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{{Citation style|date=May 2008}}

'''Near-death studies''' is a school of [[psychology]] and [[psychiatry]] that studies the phenomenology and after-effects of a [[near-death experience]] (NDE).

==NDE (near-death experience)==

The NDE is an experience reported by people who have come close to dying in a medical or non-medical setting. According to sources <ref name="Griffith">Griffith, 2009</ref>
<ref name="Greyson 1993">Greyson, 1993</ref> it is estimated that near-death experiences are reported by five percent of the adult American population. According to IANDS,<ref name="IANDS 7.24.07">IANDS 7.24.07</ref> surveys (conducted in USA, Australia and Germany) suggest that 4 to 15% of the population have had NDEs. Some researchers try to study the postulated role of physiological, psychological and transcendental factors associated with the NDE.<ref>Parnia S, Waller DG, Yeates R, Fenwick P., 2001</ref> These factors come together to form an overall pattern when numerous NDE reports are considered together. It is this pattern that is one of the main objects of interest for Near-Death studies.

Among the general characteristics of an NDE we find: subjective impressions of being outside the physical body; visions of deceased relatives and religious figures; transcendence of [[Id, ego, and super-ego|ego]] and spatiotemporal boundaries. <ref name="Greyson 2003">Greyson, 2003</ref>
Similar traits have been mentioned by other researchers,<ref name="Morse M, Conner D, Tyler D., 1985">Morse M, Conner D, Tyler D., 1985</ref><ref>van Lommel P, van Wees R, Meyers V, Elfferich I., 2001: Table 2.</ref> and are also described in an analysis of 613 near-death experiences, gathered by the Near Death Research Foundation. <ref name="Beck 2010">Beck, 2010</ref>

Researcher Melvin Morse <ref name="Mauro, 1992"/> lists nine traits that he believes are characteristic of the Near-death experience:

*1) a sense of being dead
*2) a feeling of peace and painlessness
*3) an out-of-body experience
*4) a tunnel experience (the sense of moving up or through a narrow passageway)
*5) encountering "People of Light"
*6) encountering a "Being of Light", a "force", or a similar figure
*7) being given a "[[life review]]"
*8) a reluctance to return to life
*9) The experience may also involve after-effects, such as: personality transformation, loss of the fear of death, greater spiritualism, and greater ecological sensitivity.

Many of the after-effects are associated with changes in personality and outlook on life. Kenneth Ring has identified a consistent
set of value and belief changes associated with people who have had a Near-death experience.<ref>Mauro, 1992: greater appreciation for life, higher self-esteem, greater compassion for others, a heightened sense of purpose and self-understanding, desire to learn, elevated spirituality, greater ecological sensitivity and planetary concern, a feeling of being more intuitive (sometimes psychic). Changes may also include: increased physical sensitivity; diminished tolerance to light, alcohol, and drugs; a feeling that the brain has been "altered" to encompass more; and a feeling that one is now using the "whole brain" rather than just a small part.</ref> However, not all after-effects are beneficial<ref>Orne RM., 1995</ref> and Greyson<ref name="Greyson, 1997"/> describes circumstances where changes in attitudes and behavior can lead to psychosocial and psychospiritual problems.<ref>The diagnostic label of "Religious or spiritual problem" is included in DSM-IV under the category of "Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention". See American Psychiatric Association
(1994) "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", fourth edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association (Code V62.89, Religious or Spiritual Problem).</ref> Often the problems have to do with the adjustment to ordinary life in the wake of the NDE.

