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Propellergetriebe (Luftfahrt)

2014-09-11T18:54:52Z

TuxLibNit: Fixed isbn of "The Shuttleworth Collection" (missing leading zero)

{{Infobox aviation
|name=Propeller speed reduction unit
|image=File:RollsRoyceRpropreductiongear.JPG
|caption=The propeller speed reduction unit of a [[Rolls-Royce R]] engine
}}

A '''Propeller speed reduction unit''' is a [[Transmission (mechanics)|gearbox]] or a belt and pulley device used to reduce the output [[revolutions per minute]] (rpm) from the higher input rpm of the powerplant.<ref name="Gunston">Gunston 2006, p. 82.</ref> This allows the use of small [[Engine displacement|displacement]] internal combustion automotive engines to turn [[Propeller (aircraft)|aircraft propeller]]s within an efficient speed range.

==History and operation==
The [[Wright brothers]] recognised the need for propeller reduction gearing in 1903, but it was not generally used on aircraft engines until larger engines were designed in the 1920s.<ref name="Gunston"/> Large engines with high crankshaft speeds and power outputs demanded propeller reduction, pilots noted the increase in performance of similar aircraft fitted with reduction gearing.<ref name="Gunston"/>

===Types===
[[File:Gears animation.gif|frame|right|Simple spur gear reduction]]
Types of propeller speed reduction units include:<ref name="Gunston"/>
*Chain drive
*Single reduction or [[Gear#Spur|spur gear]].
*Internal spur gear.
*[[Farman]] or [[Bevel gear|bevel]] [[epicyclic gearing|planetary]] type.
*Fixed sun gear.
*Fixed internal gear
*[[Belt (mechanical)|Belt drive]]
*[[Epicyclic gearing]]

===Design variations===
The [[Rolls-Royce Falcon]] engine of 1915 featured [[Epicyclic gearing|epicyclic]] propeller reduction gearing which contained a [[clutch]] designed to limit the maximum [[torque]], thus protecting the reduction gears.<ref name="Guttery 1969, p.27">Guttery 1969, p.27.</ref> The later [[Rolls-Royce Merlin|Merlin]] engine from the same company used opposite rotation reduction gears to provide [[counter-rotating propellers]] for twin-engined aircraft, a much cheaper method than designing and building the engines to run in opposite directions.<ref>Flight 1946, pp. 92–94.</ref>

The challenge with coupling gearboxes to internal combustion engines is primarily the torsional [[resonance]] that can develop at certain speeds. The load of a propeller and reduction unit can alter the resonant frequencies of the crankshaft, allowing [[torsional vibration]] to increase rapidly to high levels at certain rotational speeds. Measures taken by the designer to mitigate torsional resonances in the original design of the engine can be rendered ineffective if the resonant frequency is altered by the use of a reduction unit. Clutches and/or flexible couplings are sometimes used to prevent torsional resonance from reaching damaging levels.

The [[Continental Tiara series]] engines were designed to drive their propellers directly from the [[camshaft]] (running at half engine speed).<ref>Gunston 2006, p. 191.</ref>

==Applications==
The use of a reduction unit is common in the construction of experimental [[homebuilt aircraft]] when automotive engines may be used. These engines, in addition to their lower cost, are customarily smaller in cubic inch displacement and develop peak torque at high [[revolutions per minute]] (rpm), typically near 4,500 rpm. Traditional aircraft engines, where the propeller most commonly is fastened directly to the engine crankshaft, develop peak power near the peak safe and efficient speed for the propeller—2,500 to 3,000 rpm. This speed is considered the typical maximum rpm for a single engine aircraft propeller due to the need to keep the propeller tip speed below the speed of sound.

Factory certified aircraft engines have also used reduction units integral to their design. The [[Cessna 175]] used a geared unit which is part of the [[Continental GO-300]] engine while the [[Helio Courier]] and several [[Beechcraft]] twins, among others, used the geared Lycoming [[Lycoming O-435|GO-435]] and [[Lycoming O-480|GO-480]]. Many [[light sport aircraft]] use engines from [[Rotax]] such as the [[Rotax 912]] which incorporates a geared reducer.

==See also==
*[[Ultralight]]

==References==

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
*''[[Flight International|Flight]]'' No. 1935, Volume XLIX, 24 January 1946.
* Gunston, Bill. ''Development of Piston Aero Engines''. Cambridge, England. Patrick Stephens Limited, 2006. ISBN 0-7509-4478-1
* Guttery, T.E. ''The Shuttleworth Collection''. London: Wm. Carling & Co, 1969. ISBN 0-901319-01-5
{{refend}}

{{Aircraft piston engine components}}
{{Aircraft gas turbine engine components}}
{{Aviation lists}}

[[Category:Propellers]]

Pai Mārire

2014-08-27T22:19:32Z

TuxLibNit: Fixed isbn of "Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou" (9th digit off by one)

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2013}}
The '''Pai Mārire''' movement (commonly known as '''Hauhau''') was a [[Syncretism|syncretic]] [[Māori people|Māori]] religion or [[cult]] that flourished in the North Island of New Zealand from about 1863 to 1874.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Walker | first = Ranginui | authorlink = Ranginui Walker | coauthors = | title = Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End | publisher = Penguin | year = 1990 | location = Auckland | pages = 130–132| isbn = 0-14-013240-6}}</ref> Founded in [[Taranaki Region|Taranaki]] by the prophet Te Ua Haumene, it incorporated [[Bible|Biblical]] and Māori spiritual elements and promised its followers deliverance from [[Pākehā]] domination,<ref name="king">{{cite book | last = King| first = Michael| authorlink = Michael King| title = The Penguin History of New Zealand| publisher = Penguin| year = 2003| location = Auckland| pages = 216–218 | isbn = 0-14-301867-1}}</ref> providing a religious aspect to the issue of Māori independence, which had until then been a purely political movement.<ref name=babbage1>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BabHauH-t1-body-d1.html S. Barton Babbage, "Hauhauism: An Episode in the Maori Wars 1863-1866", chapter 1. A.H & A.W. Reed, Dunedin, 1937]</ref> The embracing of the religion by some Māori also signalled a rejection of Christianity and a distrust of missionaries over their involvement in land purchases.<ref name=babbage3>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BabHauH-t1-body-d3.html#fn1-39 S. Barton Babbage, "Hauhauism: An Episode in the Maori Wars 1863-1866", chapter 3. A.H & A.W. Reed, Dunedin, 1937]</ref> The religion gained widespread support among North Island Māori and became closely associated with the [[Māori King Movement|King Movement]], but also became the cause of deep concern among European settlers due to the random violence of the followers on isolated settler communities.

Although founded with peaceful motives (its name means Good and Peaceful), Pai Mārire became better known for an extremist form of the religion known to the Europeans as Hauhau, though there is evidence the most violent activities, committed in 1864 and 1865, were led by subordinate prophets acting against the wishes of Te Ua and the basic precepts of the religion.<ref name=clark>Paul Clark, "Hauhau: The Pai Marire Search for Maori Identity," (1975) as cited by Belich in "The New Zealand Wars" (1986), chapter 11.</ref> The rise and spread of the violent expression of Pai Mārire was largely a response to the New Zealand Government's military operations against North Island Māori, which were aimed at exerting European sovereignty and gaining more land for white settlement;<ref name="king" /> historian B.J. Dalton claims that after 1865 Māori in arms were almost invariably termed Hauhaus.<ref>{{cite book | last =Dalton | first = B.J. | title = War and Politics in New Zealand 1855-1870| publisher =Sydney University Press | year = 1967 | location =Sydney | pages =207–208}}</ref>

Pai Mārire became well known for its revival of ancient rites including [[incantation]]s, a [[Totem pole|sacred pole]] and belief in supernatural protection from bullets. Its rites also included [[beheading]]s, the removal of the hearts of enemy soldiers and [[cannibalism]]. Pai Mārire spread rapidly through the North Island from 1864, welding tribes in a bond of passionate hatred against the Pākehā<ref name=Cowan1>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow02NewZ-c1.html James Cowan, The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol II, Chapter 1, 1922]</ref> and helping to inspire fierce military resistance to colonial forces, particularly during the [[Second Taranaki War]] (1863–1866).

