Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Sultanat Ägypten

2011-12-11T00:13:28Z

Tkynerd: WPCleaner (v1.09) Repaired link to disambiguation page - (You can help) - English

{{About|the 20th-century British protectorate|the medieval Mamluk state|Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name = السلطنة المصرية {{Ar icon}} ''As-Saltanah al-Misriyyah''
|conventional_long_name = Sultanate of Egypt
|common_name = Egypt
|continent = Africa
|region = Middle East
|country = Egypt
|era = World War I
|status = Protectorate
|empire = United Kingdom
|government_type = Monarchy

|year_start = 1914
|year_end = 1922
|date_start = 19 December
|date_end = 15 March
|event_end = Fuad I becomes king
|event1 = [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919|Revolution]]
|date_event1 = 1919–1922
|event2 = Independence [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|recognized]] by the [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|date_event2 = 28 February 1922

|p1 = Khedivate of Egypt
|flag_p1 = Flag of Muhammad Ali.svg
|s1 = Kingdom of Egypt
|flag_s1 = Flag of Egypt 1922.svg
|image_flag = Egypt flag 1882.svg
|flag_alt = Red flag with three white crescents, each containing a five-pointed white star.
|image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Sultan of Egypt.svg
|coat_alt =
|image_map = Kingdom of Egypt.png
|image_map_alt =
|image_map_caption = '''Green''': Sultanate of Egypt '''Light green''': [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]] '''Lightest green''': Ceded from Sudan to [[Italian North Africa]] in 1919
|capital = Cairo
|latd=30 |latm=3 |latNS=N |longd=31 |longm=13 |longEW=E
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = Salam Affandina
|common_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (official)<ref name="Constitution">Article 149 of the [[1923 Constitution of Egypt|1923 Constitution]]</ref> [[Egyptian Arabic]] [[English language|English]]
|religion = Sunni Islam
|currency = Egyptian pound

|leader1 = [[Hussein Kamel of Egypt|Hussein Kamel]]
|leader2 = [[Fuad I of Egypt|Fuad I]]
|year_leader1 = 1914–1917
|year_leader2 = 1917–1922
|title_leader = [[Sultan of Egypt|Sultan]]
|representative1 = [[Henry McMahon (diplomat)|Henry McMahon]]
|representative2 = Reginald Wingate
|representative3 = [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Edmund Allenby]]
|year_representative1 = 1914–1916
|year_representative2 = 1916–1919
|year_representative3 = 1919–1925
|title_representative = [[List of diplomats from the United Kingdom to Egypt|British High Commissioner]]
|deputy1 = [[Hussein Rushdi Pasha|Hussein Rushdi]] (first)
|deputy2 = [[Adli Yakan Pasha|Adli Yakan]] (last)
|year_deputy1 = 1914–1919
|year_deputy2 = 1921

|legislature = 
|house1 = 
|type_house1 = 
|house2 = 
|type_house2 = 

|stat_year1 = 1917
|stat_area1 = 34184
|stat_pop1 = 12751000
|footnotes = Area and density include inhabited areas only. The total area of Egypt, including deserts, is 994,000 km2.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bonné |first=Alfred |title=The Economic Development of the Middle East: An Outline of Planned Reconstruction after the War |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hMFlGd1kbZQC&pg=PA24 |accessdate=2010-07-09 |series=The International Library of Sociology |year=2003 |origyear=First published 1945 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=9780415175258 |oclc=39915162 |page=24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10086/14678 |title=Demographic Change in Rural Egypt, 1882–1917: Population of Mudiriya, Markaz and Madina |first=Hirofumi |last=Tanada |month=March |year=1998 |work=Discussion Paper No. D97–22 |publisher=Institute of Economic Research |location=Hitotsubashi University |accessdate=2010-07-09}}</ref>
}}

{{History of Egypt}}
The '''Sultanate of Egypt''' ({{Lang-ar|السلطنة المصرية}}) is the name of the short-lived [[protectorate]] that the [[United Kingdom]] imposed over [[Egypt]] between 1914 and 1922.

==History==
{{Wikify section|date=July 2010}}
Opposition to [[History_of_Egypt#Modern_history|European interference]] in Egypt's affairs resulted in the emergence of a nationalist movement that coalesced and spread after the British military intervention and occupation of 1882. The immediate causes of what is known to Egyptians as the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919|1919 Revolution]], however, were British actions during the war that caused widespread hardship and resentment. Specifically, these included Britain's purchase of cotton and requisitioning of fodder at below market prices, Britain's forcible recruitment of about 500,000 peasants into the [[Egyptian Labour Corps]] and the [[Egyptian Camel Transport Corps]] in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, and its use of the country as a base and a garrison populated by British, Australian, and other troops. After the war, Egypt felt the adverse effects of soaring prices and unemployment.

When the war ended, the nationalists began to press the [[British_Empire#Cape_to_Cairo|British]] again for independence. In addition to their other reasons, the Egyptians were influenced by American president [[Woodrow wilson|Woodrow Wilson]], who was preaching [[self-determination]] for all nations. In September 1918, Egypt made the first moves toward the formation of a wafd, or delegation, to voice its demands for independence at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]]. The idea for a wafd had originated among prominent members of the [[Umma Party (Egypt)|Umma Party]], including Lutfi as Sayyid, [[Zaghlul|Saad Zaghlul]], [[Muhammad Mahmoud Pasha|Muhammad Mahmud Pasha]], [[Ali Sharawi]], and [[Abd al Aziz Fahmi]].

On November 13, 1918, thereafter celebrated in Egypt as Yawm al Jihad (Day of Struggle), [[Zaghlul]], Fahmi, and Sharawi had an audience with Sir Reginald Wingate, the [[British High Commissioner|British high commissioner]]. They demanded complete independence with the proviso that Britain be allowed to supervise the Suez Canal and the public debt. They also asked permission to go to London to put their case before the British government. On the same day, the Egyptians formed a delegation for this purpose, Al Wafd al Misri (known as the Wafd), headed by Saad Zaghlul. The British refused to allow the Wafd to proceed to London. On March 8, Zaghlul and three other members of the Wafd were arrested and thrown into Qasr an Nil prison. The next day, they were deported to [[Malta]], an action that sparked the popular uprising of MarchApril 1919 in which Egyptians of all [[social classes]] participated. There were violent clashes in Cairo and the provincial cities of Lower Egypt, especially Tanta, and the uprising spread to the south, culminating in violent confrontations in Asyut Province in [[Upper Egypt]].

The deportation of the Wafdists also triggered student demonstrations and escalated into massive strikes by students, government officials, professionals, women, and transport workers. Within a week, all of Egypt was paralyzed by general strikes and rioting. Railroad and telegraph lines were cut, taxi drivers refused to work, lawyers failed to appear for court cases, and demonstrators marched through the streets shouting pro-Wafdist slogans and demanding independence. Violence resulted, with many Egyptians and Europeans being killed or injured when the British attempted to crush the demonstrations with force.

On March 16, between 150 and 300 upper-class Egyptian women in veils staged a demonstration against the British occupation, an event that marked the entrance of Egyptian women into public life. The women were led by Safia Zaghlul, wife of Wafd leader Saad Zaghlul; Huda Sharawi, wife of one of the original members of the Wafd and organizer of the Egyptian Feminist Union; and Muna Fahmi Wissa. Women of the lower classes demonstrated in the streets alongside the men. In the countryside, women engaged in activities like cutting rail lines.

The upper-class women participating in politics for the first time assumed key roles in the movement when the male leaders were exiled or detained. They organized strikes, demonstrations, and boycotts of British goods and wrote petitions, which they circulated to foreign embassies protesting British actions in Egypt.

The women's march of March 16 preceded by one day the largest demonstration of the 1919 Revolution. More than 10,000 teachers, students, workers, lawyers, and government employees started marching at Al Azhar and wound their way to Abdin Palace where they were joined by thousands more, who ignored British roadblocks and bans. Soon, similar demonstrations broke out in Alexandria, Tanta, Damanhur, Al Mansurah, and Al Fayyum. By the summer of 1919, more than 800 Egyptians had been killed, as well as 31 Europeans and 29 British soldiers.

Wingate, the British high commissioner, understood the strength of the nationalist forces and the threat the Wafd represented to British dominance and had tried to persuade the British government to allow the Wafd to travel to Paris. However, the British government remained hostile to Zaghlul and the nationalists and adamant in rejecting Egyptian demands for independence. Wingate was recalled to London for talks on the Egyptian situation, and [[Milne Cheetham]] became acting high commissioner in January 1919. When the 1919 Revolution began, Cheetham soon realized that he was powerless to stop the demonstrations and admitted that matters were completely out of his control. Nevertheless, the government in London ordered him not to give in to the Wafd and to restore order, a task that he was unable to accomplish.

London decided to replace Wingate with a strong military figure, General Edmund Allenby, the greatest British hero of World War I. He was named special high commissioner and arrived in Egypt on March 25. The next day, he met with a group of Egyptian nationalists and ulama. After persuading Allenby to release the Wafd leaders and to permit them to travel to Paris, the Egyptian group agreed to sign a statement urging the people to stop demonstrating. Allenby, who was convinced that this was the only way to stop the revolt, then had to persuade the British government to agree. On April 7, Zaghlul and his colleagues were released and set out for Paris.

In May 1919, Lord Milner was appointed to head a mission to investigate how Egypt could be granted "self-governing institutions" while maintaining the protectorate and safeguarding British interests. The mission arrived in Egypt in December 1919 but was boycotted by the nationalists, who opposed the continuation of the protectorate. The arrival of the Milner Mission was followed by strikes in which students, lawyers, professionals, and workers participated. Merchants closed their shops, and organizers distributed leaflets urging the Egyptians not to cooperate with the mission.

Milner realized that a direct approach to Zaghlul was necessary, and in the summer of 1920 private talks between the two men took place in London. As a result of the so-called Milner-Zaghlul Agreement, the British government announced in February 1921 that it would accept the abolition of the protectorate as the basis for negotiation of a treaty with Egypt.

On April 4, 1921, Zaghlul's return to Egypt was met by an unprecedented welcome, showing that the vast majority of Egyptians supported him. Allenby, however, was determined to break Zaghlul's political power and to build up a pro-British group to whom Britain could safely commit Egyptian independence. On December 23, Zaghlul was deported to the Seychelles via Aden. His deportation was followed by demonstrations, violent clashes with the police, and strikes by students and government employees that affected Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said, Suez, and provincial towns like Tanta, Zifta, Az Zaqaziq, and Jirja.

On February 28, 1922, Britain [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|unilaterally declared Egyptian independence]] without any negotiations with Egypt. Four matters were "absolutely reserved to the discretion" of the British government until agreements concerning them could be negotiated: the security of communications of the British Empire in Egypt; the defense of Egypt against all foreign aggressors or interference, direct or indirect; the protection of foreign interests in Egypt and the protection of minorities; and Sudan. Sultan Ahmad Fuad became King Fuad I, and his son, Faruk, was named as his heir. On April 19, a new constitution was approved. Also that month, an electoral law was issued that ushered in a new phase in Egypt's political development—parliamentary elections.

==See also==
*[[Sultan of Egypt]]
*[[Egyptian Expeditionary Force]]
*[[Sinai and Palestine Campaign]]
*[[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I]]

==References==
;General
*{{Country study
|country=Egypt
|abbr=eg
|editor=Helen Chapin Metz
|date=December 1990
|section=Egypt under the Protectorate and the 1919 Revolution
|author=Mary Ann Fay
|pd=yes}}
;Specific
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:History of Egypt (1900–present)]]
[[Category:Former countries in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Former polities of the Interwar period]]
[[Category:British colonisation in Africa]]
[[Category:Sultanates|Egypt]]
[[Category:20th century in Egypt]]

[[ar:سلطنة مصر]]
[[de:Sultanat Ägypten]]
[[fr:Sultanat d'Égypte]]
[[it:Sultanato d'Egitto]]
[[pl:Sułtanat Egiptu]]
[[tr:Mısır Sultanlığı]]
[[ja:エジプト・スルターン国]]

Bahnstrecke Don Det–Don Khon

2011-12-04T00:23:02Z

Tkynerd: /* Route today and main features */ Pipe Turntable, which isn't a dab page any more

{{notability|date=July 2011}}
The Don Det – Don Khon (sometimes spelt Don Deth – Don Khone) [[railway]] was a seven kilometre (4.34 mile) long [[narrow gauge railway|narrow gauge]] [[portage railway]] located on [[Don Det]] – [[Don Khon]] islands, part of the [[Si Phan Don|Siphandon]] (sometimes spelt Si Phan Don) or Four Thousand Islands [[archipelago]] in [[Champasak Province]], southern [[Laos]].<ref name="Keay" /><ref name="Whyte">The Railway Atlas of Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, White Lotus, 2010.</ref> Built by the [[Mekong Exploration Commission]], the railway was operated by [[Lao State Railway]] authority, opening in [[1893]] and closing either in [[1940]] or [[1949]]. The railway was initially laid to [[Decauville|Decauville-standard]] 600 mm (1 ft 11 5⁄8 in) gauge; later it appears the railway was partly or wholly converted to (possibly) [[meter gauge]] 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in). The railway aided the transportation of [[marine vessel|vessels]], [[freight]] and [[passenger]]s along the [[Mekong River]]. The Don Det – Don Khon islands railway held the title for the only railway ever built, opened and operated in [[Laos]] until [[2009]],<ref>[http://internationalsteam.co.uk/trains/laos01.htm The only railway (ever) in Laos] The International Steam Pages</ref> when [[Transport in Laos|a railway was opened]] between [[Nong Khai]], [[Nong Khai Province]], [[Thailand]] and [[Thanaleng Railway Station]], [[Dongphosy]] village, near [[Vientiane]], [[Laos]].<ref name=linklaunched>{{cite news | title=Laos link launched | url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/10/laos-link-launched.html | work=[[Railway Gazette International]] | date = 2007-03-01 }}</ref>

== History ==
=== Background ===

The [[French Indochina|French colonial administration of Indochina]] was determined to exploit the [[Mekong River]] to aid a route into [[China]], and in doing so help counter [[British rule in Burma|British colonial expansion in Upper Burma]]. The Governor of Indochina saw the Mekong as ‘the main point of connection between the different countries of French Indo-China ([[Cochinchina|Cochin-China]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Tonkin]]), which will be able to communicate with each other through it’.<ref name="Keay">Mad About the Mekong: Exploration and Empire in South East Asia, Harper Collins, 2005.</ref> However, the key obstacle lay in southern Laos, where at Siphandon Islands, the river splits into numerous channels forming formidable [[rapids]] collectively known as the [[Khone Phapheng Falls|Khon (or Khone) Falls]]. Attempts in [[1891]], [[1892]], and [[1893]] to scale the falls failed; there are accounts of steamships ‘engines roaring and boilers near bursting, with hundreds of men hauling from the rocks on ropes and others pushing from the decks with pikes’,<ref name="Keay" /> and one vessel ‘allegedly wriggled up a narrow water-slide to within fifty metres of the top before the attempt had to be abandoned’.<ref name="Keay" />

Thus, alternatives modes of transport had to be found. One idea came in the form of a British tidal expert resident in [[Siam]], [[Herbert Warington Smyth]], who suggested, perhaps half-cynically, that a [[tramway (industrial)|tramway]] or a [[canal]] with a series of [[canal lock|locks]] should be built around the falls. The latter, he reckoned, ‘would satisfactorily cripple the French economy, costing about the same as the [[Manchester Ship Canal]] yet never carrying more than one ten-thousandth of its tonnage’.<ref name="Keay" /> The French duly settled with a small portage railway across the island of Don Khon and later Don Det island. This would allow specially designed vessels that could be dismantled, transported via the railway and then reassembled and launched further upstream.

=== Development ===

The first railway was laid on Don Khon island, the southern of the two islands, in 1893 the same year that Laos was ‘added’ to French Indochina, part of the [[French colonial empire]] in [[Southeast Asia]]. The route stretched four kilometres from the south eastern corner of the island by Ban Hangkhon village in a north-westerly direction, terminating on the north side of the island by Ban Khon village. For the first four years the railway was a temporary affair, laid in segments that could be lifted once the train had past and relaid in front); the [[gunboat|gun-sloops]] Lagrandière, Ham Luong and Massie were the first to cross the island via this method, and were followed by Garcerie, The Colombert and Trentinian (the latter later sank in the Mekong River after a gasoline explosion in 1928), in 1896. A number of impressed [[Vietnam|Vietnamese]] labour (for it was common for the French colonial administration to import Vietnamese manpower to [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]]) man-hauled the wagons carrying sections of the vessels secured on top. By [[1897]], a permanent [[railway]] was laid and a wood-burning [[steam locomotive]] replaced manpower for [[traction (engineering)|traction]]. The first seven [[tonne]] steam locomotive was christened [[Paul Doumer]], the [[Governor-General of French Indochina]] between [[1897]] and [[1902]], and equipment was supplied by Decauville from Cochin-China. Trains could be as long as 12-car formations, consisting of a steam locomotive, open-topped [[wagons]] and [[carriages]] yet it took an average of two shuttle trains to load a vessel. While it can be assumed that initial freight loads were sections of or complete vessels destined for the Mekong River upstream of the islands, it is most probable freight and passengers became the mainstay traffic on the line. At the northern terminal by Ban Khon village, passengers would make the transfer to a steam ship once more on the river channel that divides Don Det and Don Khon islands. As these vessels could only travel when the river was in flood, the decision was made in the [[1910s]] to extend the railway by another three kilometres to the island to the north, Don Det, where the railway terminated by a pier near Ban Khon village. The private company 'Compagnie Saigonaise de Navigation et de Transport, puis Compagnie des Messageries Fluviales de Cochinchine' appears to have ensured passengers and goods made the connection between Don Khon and Don Det. The outbreak of the [[Second World War]] in [[1939]] appears to have sealed the fate of the railway, and the last train was reported to have run in 1940.<ref name="Keay" /> However, one sources places the closure 'around 1949' having believed the railway been used by the [[Japan]]ese during the Second World War.

=== Accounts of the railway ===

There are few accounts of the railway either in written or pictorial form, but a fascinating insight into this curious railway can be garnered from an account written by Marthe Bassenne, a doctor’s wife travelling between [[Phnom Penh]] and [[Luang Prabang]] in [[1910]]:

{{Quote|The train, struggling and grating amid the clashing sound of steel, hauled us across the island, which is covered by teak trees and bamboos whose branches brushed our faces. The temperature was very high and the sun, filtering through the trees, roused noxious fever-vapours from the tangled undergrowth. Sweat caked my hair under my sun hat; the heat burned my arms through my clothes; and the mosquitoes took advantage of my predicament to attack me as they pleased, all over my hands and face…|John Keay|Mad About The Mekong: Exploration and Empire in South East Asia<ref name="Keay" />}}

A more contemporary account of the railway can be found on a website promoting tourism in Laos, written in the early [[2000s]]:

{{Quote|When we visited the site of the old engine, we were lucky to meet Grandpa Vandy CHANTHALAT, aged 88 years old. He looked healthy and introvert. His native village is Bane Khonetai [a village near Ban Khon]. He told us that he was the train driver under the French administration. He was employed when he was 18 years old. He left the job in [[1941]]. He pointed his finger to the bridge where the railway was installed then said "It was constructed in [[1917]]." He showed us his certificate of work and the medal he received from the French authority.|Unknown author|Asia-planet.com}}

Another account, recorded in [[1997]], involves another local who used to work on the railway:

{{Quote|Van Thi, born about 1910... worked on the railway in 1929 and was a corporal boatman mechanic in 1934. He said in times of high water, the terminus for trains north of the dock was Don Khon, while at the low water, they crossed the bridge to get to the dock of Don Det. There was a locomotive, 12 cars and a special car for the governor.|Unknown author|Le blog de Francois.fer-air}}

== Route today and main features ==

While the entire railway alignment including the viaduct remain intact and can be walked or cycled along with ease, with the exception of a few short stretches in a maintenance yard, no rails remain in situ. The alignment is used by both locals and visitors to traverse the islands, and it is a key attraction for tourists. Almost all visitors reach the islands via Nakasang village, Champasak Province off highway Route 13 on the ‘mainland’, arriving by boat to Ban Hua Det village on Don Det island.

