki Commission]], requesting them to facilitate the return of the bells.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | last =Pilapil | first =Jaime | title =Balangiga bells to be returned to RP soon | pages = | publisher =Manila Standard Today | date = 2005-11-14 | <br /> url =http://www.manilastandardtoday.com/?page=news03_nov14_2005 | accessdate = 2008-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; That same year, the Wyoming Veterans’ Commission favored the return of the Filipino-American War relics, however, [[Wyoming]] Governor [[Dave Freudenthal]] stated that he disagreed with the Commission and opposed returning the bells to the Philippines.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | last =Lariosa | first =Joseph | title =US vets group wants to return Balangiga Bells to RP | pages = | publisher =The Filipino Express | date = 2005-04-14 | <br /> url =http://www.filipinoexpress.com/19/16_news.html | accessdate = 2008-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On September 26, 2006, United States Congressman [[Bob Filner]], Congressman [[Dana Rohrabacher]] and Congressman [[Ed Case]] co-sponsored House Concurrent Resolution No. 481 urging the President of the United States to authorize the return of the church bells.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | last =Sampayan | first =Sonny | title =Bells of Balangiga Resolution filed in U.S. Congress | pages = | publisher =Samar News.com | date = 2006-09-29 | <br /> url =http://www.samarnews.com/news_clips5/news85.htm | accessdate = 2008-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 2007, [[Napoleón Abueva]], the Philippines' [[National Artist of the Philippines|National Artist]] for sculpture, wrote American Ambassador to the Philippines [[Kristie Kenney]] asking for her help in the bells' recovery.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | last = | first = | title =Help return Balangiga bells | pages = | publisher =Philstar Global Corp. | date = 2007-07-26 | <br /> url =http://www.philstar.com/scripts/article_print.php?Archives&amp;id=20070725191&amp;type=2 | accessdate = 2008-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On October 25, 2007, during the [[14th Congress of the Philippines]], Senator [[Manny Villar]] filed Senate Resolution No. 177, a resolution &quot;expressing the sense of the Senate for the return to the Philippines of the Balangiga Bells which were taken by the US troops from the town of Balangiga, Province of Samar in 1901&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | last =Villar | first =Manuel | title =14th Congress - Senate Resolution No. 177 | url=http://www.senate.gov.ph/lis/bill_res.aspx?congress=14&amp;q=SRN-177 | accessdate = 2008-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Despite all efforts to recover them, the bells remain under US government control. <br /> <br /> ==In popular culture==<br /> A [[Chicago]]-based, Philippine-American [[theater company]] called The Pintig Cultural Group presented a [[Musical theatre|musical]] based on the incident, ''The Bells of Balangiga.''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | last =Brooke | first =James | title = U.S.-Philippines History Entwined in War Booty| pages = | publisher =[[The New York Times]] | date = 1997-12-01 | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B05E5DC1F3AF932A35751C1A961958260| accessdate = 2008-03-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Balangiga massacre]]<br /> * [[Philippine-American War]]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.cbcponline.net/borongan/html/balangiga_bells.html Official Stand of the Philippine Catholic Church regarding the Bells of Balangiga]<br /> *[http://www.sfgate.com/c/pictures/2003/10/18/ba_bells918.jpg Image of the two Balangiga bells at F. E. Warren Air Force Base]<br /> *[http://www.stripes.com/photos/23155_76154330.jpg Image of the third Balangiga bell in South Korea]<br /> *[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.152586,-104.856632&amp;spn=0.001967,0.00501&amp;t=k&amp;z=18&amp;om=0 F.E. Warren Air Force Base Trophy Park on Google Maps] <br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist|2}}<br /> <br /> {{coord|41.1526|-104.8566|type:landmark_source:enwiki-googlemaplink|display=title}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Bells]]<br /> [[Category:1901 in the Philippines]]<br /> [[Category:Visayan history]]<br /> [[Category:Eastern Samar]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calderstones_Park&diff=82951253 Calderstones Park 2010-08-12T01:11:56Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */clean up or deadlink-update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Park<br /> |park = Calderstones Park<br /> |image = Calderstones House.jpg<br /> |image size = 250px<br /> |caption = Calderstones Park, showing Calderstones House<br /> |type = [[public park]]<br /> |location = [[Liverpool]], England, UK<br /> |coordinates = {{coord|53|22|54|N|2|53|39|W|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}<br /> |size = 94 acres&lt;ref name=&quot;Calderstones Park&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last= |first= |title=Calderstones Park |publisher=Tradition-ICAP Liverpool International |date= |url=http://www.liverpooltennis.co.uk/tournament/the_park.asp |accessdate=2009-07-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> |opened = 1905 &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last= |first= |title=Calderstones Park - Historical Background |publisher=www.liverpoolparks.org |date= |url=http://www.liverpoolparks.org/red/docs/parks/calderstones_park/index.html |accessdate=2009-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> |operator = [[Liverpool City Council]]<br /> |visitors = <br /> |status = Open all year<br /> }}<br /> '''Calderstones Park''' is a public [[park]] in [[Liverpool]], [[Merseyside]], United Kingdom. The {{convert|94|acre|km2}} park is mainly a family park. Within it there are a variety of different attractions including a playground, a botanical garden and places of historical interest. <br /> <br /> Calderstones [[botanical garden]] contains&lt;ref name=&quot;Calderstones Park&quot; /&gt; almost 4000 species of plants brought from all over the world by merchants and other travellers.&lt;ref name=&quot;About Calderstones Park&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last= |first= |title=Calderstones Park|publisher=The Mersey Partnership |date= |url=http://www.visitliverpool.com/site/what-to-do/calderstones-park-p54661 |accessdate=2009-07-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> There is a lake in the park with geese and ducks, and there is also the mansion house, which features a café and a children's play area.&lt;ref name=&quot;About Calderstones Park&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> Originally part of the 1583-[[acre]] expanse of the Manor of [[Allerton, Merseyside|Allerton]], around 1726 the area now known as Calderstones Park was sold by its owners to settle family debts. Eventually, the [[Liverpool]] [[merchant]] Thomas Martin became owner. He added to the estate before selling the area to Joseph Need Walker, a [[lead shot]] manufacturer with business interests in [[Liverpool]]. Walker acquired the estate in 1825 when the principal building was known as &quot;The Old House&quot;. By 1828 this old [[farmhouse]] had been swept aside to make way for the mansion, Calderstones House.&lt;ref name=&quot;Calderstones Park&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1875 the estate was sold to Charles MacIver for £52,000. A Liverpool shipping magnate, he had joined Samuel Cunard in establishing the British and North American Royal Steam Packet Company — later and better known as [[Cunard Line]]. Charles MacIver retired in 1874 and his younger sons, Henry and Charles, took the reins.&lt;ref name=&quot;Calderstones Park&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1902 the MacIvers sold Calderstones for the sum of £43,000, to [[Liverpool City Council|Liverpool Corporation]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Calderstones Park&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Ownership<br /> ! Year from<br /> ! Year to<br /> ! Price<br /> |-<br /> | Thomas Martin<br /> | 1807<br /> | 1829<br /> | [[Debt settlement]]<br /> |-<br /> | Joseph Need Walker<br /> | 1825<br /> | 1875<br /> | Unknown<br /> |-<br /> | Charles MacIver <br /> | 1875<br /> | 1875<br /> | £52,000<br /> |-<br /> | Henry &amp; Charles MacIver <br /> | 1875<br /> | 1902<br /> | [[Inherited]]<br /> |-<br /> | [[Liverpool Corporation]]<br /> | 1902<br /> | Present<br /> |£43,000<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Notable Features ==<br /> === The Calderstones ===<br /> {{Infobox Megalith<br /> | Name = The Calderstones<br /> | Photo = <br /> | Type = [[Neolithic]], [[Chambered Tomb]]<br /> | Country = England {{flagicon|England}}<br /> | County = [[Merseyside]]<br /> | Nearest Town = [[Allerton]]<br /> | Grid_ref_UK = SJ405875<br /> | Grid_ref_Ireland = <br /> | Coor = {{coord|53|22|54|N|2|53|39|W|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}<br /> | Condition = <br /> | Access = <br /> | References = {{Megalithic Portal|6269}}<br /> }}<br /> The Calderstones are six [[neolithic]] [[sandstone]] boulders remaining from a [[dolmen]].<br /> <br /> Little was known about the Calderstones until the 18th century when they are thought to have been disturbed. In 1825 it was reported that, &quot;in digging about them, urns made of the coarsest clay, containing human dust and bones were found.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Calderstones&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Royden |first=Mike |title=The Calderstones |publisher=Mike Royden |date= |url=http://www.btinternet.com/~m.royden/mrlhp/local/calders/calders.htm |accessdate=2009-07-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the mid and later 19th century certain academics had declared the Calderstones to have been part of a [[druidical circle]]. In the closing years of the century [[Professor Herdman]] returned to the earlier evidence and concluded that the stones were once part of a ruined dolmen which had been mistakenly taken for a circle due to the false impression held that all [[druidical]] remains should be so arranged.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Calderstones&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> ''&quot;The six surviving stones are of local sandstone and their sizes range from approximately eight by three feet to three and a half by two and a half feet. The markings which had been studied the previous century by Simpson were again analysed and [[latex]] moulds were made of the stones and carvings, which both enabled a precise record to be made and also highlight other worn carvings which were not previously visible. The carvings were placed into six categories; spirals, concentric circles, arcs, cup marks, cup and ring marks and footprints. There is also evidence of post-[[medieval]] and modern [[graffiti]]. Several of the carvings are similar to examples found in Anglesey and the late-neolithic burial site of Newgrange in the Boyne Valley.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book<br /> | authorlink = <br /> | title = Calderstones: Prehistoric Tomb in Liverpool<br /> | publisher = Merseyside Archaeological Society<br /> | year = 1984<br /> | isbn = 0906311039 }}<br /> &lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The stones were relocated by Joseph Need Walker during his ownership, becoming a gateway feature to the eponymous estate.&lt;ref name=&quot;Historical Background&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last= |first= |title=Calderstones Park Historical Background |publisher=Liverpool Parks |date= |url=http://www.liverpoolparks.org/red/docs/parks/calderstones_park/index.html |accessdate=2009-07-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; The stones are now housed in the Harthill Greenhouses in Calderstones Park having been moved from their previous location in an enclosure just outside the park gates in 1954 to protect them from further weathering.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last= |first= |title=The Calderstones - Chambered Tomb in England in Merseyside |publisher=The Megalithic<br /> Portal |date=February 2004 |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=6269 |accessdate=2009-07-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> === Calderstones House ===<br /> {{main|Calderstones House}}<br /> The mansion house was built in 1828 by Joseph Need Walker to replace the original farmhouse known as the Old House. The house is of [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] style, though it has been subject to some unsympathetic alterations over the years and now houses council offices and a small café. The extensive [[stables]] and [[coachhouse]] are still at the rear of the house.&lt;ref name=&quot;merseySights&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Royden |first=Mike |title=South Liverpool<br /> Calderstones Park |publisher=www.allertonoak.com |date=July 2008 |url=http://www.allertonoak.com/merseySights/SouthLiverpoolCP.html |accessdate=2009-07-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===The Allerton Oak===<br /> One of the park's two most ancient features, estimated at 1,000 years old, is an oak tree. According to legend the ancient local [[Hundred Court]] sat beneath its branches.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last= |first= |title=The Allerton Oak |publisher=[[Liverpool City Council]] |date=July 2009 |url=http://www.liverpool.gov.uk/Leisure_and_culture/Parks_and_recreation/Parks_and_gardens/Calderstones_Park/index.asp |accessdate=2009-07-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Its dilapidated state is said to be due to the explosion of the gunpowder ship [[Lottie Sleigh]] over three [[miles]] away on the [[River Mersey]] in 1864. It is dependent upon a number of props that hold it up.&lt;ref name=&quot;merseySights&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Botanical garden===<br /> In 1964 Calderstones, particularly the Harthill estate, was designated Liverpools Botanical garden, the third site for the collection started in 1803 by William Roscoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Historical Background&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Activities in the park==<br /> ===Tennis Tournament===<br /> [[File:Liverpool International tournament.jpg|thumb|Calderstones Park's tennis court]]<br /> <br /> Set in the park, the [[Tradition-ICAP Liverpool International]] began in 2002 (with the women's event beginning in 2006) and has attracted many will known [[tennis]] stars such as, [[Martina Navratilova]], [[Ivan Ljubičić]] and [[David Ferrer]]. In 2008 the tournament attracted over 2500 spectators.&lt;ref name=&quot;About the Tournament&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last= |first= |title=About the Tournament |publisher=Tradition-ICAP Liverpool International |date= |url=http://www.liverpooltennis.co.uk/tournament/ |accessdate=2009-07-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Solstice===<br /> On 21 December 2009 the Winter [[Solstice]] was celebrated in the Park.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://directoryofliverpool.net/blog/2009/10/23/whats-on-in-liverpool-merseyside-uk-december-christmas-2009/ |title=Whats on in Liverpool |date=October 21, 2009 |work=Directory of Liverpool |accessdate=December 21, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == See also ==<br /> *[[List of parks and open spaces in Merseyside]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{reflist|2}}<br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> *{{cite book<br /> | last = <br /> | first = <br /> | coauthors =<br /> | title = The Calderstones: a prehistoric tomb in Liverpool<br /> | publisher = Merseyside Archaeological Society<br /> | year = 1984<br /> | isbn = 0906479053<br /> }}<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> *[http://www.liverpool.gov.uk/Leisure_and_culture/Parks_and_recreation/Parks_and_gardens/Calderstones_Park/ Council Page]<br /> * [http://liverpoollive.proboards106.com/ A Liverpool Heritage Forum]<br /> *[http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/celynog/calderstones.htm The Calderstones]<br /> * [http://fungus.org.uk/nwfg/nicholls.htm Fungi in Calderstones park]<br /> * [http://www.merseysidelivesteam.org.uk Miniature Railway (run by Merseyside Live Steam and Model Engineers)]<br /> * [http://uk.oocities.com/allertonoak@btinternet.com/merseySights/SouthLiverpoolAMH.html Photos]<br /> <br /> {{Green Liverpool}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Parks and commons in Liverpool]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liuqin&diff=155781014 Liuqin 2010-08-12T00:55:02Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Audio */clean up or deadlink-update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Instrument<br /> |name= Liuqin<br /> |names=<br /> |image=Liuqin.jpg<br /> |classification=<br /> *[[Plucked string instrument]]<br /> |range=<br /> |related=<br /> * [[Pipa]]<br /> }}<br /> <br /> The '''''liuqin''''' ([[wiktionary:柳琴|柳琴]]; [[pinyin]]: ''liǔqín'') is a four-stringed [[China|Chinese]] [[mandolin]] with a pear-shaped body. It is small in size, almost a miniature copy of another Chinese plucked [[List of traditional Chinese musical instruments|musical instrument]], the ''[[pipa]]''. The range of its voice is much higher than the ''[[pipa]]'', and it has its own special place in [[Chinese music]], whether in orchestral music or in solo pieces. This has been the result of a modernization in its usage in recent years, leading to a gradual elevation in status of the ''liuqin'' from an [[accompaniment]] instrument in folk [[Chinese opera]], narrative music, i.e. [[Suzhou]] ''pingtan'', in northern [[Jiangsu]], southern [[Shandong]] and [[Anhui]], to an instrument well-appreciated for its unique tonal and acoustic qualities. The position of the instrument is lower than the [[pipa]], being held diagonally like the Chinese [[ruan]] and [[yueqin]]. Like the [[ruan]] and unlike the [[pipa]] its strings are elevated by a bridge and the soundboard has two prominent soundholes. Finally, the instrument is played with a pick with similar technique to both [[ruan]] and [[yueqin]], whereas the [[pipa]] is played with the fingers. Therefore, the liuqin is most commonly played and doubled by those with [[ruan]] and [[yueqin]] experience. Although, like the larger Chinese [[pipa]], it may look like a [[lute]], in fact, neither [[pipa]] nor liuqin have an actual neck, as the soundboard body spans the entire strings to the head of the instrument, making both liuqin and [[pipa]] actually handheld zithers{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}.<br /> <br /> Historically, the ''liuqin'' was commonly made of willow [[wood]], while the professionals used versions constructed with a higher-quality red [[sandalwood]] or rosewood. In contemporary versions, however, the front board is made of ''tong'' wood (桐木) and for the reverse side, of red sandalwood, as comparable to historical types.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> The ''liuqin'' has gone by various names, firstly the '''''liuyeqin''''' ([[wiktionary:柳|柳]][[wiktionary:葉|葉]][[wiktionary:琴|琴]]), meaning willow-leaf-shaped instrument. This was the original term for the ''liuqin'', which is visibly an abbreviation of the term ''liuyeqin''. The other reference to the ''liuqin'' is the '''''tu pipa''''' (土琵琶), literally meaning unrefined ''pipa'', because of the aforementioned dimunitive size and resemblance of the ''liuqin'' to the ''pipa''.<br /> <br /> Throughout its history, the ''liuqin'' came in variations ranging from two (which only had and a half octaves) to five strings. However, the earliest precursor of the modern four-stringed version of the instrument appeared and experienced popularity during the [[Tang Dynasty]] (AD 618 - 907). This version had three strings, and was only used for accompaniment purposes in traditional operas, as mentioned before.<br /> <br /> The three-stringed ''liuqin'' remained in use for much of dynastic China from the Tang Dynasty until the late 20th century. The tunings used were thus D-G-D and D-A-D. With the modernization of traditional Chinese music in 1970s, the four-stringed ''liuqin'' was developed as an improvement to its musical range, and the body of the instrument was enlarged to allow the player to handle the instrument with greater ease. There, however, still remains a five-stringed ''liuqin'', which was developed with a A-D-A-D-A tuning to cater to needs for an [[alto]] ''liuqin'' in 1975:)<br /> <br /> ==Playing technique, tones and range==<br /> [[Image:Lookeen.jpg|thumb|The front and back of a vintage Luiqin]]<br /> Its technique is closer to that of the [[mandolin]] than that of the pipa, using a [[plectrum]] and frequently using the [[tremolo]] technique. Its strings are either tuned in fifths, G-D-A-E (as a mandolin or [[violin]]), or else in a mixture of fourths and fifths, as for example G-D-G-D, which is a more common tuning employed by mainstream players of the ''liuqin''. This makes playing of the ''liuqin'' exactly the same as the ''[[ruan]]'', hence players of either the ''liuqin'' or the ''ruan'' often double on both instruments.<br /> <br /> The modern ''liuqin'' has four steel strings. Like the ''ruan'', the number of the ''liuqin'''s frets was increased from 7 to 24 over the course of the 20th century. These frets are arranged in half-step intervals. Its refreshing and jubilant tonal quality is more delicate than that of the ''[[yueqin]]''.<br /> <br /> Note that the frets on all Chinese lutes are high so that the fingers never touch the actual body—distinctively different from western fretted instruments. This allows for a greater control over timbre and intonation than their western counterparts, but makes chordal playing more difficult.