NDE-researchers have also found that the NDE may not be a uniquely western experience. The core experience seems to be similar across cultures, but the details of the experience (figures, beings, scenery), and the interpretation of the experience, varies a lot from culture to culture, and from individual to individual.<ref name="Mauro, 1992">Mauro, 1992</ref>

== Research - history and background==

Contributions to the research on near-death experiences have come from several academic disciplines, among these the disciplines of medicine, psychology and psychiatry. Interest in this field of study was originally spurred by the research of such pioneers as [[Elisabeth Kübler-Ross]],<ref name="Griffith">Griffith, 2009</ref> [[Raymond Moody]],<ref name="Griffith">Griffith, 2009</ref> and [[George G. Ritchie|George Ritchie]]. Moody's research was based on interviews that he conducted with Near-Death Experiencers. In 1975, while doing his medical residency as a psychiatrist at the University of Virginia, he published his findings in the book ''Life after Life'', which brought a lot of attention to the topic of NDEs.<ref name="Mauro, 1992">Mauro, 1992</ref><ref name="Graves,2007">Graves, 2007</ref>
This was soon to be followed by the establishment of the ''Association for the Scientific Study of Near-Death Phenomena'', an initial group of academic researchers, including John Audette, Raymond Moody, Bruce Greyson, Kenneth Ring and Michael Sabom, who laid the foundations for the field of Near-death studies, and carried out some of the first post-Moody NDE research.<ref name="Ring 2000:215-16">Ring 2000:215-16</ref> The Association was the immediate predecessor of IANDS, the ''International Association for Near-death Studies'', which was founded in 1981.<ref name="Ring 2000:215-16"/><ref>IANDS, Informational Brochure</ref> [[IANDS]] is an international organization that encourages scientific research and education on the physical, psychological, social, and spiritual nature and ramifications of near-death experiences. Among its publications we find the peer-reviewed ''[[Journal of Near-Death Studies]]'', and the quarterly newsletter ''Vital Signs''.<ref>IANDS, Informational brochure</ref><ref>[http://www.iands.org/publications/vital-signs.html IANDS: ''Vital Signs'']. Accessed 2011-02-06.</ref> The organization also maintains an archive of near-death case histories for research and study.<ref>[http://www.iands.org/research/nde-archives.html IANDS: NDE Archives]. Accessed 2011-02-06.</ref>

Another research-organization, The Louisiana-based ''Near Death Experience Research Foundation'', was established by radiation oncologist Jeffrey Long in 1988. <ref name="Adler 2007">Adler, 2007</ref> <ref name="MacDonald 2011">MacDonald, 2011</ref> <ref name="Beck 2010">Beck, 2010</ref> The organization maintains a database of more than 1.600 cases, which is currently the worlds largest collection of Near Death Reports. <ref name="MacDonald 2011">MacDonald, 2011</ref> In 2010 Long published his book, "Evidence of the Afterlife," which analyzes 613 NDE-cases reported on the website of his organization. <ref name="Beck 2010">Beck, 2010</ref>

Modern day researchers, such as Bruce Greyson, Kenneth Ring, and Melvin Morse, introduced the study of Near-Death experiences to the academic setting, but the subject was often met with academic disbelief,<ref>Bush, 1991:6</ref> or regarded as taboo.<ref name="Daily Progress, 2008">Daily Progress, 2008</ref> The medical community has been somewhat reluctant to address the phenomenon of NDEs,<ref name="Mauro, 1992">Mauro, 1992</ref><ref name="Graves,2007">Graves, 2007</ref> and grant money for research has been scarce.<ref name="Mauro, 1992">Mauro, 1992</ref> However, both Greyson and Ring developed measurement tools that can be used in a clinical setting.<ref>Ring, 1980</ref><ref name="Greyson 1983">Greyson, 1983</ref> Greyson <ref name="Greyson, 1997">Greyson, 1997</ref> has also brought attention to the near-death experience as a focus of clinical attention, while Morse and colleagues<ref name="Morse M, Conner D, Tyler D., 1985"/><ref>Morse M, Castillo P, Venecia D, Milstein J, Tyler DC., 1986</ref> have investigated near-death experiences in a pediatric population. van Lommel was one of the first researchers to bring the study of NDE's into the area of Hospital Medicine. In 1988 he launched a prospective study that spanned 10 Dutch hospitals. 344 survivors of cardiac arrest were included in the study.<ref name="Williams, 2007">Williams, 2007</ref> 62 patients (18%) reported NDE. 41 of these patients (12%) described a core experience. The aim of the study was to investigate the cause of the experience, and assess variables connected to frequency, depth, and content <ref>van Lommel P, van Wees R, Meyers V, Elfferich I., 2001</ref> Another large, 30-month study, conducted at at [[University of Virginia Health System|University of Virginia Hospital]] in 2001, involving 1,595 people, found that 10 percent of cardiac-arrest patients reported near-death experiences.<ref name="Daily Progress, 2008"/>