Beginning at the concrete pier gantry that extends into the Mekong at the north eastern corner of Don Det near Ban Hua Det village, the alignment cuts south-south-west through rice-paddy fields along a shallow embankment to a river channel that forms the division between the two islands. A steeper embankment forms the approach at the southern end of the island, and the alignment crosses a river channel by way of a 170 m long, 14 arched [[viaduct]] which appears to have been constructed from reinforced concrete. The viaduct remains in good condition and the [[track bed|trackbed]] consists of compacted ballast and sand. During the [[dry season]] it is probably possible to cross the [[stream bed|riverbed]], and some maps show the two islands ‘as one’ to reflect this. However, during the [[wet season]] the purpose of the [[viaduct]] can be fully appreciated with water levels a few feet away from the viaduct’s parapet. Crossing to Don Khon island, the alignment curves through Ban Khon village and around a small, grassy yard that probably served as a maintenance depot for the railway’s rolling stock. One of the two wood-burning steam locomotives still in existence can be found here. Built in [[1911]] by the [[Orenstein & Koppel]] ("O&K") company and named ‘Eloïse’, the engine is covered in rust and mounted on a short stretch of overgrown track, presumably Meter gauge. It is possible this locomotive came 'second-hand' from Decauville built lines in Cochin-China; one source places its arrival on Don Khon in [[1929]]. By the locomotive, at right angles, lies another short section of track. A square concrete pit, flooded with rainwater, lies to the engine’s rear which was probably the base of a Decauville style [[Railway turntable|turntable]]. As of [[2011]], a shed has been constructed to protect the steam locomotive and presumably provide a small museum dedicated to the locomotive and the railway. The section of Meter (?) gauge track has been raised onto a small concrete plinth to protect the track and wheels from inundation. Nearby, a small concrete tower, heavily obscured by vegetation, probably served as a [[water tower]]. The yard was most probably located due south of the site of the original northern terminus and pier on Don Khon island before the viaduct was built and the railway extended across Don Det island. A former [[Custom House]] can be found nearby; it is possible it was built at the same time as the railway. Further south, the alignment cuts through dense [[jungle]] atop a steep embankment, skirting to the north of the highest hill on the island that rises to 172 m (564 ft). At Ban Hangkhon village, the alignment swings west through a small clearing, that possibly served as a small freight yard and terminates at a large concrete pier. The pier, though utilitarian in design, remains in remarkably good condition. The pier features sizeable struts and support columns, a winch system inbuilt into central steps and multiple walkways at varying levels (to enable vessels to be offloaded at varying heights of water levels). These can be reached by steps, but the lowest level is now covered in silt. [[Stung Treng Province]], Cambodia can be seen due south from here, and it is possible to visit the province via the local boat that one can take from Ban Hangkhon village to view [[Irrawaddy dolphins]] (Orcaella brevirostris) and the pier from the river. To the north of the pier, a sizeable water tank is fast succumbing to the encroaching jungle while a small workman’s hut with a caved-in roof stands immediately east of the pier. However, the most notable feature is the overturned steam locomotive devoid of its wheels. It is unsure what gauge the locomotive is configured to, when and where the locomotive was built and what name was given to the locomotive. Perhaps the isolation of the islands, the relative sluggishness of the Laotian economy and the logistical difficulty of removing the remains of these locomotives to the ‘mainland’ have prevented them succumbing to the scrap merchant’s blowtorch.

== Lesser features ==

Lesser features of the former railway can be found along various parts of the alignment, including ballast, the occasional wooden [[railroad tie|sleeper]], rail – (metal) sleeper sections discarded near the route (gauge uncertain), and concrete culverts. At Ban Khon village, a short bridge allows a narrow road to pass under the alignment. Visitors heading back from Ban Hangkhon village after a half-day’s walk or cycle along the alignment choosing to return to Don Det island via the eastern footpath are confronted with a precarious bridge made from old rails and rail - sleeper sections spanning a stream. Signs of an early attempt to stimulate tourism and perhaps as a nod towards the island’s unique role in Laotian railway history can be found near Ban Hua Det village, where a rubber wheeled motorised tourist ‘train’ complete with ‘carriages’ in the form of trailers lies abandoned near the gantry.

== Unresolved queries about the railway ==

Due to a general lack of information regarding the Don Det – Don Khon islands narrow gauge railway, a number of queries have arisen about various aspects of the railway, they include:

*It is not certain the year of the railway’s closure. Some have put the year as [[1940]], others at [[1949]]; given the ambiguity over whether the Japanese occupation of French Indochina used the railway, it is likely this query will remain open-ended.
*The exact year of the opening for the extension of the railway from Don Khon to Don Det is also unknown. One reference<ref name="Keay" /> places the extension in the 1920s. Nonetheless, if the account by Vandy Chanthalat is accurate, the viaduct was constructed in [[1917]]; however rails and the railway extension’s opening may not have commenced until the 1920s. Another source puts the construction of the bridge at [[1910]].
*Although it is not clear what gauge the steam locomotive ‘Eloïse’ stands on (which can be eventually resolved by measuring the length from the inside of both rails!), it is assumed to be Meter gauge, a popular gauge used by the French at the time. Moreover, it is unsure when or why the French colonial administration chose to change gauge; one unreferenced source places the change at [[1946]]. The change was perhaps an attempt to standardise the railway gauges in the region to Meter gauge, that is if the section of track here is Meter gauge. Meter gauge is used throughout most of [[Rail transport in Vietnam|Vietnam’s railway network]], the entirety of [[Rail transport in Cambodia|Cambodia’s]] and [[Rail transport in Thailand|Thailand’s railway networks]], and the French built [[Yunnan-Vietnam railway]]. However there were never plans to connect the railway to other networks, and other than [[Transport in Laos|the abortive works at Thakhek]], the French showed little interest in developing a proper railway network in Laos. The line’s conversion to Meter gauge could have been a parting gift from the French as their influence in Laos waned in the late 1940s ([[Laos|full independence been granted to Laos in 1954]] in the same year [[French Union|Laos withdraw from the French Union]]), perhaps akin to the [[Sihanoukville autonomous port|French-built port at Sihanoukville]], [[Cambodia]]. This theory is unlikely, given the development of transportation via local and regional highways, and aircraft after the Second World War, reducing the reliance on the Mekong as a freight channel. However, it may have been converted at an earlier date, possibly to coincide with the extension of the railway in the 1910s. Whatever date the line was converted to a wider gauge, it would have potentially benefited from locomotives of the same gauge been transferred from other parts southeast Asia and further afield.
*There appears to be little information on the type of freight carried by the railway, with the exception of dismantled and fully assembled vessels. However, it is likely provisions would be carried north from [[Phnom Penh]] to settlements like [[Vientiane]] and [[Luang Prabang]] for the colonial administration. Certain types of [[timber]] would not have been carried by the railway, at least downstream, given the presence of specially constructed walls east of Don Khon island in the river channel that helped funnel timber logged near [[Vientiane]] pass by the islands downstream (see Related features below).
*While it is clear the alignment only accommodated a [[single track (rail)|single track railway]], due to the lack of availability of large-scale maps of the islands drawn during the railway’s operation, it is difficult to ascertain the exact layout of the railway at the pier termini. However, they would have probably included [[siding (rail)|sidings]].
*There are no accounts or evidence of where the ballast for the trackbed was quarried, although it can be assumed, as with early railway construction the world over, the stone was quarried locally on or near the islands.

==Related features==

Both islands feature other man-made and natural attractions, directly or indirectly related to the railway, these being:

*[[Khone Phapheng falls|Tat Somphamit or Li Phi Falls, part of the Khon Falls]], a set of raging torrents west of Khon Tai village on Don Khon island, is an apt display of the problems confronted by the early French explorers attempting to find a navigable route upstream.
*An [[obelisk]]-shaped memorial (its commemoration plaque removed) just south of Ban Hangkhon village, Don Khon island, possibly commemorating the exploits of the [[Mekong Exploration Commission]].
*Disused concrete walls built during the French colonial era visible off the eastern side of Don Khon island and the western side of Don Som island used to funnel logs felled upstream from forests near [[Vientiane]].

==Future developments==

Until the 2000s, the [[politics of Laos|government of Laos]] made no serious attempt to reopen the railway since its closure in the [[1940s]]. However, in December [[2005]], the [[Vientiane Times]] published news about the possible reopening of the railway by [[2007]] for [[tourist]] purposes. The budget for the reconstruction was estimated at US$1.5 million and while local materials would have been sought for the construction, new rolling stock from abroad would have had to be purchased. Despite been no more than the original seven kilometres in length, Deputy Head of the [[Lao National Railway Authorities]], Mr Sone Sack N. Nhansana, said the railway would demonstrate 'the government's efforts and commitment to develop a railway network in the country'. An [[MOU]] was signed between the principal backer, the [[South Korean]] Kyungin Engineering and Construction Company and the Laos Government, but the company later backed out. [[Vietnam Railway]] [[subsidiaries]] [[Sai Gon Railway Passenger Transport Company]] and [[Sai Gon Railway Tourism Company]] appeared to have advised Laos on the railway's rehabilitation, by inviting officials to visit [[Dalat]], [[Lam Dong Province]], Vietnam to study the [[Da Lat–Thap Cham Railway]], a [[rack railway]] of similar length which runs for both locals and tourists.

Needless to say, more basic steps have been undertaken to preserve the railway, namely the construction of the shed and plinth for the steam locomotive ‘Eloïse’ on Don Khon island in 2011.

Moreover, as Laos and the regional economy develop, the country faces more pressing infrastructure requirements. Recently devoid of any railways, Laos now features a railway line from Nong Khai, Nong Khai Province, Thailand over the [[Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge]] that spans the Mekong. At present the railway reaches Thanaleng Railway Station, Dongphosy village, near Vientiane, and there are [[Transport in Laos|plans to extend this railway into Vientiane]] proper. There are also plans for [[Transport in Laos|a railway from Vientiane into China]], and [[Transport in Laos|a railway to connect with Vietnam]], between [[Thakhek]], [[Khammouane|Khammuan Province]] and [[Tan Ap Railway Station]], [[Quang Binh Province]], [[Vietnam]] through the [[Mu Gia Pass]] reviving the earlier but aborted [[Thakhek - Tan Ap railway]]. Continuing improvements to the [[Transport in Laos|local and regional highway]] and airport infrastructure have significantly reduced the need to use the Mekong River for freight transportation in Laos.

==See also==

*[[Champasak Province]]
*[[French Indochina]]
*[[French Union]]
*[[Khone Phapheng Falls]]
*[[Mekong River]]
*[[Portage railway]]
*[[Siphandon Islands]]
*[[Thakhek - Tan Ap railway]]
*[[Transport in Laos]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
*Keay, John (2005). "Mad About the Mekong: Exploration and Empire in South East Asia". Harper Collins.
*Whyte, Brendan (2010). "The Railway Atlas of Thailand, Laos and Cambodia". White Lotus, Bangkok.

==External sources==
*{{cite web |url=http://www.asia-planet.net/laos/discovery.htm |title=Laos Travel Tips |year=2002 |accessdate=23 July 2011}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/laos/southern-laos/don-det-and-don-khon |title=Don Det & Don Khon Travel Information and Travel Guide – Laos, Lonely Planet |year=2009 |accessdate=20 July 2011}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.pbase.com/asiatramp/4000_islands_siphandon |title=4000 Islands. Si Phan Don photo gallery by Peter Wolledge}}

[[Category:Champassack Province]]
[[Category:Transport in Laos]]
[[Category:600 mm gauge railways]]

Gutkeled

2009-02-14T21:06:22Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.88 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

The '''Gutkeled''' (spelling variants: Gut-Keled, Guthkeled, Guth-Keled) was a family or clan ([[Latin language|Latin]] ''[[Wikt:generatio|generatio]]'') of [[Hungary|Hungarian]] nobles, to which a number of Hungarian noble families owe their ancestry.

The primary source of their origins is the [[Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum|Gesta Hungarorum]] of Simon of Kéza, in which the author writes:

:''Sed postea, tempore Petri regis Kelad et Gut intrant tres frateres ex gente Svevorum procreati. De castello Stof sunt nativi.''
:''(But afterwards, during the reign of king Peter, Kelad and Gut three brothers of [[Swabia]]n or eventually [[Swedish people|Swedish]] descent immigrated. They were born at the castle of Stof.)

The castle "Stof" is assumed to be a corruption of "Stauf", meaning either castle Stauf in [[Staufen, Germany|Staufen im Breisgau]] or the [[Hohenstaufen]] castle in [[Württemberg]]. The king mentioned is [[Peter Urseolo of Hungary|Péter Orseolo]], placing the arrival of the Gutkeleds to Hungary sometime around the 1040s.<ref>Simon Kezai, Lázló Veszprémy, Frank Schaer (ed.), ''Gesta Hungarorum: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (Central European Medieval Texts), Central European University Press 1999. ISBN 963-9116-31-9</ref>

Some of the Hungarian noble families descending from the Gutkeleds are:
* Adonyi
* Apagyi
* Atyai
* [[Báthory]]
* Diószegi
* Dobi
* Gacsályi
* Guthi
* Kun
* Pelbárthidi
* Rozsályi
* Szemesi
* Maróthy
* Várdai

Some notable members are:
* István (Stjepan) Gutkeled, [[Ban (title)|Ban]] of [[Slavonia]] (1248-1260)
* Miklós (Nikola) Gutkeled, Ban of Slavonia (1278-1279)

===Notes===
{{Unreferenced|date=July 2007}}

===External links===

One of the Guthkeled [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01949/html/index84.html coat-of-arms], similar devices were later used by most of the families.

==References==
{{reflist}}

*Kezai, Simon, Lázló Veszprémy, Frank Schaer (ed.), ''Gesta Hungarorum: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (Central European Medieval Texts), Central European University Press 1999. ISBN 963-9116-31-9

[[Category:Hungarian nobility|Gutkeled clan]]

[[hu:Gutkeled nemzetség]]
[[ja:グトケレド]]

Mehdi Ghezali

2009-02-14T20:08:29Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.88 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

'''Mehdi Muhammed Ghezali''' ({{ArB|محمد مهدي غزالي}}) (born July 5, 1979), in media previously known as the '''Cuba-Swede''' ({{lang-sv|Kubasvensken}}), is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] citizen of [[Algeria]]n and [[Finns|Finnish]] descent who was held as what the [[United States]] termed an [[unlawful combatant]] at the [[Guantanamo Bay detainment camp]] on [[Cuba]] between January 2002 and July 2004. Prior to his capture Ghezali attended a [[Muslim]] [[madrasah|religious school]] and [[mosque]] in the [[United Kingdom]] before travelling to [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Afghanistan]], and finally ended up in [[Pakistan]] where he was captured. Following his release from detention the [[Government of Sweden|Swedish government]] has not brought any further criminal charges against him for criminal misconduct prior to his capture.

== Early life and travel ==
Mehdi Ghezali was born in [[Botkyrka]], [[Stockholm]], and grew up in [[Örebro]], the son of an Algerian immigrant and a Finnish woman. He finished secondary studies in 1999 and trained as a welder. He was suspected of theft the same year, but left the country and could not be questioned by the [[Swedish Police Service|Swedish police]]. When police officers visited Ghezali's father he stated that Ghezali had left for Algeria in order to complete his [[military service]], however Ghezali had traveled to Portugal, supposedly to pursue a career as a [[soccer|football player]]. Ghezali was apprehended by the [[Polícia de Segurança Pública|Portuguese police]] in [[Algarve]], Portugal on July 31, 1999 for a suspected bank robbery and a jewelry theft together with his partner [[Stavros Christos Toilos]]. The bank robbery in [[Albufeira]] netted 600,000 [[euro]]s while the jewelry theft in [[Playe de la Galé]] netted 5,000 euros.<ref name=Elmundo> [http://www.el-mundo.es/elmundo/2002/07/31/internacional/1028122826.html Las tramas de Bin Laden en el sur de Portugal] {{es icon}}, [[El Mundo]], August 1, 2002</ref> Ghezali and his partner were sentenced to three and a half years imprisonment, but were released early. Ghezali was released from prison on June 12, 2000 after having spent 10 months in a Portuguese prison, and returned to Sweden.

Ghezali then traveled to [[Medina]] in [[Saudi Arabia]] to study at the university. However, he was not accepted and returned to Sweden in March or April 2001 for a brief period before travelling to London where he studied at the madrasah of the Muslim [[cleric]] [[Omar Bakri]]. He then travelled to Pakistan in the summer of 2001 in order to study at one of the madrasahs situated there. After failing to gain acceptance into any of the madrasahs he then travelled to Afghanistan, where he according to his own statements stayed with a family in [[Jalalabad]]. Ghezali stated that:<ref name=TheLocal2>[http://www.thelocal.se/article.php?ID=273&date=20040723 Guantanamo Swede seeks damages] {{en icon}}, ''[[The Local]]'', July 23, 2004</ref> {{cquote|"''I lived a simple life, playing with the children and seeing how Afghans lived.''"}}

According to media reports Ghezali stayed at "''Algerian House''", supposedly a known hideout for [[al-Qaeda]] in Jalalabad. Information gleaned from interrogations with the captured [[terrorist]] [[Ahmed Ressam]] described "''Algerian House''" as a part of a training camp known as "''biot al-ansar''", or the house of sympathisers. At the first level sympathisers are given ideological indoctrination and basic weapons training before al-Qaeda leaders determine which sympathisers are to advance to the next level within the organization.<ref name=Expressen>[http://www.expressen.se/expressen/jsp/polopoly.jsp?a=161338 Han bodde i Usamas hus] {{sv icon}}, ''[[Expressen]]'', July 18, 2004</ref>

== Capture and detention ==
After the [[Armed Forces of the United States]] together with the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]] initiated a bombing campaign on the [[Tora Bora|Tora Bora mountains]] a large number of [[al-Qaeda]] sympathisers and others in the affected areas fled southward to Pakistan. Mehdi Ghezali was captured by local warlords in Pakistan in the Tora Bora mountains which are close to the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan, and then handed over to the U.S. Armed Forces which transported him to [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base]] on Cuba where Ghezali was held at Guantanamo Bay detainment camp.

During his stay at Guantanamo Bay Ghezali was visited by representatives of the Swedish government (February 2002, January and July 2003 and January 2004) and was informed that he had been assigned an attorney in Sweden ([[Peter Althin]]) and that his case had been brought up in inter-governmental contacts and had been featured on several occasions in the Swedish media. Ghezali supposedly refused to discuss what he was doing in Afghanistan and Pakistan with the agents of the Swedish government.<ref name=Contra>[http://www.contra.nu/kommentar0429.html Mehdi Ghezali] {{sv icon}}, ''[[Contra (Swedish magazine)|Contra]]'', July 20, 2004</ref>

On May 15, 2006 the [[United States Department of Defense]] released a list of all the individuals who had been held in military custody in their Guantanamo Bay detainment camps. That list gives Ghezali's Guantanamo detainee ID as 166.<ref name=DoDList2>[http://www.defenselink.mil/news/May2006/d20060515%20List.pdf list of prisoners (.pdf)] {{en icon}}, ''[[US Department of Defense]]'', May 15, 2006</ref> The DoD lists his place of birth as Stockholm.