<br /> <br /> ==Notable players of the ''liuqin''==<br /> *Wang Hongyi (王红艺), daughter of Wang Huiran<br /> *Wang Huiran (王惠然), esteemed &quot;Father of the ''liuqin''&quot;<br /> *[[Mei Han]], ''[[guzheng]]'' who doubles on ''liuqin''<br /> <br /> ==''Liuqin'' repertoire==<br /> ===Works composed/co-composed/adapted by Wang Huiran (王惠然)===<br /> *Canal of Happiness<br /> *Melody on a Moonlit River<br /> *Sing a Mountain Song of Love<br /> *Spring Comes to River Yi (春到沂河)<br /> *Swords<br /> *The Lark (''Yun Que'') Romanian Folk Music<br /> *Warrior Suite<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[Traditional Chinese musical instruments]]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> ===More information===<br /> '''On the instrument'''<br /> *[http://www.yuemi.net/pages1/buolan(mz.boxian1).htm ''Liuqin'' photographs] (first row)<br /> *[http://www.paulnoll.com/China/Music/mus-liuqin.html ''Liuqin'']<br /> *[http://www.melodyofchina.com/06instruments/liuqin.html ''Liu Qin''] (a Mp3 recording available here as well)<br /> *[http://www.hkco.org/Eng/learning_2_eng.asp Information on the ''liuqin''] (also includes information on other plucked-string instruments and notational description of instrumental tonal range)<br /> <br /> '''On players of the ''liuqin'''''<br /> *[http://www.pccorchestra.net/Document/e/e_article0002_dreamsofgreatstringmusic.asp Concert information on Wang Huiran]<br /> *[http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200203/01/0301170.htm Press release on Wang Hongyi]<br /> *[http://www.cciv.cityu.edu.hk/website/?redirect=/art/2002-2003-s/wang_huiran/index.php Information on Wang Huiran and Wang Hongyi]<br /> <br /> ===Audio===<br /> *[http://music.yahoo.com.cn/search.html?pid=ysearch&amp;p=%C1%F8%C7%D9&amp;button=%CB%D1%B8%E8%C7%FA&amp;button=%CB%D1%B8%E8%B4%CA&amp;mimetype=all&amp;source=ysearch_music_result_topsearch ''Liuqin'' Mp3s] (click headphones to listen to individual tracks)<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/risheng99/instruments/liuqin_music.html ''Liuqin'' Mp3s on Yahoo! GeoCities]<br /> <br /> ===Related Chinese plucked-string instruments===<br /> *''[[Pipa]]''<br /> *''[[Ruan]]''<br /> <br /> {{ChineseText}}<br /> {{Traditional Chinese musical instruments}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Chinese musical instruments]]<br /> [[Category:Necked bowl lutes]]<br /> <br /> [[fr:Liuqin]]<br /> [[zh:柳琴]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clan_Ogilvy&diff=112855724 Clan Ogilvy 2010-08-12T00:48:23Z <p>Updatehelper: /* 15th century &amp; clan conflicts */clean up or deadlink-update using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Ogilvie (R. R. McIan).jpg|thumb|200px|&quot;Ogilvie&quot;. A plate illustrated by [[R. R. McIan]], from [[James Logan (author)|James Logan]]'s ''The Clans of the Scottish Highlands'', published in 1845, showing the dress tartan of the Ogilvies.]]<br /> <br /> [[File:Earl of Airlie coat of arms.svg|200px|thumb|[[coat of arms|arms]] of the [[Earl of Airlie]], the [[Clan chief|chief]] of Clan Ogilvy]]<br /> <br /> [[File:Earl of Seafield arms.svg|120px|thumb|[[coat of arms|arms]] of the [[Earl of Seafield]], a branch of Clan Ogilvy]]<br /> <br /> [[File:Earl of Findlater arms.svg|120px|thumb|[[coat of arms|arms]] of the [[Earl of Findlater]], a branch of Clan Ogilvy]]<br /> <br /> '''Clan Ogilvy / Ogilvie''' is a Highland [[Scottish clan]].<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> ===Origins of the clan===<br /> The Ogilvys are one of the most distinguished families in [[Scotland]] and take their name from Gillibride the second son of Gilliechriost, [[Earl of Angus]]. The name Ogilvy or Ogilvie derives from Gilbert, one of the descendants of the ancient [[Earl of Angus|Earls of Angus]]. The name is also believed to be derived from the [[Old British]] word ''Ocelfa'' meaning ''high plain''.<br /> <br /> Patrick de Olgilvy appears on the [[Ragman Roll]] swearing fealty to King [[Edward I of England]] in 1296.<br /> <br /> ===Wars of Scottish Independence===<br /> <br /> However Patrick's two sons supported King [[Robert I of Scotland]] during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]]. The Ogilvy lands are found in [[Angus]] where the Ogilvy family were made hereditary sheriffs in the 14th and 15th centuries. <br /> <br /> ===15th century &amp; clan conflicts===<br /> <br /> In the 15th century the [[Tower of Airlie]] was built as the castle of the Chief of the Ogilvies. In 1394 a clan battle took place between [[Clan Robertson]] and the Clan Ogilvy, during a cattle raid on [[Angus]]. Sir Walter Ogilvy was slain at this battle, though his son became the [[Earl of Mar]] who commanded the [[Duke of Albany]]'s forces at the [[Battle of Harlaw]] in [[1411]]. <br /> <br /> The Clan Ogilvy, supported by men from the [[Clan Oliphant]], [[Clan Seton]], [[Clan Gordon]] and by the [[Clan Forbes]] of Pitsligo fought at the Battle of Arbroath on 24 January 1445. Their enemy was the Master of Crawford and his [[Clan Lindsay]] who advanced with over one thousand men. The [[Earl of Crawford]] himself was the father of the Master of Crawford. The Earl rode in between the two armies in an attempt to call a truce. However, an ill-advised Ogilvie, thinking that this was the start of the Lindsay's attack, threw his spear at the Earl, hitting him in the mouth and killing him instantly. So the battle began which went in the [[Clan Lindsay]]'s favour. Here fell Ogilvie of Inverquharty, Forbes of Pitsligo, Brucklay of Gartley, Gordon of Borrowfield, and Oliphant of Aberdalgie, along with 500 or so Ogilvies. However, the Lindsays lost a disproportionate number of men, most notably the Earl himself. [http://www.oocities.com/clanoliphant/arbroath.html][http://www.oocities.com/clanoliphant/arbroath.txt] <br /> <br /> '''Battle of Brechin''' 1452. During the fifteenth century the [[Clan Lindsay]] lost much of their land due to feuding with the Clan Ogilvy. Chief Alexander Lindsay, the 4th Earl of Crawford, also known as the Tiger Earl and Earl Beardie was badly defeated by the Clan Ogilvy and the [[Clan Gordon]] under the [[Earl of Huntly]] at Brechin in 1452. {{coord|56.7626|N|2.62127|W|type:event_region:GB|display=title|format=dms}}<br /> <br /> ===16th century &amp; Anglo-Scottish wars===<br /> <br /> In the 16th century, during the [[Anglo-Scottish Wars]] against the English the Clan Ogilvy fought at the [[Battle of Pinkie Cleugh]] in 1547 where the Chief's 4th eldest son called James was killed.<br /> <br /> ===17th century &amp; Civil War===<br /> <br /> During the Civil War the Clan Ogilvy supported the Royalist cause. They fought under James [[Clan Graham|Graham]] the [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|1st Marquess of Montrose]] and fought with him at the [[Battle of Inverlochy (1645)]], the [[Battle of Kilsyth]] and [[Battle of Philiphaugh]] in 1648 where James Ogilvy 2nd [[Earl of Airlie]] was captured. The Earl was imprisoned in [[St Andrews Castle]] but escaped one night before the day of his execution, disguised in his sister's clothes. The 'Bonnie Hoose o' Airlie' was destroyed in the Civil War by the [[Clan Campbell]] and this tragic incident is described in a ballad from the time.<br /> <br /> ===18th century &amp; Jacobite Uprisings===<br /> <br /> The Ogilvy clan supported the Jacobite Uprisings in 1715 to 1716 and 1745 to 1746. A regiment from the Ogilvy Clan Lord Ogilvy's Regiment fought at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746. After their defeat, the chief of the Ogilvy Clan escaped to [[France]] and entered royal service there and founded le régiment d'Ogilvie . At this time the title of [[Earl of Airlie]] was lost and not restored by parliament until 1896.<br /> <br /> ===The clan today===<br /> <br /> [[David Ogilvy, 13th Earl of Airlie]] is the present chief of the Ogilvie clan serves as Lord Chamberlain to the Queen. Royal links were also reinforced when [[Angus Ogilvy]], the brother of the chief, married HRH [[Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy|Princess Alexandra of Kent]]. There are many people of the Ogilvy/Ogilvie family living in various places all over the world, such as [[Australia]], [[Norway]] and [[New Zealand]].<br /> <br /> ==Castles==<br /> <br /> *[[Auchindoun Castle]] was acquired by the Ogilvys in 1489.<br /> *[[Airlie Castle]], [[Airlie, Angus]] was home of the Ogilvy [[Earl of Airlie|Earls of Airlie]] [http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/features/featurefirst5170.html] [http://www.castlesontheweb.com/photoarchive/index.php?action=album&amp;id=1173&amp;sessionid=]<br /> *[[Cortachy Castle]]. [http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/features/featurefirst10079.html] [http://www.castlesontheweb.com/photoarchive/index.php?action=album&amp;id=1171&amp;sessionid=]<br /> *[[Banff Castle]].<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[Ogilvie]], for a list of notable Ogilvies<br /> *[[Ogilvy]], for a list of notable Ogilvys<br /> *[[Scottish clan]]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/ntor/ogilvy2.html http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/ntor/ogilvy2.html]<br /> <br /> {{Scottish clans}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Scottish clans|Ogilvy]]<br /> <br /> [[ru:Клан Огилви]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:NetEase&diff=68553253 Diskussion:NetEase 2009-12-29T04:17:10Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>== &quot;&quot;&quot;laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich.&quot;&quot;&quot; ==<br /> <br /> <br /> Die Angabe ist falsch oder missverständlich. <br /> 1,8 Millionen Besucher täglich oder 1,8 Milliarden Besucher jährlich würde besser passen.<br /> Es könnte ein sehr grober schätzwert seinwie viele verschieden Menschen die seite besuchen. <br /> Allerdings wäre es dann sehr gering:<br /> <br /> In China leben ca 1350 Millionen Menschen.<br /> Die hier veröffentlich Angabe behauptet also dass in China höchstens jeder 750ste jährlich diese Seite besucht (welche dort eine <br /> der meistbesuchten Seiten ist)<br /> <br /> <br /> Anhand des Alexa ranking würde ich davon ausgehen, dass die Anzahl verschiedener Besucher bzw IPAdressen, welche die Website jeden Tag zählt eine 7 stellige Zahl ist. <br /> <br /> <br /> Bitte schaut mal folgendes an <br /> http://traffic.alexa.com/graph?&amp;w=400&amp;h=220&amp;o=f&amp;c=1&amp;y=r&amp;b=ffffff&amp;r=2y&amp;u=163.com&amp;&amp;u=baidu.com&amp;u=google.cn&amp;<br /> <br /> <br /> http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/163.com#trafficstats<br /> <br /> 163.com hat also in China eine mit den großen Suchmaschinen Baidu und google nahkommende Besucheranzahl und ist weltweit nach Alexa traffic rang ca. platz 50 aller websites und platz 7 in China &lt;small&gt;(''nicht [[Hilfe:Signatur|signierter]] Beitrag von'' [[Benutzer:Updatehelper|Updatehelper]] ([[Benutzer Diskussion:Updatehelper|Diskussion]]&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;[[Spezial:Beiträge/Updatehelper|Beiträge]]) 00:35, 29. Dez. 2009 (CET)) &lt;/small&gt;</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:NetEase&diff=68553169 Diskussion:NetEase 2009-12-29T04:08:04Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>== &quot;&quot;&quot;laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich.&quot;&quot;&quot; ==<br /> <br /> <br /> Die Angabe ist falsch oder missverständlich. <br /> (ein direkter quellen link/nachweis fehlt leider, weil man sich bei compete erst anmelden muss?)<br /> 1,8 Millionen Besucher täglich oder 1,8 Milliarden Besucher jährlich würde besser passen.<br /> Es könnte ein sehr grober schätzwert seinwie viele verschieden Menschen die seite besuchen. <br /> Allerdings wäre es dann sehr gering:<br /> <br /> In China leben ca 1350 Millionen Menschen.<br /> Die hier veröffentlich Angabe behauptet also dass in China höchstens jeder 750ste jährlich diese Seite besucht (welche dort eine <br /> der meistbesuchten Seiten ist)<br /> <br /> <br /> Anhand des Alexa ranking würde ich davon ausgehen, dass die Anzahl verschiedener Besucher bzw IPAdressen, welche die Website jeden Tag zählt eine 7 stellige Zahl ist. <br /> <br /> <br /> Bitte schaut mal folgendes an <br /> http://traffic.alexa.com/graph?&amp;w=400&amp;h=220&amp;o=f&amp;c=1&amp;y=r&amp;b=ffffff&amp;r=2y&amp;u=163.com&amp;&amp;u=baidu.com&amp;u=google.cn&amp;<br /> <br /> <br /> http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/163.com#trafficstats<br /> <br /> 163.com hat also in China eine mit den großen Suchmaschinen Baidu und google nahkommende Besucheranzahl und ist weltweit nach Alexa traffic rang ca. platz 50 aller websites und platz 7 in China &lt;small&gt;(''nicht [[Hilfe:Signatur|signierter]] Beitrag von'' [[Benutzer:Updatehelper|Updatehelper]] ([[Benutzer Diskussion:Updatehelper|Diskussion]]&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;[[Spezial:Beiträge/Updatehelper|Beiträge]]) 00:35, 29. Dez. 2009 (CET)) &lt;/small&gt;</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:NetEase&diff=68547706 Diskussion:NetEase 2009-12-28T23:35:42Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>== laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich. ==<br /> <br /> <br /> Die Angabe ist falsch oder missverständlich. <br /> (ein direkter quellen link/nachweis fehlt leider, weil man sich bei compete erst anmelden muss?)<br /> 1,8 Millionen Besucher täglich oder 1,8 Milliarden Besucher jährlich würde besser passen.<br /> Es könnte ein sehr grober schätzwert seinwie viele verschieden Menschen die seite besuchen. <br /> Allerdings wäre es dann sehr gering:<br /> <br /> In China leben ca 1350 Millionen Menschen.<br /> Die hier veröffentlich Angabe behauptet also dass in China höchstens jeder 750ste jährlich diese Seite besucht (welche dort eine <br /> der meistbesuchten Seiten ist)<br /> <br /> <br /> Anhand des Alexa ranking würde ich davon ausgehen, dass die Anzahl verschiedener Besucher bzw IPAdressen, welche die Website jeden Tag zählt eine 7 stellige Zahl ist. <br /> <br /> <br /> Bitte schaut mal folgendes an <br /> http://traffic.alexa.com/graph?&amp;w=400&amp;h=220&amp;o=f&amp;c=1&amp;y=r&amp;b=ffffff&amp;r=2y&amp;u=163.com&amp;&amp;u=baidu.com&amp;u=google.cn&amp;<br /> <br /> <br /> http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/163.com#trafficstats<br /> <br /> 163.com hat also in China eine mit den großen Suchmaschinen Baidu und google nahkommende Besucheranzahl und ist weltweit nach Alexa traffic rang ca. platz 50 aller websites und platz 7 in China</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:NetEase&diff=68547648 Diskussion:NetEase 2009-12-28T23:34:08Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>== laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich. ==<br /> <br /> <br /> Die Angabe ist falsch oder missverständlich. <br /> (ein direkter quellen link/nachweis fehlt leider, weil man sich bei compete erst anmelden muss?)<br /> 1,8 Millionen Besucher täglich oder 1,8 Milliarden Besucher jährlich würde besser passen.<br /> Es könnte ein sehr grober schätzwert wie viele verschieden Menschen die seite Besuchen <br /> Allerdings wäre es dann auch sehr wenig.<br /> <br /> <br /> In China leben ca 1350 Millionen Menschen.<br /> Die hier veröffentlich Angabe Behauptet also dass in China höchstens jeder 750ste jährlich diese Seite besucht (welche dort eine <br /> der meistbesuchten Seiten ist)<br /> <br /> <br /> Anhand des Alexa ranking würde ich davon ausgehen, dass die Anzahl verschiedener Besucher bzw IPAdressen, welche die Website jeden Tag zählt eine 7 stellige Zahl ist. <br /> <br /> <br /> Bitte schaut mal folgendes an <br /> http://traffic.alexa.com/graph?&amp;w=400&amp;h=220&amp;o=f&amp;c=1&amp;y=r&amp;b=ffffff&amp;r=2y&amp;u=163.com&amp;&amp;u=baidu.com&amp;u=google.cn&amp;<br /> <br /> <br /> http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/163.com#trafficstats<br /> <br /> 163.com hat also in China eine mit den großen Suchmaschinen Baidu und google nahkommende Besucheranzahl und ist weltweit nach Alexa traffic rang ca. platz 50 aller websites und platz 7 in China</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:NetEase&diff=68547638 Diskussion:NetEase 2009-12-28T23:33:51Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>== laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich. ==<br /> <br /> <br /> Die Angabe ist falsch oder missverständlich. <br /> (ein direkter quellen link/nachweis fehlt leider, weil man sich bei compete erst anmelden muss?)<br /> 1,8 Millionen Besucher täglich oder 1,8 Milliarden Besucher jährlich würde besser passen.<br /> Es könnte ein sehr grober schätzwert wie viele verschieden Menschen die seite Besuchen <br /> Allerdings wäre es dann auch sehr wenig.<br /> <br /> <br /> In China leben ca 1350 Millionen Menschen.<br /> Die hier veröffentlich Angabe Behauptet also dass in China höchstens jeder 750ste jährlich diese Seite besucht (welche dort eine <br /> der meistbesuchten Seiten ist)<br /> <br /> <br /> Anhand des Alexa ranking würde ich davon ausgehen, dass die Anzahl verschiedener Besucher bzw IPAdressen, welche die Website jeden Tag zählt eine 7 stellige Zahl ist. <br /> <br /> <br /> Bitte schaut mal folgendes an <br /> http://traffic.alexa.com/graph?&amp;w=400&amp;h=220&amp;o=f&amp;c=1&amp;y=r&amp;b=ffffff&amp;r=2y&amp;u=163.com&amp;&amp;u=baidu.com&amp;u=google.cn&amp;<br /> http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/163.com#trafficstats<br /> <br /> 163.com hat also in China eine mit den großen Suchmaschinen Baidu und google nahkommende Besucheranzahl und ist weltweit nach Alexa traffic rang ca. platz 50 aller websites und platz 7 in China</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:NetEase&diff=68546990 Diskussion:NetEase 2009-12-28T23:13:55Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>== laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich. ==<br /> <br /> Die Angabe ist Falsch oder missverständlich.<br /> Es könnte ein schätzwert sein wie viele verschieden Menschen die seite Besuchen <br /> Allerdings wäre auch das relativ wenig.<br /> (ein direkter quellen link/nachweis fehlt leider, weil man sich bei compete erst anmelden muss?)<br /> <br /> Anhand des Alexa ranking kann man grob abschätzen, dass die Anzahl verschiedener Besucher bzw IPAdressen, welche die Website zählt bei mehr als dem Zehnfachen der genannten Zahl liegt <br /> <br /> Bitte schaut mal folgendes an <br /> http://traffic.alexa.com/graph?&amp;w=400&amp;h=220&amp;o=f&amp;c=1&amp;y=r&amp;b=ffffff&amp;r=2y&amp;u=163.com&amp;&amp;u=baidu.com&amp;u=google.cn&amp;<br /> http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/163.com#trafficstats<br /> <br /> 163.com hat also in China eine mit den großen Suchmaschinen Baidu und google nahkommende Besucheranzahl und ist weltweit nach Alexa traffic rang ca. platz 50 aller websites und platz 7 in China</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:NetEase&diff=68546979 Diskussion:NetEase 2009-12-28T23:13:37Z <p>Updatehelper: laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich.</p> <hr /> <div>== laut einer Umfrage aus dem Jahre 2008 von Compete.com, 1,8 Millionen Besucher jährlich. ==<br /> <br /> Die Angabe ist Falsch oder missverständlich.<br /> Es könnte ein schätzwert sein wie viele verschieden Menschen die seite Besuchen <br /> Allerdings wäre auch das relativ wenig.<br /> (ein direkter quellen link/nachweis fehlt leider.<br /> weil man sich bei compete erst anmelden muss?)<br /> <br /> Anhand des Alexa ranking kann man grob abschätzen, dass die Anzahl verschiedener Besucher bzw IPAdressen, welche die Website zählt bei mehr als dem Zehnfachen der genannten Zahl liegt <br /> <br /> Bitte schaut mal folgendes an <br /> http://traffic.alexa.com/graph?&amp;w=400&amp;h=220&amp;o=f&amp;c=1&amp;y=r&amp;b=ffffff&amp;r=2y&amp;u=163.com&amp;&amp;u=baidu.com&amp;u=google.cn&amp;<br /> http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/163.com#trafficstats<br /> <br /> 163.com hat also in China eine mit den großen Suchmaschinen Baidu und google nahkommende Besucheranzahl und ist weltweit nach Alexa traffic rang ca. platz 50 aller websites und platz 7 in China</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olmsted_Park&diff=97000468 Olmsted Park 2009-12-01T18:38:59Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Muddy River Restoration Project */Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>__NOTOC__<br /> {{Infobox_nrhp | name =Olmsted Park System<br /> | nrhp_type = hd<br /> | image = OlmstedParkSign.jpg<br /> | caption = <br /> | location= [[Brookline, Massachusetts]]<br /> | locmapin = Massachusetts<br /> | area =<br /> | built =1870<br /> | architect= Olmsted, Frederick Law, Sr.<br /> | architecture= <br /> | added = [[December 8]], [[1971]]<br /> | governing_body = Local<br /> | refnum=71000086<br /> &lt;ref name=&quot;nris&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nr.nps.gov/|title=National Register Information System|date=2007-01-23|work=National Register of Historic Places|publisher=National Park Service}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Olmsted Park''' is a linear [[park]] in [[Boston]] and [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Massachusetts]], and a part of Boston's [[Emerald Necklace]] of connected parks and [[parkway]]s. Originally named '''Leverett Park''', in 1900 it was renamed to honor its designer, [[Frederick Law Olmsted]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.emeraldnecklace.org/index.cgi?page=olmstedpark Olmsted Park]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Olmsted Park can be roughly divided into two parts. In the south, bordering [[Jamaica Pond]], it includes athletic fields and three ponds: from the south, a small [[Kettle (geology)|kettle]] pond called Ward's Pond, the tiny Willow Pond, and the much larger Leverett's Pond. The northern section of the park, above Route 9, is a narrow corridor through which the [[Muddy River, Massachusetts|Muddy River]] flows on its way to the [[Charles River]]. The northern edge of Olmsted Park connects to the [[Back Bay Fens]] and the western edge of the [[Mission Hill, Boston, Massachusetts|Mission Hill]] neighborhood. <br /> <br /> Olmsted, who had made a reputation designing New York's [[Central Park]], suggested in 1880 that the swampy and brackish Muddy River be included in Boston's park plan. Beginning in 1890, the river was dredged into a winding stream, a large [[swamp]] converted into Leverett's Pond, and Ward's Pond was connected with a small outflowing stream.<br /> <br /> Following completion of the Emerald Necklace Parks Master Plan in 1989 (updated in 2001 [http://www.muddyrivermmoc.org/html/NecklaceLinks/masterplan.html]),<br /> a number of improvements have been made in Olmsted Park. Riverdale Parkway, originally designed as a carriage road, was transformed into a bicycle and pedestrian path in 1997. The Allerton Overlook at the foot of Allerton Street in Brookline was recreated, footbridges re-pointed, and a boardwalk placed at the south end of Wards Pond.<br /> <br /> In 2006, Brookline restored Olmsted's &quot;Babbling Brook&quot; (a section of the Muddy River in the park)[http://www.highstreethill.org/folp/brook06.html], resetting stones, clearing out invasive knotweed, defining the streambed, and replanting trees and shrubs to inhibit future invasives growth.<br /> <br /> The close proximity of [[Longwood Medical and Academic Area]] and easy access to the [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority|MBTA]] make the park a popular walking and bicycling route.<br /> <br /> ==Muddy River Restoration Project==<br /> Olmsted park has long been subject to flooding from the Muddy River. The Muddy River Restoration Project[http://www.pinebank.org/muddyriverproject.htm] will dredge contaminated sediments and implement other major structural improvements, unburying the river and improving its integrity, appearance, and flood control capabilities.[http://www.muddyrivermmoc.org/html/RestorationLinks/floodControl.html]<br /> [http://www.oocities.com/muddybemuddy/summary.html]<br /> <br /> == Friends of Leverett Pond ==<br /> <br /> &quot;Friends of Leverett Pond&quot; was the second of the Town of Brookline's Park Friends Groups created as a park advocacy organization in the 1970s. Formed in 1978 as a sub-committee of the High Street Hill Association, it has worked to improve the condition of Olmsted Park and to increase awareness of issues of park stewardship.