On September 17, 2008, 25 UK and US hospitals doctors (from [[Addenbrookes]] in Cambridge, [[University Hospital]] in [[Birmingham]] and the [[Morriston]] in [[Swansea]], and 9 US hospitals), announced they will examine near-death experiences in 1,500 [[heart attack]] patients-survivors. The 3 years research, co-ordinated by [[Southampton University]], will determine if people without [[Cardiac cycle|heartbeat]] or brain activity can have "[[out-of-body experience]]." Dr. Sam Parnia, an [[intensive care]] doctor, heading the research, said:

"''If you can demonstrate that consciousness continues after the brain switches off, it allows for the possibility that the consciousness is a separate entity. It is unlikely that we will find many cases where this happens, but we have to be open-minded. And if no one sees the pictures, it shows these experiences are illusions or false memories. This is a mystery that we can now subject to scientific study. Contrary to popular perception, death is not a specific moment. It is a process that begins when the heart stops beating, the lungs stop working and the brain ceases functioning - a medical condition termed cardiac arrest. During a cardiac arrest, all three criteria of death are present. There then follows a period of time, which may last from a few seconds to an hour or more, in which emergency medical efforts may succeed in restarting the heart and reversing the dying process. What people experience during this period of cardiac arrest provides a unique window of understanding into what we are all likely to experience during the dying process''."<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7621608.stm news.bbc.co.uk, Study into near-death experiences]</ref>

Very few universities in the world have departments that are dedicated to study of Near-Death Experiences, but a few academic locations have had a long-standing interest in this topic. Among these we find [[Southampton University]] (U.K),<ref>See above</ref> and the Division of Perceptual Studies at The [[University of Virginia]](US).<ref name="Graves,2007"/>

==Measurement tools - indices, scales and questionnaires==

Ring developed the ''Weighted Core Experience Index'' <ref name="Greyson 1983">Greyson, 1983</ref> which, according to some commentators,<ref name="Griffith">Griffith, 2009</ref> has improved consistency in the field. This instrument has been used to measure the depth of a near-death experience.<ref name="Lester">Lester, 2003</ref>

Greyson <ref name="Greyson 1983">Greyson, 1983</ref> developed ''The Near-Death Experience Scale''. This 16-item Scale was found to have high internal consistency, split-half reliability, and test-retest reliability <ref name="Greyson 1983 2003">Greyson, 1983; 2003</ref> and was correlated with Ring's ''Weighted Core Experience Index''. Questions formulated by the scale address such dimensions as: cognition (feelings of accelerated thought, or "life-review"), affect (feelings of peace and joy), paranormal experience (feelings of being outside of the body, or a perception of future events) and transcendence (experience of encountering deceased relatives, or experiencing an unearthly realm). A score of 7 or higher out of a possible 32 was used as the standard criterion for a near-death experience.<ref name="Greyson 2003">Greyson, 2003</ref> The scale is, according to the author, <ref name="Greyson 1983 2003">Greyson, 1983; 2003</ref> clinically useful in differentiating NDEs from organic brain syndromes and nonspecific stress responses. The NDE-scale was later found to fit the Rasch rating scale model <ref>Lange R, Greyson B, Houran J., 2004</ref>