== Release ==
After being held as an [[enemy combatant]] for 930 days Ghezali was released into the custody of the Swedish government on July 8, 2004 since he was no longer considered a threat to the United States, since he had no information that was of interest to the American Intelligence Service and since he had not committed a crime which could be proven in a military court.<ref name=TheLocal>[http://www.thelocal.se/article.php?ID=254&date=20040709 Guantanamo Swede released] {{en icon}}, ''[[The Local]]'', July 9, 2004</ref> Ghezali was transported home by the [[Swedish Air Force]] on a [[Gulfstream IV]] jet, at the expense of the Swedish government (estimated at 500 000 – 600 000 [[Swedish krona|Swedish kronor]]).

Initially Swedish prosecutors stated that they would press charges against him for crimes committed prior to Ghezali's departure from Sweden, but they were subsequently dropped. There were also threats made against Ghezali, it was perceived that the Swedish government had given Ghezali too much help.<ref name=TheLocal4>[http://www.thelocal.se/article.php?ID=273&date=20040723 Guantanamo Swede seeks damages] {{en icon}}, ''[[The Local]]'', July 23, 2004</ref>

An article in the ''[[Boston Globe]]'', on detainees who had returned to battlefield following their release, mentioned Ghezali. The article said Ghezali was being "''monitored by Swedish intelligence agents''".<ref name=BostonGlobe041018> [http://www.boston.com/news/world/articles/2004/10/18/7_ex_detainees_return_to_fighting?mode=PF 7 ex-detainees return to fighting: Guantanamo release process called imperfect] {{en icon}}, [[Boston Globe]], October 18, 2004</ref> Ghezali has also stated in his book that he feels he is being intensely monitored by the [[Swedish Security Service|Swedish Security Service (SÄPO)]], both in his home and when he moves around. He claims that the surveillance has caused him to feel depressed.<ref name=DN2>[http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=147&a=391856 Kubasvensken kände sig förföljd av Säpo] {{sv icon}}, ''[[Dagens Nyheter]]'', March 17, 2005</ref>

== Statements after release ==
After his release Ghezali criticized the Swedish government for not helping him sufficiently and denied having been told that he was assigned an attorney or being informed of actions taken on his behalf by the Swedish government, however this was refuted by the Swedish foreign ministry which had documented their meetings with Ghezali.<ref name=GP2>[http://www.gp.se/gp/jsp/Crosslink.jsp?d=119&a=173700 Ghezali blev informerad av UD] {{sv icon}}, ''[[Göteborgsposten]]'', July 19, 2004</ref> It has been suggested by a [[psychologist]] that Ghezali's recollection of events might have been affected by the [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] of capture and detention.<ref name=DN3>[http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=147&a=289179 "Ghezali kan ha förträngt information"] {{sv icon}}, ''[[Dagens Nyheter]]'', July 20, 2004</ref>

Ghezali has also made statements describing his stay at the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp. He claims to have been subject to [[torture]] such as sleep deprivation and made to sit in an interrogation room for thirteen hours in a row. He is planning a [[class-action lawsuit]] against the USA.<ref name=TheLocal3>[http://www.thelocal.se/article.php?ID=273&date=20040723 Guantanamo Swede seeks damages] {{en icon}}, ''[[The Local]]'', July 23, 2004</ref> He has together with [[Gösta Hultén]] published a book, ''Fånge på Guantánamo : Mehdi Ghezali berättar'' (''Prisoner on Guantanamo: Mehdi Ghezalis tells'') ISBN 91-7343-086-2, in which he chronicles his experiences.

== Activities in Afghanistan and Pakistan ==
Ghezali has not answered any questions regarding his activities in Afghanistan, possible connections to [[al-Qaeda]] and previous criminal activities. At a press conference following his return to Sweden Ghezali said the following about the al-Qaeda leader [[Usama bin Laden]]:<ref name=DN>[http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=147&a=288303 Ghezali vill inte döma bin Ladin] {{sv icon}}, ''[[Dagens Nyheter]]'', July 17, 2004</ref> {{cquote|''Jag känner honom inte som person och därför kan jag inte döma honom. Jag tror inte på det amerikanerna säger om honom. Det är mycket som inte stämmer.'' (I do not know him as a person and therefore cannot pass judgment over him. I do not believe that which the Americans say about him. There is a lot that does not add up.)}} Ghezali's refusal to reveal what he was doing in Afghanistan and Pakistan has been highlighted in Swedish media and was brought up in the context of his stay at the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp.<ref name=GP>[http://www.gp.se/gp/jsp/Crosslink.jsp?d=119&a=172482 Vad förde Ghezali till talibanerna?] {{sv icon}}, ''[[Göteborgsposten]]'', July 9, 2004</ref>

Ghezali was also suspected of having participated in a prison uprising in Pakistan, where 17 people (including seven prison guards) were killed. Ghezali and 47 other prisoners were being transported in a bus when the guards were overpowered and the prisoners fled into the wilderness. The majority of the prisoners were captured again, and were facing execution for their participation in the uprising. After an intervention from the United States the threat of execution was withdrawn and Ghezali was taken into U.S. custody. When questioned about the prison uprising at the press conference following his release Ghezali denied any having any knowledge of or participation in the prison uprising.<ref name=SvD>[http://www.svd.se/dynamiskt/inrikes/did_3705508.asp Pakistan drar tillbaka åtal mot Kubasvensk] {{sv icon}}, ''[[Svenska Dagbladet]]'', December 12, 2002</ref>

== Subsequent appearances ==
On July 4, 2006, Ghezali made his first public appearance since his release at a [[Demonstration (people)|demonstration]] held outside the U.S. Embassy in Stockholm, Sweden. Ghezali and approximately 60 others called for the closure of the Guantanamo Bay facility. Ghezali, who declined to answer any questions from reporters, and the other demonstrators also appeared in support of [[Oussama Kassir]], the Swedish citizen being held in the Czech Republic for alleged involvement with al-Qaeda.<ref name=SvD2>[http://www.svd.se/dynamiskt/inrikes/did_13112214.asp Mehdi Ghezali fördömde Guantánamo] {{sv icon}}, ''[[Svenska Dagbladet]]'', July 4, 2006</ref>

==Lawsuit dropped==

Ghezali is reported to have dropped his suit against the US government.<ref name=MuslimNews20070815>
{{cite news
| url=http://www.muslimnews.co.uk/news/news.php?sub=1872
| title=Guantánamo Swede gives up case against US
| date=August 15, 2007
| publisher=[[The Muslim News]]
| accessdate=2007-08-18
}}</ref>
According to ''[[The Muslim News]]'':
{{quotation|"The Swede eventually found a [U.S.] firm willing to take the case on, but it dropped out shortly before the deadline for bringing a case expired."}}

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[Gouled Hassan Dourad]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.cageprisoners.com/prisoners.php?id=96 Mehdi Ghezali] at http://www.cageprisoners.com (photos and information)

{{Persondata
|NAME=Ghezali, Mehdi
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ghezali, Mehdi Muhammed
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Guantanamo Bay detainee
|DATE OF BIRTH=July 5, 1979
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Botkyrka]], [[Stockholm County]], Sweden
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghezali, Mehdi}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Swedish Muslims]]
[[Category:Swedish bank robbers]]
[[Category:People held at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp]]

[[sv:Mehdi Ghezali]]

Speedwell (Schiff, 1577)

2009-01-01T04:16:32Z

Tkynerd: Italicize ship name

[[Image:EmbarkationPilgrims.jpg|thumb|300px|The Pilgrims on the ''Speedwell'']]
The '''''Speedwell''''' was a 60-ton [[ship]], the smaller of the two ships (along with ''[[Mayflower]]'') intended to carry the [[Pilgrim Fathers]] to [[North America]]. A vessel of the same name and size traveled to the [[New World]] seventeen years prior as the flagship of the first expedition of [[Martin Pring]].

The ''Speedwell'' was built in [[1577]], under the name ''Swiftsure'', as part of English preparations for war against [[Spain]]. She participated in the fight against the [[Spanish Armada]], and during the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]]' [[1596]] [[Azores]] expedition she served as the ship of his second in command, Sir [[Gilly Merick]]. After hostilities with Spain ended, she was decommissioned in [[1605]], rebuilt, and renamed the ''Speedwell''.

The [[Leiden]] Separatists bought the ship ''Speedwell'' in [[Holland]], and boarded it at [[Delfshaven]]. They then sailed to [[Southampton]], [[England]] to meet the ''Mayflower'', which had been chartered by the merchant investors. In Southampton they joined with other Separatists and the additional colonists hired by the investors.

The two ships began the voyage on [[August 5]], [[1620]], but the ''Speedwell'' was leaky and returned to [[Dartmouth, England|Dartmouth]] to be refitted at great expense and time. On the second attempt, ''Mayflower'' and ''Speedwell'' sailed about 100 [[league (unit)|leagues]] beyond [[Land's End]] in [[Cornwall]], but the ''Speedwell'' was again found to be leaky. Both vessels returned to [[Plymouth]] where the ''Speedwell'' was sold.

It would later be revealed that there was in fact nothing wrong with the ship. The crew had [[sabotage|sabotaged]] it in order to escape the year long commitment of their contract.

Eleven people from the ''Speedwell'' boarded the ''Mayflower'', leaving 20 people to return to [[London]] (including [[Robert Cushman]]) while a combined company of 103 continued the voyage. For a third time, the ''Mayflower'' headed for the [[New World]]. She left Plymouth on [[September 6]], [[1620]] and entered [[Cape Cod]] Harbor on [[November 11]], 1620. The ''Fortune'' eventually followed, arriving at [[Plymouth Colony]] one year later on [[November 9]], [[1621]].

In 1656 the ''Speedwell'' made a voyage from England to [[Boston]], carrying a party of [[Quakers]] including [[Christopher Holder]] and John Copeland. Arriving in [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] under the Governorship of [[John Endecott]], they were deported for religious reasons and obliged to return to Britain. In the following year another party, including six of the ''Speedwell'' company, returned via [[Rhode Island]] aboard the ''Woodhouse'': one of them became one of the [[Boston martyrs]], judicially executed by Endecott.

At least two subsequent ships of the [[Royal Navy]] bore the same name, a [[ship of the line]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and a modern [[nuclear submarine]].

==References==
*''Indian Battles: with Incidents in the Early History of New England''. 1859. By Rev. Henry White. New York: D.W. Evans & Co. 677 Broadway.
*{{cite book|last=Whalen|first=Richard F.|title=Truro: The Story of a Cape Cod Town|year=2002|publisher=Xlibris|location=Philadelphia|isbn=1-4010-5146-4}}
*{{cite book
|url=http://narcissus.umd.edu:8080/eada/html/display.jsp?docs=bradford_history.xml&action=show
|last=Bradford
|first=William
|title=Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, 1606-1646
|editor=William T. Davis
|year=1908
|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
|location=New York
|chapter=8
|accessdate=2006-05-27
}}

[[Category:Exploration ships]]
[[Category:Plymouth Colony]]
[[Category:Sailboat names]]
[[Category:Sailing ships]]

[[es:Speedwell]]

U.S. Highway 51

2008-11-30T22:36:36Z

Tkynerd: /* Route description */ Grammar fix

{{Infobox U.S. Route
|article_route=51
|map=US 51 map.png
|length_mi=1286<ref name="droz">[http://www.us-highways.com/us1830.htm US Highways from US 1 to US 830] Robert V. Droz</ref>
|length_km=2070
|yrcom=1926<ref name="droz"/>
|direction_a=South
|direction_b=North
|from={{Jct|state=LA|US|61}} at [[Laplace, Louisiana|Laplace, LA]]
|junction={{Jct|state=MS|I|20}} at [[Jackson, Mississippi|Jackson, MS]] 
{{Jct|state=TN|I|40}} at [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis, TN]] 
{{Jct|state=IL|I|57}} at [[Mounds, Illinois|Mounds, IL]] 
{{Jct|state=IL|I|70}} at [[Vandalia, Illinois|Vandalia, IL]] 
{{Jct|state=IL|I|72}} at [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur, IL]] 
{{Jct|state=IL|I|55|I|74}} at [[Bloomington, Illinois|Bloomington, IL]] 
{{Jct|state=IL|I|80}} at [[La Salle, Illinois|La Salle, IL]] 
{{Jct|state=IL|I|88}} at [[Rochelle, Illinois|Rochelle, IL]] 
{{Jct|state=IL|I|90}} at [[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford, IL]] 
{{Jct|state=WI|I|39|I|90|I|94}} at [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison, WI]]
|to={{Jct|state=WI|US|2}} at [[Hurley, Wisconsin|Hurley, WI]]
}}
'''U.S. Route 51''' is a north-south [[United States highway]] that runs for 1,286 miles (2,070 km) from northern [[Wisconsin]] to the western suburbs of [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. Much of the highway in Wisconsin and Illinois runs parallel to or overlaps [[Interstate 39]]. The highway's northern terminus is [[Hurley, Wisconsin]], at [[U.S. Highway 2]]. Its southern terminus is [[Laplace, Louisiana]], at [[U.S. Highway 61]].

In addition to singing about [[U.S. Highway 61]] on his album ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]'', musician [[Bob Dylan]] also commemorated Highway 51, covering folk song "Highway 51 Blues" on his eponymous album ''[[Bob Dylan (album)|Bob Dylan]]''.

In [[Memphis, Tennessee]], all of U.S. 51 south of South Parkway East was renamed from Bellevue Boulevard to Elvis Presley Boulevard. [[Graceland]] sits on this highway, in the subdivision of [[Whitehaven, Memphis|Whitehaven]].

In 2004, the six states that Highway 51 traverses banded together as the ''Explore Hwy 51 Coalition'' to help promote this "All-American Road". The group now offers visitor information for traveling the length of the road.<ref name="explore">[http://explorehwy51.com/ Explore Highway 51 Coalition]</ref>

==Route description==
{|class="infobox" width="230px"
!style="background: #ccf; float:right;"|<big>Major cities</big>
|-
|
*
*[[Wausau, Wisconsin]]
*[[Madison, Wisconsin]]
*[[Janesville, Wisconsin]]
*[[Beloit, Wisconsin]]
*[[Rockford, Illinois]]
*[[Bloomington, Illinois|Bloomington]]-[[Normal, Illinois]]
*[[Decatur, Illinois]]
*[[Centralia, Illinois]]
*[[Carbondale, Illinois]]
*[[Cairo, Illinois]]
*[[Memphis, Tennessee]]
*[[Jackson, Mississippi]]
*[[McComb, Mississippi]]
*[[Hammond, Louisiana]]
|}

=== Louisiana ===
U.S. 51 crosses the Mississippi/Louisiana border a few miles north of [[Kentwood, Louisiana|Kentwood]] and continues to parallel Interstate 55 until it joins I-55 just south of [[Hammond, Louisiana|Hammond]] at Exit 28. From Hammond, the two highways cross the swamps between [[Ponchatoula, Louisiana|Ponchatoula]] and Laplace on viaducts to Interstate 10, where I-55 ends. U.S. 51 continues southwestward into Laplace where it meets its end at U.S. 61 (Airline Highway).

=== Mississippi ===
U.S. 51 enters the Magnolia State from Tennessee at [[Southaven, Mississippi|Southaven]] and parallels [[Interstate 55]] to the east for much of its length, except for the section between the Tennessee line and [[Grenada, Mississippi|Grenada]], where it parallels the highway to the west. From Memphis, U.S. 51 passes through [[Senatobia, Mississippi|Senatobia]], Grenada, Winona and [[Canton, Mississippi|Canton]] before reaching [[Jackson, Mississippi|Jackson.]]

At the Jackson-[[Ridgeland, Mississippi|Ridgeland]] line, U.S. 51 overlaps I-55 from Exit 103 (County Line Road) to Exit 96A (Pearl Street) downtown. The split is only temporary as the highway traverses Pearl, Pascagoula and State streets and meets I-55 again at Exit 93 ([[Interstate 20]]/I-55/State Street interchange). The Natchez Trace parkway is crossed near Clinton. The Natchez Trace Parkway is a 444 mile (715 km) long parkway, in the form of a limited-access two-lane road, in the southeastern United States. The southern end of the route is in Natchez, Mississippi, at an intersection with Liberty Road; the northern end is northeast of Fairview, Tennessee, in the suburban community of Pasquo, Tennessee, at an intersection with Tennessee 100. The road links the cities of Natchez, Mississippi, and Nashville, Tennessee, via Jackson and Tupelo, Mississippi, and Florence in northwestern Alabama. [1]

The two highways run together until Exit 72 (North Crystal Springs). The highway then parallels the interstate through [[Hazlehurst, Mississippi|Hazelhurst]], [[Brookhaven, Mississippi|Brookhaven]] and [[McComb, Mississippi|McComb]] until it reaches the Louisiana border.

The Mississippi section of U.S. 51 is defined at Mississippi Code Annotated § 65-3-3.

=== Tennessee ===
{{main|U.S. Route 51 in Tennessee}}
US 51 travels through Memphis and up to the Kentucky border in the Mississippi valley. It is planned to become or be bypassed by [[Interstate 69]] through [[Tennessee]].
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

=== Kentucky ===
U.S 51 enters Kentucky at Fulton, and continues north through the towns of Clinton,Bardwell and Wickliffe to the Ohio River, where it is multiplexed with U.S highways 60 and 62 over the Ohio.{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

=== Illinois ===
{{seealso|U.S. Route 51 in Illinois}}
In the state of [[Illinois]], U.S. 51 runs north from the [[Cairo Ohio River Bridge]] with [[U.S. Route 60]] and [[U.S. Route 62]], through [[Decatur, Illinois]] to [[South Beloit, Illinois|South Beloit]] at the Wisconsin border. For all but the northern 1/4 mile (1/2 km) that [[Interstate 39]] runs in Illinois, U.S. 51 overlaps I-39. Previous routings of U.S. 51 became [[Illinois Route 251]] and [[Illinois Route 351]].