Governor [[Sir George Grey]] launched a campaign of suppression against the religion in April 1865, culminating in the raiding of dozens of villages in Taranaki and on the East Coast and the arrest of more than 400 adherents, most of whom where incarcerated on the [[Chatham Islands]]. Elements of the religion were incorporated in the [[Ringatu]] ("Raised hand") religion formed in 1868 by Te Kooti, who escaped from the Chatham Islands after being incarcerated there.<ref name=babbage5 />

In the 2006 New Zealand Census 609 people identified "Hauhau" as their religion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Religious Affiliation (Total response)|url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2006CensusHomePage/classification-counts-tables/about-people/~/media/Statistics/Census/2006-reports/Classification-Count-Tables/People/religious-affiliation.xls|publisher=New Zealand Department of Statistics|accessdate=29 January 2014}}</ref>

==Rise of the prophet==
[[Image:Teua.jpg|right|thumb|350px|The prophet Te Ua Haumene, about 1866.]]Te Ua Haumene was born in [[Taranaki Region|Taranaki]], New Zealand, in the early 1820s. He and his mother were captured and enslaved by a rival tribe in 1826. He learned to read and write in Māori while in captivity and began studying the [[New Testament]]. He was [[baptism|baptised]] by the Rev John Whiteley in the [[Wesleyanism|Wesleyan]] mission at [[Kawhia]] in 1834 and given the name of Horopapera Tuwhakararo, a transliteration of the name John [[Zerubbabel]].<ref name=babbage1 /> He later returned to Taranaki.

During the 1850s he became a supporter of the [[Māori King Movement|King Movement]], which opposed further expansion of European sovereignty and the sale of land to European settlers, and in the 1860s fought against colonial forces in the [[First Taranaki War]]<ref name=Sinclair>{{cite book| last = Sinclair | first = Keith | authorlink = Keith Sinclair | title = A History of New Zealand | publisher = Penguin | year = 2000| location = Auckland | isbn = 0-14-029875-4 | page = 396}}</ref> and [[Invasion of the Waikato|Waikato War]], in which he also acted as a chaplain to the Māori soldiers. By the early 1860s Te Ua was part of a ''runanga'' (local board of management), which administered local government and also ensured that the boundary of the land that was covered by the ''[[mana]]'' of the Māori King was undisturbed.

By then the cornerstones of Te Ua's religious teaching were set. He believed Māori had a right to defend the boundaries of their territory; believed in national salvation of the Māori from the white settlers; and suspected that missionaries were aiding and abetting the loss of Māori land.

The elevation of Te Ua to the role of prophet followed an incident in September 1862 in which the British steamer ''Lord Worsley'' was wrecked off the Taranaki coast and local Māori debated what action should be taken with the cargo and crew. Te Ua – then living at Wereroa Pă, near [[Waitotara]] – argued that goods salvaged from the vessel should be sent to [[New Plymouth]] untouched, but was ignored and the cargo was instead plundered.<ref name=babbage1 /> On 5 September, aggrieved over what had taken place, he claimed to have experienced a vision in which the [[Archangel Gabriel]]<ref name=Sinclair /> announced to him that the [[End Times|last days]] of the [[Bible]] were at hand and that God had chosen him as a prophet who would cast out the Pākehā and restore Israel (the Māori) to their birthright in the land of [[Canaan]] (Aotearoa/New Zealand).

There are conflicting reports over Te Ua's response to the vision: he is claimed to have killed his child, explaining in a letter circulated to tribes that it was as a redemption for his people, "forgetful, desolate and in doubt".,<ref name=Sinclair /> while there are also claims he broke the child's leg and healed it miraculously.<ref name=babbage1 /> As reports about Te Ua began to circulate, he quickly gained a reputation for having other miraculous powers.<ref name=babbage1 /> The view among settlers was less sympathetic: Bishop William Williams claimed Te Ua showed strong signs of insanity and colonial soldier and historian T.W. Gudgeon claimed he had been thus far regarded as a "harmless lunatic" of "weak intellect, but yet of peaceful disposition".<ref name=babbage1 />

==Formation and spread of the religion==

Te Ua began to formulate his new religion, complete with a holy book, ''Ua Rongo Pai'' (the Gospel according to Ua) which combined elements of [[Old Testament]] morality, Christian doctrine and traditional Māori religion. Its goal was to create a peaceful society in which righteousness and justice prevailed. They believed they were a second Chosen People and that, with divine aid, they would regain control of their hereditary land<ref name=Sinclair /> when the Creator, [[Jehovah]], fought for them and drove the English into the sea.<ref name=babbage2>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BabHauH-t1-body-d2.html S. Barton Babbage, "Hauhauism: An Episode in the Maori Wars 1863-1866", chapter 2. A.H & A.W. Reed, Dunedin, 1937]</ref> To help him propagate the religion, Te Ua chose three men – Tahutaki, Hepenaia and Wi Parara.

===Ahuahu attack, April 1864===

Among white settlers, the existence of the new religion was brought into dramatic focus with a series of attacks in April and May 1864. On 6 April, a force led by Tahutaki and Hepenaia mounted an expedition to Ahuahu village, set amid dense bush south of [[Oakura]], near New Plymouth, believing some
[[Pākehā]] would be delivered into their hands.<ref name=babbage2 /> The group surprised a combined force of 57th Regiment and the newly formed Taranaki Military Settlers, a total of 101 men, as they rested without their weapons during a mission to destroy native crops. The Māori force killed seven and wounded 12 of their enemy. The bodies of the seven dead, including their commander, Captain P.W.J. Lloyd, were stripped naked and decapitated. The leg of one of the soldiers was also removed.<ref name=Wells24>[http://www.enzb.auckland.ac.nz/document/1878_-_Wells,_B._The_History_of_Taranaki/CHAPTER_XXIV:_THE_RENEWAL_OF_HOSTILITIES/p1?action=null B. Wells, The History of Taranaki, chapter 24, 1878.]</ref>

The easy victory of the Māori over the numerically stronger British-led force gave a powerful impetus to the Pai Mārire movement and confirmed in the minds of many Māori the protection of the Archangel Gabriel, of whom Te Ua was now regarded as a prophet. The number of adherents swelled and Pai Mārire rites continued to develop, some incorporating the severed heads of the slain soldiers, through which Te Ua claimed to communicate with Jehovah.<ref name=babbage2 />

===Assault on Sentry Hill, April 1864===

[[Image:Sentryhill.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Sentry Hill redoubt, Taranaki, 1863.]]Three weeks later, on 30 April 1864, 200 warriors demonstrated their faith in divine protection when they marched on the Sentry Hill redoubt, 9 km north-west of New Plymouth. The redoubt, on the crown of a hill, was defended by 75 imperial soldiers and two Coehorn [[mortar (weapon)|mortars]]. Atiawa Māori viewed the construction of the outpost on their land as a challenge and formed a war party of the best fighting men from west coast iwi. When they came under fire at close range, they shielded themselves from the fusillade only by holding their right hands up and chanting. As many as a fifth of the Māori force were killed in the assault.<ref name=Cowansentry>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow02NewZ-c2.html James Cowan, The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol II, Chapter 2, 1922]</ref>

In a 1920 interview with historian James Cowan, Te Kahu-Pukoro, a fighter who took part in the attack, explained: "The Pai-marire religion was then new, and we were all completely under its influence and firmly believed in the teaching of Te Ua and his apostles. Hepanaia Kapewhiti was at the head of the war-party. He was our prophet. He taught us the Pai-marire [[karakia]] (chant), and told us that if we repeated it as we went into battle the pakeha bullets would not strike us. This we all believed."<ref name="Cowansentry" />

Led by Hepanaia, the warriors participated in sacred ceremonies around a pole at the Manutahi pā, with all the principal Taranaki chiefs present: [[Wiremu Kingi]] and Kingi Parengarenga, as well as [[Te Whiti o Rongomai|Te Whiti]] and [[Tohu Kakahi]], both of whom would later become prophets at [[Parihaka]]. The force, armed with muskets, shotguns, tomahawks and spears, marched to Sentry Hill and at 8am launched their attack, ascending the slope that led to the redoubt. Te Kahu-Pukoro recalled:

{{cquote|We did not stoop or crawl as we advanced upon the redoubt; we marched on upright (haere tu tonu), and as we neared the fort we chanted steadily our Pai-marire hymn.

The soldiers who were all hidden behind their high parapet, did not open fire on us until we were within close range. Then the bullets came thickly among us, and close as the fingers on my hand. The soldiers had their rifles pointed through the loopholes in the parapet and between the spaces on top (between bags filled with sand and earth), and thus could deliver a terrible fire upon us with perfect safety to themselves. There were two tiers of rifles blazing at us. We continued our advance, shooting and shouting our war-cries. Now we cried out the ‘Hapa’ (‘Pass over’) incantation which Hepanaia had taught us, to cause the bullets to fly harmlessly over us: ‘Hapa, hapa, hapa! Hau, hau, hau! Pai-marire, rire, rire — hau!’ As we did so we held our right hands uplifted, palms frontward, on a level with our heads — the sign of the ringa-tu. This, we believed, would ward off the enemy's bullets; it was the faith with which we all had been inspired by Te Ua and his apostles.