&quot;[http://www.highstreethill.org/folp/]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> * [http://www.highstreethill.org/folp/ Friends of Leverett Pond]<br /> * [http://www.olmstedpark.org/ Friends of Olmsted Park] an offshoot of Friends of Jamaica Pond<br /> * [http://www.emeraldnecklace.org/ Emerald Necklace Conservancy]<br /> <br /> ==Gallery==<br /> {{image gallery<br /> |lines =3<br /> |Olmsted-Park.jpg||Olmsted Park path and the [[Muddy River]]<br /> |Olmsted-Park-Muddy-River.jpg||The [[Muddy River, Massachusetts|Muddy River]] in early Spring<br /> |Jamaica-pond-3.jpg||Jamaica Pond<br /> }}<br /> <br /> {{National Register of Historic Places}}<br /> {{Emerald Necklace}}<br /> <br /> {{coord missing|Massachusetts}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Emerald Necklace]]<br /> [[Category:Landmarks in Boston, Massachusetts]]<br /> [[Category:Parks in Boston, Massachusetts]]<br /> [[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_Storm_of_1913&diff=90446740 Great Lakes Storm of 1913 2009-12-01T17:02:59Z <p>Updatehelper: /* References */Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googlemail DOT co using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{featured article}}<br /> {{Infobox winter storm<br /> |name=Great Lakes Storm of 1913<br /> |image location=November gale.png<br /> |image name=Convergence of systems to form the November gale<br /> |stormtype=[[Cyclonic]] [[blizzard]]<br /> |date formed=November 6, 1913<br /> |date dissipated=November 11, 1913<br /> |maximum amount=24 inches of snow recorded in some areas <br /> |pressure= 968.5&amp;nbsp;mb (28.60&amp;nbsp;inches)<br /> |wind speed=90&amp;nbsp;mph (145&amp;nbsp;km/h) winds<br /> |total damages (USD)='''vessels:'''<br /> * $2,332,000 (1913) for vessels totally lost <br /> * $830,900 (1913) for vessels that became constructive total losses <br /> * $620,000 (1913) for vessels stranded but returned to service<br /> * $1,000,000 in lost cargoes<br /> '''shore damage:'''<br /> Complete cost not available.<br /> |total fatalities=over 250<br /> |areas affected=The [[Great Lakes Basin]] in the [[Midwestern United States]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Ontario]]}}<br /> The '''Great Lakes Storm of 1913''', historically referred to as the &quot;Big Blow&quot;, the &quot;Freshwater Fury&quot; or the &quot;White Hurricane&quot;, was a [[blizzard]] with [[hurricane]]-force winds that devastated the [[Great Lakes Basin]] in the [[Midwestern United States]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Ontario]] from November 7 through November 10, 1913. The storm was most powerful on November 9, battering and overturning ships on four of the five [[Great Lakes]], particularly [[Lake Huron]]. Deceptive lulls in the storm and the slow pace of weather reports contributed to the storm's destructiveness.<br /> <br /> The deadliest and most destructive [[natural disaster]] ever to hit the lakes,&lt;ref&gt;Brown, David G. (2002). ''White Hurricane''. International Marine / McGraw-Hill. pp. 208, 222. ISBN 0-07-138037-X.&lt;/ref&gt; the Great Lakes Storm killed more than 250&amp;nbsp;people,&lt;ref&gt;Brown, 2002.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.saveontarioshipwrecks.on.ca/News/NL%20winter03.pdf The Great Storm of 1913: Vessels Totally Destroyed].&quot; Newsletter, Winter 2003, Save Ontario Shipwrecks, Inc.. Accessed on February 9, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> &lt;ref&gt;Hemming, Robert J. (1992). ''Ships Gone Missing: The Great Lakes Storm of 1913''. Chicago: Contemporary Books, Inc. ISBN 0-8092-3909-4.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hhpl.on.ca/GreatLakes/ Shipwrecks].&quot; Maritime History of the Great Lakes. Accessed on February 10, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> &lt;ref&gt;Annual Report of the Lake Carriers' Association.'' 1913.&lt;/ref&gt; destroyed 19 ships, and stranded 19 others. The financial loss in vessels alone was nearly [[United States dollar|US]] $5&amp;nbsp;million, or about $100&amp;nbsp;million at current value.&lt;ref&gt;Brown, 2002, p 245. Conversion from 1913 to 2006 U.S. dollars assumes a conversion factor of 0.049, according to Robert Sahr, [http://oregonstate.edu/cla/polisci/faculty/sahr/sahr.htm Consumer Price Index], Oregon State University. Retrieved 2007-04-10.&lt;/ref&gt; This included about $1&amp;nbsp;million at current value in lost cargo totalling about 68,300&amp;nbsp;[[tonnage|tons]], such as coal, iron ore, and grain.&lt;ref&gt;Brown, 2002, pp 203, 225.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The storm originated as the convergence of two major [[Weather front|storm front]]s, fueled by the lakes' relatively warm waters&amp;mdash;a seasonal process called a &quot;November [[gale]]&quot;. It produced 90&amp;nbsp;mph (145&amp;nbsp;km/h) winds, [[ocean surface wave|waves]] over 35&amp;nbsp;feet (11&amp;nbsp;m) high, and [[whiteout (weather)|whiteout]] [[snowsquall]]s. Analysis of the storm and its impact on humans, engineering structures, and the landscape led to better forecasting and faster responses to storm warnings, stronger construction (especially of marine vessels), and improved preparedness.<br /> <br /> ==Background==<br /> <br /> During autumn, cold, dry air moving south from northern Canada converges with warm, moist air moving north from the [[Gulf of Mexico]], forming large storm systems in the middle of the North American continent. Several of these systems move along preferred paths toward the Great Lakes. When the cold air from these storms moves over the lakes, it is warmed by the waters below. This added heat postpones the Arctic spread in the region, allowing the lakes to remain relatively warm for much longer than otherwise.&lt;ref name=&quot;weatherdoctor&quot;&gt;Heidorn, Keith C. (2001). [http://72.14.253.104/search?q=cache:-NwDUs6b1IAJ:www.suite101.com/article.cfm/science_sky/84988+%22The+Great+Lakes:+Storm+Breeding+Ground &quot;The Great Lakes: Storm Breeding Ground&quot;]. ''Science of the Sky''. Published online 16 Nov 2001, Suite101. Retrieved 5 February 2005.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;weatherwise&quot;&gt;Bentley, Mace and Steve Horstmeyer. &quot;[http://www.johnsdesign.net/1999/novwitch.html The witch of November]&quot;. ''Weatherwise Magazine''. Nov/Dec 1998.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November, two storm tracks converge over the Great Lakes. One travels southeastward from the province of [[Alberta]]; the other brings storms from the [[leeward|lee]] of the central [[Rocky Mountains]] northeast toward the Great Lakes. This convergence is commonly referred to as a &quot;November gale&quot; or &quot;[[Witch of November|November witch]]&quot;. When a [[cyclone|cyclonic]] system moves over the lakes, its power is intensified by the [[jet stream]] above and the warm waters below. This allows the storm to maintain hurricane-force winds up to 100&amp;nbsp;mph (160&amp;nbsp;km/h), produce waves over 50&amp;nbsp;feet (15&amp;nbsp;m) high, and dump several feet of snow or inches of rain. Fuelled by the warm lake water, these powerful storms may remain over the Great Lakes for days. Intense winds then ravage the lakes and surrounding shores, severely eroding the shoreline, and flooding the coasts.&lt;ref name=&quot;weatherdoctor&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;weatherwise&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> November gales have been a bane of the Great Lakes, with at least 25 killer storms striking the region since 1847. ''See,'' [[Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes]]. During the [[Big Blow of 1905]], twenty-seven wooden vessels were lost. During a November gale of 1975, the giant [[ore]] bulk carrier [[SS Edmund Fitzgerald|SS ''Edmund Fitzgerald'']] sank suddenly, without a [[distress signal]].&lt;ref name=&quot;weatherwise&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Brown, 2002, p 246.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Prelude to the storm==<br /> [[Image:DetroitNews-11-13-1913.png|thumb|''[[The Detroit News]]'', November 13, 1913, page 1]]<br /> {{Further|US weather maps for [[:Image:US weather map, 5 Nov 1913.png|November 5]] and [[:Image:US weather map, 6 Nov 1913.png|November 6]] (images)}}<br /> <br /> The storm was first noticed on Thursday, November 6, on the western side of [[Lake Superior]], moving rapidly toward northern [[Lake Michigan]]. The [[Weather forecasting|weather forecast]] in ''[[The Detroit News]]'' called for &quot;moderate to brisk&quot; winds for the Great Lakes, with occasional rains Thursday night or Friday for the upper lakes (except on southern [[Lake Huron]]), and fair to unsettled conditions for the lower lakes.&lt;ref&gt;Weather forecast, ''The Detroit News'', Detroit, Michigan, 5 Nov 1913.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Around midnight, the [[steamboat|steamer]] ''Cornell'', while 50&amp;nbsp;miles (80&amp;nbsp;km) west of [[Whitefish Point]] in Lake Superior, ran into a sudden northerly gale and was badly damaged. This gale lasted until late Monday, November 10, almost forcing ''Cornell'' ashore.<br /> <br /> ==Storm==<br /> ===November 7===<br /> [[Image:Storm-Warning-NW-Winds-Flags.png|thumb|Storm warning with northwesterly winds]]<br /> {{Further|[[:Image:US weather map, 7 Nov 1913.png|US weather map for November 7]] (image)}}<br /> <br /> On Friday, the weather forecast in the ''Port Huron Times-Herald'' of [[Port Huron, Michigan]], described the storm as &quot;moderately severe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Front page, ''Port Huron Times-Herald'', Port Huron, Michigan. 7 November 1913.&lt;/ref&gt; By then, the storm was centered over the upper [[Mississippi River|Mississippi Valley]] and had caused moderate to brisk southerly winds with warmer weather over the lakes. The forecast predicted increased winds and falling temperatures over the next 24&amp;nbsp;hours.<br /> <br /> At 10:00&amp;nbsp;a.m., [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] stations and [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) Weather Bureau offices at Lake Superior ports raised white [[maritime flags|pennant]]s above square red flags with black centers, indicating a storm warning with northwesterly winds. By late afternoon, the storm signal flags were replaced with a vertical sequence of red, white, and red lanterns, indicating that a hurricane with winds over 74&amp;nbsp;mph (119&amp;nbsp;km/h) was coming. The winds on Lake Superior had already reached 50&amp;nbsp;mph (80&amp;nbsp;km/h), and an accompanying blizzard was moving toward Lake Huron.&lt;ref&gt;See Brown, 2002, pp 28–44, for wind speeds and other figures for November 7.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===November 8===<br /> {{Further|[[:Image:US weather map, 8 Nov 1913.png|US weather map for November 8]] (image)}}<br /> By Saturday, the storm's status had been upgraded to &quot;[[Severe weather|severe]]&quot;. The storm was centered over eastern Lake Superior, covering the entire lake [[drainage basin|basin]]. The weather forecast of the ''Port Huron Times-Herald'' stated that southerly winds had remained &quot;moderate to brisk&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Front page, ''Port Huron Times-Herald'', Port Huron, Michigan, 8 November 1913.&lt;/ref&gt; Northwesterly winds had reached gale strength on northern Lake Michigan and western Lake Superior, with winds of up to 60&amp;nbsp;mph (97&amp;nbsp;km/h) at [[Duluth, Minnesota]].<br /> &lt;!--not sure that this belongs...<br /> That morning, assistant engineer Milton Smith of the bulk carrier ''Charles S. Price'' looked at the weather forecast in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], and decided not to join the crew on their voyage. For the past few days, Smith had felt uneasy about this trip; he tried to talk his friend and neighbor, [[wheelsman]] Arz McIntosh, into leaving with him, but McIntosh claimed that he needed the money. Bert L. Reynolds of Cleveland was hired to replace Smith before the ''Price'' departed from [[Ashtabula, Ohio]].--&gt;<br /> <br /> A false lull in the storm (a &quot;[[sucker hole]]&quot;) allowed traffic to begin flowing again, both down the [[St. Marys River (Michigan-Ontario)|St. Marys River]] and up [[Lake Erie]], and the [[Detroit River|Detroit]] and [[St. Clair River|St. Clair]] rivers, into Lake Huron. Gale wind flags were raised at more than a hundred ports, but were ignored by many ship captains. [[Lake freighter|Long ships]] traveled all that day through the [[St. Marys River (Michigan-Ontario)|St. Marys River]], all night through the [[Straits of Mackinac]], and early Sunday morning up the Detroit and St. Clair rivers.&lt;ref&gt;See Brown, 2002, pp 44–67, for wind speeds and other figures for November 8.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:1913 Great Lakes storm wave.jpg|thumb|A wave breaking on the shore of [[Lake Michigan]] while a man watches from a bridge]]<br /> <br /> ===November 9===<br /> <br /> By noon on Sunday, weather conditions on lower Lake Huron were close to normal for a November gale. [[Barometric pressure]]s in some areas actually began to rise, bringing hope of an end to the storm. The [[low pressure area]] that had moved across Lake Superior was moving northeast, away from the lakes.<br /> <br /> The Weather Bureau had issued the first of its twice-daily reports at approximately 8:00&amp;nbsp;a.m.; it did not send another report to [[Washington, D.C.]] until 8:00&amp;nbsp;p.m. This proved to be a serious problem: the storm would have the better part of a day to build up hurricane forces before the Bureau headquarters in Washington, D.C., would have detailed information.&lt;ref&gt;Brown, 2002, p 12.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Along southeastern [[Lake Erie]], near the city of [[Erie, Pennsylvania]], a southern low-pressure area was moving toward the lake. This low had formed overnight, so was absent from Friday's weather map. It had been traveling northward and began moving northwestward after passing over Washington, D.C.<br /> <br /> The intense [[clockwise and counterclockwise|counterclockwise]] rotation of the low was made apparent by the changing wind directions around its center. In [[Buffalo, New York]], morning northwest winds had shifted to northeast by noon and were blowing southeast by 5:00&amp;nbsp;p.m., with the fastest gusts, 80&amp;nbsp;mph (130&amp;nbsp;km/h), occurring between 1:00&amp;nbsp;p.m. and 2:00&amp;nbsp;p.m. Just 180&amp;nbsp;miles (290&amp;nbsp;km) to the southwest, in Cleveland, winds remained northwest during the day, shifting to the west by 5:00&amp;nbsp;p.m., and maintaining speeds of more than 50&amp;nbsp;mph (80&amp;nbsp;km/h). The fastest gust in Cleveland, 79&amp;nbsp;mph (127&amp;nbsp;km/h), occurred at 4:40&amp;nbsp;p.m. There was a dramatic drop in [[barometric pressure]] at Buffalo, from 29.52&amp;nbsp;[[Pressure|inHg]] (999.7&amp;nbsp;[[hPa]]) at 8:00&amp;nbsp;a.m. to 28.77&amp;nbsp;inHg (974.3&amp;nbsp;hPa) at 8:00&amp;nbsp;p.m.<br /> <br /> The rotating low continued along its northward path into the evening, bringing its counterclockwise winds in phase with the northwesterly winds already hitting Lakes Superior and Huron. This resulted in an explosive increase in northerly wind speeds and swirling snow. Ships on Lake Huron that were south of [[Alpena, Michigan]]&amp;mdash;especially around [[Harbor Beach, Michigan|Harbor Beach]] and [[Port Huron, Michigan|Port Huron]] in [[Michigan]] and [[Goderich, Ontario|Goderich]] and [[Sarnia, Ontario|Sarnia]] in Ontario&amp;mdash;were battered with huge waves moving southward toward St. Clair River.<br /> <br /> From 8:00&amp;nbsp;p.m. to midnight, the storm became what modern [[meteorology|meteorologists]] call a &quot;[[weather bomb]]&quot;. Sustained hurricane-speed winds of more than 70&amp;nbsp;mph (110&amp;nbsp;km/h) ravaged the four western lakes. The worst damage was done on Lake Huron as numerous ships scrambled for shelter along its southern end. Gusts of 90&amp;nbsp;mph (140&amp;nbsp;km/h) were reported off Harbor Beach, Michigan. The lake's shape allowed northerly winds to increase unchecked, because of the lower surface friction of water compared to land, and the wind following the lake's long axis.&lt;ref&gt;See Brown, 2002, pp 68–127, for wind speeds and other figures for November 9.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In retrospect, weather forecasters of the time did not have enough data or understanding of atmospheric [[dynamics (mechanics)|dynamics]] to predict or comprehend the events of Sunday, November 9. [[Weather front|Frontal]] mechanisms, referred to then as &quot;[[squall]] lines&quot;, were not yet understood. Surface observations were collected only twice daily at stations around the country, and by the time these data were collected and hand-drawn maps created, the information lagged actual weather conditions by hours.&lt;ref&gt;Brown, 2002, pp 13, 19, 68.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===November 10 and 11===<br /> {{Further|[[:Image:US weather map, 10 Nov 1913.png|US weather map for November 10]] (image)}}<br /> [[Image:Cleveland streetcar after blizzard of 1913.jpg|thumb|right|Cleveland streetcar stranded in the snow]]<br /> <br /> On Monday morning, the storm had moved northeast of [[London, Ontario]], dragging [[lake effect snow|lake effect blizzard]]s in its wake. An additional 17&amp;nbsp;inches (43&amp;nbsp;cm) of snow were dumped on Cleveland, Ohio that day, filling the streets with snowdrifts 6&amp;nbsp;feet (2&amp;nbsp;m) high. Streetcar operators stayed with their stranded, powerless vehicles for two nights, eating whatever food was provided by local residents. Travelers were forced to take shelter and wait for things to clear.<br /> <br /> By Tuesday, the storm was rapidly moving across eastern Canada. Without the warm lake waters, it lost power quickly. This also meant less snowfall, both because of the fast motion of the storm and the lack of lake effect snow. All shipping was halted on Monday and part of Tuesday along the [[St. Lawrence River]] around [[Montreal, Quebec]].&lt;ref&gt;See Brown, 2002, pp 127–142, 163–180, for wind speeds and other figures for November 10 and November 11.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Aftermath==<br /> [[Image:Cleveland after blizzard of 1913.jpg|thumb|Cleveland after the blizzard]]<br /> <br /> Historically, storms of such magnitude and with such high wind velocities have not lasted more than four or five hours. The Great Lakes storm, however, raged for more than 16&amp;nbsp;hours, with an average speed of 60&amp;nbsp;mph (100&amp;nbsp;km/h), and frequent bursts of more than 70&amp;nbsp;mph (110&amp;nbsp;km/h). It crippled traffic on the lakes and throughout the Great Lakes basin region.<br /> <br /> ===Surrounding shoreline===<br /> [[Image:Cleveland blizzard 1913, poles down.png|thumb|East 105th Street, [[Cleveland, Ohio]], November 11.]]<br /> Along the shoreline, blizzards shut down traffic and communication, causing hundreds of thousands of dollars in damage. A 22-inch (56&amp;nbsp;cm) snowfall in Cleveland, Ohio, put stores out of business for two days. There were four-foot (122&amp;nbsp;cm) [[snowdrift]]s around Lake Huron. Power was out for several days across Michigan and Ontario, cutting off telephone and [[telegraphy|telegraph]] communications. A recently completed US$100,000 [[Chicago]] [[Breakwater (structure)|breakwater]], intended to protect the [[Lincoln Park, Chicago|Lincoln Park]] basin from storms, was swept away in a few hours.&lt;ref&gt;Brown, 2002, p 94.&lt;/ref&gt; The Milwaukee harbor lost its entire south breakwater and much of the surrounding South Park area that had been recently renovated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://books.google.com/books?id=GGOxIAzg-m0C&amp;pg=PA6&amp;lpg=PA6&amp;dq=Barcus+Milwaukee+harbor+lost+its+entire+south+breakwater&amp;source=web&amp;ots=bBl6n_hPn8&amp;sig=r6RBTz0U6m_V6yBy7CeaSKz1zk4&amp;hl=en] Barcus, 1986, p 6.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After the final blizzards hit Cleveland, the city was paralyzed under feet of ice and snow and was without power for days. Telephone poles had been broken, and power cables lay in tangled masses. The November 11 ''[[Cleveland Plain Dealer]]'' described the aftermath:<br /> <br /> :&quot;Cleveland lay in white and mighty solitude, mute and deaf to the outside world, a city of lonesome snowiness, storm-swept from end to end, when the violence of the two-day blizzard lessened late yesterday afternoon.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Reprinted in Brown, 2002, p 162.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> William H. Alexander, Cleveland's chief weather forecaster, observed:<br /> <br /> :&quot;Take it all in all&amp;mdash;the depth of the snowfall, the tremendous wind, the amount of damage done and the total unpreparedness of the people&amp;mdash;I think it is safe to say that the present storm is the worst experienced in Cleveland during the whole forty-three years the Weather Bureau has been established in the city.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Reprinted in Brown, 2002, p 163.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===On the lakes===<br /> [[Image:Charles S Price upside down, 1913.png|thumb|The 504-ft (154&amp;nbsp;m) ''Charles S. Price'', upside down on the southern end of Lake Huron.]]<br /> <br /> The greatest damage was done on the lakes. Major [[shipwreck]]s occurred on all but Lake Ontario, with most happening on southern and western Lake Huron. Lake masters recounted that waves reached at least 35&amp;nbsp;feet (11&amp;nbsp;m) in height. Being shorter in length than waves ordinarily formed by gales, they occurred in rapid succession, with three waves frequently striking in succession. Masters also stated that the wind often blew in directions opposite to the waves below. This was the result of the storm's cyclonic motion, a phenomenon rarely seen on the Great Lakes.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Charles S Price, upside down illustration.jpg|thumb|300px|Artist's rendition of ''Price'''s position before finally sinking to the bottom.]]<br /> <br /> In the late afternoon of November 10, an unknown vessel was spotted floating upside-down in about {{convert|60|ft|m}} of water on the eastern coast of Michigan, within sight of [[Huronia Beach]] and the mouth of the St. Clair River. Determining the identity of this &quot;mystery ship&quot; became of regional interest, resulting in daily front-page newspaper articles. The ship eventually sank, and it was not until early Saturday morning, November 15, that it was finally identified as the ''Charles S. Price''. The front page of that day's ''Port Huron Times-Herald'' extra edition read, &quot;BOAT IS PRICE&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; DIVER IS BAKER&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; SECRET KNOWN&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Front page, ''Port Huron Times-Herald'' EXTRA edition, Port Huron, Michigan, 15 November 1913.&lt;/ref&gt; Milton Smith, the assistant engineer who decided at the last moment not to join his crew on premonition of disaster, aided in identifying any bodies that were found.