U.S. 51 is the main route that divides eastern and western Illinois. It is {{convert|415.95|mi|km|2}} long in Illinois.<ref name=t2>{{cite web |author=Illinois Technology Transfer Center |url=http://www.dot.state.il.us/gist2/select.html |title=T2 GIS Data |accessdate=2007-11-08 |date=2007}}</ref>

=== Wisconsin ===
{{seealso|U.S. Route 51 in Wisconsin}}
In the state of [[Wisconsin]], U.S. 51 enters from [[Illinois]] at [[Beloit (WI)|Beloit]], and continues north to its northern terminus in [[Hurley (WI)|Hurley]] where it junctions with [[U.S. Route 2 in Wisconsin|US 2]].
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

==See also==
===Related routes===
* [[U.S. Route 151]]
* [[Interstate 39]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/usend5059/End051/end051.htm US-51 endpoint photos]

{{US Highways}}

{{start srbox}}
{{ms browse|previous_type=MS|previous_route=50|route=[[List of numbered highways in Mississippi|MS]]|next_type=MS|next_route=53}}
{{ky browse|previous_type=KY|previous_route=49|route=list|next_type=US|next_route=52}}
{{il browse|previous_type=US|previous_route=50|route=[[List of Illinois Routes|IL]]|next_type=US|next_route=52}}
{{wi browse|previous_type=WI|previous_route=50|route=[[List of Wisconsin numbered highways|WI]]|next_type=WI|next_route=52}}
{{la browse|previous_type=LA|previous_route=50|route=[[List of Louisiana numbered highways|LA]]|next_type=LA|next_route=52}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:U.S. Route 51| ]]
[[Category:U.S. Highway System|51]]
[[Category:U.S. Highways in Wisconsin|51]]
[[Category:U.S. Highways in Kentucky|51]]
[[Category:U.S. Highways in Tennessee|51]]
[[Category:U.S. Highways in Mississippi|51]]
[[Category:U.S. Highways in Louisiana|51]]
[[Category:Interstate 69|051]]
[[Category:Interstate 55|051]]

[[pt:U.S. Route 51]]
[[sv:U.S. Route 51]]

That Was the Year That Was

2008-11-30T20:35:26Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.84 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Infobox Album | 
Name = That Was The Year That Was |
Type = [[Live Album]] |
Artist = [[Tom Lehrer]] |
Cover = That_Was_The_Year_That_Was.jpg |
Released = 1965 |
Recorded = July 1965 |
Genre = [[Satire]] |
Length = 31:42 |
Label = [[Reprise Records|Reprise]]/[[Warner Bros. Records]] |
Producer = Jimmy Hilliard |
Reviews =
* [[Allmusic]] {{Rating|4.5|5}} [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:71220r4ac48p link]|
Last album = ''[[Tom Lehrer Revisited]]'' (1960) |
This album = ''That Was The Year That Was'' (1965) |
Next album = ''[[That Was "That Was the Week That Was"]]'' (1981) |
}}

'''''That Was The Year That Was''''' (1965) is a live album recorded at the [[Hungry i|hungry i]] in [[San Francisco]], containing performances by [[Tom Lehrer]] of [[satire|satiric]] [[topical song]]s he originally wrote for the [[NBC]] television series ''[[That Was The Week That Was]]'', known informally as ''TW3'' (1964-65). All of the songs related to items then in the news

==Track listing==
# "[[National Brotherhood Week]]" – 2:35
# "[[MLF Lullaby]]" – 2:25
# "[[George Murphy]]" – 2:08
# "[[The Folk Song Army]]" – 2:12
# "[[Obscenity|Smut]]" – 3:15
# "[[Send the Marines]]" – 1:46
# "[[Pollution (Tom Lehrer)|Pollution]]" – 2:17
# "[[So Long, Mom (A Song for World War III)]] – 2:23
# "[[Whatever Became of Hubert?]]" – 2:13
# "[[New Math (song)|New Math]]" – 4:28
# "[[Alma_Mahler|Alma]]" – 5:27
# "[[Who's Next?]]" – 2:00
# "[[Wernher Von Braun]]" – 1:46
# "[[The Vatican Rag]]" – 2:14

== Topics of songs ==
* "National Brotherhood Week"—[[National Brotherhood Week]].
* "MLF Lullaby"—An ultimately failed U.S. proposal for a [[Multilateral Force|multilateral nuclear force]] as part of [[NATO]].
* "George Murphy"—[[George Murphy]], dancer, actor, U.S. Senator from California, and [[Robert F. Kennedy]] (D, NY), the putative third senator from Massachusetts
* "The Folk Song Army"—[[Topical song]]s as part of the [[roots revival|folk revival]] of the 1960s; also alludes to songs of the Republican side in the [[Spanish Civil War]], especially "[[Venga Jaleo]]" which it excerpts musically.
* "Smut"—[[Censorship]] of [[obscenity]], and the [[1957]] U.S. Supreme Court case ''[[Roth v. United States]]'', which coined the expression "redeeming social importance".
* "Send the Marines"—Militarism in [[United States]] foreign policy.
In 2003, former chief UN weapons inspector [[Hans Blix]] told a [[Sweden|Swedish]] radio program that he did not think that the [[Iraq War]], "in the way it was justified, was compatible with the UN Charter," then had the station play this song.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/08/07/1060145783214.html|title= Iraq invasion violated international law: Blix|accessdate=2008-11-23 |date= August 7, 2003.|publisher= [[Sydney Morning Herald]]}}</ref>

* "Pollution"—Pollution of the environment.
* "So Long, Mom (A Song for World War III)"—[[Nuclear warfare|Nuclear war]], [[Mutually Assured Destruction]], nostalgia over past wars, and television news coverage.
* "Whatever Became of Hubert?"—[[Hubert Horatio Humphrey]], then U.S. vice president under [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].
* "New Math"—[[New Math]], a trend at the time in the teaching of mathematics.
* "Who's Next?"—[[Nuclear proliferation]].
* "Alma"—[[Alma Mahler]], who had recently died. Composer and painter; wife, successively, of [[Gustav Mahler]], [[Walter Gropius]], and [[Franz Werfel]].
* "Wernher Von Braun"—Rocket scientist [[Wernher von Braun]].
* "The Vatican Rag"—The [[Second Vatican Council]] and the reform of [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] [[liturgy]].

== External links ==
* [http://php.indiana.edu/~jbmorris/FAQ/lehrer.disco.html Tom Lehrer Discography]
* [http://www.youtube.com/6funswede Tom Lehrer performing some of the songs on TV in the 1960's]

[[Category:1965 albums]]
[[Category:Tom Lehrer albums]]
[[Category:Live albums]]
[[Category:Reprise Records albums]]

{{1960s-album-stub}}

Camilla und Rebecca Rosso

2008-11-30T20:03:36Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.84 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Unreferenced|date=December 2006}}
{{Infobox actor
| name = Camilla Rosso Rebecca Rosso
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birthname =
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1994|07|6}}
| location = [[London]], [[England]]
| othername = Milly Rosso Becky Rosso
| homepage =
| academyawards =
| spouse =
}}
'''Rebecca Rosso''' and '''Camilla Rosso''', also known as Milly and Becky (born July 6, 1994 in London, England) are [[twin]] actresses. The twins have a recurring role on ''[[The Suite Life of Zack and Cody]]'', where they play twins Janice (Camilla) and Jessica (Rebecca). The Rossos were discovered when they were picked out of the audience by one of the executive producers of the show while at a recording. They currently live in Los Angeles with their mother, father, four sisters, and dog Aika.

They have just completed the 2nd sequel to [[Legally Blonde]] starring [[Reese Witherspoon]]. [[Legally Blondes]] will be released in early 2009 and will go straight to DVD. The twins play [[Elle Woods]] [[England|English]] cousins who come over to [[United States|America]] to visit her only to realise that Elle has made something out of her life.

==Filmography==
*[[Legally Blondes]] as Annabelle and Isabelle Woods (completed)
*[[The Suite Life of Zack & Cody]] as Janice and Jessica

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:English people of Italian descent]]
[[Category:English television actor stubs]]

[[es:Camilla Rosso y Rebecca Rosso]]
[[it:Camilla Rosso]]
[[sv:Camilla och Rebecca Rosso]]

Katzenjunges

2008-11-28T05:31:23Z

Tkynerd: Reverted 1 edit by 75.121.30.159 identified as vandalism to last revision by 68.110.238.190. using TW

{{ otheruses3|Kitten (disambiguation)}}

[[Image:Six weeks old cat (aka).jpg|thumb|right|250px|A six-week-old kitten]]
'''Kittens''' ([[Old English language|Old English]] [[diminutive]] of ''[[cat]]'') are juvenile domesticated cats (''Felis catus'') that are not fully-grown.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', Second Edition (Oxford University Press, 1989)</ref>

The young of [[big cat]]s are called [[cub]]s rather than kittens. Either term may be used for the young of smaller wild [[felidae|felids]] such as [[ocelot]]s, [[caracal]]s, and [[lynx]], but "kitten" is usually more common for these species.

Though the term primarily refers to young cats, it can also be used when talking about the young of [[beavers]], [[hedgehogs]], [[rabbits]], [[rats]], [[skunks]] and [[squirrels]].

[[Image:Youngkitten.JPG|thumb|200px|right|A kitten opens its [[eye]]s for the first time.]]
A [[Litter (animal)|litter]] of kittens usually consists of two to five kittens. They are born after a [[gestation]] that lasts between 64-67 days, with an average length of 66 days.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tsutsui T, Stabenfeldt GH |title=Biology of ovarian cycles, pregnancy and pseudopregnancy in the domestic cat |journal=J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. |volume=47 |issue= |pages=29–35 |year=1993|pmid=8229938}}</ref> Kittens emerge in a sac called the ''[[amnion]]'' which is bitten off and eaten by the mother cat.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Miglino MA, Ambrósio CE, dos Santos Martins D, Wenceslau CV, Pfarrer C, Leiser R |title=The carnivore pregnancy: the development of the embryo and fetal membranes |journal=Theriogenology |volume=66 |issue=6-7 |pages=1699–702 |year=2006 |pmid=16563485 |doi=10.1016/j.theriogenology.2006.02.027}}</ref>

For the first several weeks, kittens are unable to urinate or defecate without being stimulated by their mother. They are also unable to regulate their body temperature for the first three weeks, so kittens born in temperatures less than 27[[Celsius|°C]] (80 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]) can die from exposure if they are not kept warm by their mother.

The mother's milk is very important for the kittens' nutrition and proper growth. This milk transfers [[antibody|antibodies]] to the kittens, which helps protect them against [[infectious disease]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Casal ML, Jezyk PF, Giger U |title=Transfer of colostral antibodies from queens to their kittens |journal=Am. J. Vet. Res. |volume=57 |issue=11 |pages=1653–8 |year=1996 |pmid=8915447}}</ref> Newborn kittens are also unable to produce concentrated [[urine]], so have a very high requirement for fluids.<ref>{{cite book |author=Phillips C, Rochlitz I |title=Animal Welfare Volume 3: The Welfare of Cats |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3227-7_9 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/p810106748657h72/fulltext.pdf}} page 243</ref>

Kittens open their [[eye]]s about seven to ten days following [[birth]]. At first, the [[retina]] is poorly-developed and vision is poor. Kittens are not able to see as well as adult cats until about ten weeks after birth.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tootle JS, Friedlander MJ |title=Postnatal development of the spatial contrast sensitivity of X- and Y-cells in the kitten retinogeniculate pathway |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=1325–40 |year=1989 |pmid=2703879 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/reprint/9/4/1325.pdf}}</ref>

Kittens develop very quickly from about two weeks of age until their seventh week. Their coordination and strength improve, they play-fight with their litter-mates, and begin to explore the world outside the nest. They learn to wash themselves and others as well as play hunting and stalking games, showing their inborn ability as predators. These innate skills are developed by the kittens' mother or other adult cats bringing live prey to the nest. Later, the adult cats also demonstrate hunting techniques for the kittens to emulate.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Poirier FE, Hussey LK |title=Nonhuman Primate Learning: The Importance of Learning from an Evolutionary Perspective |journal=Anthropology & Education Quarterly |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=133–148 |year=1982 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-7761%28198222%2913%3A2%3C133%3ANPLTIO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A |doi=10.1525/aeq.1982.13.2.05x1830j}}</ref>

As they reach three to four weeks old, the kittens are gradually [[weaning|weaned]] and begin to eat solid food, with weaning usually complete by six to eight weeks.<ref>{{cite book |author=Phillips C, Rochlitz I |title=Animal Welfare Volume 3: The Welfare of Cats - Nutrition and Welfare |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3227-7_9 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/p810106748657h72/fulltext.pdf}} page 244</ref> Kittens live primarily on solid food after weaning, but usually continue to suckle from time to time until separated from their mothers. Some mother cats will scatter their kittens as early as three months of age, while others continue to look after them until they approach sexual maturity.
[[Image:Laitche-P013.jpg|left|thumb|220px|A litter of kittens with their mother]]
The gender of kittens is usually easy to determine by six to eight weeks. The [[male]]'s [[Urethral sphincter|urethral opening]] is round, whereas the [[female]]'s is a slit. Another marked difference is the distance between [[anus]] and urethral opening, which is greater in males than in females.

Kittens are highly social animals and spend most of their waking hours interacting with available animals and playing. Play with other kittens peaks in the third or fourth month after birth, with more solitary hunting and stalking play peaking later, at about five months.<ref name=p18>{{cite book |author=Crowell-Davis, S |title=Animal Welfare Volume 3: The Welfare of Cats - Cat Behaviour: Social Organization, Communication and Development |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3227-7_1 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/ux33718426526554/fulltext.pdf}} page 18</ref> Kittens are vulnerable to harm because they like to find dark places to hide; with sometimes fatal results if they are not watched carefully.

Although domestic kittens are commonly sent to new homes at six to eight weeks of age, it has been suggested that being with its mother and litter mates from six to twelve weeks is important for a kitten's social and behavioural development.<ref name=p18/> Usually, breeders will not sell a kitten that is younger than twelve weeks, and in many jurisdictions, it is illegal to give away kittens younger than eight weeks old.<ref>{{cite book |last= Sunquist |first= Mel |coauthors= Fiona Sunquist |title= Wild Cats of the World |publisher= University of Chicago Press |year= 2002 |isbn= 0-226-77999-8 | url= http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/779998.html }}</ref>

==Caring for domestic kittens==
Kittens require a high-calorie diet that contains more protein than the diet of adult cats.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rogers QR, Morris JG |title=Essentiality of amino acids for the growing kitten |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=718–23 |year=1979 |pmid=430271 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/109/4/718.pdf}}</ref> From weaning until about one year of age they should be fed a diet specifically formulated for kittens. Orphaned kittens too young to eat solid food may be fed a cat milk replacement formula every two to four hours. Kittens should not be fed cow's milk because it does not provide all of the necessary nutrients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Guilford WG |title=Nutritional management of gastrointestinal tract diseases of dogs and cats |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=124 |issue=12 Suppl |pages=2663S–2669S |year=1994 |pmid=7996263 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/124/12_Suppl/2663S.pdf}}</ref> Cats are generally intolerant of sugars in their diets and both [[sucrose]] (table sugar) and [[lactose]] are not digested and cause soft stools or [[diarrhea]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kienzle E |title=Blood sugar levels and renal sugar excretion after the intake of high carbohydrate diets in cats |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=124 |issue=12 Suppl |pages=2563S–2567S |year=1994 |pmid=7996238 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/124/12_Suppl/2563S.pdf}}</ref> Orphaned kittens that are not urinating or defecating must be stimulated to do so after each meal by rubbing with a warm, damp washcloth at the base of their spine where the tail begins.<ref>''Feline How-to Manual'' from Pawprints and Purrs, Inc, on feeding newborn cats [http://www.sniksnak.com/cathealth/howto10.html Feline How-To Manual: Feeding the Cat - Including Newborn Kitten Feeding ~ Pawprints and Purrs, Inc.] at www.sniksnak.com</ref> This is vital to the kitten's survival.

Hand-reared kittens tend to be very affectionate and more dependent on humans as adults, but can also show volatile mood swings and aggression.<ref>{{cite book |author=Heath, S |title=Animal Welfare Volume 3: The Welfare of Cats - Behaviour Problems and Welfare |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3227-7_4 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/t52m34220512l285/fulltext.pdf}} page 102</ref> If a kitten develops diarrhea, it is best to seek advice from a veterinarian. The kitten may need to be de-wormed with a de-wormer at 6-8 weeks old and then again 2 weeks later.

== See also ==
*[[Cat]]
*[[Felidae]]
*[[Felis]]

==References==
{{Commons|Kitten|Kittens}}
{{Wikibooks|How to choose your pet and take care of it}}
{{Wiktionary}}
{{reflist}}

{{Cat nav}}

[[Category:Cats]]

[[da:Killing]]
[[nl:Kitten]]
[[simple:Kitten]]
[[tl:Kuting]]

Ohio State Buckeyes (Footballteam)

2008-11-26T20:07:57Z

Tkynerd: Reverted 1 edit by 207.148.215.210 identified as vandalism to last revision by Bcspro. using TW

{{refimprove|date=June 2008}}
{{current sport-related|image=AmericanFootball current event.svg|mini=1|2008 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|second=For the 2007 season|2007 Ohio State Buckeyes football team}}
{{NCAAFootballSchool
| CurrentSeason = 2008 Ohio State Buckeyes football team
| TeamName = Ohio State Buckeyes football
| Image = Ohio State buckeyes logo.png|150px‎
| ImageSize = 150px
| HeadCoachDisplay = Jim Tressel
| HeadCoachLink = Jim Tressel
| HeadCoachYear = 8th
| HCWins = 83
| HCLosses = 18
| HCTies =
| Stadium = Ohio Stadium
| StadiumBuilt = 1922
| StadCapacity = 102,329
| StadSurface = FieldTurf
| Location = Columbus, Ohio
| ConferenceDisplay= Big Ten
| ConferenceLink = Big Ten Conference
| ConfDivision =
| FirstYear = 1890
| AthlDirectorDisp = Gene Smith
| AthlDirectorLink = Gene Smith (athletic director)
| Radio = Ohio State Football Radio Network
| Announcers = [[Paul Keels]] (Play By Play) [[Jim Lachey]] (Color) [[Marty Bannister]] (Sideline)
| WebsiteName = OhioStateBuckeyes.com
| WebsiteURL = http://ohiostatebuckeyes.com/
| ATWins = 808
| ATLosses = 305
| ATTies = 53
| ATPercentage = .716
| BowlWins = 18
| BowlLosses = 21
| BowlTies =
| NatlTitles = 7
| ConfTitles = 35
(2 [[Ohio Athletic Conference]]),
(33 Big Ten)
| Heismans = 7
| AllAmericans = 175
| Color1 = Scarlet
| Color1Hex = FF2400
| Color2 = Gray
| Color2Hex = 999999
| FightSong =[[Carmen Ohio]] [[Across the Field]] and [[Buckeye Battle Cry]]
| MascotDisplay = Brutus Buckeye
| MascotLink = Brutus Buckeye
| MarchingBand = [[TBDBITL]]
| PagFreeLabel =
| PagFreeValue =
| PagFreeLabel = Rivals
| PagFreeValue = [[Michigan Wolverines football|Michigan Wolverines]] [[Penn State Nittany Lions football|Penn State Nittany Lions]] [[Illinois Fighting Illini football|Illinois Fighting Illini]] (traditional)
}}

The '''[[Ohio State Buckeyes]] football team''' is an intercollegiate [[Varsity team|varsity sports]] team of [[Ohio State University|The Ohio State University]]. The team is a member of the [[Big Ten Conference]] of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association]], playing at the Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly [[Division I#Football Bowl Subdivision|Division I-A]]) level. The team nickname is derived from the [[Floral emblem|state tree]] of [[Ohio]]. The Buckeyes have played their home games in [[Ohio Stadium]] since 1922.

In their 118-year-history, the Buckeyes have been consensus [[NCAA Division I-A national football championship|Division IA National Champions]] five times, and claim a total of 7 national championships. On [[September 6]], [[2008]], the Buckeyes defeated [[Ohio University]] 26–14 for their 800th win, becoming the fifth FBS-team to reach the mark.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/misc/div_ia_wins.php | title= Division I-A All-Time Wins | accessdate= 2008-05-31}}</ref> [[Jim Tressel]] has been the Buckeyes head coach since 2001.