The bullets came ripping through our ranks. ‘Hapa, hapa!’ our men shouted after delivering a shot, but down they fell. ‘Hapa!’ a warrior would cry, with his right hand raised to avert the enemy's bullets, and with a gasp — like that — he would fall dead. The tuakana (elder brother) in a family would fall with ‘Hapa!’ on his lips, then the teina (younger brother) would fall; then the old father would fall dead beside them.<ref name="Cowansentry" /> }}

About 34 Māori and one imperial soldier were killed.<ref name="Wells24" /> Among those shot dead, at almost point-blank range, were chiefs Hepanaia, Kingi Parengarenga (Taranaki), Tupara Keina (Ngatiawa), Tamati Hone (Ngati Ruanui) and Hare Te Kokai, who had advocated the frontal attack on the redoubt. According to Cowan, the slaughter temporarily weakened the new confidence in Pai-marire, but Te Ua had a satisfying explanation: that those who fell were to blame because they did not repose absolute faith in the karakia, or incantation.<ref name="Cowansentry" />

===Battle of Moutoa, May 1864===

Two weeks later, on 14 May, a Pai Mārire war party from the upper [[Whanganui River]] advanced on the settlement of [[Wanganui]], intent on raiding it. In what became known as the Battle of Moutoa, Lower Wanganui ''kupapa'' (Māori loyal to the Queen) routed the war party, killing 50 of them including the prophet Matene Rangitauira.<ref name=Cowan3>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow02NewZ-c3.html James Cowan, Vol.2, chapter 3]</ref>

Relieved settlers erected New Zealand's first war memorial at the site—today known as [[Moutoa Gardens]]—with an inscription that read: "To the memory of those brave men who fell at Moutoa 14 May 1864 in defence of law and order against fanaticism and barbarism".<ref>{{cite web | title = Moutoa Gardens NZ Wars memorial | work = New Zealand History Online | publisher = History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage | date = 13 March 2013 | url = http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/media/photo/moutoa-gardens-nz-wars-memorial | accessdate = 18 December 2013}}</ref>

===East Coast killings, March, April 1865===

[[Image:Haumap.jpg|thumb|450px|Routes of the Pai Mārire emissaries on the North Island, 1865.]]

The reverses at Sentry Hill and Moutoa Island reinforced Māori belief in Te Ua's movement, with the conviction that the defeats had been caused by disobedience to the leader by the prophets Hepanaia and Matene. More ''iwi'' attached themselves to Te Ua. In early 1865 emissaries carrying the smoke-dried severed heads<ref name=Cowan1>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow02NewZ-c1.html James Cowan, The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol 2, Chapter 1, 1922]</ref> were sent from Taranaki to chief [[Hirini Te Kani]] at [[Poverty Bay]] via [[Wanganui]] and [[Taupo]] in two parties – one via [[Rotorua]], [[Whakatane]], [[Opotiki]], and [[East Cape]], and the other through the centre of the island via [[Ruatahuna]] and [[Wairoa]].

The emissaries were instructed to proceed peaceably and obtain the support of tribes they passed, delegating their spiritual powers to leading converts in each tribe, who each took up the duties of Pai Mārire priest.<ref name=Cowan1 /> But on 23 February the group clashed at [[Pipiriki]] near Wanganui with Māori loyal to the New Zealand government and determined from then to murder missionaries they encountered.<ref name=babbage3 />

Among European settlers unease grew at the spreading influence of Pai Mārire. In a latter to the [[Minister of Māori Affairs|Native Minister]], the Resident Magistrate for Central Wanganui warned: "The Hauhau fanaticism is spreading very rapidly in the Province, and I fear will be the cause of great mischief. It is now the mainstay of the [[Māori King Movement|King movement]]."<ref name=babbage3 />

The warning came too late to save the life of one North Island missionary. At Taupo the Pai Mārire recruiting party ransacked the house of the Rev. [[Thomas Samuel Grace]] and at Opotiki on 2 March shot, hanged and decapitated the German-born Rev. [[Carl Sylvius Völkner]]. His head was taken to the local church, where his eyes were removed and eaten by the prophet [[Kereopa Te Rau]]. [[Völkner Incident|The killing]] was claimed to be in part revenge for Volkner's activities in spying on local Māori for the government,<ref name=clark /> but may also have been motivated by Kereopa's wish to bring government retaliation on local [[Te Whakatōhea]] Māori as a payback for an earlier intertribal battle with his [[Te Arawa]] ''iwi''.<ref name=babbage4>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BabHauH-t1-body-d4.html S. Barton Babbage, "Hauhauism: An Episode in the Maori Wars 1863-1866", chapter 4. A.H & A.W. Reed, Dunedin, 1937]</ref>

Rev Grace, who had fled from Taupo to Opotiki, was arrested and put on trial by the Pai Mārire party. He was rescued from captivity two weeks later by a British [[man-of-war]], ''HMS Eclipse'', after an attempt by local Pai Mārire leaders to exchange him for Tauranga chief [[Hori Kingi Tupaea|Hori Tupaea]], who was in prison.<ref name=babbage4 />

On 22 July, Taranaki prophet Horomona led the murder of the master and two of the three crew members of the schooner ''Kate'' at Whakatane.

==Government suppression==

[[Image:Patara.jpg|right|thumb|The prophet Patara Raukatauri.]]On 29 April 1865 Governor [[George Grey]] issued a proclamation condemning the "revolting acts ... repugnant to all humanity" carried out by Pai Mārire followers and warned the government would "resist and suppress by force of arms if necessary, and by every means in my power, fanatical doctrines, rites, and practices of the aforesaid character".<ref name=babbage5>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BabHauH-t1-body-d5.html S. Barton Babbage, "Hauhauism: An Episode in the Maori Wars 1863-1866", chapter 5. A.H & A.W. Reed, Dunedin, 1937]</ref>

Horomona and Kirimangu were hanged for their 22 July killings on the schooner ''Kate'' and a coalition of government and loyal Māori forces led by [[Hawke's Bay Province]] Superintendent [[Donald McLean (New Zealand politician)|Donald McLean]] embarked on a mission to crush the religion on the East Coast. From June to October 1865 there was a virtual civil war on the East Coast culminating in the battle of Waerenga-a-Hika in Poverty Bay in November.<ref name="king" /> Hundreds of followers were arrested in the campaign, while in Taranaki a separate [[Second Taranaki War|campaign]] led by the increasingly reluctant British commander, General [[Duncan Alexander Cameron|Duncan Cameron]], raided dozens of villages to arrest hundreds more adherents.

In February 1866 Te Ua was captured near [[Opunake]] in Taranaki by Cameron's replacement, Major-General [[Trevor Chute]]. Chute claimed Te Ua was immediately abandoned by all those in his village, who swore an oath of allegiance to the Crown and were set free. He reported that ''kupapa'' (loyal) Māori urged his immediate execution. Te Ua was taken to Wanganui, writing en route to his North Island supporters, urging: "Let evil be brought to an end ... in order that the General may cease operations against you."<ref name=babbage5 />

Te Ua and Patara were freed in Auckland and most other leaders were pardoned, but Grey transported 400 East Coast followers, including [[Te Kooti]], to the [[Chatham Islands]] for incarceration.<ref name="king" /> Elements of Pai Mārire were later incorporated into the [[Ringatu]] religion founded by Te Kooti.

Te Ua died at [[Oeo]] in Taranaki in October 1866.