In the late eighties Thornburg developed the ''Near-Death Phenomena Knowledge and Attitudes Questionnaire''.<ref>Walker & Russell</ref> The questionnaire consists of (1) 23 true/false/undecided response items assessing knowledge, (2) 23 [[Likert scale]] items assessing general attitudes toward near-death phenomena and (3) 20 [[Likert scale]] items assessing attitude toward caring for a client who has had an NDE.<ref>Barnett, 1991: 228</ref> Knowledge and attitude portions of the instrument were tested for internal consistency. Content validity was established by using a panel of experts selected from nursing, sociology, and psychology.<ref name="Walker and Russell">Walker and Russell</ref> The instrument has been used to measure attitudes toward, and knowledge of, near-death experiences in a college population,<ref>Ketzenberger & Keim</ref> among clergy,<ref>Bechtel; Chen; Pierce; Walker,1992</ref> among registered psychologists,<ref name="Walker and Russell"/> and among hospice nurses.<ref>Barnett, 1991:225</ref>

Greyson has also used mainstream psychological measurements in his research, for example ''The Dissociative Experiences Scale'';<ref>Greyson, 2000</ref> a measure of dissociative symptoms, and ''The Threat Index'';<ref>Greyson 1992</ref> a measure of the threat implied by one's personal death.

==Conferences==

IANDS holds annual conferences on the topic of Near-Death Experiences. The first meeting was a medical seminar at Yale University, New Haven (CT) in 1982.
This was followed by the first clinical conference in Pembroke Pines (FL), and the first research conference in Farmington (CT) in 1984.<ref>[http://iands.org/about-iands/fact-sheet.html "IANDS Fact Sheet, As of December, 2010'']. Accessed 2012-02-09.</ref>

The first International Medical Conference on Near-Death Experiences was held in Martigues, France, in 2006.<ref name="Williams, 2007"/>

==''Journal of Near-Death Studies''==
IANDS also publishes the quarterly ''[[Journal of Near-Death Studies]]'', the only scholarly journal in the field. The Journal is cross-disciplinary, is committed to an unbiased exploration of the NDE and related phenomena, and welcomes different theoretical perspectives and interpretations that are based on scientific criteria, such as empirical observation and research.<ref>[http://www.iands.org/publications/journal-of-near-death-studies.html IANDS ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'']. Accessed 2011-02-06.</ref>

==See also==

* [[IANDS]]
* [[Near-death experience]]
* [[Transpersonal psychology]]
* [[Parapsychology]]
* [[Bruce Greyson]]
* [[Pam Reynolds' NDE]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==

* Adler, Jerry. "Back From the Dead". Newsweek, July 23, 2007

* Barnett, Linda. Hospice Nurses' Knowledge and Attitudes Toward the Near-Death Experience. Journal of Near-Death Studies, 9(4), Summer 1991

* Bechtel, Lori J.; Chen, Alex; Pierce, Richard A.; Walker, Barbara A. ''Assessment of clergy knowledge and attitudes toward near-death experiences''. Journal of Near-Death Studies, Vol 10(3), 1992, 161-170.

* Beck, Melinda. ''Seeking Proof in Near-Death Claims''. The Wall Street Journal, Health Journal, October 25, 2010

* Bush, Nancy Evans. Is Ten Years a Life Review? Journal of Near-Death Studies, 10(1) Fall 1991

* Daily Progress Staff. UVa hopes to participate in near-death experience. The Daily Progress, November 30, 2008

* Graves, Lee. "Altered States. Scientists analyze the near-death experience". The University of Virginia Magazine, Summer 2007 Feature

* Greyson, Bruce. ''The near-death experience scale. Construction, reliability, and validity''. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Jun;171(6):369-75, 1983

* Greyson, Bruce. ''Reduced death threat in near-death experiencers''. Death Studies, Vol. 16, Issue 6, 1992.

* Greyson B. "Varieties of near-death experience". Psychiatry. 1993 Nov;56(4):390-9.