<br /> <br /> The final tally of financial loss included [[United States dollar|US$]]2,332,000 for vessels totally lost, $830,900 for vessels that became constructive total losses, $620,000 for vessels stranded but returned to service, and approximately $1,000,000 in lost cargoes. This figure did not include financial losses in coastal cities.&lt;ref&gt;Brown, 2002, p 245.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The storm had several long-term consequences. Complaints against the USDA Weather Bureau of alleged unpreparedness resulted in increased efforts to achieve more accurate [[weather forecasting]] and faster realization and communication of proper storm warnings. Criticism of the shipping companies and shipbuilders led to a series of conferences with insurers and mariners to seek safer designs for vessels. This resulted in the construction of ships with greater stability and more longitudinal strength. Immediately following the blizzard of Cleveland, Ohio, the city began a campaign to move all utility cables underground, in tubes beneath major streets. The project took half a decade.<br /> <br /> ==Ships foundered==<br /> {{main|Shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm}}<br /> [[Image:Great Lakes 1913 Storm Shipwrecks.png|thumb|Geographical diagram of ships wrecked during the storm]] <br /> [[Image:Wexford victims ashore, 1913.png|thumb|Bodies from ''Wexford'' washed ashore near [[Goderich, Ontario]].]]<br /> <br /> The following list includes ships that sank during the storm, killing their entire crews. It does not include the three victims from the freighter ''William Nottingham'', who volunteered to leave the ship on a [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]] in search of assistance. While the boat was being lowered into the water, a breaking wave smashed it into the side of the ship. The men disappeared into the near-freezing waters below. The following shipwreck casualties have been documented:&lt;ref&gt;Brown, 2002, p 223.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> *[[Lake Superior]]<br /> **''Leafield:'' 18 victims<br /> **''[[SS Henry B. Smith|Henry B. Smith]]:'' 25 victims<br /> *[[Lake Michigan]]<br /> **''Plymouth'' ([[barge]]): 7 victims<br /> *[[Lake Huron]]<br /> **''Argus:'' 28 victims<br /> **''[[SS James Carruthers|James Carruthers]]:'' 22 victims<br /> **''Hydrus:'' 25 victims<br /> **''John A. McGean:'' 28 victims<br /> **''Charles S. Price:'' 28 victims<br /> **''[[CSL Regina|Regina]]:'' 20 victims<br /> **''Isaac M. Scott:'' 28 victims<br /> **''[[SS Wexford|Wexford]]:'' 20 victims<br /> *[[Lake Erie]]<br /> **''[[Lightvessel|Lightship]] [[Lightship 82, Buffalo|LV 82, Buffalo]]:'' 6 victims&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.buffalohistoryworks.com/light/light-vessel.htm Vogel, Michael N. and Paul F. Redding, ''Maritime Buffalo'', Buffalo History, Lightship LV 82.]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Of the twelve ships that sank in the storm, four have never been found: ''Henry B. Smith'', ''Leafield'', ''James C. Carruthers'', and the ''Hydrus''. The most recent discovery was that of ''Wexford'' in the summer of 2000.<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[Forty Mile Point Light]]<br /> *[[Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes]]<br /> *[[Shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm]]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot; style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;&lt;references /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> *Barcus, Frank, ''Freshwater Fury: Yarns and Reminiscences of the Greatest Storm in Inland Navigation'', (1986: Wayne State University Press) 166 pages. ISBN 0-8143-1828-2.<br /> *Brown, David G. (2002). ''White Hurricane: A Great Lakes November Gale and America's Deadliest Maritime Disaster''. International Marine / McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-138037-X.<br /> *Hemming, Robert J. (1992). ''Ships Gone Missing: The Great Lakes Storm of 1913''. Chicago: Contemporary Books, Inc. 198 pages. ISBN 0-8092-3909-4.<br /> *Ratigan, William (1987). ''Great Lakes Shipwrecks and Survivals''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8028-7010-4.<br /> *Shipley, Robert and Fred Addis (1992). ''Wrecks and Disasters: Great Lakes Album Series''. St. Catharines, Ontario: Vanwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-920277-77-2.<br /> *Articles in ''The Port Huron Times-Herald''. Port Huron, Michigan. (Nov. 10–15, 1913). various authors and pages. Transcripts of relevant articles are [http://www.oocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Campus/2712/ available online].<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> {{commonscat}}<br /> {{wikiquote}}<br /> *[http://www.wmhs.org/html/storm.html A first-person account of the storm, from a 1914 article in the ''Marine Review''.]<br /> *[http://www.pointeauxbarqueslighthouse.org/preserve/shipwrecks/1913storm.cfm Article from the Pointe Aux Barques Lighthouse Society.]<br /> *[http://greatlakeshistory.homestead.com/home.html Great Lakes History and Shipwreck Directory.]<br /> *[http://www.ship-wrecks.net/ Great Lakes Shipwreck Research.]<br /> *[http://www.shipwreckwexford.ca/ The Wexford: Elusive Shipwreck of the 1913 Great Storm.]<br /> *[http://www.bgsu.edu/colleges/library/hcgl/hcgl.html Historical Collections of the Great Lakes, BGSU.]<br /> *[http://boards.rootsweb.com/topics.shipwrecks/175.1/mb.ashx List of victims of the 1913 Great Lakes storm @ rootsweb.com.]<br /> *[http://www.hhpl.on.ca/GreatLakes/documents/1913Storm/ Personal experiences of Captains of the Lake Fleet.]<br /> *[http://wrecksandreefs.com/index.htm Photos of various discovered shipwrecks.]<br /> *[http://talesofriverside.blogspot.com/2007/12/great-lakes-storms.html Tales of sea and riverside, Great Storm of 1913 (pictures of all the ships lost.)]<br /> *[http://www.detnews.com/history/storm/storm.htm ''The night 12 ships vanished on the Great Lakes''], article in the ''[[Detroit News]]''.<br /> *[http://www.crh.noaa.gov/dtx/?page=stories/blizzard1978 The Great Blizzard of 1978], details the cause of the November gale.<br /> *{{cite web |title= Isaac M. Scott|publisher= Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary and Underwater Preserve |url= http://thunderbay.noaa.gov/shipwrecks/scott.html|accessdate= February 10, 2005}}<br /> *[http://www.crh.noaa.gov/dtx/stm_1913.php Deedler, William R. (Weather Historian, WFO Pontiac/Detroit Mi) ''Hell Hath' No Fury Like a Great Lakes Fall Storm: The White Hurricane of 1913. NOAA's National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office.]<br /> {{Greatlakes}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Great Lakes]]<br /> [[Category:Blizzards in the United States]]<br /> [[Category:Natural disasters in Ontario]]<br /> [[Category:History of Cleveland, Ohio]]<br /> [[Category:Shipwrecks in the Great Lakes|1913]]<br /> [[Category:1913 natural disasters]]<br /> <br /> [[fr:Tempête de 1913 sur les Grands Lacs]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Birkat_ha-Chama&diff=137796291 Birkat ha-Chama 2009-12-01T16:56:22Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Occurrences of &#039;&#039;Birkat Hachama&#039;&#039; */Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oociti using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox Holiday <br /> |image = BirkatSunrise.jpg<br /> |caption = [[Sunrise]] in [[Bel Air, Los Angeles, California|Bel-Air, California]] on Wednesday, April 8, 2009, the date of ''Birkat Hachama''<br /> |holiday_name = Birkat Hachama<br /> |official_name = [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''ברכת החמה''' (''Birkat Hachammah'' or ''Birkas Hachoma'').<br /> |Translation: &quot;Blessing of the (because of the) Sun&quot;<br /> |observedby = [[Judaism]] and [[Jew]]s<br /> |begins = Wednesday April 8th, every 28 years, dawn<br /> |ends = 3rd hour of the day<br /> |observances = Recitation of blessing, along with various Sun-related biblical texts, while outdoors and in the presence of the Sun<br /> |date1981 = [[April 8]]<br /> |date2009 = [[April 8]]<br /> |date2037 = [[April 8]]<br /> |type = Judaism<br /> |significance = Traditionally, the coincidence of the Sun's return to its location during the [[Creation according to Genesis|Creation of the world]] at the time of the week at which it was created<br /> <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''''Birkat Hachama''''' (ברכת החמה, &quot;Blessing of the [[Sun]]&quot;) refers to a [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[berakhah|blessing]] that is recited in appreciation of the Sun once every 28 years, when the vernal equinox, as calculated by tradition, falls on a Tuesday at sundown. Jewish tradition says that when the Sun completes this cycle, it has returned to its position when the world was created.<br /> <br /> According to Judaism, the Sun has a 28 year [[solar cycle (calendar)|solar cycle]] known as ''machzor gadol'' (מחזור גדול, &quot;the great cycle&quot;). A [[solar year]] is estimated as 365.25 days and the &quot;Blessing of the Sun&quot;, being said at the beginning of this cycle, is therefore recited every 10,227 (28 times 365.25) days. The last time that it was recited was on April 8, 2009 (14 ''[[Nisan]]'' [[5769 (Hebrew year)|5769]] on the [[Hebrew calendar]]). This coincided with the day before the Jewish Holiday of [[Passover]] (Hebrew: פסח).<br /> <br /> The same blessing is recited upon experiencing various natural phenomena, including [[lightning]], [[comets]], and [[meteor showers]]; as well as upon witnessing wondrous natural topography, such as great [[mountain]]s, [[river]]s and vast [[wilderness]].&lt;ref&gt;[[Artscroll]] ''Yitzchak Yair Siddur'' page 98&lt;/ref&gt; When recited for these other experiences, the blessing is recited alone without additional verses or Psalms etc. The text of the blessing itself is as follows:<br /> <br /> :'''&quot;ברוך אתה ה' אלהינו מלך העולם עושה מעשה בראשית&quot;'''<br /> :&quot;''Blessed are You, LORD, our God, King of the Universe who makes the works of Creation.''&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Source of the practice==<br /> The primary source for the institution of ''Birkat Hachama'' is a ''[[Beraita]]'' mentioned in the ''[[Talmud]]'':&lt;ref&gt;''[[Bavli]]'' ''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berachot]]'' 59b&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> :&quot;תנו רבנן הרואה חמה בתקופתה...אומר ברוך עושה מעשה בראשית&quot;<br /> :&quot;Our rabbis taught: 'One who sees the sun at its turning point...recites the blessing of 'the maker of works of creation.''&quot;<br /> <br /> The middle of this clause in the ''beraita'' (elided here) speaks of other astronomical phenomena, the interpretation of which is ambiguous. The ''[[Gemara]]'' clarifies when the 'turning point' (תקופה) mentioned in the ''beraita'' occurs: <br /> <br /> :&quot;ואימת הוי אמר אביי כל כ״ח שנין&quot;<br /> :&quot;And when does this happen? [[Abaye]] answers: every 28 years...&quot;<br /> <br /> Next, the ''gemara'' explains the basis of the 28 years: <br /> <br /> :&quot;והדר מחזור ונפלה תקופת ניסן בשבתאי באורתא דתלת נגהי ארבע&quot;<br /> :&quot;...when the cycle renews and the 'season of [[Nisan]]' (i.e. [[vernal equinox]]) falls in [[Saturn]], on the evening of Tuesday going into Wednesday.&quot;<br /> <br /> This explanation provided by Abaye is based on a ruling of [[Samuel of Nehardea|Shmuel]] also mentioned in the ''Talmud'':&lt;ref&gt;''Bavli'' ''[[Moed|Eruvin]] 56a&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> :&quot;Shmuel stated: The vernal equinox occurs only at the beginning of one of the four quarters of the day, either at the beginning of the day or at the beginning of the night, or midday or midnight. The [[summer solstice]] only occurs at either at the end of 1.5 or at the end of 7.5 hours of the day or the night. The [[autumnal equinox]] only occurs at the end of 3 or 9 hours of the day or the night. The [[winter solstice]] only occurs at the end of 4.5 or 10.5 hours of the day or the night. The duration of a season of the year is no longer than 91 days and 7.5 hours.&quot;<br /> <br /> Shmuel's calculations, however, are imprecise because the earth does not travel around the sun with a constant speed.&lt;ref&gt;This was recognized and commented on by [[Isaac Israeli ben Joseph]], a disciple of the [[Rosh]] in his work ''Yesod Olam''. Spring is approximately 92.84 days long, summer is approximately 93.6 days long, autumn is approximately 89.8 days long and winter is approximately 89.02 days long.&lt;/ref&gt; His imprecision, according to [[Abraham ibn Ezra]], was a function of the desire of the time to avoid the necessity of manipulating fractions.&lt;ref&gt;''Sefer HaIbbur'', page 8&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rabbi [[J. David Bleich]]. ''Bircas Hachammah, Blessing of the Sun: Renewal of the Creation: a Halachic Analysis and Anthology''. Brooklyn, N.Y.: [[Artscroll|Mesorah Publications ltd]], 1981. ISBN 0-89906-176-1., page 50&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Codification in Jewish law==<br /> The [[Shulchan Aruch]] states that this blessing, generally said upon experiencing natural phenomena, should also be recited upon witnessing the ''chammah bi-tkufatah'' (חמה בתקופתה = sun at its turning point). This term, quoted from the above-mentioned [[Beraita]], is explained by the [[Chofetz Chaim]] as referring to the point in time at which the Sun returns to the start of its cycle, similar to when it was created.&lt;ref&gt;''[[Orach Chaim]]'' 229:2 + associated commentary of the ''[[Mishnah Brurah]]'', &quot;''bi-tkufatah''&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> As explained below, the blessing is recited on the morning after the Sun completes its cycle; ideally, it should be recited at sunrise,&lt;ref&gt;''Orach Chaim'' 229:2 + associated commentary of the ''Be'er Heitev'', &quot;''baboker''&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; referred to in Jewish law as ''haneitz hachammah''. It is preferred to recite the blessing with a multitude of people, in keeping with the principle of ''[[b'rov am hadrat melech]]''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mishnah Brurah, baboker&quot;&gt;''Mishnah Brurah'', &quot;''baboker''&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The ''[[Magen Avraham]]'' and the ''[[Levush]]'' insist that it be recited within the first three hours after sunrise.&lt;ref&gt;''[[Be'er Heitev]]''&lt;/ref&gt; The ''[[Mishnah Brurah]]'', however, states on behalf of numerous ''[[Achronim]]'' that it is permitted the blessing to be recited until ''halachic'' noon.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;''Baboker''&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to most opinions, the blessing may only be recited if the Sun can be seen.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mishnah Brurah, baboker&quot; /&gt; However, if the Sun is completely blocked by clouds, there is a minority view that allows the blessing to be recited nevertheless, because essentially the blessing is on the concurrence of the Sun's physical position with the timing of the day.&lt;ref&gt;''[[Chaim Mordechai Margaliot|Shaarei Teshuva]]'', &quot;''baboker''&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Overview==<br /> According to the [[Babylonian Talmud]],&lt;ref&gt;''Bavli'' ''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berachot]]'' [http://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A0%D7%98_%D7%91 59b])&lt;/ref&gt; the [[Sun]] makes a 28 year cycle to return to the position that it was in when the Universe was first [[Creation myth|created]] at the time (Tuesday evening) it was created. <br /> <br /> According to Jewish tradition, the Sun was created&lt;ref&gt;Genesis 1:14 + commentary of [[Rashi]]. Many Biblical commentators, including Rashi, insist that the luminaries were, in fact, created on the first day and only suspended in place on the fourth day.&lt;/ref&gt; on the fourth day (יום רביעי, ''yom rivi'i'') of the week of Creation. Because [[halacha|Jewish law]] considers the time unit of a day to span from evening to evening,&lt;ref&gt;''[[Bavli]]'' ''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berachot]]'' [http://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91_%D7%90 2a]&lt;/ref&gt; the beginning of the ''halachic'' fourth day, so to speak, is on Tuesday evening at sundown. The 28 year cycle therefore begins and ends at the point in time when the Sun was created, this being sundown on Tuesday.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/820926/jewish/Calculating-the-Date.htm |title=Calculating the Date of Birkat Hachamah |accessdate=2009-02-17 |publisher=[[Chabad.org]] |date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Sun only returns to this exact position at sundown on a Tuesday once every 28 years.<br /> <br /> Despite the rigorous calculations that follow, there is no synchronization of this prayer and the actual astronomical point in time when the sun crosses the celestial equator; the symbolism is no different than a situation in which the ''[[molad]]'' for ''[[Tishrei]]'' would fall out by day on a Sunday and ''[[Rosh Hashanah]]'' falls out on Monday.<br /> <br /> ==The vernal equinox==<br /> As explained in the [[Talmud]], there is a tradition that the Sun was created in its [[vernal equinox]] position at the beginning of the springtime Jewish [[lunar month]] of ''Nissan''.&lt;ref&gt;''Bavli'' ''[[Rosh Hashanah (Talmud)|Rosh Hashanah]]'' [http://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%99_%D7%91 10b]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Chazal|The sages of the Talmud]] settled disputes over the ''[[halacha|halachic]]'' definition of the vernal equinox by establishing it on March 25 of the [[Julian calendar]]. Because both the Julian calendar and Jewish tradition define a solar year as exactly 365.25 days, the ''halachic'' vernal equinox historically fell out on March 25th every year. This halachic equinox now falls about 17 days after the true equinox, with the error increasing by about 3/4 of a day per century.<br /> <br /> In summary, ''Birkat Hachama'' is recited when the halachic vernal equinox (the position at which the Sun was created) occurs at sundown on a Tuesday (the time at which the sun was created).<br /> <br /> ==The solar calendar==<br /> &lt;!-- table required editing, which I hope to do this week [[File:Birchat haChammah.jpg|thumb|right|This table gives the weekly calendar day corresponding to the vernal equinox in each year listed; note how the majority appear a day later than the previous year, accounting for the extra day. The right-most column accounts for the extra 6 hours, which only affects the day of the week every fourth year.]] --&gt;<br /> This method of marking the cycle of ''machzor gadol'' (that is, using the 25th of March) was invalidated in 1582 when the [[Julian calendar]] was replaced by the [[Gregorian calendar]] by decree of [[Pope Gregory XIII]]. The calendar was adjusted to allow for [[Easter]] to be celebrated in the appropriate time according to an agreement reached at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 CE. To recalibrate the calendar, two adjustments were made:<br /> # Ten days were removed in order to compensate for the incorporation of excess days since the establishment of the Julian calendar.<br /> # A method to avoid further incorporation of excess days was put into place, whereby February 29th would be skipped according to a particular [[algorithm]].<br /> <br /> The last day of the Julian calendar was Thursday, 4 October 1582 and this was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October. Thus, while the halachic vernal equinox occurred on March 25 until 1582, in 1583 it occurred on April 4 of the new Gregorian Calendar. However, the Jewish calendar was in no need of such a modification, and remained uninfluenced by it. As a result, the ''halachic'' vernal equinox has been shifting slightly forward in the Gregorian year ever since 1582.<br /> <br /> * In 1609, the halachic vernal equinox was on April 4<br /> * In 1709, the halachic vernal equinox was on April 5<br /> * In 1809, the halachic vernal equinox was on April 6<br /> * In 1909, the halachic vernal equinox was on April 7<br /> * In 2009, the halachic vernal equinox falls on April 7 &lt;!-- not an error, the 7th, not the 8th --&gt;<br /> <br /> The ''halachic'' equinox usually jumps a day every century because the algorithm that established the Gregorian calendar dictates that leap years do not occur in years divisible by 100, unless also divisible by 400. Jewish law, however, provides no means for changing the established calendar until such a time as the [[Sanhedrin]] might be reconvened, and compensates for it by moving the date of the equinox almost every century. There was no shift between 1909 and 2009, however, because of the exception regarding years divisible by 400; thus, the year 2000 did contain a February 29th and no compensation was necessary. The table at right depicts all the vernal equinoxes from 1981 to 2009, two years in which ''Birkat Hachama'' occurs; note that the equinox does not occur at sunset (time=0) on the fourth day (Tuesday) any other years in the entire 28 year cycle.<br /> <br /> The ''halachic'' year of 365.25 days is equivalent to 52 weeks, 1 day and 6 hours. This means that any given date will, three times out of four, appear a day later in the calendar week in a subsequent year. For example:<br /> * July 3, 1932 was on Sunday<br /> * July 3, 1933 was on Monday<br /> * July 3, 1934 was on Tuesday<br /> * July 3, 1935 was on Wednesday<br /> July 3, 1936, however, was on a Friday and not a Thursday because the 6 hours that accrued over each of the four years effectively adds another calendar day (i.e. 6 hours x 4 years = 24 hours = 1 day).<br /> <br /> ''Halacha'' maintains that the Sun was created in the position of the vernal equinox immediately after sundown on the fourth day of the week of Creation, which is equivalent to sunset on Tuesday of that week. If that is considered time zero (t=0), and subsequent years' vernal equinoxes occur 1 day and 6 hours later, it would appear as follows:<br /> * Year 1: Day 4 at sunset (Tuesday)<br /> * Year 2: Day 5 at midnight (Thursday)<br /> * Year 3: Day 6 at sunrise (Friday)<br /> * Year 4: Day 7 at noon (Saturday)<br /> * Year 5: Day 2 at sunset (Sunday)<br /> * Year 6: Day 3 at midnight (Tuesday)<br /> Every four years sees a jump of an additional day because the four six-hour periods sum to a full day. This is somewhat similar to a solar leap year occurring every 4 years to account for the four quarter days that accrued at a rate of a quarter day per year.<br /> <br /> Although the proper time for the blessing would be at sundown on Tuesday April 7th, the Sun is no longer visible at sundown; the blessing is therefore delayed until the following morning.<br /> <br /> The 28 year cycle is based on a solar year of 365.25 days, which is only nearly precise. The Hebrew calendar itself uses a solar year of 365.2468 days, but utilizes the less precise approximation of 365.25 for Birkat Hachama so that the blessing might occur with some frequency.<br /> <br /> See also [[Hebrew calendar#Accuracy|Hebrew calendar: Accuracy]].<br /> <br /> ==How the date is calculated==<br /> &lt;!