==Rites and beliefs==

Te Ua's followers identified themselves with the Jews, calling their ministers ''Teu'' (Jews) and accepted the Jewish [[seventh-day Sabbath]]. They believed they were a second Chosen People and that, with divine aid, they would return from the wilderness to freedom in their hereditary land.<ref name=Sinclair /> Te Ua taught that the Creator, [[Jehovah]], would fight for them and drive the English into the sea.<ref name="babbage2"/>

When the last of the enemy had perished, every Māori who had died since the beginning of the world would be resurrected and stand in the presence of Zerubbabel, healed of all of diseases and infirmities. Men would be sent from heaven to teach Māori all the arts and sciences known by Europeans. Their first great day of deliverance would be in December 1864.<ref name="babbage2"/> He urged men and women to abandon [[monogamy]] and live together communally to produce as many children as possible.<ref name=babbage2 />

Services were held at a ''niu'', a tall pole, often about 18m high, with [[Yard (sailing)|yard-arms]] from which hung ropes. The first of these ''niu'' was the mast of the ''Lord Worsley''. Members of the congregation circled the ''niu'' several times a day, chanting and touching a severed head mounted on a pole while priests conducted prayer services. Historian Babbage wrote: "The worshippers worked themselves into a state bordering on frenzy during the procedure of the ritual, until [[catalepsy]] frequently prostrated them."<ref name=babbage2 />

The chants as devotees circled the ''niu'' were described as "a jumble of Christian and ancient concepts, of soldier and sailor terms, of English and Māori language with the barking watchword of the cult interspersed".<ref>J.M. Keesing, "The Changing Maori", Memoir of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research, 1928, as cited by Babbage, chapter 2.</ref> The "angels of the wind" were said to be present during the service, ascending and descending the ropes dangling from the mast's yard-arm.<ref name=babbage2 /> By the end of 1865 a ''niu'' stood in almost every large village from Taranaki to the Bay of Plenty and from the north of the [[Wellington]] district to the [[Waikato]] frontier.<ref name=Cowan1 />

===The chants===

Historian James Cowan described many of the chants as "simply meaningless strings of English words rounded into the softer [[Māori language|Māori]]; others were either transliterations or mispronunciations of parts of the [[Church of England]] services, with a sprinkling of [[Latin]] from the [[Roman Catholic]] ritual. Some phrases were military orders, picked up at the soldiers' camps. Some others showed a nautical origin; Te Ua [[Boxing the compass|boxed the compass]] like any pakeha sailor."<ref name=Cowan1 />

The chant began:

:''Kira, wana, tu, tiri, wha—Teihana!
:''Rewa, piki rewa, rongo rewa, tone, piki tone—Teihana!
:''Rori, piki rori, rongo rori, puihi, piki puihi—Teihana!
:''Rongo puihi, rongo tone, hira, piki hira, rongo hira—Teihana!
:''Mauteni, piki mauteni, rongo mauteni, piki niu, rongo niu—Teihana!
:''Nota, no te pihi, no te hihi, noriti mino, noriti, koroni—Teihana!
:''Hai, kamu, te ti, oro te mene, rauna te niu—Teihana!
:''Hema, rura wini, tu mate wini, kamu te ti—Teihana!''

(Translation)

:Kill, one, two, three, four—Attention!
:River, big river, long river, stone, big stone—Attention!
:Road, big road, long road, bush, big bush—Attention!
:Long bush, long stone, hill, big hill, long hill—Attention!
:Mountain, big mountain, long mountain, big staff, long staff—Attention!
:North, north-by-east, nor'-nor'-east, nor'-east-by-north, north-east, colony—Attention!
:Come to tea, all the men, round the niu—Attention!
:Shem, rule the wind, too much wind, come to tea—Attention!<ref name=Cowan1 />

===Divine protection in battle===

Te Ua taught that the divine service and strict adherence to his instruction would make them impervious to bullets if, when under fire, they would raise their right hand and cry, ''"Hapa! Hapa! Pai Mārire, hau! Hau! Hau!"'' "Hapa" meant to pass over, or ward off, while the exclamation "Hau!" at the end of the choruses – said by one soldier to uttered in a way that sounded like the bark of a dog –<ref>Lt Gudgeon, as quoted by Babbage, Ch.2</ref> had a literal meaning of "wind" but referred to the life principle or vital spark of man, while the wind angels were named "Anahera hau".<ref name=babbage2 />

A similar belief in the mystical power to avert bullets had earlier been reported among Islamic groups in Africa and Asia<ref name=Cowan1 /> and America, such as the [[Ghost Shirts|Ghost Shirt Movement]].

==See also==
*[[Māori religion]]
*[[Religion in New Zealand]]
*[[East Cape War]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*Clark, P. (1975) ''Hauhau: The Pai Marire Search for Maori Identity''. Auckland University Press/Oxford University Press.
*Head, L.F. (1992) The Gospel of Te Ua Haumene. ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' vol 101:7-44. Complete text of Te Ua's own copy, now in the Grey Collection, Auckland Public Library.
*Lyall, A. C. (1979) ''Whakatohea of Opotiki''. AH & AW Reed.
*"Taranaki Religions" 2001 NJ Taniwha T.W.O.R 2003

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pai Marire}}
[[Category:Māori organisations]]
[[Category:Māori history]]
[[Category:Māori religion]]
[[Category:Religion in New Zealand]]
[[Category:Cannibalism in Oceania]]

Loup House

2014-08-18T21:23:17Z

TuxLibNit: Fixed isbn of "Castles of the Clans" (missing 6th digit). Rehyphenated fixed isbn.

[[File:Loup House - geograph.org.uk - 1167211.jpg|thumb|300px|Loup House]]
'''Loup House''' is a manor house at Loup north of [[Clachan, Kintyre|Clachan]], Kintyre, Argyll and Bute, Scotland. The estate was once home to the chiefs of [[Clan MacAlister]]. Sir [[Sir William Mackinnon, 1st Baronet|William Mackinnon]] purchased the estate in 1867.

==Castle==
A fortified dwelling or castle previously existed upon the site, however it is not known when it was constructed.<ref>Coventry, {{Page needed|date=May 2011}}</ref>

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*{{Cite book|last=Coventry |first=Martin |title=Castles of the Clans; The Strongholds and Seats of 750 Scottish Families and Clans |year=2010 |edition=Reprint |publisher=Goblinshead |location=Musselburgh, Scotland |isbn=1-899874-36-4}}

{{coord|55.7639|-5.5681|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in Argyll and Bute]]
[[Category:Clan MacAlister]]
[[Category:Kintyre]]

Schlacht bei Walcourt

2014-07-17T21:08:59Z

TuxLibNit: Fixed isbn of "The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715" (ISBN 13 check in ISBN 10)

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Walcourt
|partof=the [[Nine Years' War]]
|image=
|caption=Battle of Walcourt 1689
|date=25 August 1689<ref>All dates in the article are in the Gregorian calendar (unless otherwise stated). The Julian calendar as used in England in 1689 differed by ten days. Thus, the battle of Walcourt was fought on 25 August (Gregorian calendar) or 15 August (Julian calendar). In this article (O.S) is used to [[annotate]] Julian dates with the year adjusted to 1 January. See the article [[Old Style and New Style dates]] for a more detailed explanation of the dating issues and conventions.</ref>
|place=[[Walcourt]], [[Spanish Netherlands]]<br>(Present-day [[Belgium]])
|coordinates={{coord|50|15|0|N|04|25|0|E|display=inline}}
|result=[[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]] victory
|combatant1={{flagcountry|Kingdom of France}}<ref>1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th Edition, New York 1910, Vol.X, p.460: "The oriflamme and the Chape de St Martin were succeeded at the end of the 16th century, when Henry III., the last of the house of Valois, came to the throne, by the white standard powdered with fleurs-de-lis. This in turn gave place to the famous tricolour."George Ripley, Charles Anderson Dana, ''The American Cyclopaedia'', New York, 1874, p. 250, "...the standard of France was white, sprinkled with golden fleur de lis...". *[http://www.anyflag.com/history/fleur23.htm] The original Banner of France was strewn with fleurs-de-lis. *[http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgdisplaylargemeta.cfm?strucID=585779&imageID=1236061&parent_id=585395&word=&s=&notword=&d=&c=&f=&sScope=&sLevel=&sLabel=&lword=&lfield=&num=0&imgs=12&total=98&pos=1&snum=]:on the reverse of this plate it says: "Le pavillon royal était véritablement le drapeau national au dix-huitième siecle...Vue du chateau d'arrière d'un vaisseau de guerre de haut rang portant le pavillon royal (blanc, avec les armes de France)."</ref>
|combatant2={{flag|Dutch Republic}}<br>{{flagcountry|Kingdom of England}}<br>{{flagcountry|Kingdom of Scotland}}<br>{{flag|Holy Roman Empire}}<br>{{flag|Spain|1506}}
|commander1={{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Louis de Crevant, Duke of Humières|Duc de Humières]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Dutch Republic}} [[Prince Georg Friedrich of Waldeck|Prince of Waldeck]] <br/> {{flagicon|England}} [[John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough]]
|strength1=24,000<ref>Chandler: ''Marlborough as Military Commander,'' p. 30. All statistics taken from Chandler.</ref>
|strength2=35,000
|casualties1=~600–2000 killed or wounded
|casualties2=~100–300 killed or wounded<ref>Chandler: ''Marlborough as Military Commander,'' p. 32. Chandler states less than 100; Churchill states 300.</ref>
|}}
{{Campaignbox Theatres of the War of the Grand Alliance}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Grand Alliance}}

The '''Battle of Walcourt''' was fought on 25 August 1689 during the [[Nine Years' War]]. The action took place near the ancient walled town of [[Walcourt]] near [[Charleroi]] in the [[Spanish Netherlands]], and brought to a close a summer of uneventful marching, manoeuvring, and foraging. The battle was a success for the [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]] – the only significant engagement in the theatre during the campaign of 1689.