==Home Venues==
*[[Recreation Park (Columbus)]] (1890–1897)
*[[Ohio Field]] (1898–1921)
*[[Ohio Stadium]] (1922–present)

==History==
{{main|History of Ohio State Buckeyes football}}

==National Championships==
{| border= "0" width="90%"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="90%"
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Year
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Coach
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Selector
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Record
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Big Ten Record
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Bowl
|-align="center"
| 1942 || [[Paul Brown]] || [[AP Poll|AP]] || 9-1 || 6-1 || -
|-align="center"
| 1954 || [[Woody Hayes]] || [[Football Writers Association of America|FWAA]], [[United Press International|UPI]], AP || 10-0 || 7-0 || Win [[1955 Rose Bowl|Rose Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| 1957 || Woody Hayes || FWAA, UPI, AP ||9-1 ||6-1 || Win [[1958 Rose Bowl|Rose Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| 1961 || Woody Hayes || [[National Football Foundation|NFF]], FWAA||8-0-1|| 6-0 || -
|-align="center"
| 1968 || Woody Hayes || AP, UPI FWAA||10-0 || 7-0 || Win [[1969 Rose Bowl|Rose Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| 1970 ||Woody Hayes || FWAA||9-1 ||7-0|| Lost [[1971 Rose Bowl|Rose Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| 2002 || [[Jim Tressel]] || [[Bowl Championship Series|BCS]], AP, USA Today/ESPN ||14-0|| 8-0||Win [[2003 Fiesta Bowl|Fiesta Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| colspan=3 bgcolor="#C0C0C0"| '''National Championships'''
| colspan=3 bgcolor="#C0C0C0"| '''7'''
|}
|}

Ohio State also has also been awarded titles unrecognized by both the NCAA and the University in:

*1933
*1944
*1969
*1973
*1974
*1975
*1998

==Undefeated Seasons==
{| border="0" width="90%"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="80%"
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Year
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Record
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Big Ten Record
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Coach
|- align="center"
| 1899 || 9-0-1 || -- || [[John B. Eckstorm]]
|- align="center"
| 1916 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1916 || 7-0 || 4-0 || [[John Wilce]]
|- align="center"
| 1917 || 8-0-1 || 4-0 || John Wilce
|- align="center"
| 1944 || 9-0 || 6-0 || [[Carroll Widdoes]]
|- align="center"
| 1954 || 10-0 || 7-0 || [[Woody Hayes]]
|- align="center"
| 1961 || 8-0-1 || 6-0 || Woody Hayes
|- align="center"
| 1968 || 10-0 || 7-0 || Woody Hayes
|- align="center"
| 1973 ||10-0-1 || 7-0 || Woody Hayes
|- align="center"
| 2002 || 14-0 || 8-0 || [[Jim Tressel]]
|- align="center"
| colspan=3 bgcolor="#C0C0C0"| '''Undefeated Seasons'''
| colspan=1 bgcolor="#C0C0C0"| '''9'''
|}
|}

==Conference Champions==
Ohio State joined the Big Ten in 1912; before that they were a member of the [[Ohio Athletic Conference]] and won two OAC titles. Ohio State has won a championship in the Big Ten 33 times, second most in the conference and third most conference titles of any school in any conference.

{| border="0" width="90%"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="80%"
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Year
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Conference
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Coach
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Record
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Conference Record
|- align="center"
| 1906 || [[OAC]] || [[Albert E. Herrnstein]] || 8-1 || 4-0
|- align="center"
| 1912 || OAC || [[John Richards]] || 6-3 || 4-3
|- align="center"
| 1916 || Big Ten || [[John Wilce]] || 7-0 || 4-0
|- align="center"
| 1917 || Big Ten || John Wilce || 8-0-1 || 4-0
|- align="center"
| 1920 || Big Ten ||John WIlce || 7-1 || 5-0
|- align="center"
| 1935 || Big Ten || [[Francis Schmidt]] || 7-1 || 5-0
|- align="center"
| 1939 || Big Ten || Francis Schmidt || 6-2 || 5-1
|- align="center"
| 1942 || Big Ten || [[Paul Brown]] || 9-1 || 5-1
|- align="center"
| 1944 || Big Ten || [[Carroll Widdoes]] ||9-0 || 6-0
|- align="center"
| 1949 || Big Ten || [[Wes Fesler]] || 7-1-2 ||4-1
|- align="center"
| 1954 || Big Ten || [[Woody Hayes]] || 10-0 || 7-0
|- align="center"
| 1955 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 7-2 || 6-0
|- align="center"
| 1957 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9-1 || 7-0
|- align="center"
| 1961 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 8-0-1 || 6-0
|- align="center"
| 1968 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 10-0 || 7-0
|- align="center"
| 1969 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 8-1 || 6-1
|- align="center"
| 1970 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9-1 || 7-0
|- align="center"
| 1972 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9-2 || 7-1
|- align="center"
| 1973 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 10-0-1 || 7-0
|- align="center"
| 1974 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 10-2 || 7-1
|- align="center"
| 1975 || Big Ten ||Woody Hayes || 11-1 || 8-0
|- align="center"
| 1976 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9-2-1 || 7-1
|- align="center"
| 1977 || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9-3 || 6-2
|- align="center"
| 1979 || Big Ten || [[Earle Bruce]] || 11-1 || 8-0
|- align="center"
| 1981 || Big Ten || Earle Bruce || 9-3 || 6-2
|- align="center"
| 1984 || Big Ten || Earle Bruce || 9-3 || 7-2
|- align="center"
| 1986 || Big Ten || Earle Bruce || 10-3 || 7-1
|- align="center"
| 1993 || Big Ten || [[John Cooper (American football)|John Cooper]] || 10-1 || 6-1
|- align="center"
| 1996 || Big Ten || John Cooper || 11-1 || 7-1
|- align="center"
| 1998 || Big Ten ||John Cooper || 11-1 || 7-1
|- align="center"
| 2002 || Big Ten || [[Jim Tressel]] || 14-0 || 8-0
|- align="center"
| 2005 || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 10-2 || 7-1
|- align="center"
| 2006 || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 12-1 || 8-0
|- align="center"
| 2007 || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 11-2 || 7-1
|- align="center"
| 2008 || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 10-2 || 7-1
|- align="center"
| colspan=3 bgcolor="#C0C0C0"| '''Conference Champions'''
| colspan=2 bgcolor="#C0C0C0"| '''35'''
|}
|}

==Home of the Heisman==
Ohio State players have won seven Heisman trophies, which is tied with Notre Dame and USC for the most players from a school.

{| border="0" width="90%"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="80%"
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Name
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Year
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Place
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Poss.
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Class
!bgcolor="#FF24000"| Points
|- align="center"
| [[Gene Fekete]] || 1942 || 8 || B || SR. || 65
|- align="center"
| [[Les Horvath]] || 1944 || '''1''' || QB/RB || SR. || 412
|- align="center"
| [[Warren Amling]] || 1945 || 8 || G. || SR. || 48
|- align="center"
| [[Vic Janowicz]] || 1950 || '''1''' || RB. || JR. || 633
|- align="center"
| [[Howard Cassady]] || 1955 || '''1''' || RB. || SR. || 2219
|- align="center"
| [[Bob Ferguson]] || 1961 || 2 || FB. || SR. || 771
|- align="center"
| [[Rex Kern]] || 1969 || 3 || QB. || SO. || 856
|- align="center"
| [[Jim Otis]] || 1969 || 7 || FB. || SR. || 121
|- align="center"
| [[Jack Tatum]] || 1969 || 10 || DB. || SO. || 105
|- align="center"
| [[Rex Kern]] || 1970 || 5 || QB. || SR. || 188
|- align="center"
| [[Jack Tatum]] || 1970 || 7 || DB. || SR. || 173
|- align="center"
| [[John Hicks]] || 1973 || 2 || OT. || SR. || 524
|- align="center"

| [[Randy Gradishar]] || 1973 || 6 || LB. || SR. ||282
|- align="center"
| [[Archie Griffin]] || 1974 || '''1''' || TB. || JR. || 1920
|- align="center"
| [[Archie Griffin]] || 1975 || '''1''' || TB. || SR. || 1800
|- align="center"
| [[Keith Byars]] || 1984 || 2 || TB. || JR. || 1251
|- align="center"
| [[Chris Spielman]] || 1986 || 10 || LB. || SR. || 60
|- align="center"
| [[Eddie George]] || 1995 || '''1''' || RB. || SR. || 1460
|- align="center"
| [[Bobby Hoying]] || 1995 || 10 || QB. || SR. || 28
|- align="center"
| [[Orlando Pace]] || 1996 || 4 || OT. || JR. || 599
|- align="center"
| [[AJ Hawk]] || 2005 || 6 || LB. || SR. || 29
|- align="center"
| [[Troy Smith]] || 2006 || '''1''' || QB. || SR. || 2540
|- align="center"
| colspan=3 bgcolor="#C0C0C0"| '''Hesiman Trophy Winners'''
| colspan=3 bgcolor="#C0C0C0"| '''7'''
|}
|}

==1890–1933: Beginnings==
In the spring of 1890 George Cole, an undergraduate, persuaded Alexander S. Lilley to coach a football team at the Ohio State University. The Buckeyes first game, played on [[May 3]], [[1890]], at [[Delaware, Ohio]], against [[Ohio Wesleyan University]], was a victory.<ref>
{{cite book
| author=Jack Park
| chapter=
| title=The Official Ohio State Football Encyclopedia
| editor=
| publisher=Sports Publishing LLC
| id= ISBN 1-58261-006-1
| year=2002| pages=p.10}}</ref>

In the fall, life for many in Columbus revolves around Ohio State University football, from the first kickoff in September to the last play in November. OSU's first home game took place at 2:30 p.m. on November 1, 1890. The Ohio State University played the [[The College of Wooster|University of Wooster]] on this site, which was then called Recreation Park. Just east of historic German Village, the park occupied the north side of Schiller (now Whittier) between Ebner and Jaeger in what is now Schumacher Place. The weather was perfect, and the crowd reportedly including a number of women, who cheered loudly. Nonetheless, OSU lost to Wooster, 64–0. Wooster, physically fit for the game, showed OSU that training is critical to winning. The tradition of training continues. Today, on football Saturdays in Ohio Stadium on Woody Hayes Drive, the sound of an O.S.U. game can be heard around the world.”</blockquote>

Over the next eight years, under a number of coaches, the team played to a cumulative record of 31 wins, 39 losses, and 2 ties. The first game against Michigan, in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]], was a 34-0 loss in 1897, a year that saw the low point in Buckeye football history with a 1–7–1 record.

In 1899 the university hired John Eckstorm to bring professional coaching skills to the program and immediately went undefeated.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.ohiostatebuckeyes.com/fls/17300//pdf/fb/m-footbl-records2.pdf?SPSID=87751&SPID=10408&DB_OEM_ID=17300 | title= OSU Record Book (Part 2) | accessdate=2007-11-26 |format= |work= }} ]</ref> In 1901, however, [[Center (American football)|center]] John Segrist was fatally injured in a game and the continuation of football at Ohio State was in serious question. Although the school's athletic board let the team decide its future, Eckstorm resigned.<ref>Park, p.28</ref> In 1912 football underwent a number of developments that included joining the [[Big Ten Conference|Western Conference]], making football as part of a new Department of Athletics, and hiring [[Lynn St. John|Lynn W. St. John]] to be [[athletic director]].

===Chic Harley===
[[Chic Harley]] attended East High in Columbus and was one of the greatest players to attend an Ohio high school. Chic did everything at Ohio; He passed, ran, recived, punted, kicked and played defense. Harley came to Ohio State in 1916 and Columbus fans instantly fell in love with the Chic. Harley and the Buckeyes won the very first Big Ten championship in school history in 1916 when the Buckeyes finshed 7–0. He would repeat in 1917 finshing 8–0–1, giving the Buckeyes a second outright title. In 1918, he left to be a pilot in the air force for [[World War I]]. With Harley's return in 1919, the Buckeyes would only lose one game -- to Illinois. Chic Harley left OSU with a career record of 22–1–1. At the time, OSU played at the small [[Ohio Field]] and Harley brought such record crowds it became nessesary to open [[Ohio Stadium]] in 1922. The stadium was built entirely on fan donations and several stadium drives around the city where Harley would often appear. In 1951, when the [[College Football Hall of Fame]] opened, Harley was inducted as an inaugural member.

===1934–1978 Big-time football===
[[Image:Paulbrown.jpg|thumb|OSU National Title winning coach [[Paul Brown]].]]In hiring [[Francis Schmidt]] in March 1934 to coach its football team, Ohio State moved its program to a "big-time" level of competition. Schmidt was a well-established coach and an acknowledged offensive innovator. His offensive schemes were a "wide-open" style called "razzle-dazzle" and led him to be the first Buckeye football coach granted a multi-year contract. Schmidt's first four seasons saw victories over archrival Michigan, all by shut-out. The 1935 squad went 7-1, its sole loss was to [[University of Notre Dame|Notre Dame]], 18-13, in the first contest between the programs. However Schmidt's remaining seasons were less successful, except in 1939 when the Buckeyes won the Big Ten championship, and his popularity faded for a number of reasons.<ref>Park, p.166.</ref> On [[December 17]], [[1940]], he resigned.

Ohio State hired the coach of [[Massillon Washington High School]] football team, [[Paul Brown]], to succeed Schmidt. Brown's Tigers had just won their sixth straight state championship. Brown immediately changed Ohio State's style of offense, planned and organized his program in great detail, and delegated to his assistant coaches using highly structured practices. In 1942, Ohio State lost 22 veteran players to military service as the United States joined [[World War II]], and with a team of mostly sophomores went on to lose only once in winning its first national championship. Brown accepted a commission in the [[United States Navy]] in 1944 and directed his assistant Carroll Widdoes to head the team in his absence. The 1944 team fielded 31 [[First year|freshmen]] but went undefeated and untied, including a victory over Paul Brown's Great Lakes Navy team. Ohio State finished second in the national rankings behind [[United States Military Academy#Sports|Army]] and [[Les Horvath]] became the first Buckeye to be awarded the [[Heisman Trophy]]. Also prominent on the 1942–44 teams was the first Buckeye [[African American]] star, [[Bill Willis]].

Brown chose not to return to Ohio State after the war, going into professional football instead. Widdoes, despite having the highest two-year winning percentage of any Buckeye coach, asked to return to an assistant's position. [[Paul Bixler]], an assistant, replaced Widdoes and endured a mediocre 4–3–2 season. Bixler resigned and talk of Ohio State being a "graveyard of coaches" became commonplace, a reputation that lingered for decades.<ref name="SIbix"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/ncaa/specials/preview/2006/teams/ten/ohiost.html| title = 2006 Team previews- Ohio State| format = | work = | publisher = SI.com| accessdate = 20 August| accessyear = 2006}}</ref>

[[Wes Fesler]] became head coach in 1947 but finished last in the Big Ten for the only time in team history. Ohio State improved greatly in 1948, winning 6 and losing 3, then in 1949 enjoyed a successful season due to the play of sophomore [[Vic Janowicz]]. Ohio State received the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] invitation, where they came from behind to defeat [[California Golden Bears|California]]. In 1950 Fesler, rumored to be resigning because of pressures associated with the position and abuse of his family by anonymous critics, returned to coach the Buckeyes, who won six games in a row to move into the top ranking in the AP poll. However the season fell apart as the Buckeyes lost to Michigan during a [[blizzard]], a game that came to be known as the "[[Snow Bowl]]". Two weeks later, citing concerns about his health and family, Fesler resigned.

[[Woody Hayes|Wayne Woodrow Hayes]] beat out Paul Brown,<ref>Park, p.275</ref> among others, to be named head coach on [[February 18]], [[1951]]. He instituted a demanding practice regimen and was both aggressive and vocal in enforcing it, alienating many players accustomed to Fesler's laid-back style. The 1951 Buckeyes won 4, lost 3, and tied 2, leaving many to question the ability of the new coach. In 1952 the team improved to 6-3, and recorded their first victory over Michigan in eight years, but after a 1953 loss to Michigan, critics called for the replacement of Hayes.

In 1954 the Buckeyes were picked to finish no higher than 10th in the Big Ten. Hayes, however, had the talents of [[Howard "Hopalong" Cassady]], and a historic goal-line stand against Michigan propelled Ohio State to a perfect season. Hayes led the powerhouse Buckeyes to a shared national championship (his first and the team's second). In 1955 the team again won the Big Ten, set an attendance record, and won in Ann Arbor for the first time in 18 years, while Hopalong Cassady was securing the Heisman Trophy. Ohio State passed only three times against Michigan (the sole reception was the only completion in the final three games of the year), leading to characterization of Hayes' style of offensive play as "three yards and a cloud of dust".

In a 1955 article in ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'', Hayes admitted making small personal loans to financially needy players.<ref name="sishaplen"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.buckeye50.com/Drive_Drive_Down_the_field_15_to_11.html| title = #11—Iowa at Ohio State—November 11, 1957| format = | work = | publisher = The Buckeye 50 Yard Line| accessdate = 2 October | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> The article resulted in a furor over possible violations of [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] rules, and the faculty council, followed by the Big Ten and NCAA, conducted lengthy investigations. Big Ten Commissioner Kenneth "Tug" Wilson found Hayes and the program guilty of violations and placed it on a year's probation in 1956. In 1957 Ohio State won all of its remaining games after an opening loss to claim the Big Ten championship, win the Rose Bowl over [[University of Oregon|Oregon]], and share a national championship title with [[Auburn University|Auburn]], for which Hayes was named [[Paul "Bear" Bryant Award|Coach of the Year]].

In 1961 the team went undefeated to be named national champions by the [[Football Writers Association of America|FWAA]] but a growing conflict between academics and athletics over Ohio State's reputation as a "football school" resulted in a faculty council vote to decline an invitation to the Rose Bowl, resulting in much public protest and debate.<ref>Park, pp. 340 and 342.</ref> Over the next 6 seasons Ohio State finished no higher than 2nd, and had a losing season in 1966, and public speculation that Hayes would be replaced as coach grew to its highest point since 1953.

In 1968 Ohio State defeated the number one-ranked [[Purdue Boilermakers]] and continued to an undefeated season including a 50-14 rout of Michigan and a Rose Bowl victory over the [[USC Trojans]] that resulted in the national championship. The Class of 1970 became known as the "super sophomores" in 1968, and might have gone on to three consecutive national championships except for what may have been the bitterest loss in Buckeye history. The winning streak reached 22 games as Ohio State traveled to Michigan. The Buckeyes were 17-point favorites but directed by first-year coach [[Bo Schembechler]], Michigan shocked the Buckeyes in a 24-12 upset.

The 1969 loss to Michigan initiated what came to be known as "The Ten Year War," in which the rivalry, which pitted some of OSU’s and UM’s strongest teams ever, rose to the uppermost level of all sports and the competition between Schembechler and Hayes became legendary.<ref name="maisel"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://proxy.espn.go.com/ncf/columns/story?columnist=maisel_ivan&id=1667333| title = UM-OSU more than just a game| format = | work = | publisher = ESPN| accessdate = 13 October| accessyear = 2006}}</ref> Four times between 1970 and 1975, Ohio State and Michigan were both ranked in the top five of the AP Poll before their matchup. Hayes had the upper hand during the first part of the war, in which Ohio State won the conference championship and went to the Rose Bowl four straight years, while Michigan won the final three.

[[Archie Griffin]] came to Ohio State in 1972, set a new Buckeye single-game rushing record and led the team in rushing for the season. The following season Hayes installed an [[I formation]] attack with Griffin at tailback and the Buckeyes went undefeated with a powerful offense and equally impenetrable defense, the only blemish on their record a 10-10 tie with Michigan. The falloff in success of Hayes' last three years was not great but resulted in growing criticism of Hayes and his methods, particularly his on-the-field fits of temper. His downfall was sudden and shocking when at the 1978 [[Gator Bowl]], Hayes took a swing at [[Clemson Tigers|Clemson]] [[nose guard]] Charlie Bauman in frustration after his 4th-quarter interception sealed a Buckeye loss. Hayes was fired after the game.