-- Rabbi N. Danzig --&gt;<br /> This table represents a week with all the 24 hours marked and labeled by the &quot;planet&quot;, actually a celestial light in direct translation, which corresponds to them according to the ancient [[geocentric model]] of &quot;planet&quot; order. It is based on [[Rashi]]'s commentary to ''Eruvin'' 56a. We create this table by noting that in the Bible the stars were created on Wednesday at twilight so we place Saturn (the first &quot;star&quot;) at hour 1 (or 6:00 p.m.). Then we follow with all the 6 other &quot;planets&quot; ([[Jupiter]], [[Mars]], Sun, [[Venus]], [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], and Moon) and repeat the order until all the hours of the week have a &quot;star&quot; assigned to them. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! -<br /> ! 1<br /> ! 2<br /> ! 3<br /> ! 4<br /> ! 5<br /> ! 6<br /> ! 7<br /> ! 8<br /> ! 9<br /> ! 10<br /> ! 11<br /> ! 12<br /> ! 13<br /> ! 14<br /> ! 15<br /> ! 16<br /> ! 17<br /> ! 18<br /> ! 19<br /> ! 20<br /> ! 21<br /> ! 22<br /> ! 23<br /> ! 24<br /> |-<br /> | Sunday<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat <br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun <br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc <br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> |-<br /> | Monday<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> |-<br /> | Tuesday<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat <br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun <br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc <br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> |-<br /> | Wednesday<br /> | Sat <br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun <br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc <br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> |-<br /> | Thursday<br /> | Sun <br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc <br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> |-<br /> | Friday<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat <br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun <br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc <br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> |-<br /> | Saturday<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun <br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc <br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> | Merc<br /> | Moon<br /> | Sat<br /> | Jup<br /> | Mar<br /> | Sun<br /> | Ven<br /> |}<br /> <br /> We assume the world was created in the Hebrew month of ''Nissan'', not ''Tishrei''. So hour 1 (sunset) on Wednesday on this chart represents the beginning of ''Tekufat Nissan'' (Spring) in the first year of creation, the Hebrew year 1. For the purpose of ''Birkat Hachama'', the calculation of [[Samuel of Nehardea]] for the length of a [[tropical year]] is used &lt;ref&gt;''[[Bavli]]'' ''Eruvin'' 56a, derived by multiplying Samuel's season by four&lt;/ref&gt; not the more accurate calculation of ''[[Adda bar Ahavah]]''. Therefore a year is assumed to be 52 weeks and 1 day and 6 hours (365.25 days). This means that a year after creation ''Tekufat Nissan'' will occur 1 day and 6 hours later on this chart, or on Thursday at the 6th hour, Jupiter. Each year this will shift another day and 6 hours. It will take 28 years for ''Tekufat Nissan'' to return to being on Wednesday at twilight. It is worth noting that the true spring [[equinox]] occurs on March 21 yet ''Birkat Hachama'' is said 18 days later. This inaccuracy accrued over thousands of years as a result of using the inexact calculation of Samuel for the length of the year.<br /> <br /> ==Order of the service==<br /> [[Image:Birkat hachama.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Birkat Hachama'' in 2009 [[Ma'ale Adumim]], [[Israel]]]]The service generally includes:<br /> *Psalms 148:1-6<br /> *The blessing: &quot;''Baruch Atah A-donai E-loheinu Melech Ha`olam Oseh Ma`aseh Breishit''.&quot;<br /> * Those who say the ''[[Shehecheyanu]]'' blessing, do so here.<br /> *Psalm 19<br /> *Psalm 121<br /> *Psalm 150 <br /> *A passage from the ''Talmud'' regarding the obligation of ''Birkat Hachama''.<br /> *Psalm 67<br /> *''Aleinu''<br /> *The mourner's ''Kaddish''.<br /> <br /> The ''Shehecheyanu'' blessing is not recited, because ''Birkat Hachama'' because it is not a requirement; blessings that are recited in this sort of opportunistic fashion, such as the annual blessing on fruit trees, thus have receive no ''Shehecheyanu''. Those who do recite it, should take care to wear a new garment or have a new fruit close by, to remove all doubt.<br /> <br /> ==Occurrences of ''Birkat Hachama''==<br /> [[Image:Western Wall Birkat Hachama 8 April 2009-2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Birkat Hachama'' 8 April 2009, 6:25,&lt;br /&gt; [[Western Wall]], [[Jerusalem]]]]<br /> [[File:BirkatEncino.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Birkat Hachama'' 2009&lt;br /&gt; [[Encino, CA]]]]<br /> Occurrences in the last 120 years:<br /> * [[Wednesday]], [[7 April]] [[1897]] (5 Nisan 5657)<br /> * Wednesday, [[8 April]] [[1925]] (14 ''Nisan'' 5685 - ''Erev Pesach''/Passover Eve)<br /> * Wednesday, 8 April [[1953]] (23 ''Nisan'' 5713)<br /> * Wednesday, 8 April [[1981]] (4 ''Nisan'' 5741)<br /> * Wednesday, 8 April [[2009]] (14 ''Nisan'' 5769 - ''Erev Pesach''/Passover Eve)<br /> ''Birkat Hachama'' will occur next on<br /> * Wednesday, 8 April [[2037]] (23 ''Nisan'' 5797)<br /> * Wednesday, 8 April [[2065]] (2 ''Nisan'' 5825)<br /> * Wednesday, 8 April [[2093]] (12 ''Nisan'' 5853)<br /> * Wednesday, [[9 April]] [[2121]] (21 ''Nisan'' 5881 - ''Shvi'i Shel Pesach''/Seventh Day of Passover)<br /> <br /> Note: Because the dates for ''Birkat Hachama'' assume a 365.25-day solar year and the [[Julian calendar]] also assumes a 365.25-day solar year, ''Birkat Hachama'' will always fall on [[March 26]] in the Julian calendar. While ''Birkat Hachama'' usually occurs in the Jewish lunar month of ''Nissan'', this is not always the case; it will occur on 29 ''Adar'' II (April 10th) in the year 2233&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oocities.com/Athens/1584/zqarc161.html |title=Question 161 - When next will Birkat HaHamah not be recited in the Hebrew month of Nisan? |accessdate=2009-02-17 |publisher=[http://www.oocities.com/Athens/1584/ Hebrew Calendar Science and Myths] |date= |author=Remy Landau}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> ==Lerman's thesis==<br /> <br /> Moshe Lerman suggested&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/Articles/Article.aspx/5096 |title=Why Do We Live in the Year 5765? |accessdate=2009-02-17 |publisher=[[Arutz Sheva]] |date=2005-05-08 |author=Moshe Lerman}}&lt;/ref&gt; a background to ''Birkat Hachama'' by pointing out a possible connection between the traditional Hebrew dating and the two ''machzorim'' (&quot;cycles&quot;) that are observed in Jewish tradition&amp;mdash;the &quot;small&quot; 19-year cycle which is the basis of the Jewish calendar, and the &quot;big&quot; 28-year cycle which determines the year in which ''Birkat Hachama'' is recited. Mathematically, if one knows the position of a certain year in both cycles, one can compute the number associated to the year [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 532 (19 times 28), given that the starting point of both cycles is year 1.<br /> <br /> Because the astronomical year is slightly shorter than 365.25 days, the date of ''Birkat Hachama'' shifts away from the spring equinox as history proceeds. A simple astronomical calculation shows that 84 cycles of 28 years before 5769, in the Jewish year 3417, the spring equinox was in the beginning of the night before the fourth day of the week as stipulated by the [[Talmud]]. Lerman takes this as a hint that the astronomically astute Jewish sages of the time concluded that the Jewish year 3417 was a first year in the cycle of 28 years. Moreover, Lerman suggests that these same Jewish sages would have reasoned that year 3421 was a first year in the 19-year cycle, in accordance with an ancient tradition that the world was created in the first week of the month of ''Nissan'', and thus the sun was created on the fourth day of ''Nissan''. Since every 19 years the solar and lunar calendars align, and the Spring equinox of 3421 occurred early in the night leading to the fourth day of the Jewish month of ''Nissan'', it follows that 3421 was the first year of a 19-year cycle.<br /> <br /> Lerman surmises that the Jewish sages at the time could argue for a determination of the position of their years in both cycles and could therefore compute the absolute year-count modulo 532 years. They were left with a number of options, 532 years apart from each other, and Lerman suggests that they chose the dating closest to what seemed to be the truth according to a literal interpretation of biblical accounts. The sages legally defined future equinox times by instituting the 28-year cycle, to protect the Hebrew dating against future change, and to leave a remembrance to what they had done.<br /> <br /> ==Bibliography==<br /> * J. David Bleich (Rabbi). ''Birchas Hachammah. Blessing Of The Sun - Renewal Of Creation''. A Halachic Analysis And Anthology With A New Translation And Commentary. Overviews by Rabbi Nosson Scherman. Mesorah Publications: Brooklyn, N.Y., January 2009. ISBN 0-89906-175-3, ISBN 978-0-89906-175-7.<br /> * Avrohom Blumenkrantz (Rabbi). ''Yiro'ucho Im Shomesh (May they fear you with the Sun)''. A Halachic Exposition on the Solar Cycle And the Order of the Blessing of the Sun. Also, 11 short steps to construct a Jewish Calendar. Bais Medrash Ateres Yisroel, 827 Cornaga Avenue, Far Rockaway, N.Y., 2009.<br /> * Yehudah Marks. ''Blessing Of The Sun''. Hamodia Magazine, February 11, 2009, p.&amp;nbsp;10-14.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{Wikinewspar|Jews around the world recite special sun blessing}}<br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Category:Jewish blessings]]<br /> [[Category:Jewish history]]<br /> [[Category:Hebrew calendar]]<br /> [[Category:Hebrew words and phrases]]<br /> <br /> [[ar:بيركات حاخاماه]]<br /> [[cs:Požehnání slunce]]<br /> [[fr:Birkat Hahamma]]<br /> [[he:ברכת החמה]]<br /> [[nn:Birkàt haḥammá]]<br /> [[pl:Birkat Hachama]]<br /> [[ru:Благословение солнца]]<br /> [[yi:ברכת החמה]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mount_Carmel_(Pennsylvania)&diff=159240463 Mount Carmel (Pennsylvania) 2009-12-01T15:27:16Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googlemail DO using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Geobox<br /> | Settlement<br /> &lt;!-- *** Name section *** --&gt;<br /> | name = Borough of Mount Carmel<br /> | native_name =<br /> | other_name =<br /> | other_name1 =<br /> | category = [[List of towns and boroughs in Pennsylvania#Boroughs|Borough]]<br /> &lt;!-- *** Image *** --&gt;<br /> | image =<br /> | image_size =<br /> | image_caption =<br /> &lt;!-- *** Symbols *** --&gt;<br /> | flag =<br /> | flag_size =<br /> | symbol_type = Seal<br /> | symbol = MtCarmelBoroughLogo.png<br /> | symbol_size =<br /> &lt;!-- *** Nickname &amp; motto *** --&gt;<br /> | nickname =<br /> | motto =<br /> &lt;!-- *** Country etc. *** --&gt;<br /> | country = United States<br /> | state = Pennsylvania<br /> | region = [[Northumberland County, Pennsylvania|Northumberland]]<br /> | region_type = County<br /> | district =<br /> &lt;!-- *** Geography *** --&gt;<br /> | area_imperial = 0.7<br /> | area_land_imperial = 0.7<br /> | area_water_imperial = 0.0<br /> | area_water_percentage = auto<br /> | area_percentage_round = 2<br /> | area_round = 1<br /> | location =<br /> | lat_d = 40<br /> | lat_m = 47<br /> | lat_s = 47<br /> | lat_NS = N<br /> | long_d = 76<br /> | long_m = 24<br /> | long_s = 44<br /> | long_EW = W<br /> | elevation_imperial = 1309<br /> | elevation_round = 1<br /> &lt;!-- *** Population *** --&gt;<br /> | population_as_of = 2000<br /> | population = 6390<br /> | population_density_imperial = 9655.6<br /> | population_density_round = 1<br /> &lt;!-- *** Government *** --&gt;<br /> | established_type = Settled<br /> | established = 1770<br /> | established1_type = Incorporated, Township<br /> | established1 = November 14, 1854<br /> | established2_type = Incorporated, Borough<br /> | established2 = November 3, 1862<br /> | mayor = J. Kevin Jones<br /> &lt;!-- *** Various codes *** --&gt;<br /> | timezone = [[North American Eastern Time Zone|EST]]<br /> | utc_offset = -5<br /> | timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]<br /> | utc_offset_DST = -4<br /> | postal_code = 17851<br /> | postal_code_type = ZIP code<br /> | area_code = [[Area code 570|570]]<br /> | area_code_type =<br /> | code2_type =<br /> | code2 =<br /> &lt;!-- *** Free fields *** --&gt;<br /> | free_type =<br /> | free =<br /> | free1_type =<br /> | free1 =<br /> &lt;!-- *** Map section *** --&gt;<br /> | map = Pennsylvania Locator Map.PNG<br /> | map_size =<br /> | map_caption = Location of Mount Carmel in Pennsylvania<br /> | map_locator = Pennsylvania<br /> | map1 = Map of USA PA.svg<br /> | map1_caption = Location of Pennsylvania in the United States<br /> &lt;!-- *** Website *** --&gt;<br /> | website =<br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Mount Carmel''' is the name of a [[borough]] in [[Northumberland County, Pennsylvania|Northumberland County]], [[Pennsylvania]], United States. The population was 6390 at the 2000 census. It is located 88 miles (141&amp;nbsp;km) northwest of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] and 71 miles (114&amp;nbsp;km) northeast of [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg]], in the [[Anthracite coal|Anthracite]] [[Coal Region]]. It is contained within [[Mount Carmel Township, Pennsylvania|Mount Carmel Township]].<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> The Mount Carmel Inn was opened in 1812 by Richard Yarnall and was strategically located on the [[Centre Turnpike]] (also known as the Reading-Sunbury Road or Old Reading Road) halfway between [[Pottsville, Pennsylvania|Pottsville]] and [[Danville, Pennsylvania|Danville]]. During the latter part of 1854 the [[Philadelphia and Sunbury Railroad]] was completed from [[Shamokin, Pennsylvania|Shamokin]] to Mt. Carmel, which led to the opening and development of a number of collieries in the region. During the same year, the [[Locust Mountain Coal and Iron Company]] commenced making extensive openings and improvements upon their valuable coal lands in the vicinity of Mt. Carmel, building breakers for two collieries - the Coal Ridge and Locust Mountain collieries.&lt;ref name=Senate&gt;{{cite book |last=Bell |first=Herbert |authorlink= |others=Brown, Runk, &amp; Co., Publishers |title=History of Northumberland County, Pennsylvania |origyear=1891 |url=ftp://ftp.rootsweb.com/pub/usgenweb/pa/northumberland/areahistory/bell0013.txt |format=TXT |accessdate=2008-01-03 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The township was erected in 1854, formed from part of [[Coal Township, Pennsylvania|Coal Township]]; by 1862 the borough was incorporated within the township.<br /> <br /> In the past, there were extensive [[anthracite coal]] mining interests here and in the vicinity. In earlier years, the borough had manufactories of miners' caps, cement blocks, cigars, shirts, stockings, etc., and large silk and planing mills, foundry and machine shops, a knitting mill, lumber yards, a packing plant, and wagon works. Currently that area supports light manufacturing in paper and plastics.<br /> <br /> === Timeline ===<br /> * 1681 March 4 - [[Charles II of England]] grants a land charter to [[William Penn]] to repay a debt of £20,000 owed to his father, creating the [[Province of Pennsylvania]]<br /> * 1682 August 24 - Penn divided the Province into three counties, Philadelphia, Bucks and Chester; The last comprised all lands west and south of the Delaware and the Schuylkill; therefore the site of Mount Carmel was originally in an area claimed by [[Chester County, Pennsylvania|Chester County]]<br /> * 1729 May 10 - [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania|Lancaster County]] created out of part of Chester County<br /> * 1749 August 22 - Land comprising Mount Carmel part of a tract purchased from the [[Iroquois|Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederation]]<br /> * 1752 March 11 - [[Berks County, Pennsylvania|Berks County]] created out of part of Lancaster County<br /> * before 1770 - Area inhabited by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] (possibly [[Lenape]], [[Iroquois]], and/or [[Saponi]])<br /> * 1770 - Europeans first settled in the area<br /> * 1772 March 21 - Northumberland County formed, area that would become Mt. Carmel located in what was then [[Augusta Township, Northumberland County, Pennsylvania|Augusta Township]]<br /> * 1783 September 3 - [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] signed, formally recognizing Pennsylvania's independence from the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]<br /> * 1785 - [[Catawissa Township, Columbia County, Pennsylvania|Catawissa Township]] formed from part of Augusta township<br /> * 1788 - [[Ralpho Township, Pennsylvania|Ralpho Township]] formed from part of Catawissa township<br /> * 1789 - Ralpho township renamed to [[Shamokin Township, Pennsylvania|Shamokin township]]<br /> * 1790 - Anthracite coal discovered by [[Necho Allen]] on nearby Broad Mountain<br /> * 1805 March 25 - [[Centre Turnpike]] Company incorporated<br /> * 1808 - Centre Turnpike opens<br /> * ~1811 - Centre Turnpike completed<br /> * 1812 - Mt. Carmel Inn opens, located on the Centre Turnpike in (then) Shamokin township<br /> * ~1830s - [[anthracite coal|coal]] mining begins<br /> * 1837 - [[Coal Township, Pennsylvania|Coal Township]] formed from parts of [[Little Mahanoy Township, Pennsylvania|Little Mahanoy]] and Shamokin townships<br /> * 1846 - first [[Post Office]] opens<br /> * 1847 - land now comprising Mount Carmel Borough purchased by speculators<br /> * 1853 - town plot finalized<br /> * 1854 November 14 - [[Mount Carmel Township, Pennsylvania|Mount Carmel Township]] incorporated, from part of Coal Township<br /> * 1855 - Evangelical Grace Church, the town's first church, opens at Third &amp; Market Streets<br /> * 1855 - Centre Turnpike decommissioned<br /> * 1862 November 3 - Mount Carmel Borough incorporated<br /> * 1877 December - ''Mt. Carmel Progress'', the pioneer newspaper, was established<br /> * 1883 November 17 - [[Edison Illuminating Company|Edison Electric Illuminating Company]] of Mount Carmel founded<br /> * 1894 November - Shamokin-Mount Carmel Electric Railway ([[tram|trolley]] line) connecting [[Shamokin, Pennsylvania|Shamokin]] with Mount Carmel completed<br /> * 1897 - Anthracite Brewing Company, later Mt. Carmel Brewery, founded<br /> * 1948 June 17 - [[United Airlines Flight 624]] crashes near Midvalley Colliery No. 2; killing all 4 crew members and 39 passengers on board<br /> * 1951 - Mt. Carmel Brewery closes<br /> <br /> ==Geography==<br /> [[Image:MountCarmelPAsatellitephotoUSGS.gif|right]]<br /> Mount Carmel is located at {{Coord|40|47|47|N|76|24|44|W|city}} (40.796447, -76.412231){{GR|1}} in the [[Ridge-and-valley Appalachians|ridge-and-valley]] zone of the central [[Appalachian Mountains]]. It is drained by the [[Shamokin Creek]] and is part of the Lower [[Susquehanna River|Susquehanna]] watershed [http://cfpub.epa.gov/surf/huc.cfm?huc_code=02050301].<br /> <br /> According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the borough has a total area of 0.7&amp;nbsp;square miles (1.7&amp;nbsp;km²), all of it land.<br /> <br /> == Sports ==<br /> {{Unreferenced section|date=December 2008}}<br /> * The high school goes by the nickname, &quot;The Red Tornadoes.&quot;<br /> * Mount Carmel is heralded as one of the most well-known football towns in the region.<br /> * The borough's high school football program is the winningest in the state.<br /> * The long standing rivalry between Mt. Carmel and [[Shamokin]] Area is one of the most well-known rivalries in the United States. In the annual [[Coal Bucket Football Game]] the two areas collide usually leading to friendly [[vandalism]] between the two schools throughout the week of the game.<br /> * Mount Carmel's football team has captured the PIAA Class AA title 5 times since the state initiated the playoff system in 1988. They won in 1994, 1996, 1998, 2000, and 2002.<br /> * The team also won the state championships in 1927 before the playoff system was initiated.<br /> * The borough is home to former [[Major League Baseball]] player, [[Frank Bolick]], former [[New York Jets]] football player [[Dan Ficca]], current [[Philadelphia Eagles]] assistant coach to Andy Reid, Bret Veach , former [[San Francisco 49ers]] player [[Len Eshmont]], and former New York State Billiards Champion Dave Daya.<br /> * Tom Vernon (Vershinski) Jr. former [[NFL]] Boston Patriot (now the [[New England Patriots]])<br /> * The Mount Carmel Boys High School Track Team won the PIAA AA State title in 1998.<br /> * Although over shadowed by a predominatly football town, Mount Carmel is also very well known for its runners.<br /> * Mount Carmel was one of the first schools in the state to have a cross country team.<br /> * The cross country team has over 6000 dual meet victories and has won countless titles since its formation in 1935.<br /> <br /> == Demographics ==<br /> {{USCensusPop<br /> | 1870=1289<br /> | 1890=8345<br /> | 1900=13719<br /> | 1910=17532<br /> | 1920=17469<br /> | 1930=17967<br /> | 1940=17780<br /> | 1950=14000<br /> | 1960=10780<br /> | 1970=9317<br /> | 1990=7196<br /> | 2000=6390<br /> | estimate=6053<br /> | estyear=2005<br /> | estref=&lt;ref&gt;<br /> {{cite web<br /> |url=http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2005-04-42.xls<br /> |title=Annual Estimates of the Population for Incorporated Places in Pennsylvania<br /> |publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]<br /> |accessdate=2007-04-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> | footnote=<br /> }}<br /> <br /> As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 6,390 people, 3,035 households, and 1,678 families residing in the borough. The [[population density]] was 9,655.6 people per square mile (3,738.2/km²). There were 3,629 housing units at an average density of 5,483.6/sq&amp;nbsp;mi (2,123.0/km²). The racial makeup of the borough was 98.56% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.06% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.16% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.28% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.25% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 0.67% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 0.89% of the population.<br /> <br /> There were 3,035 households out of which 21.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.8% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.7% were non-families. 41.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 24.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.10 and the average family size was 2.86.<br /> <br /> In the borough the population was spread out with 19.7% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 44, 23.6% from 45 to 64, and 25.