The Allied army was commanded by the [[Prince Georg Friedrich of Waldeck|Prince of Waldeck]]; the French army by the [[Louis de Crevant, Duke of Humières|duc de Humières]]. The battle incurred some 2,000 French casualties against the Allied losses of less than 300. The Allied victory had been an auspicious opening of the war for [[William III of England|King William III]] and the Alliance, but for Humières, his military reputation received a fatal blow; in the following campaign of 1690, Humières was replaced by the [[François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg|duc de Luxembourg]].

==Background==
In September 1688, [[King Louis XIV]]’s forces invaded the [[Rhineland]] and besieged the German town of [[Philippsburg]]. Louis had hoped to compel the powerful German princes, and their Holy Roman Emperor, [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], into converting the 1684 [[Truce of Ratisbon]] into a permanent peace, thus confirming Louis' territorial gains of the ‘[[War of the Reunions|Reunions]]’.<ref>Lynn: ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714,'' p. 191</ref> Other German towns fell in quick succession, including [[Oppenheim]], [[Kaiserslautern]], [[Heidelberg]], and the key [[fortress of Mainz]], but instead of cowering under French aggression, the German princes united against Louis’ forces. What was supposed to be a campaign lasting only months, evolved into the [[Nine Years' War]].

By moving into the Rhineland, Louis dispelled fears in the Dutch Republic of a possible attack upon them, thus facilitating Prince [[William III of England|William of Orange]]’s invasion of England in November. William’s success in the subsequent ‘[[Glorious Revolution]]’ – leading to his accession to the English throne in February 1689 (reigning jointly with his wife [[Mary II of England|Mary]]) – enabled him to bring the full commercial and military power of England into the war against France, and rapidly led to the formation of the coalition he had long desired. On 12 May 1689, the Dutch and Emperor Leopold I signed the [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]], the aims of which were no less than to force France back to her borders as they were at the end of the [[Thirty Years War]], and the [[Franco-Spanish War (1653)|Franco-Spanish War]], thus depriving Louis of all his gains since his assumption of power.<ref name=wolf43>Wolf: ''The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715.'' p. 43</ref>

The [[Spanish Netherlands]] would later become the main theatre of the war, but during the conflict’s early stages in 1689, it was considered only a secondary front. This quiescence was because the main protagonists were busy elsewhere: King William was occupied with political matters in England and a [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] rebellion in Scotland, whilst King Louis was busy along the Rhine where the powerful German princes were preparing their forces to push the French army back towards the Rhine, and reverse all their earlier setbacks.<ref name=wolf43/>

==Prelude==
[[File:Spanish Netherlands 1689 - Battle of Walcourt.PNG|thumb|300px|The Spanish Netherlands. Walcourt lies south of Charleroi near the river Sambre.]]

On 14 May 1689, Humières assembled his army for the new campaign in the Spanish Netherlands near Boussières on the river [[Sambre]], where he marshalled 24 battalions and 75 squadrons, totalling 24,000 men.<ref>Lynn: ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714,'' p. 200</ref> William entrusted overall command of his 35,000 troops in the theatre to the 69-year-old [[Prince Georg Friedrich of Waldeck|Prince of Waldeck]]. The English contingent of 8,000 men was commanded by the [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Earl of Marlborough]], but William remained sceptical about the quality of the English troops; compared to the Dutch troops of the period, the English lacked organisation, field administration, and a [[commissariat]].<ref name=chandler30>Chandler: ''Marlborough as Military Commander,'' p. 30</ref> However, Waldeck watched with interest as Marlborough sought to bring order and organisation to his command, later writing that he hoped the English " … were as disciplined as they were brave" – although by September Waldeck was still lamenting their " … temperament, nonchalance, wretched clothing and the worst of shoes."<ref name=chandler30/>

Administrative problems and the late arrival of contingents delayed the opening of the Allied offensive in the region until late June. Waldeck moved from near [[Tienen]] and headed towards [[Fleurus]]; the two armies spent the next two months marching and counter-marching in an attempt to gain a strategic advantage.<ref name=chandler30/> By 24 August Waldeck had crossed the Sambre and had camped near the small ancient town of [[Walcourt]] where he was satisfied to live upon enemy territory.<ref>Churchill: ''Marlborough: His Life and Times,'' p. 279</ref>

==Battle==
On 25 August, Allied foragers, escorted by 600 English troops of Colonel Hodges’ Regiment (16th Foot, later the [[The Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment|Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment]]) were sent out to the surrounding countryside. Humières, in an effort to expel the intruders, fell upon the foraging parties and allied outposts about 2 miles (~3 km) south of Walcourt. The foragers were recalled and the Allied camp made readiness for action.

For nearly two hours Hodges’ regiment was able to prevent the development of the French vanguard, and covered the retreat of the surprised foragers before retiring his troops to a nearby mill (''see map''). By 11:00, Marlborough had arrived within sight of the engagement. Noticing Hodges was under attack by several French batteries, the English commander ordered the embattled colonel to withdraw to a hill east of Walcourt, behind which the main Allied force was forming.<ref name=chandler32>Chandler: ''Marlborough as Military Commander,'' p. 32</ref> Waldeck later commented to William – "[Hodges] and the English, who are with him, have accomplished miracles, and I could never have believed that so many of the English would show such a ''joie de combattre''."<ref name=chandler32/>

[[File:Battle of Walcourt 1689.png|thumb|250px|Battle of Walcourt.]]

Despite his troop’s failure to overcome Hodges’ small force, Humières decided to attack Walcourt itself, which had since been occupied by 600 men. The ground was not favourable to the French – although the defences of the town were antiquated, it stood on a hill partly covered by a river.<ref name=churchill280>Churchill: ''Marlborough: His Life and Times,'' p. 280</ref> Nevertheless, several attacks were pressed home, but the French suffered heavy casualties from the Allied enfilading guns. Despite the losses Humières persisted, and sent a party of ''Gardes Françaises'' to try to set alight Walcourt’s gates. The attempt failed, and the safety of the garrison was assured after Brigadier-General [[Thomas Tollemache]] brought the [[Coldstream Guards]] and a German Battalion into the town around 14:00.<ref name=chandler32/>

Humières saw himself forced to widen the battle and now flung his men in an improvised attack against the right wing of the main Allied line beyond the town.<ref name=churchill280/> However, at about 18:00, Waldeck launched a double counterattack against the tiring French; [[General Slangenburg|General Slangenburg's]] Dutch against their left, and Marlborough, at the head of the [[Life Guards (British Army)|Life Guards]] and the [[Royal Horse Guards|Blues]] (supported by two regiments of foot), against their right. The French reeled back in disarray but valuable service by the French cavalry, commanded by Colonel [[Claude Louis Hector de Villars|Villars]], prevented the retreat from becoming a rout, allowing Humières to extricate his men from the field.<ref name=chandler32/>

Humières had been humiliated, but due to administrative problems, Waldeck made little attempt to follow up his success.<ref name=chandler32/> For a few days the two armies remained face to face, cannonading one another at intervals, but no further fighting occurred. Humières returned to the region of the [[Scheldt]] fortresses, and Waldeck to [[Brussels]].

Among the Scottish Regiments taking part in the battle were [[History of the Scots Guards (1642–1804)|the Scots Guards]], [[Royal Scots|The Royal Scots]], and the Royal Scots Fusiliers.<ref>http://www.regimental-art.com/royal_scots_fusiliers.htm</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The battle (the only notable incident in the whole campaign), was sharp and bloody; there had within living memory been no equally serious encounter between the English and French. French losses are estimated between 600 and 2,000, and six guns; Allied casualties numbered between 100–300. Prince of Waldeck commended the 39-year-old Marlborough to William who " … in spite of his youth" had shown great military aptitude; on 5 September (26 August O.S), in recognition of his endeavours, William awarded Marlborough the lucrative colonelcy of the 7th Foot (later the [[Royal Fusiliers]]).