* Greyson, Bruce. ''The near-death experience as a focus of clinical attention''. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, May;185(5):327-34, 1997

* Greyson, B. ''Dissociation in people who have near-death experiences: out of their bodies or out of their minds?'' Lancet. Feb 5;355(9202):460-3, 2000

* Greyson, Bruce. ''Near-Death Experiences in a Psychiatric Outpatient Clinic Population''. Psychiatric Services, Dec., Vol. 54 No. 12. The American Psychiatric Association, 2003

* Griffith, Linda J. ''Near-Death Experiences and Psychotherapy''. Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2009 October; 6(10): 35–42.

* IANDS. [http://iands.org/images/stories/pdf_downloads/generaliands.pdf ''Near-Death Experiences: Is this what happens when we die?''] Durham: International Association for Near-Death Studies. Informational brochure available at www.iands.org

* IANDS. [http://iands.org/about-ndes/key-nde-facts.html "Near-death experiences: Key Facts"]. Informational Brochure published by the International Association for Near-death Studies. Durham, NC. Updated 7.24.07

* Ketzenberger, Kay E. & Keim, Gina L. ''The Near-Death Experience: Knowledge and Attitudes of College Students''. Journal of Near-Death Studies,Volume 19, Number 4, 227-232

* Lange R, Greyson B, Houran J. ''A Rasch scaling validation of a 'core' near-death experience''. British Journal of Psychology. Volume: 95 Part: 2 Page: 161-177, 2004

* Lester, David. "Depth of Near-Death Experiences and Confounding Factors". Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2003,96, 18.

* MacDonald, G. Jeffrey. "Scientists probe brief brushes with the afterlife". The Christian Century, Jan 12, 2011

* Mauro, James. ''Bright lights, big mystery''. Psychology Today, July 1992

* Morse M, Conner D, Tyler D. ''Near-death experiences in a pediatric population. A preliminary report''. American Journal of Diseases of Children, Jun;139(6):595-600, 1985

* Morse M, Castillo P, Venecia D, Milstein J, Tyler DC. ''Childhood near-death experiences''. American Journal of Diseases of Children, Nov;140(11):1110-4, 1986

* Orne RM. ''The meaning of survival: the early aftermath of a near-death experience''. Research in Nursing & Health. 1995 Jun;18(3):239-47. PubMed abstract PMID 7754094

* Parnia S, Waller DG, Yeates R, Fenwick P ''A qualitative and quantitative study of the incidence, features and aetiology of near death experiences in cardiac arrest survivors''. Resuscitation. Feb;48(2):149-56, 2001 PubMed abstract PMID 11426476

* Ring, Kenneth. (1980) ''Life at death. A scientific investigation of the near-death experience''. New York: Coward McCann and Geoghenan.

* Ring, Kenneth. Religious Wars in the NDE Movement: Some Personal Reflections on Michael Sabom's Light & Death. Journal of Near-Death Studies, 18(4) Summer 2000

* van Lommel P, van Wees R, Meyers V, Elfferich I. "Near-Death Experience in Survivors of Cardiac Arrest: A prospective Study in the Netherlands". The Lancet. December 15, 2001 ; 358(9298):2039-45. PMID 11755611

* Walker, Barbara & Russell, Robert D. ''Assessing psychologists' knowledge and attitudes toward near-death phenomena''. Journal of Near-Death Studies, Vol. 8, Number 2, 103-110

* Williams, Daniel. "At the Hour Of Our Death". TIME Magazine. Friday, Aug. 31, 2007

==External links==
*[http://www.iands.org/ The International Association for Near-Death Studies, Inc.]
*[http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/personalitystudies/ University of Virginia Health System - Division of Perceptual Studies]
*[http://www.newdualism.org/nde-online.html Links to 290 online NDE Scientific Papers]

{{Death}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Near-Death Studies}}
[[Category:Death]]
[[Category:Transpersonal psychology]]
[[Category:Parapsychology]]
[[Category:Near-death experiences]]

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