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females there were 87.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.6 males.<br /> <br /> The median income for a household in the borough was $22,168, and the median income for a family was $35,217. Males had a median income of $28,168 versus $20,595 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the borough was $14,858. About 14.2% of families and 18.2% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 29.1% of those under age 18 and 15.1% of those age 65 or over.<br /> <br /> == Education ==<br /> === Public schools ===<br /> '''[[Mount Carmel Area School District]]'''<br /> * Mount Carmel Area Elementary School<br /> ** Grades Pre-K through 6th<br /> ** 856 students<br /> * Mount Carmel Area Junior/Senior High School<br /> ** Grades 7-12<br /> ** 848 students<br /> === Private schools ===<br /> '''[[National Catholic Educational Association]] (Roman Catholic)'''<br /> * Holy Spirit Elementary School ('''closed''' 2006)<br /> ** Grades K through 8th<br /> ** 176 students (2005 data)<br /> * Mt. Carmel Catholic High School ('''closed''')<br /> <br /> == Transportation ==<br /> === Highways ===<br /> * [[Pennsylvania Route 61]], designated from 1963 to the present, previously:<br /> ** 1770 - 1808: King's Highway<br /> ** 1808 - 1911: [[Centre Turnpike]]<br /> ** 1911 - 1926: Pennsylvania State Highway No. 161<br /> ** 1926 - 1935: [[Pennsylvania Route 120|U.S. Route 120]]<br /> ** 1935 - 1963: [[Pennsylvania Route 61|U.S. Route 122]]<br /> * [[Pennsylvania Route 54]]<br /> ** before 1929: Ashland Road<br /> ** 1929 - 1961: PA 54 via Ashland Road<br /> ** 1961 - 1966: designated as PA 45 via Ashland Road<br /> ** 1966 - 1999: reassigned concurrent with PA 61 east of Mount Carmel<br /> ** 1999 - present: route changed to follow SR 2035, PA 901, SR 2042, SR 3002, and SR 4028 to rejoin its former route along PA 61.<br /> * [[Pennsylvania Route 901]]<br /> ** Routed through Mount Carmel Township by 1969<br /> <br /> === Railroads ===<br /> * Danville and Pottsville Railroad -&gt; Philadelphia and Sunbury RR -&gt; &lt;br&gt;Shamokin Valley and Pottsville Railroad -&gt; [[Northern Central Railway]]<br /> * Quakake Railroad -&gt; [[Lehigh and Mahanoy Railroad]] -&gt; [[Lehigh Valley Railroad]]<br /> * Philadelphia and Reading Railroad -&gt; [[Reading Company]]<br /> * [[Pennsylvania Railroad]]<br /> * [[Shamokin Valley Railroad]]<br /> * Shamokin-Mount Carmel Electric Railway (trolley line)<br /> <br /> == Town facts ==<br /> *Mount Carmel High School has its own student-run television studio WKMC 13. The studio broadcasts a live morning news program and televises other school functions to Mount Carmel and other local communities.<br /> * The town has two annual [[block parties]] hosted by the Divine Redeemer Church and Our Lady's Church respectively.<br /> * An annual party is thrown in the town park in the Summer where game stands, rides, and food stands are set up for the public to enjoy. The day is complete with a band throughout the day.<br /> * Mount Carmel was at one time known as &quot;The City of Churches&quot; as it had over 20 different churches[5].<br /> * Due to its geographical position, being surrounded by mountains, killer storms have been avoided almost altogether throughout the borough's history.<br /> * The old Shamokin Valley and Pottsville railway, although defunct, still has old bits of track lying behind Seventh Street in Mount Carmel.<br /> <br /> == See also ==<br /> * [[Coal Region]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> *[http://www.kanezo.com/ Welcome to Mount Carmel, Pennsylvania] - includes a [http://www.kanezo.com/WTCOVER.HTML Walking Tour]<br /> *[http://www.joeba.com/main.html Joseph K. Bass, Borough Manager's Home Page]<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/CapitolHill/Lobby/7844/default.html Mayor J. Kevin Jones' Webpage]<br /> *[http://www.mountcarmelpa.org/ Mt. Carmel Downtown, Inc.]<br /> *[http://www.magpage.com/vigolo/p-mtc.htm Mount Carmel, Pennsylvania, and its Trentini-Tirolean community] - Information and history from Dale Dallabrida, including &quot;A portrait of Mount Carmel, 1896&quot;<br /> *[http://kirchhoff.tripod.com/City_of_Churches.html City of Churches]<br /> *[http://www.shamokin57.com Photos of Mt. Carmel and Shamokin]<br /> <br /> {{Northumberland County, Pennsylvania}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Boroughs in Pennsylvania]]<br /> [[Category:Northumberland County, Pennsylvania]]<br /> [[Category:Settlements established in 1770]]<br /> [[Category:Municipalities of the Anthracite Coal Region of Pennsylvania]]<br /> <br /> [[ht:Mount Carmel, Pennsilvani]]<br /> [[nl:Mount Carmel (Pennsylvania)]]<br /> [[ja:マウント・カーメル]]<br /> [[pt:Mount Carmel (Pensilvânia)]]<br /> [[vo:Mount Carmel (Pennsylvania)]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benutzer:Oocities&diff=67237365 Benutzer:Oocities 2009-11-25T06:59:38Z <p>Updatehelper: </p> <hr /> <div>[[English]]<br /> <br /> oocities just saved some geocities pages, which are great scientific sources.<br /> Now we did not finish checking pages and putting them online.<br /> But most geocities contents linked at wikipedia will soon be accessable again by changing the &quot;ge&quot; into an &quot;o&quot;<br /> please contact us for any issue or in case you would like to join helping us checking all the pages: <br /> oocities@googlemail.com <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Deutsch]]<br /> <br /> oocities ist ein Projekt das einige wertvolle Geocities Inhalte gerettet hat.<br /> Noch stecken wir im Aufbau aber viele Geocities-Links von Wikipedia werden bei Ersetzten von &quot;ge&quot; in &quot;o&quot; bereits wieder funktionieren.<br /> In Kürze werden es nahezu 100% sein.<br /> Die Inhalte sollen natürlich für eine unbegrenzte lange Zeit online bleiben.<br /> Natürlich werden die Inhalte nicht manipuliert, allerdings müssen wir auf dauer z.B. Yahoo-Logos entfernen.<br /> Wendet euch bitte an folgende email für alle fragen, freiwillige Hilfe beim Überprüfen der Inhalte, oder Wünschen welche seiten wieder online gehen sollen: oocities@googlemail.com</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Grayson&diff=80362363 William Grayson 2009-11-21T01:37:14Z <p>Updatehelper: Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googlemail DOT com using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{otherpeople|William Grayson}}<br /> <br /> {{Infobox Senator | name=William Grayson<br /> | image name=Wgrayson.jpg<br /> | jr/sr=U.S. Senator<br /> | state= [[Virginia]]<br /> | party=[[Anti-Administration Party (United States)|Anti-Administration]]<br /> | term=[[March 4]], [[1789]] - [[March 12]], [[1790]]<br /> | preceded=None<br /> | succeeded=[[John Walker (politician)|John Walker]]<br /> | date of birth=1736<br /> | place of birth=[[Prince William County, VA]]<br /> | date of death={{death date|1790|3|12|mf=y}}<br /> | place of death=[[Dumfries, VA]]<br /> | spouse=<br /> | religion=<br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''William Grayson''' ([[1736]] - [[12 March]] [[1790]]) was a soldier, lawyer, and statesman from [[Virginia]]. He was one of the first two U.S. Senators from Virginia, and belonged to the [[Anti-Federalist Party|Anti-Federalist]] faction.<br /> <br /> ==Biography==<br /> Grayson was born in 1736 to parents Benjamin Grayson and Susannah Monroe Grayson at Belle Aire Plantation [http://www.rootsweb.com/~vapwilli/history/grayson.html] in what is now [[Woodbridge, Virginia]]. He attended the [[University of Pennsylvania]], graduating in 1760. He attended university in Great Britain, but it is uncertain whether he attended [[Oxford University]] or the [[University of Edinburgh]]. He practiced law in [[Dumfries, Virginia]], until the [[American Revolutionary War]] began.<br /> <br /> Serving as an aide-de-camp to [[George Washington]], Grayson rose to the rank of [[lieutenant colonel]]. In 1777, he recruited a regiment for the [[Continental Army]] known as [[Grayson's Regiment]], and served as its colonel through the [[Philadelphia campaign]]. In 1778, he served on a commission dealing with war prisoners, and in 1779 he resigned his military commission to serve on the Congressional [[Board of War]]. In 1781 he returned to Dumfries to practice law. Like many Continental Army officers, he was also an original member of the [[Society of the Cincinnati]].<br /> <br /> Grayson was a delegate to the [[Confederation Congress]] from 1785 to 1787. As an Anti-Federalist (one of the men who in Virginia called themselves &quot;Republicans&quot;), he joined George Mason, James Monroe, and Patrick Henry in opposing ratification of the [[United States Constitution]] at the [[Virginia Ratification Convention]] in 1788. In that Convention, Grayson argued that the proposed constitution was neither fish nor fowl—neither strong enough for a national government nor decentralized enough for a federal one—and thus eventually would either degenerate into a despotism or result in the dissolution of the Union. Although the Anti-Federalists lost that battle, [[Patrick Henry]], Virginia's leading Anti-Federalist, rewarded Grayson by arranging his election to the first [[United States Senate]]. Grayson served from [[4 March]] [[1789]] until his death on [[12 March]] [[1790]]. He and Richard Henry Lee were the only members of the first Senate who had opposed ratification, and so the two of them were unhappy (but not surprised) when the Bill of Rights omitted any provisions making serious corrections to the division of powers between the central government and the states. Grayson continued to believe that the Philadelphia Convention had struck precisely the wrong balance.<br /> <br /> His brother was the Reverend [[Spence Monroe Grayson]] of [[Pohick Church]], and through his mother he was a cousin to [[James Monroe]]. His wife was Eleanor Smallwood, a sister of Maryland Governor [[William Smallwood]]. Grayson was the grandfather of [[William Grayson Carter]], Kentucky state senator, and Confederate General [[John Breckinridge Grayson]].<br /> <br /> Grayson is interred within the Grayson family vault at Belle Aire. The vault was encased in concrete [http://www.oocities.com/familysnoop/GraysonVault.jpg] and buried by the Daughters of the American Revolution in the early 20th century. It is currently located on private property.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> *K[evin]. R. Constantine Gutzman. &quot;Grayson, William&quot;. ''[[American National Biography Online]]'', February 2000.<br /> *Kevin R. C. Gutzman, ''Virginia's American Revolution: From Dominion to Republic, 1776-1840'' (Lexington Books, 2007).<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> {{CongBio|G000403}}<br /> *[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~geneal/src/Grayson/william.html William Grayson] by Margaret L. Edwards<br /> *[http://www.rootsweb.com/~vapwilli/history/grayson.html The Graysons of Belle Aire] in Prince William County and Georgia<br /> *[http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=770 William Grayson's Grave] at the Historical Marker Database<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/TheTropics/Equator/6490/grayson.html The Grayson Memorial Bandstand]<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/Heartland/Flats/9116/index.html The Grayson Family] a personal genealogy page<br /> <br /> {{start box}}<br /> {{s-par|us-sen}}<br /> {{U.S. Senator box|class=1|state=Virginia| before = ''None''| after = [[John Walker (politician)|John Walker]] | years =[[March 4]], [[1789]] - [[March 12]], [[1790]]| alongside=[[Richard Henry Lee|Richard H. Lee]] }}<br /> {{end box}}<br /> {{USSenVA}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Grayson, William}}<br /> [[Category:1736 births]]<br /> [[Category:1790 deaths]]<br /> [[Category:Continental Army officers from Virginia]]<br /> [[Category:Continental Congressmen from Virginia]]<br /> [[Category:People of Virginia in the American Revolution]]<br /> [[Category:United States Senators from Virginia]]<br /> [[Category:Virginia lawyers]]<br /> <br /> [[pl:William Grayson]]<br /> [[sv:William Grayson]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pikes_Peak_Goldrausch&diff=251507640 Pikes Peak Goldrausch 2009-11-21T01:36:50Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Discovery */Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googlemail DOT com using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Pikes Peak miners.jpg|250px|thumb|Gold prospectors in the [[Rocky Mountains]] of western [[Kansas Territory]].]]<br /> The '''Pike's Peak Gold Rush''' (later known as the '''Colorado Gold Rush''') was the boom in [[gold]] prospecting and mining in the [[Pike's Peak Country]] of western [[Kansas Territory]] and southwestern [[Nebraska Territory]] of the [[United States]] that began in July 1858 and lasted until roughly the creation of the [[Colorado Territory]] on February 28, 1861. An estimated 100,000 gold seekers took part in one of the greatest [[gold rushes]] in [[North America]]n history.&lt;ref name=ArapahoCamp&gt;{{cite web | date = December 19, 2006 | url = http://www.denvergov.org/AboutDenver/history_narrative_1.asp | title = Denver History - The Arapaho Camp | format = [[Active Server Pages|ASP]]/[[HTML]] | work = Mile High City | author = [[Thomas Noel (historian)|Thomas J. Noel]] | publisher = City and County of Denver | accessdate = December 19, 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt; The participants in the gold rush were known as [[Fifty-Niner]]s after 1859, the peak year of the rush and often used the motto '''Pike's Peak or Bust!'''<br /> <br /> ==Overview==<br /> The Pike's Peak Gold Rush, which followed the [[California Gold Rush]] by approximately one decade, produced a dramatic but temporary influx of [[immigrant]]s into the [[Pike's Peak Country]] of the [[Rocky Mountains|Southern Rocky Mountains]]. The rush was exemplified by the slogan &quot;Pike's Peak or Bust!&quot;, a reference to the prominent mountain at the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains that guided many early prospectors to the region westward over the [[Great Plains]]. The [[Prospecting|prospector]]s provided the first major [[White American|European-American]] population in the region. The rush created a few mining camps such as [[Denver, Colorado|Denver City]] and [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder City]] that would develop into cities. Many smaller camps such as [[Auraria, Colorado|Auraria]] and [[Denver, Colorado#History|Saint Charles City]] were absorbed by larger camps and towns. Scores of other mining camps have faded into [[ghost town]]s, but quite a few camps such as [[Central City, Colorado|Central City]], [[Black Hawk, Colorado|Black Hawk]], [[Georgetown, Colorado|Georgetown]], and [[Idaho Springs, Colorado|Idaho Springs]] survive.<br /> <br /> ==Discovery==<br /> In 1849 and 1850, several parties of gold seekers bound for the [[California Gold Rush]] [[placer mining|panned]] small amounts of gold from various streams in the [[South Platte River|South Platte River Valley]] at the foot of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. The Rocky Mountain gold failed to impress or delay men with visions of unlimited wealth in California, and the discoveries were not reported for several years.&lt;ref name=PikesPeakGold&gt;{{cite web | year = 2006 | url = http://www.oocities.com/Heartland/Falls/2000/index.html | title = The Pike's Peak Gold Rush | format = [[HTML]] | work = The Pike's Peak Gold Rush | author = Gehling, Richard | publisher = Richard Gehling | accessdate = December 19, 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> As the hysteria of the California Gold Rush faded, many discouraged gold seekers returned home. Rumors of gold in the Rocky Mountains persisted and several small parties explored the region. In the summer of 1857, a party of [[Spanish language|Spanish-speaking]] gold seekers from [[New Mexico]] worked a [[placer mining|placer deposit]] along the South Platte River about 5 miles (8 kilometers) above [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]] in what is today [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]].&lt;ref name=ArapahoCamp/&gt;<br /> <br /> [[William Greeneberry Russell|William Greeneberry &quot;Green&quot; Russell]] was a [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgian]] who worked in the California gold fields in the 1850s. Russell was married to a [[Cherokee]] woman, and through his connections to the tribe, he heard about an 1849 discovery of gold along the South Platte River. Green Russell organized a party to prospect along the South Platte River, setting off with his two brothers and six companions in February 1858. They rendezvoused with Cherokee tribe members along the [[Arkansas River]] in present-day [[Oklahoma]] and continued westward along the [[Santa Fe Trail]]. Others joined the party along the way until their number reached 107.&lt;ref name=PikesPeakGold/&gt;<br /> <br /> Upon reaching [[Bent's Fort]], they turned to the northwest, reaching the confluence of [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]] and the South Platte on [[May 23]]. The site of their initial explorations is in present-day [[Confluence Park]] in Denver. They began prospecting in the river beds, exploring Cherry Creek and nearby [[Ralston Creek (Colorado)|Ralston Creek]] but without success. In the first week of July 1858, Green Russell and Sam Bates found a small placer deposit near the mouth of [[Little Dry Creek (Colorado)|Little Dry Creek]] that yielded about 20 troy ounces (622 grams) of gold, the first significant gold discovery in the Rocky Mountain region. The site of the discovery is in the present-day Denver suburb of [[Englewood, Colorado|Englewood]], just north of the junction of [[U.S. Highway 285]] and [[U.S. Highway 85]].&lt;ref name=PikesPeakGold/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Gold rush==<br /> When word got back east, the Pike's Peak Gold Rush was on. By the winter of 1859, large numbers of prospective miners and settlers had come across the Great Plains to the Cherry Creek Diggings at the present site of [[Denver, Colorado#History|Denver]]. Snow in the mountains west of Denver prevented the bulk of the gold seekers from entering the mountains and most waited in the raw new settlements of [[Denver, Colorado#History|Denver City]], Arapahoe City, [[Denver, Colorado#History|Auraria]], and [[Golden, Colorado|Golden City]] for spring.<br /> <br /> ===Rich placers and lodes discovered in the mountains===<br /> {{Main|Gold mining in Colorado}}<br /> On January 7, 1859, prospector George A. Jackson discovered placer gold at the present site of Idaho Springs, where Chicago Creek empties into [[Clear Creek (Colorado)|Clear Creek]]. It was the first substantial gold discovery in Colorado. Jackson, a Missouri native with experience in the California gold fields, was drawn to the area by clouds of steam rising from some nearby [[hot spring]]s. Jackson kept his find secret for several months, but after he paid for some supplies with gold dust, others rushed to Jackson's diggings. The settlement was first called Spanish Bar, later renamed Idaho Springs, after the hot springs.&lt;ref&gt;Robert L. Brown (1985) ''The Great Pikes Peak Gold Rush'', Caldwell, Ida.: Caxton, p.26-32.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the spring of 1859 John H. Gregory, another experienced miner from Georgia who had participated in the California gold rush, made a major strike on the North Fork of Clear Creek at Gregory Gulch where he discovered rich placer deposits and stated out the first lode discovered in Colorado.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.rmag.org/rocks/Gregory_Diggins_to_Nevadaville_and_Central_City.pdf Page 2 &quot;WHO and WHERE WAS JOHN GREGORY?&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt; Many other discoveries followed at Central City, Black Hawk, and [[Nevadaville, Colorado|Nevadaville]] in Gregory Gulch and in nearby [[Russell Gulch, Colorado|Russell Gulch]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sims&quot;&gt;Paul K. Sims and others (1963) ''Economic Geology of the Central City District, Gilpin County, Colorado'', US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 359, p.7-8.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The initial boom==<br /> The first decade of the boom was largely concentrated along the South Platte River at the base of the mountains, the canyon of [[Clear Creek (Colorado)|Clear Creek]] in the mountains west of Golden City, at [[Breckenridge, Colorado|Breckenridge]] and in [[South Park (Colorado basin)|South Park]] at [[Como, Colorado|Como]], [[Fairplay, Colorado|Fairplay]], and [[Alma, Colorado|Alma]]. By 1860, Denver City, [[Golden, Colorado|Golden City]], and Boulder City were substantial towns serving the mines. Rapid population growth led to the creation of the [[Colorado Territory]] in 1861.<br /> <br /> ===Free gold===<br /> {{Main|Gold mining in Colorado}}<br /> Hardrock mining boomed for a few years, but then declined in the mid-1860s as the miners exhausted the shallow parts of the veins that contained free gold, and found that their [[amalgam]]ation mills could not recover gold from the deeper sulfide ores.&lt;ref&gt;A. H. Koschman and M. H. Bergendahl (1968) ''Principal Gold-Producing Districts of the United States'', US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 610, p.86.&lt;/ref&gt; This problem was eventually solved and [[gold mining in Colorado|gold and silver mining in Colorado]] became a major industry.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist|1}}<br /> <br /> {{Colorado}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:American gold rushes]]<br /> [[Category:History of Colorado]]<br /> [[Category:History of Kansas]]<br /> [[Category:Economy of Colorado]]<br /> [[Category:Colorado Mining Boom]]<br /> [[Category:Economic history of the United States]]<br /> [[Category:Jefferson Territory]]<br /> [[Category:Mining in Colorado]]<br /> [[Category:Pikes Peak]]<br /> <br /> [[fr:Ruée vers l'or de Pikes Peak]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benutzer:Itz_Marlon/3._World_Scout_Jamboree_1929&diff=198565323 Benutzer:Itz Marlon/3. World Scout Jamboree 1929 2009-11-20T23:39:48Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Organizational details */Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googl using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Mergefrom|Golden Arrow (Scouting)|date=December 2008}}<br /> <br /> {{infobox WorldScouting | type = event | image = 3rdJamboreebadge.png | caption = Coming of Age jamboree | name = 3rd World Scout Jamboree | location = [[Upton, Merseyside|Upton]] | country = [[United Kingdom]] | members = 30,000 Scouts | f-date = 1929}}<br /> [[Image:League of Nations 3rd World Scout Jamboree.jpg|thumb|Cartoon in ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'', published in 1929 for the 3rd World Scout Jamboree]]<br /> The '''3rd World Scout Jamboree''' was held in 1929 at [[Arrowe Park]] in [[Birkenhead, Merseyside|Birkenhead]], [[United Kingdom]]. As it was commemorating the 21st birthday of ''[[Scouting for Boys]]'' and the [[Scouting]] movement, it is also known as the '''Coming of Age Jamboree'''. With about 30,000 Scouts and over 300,000 visitors attending, this jamboree was the largest jamboree ever.