The victory at Walcourt had bolstered Allied confidence; but Humières, dubbed ''le maréchal sans lumière'' by his colleagues, found himself disgraced.<ref name=chandler32/> Before Humières went into winter quarters, he detached four battalions of Gardes françaises to march to the Rhineland, where in 1689 Louis' outnumbered forces faced their greatest challenge.<ref>Lynn: ''The Wars of Louis XIV 1667–1714,'' p. 200</ref> But by 1690, the main seat of action of the war returned to Flanders. For this campaign, however, King Louis entrusted command of the theatre to the [[François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg|duc de Luxembourg]], who, on 1 July, fought his tactical masterpiece at the [[Battle of Fleurus (1690)|Battle of Fleurus]].<ref>Lynn: ''The French Wars 1667–1714,'' p. 51</ref>

==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
{{reflist}}
</div>

==References==
*[[David G. Chandler|Chandler, David G]]. ''Marlborough as Military Commander.'' Spellmount Ltd, (2003). ISBN 1-86227-195-X
*[[Winston Churchill|Churchill, Winston]]. ''Marlborough: His Life and Times.'' The University of Chicago Press (2002). ISBN 0-226-10633-0
*Lynn, John A. ''The French wars 1667–1714: The Sun King at War.'' Osprey Publishing, (2002). ISBN 1-84176-361-6
*Lynn, John A. ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714.'' Longman, (1999). ISBN 0-582-05629-2
*[[John Baptist Wolf|Wolf, John B]]. ''The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715.'' Harper & Row, (1962). ISBN 978-0-06-139750-9

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2011}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Walcourt 1689, Battle Of}}
[[Category:1689 in France]]
[[Category:Battles of the Nine Years' War]]
[[Category:Battles involving France]]
[[Category:Battles involving England]]
[[Category:Battles involving Scotland]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Dutch Republic]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1689]]

Jaromil Jireš

2014-06-07T12:58:13Z

TuxLibNit: Fixed isbn of "Film History" (missing 6th digit)

{{Infobox person
|image =
|imagesize =
| name = Jaromil Jireš
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1935|12|10|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Bratislava]], [[Czechoslovakia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|10|24|1935|12|10|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]]
| othername =
| occupation = [[Film director]]<br>[[Screenwriter]]
| yearsactive = 1958–1999
}}
'''Jaromil Jireš''' (10 December 1935 – 24 October 2001) was a director associated with the [[Czechoslovak New Wave]] movement.<ref name=C>{{cite journal |author=Leonard Quart |title='The Joke' |journal=Cineaste |volume=Fall 2003 |pages=60–1 |accessdate=26 October 2012}}</ref>

During the 1960s, Jireš was often in conflict with censors, limiting his output.<ref name=CC/> His 1963 film ''[[The Cry (1963 film)|The Cry]]'' was entered into the [[1964 Cannes Film Festival]].<ref name="festival-cannes.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.festival-cannes.com/en/archives/ficheFilm/id/3071/year/1964.html |title=Festival de Cannes: The Cry |accessdate=2009-02-28|work=festival-cannes.com}}</ref> It is often described as the first film of the [[Czechoslovak New Wave]], a movement known for its dark humor, use of non-professional actors, and "art-cinema realism".<ref>{{cite book |title=Film History: An Introduction |author=Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell |year=1994 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=0070064458 |page=541 |accessdate=29 October 2012}}</ref>

Another of Jireš's prominent works is ''[[The Joke (film)|The Joke]]'', adapted from a novel by [[Milan Kundera]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://greyfrankfilm.blogspot.com/2007/02/jaromil-jires-joke-1969.html|title=Jaromil Jires, The Joke, 1969|author=Francisco López|accessdate=2007-02-06}}</ref> ''The Joke'' tells the story of Ludvik Jahn, a man expelled from the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovakian Communist Party]] for an idle joke to his girlfriend, and the revenge he later seeks through adultery. The film was produced during the political liberalization of the 1968 [[Prague Spring]] and contains many scenes which satirize and criticize the country's communist leadership. Released after the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]], the film had initial success in theaters but was then banned by authorities for the next twenty years. [[Amos Vogel]] wrote that the film was "possibly the most shattering indictment of totalitarianism to come out of a Communist country".<ref name=CC>{{cite web |url=http://www.criterion.com/current/posts/2269-eclipse-series-32-pearls-of-the-czech-new-wave |title=Eclipse Series 32: Pearls of the Czech New Wave |author=Michael Koresky |publisher=The Criterion Collection |archivedate=28 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BmB39cdd |accessdate=28 October 2012}}</ref>

''[[Valerie a týden divů|Valerie and her Week of Wonders]]'', set in the early nineteenth century, was based on a novel by [[Vítězslav Nezval]] and released in 1970. It is a film in a [[Gothic fiction|Gothic]] style concerning the onset of [[menstruation]] and the sexual awakening of a thirteen-year-old girl.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kinoeye.org/03/09/krzywinska09.php|title=Transgression, transformation and titillation|author=Tanya Krzywinska}}</ref>

His 1979 film ''[[The Young Man and Moby Dick]]'' was entered into the [[11th Moscow International Film Festival]].<ref name="Moscow1979">{{cite web |url=http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year=1979 |title=11th Moscow International Film Festival (1979) |accessdate=2013-01-19 |work=MIFF}}</ref>

Following the Soviet takeover of Czechoslovakia, Jireš continued to work in the country, making less controversial material. In 1971, he directed ''My Love to the Swallows'', a World War II film about a Czech resistance fighter.<ref name=CC/> His 1982 film ''[[Incomplete Eclipse]]'' was entered into the [[33rd Berlin International Film Festival]].<ref name="Berlinale">{{cite web |url=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1983/02_programm_1983/02_Programm_1983.html |title=Berlinale: 1983 Programme |accessdate=2010-11-20 |publisher=berlinale.de}}</ref> He continued making films through the '80s and '90s, including ballet and opera documentaries for television.<ref name=CC/>

== Filmography ==
* ''[[Fever (1958 film)|Fever]]'' (Documentary short, 1958)
* ''[[Uncle (1959 film)|Uncle]]'' (Short, 1959)
* ''[[The Hall of Lost Steps]]'' (Short, 1960)
* ''[[Footprints (1960 film)|Footprints]]'' (Short, 1960)
* ''[[Don Spagát]]'' (Short, 1962)
* ''[[The Cry (1963 film)|The Cry]]'' (1963)
* ''[[The Log Cabin (film)|The Log Cabin]]'' (Short, 1965)
* ''[[Pearls of the Deep]]'' (segment "Romance", 1966)
* ''[[Citizen Karel Havlicek]]'' (Short, 1966)
* ''[[The King Game]]'' (Short, 1967)
* ''[[Don Juan 68]]'' (Short, 1968)
* ''[[The Joke (film)|The Joke]]'' (1969)
* ''[[The Journey of Vincence Mostek and Simon Pesl of Vlcnov to Prague A.D. 1969]]'' (short, 1969)
* ''[[Grandpa (film)|Grandpa]]'' (Documentary short, 1969)
* ''[[Court of Justice (film)]]'' (Short documentary, 1969)
* ''[[Valerie and Her Week of Wonders (film)|Valerie and Her Week of Wonders]]'' (1970)
* ''[[And Give My Love to the Swallows]]'' (1972) - chamber drama depicting the story of the Czech resistance member [[Marie Kudeříková]]
* ''[[Leos Janácek (film)|Leos Janácek]]'' (TV Movie, 1973)
* ''[[People from the Subway]]'' (1974)
* ''[[The Safe Cracker]]'' (Short, 1974)
* ''[[Il divino Boemo]]'' (Short, 1974)
* ''[[Island of the Silver Herons]]'' (TV Movie, 1976)
* ''[[Talíre nad Velkým Malíkovem]]'' (1977)
* ''[[The Young Man and Moby Dick]]'' (1979)
* ''[[The Diary of One Who Disappeared (film)|The Diary of One Who Disappeared]]'' (TV Movie, 1979)
* ''[[Payment in Kind]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Úteky domu]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Svet Alfonse muchy]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Bohuslav Martinu (film)|Bohuslav Martinu]]'' (TV Movie, 1980)
* ''[[Opera ve vinici]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Kouzelná Praha Rudolfa II]]'' (TV Movie, 1982)
* ''[[Incomplete Eclipse]]'' (1983)
* ''[[Katapult (film)|Katapult]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Prodlouzený cas]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Milos Forman - Das Kuckucksei]]'' (TV Movie documentary, 1985)
* ''[[Lev s bílou hrívou]]'' (1986)
* ''[[Sidney Lumet: I Love New York]]'' (TV Movie documentary, 1987)
* ''[[O Háderunovi a víle Elóre]]'' (TV Movie, 1987)
* ''[[Po zarostlem chodnícku]]'' (Documentary, 1987)
* ''[[Nadeje má hluboké dno]]'' (TV Movie, 1988)
* ''[[Antonín Dvorák (film)|Antonín Dvorák]]'' (TV Mini-Series, 1990)
* ''[[F. Murray Abraham (film)|F. Murray Abraham]]'' (TV Movie documentary, 1991)
* ''[[Labyrinth (1991 film)|Labyrinth]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Beschreibung eines Kampfes]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Rekviem za ty, kteri prezili]]'' (Documentary, 1992)
* ''[[Hudba a víra]]'' (TV Movie documentary, 1992)
* ''[[Hudba a bolest]]'' (TV Movie documentary, 1992)
* ''[[And If There Are Angels Here]]'' (TV Movie, 1992)
* ''[[Helimadoe]]'' (1994)
* ''[[The Dance Teacher]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Double Role]]'' (1999)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=0423180}}
{{Jaromil Jireš}}
{{Authority control|VIAF=66672553}}