===1979–2001 Hard Years===
Hayes was replaced by a former protegé, [[Earle Bruce]], who inherited a strong team led by sophomore quarterback [[Art Schlichter]] and returned to the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] with an opportunity once again to be national champions. The Buckeyes lost both by a single point, but Bruce was named [[Paul "Bear" Bryant Award|Coach of the Year]]. His success was hailed by those in the media who saw it as a rebuke of Hayes and the start of a "new era".<ref name="earle"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,946372-1,00.html| title = Making 'Em Forget Woody| format = | work = | publisher = Time Magazine| accessdate = 11 December| accessyear = 2006}}</ref>

1980, however, saw the start of a trend that eventually brought criticism to Bruce, when Ohio State finished with a 9–3 record. This was the first of six consecutive years at 9-3. While each of these seasons, and a 10–3 season that followed them, culminated in a bowl game, Ohio State did not appear to be any closer to a national championship than during the end of the Hayes era.

In 1986 Bruce received a 3-year contract, the first for the modern program, but the team opened with two losses for the first time in over 90 years. The Buckeyes then won nine in a row before losing to Michigan in a close game. After the season Bruce was offered the position of head coach at the [[University of Arizona]] but was persuaded to stay at his [[alma mater]] by Athletic Director Rick Bay. Hopes for a standout season in 1987 suffered a serious setback when All-American wide receiver [[Cris Carter]] was dropped from the team for signing with an agent. Heading into the Michigan game at the end of the season Ohio State was in the midst of a three game conference losing streak.

On the Monday of Michigan week, after a weekend of rumors and speculation, Ohio State President [[Edward Jennings]] fired Bruce but tried to keep the dismissal secret until after the end of the season. Jennings aggravated the situation by refusing to provide a reason for the dismissal,<ref>Park, pp. 537-538</ref> but the Buckeyes enjoyed an emotional come-from-behind victory over Michigan after the entire team wore [[headband]]s bearing the word "EARLE."

[[John Cooper (American football)|John Cooper]] was hired as head coach with a winning record at both [[University of Tulsa|Tulsa]] and [[Arizona State University]] that stood out among his credentials, as did a victory over Michigan in the 1987 Rose Bowl. Cooper's thirteen years as the Buckeye's head coach are largely remembered for a litany of negative statistics associated with him: a notorious 2–10–1 record against Michigan, a 3–9 record in bowl games, a five year losing streak to Illinois, a 63–14 loss to Penn State, and a 28–24 loss to unranked Michigan State when the Buckeyes were the top-ranked team in the nation and en route to a national championship. However, his tenure also included many positives: back-to-back victories over Notre Dame, two second-ranked finishes in the polls, and three Big Ten championships (albeit shared). Cooper also recruited fifteen players who were first-round draft picks in the [[National Football League]].<ref name="coopbio"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://ohiostatebuckeyes.cstv.com/sports/m-footbl/mtt/cooper_john01.html| title = John Cooper Profile| format = | work = | publisher = TOSU Football Official Site| accessdate = 19 December| accessyear = 2006}}</ref>

In January 2001, The Ohio State University dismissed Cooper for a "deteriorating climate." A loss in the 2000 [[Outback Bowl]] was a factor in his subsequent firing, as was negative publicity regarding player behavior before and during the game. Other contributing factors included his record against Michigan (which was actually considered by most people to be the biggest reason for his firing), his perceived inability to win "big games", the lack of a national championship, the perception of him as an outsider by many alumni, the poor bowl game record, and finally a perceived lack of discipline on the team.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B06E5DB103BF930A35752C0A9679C8B63 |title=COLLEGE FOOTBALL; Cooper Fired at Ohio State |accessdate=2008-05-04}}</ref>

===2002–Present Nations Elite===
Ohio State quickly sought a replacement for Cooper and after a nationwide search hired Jim Tressel. With four NCAA [[Division I#Football Championship Subdivision|Division I-AA]] National Championships at [[Youngstown State University|Youngstown State]] Tressel, formerly an assistant coach for Earle Bruce, was an Ohioan who was considered to be appreciative of Buckeye football traditions. Although there were some doubts as to whether or not Tressel could repeat his earlier success at the Division 1A level, most fans and alumni met the coaching change with enthusiasm. On the day of his hiring, Jim Tressel, speaking to fans and students at a Buckeye basketball game, made a prophetic implication that he would lead the Buckeyes to beat Michigan in Ann Arbor the following November.<ref name="310days"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.michigandaily.com/news/2001/07/23/Sports/Tressel.Eyes.Finally.Bucking.The.Wolverines-1408404.shtml | title = Tressel Eyes Finally Bucking the Wolverines| format = | work = | publisher = The Michigan Daily| accessdate = 11 December| accessyear = 2006}}</ref>

[[Image:2006-09 Austin Texas 091.jpg|thumb|200px|<center>Troy Smith in 2006]]Tressel's first season was difficult as the Buckeyes finished 7-5, but he made good on his promise, beating Michigan in Ann Arbor. While its fans were optimistic about the chance for success of the 2002 team, most observers were surprised by Ohio State's [[2002 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|National Championship]].<ref name="surprised"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt=99132&tid=30| title = BCS National Title Game Bowl preview| format = | work = | publisher = Covers.com| accessdate = 13 January | accessyear = 2007}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| author=Paul Keels
| chapter= Chapter 1 Expectations
| title=Paul Keels Tales from the Buckeyes' Championship Season
| editor=
| publisher=Sports Publishing LLC
| id= ISBN 1-58261-539-X
| year=2003| pages=P.6}}</ref> Ohio State used strong defense, ball-control play-calling, and field position tactics to win numerous close games, a style of play characterized as "Tresselball",<ref name="tresselball"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://proxy.espn.go.com/ncf/columns/story?columnist=maisel_ivan&id=1662661| title = Tresselball just keeps winning| format = | work = | publisher = ESPN| accessdate = 19 December| accessyear = 2006}}</ref> and disparaged by detractors as "the Luckeyes".<ref name="luckeyes"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-8169824_ITM| title = Ohio State must shake Luckeyes image| format = | work = | publisher = Akron Beacon-Journal| accessdate = 19 December| accessyear = 2006}}</ref> One of the most notable examples occurred against Purdue on [[November 9]], when quarterback [[Craig Krenzel]] threw a 4th down touchdown pass to [[Michael Jenkins (American football)|Michael Jenkins]] late in the game to win, on a play that has gone down in Buckeye lore as "Holy Buckeye".

==Buckeye football traditions==
Ohio State football is rich in traditions, and Coach Tressel has since his hiring made upholding tradition a cornerstone of his program.<ref>Park, p.1</ref> The following are football traditions in chronogical order of longevity:
*'''Senior tackle'''
Begun in 1913 by head coach [[John Wilce]], seniors on the team are recognized at the last practice of the season, either before the Michigan game or before departing Columbus to play in a [[bowl game]], and hit the [[Glossary of American football#B|blocking sled]] a final time.<ref>{{cite book| author=Todd Lamb, editor| title=Ohio State Football Gameday| publisher=The Ohio State Athletics Communications Office| year=2002|pages=42-43}}</ref>
*'''[[Illibuck]]'''
The winner of the Ohio State-[[Illinois Fighting Illini|Illinois]] game has been awarded the [[Illibuck]] trophy since 1925.<ref> ''OSF Gameday 2002'' p.42</ref>. Until 1927 the teams played for a live turtle, now it is made out of wood.
*'''Gold pants'''
A [[gold]] miniature [[Charm bracelet|charm]] depicting a pair of football pants is given to all players and coaches following a victory over the Michigan Wolverines. The tradition began as the result of a comment to reporters by newly hired head coach [[Francis Schmidt]] on [[March 2]], [[1934]]: "How about Michigan? They put their pants on one leg at a time, the same as we do!" The first gold pants, which were a creation of Simon Lazarus (president of the [[Lazarus (department store)|Lazarus]] chain of department stores) and Herbert Levy,<ref>Snook, "Charlie Ream 1934-1937", p.3</ref> were awarded that year for a 34-0 drubbing of the Wolverines.<ref>Park, p.141</ref>
*'''Captain's Breakfast'''
1934 also saw the first gathering of former team [[Captain (sports)|captains]] for breakfast on the Sunday following the [[Homecoming]] game. The event began when local businessman Walter Jeffrey invited twenty former captains to the [[Scioto Country Club]] to honor them, and continues to welcome new captains and award them [[mug]]s bearing their names and season.<ref> ''OSF Gameday 2002'' p.42</ref><ref>Park, p.145</ref>
*'''Buckeye Grove'''
Begun in 1934, each player who wins "first-team [[All-America]]" honors is recognized by the planting of a buckeye tree and installation of a plaque in Buckeye Grove, now located near the southwestern corner of Ohio Stadium next to Morrill Tower. Trees are planted in ceremonies held prior to the Spring Game. All 125 Buckeye All-Americans dating back to 1914 have been so honored.
*'''Michigan Week'''
Since 1935 the annual game against Michigan has been the final meeting of the regular season for both teams. The week prior to "The Game", known as Michigan Week, is characterized by scheduled school spirit and public service events, such as rallies, [[Touch football (American)|touch football]] games, and [[Blood donation|blood drives]];<ref name="offlscumwk"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://ohiounion.osu.edu/bmw/| title = Beat Michigan Week| format = | work = | publisher = The Ohio State University Union| accessdate = 26 July | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> and by massive displays of school colors and banners in much of Ohio. In an unofficial culmination to Michigan Week, since 1990 on the Thursday night before "The Game" students have participated in the "Mirror Lake jump", an unofficial gathering at Mirror Lake, a pond between Pomerene Hall and [[Ohio State University#Campus|The Oval]], in which masses of students jump into the water.<ref name="mirlakjmp"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.bright.net/~beeryde/ref/osuhistory/mirrorlake2.htm| title = How the Mirror Lake Jump Came to Be| format = | work = | publisher = The Lantern 17 Nov 2005| accessdate = 26 July | accessyear = 2006}}</ref>
*'''[[Block O]]'''
Since 1938 the registered student organization Block O has been the "Official Cheering Section" of the Buckeyes. ''"Known for spreading spirit, starting cheers and performing card stunts, Block 'O' was founded...by Clancy Isaac[[Image:BlockO.JPG|thumb|150px|BLock O in a game in the south stands]]"''.<ref name="osufbtrad"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://ohiostatebuckeyes.cstv.com/trads/osu-m-footbl-trad.html| title = Football Traditions| format = | work = | publisher = TOSU Football Official Site| accessdate = 27 July | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> They occupy Section 39A in the South [[grandstand]] of [[Ohio Stadium]], next to the band.<ref name="blocko"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://blocko.org.ohio-state.edu/| title = Block "O"| format = | work = | publisher = The Ohio State University| accessdate = 26 July | accessyear = 2006}}</ref><ref name="tressblocko"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.coachtressel.com/tradition/block_O.asp| title = Tradition-Block O| format = | work = | publisher = Coach Tressel.com| accessdate = 26 July | accessyear = 2006}}</ref>
*'''Victory Bell'''
The Victory Bell is rung after every Ohio State victory by members of [[Alpha Phi Omega]], a tradition that began after the Bucks beat [[California Golden Bears|California]] [[October 2]], [[1954]]. Reputedly the ringing can be heard five miles away "on a calm day." Located 150 feet high in the southeast tower of Ohio Stadium, the bell was a gift of the classes of 1943, 1944 and 1945, and weighs 2,420 pounds.<ref> ''OSF Gameday 2002'' p.42</ref>
*'''[[Brutus Buckeye]]'''
Beginning in 1965, Brutus Buckeye has appeared at all Ohio State football games as the live [[mascot]] of the Buckeyes. In 2007 he was inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame and is now one of the most recognized mascots in the United States.
*'''''Hang on Sloopy'''''
First played at the [[Illinois Fighting Illini football|Illinois]] game of [[October 9]], [[1965]], the [[Rock music|rock]] song ''[[Hang on Sloopy]]'' is now played by the marching band before the start of the fourth quarter, with fans performing an O-H-I-O chant in the intervals between the [[refrain]]s. The song is also played to encourage the team's defensive players when opponents are moving the ball on offense late in a game. This is also played at the end of the third quarter at Cleveland Browns and Cincinnati Bengals games.<ref> ''OSF Gameday 2002'' p.42</ref>
*'''Buckeye leaves'''
Since 1967, the helmets of Ohio State players have been adorned with white decals approximately the size of a [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter]] depicting a [[Aesculus glabra|buckeye leaf]], awarded for making significant plays and for consistency of performance.<ref> ''OSF Gameday 2002'' p.42</ref> In the 1970s, the decals were approimately the size of a [[Silver Dollar]] until the 1979 Season. Most believe that this practice began in 1968 when The Buckeyes switched to their present [[Silver]] Helmet design since the decals have become identified with that helmet.
*'''Tunnel of Pride'''
The Tunnel of Pride began with the 1994 Michigan game when all former players who were in attendance formed a tunnel through which the team ran to take the field, and Ohio State beat its rival that day, 22–6. [[Rex Kern]], quarterback of the [[Rose Bowl (game)|1968 National Championship]] team, and then Director of Athletics [[Andy Geiger]] together used the concept as a means of connecting current Buckeyes with those who played before them. The Tunnel of Pride was next formed for the 1995 [[Notre Dame Fighting Irish football|Notre Dame]] game, which the Buckeyes also won. In each home game against Michigan since, the tradition has been repeated.<ref> ''OSF Gameday 2002'' p.42</ref><ref name="tunpride"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.coachtressel.com/tradition/tunnel_of_pride.asp| title = Tunnel of Pride| format = | work = | publisher = Coach Tressel.com| accessdate = 26 July | accessyear = 2006}}</ref>
*'''''Carmen Ohio'''''
Instituted by Coach Tressel in 2001, at the conclusion of all home games the coaches, players and cheerleaders gather in the south [[end zone]] next to the marching band to sing the university's alma mater, ''[[Carmen Ohio]]''.<ref name="carmenotrad"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.coachtressel.com/tradition/carmen_ohio.asp| title = Tradition-Carmen Ohio| format = | work = | publisher = Coach Tressel.com| accessdate = 26 July | accessyear = 2006}}</ref>
*'''The Hive and pre-game circle'''
Tressel brought to the Buckeye football program two pre-game traditions he developed at Youngstown State. Prior to its warmup routine before every football game, the team exits the locker room as a unit in a controlled manner, linked arm-in-arm in a group known as "The Hive". After warmups the team returns to the locker room, and when it next appears, runs onto the field and forms a circle of players around the strength coach, who exhorts the team into a frenzy in which they pummel each other with fists.<ref name="hive"> {{cite web | last = Porentas| first = John| coauthors = | year = | url = http://the-ozone.net/football/2007/MSU/hiveandcircle.htm| title = Roots of Tressel Traditions May be Lost, but the Traditions Carry on at OSU | format = | work = | publisher = The O-Zone | accessdate = 17 October | accessyear = 2007}}</ref>
*'''Mirror Lake'''
Before the Ohio State/Michigan game at the end of the season, OSU students typically jump into [[Mirror Lake (Ohio)|Mirror Lake]], located on campus, the Thursday night before the game. The tradition is thought to bring good luck to the football team the following gameday.<ref>[http://media.www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2005/11/17/Campus/How-The.Mirror.Lake.Jump.Came.To.Be-1108362.shtml The Lantern article on the Mirror Lake jump.]</ref>

===Marching Band===
{{main|The Ohio State University Marching Band}}
[[Image:ScriptOhio.jpg|thumb|200px|<center>Famous Script Ohio]]The Marching Band, known as "The Best Damn Band In The Land" or by the acronym '''TBDBITL'''<ref>[http://www.tbdbitl.com/ TBDBITL Alumni Club], accessed [[January 22]], [[2008]].</ref> is the most visible and possibly best-known tradition of Ohio State football.<ref>{{cite book| author=Leeann Parker, editor| title=Ohio State Football Gameday| publisher=The Ohio State Athletics Communications Office| year=2001|pages=45}}</ref> Home games are preceded by three much-anticipated traditions, and a fourth, "dotting the 'i'" of [[The Ohio State University Marching Band#Script Ohio|Script Ohio]], enjoys a reputation all its own:<ref> ''OSF Gameday 2002'' p.43</ref>
*[[The Ohio State University Marching Band#Skull Session|Skull Session]]
*[[The Ohio State University Marching Band#Ramp entrance|Ramp entrance]]
*[[The Ohio State University Marching Band#The Back Bend|The Back Bend]]
*[[The Ohio State University Marching Band#Script Ohio|Script Ohio]]

==Rivalries==
{{main|Michigan-Ohio State rivalry}}
{{main|Illibuck}}
While its rivalry with the University of Michigan is its most renowned and intense, Ohio State has two other series marked by their longevity, both [[Big Ten Conference]] rivals, those of [[Indiana Hoosiers football|Indiana]] and [[Illinois Fighting Illini|Illinois]]. The series versus Indiana began as a non-conference matchup, with Indiana going undefeated at 4-0-1. In conference, however, the Buckeyes (despite losing the opening conference game) are 65-8-4 through the 2006 season, the most wins against any opponent. Illinois also began with non-conference games (0-1-1) but became the longest continuous series in 2002 when the schools played in their 89th consecutive year. (That record was tied by Michigan in 2007.) Through 2006 Ohio State's record against the Illini is 60-29-4. In 2007, Ohio State was given their first defeat of the season by the Illini.

[[Image:Michigan Stadium opening 3c27311.png|thumb|300px|<center>An early Ohio State-Michigan game]] When Penn State was added to the conference football play in 1993, every member was given two designated rivals, teams to be played every year, with the other conference teams rotated out of the schedule at regular intervals. For geographic convenience, the Big Ten named Penn State as Ohio State's new designated rival in addition to Michigan, and Illinois was set to be paired with in-state rival [[Northwestern Wildcats football|Northwestern]] and neighboring Indiana, and in doing so undermined Ohio State's historical rivalry with Illinois.