<br /> <br /> ==Organizational details==<br /> From [[29 July]] to [[12 August]] [[1929]], the third [[World Scout Jamboree]] was held at Arrowe Park, in Birkenhead, United Kingdom. This [[jamboree (Scouting)|jamboree]] commemorated the 21st birthday of [[Scouting]], counting from the publication of the book ''[[Scouting for Boys]]'' by [[Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell|General Baden-Powell]]. Therefore this jamboree is also known as the Coming of Age Jamboree.&lt;ref name='sa'&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.scoutbase.org.uk/library/history/inter/jambo.htm#1929 | publisher = [[The Scout Association]] | title = Jamboree Histories | accessdate = 2006-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name='wosm'&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.scout.org/wsrc/fs/jamboree_e.shtml | title = Jamboree Histories | publisher = [[World Organization of the Scout Movement]] | accessdate = 2006-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The Jamboree on a site of {{convert|450|acre|km2}} was opened by the [[Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn|Duke of Connaught]], the president of the [[The Scout Association|Boy Scout Association]], and fifty thousand Scouts and [[Girl Guides]] of many countries attended. During the first week, the weather was poor, turning the park grass into ankle deep mud, gaining the jamboree its nickname ''jamboree of mud''.&lt;ref name='pinetree'&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.pinetreeweb.com/1929-jamboree.htm | title = 3rd World Jamboree | publisher = Pine Tree | accessdate = 2006-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name='scouterkevin'&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.oocities.com/scouterkevin | title = Scouting with staves and stetsons | publisher = Scouter Kevin | accessdate = 2006-09-17|author=Kevin Snair &lt;!-- BOT GENERATED AUTHOR --&gt;|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kjKkHi64|archivedate=2009-10-22|deadurl=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The camp was organized in eight subcamps, around a specially built town in the middle, called Midway, where Scouts could purchase materials. Each subcamp provided pitches for a contingent of scouts troops. The organization of daily chores such as cooking, campfire collecting, etc were done in turn by the groups.&lt;ref name='scouterkevin'/&gt;&lt;ref name='eby'&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.oocities.com/Yosemite/Trails/9426/world29.html | title = History of the 1929 World Jamboree | publisher = David L Eby | accessdate =2006-09-17}}{{dead link|date=October 2009|bot=WebCiteBOT}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url = http://usscouts.org/history/jambo29_bronx_valley_council_contingent.html | title = Bronx Valley Council Contingent, World Jamboree, Arrowe Park, England, 1929 | publisher = U.S. Scouting Service Project | accessdate = 2006-09-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Girl Guides in Cheshire were asked to run a hospital under canvas. There were 321 cases admitted and 2323 out-patient cases during the Jamboree. Only 52 cases had to be sent to other hospitals. Staff dealt with a range of problems from minor cuts, burns and sprains to fractures and head injuries. Two Guiders ran a dispensary providing both [[prescription drug|prescription]] and non-prescription medicines. There was also a dental clinic and an operating theatre. The hospital canteen provided meals for patients and the 50 members of staff, including many special diets, all cooked on open fires. Staff were asked to accommodate lost boys after the [[Wolf Cub]] rally. The hospital was also proud to be asked to provide the bedding and equipment for the [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Prince of Wales']] tent. This hospital had the far-reaching effect that many heads of Boy Scout movements from other countries saw the excellent work of the Girl Guides and changed their attitudes towards them.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book| last =Kerr | first =Rose | title =Story of the Girl Guides 1908-1938 | publisher =Girl Guides Association | date =1976 | location = Great Britain}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Events during the jamboree==<br /> On Baden-Powell a [[peerage]] was to be conferred by [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]], as was announced on [[2 August]] by the [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Prince of Wales]] who attended the Jamboree in Scout uniform. The formal title of ''Baron Baden-Powell, of Gilwell, co. Essex'' was granted on [[1929-09-17]], confirming the high notion Baden-Powell had of education and training, after [[Gilwell Park]] where the international [[Scout Leader]] training in the [[Wood Badge]] course took place.&lt;ref name='pinetree'/&gt;&lt;ref name=Burke&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.thepeerage.com/p876.htm#i8753 | title = Family history, Person Page 876 | publisher = The Peerage | accessdate = 2007-01-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> In the morning of Sunday [[4 August]], an open air thanksgiving service was held, presided by [[Cosmo Lang]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], and by [[Francis Bourne]], [[Archbishop of Westminster]], for Protestant and Catholic Scouts; and later that day a service was also held in [[Liverpool Cathedral]].&lt;ref name='scouterkevin'/&gt;<br /> <br /> On [[10 August]], the [[Chief Scout]] [[Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell|Sir Robert Baden-Powell]] was given special attention. On behalf of all Scouts world wide, he was presented with a [[Rolls-Royce car|Rolls-Royce]] motor car and a caravan trailer. The caravan was nicknamed Eccles and is now on display at [[Gilwell Park]]. These gifts were paid for by [[penny]] donations of more than 1 million Scouts worldwide. The car, nicknamed Jam Roll, was sold after his death by [[Olave Baden-Powell]] in 1945. Jam Roll and Eccles were reunited at Gilwell for the [[21st World Scout Jamboree]] in 2007. Recently it has been purchased on behalf of Scouting and is owned by a charity, B-P Jam Roll Ltd. Funds are being raised to repay the loan that was used to purchase the car.&lt;ref&gt; {{cite web |url = http://www.scouting.milestones.btinternet.co.uk/jamroll.htm |title = &quot;Johnny&quot; Walker's Scouting Milestones |accessdate= 2008-09-03}} &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt; {{cite web |url = http://www.jamroll.org/ | title = B-P Jam Roll Limited |accessdate= 2008-09-03}} &lt;/ref&gt; Also he was given an oil painted portrait by [[David Jagger]], which since has been used as a publicity picture by many Scout organizations. It is on display in the [[Baden-Powell House]]. Lastly, Baden-Powell was given a cheque for [[pound sterling|£]]2,750 and an illuminated address.<br /> <br /> ==Closing ceremony and Golden Arrow==<br /> The farewell ceremony on the last day, [[12 August]], consisted of a glorious march with flags and banners past the royal box with the Chief Scout and other officers, ending in a [[Wheel of Friendship]] formed by the Scouts, with 21 spokes symbolic for the 21 years of Scouting. While burying a [[hatchet]] in a cask of gilded wooden arrows, Baden-Powell addressed the gathered Scouts.<br /> :''Here is the hatchet of war, of enmity, of bad feeling, which I now bury in Arrowe. From all corners of the world you came to the call of brotherhood and to Arrowe. Now I send you forth to your homelands bearing the sign of peace, good-will and fellowship to all your fellow men. From now on in Scouting the symbol of peace and goodwill is a golden arrow. Carry that arrow on and on, so that all may know of the brotherhood of men.''<br /> Then he sent the [[golden arrow (Scouting)|golden arrow]]s as [[peace symbol]]s to the [[North]], [[South]], [[West]], and [[East]], through the [[spoke]]s of the Wheel of Friendship. <br /> :''I want you all to go back from here to your countries in different parts of the world with a new idea in your minds of having brothers in every country... Go forth from here as ambassadors of goodwill and friendship. Every one of you Scouts, no matter how young or small, can spread a good word about this country and those whom you have met here. Try to make yourselves better Scouts than ever; try to help other boys, especially the poorer boys, to be happy, healthy, and helpful citizens like yourselves. And now, farewell, goodbye, God Bless you all.''&lt;ref name='sa'/&gt;&lt;ref name='wosm'/&gt;&lt;ref name='scouterkevin'/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Memorabilia==<br /> For the event a [[memorial]] [[sculpture]] by sculptor [[Edward Carter Preston]] was erected in 1931 at the entrance to [[Arrowe Park Hospital]]. It was commissioned by the Boy Scout Movement, and unveiled by [[Humphrey Arthur Pakington, 5th Baron Hampton|Lord Hampton]], the Headquarter's [[Commissioner]]. After restoration in the early 1980s, it was re-unveiled in 1983 by the then Chief Scout Major-General [[Michael Walsh (scout)|Michael Walsh]].&lt;ref name=monument&gt;{{cite web | url = http://pmsa.cch.kcl.ac.uk/LL/MSWR0053.htm | title = Memorial to World Boy Scout Jamboree | publisher = Public Monument and Sculpture Association | accessdate = 2006-09-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[World Scout Jamboree]]<br /> <br /> ==Related reading==<br /> *{{cite book | first = Claude | last = Fisher | title = The World Jamboree, 1929: the quest for the Golden Arrow | year = 1929 | publisher = [[The Scout Association|The Boy Scouts Association]] | language = English | id = ASIN B0008D276Y | page = 151 pages}}<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.scoutbase.org.uk/library/history/inter/jambo.htm#1920 Jamboree Histories at ScoutBase]<br /> *[http://www.scout.org/en/information_events/events/world_events/world_jamboree/jamborees_history Jamboree Histories at Scout.org]<br /> <br /> {{WorldJamborees}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Scouting jamborees|#1929]]<br /> [[Category:1929 in the United Kingdom]]<br /> [[Category:Scouting and Guiding in the United Kingdom|#]]<br /> <br /> [[fr:Jamboree mondial de 1929]]<br /> [[it:3° Jamboree mondiale dello scautismo]]<br /> [[hu:3. Cserkész Világdzsembori]]<br /> [[vi:Trại Họp bạn Hướng đạo Thế giới lần thứ 3]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niel_Gow&diff=74655298 Niel Gow 2009-11-20T23:28:45Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Compositions */Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googlemail DOT using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Niel Gow - Violinist and composer.jpg|thumb|250px|Portrait of Niel Gow, 1787, by Sir [[Henry Raeburn]].]]<br /> <br /> '''Niel Gow''' (1727–1807) was possibly the most famous [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[fiddle]]r of the 18th century.<br /> <br /> ==Biography==<br /> Gow was born in [[Inver]], [[Perthshire]], as the son of John Gow and Catherine McEwan. He started playing the [[fiddle]] when very young and at age 13 received his first formal lessons from one John Cameron. In spite of being something of a [[musical prodigy]], he originally trained as a [[plaid weaver]], but eventually gave up that trade to become a full-time musician. He was widely considered the best fiddle player in Perthshire, an area which was renowned for its musicians - the story goes that at age 18 he entered a competition that was being judged by John McCraw, a blind musician, who awarded him the first prize and then went on to claim that he &quot;would ken his bow hand among a hunder players&quot; (detect Niel's style among a hundred players). This attracted the attention of the [[James Murray, 2nd Duke of Atholl|Duke of Atholl]], who became Niel's patron, and also ensured Niel's employment for balls and dance parties put on by the local nobility. In time he became renowned as a fiddler.<br /> <br /> Niel Gow was married twice. His first wife was Margaret Wiseman, and they had five sons , as well as three daughters. His sons William, Andrew (1760), Nathaniel (1763) and John (1764) all followed their father as fiddlers and composers of fiddle music,and the daughters were Margaret (1759), Grizel (1761). The youngest son Daniel (1765) died in infancy. William died in 1791 at age 40, and Andrew died in 1794.. He married his second wife Margaret Urquhart at Perth in 1768. Of Niel's sons, [[Nathaniel Gow|Nathaniel]] is by far the most well-known and another fine composer of Scottish music, with nearly 200 tunes to his credit. After having been widowed, Niel married Margaret Urquhart from Perth in 1768, and they went on to share a happy married life until she died in 1805. Niel was deeply hurt by her death, and stopped playing the fiddle for a while. His friends finally convinced him to pick it up again, and the first thing he played was his '...Lament for the Death of his Second Wife' (see compositions). Niel died at Inver on 1 March 1807, aged 80.<br /> <br /> Niel Gow composed a lot of dance music - according to John Glen (1895) he put his name to 87 tunes, &quot;some of which are excellent&quot; - much of which forms the backstay of [[Scottish country dance]] music even today. However it must be said that he was not above pinching good material from other composers to republish under his own name; Glen claims that from the 87, at least a quarter are derived from older tunes or are straight rip-offs from tunes published earlier elsewhere, often under a different title. This being a common practice at the time, it didn't seem to hurt his reputation a whole lot; in fact, the famous painter [[Henry Raeburn]] was commissioned to paint him several times.<br /> <br /> Many of Niel Gow's compositions are still played today at [[ceilidh]]s and [[Scottish country dance|country dances]]. He himself spelled his name ''Niel'', although others sometimes spell it ''Neil'' or even ''Neal''. (To add to the confusion he had a very musical grandson (by Nathaniel) who ''did'' spell his name &quot;Neil&quot;.) <br /> <br /> The annual Niel Gow Fiddle Festival[http://www.scotlandontv.tv/scotland_on_tv/video.html?vxSiteId=60fdd544-9c52-4e17-be7e-57a2a2d76992&amp;vxChannel=Music%20Traditional&amp;vxClipId=1380_SMG425&amp;vxBitrate=300] takes place in [[Dunkeld and Birnam]], [[Perthshire]], [[Scotland]]. It was established in 2004 to celebrate the life and music of Gow. It is envisaged that through time the festival and other activities will gather enough funds to erect a fitting memorial to Niel Gow in [[Dunkeld and Birnam]]. The 2008 festival will take place between 14-16 March.<br /> <br /> *''The Glen Collection of Scottish Dance Music'', republished by the Highland Music Trust, 2001 (ISBN 0-9541478-1-2)<br /> <br /> ==Compositions==<br /> [http://www.oocities.com/gburke_wilson/CelCorNeilGowsLamentDeathOfSecondWife.mid Niel Gow's Lament For His Second Wife (midi)]<br /> <br /> ==Recordings==<br /> *[[Quadriga Consort]] CD &quot;By Yon Bonnie Banks&quot; ORF Early Music Edition, Vienna 2007<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Scottish Baroque music]]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.folkmusic.net/htmfiles/inart441.htm Folk Music Net Biography of Niel Gow]<br /> *[http://www.dunkeldcathedral.org.uk/niel_gow.htm Dunkeld Cathedral Biography of Niel Gow]<br /> *[http://www.scotlandontv.tv/scotland_on_tv/video.html?vxSiteId=60fdd544-9c52-4e17-be7e-57a2a2d76992&amp;vxChannel=Music%20Traditional&amp;vxClipId=1380_SMG410&amp;vxBitrate=300 Niel Gow Fiddle Festival 2007]<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Gow, Niel}}<br /> [[Category:Scottish fiddlers]]<br /> [[Category:Scottish folk musicians]]<br /> [[Category:1727 births]]<br /> [[Category:1807 deaths]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Uglow_Pope&diff=152876670 George Uglow Pope 2009-11-19T22:42:02Z <p>Updatehelper: /* External links */Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googlemail DO using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Protestant missions to India}}<br /> [[File:Statue_of_G_U_Pope.jpg|150px|left|thumb|Statue of G U Pope in [[Chennai]]]]<br /> '''George Uglow Pope''' (1820 - 1908) popularly known as '''Rev. G.U. Pope''' or '''G.U. Pope''' was a [[Christian]] [[missionary]] who spent many years in [[Tamil Nadu]] and translated many [[Tamil language|Tamil]] texts into [[English language|English]]. His popular translations include [[Tirukkural]] and [[Tiruvachagam]]. His efforts were recognized by the [[Royal Asiatic Society]] in the form of a gold medal. He was the head of the [[Bishop Cotton Boys School]], [[Bangalore]] before returning to Oxford.<br /> <br /> George Uglow Pope was born on 24 April 1820 in [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[Nova Scotia]]. His family migrated to [[England]] when he was an infant. He left for South [[India]] in 1839 and arrived at [[Sawyerpuram]] near [[Tuticorin]]. Pope turned into a scholar of [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Sanskrit]] and [[Telugu]]. He set up several schools and taught [[Latin]], [[English language|English]], [[Hebrew]], Mathematics and Philosophy. <br /> <br /> He completed his translation of ''Tirukkural'' on September 1, 1886. His ''Sacred Kural'' contains introduction, grammar, translation, notes, lexicon and concordance. It also includes the English translation of F. W. Ellis and the Latin Translation of [[Constanzo Beschi]] with 436 pages. He had, by February 1893, translated ''Naaladiyaar''.<br /> <br /> His magnum opus, the translation of ''Tiruvachakam'' appeared in 1900. Of this he said: &quot;I date this on my eightieth birthday. I find, by reference, that my first Tamil lesson was in 1837. This ends, as I suppose a long life of devotion to Tamil studies. It is not without deep emotion that I thus bring to a close my life's literary work&quot;.<br /> <br /> The much coveted Gold Medal of the [[Royal Asiatic Society]] was awarded to him in 1906. He died on 12 February 1908. He delivered his last sermon on May 26, 1907.<br /> <br /> ==Bibliographie==<br /> *''First lessons in Tamil: or a full introduction to the common dialect of that language, on the plan of Ollendorf and Arnold'', Madras, 1856 (1st edition) *Title for the 1st edition of the following book*<br /> ''A Tamil hand-book: or full introduction to the common dialect of that language on the plan of Ollendorf and Arnold'', Madras, 1859 (2nd edition), 1867 (3rd edition) *Title for the 2nd and the 3rd edition of the following book*<br /> ''A handbook of the ordinary dialect of the Tamil language'', London, 1883 (4th edition, 3 volumes), Oxford 1904 (7th edition) *Title for the latest editions*<br /> *''A larger grammar of the Tamil language in both its dialects'', Madras, 1858<br /> *''A text-book of Indian history; with geographical notes, genealogical tables, examination questions, and chronological, biographical, geographical, and general indexes'', London, 1871 (1ère édition), 1880 (3è édition)<br /> *''திருவள்ளுவநாயனர் அருளிச்செய்த திருக்குற​ள் (Tiruvalluvanayanar arulicceyta Tirrukkural). The 'Sacred' Kurral of Tiruvalluva-Nayanar'', London, 1886<br /> *''முனிவர் அருனிச்செய்த நாலடியார் = The Naladiyar, or, Four hundred quatrains in Tamil'', Oxford, 1893<br /> *''St. John in the Desert: an introduction and notes to Browning's 'a death in the desert' '', Oxford, 1897<br /> *''The Tiruvacagam; or, 'Sacred utterances' of the Tamil poet, saint, and sage Manikka-Vacagar: the Tamil text of the fifty-one poems, with English translation'', Oxford, 1900<br /> *''A catalogue of the Tamil books in the library of the British Museum, London'', 1909 (with L.D. Barnett)<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.oocities.com/thiruvasakam_in_symphony/gupope.html Info on G U Pope]<br /> *[http://anglicanhistory.org/india/pope_aggression1853/ The Lutheran Aggression: A Letter to the Tranquebar Missionaries], by G.U. Pope (1853)<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Pope, George Uglow}}<br /> [[Category:1820 births]]<br /> [[Category:1908 deaths]]<br /> [[Category:Christian missionaries in India]]<br /> [[Category:Dravidologists]]<br /> <br /> <br /> {{christian-clergy-stub}}<br /> <br /> [[fr:George Uglow Pope]]<br /> [[ta:ஜி. யு. போப்]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Taylor_(Dichter)&diff=92028275 John Taylor (Dichter) 2009-11-19T22:23:50Z <p>Updatehelper: /* Further reading */Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googlemail D using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{otherpeople|John Taylor}}<br /> '''John Taylor''' ([[24 August]], [[1578]] - 1653) was an English [[poet]] who dubbed himself &quot;The Water Poet&quot;.<br /> <br /> ==Biography==<br /> He was born in [[Gloucester]] (possibly on [[24 August]] [[1580]] rather than 1578).<br /> <br /> After his waterman apprenticeship he served (1596) in Essex's fleet, and was present at Flores in 1597 and at the [[siege of Cadiz]].<br /> <br /> He spent much of his life as a Thames [[waterman]], a member of the guild of boatmen that ferried passengers across the [[River Thames]] in [[London]], in the days when the [[London Bridge]] was the only passage between the banks. He became a member of the ruling oligarchy of the guild, serving as its clerk; it is mainly through his writings that history is familiar with the watermen's disputes of 1641-42, in which an attempt was made to democratize the leadership of the Company. He details the uprisings in the pamphlets ''Iohn Taylors Manifestation ...'' and ''To the Right Honorable Assembly ... (Commons Petition)'', and in ''John Taylors Last Voyage and Adventure'' of 1641.<br /> <br /> Taylor discusses the watermen's disputes with the theatre companies (who moved the theaters from the south bank to the north in 1612, depriving the ferries of traffic) in ''The True Cause of the Watermen's Suit Concerning Players'' (written in 1613 or 1614). He also addresses the coachmen, in his tracts ''An Errant Thief'' (1622) and ''The World Runnes on Wheeles'' (1623). <br /> <br /> He was a prolific, if rough-hewn, (wit rather than poet), writer with over one hundred and fifty publications in his lifetime. Many were gathered into the compilation ''All the Workes of John Taylor the Water Poet'' (London, 1630; facsimile reprint Scholar Press, Menston, Yorkshire, 1973); and The Spencer Society brought out their ''Works of John Taylor ... not included in the Folio edition of 1630'' (5 volumes, 1870-78). Although his work was not sophisticated, he was a keen observer of people and styles in the seventeenth century, and as such his work is often studied by social historians. One example is his 1621 work ''Taylor's Motto'', which included a list of then-current card games and diversions.<br /> <br /> On a note of trivia, Taylor is one of the few early authors of a [[palindrome]] that can be credited as such: in 1614, he wrote &quot;Lewd did I live, &amp; evil I did dwel.