{{Persondata
|NAME= Jireš, Jaromil
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= [[Film director]], [[Screenwriter]]
|DATE OF BIRTH= 1935-12-10
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Bratislava]], [[Czechoslovakia]]
|DATE OF DEATH= 2001-10-24
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]]
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jires, Jaromil}}
[[Category:1935 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Czech film directors]]
[[Category:Czech screenwriters]]
[[Category:Czechoslovak film directors]]
[[Category:People from Bratislava]]

Phönizische Siedlung von Sa Caleta

2014-06-03T08:37:09Z

TuxLibNit: Fixed isbn of "Rough Guide to Ibiza" (stray digit)

{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Sa Caleta
|native_name =
|alternate_name =
|image = Phoenician Settlement remains, Sa Caleta, Ibiza 28 May 2012 (2).JPG
|imagealttext =
|caption = The Phoenician Settlement of Sa Caleta
|map_type =
|map_alt =
|latitude =
|longitude =
|map_size =
|location ={{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Ibiza Town]], [[Ibiza]]
|region = [[Ibiza]]
|coordinates =
|type = [[Human settlement|Settlement]]
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built = c. 654 BC
|abandoned = fifty years later
|epochs =
|cultures =
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations =
|archaeologists =
|condition = Ruins
|ownership =
|management = Consell d’Eivissa
|public_access = Limited
|website =
|notes =
}}

'''Sa Caleta Phoenician Settlement''' can be found on a rocky headland about 10 kilometers west of [[Ibiza Town]]. The Phoenicians established a foothold around 650 BC.<ref name="srok1">Ibiza and Formentera’s Heritage, A Non-clubber’s Guide, By Paul R. Davis Pub: Barbury Press, 2009, ISBN 978-84-612-2908-6</ref> On this site Archaeologist have discovered the remains of simple stone buildings. The discovery is so important that the site has been designated a World Heritage status.<ref name="srok1"/>

==History and Location==
The [[Phoenicians]] began arriving on the island of [[Ibiza]] around 650 BC and constructed this settlement on the rocky headland at Sa Caleta.<ref name="srok2">The Rough Guide to Ibiza and Formentera, By Ian Stewart Pub: Rough Guides Ltd, 2003, ISBN 1-84353-063-5</ref> This large Phoenician settlement was uncovered by archaeologists during the 1980s and 1990s under the auspices of the Consell Insular d’Eivissa i Formentera. The site was declared a [[World Heritage Site]] in December 1999. The site consists of an urban area with streets and a small square, conventionally referred to as ‘neighbourhoods’. The Phoenicians who first settled here had arrived from the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] coast and settled here progressively until all the usable space on this headland had become a veritable [[Urban area|urban]] center and once covered a surface area of 4 [[hectares]].

===Economic Activities===
A factor in the choice of the location was its proximity to the natural [[salt]] marshes of the island.<ref name="srok1"/> The Phoenicians exploited this valuable natural commodity. The shallow pools of seawater within the marsh evaporated under the hot summer sun enjoyed by the island, leaving a gleaming crust of salt crystals. The Phoenicians collected these deposits and so began the first commercial enterprise of the island. The settlers also engaged in other activities which included fishing, baking, weaving and metalworking,<ref name="srok1"/> all of which was used to trade to supplement the meager local produce of the island.

==Visiting==
Sa Caleta is located on the south west coast of the island about 10 Kilometers from Ibiza town.<ref name="srok2"/>

The site is preserved behind tall iron railings behind which are the restored and preserved footings of several dwellings.<ref name="srok1"/> The remains have been designated the ‘southern quarter’ of the settlement by the archaeologist who have excavated the site. Most of the buildings, of which there are half a dozen, are grouped around narrow streets and courtyards.<ref name="srok1"/> The main construction of these buildings would have been built from stone and mud-brick with flat clay roofs supported on timber rafters.<ref name="srok1"/> Most of the buildings consisted of just one room and were a combination of living space, workshops and store rooms. There is one building in the centre of the site which has multiple rooms and may have been a structure of some importance in its day.<ref name="srok1"/> The plan of this house is comparable to other Phoenician dwellings excavated in other parts of the [[Mediterranean]], and is not dissimilar to the layout of the traditional house built on Ibiza until recent times. The excavations on the central area near the top of the headland revealed an orderly arrangement of building in the form of a terrace, although this are has not been conserved for public viewing.<ref name="srok1"/> The site would have been larger, but many of the buildings to south have been lost to coastal erosion. To the North of the site much of the archaeology was destroyed during the [[Spanish civil war]] <ref name="srok1"/> when concrete gun emplacements, tunnel and huts were constructed on the headland as part of the islands elaborate defense system set up to guard against any [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republican]] attack during mid 1937.[http://www.liveibiza.com/ibiza_history/spanish_civil_war/spanish_civil_war_pituses_11.htm]. {{Main|Sa Caleta Coastal Battery}} This construction was built with no regard for the delicate archeology in the area. The small cove on the east side of Sa Caleta was once the busy natural harbor<ref name="srok2"/> of the Phoenician settlers. Its is still used today by a few local fishing boats and the occasional pleasure craft.

== References ==
{{reflist}}
* [1]:The Militalization of island life: By Emily Kaufman

{{Phoenician cities and colonies navbox|state=collapsed}}{{Commons category|Archaeological Site of Sa Caleta}}

{{coord|38|52|04|N|1|19|47|E|region:ES_source:kolossus-nlwiki|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sa Caleta Phoenician Settlement}}
[[Category:Phoenician colonies]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Ibiza]]
[[Category:History of Ibiza]]

Maria Gugelberg von Moos

2014-05-10T22:32:29Z

TuxLibNit: Fixed isbn of "Ladies in the Laboratory II" (lccn in isbn field)

{{Orphan|date=March 2014}}

'''Maria Gugelberg von Moos'''(1836-1918) was a well renowned Swiss [[botanist]] and floral artist. Growing up in the outstanding natural fauna of Salenegg, she found herself captivated by natural history, and especially botany, from a very early age. She started studying extensively when she reached middle age, systematically collecting and studying plants.<ref name=Creese>{{cite book|last=Creese|first=Mary|title=Ladies in the Laboratory III|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=PO Box 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK|lccn=2003020846|page=183|pages=}}</ref>

Her most important work surrounded her study of mosses and liverworts, discovering forty-seven new species in the [[Graubünden]] region, and other [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]] of Switzerland. She also worked with botanist [[Christian Georg Brügger]], printing out illustrations of his hybrids. Some of her illustrations, including the Primrose, Sempervivum and Saxifraga, were especially important at the time. In terms of other accomplishments,Gugelberg von Moos was also the first woman named a corresponding member of the Naturforschende Gesellschaft Graubündens due to her contributions in botany.<ref name=Creese/>

On October 29, 1918, she died at age eighty-three.<ref name=Creese/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Moos, Maria Gugelberg von
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Swiss botanist
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1836
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1918
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Moos, Maria Gugelberg von}}
[[Category:Women scientists]]
[[Category:Swiss botanists]]
[[Category:1836 births]]
[[Category:1918 deaths]]
[[Category:Botanical illustrators]]

Wright R-540

2014-02-12T22:40:19Z

TuxLibNit: /* Bibliography */ Fixed ISBN of "Hispano Suiza in Aeronautics" (check digit off by one)

{|{{Infobox Aircraft Begin
|name = R-540 Whirlwind
|image = Wright_R540_in_Curtiss_Travel_Air_16E.jpg
|caption = Wright R-540 Whirlwind installed in a [[Curtiss-Wright CW-12|Travel Air 16E]] at the [[Historic Aircraft Restoration Museum]]
}}
{{Infobox Aircraft Engine
|type=Air-cooled 5-cylinder [[Radial engine|radial piston engine]]
|manufacturer=[[Wright Aeronautical Corporation]]
|national origin=United States
|major applications=Various light aircraft
|produced={{avyear|1929}}-{{avyear|1937}}
|number built=around 500
}}
|}

The '''Wright R-540 Whirlwind''' was a series of five-cylinder air-cooled [[radial engine|radial]] [[aircraft engine]]s built by the [[Wright Aeronautical]] division of [[Curtiss-Wright]]. These engines had a [[Engine displacement|displacement]] of 540 in³ (8.85 L) and power ratings of around 165-175 hp (123-130 kW). They were the smallest members of the [[Wright Whirlwind]] engine family.