==All-time records==
===All-time coaching records===
{| class="wikitable"
|-style="background: red"
| '''Head Coach''' || '''Period''' || '''W-L-T Record''' || '''Win %''' || '''conf. champs''' || '''[[NCAA Division I-A national football championship#By year|N/C]]''' ||'''[[Michigan-Ohio State Rivalry#Results|vs Michigan]]'''
|-
| [[Alexander S. Lilley]] || align=center|1890-1891 || align=center|3-5 || align=center|37.5 || align=center|n/a || || align=center|n/a
|-
| [[Frederick Bushnell "Jack" Ryder|Frederick B. "Jack" Ryder]]|| 1892-95/1898 || align=center|22-22-2 || align=center|50.0 || align=center|n/a || || align=center|n/a
|-
| [[Charles A. Hickey]]|| align=center|1896 || align=center|5-5-1¹ || align=center|50.0 || align=center|n/a || || align=center|n/a
|-
| [[David Edwards (coach)|David F. Edwards]]|| align=center|1897 || align=center|1-7-1 || align=center|16.7 || align=center|n/a || || align=center|0-1
|-
| [[John B. Eckstorm]]|| align=center|1899-1901 || align=center|22-4-3 || align=center|84.7 || align=center|n/a || || align=center|0-1-1
|-
| [[Perry Hale]]|| align=center|1902-1903 || align=center|14-5-2 || align=center|71.4 || align=center|n/a || || align=center|0-2
|-
| [[Edwin Sweetland|Edwin R. Sweetland]]|| align=center|1904-1905 || align=center|14-7-2 || align=center|65.2 || align=center|n/a || || align=center|0-2
|-
| [[Albert E. Herrnstein]]|| align=center|1906-1909 || align=center|28-10-1 || align=center|73.1 || align=center| 1 || || align=center|0-4
|-
| [[Howard Jones (football coach)|Howard H. Jones]]|| align=center|1910 || align=center|6-1-3 || align=center|75.0 || align=center|n/a || || align=center|0-0-1
|-
| [[Harry Vaughn]]|| align=center|1911 || align=center|5-3-2 || align=center|60.0 || align=center|n/a || || align=center|0-1
|-
| [[John Richards (coach)|John R. Richards]]|| align=center|1912 || align=center|6-3 || align=center|66.7 || align=center|1 || || align=center|0-1
|-
| [[John Wilce|John W. Wilce]]|| align=center|1913-1928 || align=center|78-33-9 || align=center|68.8 || align=center|3 || || align=center|4-7
|-
| [[Sam Willaman]]|| align=center|1929-1933 || align=center|26-10-5 || align=center|69.5 || || || align=center|2-3
|-
| [[Francis Schmidt|Francis A. Schmidt]]|| align=center|1934-1940 || align=center|39-16-1 || align=center|70.5 || align=center|2 || || align=center|4-3
|-
| [[Paul Brown|Paul E. Brown]] ||align=center|1941-1943 || align=center|18-8-1 || align=center|68.5 || align=center|1 || align=center| 1 || align=center|1-1-1
|-
| [[Carroll Widdoes|Carroll C. Widdoes]] || align=center|1944-1945 || align=center|16-2 || align=center|88.9 || align=center|1 || || align=center|1-1
|-
| [[Paul Bixler]] || align=center| 1946 || align=center|4-3-2 || align=center|55.6 || || || align=center|0-1
|-
| [[Wes Fesler|Wesley E. Fesler]] || align=center|1947-1950 || align=center|21-13-3 || align=center|60.8 ||align=center|1 || || align=center|0-3-1
|-
| [[Woody Hayes|W.W. "Woody" Hayes]] || align=center|1951-1978 || align=center|205–61-10 || align=center|76.1 || align=center|13 || align=center| 5 || align=center|16-11-1
|-
| [[Earle Bruce]] || align=center|1979-1987 || align=center|81-26-1 || align=center|75.5 || align=center|4 || || align=center|5-4
|-
| [[John Cooper (American football)|John Cooper]] || align=center|1988-2000 || align=center|111-43-4 || align=center|71.5 || align=center|3 || || align=center|2-10-1
|-
| [[Jim Tressel|James P. Tressel]] || align=center|2001-Current || align=center|83-18 || align=center|82.2 || align=center|5 || align=center|1 || align=center|7-1
|-
| '''TOTALS''' || align=center|'''1890-Current''' || align=center|'''808-305-53''' || align=center|'''71.6''' || align=center|'''33''' || align=center|'''7''' ||align=center|42-57-6
|}
'''All totals per OSU Athletics'''

:¹ Hickey was hired part-way into the season and a student coached the team several games.

===All-time Bowl Games===
2007/08 BCS Championship— Louisiana State University 38, Ohio State 24

2006/07 BCS Championship— Florida 41, Ohio State 14 (final #2 ranking)

2005/06 Fiesta— Ohio State 34, Notre Dame 20 (final #4 ranking)

2004/05 Alamo— Ohio State 33, Oklahoma State 7

2003/04 Fiesta— Ohio State 35, Kansas State 28 (final #4 ranking)

2002/03 Fiesta— Ohio State 31, Miami (FL) 24 (2OT) (National Champions)

2001/02 Outback— South Carolina 31, Ohio State 28

2000/01 Outback— South Carolina 24, Ohio State 7

1998/99 Sugar— Ohio State 24, Texas A&M 14 (final #2 ranking)

1997/98 Sugar— Florida State 31, Ohio State 14

1996/97 Rose— Ohio State 20, Arizona State 17 (final #2 ranking)

1995/96 Citrus— Tennessee 20, Ohio State 14

1994/95 Citrus— Alabama 24, Ohio State 17

1993/94 Holiday— Ohio State 28, Brigham Young 21

1992/93 Citrus— Georgia 21, Ohio State 14

1991/92 Hall of Fame— Syracuse 24, Ohio State 17

1990/91 Liberty— Air Force 23, Ohio State 11

1989/90 Hall of Fame— Auburn 31, Ohio State 14

1986/87 Cotton— Ohio State 28, Texas A&M 12

1985/86 Citrus— Ohio State 10, Brigham Young 7

1984/85 Rose— Southern California 20, Ohio State 17

1983/84 Fiesta— Ohio State 28, Pittsburgh 23

1982/83 Holiday— Ohio State 47, Brigham Young 17

1981/82 Liberty— Ohio State 31, Navy 28

1980/81 Fiesta— Penn State 31, Ohio State 19

1979/80 Rose— Southern California 17, Ohio State 16

1978/79 Gator— Clemson 17, Ohio State 15

1977/78 Sugar— Alabama 35, Ohio State 6

1976/77 Orange— Ohio State 27, Colorado 10

1975/76 Rose— UCLA 23, Ohio State 10

1974/75 Rose— Southern California 18, Ohio State 17

1973/74 Rose— Ohio State 42, Southern California 21

1972/73 Rose— Southern California 42, Ohio State 17

1970/71 Rose— Stanford 27, Ohio State 17

1968/69 Rose— Ohio State 27, Southern California 16

1957/58 Rose— Ohio State 10, Oregon 7

1954/55 Rose— Ohio State 20, Southern California 7

1949/50 Rose— Ohio State 17, California 14

1920/21 Rose— California 28, Ohio State 0

{{Ohio State bowl games}}

===All-time Big Ten records===
Source: Ohio State Athletics football page

Over the years, Ohio State has either won outright or shared 33 Big Ten titles. The championship in 2008 was OSU's fifth under Jim Tressel. The Buckeyes also won the title in 2002, 2005, 2006,and 2007. The '06 and '07 titles were won outright.
As of 2008,Ohio State owns an all time 451-189-28 record against all Big Ten opponents past and present.

Chicago Maroons 10-2-2 
Illinois Fighting Illini 62-30-4 
Indiana Hoosiers 65-12-5 
Iowa Hawkeyes 44-14-3 
Michigan Wolverines 42-57-6 
Michigan State Spartans 27-12 
Minnesota Golden Gophers 41-7 
Northwestern Wildcats 59-14-1 
Penn State Nittany Lions 12-12 
Purdue Boilermakers 37-12-2 
Wisconsin Badgers 52-17-5

==Individual awards and achievements==
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em;" width="250px"
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background:red" | '''Retired football jerseys'''<ref> ''OSF Gameday 2002'' p.61</ref>
|-
| '''Number'''|| '''Player'''
|-
| colspan="2" |<hr>
|-
| align=center|'''45''' || [[Archie Griffin]]
|-
| align=center|'''31''' || [[Vic Janowicz]]
|-
| align=center|'''40''' || [[Howard "Hopalong" Cassady]]
|-
| align=center|'''22''' || [[Les Horvath]]
|-
| align=center|'''27''' || [[Eddie George]]
|-
| align=center|'''47''' || [[Chic Harley|Charles "Chic" Harley]]
|-
| align=center|'''99''' || [[Bill Willis]]
|-
| align=center|'''WH''' || [[Woody Hayes]]
|}

Through the 2006 season Ohio State players have by a significant margin won more trophies than any other NCAA Division 1A program. Ohio State players have won 34 of the listed major awards, with the next closest being 26 (Oklahoma). Ohio State is the only university to have received each of the awards at least once. Of the five awards created prior to 1980 (Heisman, Lombardi, Maxwell, Outland, and Walter Camp), Ohio State has received the most with 25 (Notre Dame follows with 23).

==List Of All-Americans==
<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohiostatebuckeyes.com/fls/17300//pdf/fb/m-footbl-all-american.pdf?SPSID=87751&SPID=10408&DB_OEM_ID=17300 |title=Ohio State First-Team All-Americans |accessdate=2008-05-01}}</ref>

===1910s===
*1914: Boyd Cherry (E)
*1916: [[Chic Harley]] (B), Robert Karch (T)
*1917: Charles Bolen (E), Harold Courtney (E), Chic Harley (B), Kelley VanDyne (C)
*1918: Clarence MacDonald (E)
*1919: Chic Harley (B), [[Gaylord Stinchcomb]] (B)

===1920s===
*1920: Iolas Huffman (G), Gaylord Stinchcomb (B)
*1921: Iolas Huffman (G), Cyril Myers (E)
*1923: Harry Workman (QB)
*1924: [[Cookie Cunningham|Harold Cunningham]] (E)
*1925: Edwin Hess (G)
*1926: Edwin Hess (G), [[Marty Karow]] (HB), Leo Raskowski (T)
*1927: Leo Raskowski (T)
*1928: [[Wes Fesler]] (E)
*1929: Wes Fesler (E)

===1930s===
*1930: Wes Fesler (E), Lew Hinchman (HB)
*1931: Carl Cramer (QB), Lew Hinchman (HB)
*1932: Joseph Gailus (G), [[Sid Gillman]] (E), Lew Hinchman (HB), Ted Rosequist (T)
*1933: Joseph Gailus (G)
*1934: Regis Monahan (G), Merle Wendt (E)
*1935: [[Gomer Jones]] (C), Merle Wendt (E)
*1936: Charles Hamrick (T), Inwood Smith (G), Merle Wendt (E)
*1937: Carl Kaplanoff (T), Jim McDonald (QB), Ralph Wolf (C), [[Gust Zarnas]] (G)
*1939: Vic Marino (G), Esco Sarkkinen (E), [[Don Scott (American football)|Don Scott]] (HB)

===1940s===
*1940: Don Scott (HB)
*1942: [[Robert Shaw]] (E), [[Charles Csuri]] (T), [[Lin Houston]] (G), Paul Sarringhaus (HB), Gene Fekete (E)
*1943: [[Bill Willis]] (T)
*1944: Jack Dugger (E), Bill Willis (T), William Hackett (G), [[Les Horvath]] (QB/HB)
*1945: [[Warren Amling]] (G), [[Ollie Cline]] (FB), Russell Thomas (T)
*1946: Warren Amling (G), Cecil Souders (E)

===1950s===
*1950: Robert Momsen (T), Robert McMullogh (C), [[Vic Janowicz]] (HB)
*1952: Mike Takacs (G)
*1954: Dean Dugger (E), [[Howard "Hopalong" Cassady|Howard Cassady]] (HB), Jim Reichenbach (G)
*1955: [[# Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]] (G), Howard Cassady (HB)
*1956: Jim Parker (G)
*1957: [[Aurealius Thomas]] (G)
*1958: [[Jim Houston]] (E), [[Jim Marshall (American football)|Jim Marshall]] (T), [[Bob White (American football)|Bob White]] (E)
*1959: Jim Houston (E)

===1960s===
*1960: [[Bob Ferguson (American football)|Bob Ferguson]] (FB)
*1961: Bob Ferguson (FB)
*1964: Jim Davis (T), Ike Kelley (LB), Arnie Chonko (DB)
*1965: [[Doug Van Horn]] (G), Ike Kelley (LB)
*1966: Ray Pryor (C)
*1968: [[Dave Foley (American football)|Dave Foley]] (OT), [[Rufus Mayes]] (OT)
*1969: [[Jim Stillwagon]] (G), [[Rex Kern]] (QB), [[Jim Otis]] (FB), [[Ted Provost]] (CB), [[Jack Tatum]] (CB)

===1970s===
*1970: Jan White (TE), Jim Stillwagon (MG), [[John Brockington]] (FB), Jack Tatum (CB), [[Mike Sensibaugh]] (S), Tim Anderson (CB)
*1971: [[Tom DeLeone]] (C)
*1972: [[John Hicks (American football)|John Hicks]] (OT), [[Randy Gradishar]] (LB)
*1973: John Hicks (OT), Randy Gradishar (LB), [[Archie Griffin]] (TB)
*1974: Van Ness DeCree (DE), Kurt Schumacher (OT), Pete Cusick (DT), Archie Griffin (TB), [[Neal Colzie]] (CB), [[Tom Skladany]] (P)
*1975: Ted Smith (OG), Archie Griffin (TB), [[Tim Fox]] (S), Tom Sklandany (P)
*1976: [[Bob Brudzinski]] (DE), [[Chris Ward (American football)|Chris Ward]] (OT), Tom Sklandany (P)
*1977: Chris Ward (OT), Aaron Brown (NG), [[Tom Cousineau]] (LB), Ray Griffin (S)
*1978: Tom Cousineau (LB)
*1979: Ken Fritz (OG), [[Art Schlichter]] (QB)

===1980s===
*1982: Marcus Marek (LB)
*1984: [[Jim Lachey]] (OG), [[Keith Byars]] (TB)
*1985: [[Pepper Johnson]] (LB)
*1986: [[Cris Carter]] (SE), [[Chris Spielman]] (LB)
*1987: Chris Spielman (LB), [[Tom Tupa]] (P)
*1988: [[Jeff Uhlenhake]] (C)

===1990s===
*1991: [[Steve Tovar]] (LB)
*1992: Steve Tovar (LB)
*1993: [[Korey Stringer]] (OT), [[Dan Wilkinson]] (DT)
*1994: Korey Stringer (OT)
*1995: [[Eddie George]] (TB), [[Terry Glenn]] (FL), [[Orlando Pace]] (OT), [[Mike Vrabel]] (DE)
*1996: Orlando Pace (OT), [[Shawn Springs]] (CB), Mike Vrabel (DE)
*1997: [[Andy Katzenmoyer]] (LB), [[Rob Murphy (football player)|Rob Murphy]] (OG), [[Antoine Winfield]] (CB)
*1998: [[David Boston]] (SE), [[Damon Moore]] (SS), Rob Murphy (OG), Antoine Winfield (CB)
*1999: [[Na'il Diggs]] (LB)

===2000s===
*2000: [[Mike Doss]] (SS)
*2001: [[LeCharles Bentley]] (C), Mike Doss (SS)
*2002: Mike Doss (SS), [[Andy Groom]] (P), [[Mike Nugent]] (PK), [[Matt Wilhelm]] (LB)
*2003: [[Will Allen (safety)|Will Allen]] (DE)
*2004: Mike Nugent (PK), [[A. J. Hawk]] (LB)
*2005: A. J. Hawk (LB)
*2006: [[Troy Smith]] (QB), [[James Laurinaitis]] (LB), [[Quinn Pitcock]] (DL)
*2007: James Laurinaitis (LB), [[Chris Wells (American football)|Chris Wells]] (RB)

===Heisman Trophy===
Ohio State players have won the [[Heisman Trophy]] seven times. '''Archie Griffin''' is the only two-time recipient in the history of the award.
* [[Les Horvath]] 1944
* [[Vic Janowicz]] 1950
* [[Howard "Hopalong" Cassady]] 1955
* [[Archie Griffin]] 1974, 1975
* [[Eddie George]] 1995
* [[Troy Smith]] 2006

===Lombardi Award===
Ohio State players have won the [[Lombardi Award]] six times. '''Orlando Pace''' is the only two-time recipient in the history of the award.
* [[Jim Stillwagon]] 1970
* [[John Hicks]] 1973
* [[Chris Spielman]] 1987
* [[Orlando Pace]] 1995, 1996
* [[A. J. Hawk]] 2005

===Maxwell Award===
Four Ohio State players have won the [[Maxwell Award]]:
* Howard "Hopalong" Cassady 1955
* [[Bob Ferguson (American football)|Bob Ferguson]] 1961
* Archie Griffin 1975
* Eddie George 1995

===Outland Trophy===
Four Ohio State players have won the [[Outland Trophy]]:
* [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]] 1956
* [[Jim Stillwagon]] 1970
* [[John Hicks]] 1973
* Orlando Pace 1996

===Walter Camp Award===
Three Ohio State players have won the [[Walter Camp Award]]:
* Archie Griffin 1974, 1975
* Eddie George 1995
* Troy Smith 2006

===Other Awards===
* Eddie George received the '''[[Doak Walker Award]]''' in 1995
* [[Terry Glenn]] received the '''[[Fred Biletnikoff Award]]''' in 1995
* [[Andy Katzenmoyer]] received the '''[[Dick Butkus Award]]''' in 1997
* [[Antoine Winfield]] received the '''[[Jim Thorpe Award]]''' in 1998
* [[LeCharles Bentley]] received the '''[[Dave Rimington Trophy]]''' in 2001
* [[B. J. Sander]] received the '''[[Ray Guy Award]]''' in 2003
* [[Mike Nugent]] received the '''[[Lou Groza Award]]''' in 2004
* James Laurinaitis received the '''[[Bronko Nagurski Trophy]]''' in 2006
* Troy Smith received the '''[[Davey O'Brien Award]]''' in 2006
* James Laurinaitis received the '''[[Dick Butkus Award]]''' in 2007

===Season MVP===
Voted by players at the end of the season.

* 1930: [[Wes Fesler]] - [[End (American football)|end]] - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1931: [[Robert Haubrich]] - [[Offensive tackle|tackle]]
* 1932: [[Lew Hinchman]] - [[halfback (American football)|halfback]]
* 1933: [[Mickey Vuchinich]] - [[fullback (American football)|fullback]]
* 1934: [[Gomer Jones]] - [[Center (American football)|center]]
* 1935: Gomer Jones - center
* 1936: Ralph Wolf - center
* 1937: Ralph Wolf - center
* 1938: [[Jim Langhurst]] - fullback
* 1939: [[Steve Andrako]] - center
* 1940: Claude White - center
* 1941: [[Jack Graf]] - fullback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1942: [[Charles Csuri|Chuck Csuri]] - [[Offensive tackle|tackle]]
* 1943: [[Gordon Appleby]] - center
* 1944: Les Horvath - [[quarterback]] - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1945: [[Ollie Cline]] - fullback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1946: [[Cecil Souders]] - [[End (American football)|end]]
* 1947: [[Dave Templeton]] - [[Guard (American football)|guard]]
* 1948: [[Joe Whisler]] - fullback
* 1949: [[Jack Lininger]] - center
* 1950: Vic Janowicz - halfback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1951: Vic Janowicz - halfback
* 1952: [[Fred Bruney]] - halfback
* 1953: [[George Jacoby]] - tackle
* 1954: Howard "Hopalong" Cassady - halfback
* 1955: Howard "Hopalong" Cassady - halfback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1956: [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]] - guard
* 1957: [[Bill Jobko]] - guard
* 1958: [[Jim Houston]] - end
* 1959: Jim Houston - end
* 1960: [[Tom Matte]] - quarterback
* 1961: [[Bob Ferguson (American football)|Bob Ferguson]] - fullback
* 1962: [[Billy Armstrong]] - center
* 1963: [[Matt Snell]] - fullback
* 1964: [[Ed Orazen]] - [[defensive lineman]]
* 1965: [[Doug Van Horn]] - [[Guard (American football)|offensive guard]]
* 1966: [[Ray Pryor]] - center
* 1967: [[Dirk Worden]] - [[linebacker]]
* 1968: [[Mark Stier]] - linebacker
* 1969: [[Jim Otis]] - fullback
* 1970: [[Jim Stillwagon]] - defensive lineman
* 1971: [[Tom DeLeone]]- center
* 1972: [[George Hasenohrl]] - defensive lineman
* 1973: Archie Griffin - [[running back]] - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1974: Archie Griffin - tailback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1975: [[Cornelius Greene]] - quarterback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1976: [[Bob Brudzinski]] - [[defensive end]]
* 1977: [[Dave Adkins]] - linebacker
* 1978: [[Tom Cousineau]] - linebacker
* 1979: [[Jim Laughlin]] - linebacker
* 1980: [[Calvin Murray]] - tailback
* 1981: [[Art Schlichter]] - quarterback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1982: [[Tim Spencer]] - [[running back]]
* 1983: [[John Frank]] - [[tight end]]
* 1984: [[Keith Byars]] - running back - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1985: [[Jim Karsatos]] - quarterback
* 1986: [[Cris Carter]] - [[wide receiver]]
* 1987: [[Chris Spielman]] - linebacker
* 1988: [[Jeff Uhlenhake]] - center
* 1989: [[Derek Isaman]] - linebacker
* 1990: [[Jeff Graham]] - wide receiver
* 1991: [[Carlos Snow]] - tailback
* 1992: [[Kirk Herbstreit]] - quarterback
* 1993: [[Raymont Harris]] - tailback
* 1994: [[Korey Stringer]] - [[offensive tackle]]
* 1995: Eddie George - tailback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1996: Orlando Pace - offensive tackle - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1997: [[Antoine Winfield]] - [[defensive back]]
* 1998: [[Joe Germaine]] - quarterback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 1999: [[Ahmed Plummer]] - defensive back
* 2000: [[Derek Combs]] - tailback
* 2001: [[Jonathan Wells (American football)|Jonathan Wells]] - tailback
* 2002: [[Craig Krenzel]] - quarterback / [[Chris Gamble]] - wide receiver/defensive back
* 2003: [[Michael Jenkins (American football)|Michael Jenkins]] - wide receiver
* 2004: [[Mike Nugent]] - [[placekicker]]
* 2005: A. J. Hawk - linebacker
* 2006: Troy Smith - quarterback - also [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]]
* 2007: [[Chris Wells (American football)|Chris "Beanie" Wells]] - tailback