&quot; He also wrote a poem about [[Thomas Parr]], a man who supposedly lived to the age of 152. He was also the author of a constructed language called [[Barmoodan]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://books.google.com/books?id=vECTb2i85IoC&amp;dq=barmoodan+taylor Travel and Translation in the Early Modern Period , Carmine Di Biase, 2006, ISBN 9042017686]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Many of Taylor's works were published by [[subscription]]; i.e, he would propose a book, ask for contributors, and write it when he had enough subscribers to undertake the printing costs. He had more than sixteen hundred subscribers to ''The Pennylesse Pilgrimage; or, the Moneylesse Perambulation of John Taylor, alias the Kings Magesties Water-Poet; How He TRAVAILED on Foot from London to Edenborough in Scotland, Not Carrying any Money To or Fro, Neither Begging, Borrowing, or Asking Meate, Drinke, or Lodging.'', published in 1618. Those who defaulted on the subscription were chided the following year in a scathing brochure entitled ''A Kicksey Winsey, or, A Lerry Come-Twang'', which he issued in the following year. <br /> <br /> :By wondrous accident perchance one may <br /> :Grope out a needle in a load of hay;<br /> :And though a white crow be exceedingly rare,<br /> :A blind man may, by fortune, catch a hare.<br /> :''- A Kicksey Winsey (pt. VII)''<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==Further reading==<br /> *[http://www.bartleby.com/214/1812.html bartleby.com]<br /> *http://www.oocities.com/thameswatermen/original.htm<br /> *http://www.his.com/~rory/castle2.html<br /> *http://www.nndb.com/people/463/000098169/<br /> *Bernard Capp, ''The World of John Taylor the Water-Poet, 1578-1653'' (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1994) - the first full-length biography.<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> {{Wikisource-author|John Taylor (Water Poet)}}<br /> *{{worldcat id|lccn-n50-9281}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Taylor, John}}<br /> [[Category:1578 births]]<br /> [[Category:1653 deaths]]<br /> [[Category:English poets]]<br /> [[Category:People from Gloucester]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_Motorway&diff=107443173 Western Motorway 2009-11-19T21:00:27Z <p>Updatehelper: Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googlemail DOT com using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>{{Australian motorway|<br /> | motorway logo=NSW_M4.png<br /> | width= 100px<br /> | motorway= M4 Western Motorway<br /> | length-km= 46<br /> | direction= West-East<br /> | start= [[Image:Australian Route 32.svg|25px]] '''[[Great Western Highway]]''', [[Lapstone, New South Wales]]<br /> | destinations= [[Penrith, New South Wales|Penrith]], [[Blacktown, New South Wales|Blacktown]], [[Parramatta, New South Wales|Parramatta]]<br /> | end= [[Image:NSW_M4.png|25px]] [[Image:Australian State Route 44.svg|25px]] '''[[Great Western Highway|Parramatta Road]]''', [[North Strathfield, New South Wales|North Strathfield, Sydney]]<br /> | opening-date= 1970s<br /> | completion-date= 1993<br /> | junctions= '''[[Image:NSW_M9.png|25px]] [[Metroad 9|The Northern Road]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:NSW M7mwy.png|30px]] [[Westlink|WestLink]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:NSW_M6.png|25px]] [[Metroad 6|Silverwater Road]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:NSW_M3.png|25px]] [[Metroad 3|Homebush Bay Drive]]<br /> | motorway owner= [[Roads and Traffic Authority]] (RTA), State Wide Roads (SWR)<br /> | motorway operator= SWR Operations Pty Limited, RTA<br /> }}<br /> <br /> The '''M4 Western Motorway''',&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ozroads.com.au/NSW/Freeways/M4/m4.htm Western Motorway (M4)] ''Ozroads: the Australian Roads Website''. Retrieved on 29 August 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ozroads.com.au/NSW/Freeways/M4/historicpics.htm Historic Photos], ''Ozroads: the Australian Roads Website''. Retrieved on 29 August 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ozroads.com.au/NSW/Freeways/M4/m4-pics.htm M4 Photos Today], ''Ozroads: the Australian Roads Website''. Retrieved on 29 August 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;, (also known as the '''M4 Motorway''' or simply '''M4''') is a [[motorway]] in central [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]. It forms part of Sydney [[Metroad 4]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.m4motorway.com.au SWR M4 Motorway website], ''M4 Motorway Website''. Retrieved on 29 August 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Western Motorway is a partially-[[Toll road|tolled]] motorway, with a toll plaza near [[Silverwater, New South Wales|Silverwater]]. It is only necessary to pay a toll if travelling on the motorway between [[James Ruse Drive]] and Silverwater Road, and it is possible to use the majority of the motorway without paying the toll. <br /> <br /> The Motorway is mostly 6 lanes wide, and carries constant heavy traffic during daylight hours, seven days a week. Built as a four lane motorway, it was widened to six lanes during 1998 to 2000, but this did little to ease the congestion. Widening the motorway any further would probably not help, as without the M4 East extension (see below), the congestion would just move further east, where traffic is deposited onto surface streets at [[Strathfield, New South Wales|Strathfield]].<br /> <br /> Originally planned in the mid 1950s to start in the [[Sydney central business district|CBD]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ozroads.com.au/NSW/Freeways/M4/constructioninfo.htm Western Motorway (M4) Construction], ''Ozroads: the Australian Roads Website''. Retrieved on 29 August 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;, the eastern section was only built as far west as [[Pyrmont, New South Wales|Pyrmont]] as part of the North West Expressway, or F3, a freeway that would connect the Sydney and [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]] central business districts. This section is now part of the [[Western Distributor]]. From there it was to have joined with the Western Expressway, the F4, and the Southern Expressway, the F6, in [[Glebe, New South Wales|Glebe]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.oocities.com/humehwy31/m4.html The M4 Motorway - a history and exit guide], ''Geocities''. Retrieved on 29 August 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On the basis of a pre-election promise made by the [[Premiers of New South Wales|Premier of New South Wales]] [[Neville Wran]] in 1976, all land reserved for the expressway between Pyrmont and the current eastern termination point at Strathfield was sold off to property developers or declassified as a freeway corridor in 1977 by the State Government. The proposed expressway ran through the seat held by the Premier Wran.<br /> <br /> ==M4 East==<br /> [[Image:M4 Western Motorway.jpg|thumb|left|M4, view east from footbridge at [[Silverwater, New South Wales|Silverwater]]]]<br /> A major extension to the M4 has been proposed and has well-advanced plans&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.rta.nsw.gov.au/constructionmaintenance/majorconstructionprojectssydney/m4east M4 East extension] - ''[[Roads and Traffic Authority]]''. Retrieved on 29 August 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;. This extension would extend the M4 beyond its current end in [[Strathfield, New South Wales|Strathfield]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.rta.nsw.gov.au/trafficreports/westsydcameras/index.html RTA traffic webcams] - ''Roads and Traffic Authority''. Retrieved on 29 August 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; by approximately five kilometres, so that it would subsequently end in [[Ashfield, New South Wales|Ashfield]] and be continuous with the [[City West Link Road|City West Link]]. Further planned upgrades to the City West Link would mean commuters going west out of the city could get to [[Parramatta, New South Wales|Parramatta]] without passing through traffic lights. The NSW Government recently outlined a $7 billion plan to link the M4, [[Victoria Road, Sydney|Victoria Road]], City West Link and [[Sydney Airport]] using a network of underground tunnels.<br /> <br /> As of April 2005, the NSW state government has shelved plans for the M4 East extension, citing the need for an integrated plan for transport, but possibly to mitigate residents in affected suburbs which would have been affected by increased traffic had the M4 East link been approved. Future plans may include instead a continuous traffic-light-free link from the city's Western Distributor to the current end of the M4.<br /> <br /> The lack of this link is currently causing major problems for any commercial traffic wishing to travel between [[Port Botany, New South Wales|Port Botany]] and the many factories and warehouses in the western suburbs. The [[M5 South Western Motorway]] does connect directly to Port Botany, but it has chronic congestion problems of its own, and doesn't provide easy access to inner western areas of Sydney. There is so much demand for this link, that traffic not only uses the designated [[Metroad 4]] (Parramatta Road), but also several back streets to the north and south, most of which are 2 lane residential streets.<br /> <br /> ==Exits and Interchanges==<br /> {| border=1 cellpadding=2 style=&quot;margin-left:1em; margin-bottom: 1em; color: black; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;006d32&quot; style=&quot;color: white;font-size:120%;&quot;<br /> | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''Western Motorway [[Image:NSW_M4.png|30px]]'''<br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;000000&quot; style=&quot;color: white&quot;<br /> | Westbound exits<br /> | Distance to&lt;br&gt;Lithgow&lt;br&gt;(km)<br /> | Distance to&lt;br&gt;Sydney&lt;br&gt;(km)<br /> | Eastbound exits<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''End '''Western Motorway''' [[Image:NSW_M4.png|20px]] &lt;br&gt; continues as '''[[Great Western Highway]] [[Image:Australian Route 32.svg|20px]]''' &lt;br&gt; to [[Katoomba, New South Wales|Katoomba]] / [[Lithgow, New South Wales|Lithgow]] / [[Bathurst, New South Wales|Bathurst]]''<br /> | 84<br /> | 58<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''Start '''Western Motorway''''' [[Image:NSW_M4.png|20px]] &lt;br&gt; ''from '''[[Great Western Highway]] [[Image:Australian Route 32.svg|20px]]'''''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Lapstone, New South Wales|Lapstone]]&lt;br&gt; '''Governors Drive'''<br /> | 85<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 57<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''no exit''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Leonay, New South Wales|Leonay]], [[Emu Plains, New South Wales|Emu Plains]]&lt;br&gt; '''Leonay Parade'''&lt;br&gt; '''Russell Street''' [[Image:Australian_State_Route_44.svg|20px]] <br /> | 87<br /> | 55<br /> | [[Emu Plains, New South Wales|Emu Plains]], [[Leonay, New South Wales|Leonay]]&lt;br&gt; '''Russell Street''' [[Image:Australian_State_Route_44.svg|20px]]&lt;br&gt; '''Leonay Parade'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Mulgoa, New South Wales|Mulgoa]], [[Penrith, New South Wales|Penrith]]&lt;br&gt; '''Mulgoa Road'''<br /> | 90<br /> | 52<br /> | [[Penrith, New South Wales|Penrith]], [[Mulgoa, New South Wales|Mulgoa]]&lt;br&gt; '''Mulgoa Road'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Campbelltown, New South Wales|Campbelltown]], [[Windsor, New South Wales|Windsor]]&lt;br&gt; '''[[Metroad 9|The Northern Road]]''' [[Image:NSW_M9.png|20px]]<br /> | 93<br /> | 49<br /> | [[Windsor, New South Wales|Windsor]], [[Campbelltown, New South Wales|Campbelltown]]&lt;br&gt; '''[[Metroad 9|The Northern Road]]''' [[Image:NSW_M9.png|20px]]<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Liverpool, New South Wales|Liverpool]], [[St Marys, New South Wales|St Marys]]&lt;br&gt; '''Mamre Road'''<br /> | 97<br /> | 45<br /> | [[St Marys, New South Wales|St Marys]], [[Liverpool, New South Wales|Liverpool]]&lt;br&gt; '''Mamre Road'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[St Clair, New South Wales|St Clair]], [[Colyton, New South Wales|Colyton]]&lt;br&gt; '''Erskine Park Road &lt;br&gt; Roper Road'''<br /> | 101<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 41<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''no exit''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Canberra]], [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[Brisbane]] &lt;br&gt; '''[[Westlink M7|WestLink]]''' [[Image:NSW_M7mwy.png|30px]] [[Image:Gfi-set01-airport.png|20px|Sydney (Kingsford Smith) Airport]]<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| 105<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| 37<br /> | [[Liverpool, New South Wales|Liverpool]], [[Rooty Hill, New South Wales|Rooty Hill]]&lt;br&gt; '''Wallgrove Road'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Rooty Hill, New South Wales|Rooty Hill]], [[Liverpool, New South Wales|Liverpool]] &lt;br&gt; '''Wallgrove Road'''<br /> | [[Brisbane]], [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[Canberra]]&lt;br&gt; '''[[WestLink M7|WestLink]]''' [[Image:NSW_M7mwy.png|30px]] [[Image:Gfi-set01-airport.png|20px|Sydney (Kingsford Smith) Airport]] <br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | [[Caltex]] Service Centre<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 107<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 35<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | [[Caltex]] Service Centre<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Blacktown, New South Wales|Blacktown]]&lt;br&gt; '''Reservoir Road'''<br /> | 109<br /> | 33<br /> | [[Blacktown, New South Wales|Blacktown]]&lt;br&gt; '''Reservoir Road'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Blacktown, New South Wales|Blacktown]], [[Seven Hills, New South Wales|Seven Hills]]&lt;br&gt; '''[[Prospect Highway]]'''<br /> | 111<br /> | 31<br /> | [[Blacktown, New South Wales|Blacktown]], [[Seven Hills, New South Wales|Seven Hills]]&lt;br&gt; '''[[Prospect Highway]]'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Smithfield, New South Wales|Smithfield]], [[Wentworthville, New South Wales|Wentworthville]], [[Hornsby, New South Wales|Hornsby]], &lt;br&gt; '''Cumberland Highway''' <br /> | 114<br /> | 28<br /> | [[Smithfield, New South Wales|Smithfield]], [[Wentworthville, New South Wales|Wentworthville]], [[Hornsby, New South Wales|Hornsby]], &lt;br&gt; '''Cumberland Highway''' <br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[South Wentworthville, New South Wales|South Wentworthville]], [[Westmead, New South Wales|Westmead]]&lt;br&gt; '''Coleman Street'''<br /> | 116<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 26<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''no exit''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Merrylands, New South Wales|Merrylands]], [[Parramatta, New South Wales|Parramatta]]&lt;br&gt; '''Burnett Street'''<br /> | 118<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 24<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''no exit''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''no exit''<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 120<br /> | 22<br /> | [[Parramatta, New South Wales|Parramatta]], [[Auburn, New South Wales|Auburn]], [[Villawood, New South Wales|Villawood]]&lt;br&gt; '''[[Great Western Highway|Parramatta Road]]''' [[Image:Australian_State_Route_44.svg|20px]] &lt;br&gt; '''Woodville Road'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Seven Hills, New South Wales|Seven Hills]], [[Windsor, New South Wales|Windsor]]&lt;br&gt; '''[[James Ruse Drive]]'''<br /> | 121<br /> | 21<br /> | [[Seven Hills, New South Wales|Seven Hills]], [[Windsor, New South Wales|Windsor]]&lt;br&gt; '''[[James Ruse Drive]]'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;background: #0066CC; color: white;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | '''''TOLL PLAZA'''''<br /> | style=&quot;background: #0066CC; color: white;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 123<br /> | style=&quot;background: #0066CC; color: white;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 19<br /> | style=&quot;background: #0066CC; color: white;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | '''''TOLL PLAZA''''' <br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[Hornsby, New South Wales|Hornsby]], [[Carlingford, New South Wales|Carlingford]], [[Bankstown, New South Wales|Bankstown]], [[Menai, New South Wales|Menai]], [[Wollongong, New South Wales|Wollongong]] &lt;br&gt; '''[[Metroad 6|Silverwater Road]]''' [[Image:NSW_M6.png|20px]]<br /> | 124<br /> | 18<br /> | [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[Hornsby, New South Wales|Hornsby]], [[Carlingford, New South Wales|Carlingford]], [[Bankstown, New South Wales|Bankstown]], [[Menai, New South Wales|Menai]], [[Wollongong, New South Wales|Wollongong]] &lt;br&gt; '''[[Metroad 6|Silverwater Road]]''' [[Image:NSW_M6.png|20px]]<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''no exit''<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 126<br /> | 16<br /> | [[Homebush Bay, New South Wales|Homebush Bay]]&lt;br&gt; '''Hill Road'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | [[Hurstville, New South Wales|Hurstville]], [[Ryde, New South Wales|Ryde]], [[Mona Vale, New South Wales|Mona Vale]]&lt;br&gt; '''[[Metroad 3|Homebush Bay Drive / Centenary Drive]]''' [[Image:NSW_M3.png|20px]] [[Image:Gfi-set01-airport.png|20px|Sydney (Kingsford Smith) Airport]]<br /> | 127<br /> | 15<br /> | [[Mona Vale, New South Wales|Mona Vale]], [[Ryde, New South Wales|Ryde]], [[Hurstville, New South Wales|Hurstville]] &lt;br&gt; '''[[Metroad 3|Homebush Bay Drive / Centenary Drive]]''' [[Image:NSW_M3.png|20px]] [[Image:Gfi-set01-airport.png|20px|Sydney (Kingsford Smith) Airport]]<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''no exit''<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | 129<br /> | 13 <br /> | [[Concord, New South Wales|Concord]], [[Strathfield, New South Wales|Strathfield]] &lt;br&gt; '''Concord Road'''<br /> <br /> |- align=&quot;center&quot;<br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''Start '''Western Motorway''''' [[Image:NSW_M4.png|20px]] &lt;br&gt; ''from '''[[Metroad 4|Parramatta Road]]''' [[Image:NSW_M4.png|20px]]'''''<br /> | 130<br /> | 12 <br /> | style=&quot;background: #ececec; color: grey;&quot; class=&quot;table-na&quot; | ''End '''Western Motorway''' [[Image:NSW_M4.png|20px]] &lt;br&gt; continues as '''[[Metroad 4|Parramatta Road]] [[Image:NSW_M4.png|20px]]''' &lt;br&gt; to [[Sydney]]''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Freeways in Australia]]<br /> * [[Freeways in Sydney]]<br /> * [[Metroad 4]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> {{Road infrastructure in Sydney}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Highways in Sydney]]<br /> [[Category:Toll roads in Australia]]</div> Updatehelper https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabah-Krise_1986&diff=96292709 Sabah-Krise 1986 2009-11-19T20:58:33Z <p>Updatehelper: Original geocities.com/... weblink is gone but has been mirrored &amp; archived in october 2009. For any issue contact oocities AT googlemail DOT com using AWB</p> <hr /> <div>The '''1986 Sabah riots''' occurred between March and May in various locations around the state of [[Sabah]], [[Malaysia]]. The riots centered mainly in the capital [[Kota Kinabalu]], as well as in the towns of [[Tawau]] and [[Sandakan]]. On March 12, seven plastic explosives were detonated in Kota Kinabalu. A bomb was also detonated in Tawau. The riots resulted in the death of 5 people.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|publisher=New Straits Times|url=http://www.nst.com.my/Current_News/NST/Sunday/Columns/2086779/Article/index_html|author=Kalimullah Hassan|title=OPINION: Reforms yes, but not through violence in the streets|accessdate=2008-01-18|date=[[November 18]], [[2007]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The riots occurred in response to the results of the [[Sabah state election, 1985|1985 state election]], whereby the newly formed [[Parti Bersatu Sabah]] (United Sabah Party) won, ousting [[Parti Berjaya]] from the helm of government. Berjaya was the previous ruling party and a component party of [[Barisan Nasional]] (BN), the nation's and federal ruling coalition party. It was reported that mobs took to the streets to bring down the president of PBS [[Pairin Kitingan]] from the Chief Minister post.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|publisher=The New York Times|title= Kota Kinabalu Journal; With Houses on Stilts and Hopes in Another Land|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE4D9163BF932A35753C1A961948260|author=Crossette, Barbara|date=[[October 1]], [[1987]]|accessdate=2007-01-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> It was also suspected that the riots were triggered by the losing parties including BN to bring forth a proclamation of [[State of emergency|emergency]] in order to justify a takeover by the federal government&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes&quot; /&gt; similar to those which happened in 1966 in [[Sarawak]] and 1977 in [[Kelantan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|publisher=Bernama|date=February 5, 2009|accessdate=08-03-2009|url=http://www.bernama.com/bernama/v5/newspolitic.php?id=387958|title=Nizar Not First To Refuse To Quit}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> PBS later sought to have snap election because of political manoeuvering causing PBS representatives to [[Defection|defect]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|publisher=The Star|url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/6/22/nation/21624309&amp;sec=nation|date=June 22, 2008|accessdate=08-03-2009|title=Is snap polls the answer?|author=COMMENT&lt;br /&gt;By SUHAINI AZNAM &lt;!-- BOT GENERATED AUTHOR --&gt;|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5gcuwlwW0|archivedate=2009-05-08|deadurl=no}}&lt;/ref&gt; Malaysian Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamed]] also tried to negotiate with PBS to form a coalition with BN in return for peace in the state.&lt;ref name=nytimes&gt;{{cite news|publisher=The New York Times|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE0D6113AF93AA15750C0A960948260|date=March 29, 1986|accessdate=08-03-2009|title=Malaysian Rules an Election Is Needed in Embattled State}}&lt;/ref&gt; Finally the election was held on 4 and 5 May, 1986. PBS won again and this time with a bigger margin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Malaysia - Pilihan Raya - Pilihan Raya Umum Sabah ( 1986 ) &lt;!-- BOT GENERATED TITLE --&gt;|url=http://www.oocities.com/hualian_studentclub/pilihanraya/pilihanraya_umum_sabah_1986.htm|work=|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5gcuxAZq4|archivedate=2009-05-08|deadurl=no|accessdate=2009-03-08}}&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{refbegin}}<br /> * ''[[Chronicle of Malaysia]]'', Editions Didier Millet (2007). &quot;1986&quot;.<br /> {{refend}}<br /> ----<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:1986 riots|Sabah]]<br /> [[Category:Politics of Sabah]]<br /> [[Category:Riots in Malaysia]]<br /> [[Category:History of Sabah]]<br /> [[Category:1986 in Malaysia]]<br /> <br /> [[ms:Rusuhan Sabah 1986]]</div> Updatehelper