The Wright R-540 should not be confused with the '''[[Kinner R-5|Kinner R-540]]''', a generally similar engine made by [[Kinner Airplane & Motor Corporation]].

==Design and development==
Wright introduced the J-6 Whirlwind family in 1928 to replace the nine-cylinder [[Wright R-790|R-790]] series. The J-6 family included varieties with five, seven, and nine cylinders. The five-cylinder version was originally known as the '''J-6 Whirlwind Five''', or '''J-6-5''' for short. The U.S. government designated it as the '''R-540'''; Wright later adopted this and dropped the J-6 nomenclature.

Like all the members of the J-6 Whirlwind family, the R-540 had larger cylinders than the R-790. The piston [[stroke (engine)|stroke]] of 5.5 in (14.0 cm) was unchanged, but the cylinder [[bore (engine)|bore]] was expanded to 5.0 in (12.7 cm) from the R-790's bore of 4.5 in (11.4 cm). While the R-790 was [[Naturally-aspirated engine|naturally aspirated]], the R-540, like the other J-6 engines, had a gear-driven [[supercharger]] to boost its power output.

Wright gradually refined the R-540, using suffix letters to indicate successive versions. For example, the R-540A had 165 hp (123 kW), while the R-540E of 1931 had power boosted to 175 hp (130 kW) thanks to an improved [[cylinder head]] design. Wright sometimes named these versions according to their power, e.g. "Whirlwind 165" or "Whirlwind 175".<ref>Curtiss-Wright (1940)</ref>

==License built R-540s==
The engine was built in [[Spain]] as the '''Hispano-Suiza 5Q''' or '''Hispano-Wright 5Q''' without modification apart from the use of Hispano's patented nitriding finishing process.<ref>Lage (2004) pp.152-163</ref>

==Operational history==
The R-540 was the smallest, least powerful member of the Whirlwind family and was designed for light aircraft. One of the more popular types to use it was the [[Curtiss Robin]], a light civil utility aircraft. A few were also used in prototype military trainer aircraft that were evaluated by the U.S. Army but not put into production.

The R-540 sold well at first, with over 400 engines being built in 1929.<ref name="wrightprod">{{Citation|title=Summary of Wright Engine Shipments: 1920 to 1963|url=http://enginehistory.org/Wright/WrightProd.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=December 10, 2009}}. Transcribed from Wright Aeronautical documents by Robert J. Neal T; available from the Aircraft Engine Historical Society's [http://enginehistory.org/reference.htm reference page].</ref> However, with the impact of the [[Great Depression]], sales plummeted, and only about 100 further examples were built over the next eight years.<ref name="wrightprod" /> Wright finally ceased production of five-cylinder Whirlwinds in 1937,<ref name="wrightprod" /> concentrating on larger engines and leaving the market for small radials to companies like [[Kinner]] and [[Warner Aircraft Corporation|Warner]].

Since R-540 engines were found solely in light aircraft, they weren't often used for groundbreaking flights. However, there were a couple of noteworthy exceptions which took advantage of the Whirlwind family's reputation for high reliability. In 1935, the brothers [[The Flying Keys|Al and Fred Key]] set a new flight endurance record of 653 hours, 34 minutes in the Curtiss Robin J-1 ''Ole Miss'', flying over [[Meridian, Mississippi]], from June 4 to July 1. Their plane was refueled and resupplied in flight, and they could perform simple engine maintenance by walking out on a small catwalk extending between the cabin and the engine. [[Douglas Corrigan|Douglas "Wrong-Way" Corrigan]]'s famous unauthorized transatlantic flight from [[New York City]] to [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]] on July 17–18, 1938, used a Curtiss Robin with an R-540 built from the parts of two used engines.

==Applications==
* [[Curtiss Robin|Curtiss Robin J-1]]
* [[Fairchild KR-34|Kreider-Reisner Challenger C-4C (Fairchild KR-34C)]]
* [[Spartan C3|Spartan C3-165]]
* [[Stinson Junior|Stinson Junior SM-2AA and SM-2AB]]
* [[Travel Air 2000, 3000 and 4000|Travel Air E-4000]]
* [[Waco 10|Waco BSO]]

==Engines on display==
Wright R-540 engines on display are uncommon, but there is one at the [[Strategic Air and Space Museum]] (formerly the Strategic Air Command Museum) near [[Ashland, Nebraska]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Aircraft Engines|url=http://passion-aviation.qc.ca/engines.htm|accessdate=2008-09-11}}. This personal collection of museum aircraft engine photos includes a photo of a Wright R-540 under the SAC Museum section. (The page mislabels it as a "Wright R-540 J-5"—there never was a five-cylinder version of the J-5.)</ref>

==Specifications (R-540E)==
{{pistonspecs|


|ref=[[FAA]] [[type certificate]] data sheet for the R-540E;<ref>FAA, ATC 23 data sheet</ref> dimensions from Curtiss-Wright (1983).
|type=5-cylinder supercharged air-cooled radial piston engine
|bore=5.0 in (127 mm)
|stroke=5.5 in (140 mm)
|displacement=540 cu in (8.85 L)
|length=41.1 in (104.4 cm)
|diameter=45.0 in (114.3 cm)
|width=
|height=
|weight=420 lb (191 kg)
|valvetrain=2 [[4-stroke cycle engine valves|valves]] per cylinder, [[pushrod]]-actuated
|supercharger=gear-driven, 7.05:1 [[impeller]] [[gear ratio]]
|turbocharger=
|fuelsystem=
|fueltype=65 [[Octane rating|octane]]
|oilsystem=
|coolingsystem=
|power=175 hp (130 kW) at 2,000 RPM at sea level
|specpower=0.324 hp/cu-in (14.7 kW/L)
|compression=5.1:1
|fuelcon=
|specfuelcon=
|oilcon=
|power/weight=0.417 hp/lb (0.685 kW/kg)
|designer=
|reduction_gear=Direct drive
|general_other=
|components_other=
|performance_other=
}}

==See also==
{{aircontent
|see also=* [[Wright Whirlwind]]
|related=
*[[Wright R-790|Wright J-5/R-790]]
*[[Wright R-760|Wright J-6-7/R-760]]
*[[Wright R-975|Wright J-6-9/R-975]]
|similar aircraft=
|lists=* [[List of aircraft engines]]
|similar engines=
*[[Armstrong Siddeley Mongoose]]
*[[Kinner R-5]]
*[[Shvetsov M-11]]
}}

==References==
{{Commons category}}

===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
*{{Citation|title=Wright Engines - Past and Present|url=http://enginehistory.org/Wright/CWthrough1940.pdf|format=PDF|last=Curtiss-Wright|author-link=Curtiss-Wright|year=1940|pages=12–13|accessdate=December 10, 2009}}. Available from the Aircraft Engine Historical Society's [http://enginehistory.org/reference.htm reference page].
*{{Citation |title= Hispano Suiza in Aeronautics|last=Lage|first=Manual| year=2004|volume=|publisher=SAE International|location=Warrendale, USA |isbn=0-7680-0997-9 }}
*{{Citation|title=Historical Engine Summary (Beginning 1930)|url=http://enginehistory.org/Wright/CWafter1930_2.pdf|format=PDF|last=Curtiss-Wright|author-link=Curtiss-Wright|year=1983|page=1|accessdate=December 10, 2009}}. Available from the Aircraft Engine Historical Society's [http://enginehistory.org/reference.htm reference page].
*{{Citation|title=Approved Type Certificate No. 23 (ATC 23) data sheet|url=http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library%5CrgMakeModel.nsf/0/DC281F1481D67B3A8525670E006674D6?OpenDocument|last=Federal Aviation Administration|author-link=Federal Aviation Administration|accessdate=December 10, 2009}}. Available from the FAA's [http://rgl.faa.gov Regulatory and Guidance Library].
*{{Citation|title=Model Designations of USAF Aircraft Engines: Section I, Reciprocating Engine Characteristics|url=http://enginehistory.org/ModDesig/SecI.pdf|format=PDF|last=USAF Air Materiel Command|date=January 1, 1950|page=8|accessdate=December 10, 2009}}. Available from the Aircraft Engine Historical Society's [http://enginehistory.org/reference.htm reference page].
{{refend}}

{{Wright aeroengines}}
{{US military piston aeroengines}}
{{Aviation lists}}

[[Category:Radial engines]]
[[Category:Wright aircraft engines|R-540]]
[[Category:Aircraft piston engines 1920–1929]]