===All-Century Team===
{{seealso|Ohio State Football All-Century Team}}

===Ohio State's All-Time Team===
Chosen in 2001 by Athlon Sports. [http://www.athlonsports.com/college-football/4227/ohio-state-all-time-team]
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''Offense''' 
'''WR''' [[Paul Warfield]] 1961-63 
'''WR''' [[Cris Carter]] 1984-86 
'''WR''' [[Terry Glenn]] 1993-95 
'''WR''' [[David Boston]] 1996-98 
'''TE''' [[John Frank]] 1980-83 
'''OL''' [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]] 1954-56 
'''OL''' [[Korey Stringer]] 1992-94 
'''OL''' [[Gomer Jones]] 1934-35 
'''OL''' [[John Hicks (American football)|John Hicks]] 1970, 72-73 
'''OL''' Orlando Pace 1994-96 
'''QB''' [[Rex Kern]] 1967-1970 
'''RB''' Howard "Hopalong" Cassady 1952-55 
'''RB''' Archie Griffin 1972-75 
'''RB''' Eddie George 1992-95 
'''K''' [[Vlade Janakievski]] 1977-80 
{{col-2}}
'''Defense''' 
'''DL''' Wes Fesler 1928-30 
'''DL''' Bill Willis 1942-44 
'''DL''' [[Jim Stillwagon]] 1968-70 
'''DL''' [[Dan Wilkinson]] 1992-93 
'''DL''' [[Mike Vrabel]] 1993-96 
'''LB''' [[Tom Cousineau]] 1975-78 
'''LB''' [[Chris Spielman]] 1984-87 
'''LB''' [[Andy Katzenmoyer]] 1996-98 
'''LB''' [[Marcus Marek]] 1979-82 
'''LB''' [[Steve Tovar]] 1989-92 
'''DB''' Vic Janowicz 1949-51 
'''DB''' [[Jack Tatum]] 1968-70 
'''DB''' [[Mike Sensibaugh]] 1968-70 
'''DB''' [[Neal Colzie]] 1972-74 
'''DB''' [[Antoine Winfield]] 1995-98 
'''P''' [[Tom Tupa]] 1984-87 
{{col-end}}

===NCAA Coach of the Year===
Three Ohio State head coaches have received the '''[[Paul "Bear" Bryant Award]]''' as NCAA Coach of the Year a total of five times:
* [[Woody Hayes]] 1957, 1968, 1975
* [[Earle Bruce]] 1979
* [[Jim Tressel]] 2002
In addition, two coaches were voted "National Coach of the Year" before the inception of the Bryant Award. [[Carroll Widdoes]], acting head coach after [[Paul Brown]] had entered the [[United States Navy]], was voted the honor in 1944. Brown himself was voted the honor in 1942 for winning the [[NCAA Division I-A national football championship|National Championship]] but declined in favor of [[Georgia Institute of Technology]]'s [[William Alexander (coach)|Bill Alexander]].

===All-American and All-Conference honors===
Through 2006 128 Buckeyes have been named first team All-Americans since 1914. 234 have been named to the All-Big Ten team, and 15 have won the [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football]], the Big Ten's [[Most Valuable Player]] award, including Troy Smith for 2006. The [[Athletic director|Athletic Directors]] of the Big Ten Conference voted Eddie George '''Big Ten-[[Jesse Owens]]''' '''Athlete of the Year''' for 1996.

On [[November 22]], [[2006]], ten Buckeyes were named to either the Coaches or Conference media All-Big Ten First Team selections for the 2006 season, and seven were named to both. [[Troy Smith]] was named Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year. Four other Buckeyes received Second Team honors.

==Academic awards and achievements==
===Rhodes Scholarship===
On [[December 6]], [[1985]], [[Mike Lanese]] was awarded a [[Rhodes Scholarship]] to the [[University of Oxford]].

===College Sports Information Directors of America Academic All-Americans===

'''Academic All-American Hall of Fame'''
*Class of 1992 [[Randy Gradishar]]
'''Academic All-Americans'''

''Academic All-American Player of the Year''
*2003 [[Craig Krenzel]]

'''Academic All-Americans'''
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Player !! Position
|-
||1952 ||[[John Borton]] || Quarterback
|-
|1954 ||[[Dick Hilinski]] || Tackle
|-
|1958 ||[[Bob White (American football)|Bob White]] || Fullback
|-
|1961 ||[[Tom Perdue]] || End
|-
|1965 ||[[Bill Ridder]] || Middle guard
|-
|1966 ||[[Dave Foley (American football)|Dave Foley]] || Offensive tackle
|-
|1967 ||Dave Foley ||Offensive tackle
|-
|1968 ||Dave Foley ||Offensive tackle
|-
|1968 ||[[Mark Stier]] ||Linebacker
|-
|1969 ||[[Bill Urbanik]] ||Defensive tackle
|-
|1971 ||Rick Simon ||Offensive tackle
|-
|1973 ||[[Randy Gradishar]] ||Linebacker
|-
|1974 ||[[Brian Baschnagel]] ||Running back
|-
|1975 ||Brian Baschnagel ||Running back
|-
|1976 ||[[Pete Johnson (American football)|Pete Johnson]] ||Fullback
|-
|1976 ||[[Bill Lukens]] ||Offensive guard
|-
|1977 ||[[Jeff Logan]] ||Running back
|-
|1980 ||[[Marcus Marek]] ||Linebacker
|-
|1980 ||[[John Weisensell]]¹ ||Offensive guard
|-
|1982 ||Joe Smith ||Offensive tackle
|-
|1982 ||[[John Frank]] ||Tight end
|-
|1983 ||John Frank ||Tight end
|-
|1983 ||[[Dave Crecelius]]¹|| Defensive tackle
|-
|1984 ||Dave Crecelius ||Defensive tackle
|-
|1984 ||[[Mike Lanese]] ||Wide receiver
|-
|1984 ||[[Anthony Tiuliani]]¹ ||Defensive tackle
|-
|1985 ||Mike Lanese ||Wide receiver
|-
|1987 ||[[Joe Staysniak]]¹ ||Offensive tackle
|-
|1989 ||Joe Staysniak ||Offensive tackle
|-
|1990 ||Greg Smith¹ ||Defensive line
|-
|1992 ||[[Len Hartman]] ||Offensive guard
|-
|1992 ||Greg Smith ||Defensive line
|-
|1995 ||[[Greg Bellisari]] ||Linebacker
|-
|1996 ||Greg Bellisari ||Linebacker
|-
|1998 ||[[Jerry Rudzinski]]¹ ||Linebacker
|-
|1999 ||[[Ahmed Plummer]] ||Cornerback
|-
|2002 ||[[Craig Krenzel]]¹ ||Quarterback
|-
|2003 ||Craig Krenzel ||Quarterback
|}
¹2nd team award

===National Football Foundation and College Hall of Fame===

'''[[Draddy Trophy|Vincent dePaul Draddy Trophy]]''' ("Academic Heisman")
*1995 [[Bobby Hoying]]
*2003 [[Craig Krenzel]]

'''National Scholar-Athlete Awards'''

Ohio State's eighteen NFF Scholar-Athlete Awards rank second only to [[University of Nebraska system|Nebraska]]'s twenty among all college football programs.
*1965 [[Willard Sander]]
*1968 [[David Foley]]
*1970 [[Rex Kern]]
*1973 [[Randy Gradishar]]
*1975 [[Brian Baschnagel]]
*1979 [[Jim Laughlin]]
*1982 Joe Smith
*1983 [[John Frank]]
*1984 [[Dave Crecelius]]
*1985 [[Mike Lanese]]
*1989 [[Joe Staysniak]]
*1990 [[Greg Frey]]
*1992 Greg Smith
*1994 [[Joey Galloway]]
*1995 [[Bobby Hoying]]
*1996 [[Greg Bellisari]]
*1999 [[Ahmed Plummer]]

==Individual school records==

{{seealso|Ohio State Buckeyes football yearly statistical leaders}}

===Rushing records===
* Most rushing attempts, career: 924, [[Archie Griffin]] (1972-75)
* Most rushing attempts, season: 336, [[Keith Byars]] (1984)
* Most rushing attempts, game: 44, [[Champ Henson]] ([[November 18]], [[1972]] at [[Northwestern Wildcats football|Northwestern]])
* Most rushing yards, career: 5,589, [[Archie Griffin]] (1972-75)
* Most rushing yards, season: 1,927, [[Eddie George]] (1995)
* Most rushing yards, game: 314, [[Eddie George]] ([[November 11]], [[1995]] vs. [[Illinois Fighting Illini football|Illinois]])
* Most rushing yards against Michigan, game: 222, [[Chris Wells (American football)|Chris Wells]] ([[November 17]], [[2007]])
* Most rushing touchdowns, career: 56, [[Pete Johnson (American football)|Pete Johnson]] (1973-76)
* Most rushing touchdowns, season: 25, Pete Johnson (1975)
* Most rushing touchdowns, game: 5, Pete Johnson ([[September 27]], [[1975]] vs. [[North Carolina Tar Heels football|North Carolina]]) and Keith Byars ([[October 13]],[[1984]] vs. Illinois)
* Longest run from scrimmage: 89 yards, Gene Fekete ([[November 7]], [[1942]] vs. [[Pittsburgh Panthers football|Pittsburgh]])
* Most games with at least 100 rushing yards, career: 34, [[Archie Griffin]] (1972-75)
* Most games with at least 100 rushing yards, season: 12, [[Eddie George]] (1995)
* Most games with at least 200 rushing yards, career: 5 [[Eddie George]] (1992-95)
* Most games with at least 200 rushing yards, season: 3, [[Eddie George]] (1995)

===Passing records===
* Most passing attempts, career: 934, [[Art Schlichter]] (1978-81)
* Most passing attempts, season: 384, [[Joe Germaine]] (1998)
* Most passing attempts, game: 52, Art Schlichter ([[October 3]], [[1981]] vs. [[Florida State Seminoles football|Florida State]])
* Most passing completions, career: 498, [[Bobby Hoying]] (1992-95)
* Most passing completions, season: 230, [[Joe Germaine]] (1998)
* Most passing completions, game: 31, Art Schlichter ([[October 3]], [[1981]] vs. Florida State) and Joe Germaine ([[October 31]], [[1998]] at [[Indiana Hoosiers football|Indiana]])
* Most passing yards, career: 7,547, Art Schlichter (1978-81)
* Most passing yards, season: 3,330, [[Joe Germaine]] (1998)
* Most passing yards, game: 458, Art Schlichter ([[October 3]], [[1981]] vs. Florida State)
* Most passing touchdowns, career: 57, [[Bobby Hoying]] (1992-95)
* Most passing touchdowns, season: 30, [[Troy Smith]] (2006)
* Most passing touchdowns, game: 5, John Borton ([[October 18]],[[1952]] vs. [[Washington State Cougars football|Washington State]]) and twice by [[Bobby Hoying]] ([[October 22]],[[1994]] vs. [[Purdue Boilermakers football|Purdue]] and [[September 23]],[[1995]] at [[Pittsburgh Panthers football|Pittsburgh]])
*Longest pass completion: 86 yards, Art Schlichter to Calvin Murray ([[September 22]], [[1979]] vs. Washington State)
* Most games with at least 200 passing yards, career: 16, [[Bobby Hoying]] (1992-95)
* Most games with at least 200 passing yards, season: 11, [[Bobby Hoying]] (1995) and Joe Germaine (1998)
* Most games with at least 300 passing yards, career: 8, [[Joe Germaine]] (1996-98)
* Most games with at least 300 passing yards, season: 7, [[Joe Germaine]] (1998)

===Receiving records===
* Most receptions, career: 191, [[David Boston]] (1996-98)
* Most receptions, season: 85, David Boston (1998)
* Most receptions, game: 14, David Boston ([[October 11]], [[1997]] at [[Penn State Nittany Lions football|Penn State]])
* Most receiving yards, career: 2,898, [[Michael Jenkins (American football)|Michael Jenkins]] (2000-03)
* Most receiving yards, season: 1,435, David Boston (1998)
* Most receiving yards, game: 253, [[Terry Glenn]] ([[September 23]],[[1995]] at [[Pittsburgh Panthers football|Pittsburgh]])
* Most touchdown receptions, career: 34, David Boston (1996-98)
* Most touchdown receptions, season: 17, Terry Glenn (1995)
* Most touchdown receptions, game: 4, Bob Grimes ([[October 18]],[[1952]] vs. [[Washington State Cougars football|Washington State]]) and Terry Glenn ([[September 23]],[[1995]] at Pittsburgh)
* Longest pass reception: 86 yards, Calvin Murray from Art Schlichter ([[September 22]], [[1979]] vs. Washington State)
* Most games with at least 100 receiving yards, career: 14, David Boston (1996-98)
* Most games with at least 100 receiving yards, season: 9, David Boston (1998)

===Kickoff return records===
* Most kickoff returns, career: 72, Maurice Hall (2001-04)
* Most kickoff returns, season: 31, [[Ken-Yon Rambo]] (1999)
* Most kickoff returns, game: 7, [[Vince Workman]] ([[November 7]], [[1987]] at [[Wisconsin Badgers football|Wisconsin]])
* Most kickoff return yards, career: 1,642, Maurice Hall (2001-04)
* Most kickoff return yards, season: 653, Ken-Yon Rambo (1999)
* Most kickoff return yards, game: 213, [[Carlos Snow]] ([[September 17]], [[1988]] at [[Pittsburgh Panthers football|Pittsburgh]])
* Most kickoff return touchdowns, career: 2, Dean Sensanbaugher (1943-47) and Lenny Willis (1974)
* Longest kickoff return: 103 yards, Dean Sensanbaugher ([[October 9]], [[1943]] at Great Lakes)

===Punt return records===
* Most punt returns, career: 98, [[David Boston]] (1996-98)
* Most punt returns, season: 47, David Boston (1997) ''(also a [[Big Ten Conference]] record)''
* Most punt returns, game: 9, Tom Campana ([[October 16]], [[1971]] at [[Indiana Hoosiers football|Indiana]])
* Most punt return yards, career: 959, David Boston (1996-98)
* Most punt return yards, season: 679, [[Neal Colzie]] (1973) ''(also a [[Big Ten Conference]] record)''
* Most punt return yards, game: 170, Neal Colzie ([[November 10]], [[1973]] vs. [[Michigan State Spartans football|Michigan State]])
* Most punt return touchdowns, career: 6, [[Ted Ginn, Jr.]] (2004-06) ''(also a [[Big Ten Conference]] record)''
* Longest punt return: 90 yards, Brian Hartline ([[October 13]], [[2007]] vs. [[Kent State Golden Flashes|Kent State]])

==Buckeyes in the NFL==
{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 100%;"
|+ style="font-size: larger;" |
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:red" align=center|Buckeyes in the NFL
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:red" align=center|NFL Draft selections
|-
! Total selected:
| align=center|329
|-
! First picks in draft:
| align=center|3
|-
! 1st Round:
| align=center|68
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:red" align=center| NFL achievements
|-
! Total Players:
| align=center|308
|-
! In the [[Super Bowl]]:
| align=center|54
|-
! [[Pro Football Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]]rs:
| align=center|6
|-
|}
43 former Ohio State players are currently active on rosters of [[National Football League]] teams: [[Will Allen (safety)|Will Allen]], [[Tim Anderson (defensive tackle)|Tim Anderson]], [[Rodney Bailey]], [[LeCharles Bentley]], [[Bobby Carpenter (American football)|Bobby Carpenter]], [[Drew Carter]], [[Nate Clements]], [[Na'il Diggs]], [[Mike Doss]], [[Simon Fraser (American football)|Simon Fraser]], [[Joey Galloway]], [[Chris Gamble]],[[Ted Ginn, Jr.]], [[Anthony Gonzalez]],[[Roy Hall]], [[Ben Hartsock]], [[A. J. Hawk]], [[Santonio Holmes]], [[Kevin Houser]], [[Josh Huston]], [[Michael Jenkins (American football)|Michael Jenkins]], [[Nick Mangold]], [[Donnie Nickey]], [[Mike Nugent]], [[Orlando Pace]], [[Kenny Peterson]], [[Ryan Pickett]], [[Antonio Pittman]], [[Nate Salley]], [[Rob Sims]], [[Will Smith (American football)|Will Smith]], [[Troy Smith]], [[Shawn Springs]], [[Alex Stepanovich]], [[Mike Vrabel]], [[Donte Whitner]], [[Matt Wilhelm]], [[Antoine Winfield]], [[Ashton Youboty]], [[Jay Richardson]], [[Dustin Fox]], [[Vernon Gholston]], and [[Kirk Barton]].

Former notable NFL players who played at Ohio State include: [[Lou Groza]], [[Dante Lavelli]], [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]], [[Bill Willis]], [[Cris Carter]], [[Paul Warfield]], [[Jim Marshall (American football)|Jim Marshall]], [[Jim Houston]], [[Jack Tatum]], [[Randy Gradishar]], [[Dick Schafrath]], [[Jim Lachey]], [[Tom Tupa]], [[Chris Spielman]], [[Robert Smith (football player)|Robert Smith]], [[Korey Stringer]], [[Raymont Harris]], and [[Eddie George]]. Groza, Lavelli, Parker, Warfield, and Willis have been inducted into the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]].

In the [[2004 NFL Draft]], 14 Buckeyes were drafted, a record number for any school in a single draft.

===Ohio State Players Selected In 2007 and 2008 NFL Draft===
With two first-round selections in 2007, the Buckeyes have the second most first-round selections all-time in the history of the NFL draft, one less than USC (67).<ref name="2007nfl"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://ohiostatebuckeyes.cstv.com/sports/m-footbl/spec-rel/043007aaa.html| title = Eight Buckeyes in NFL Draft| format = | work = | publisher = TOSU Football Official Site| accessdate = 1 May | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> The Buckeyes had another first round selection in 2008.

::::::'''2007 NFL draft selections'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Round !! Pick # !! Team !! Player !!
|-
| 1 || align=center|9 || [[Miami Dolphins]] ||[[Ted Ginn, Jr.]] || Wide receiver
|-
| 1 || align=center|32 || [[Indianapolis Colts]] ||[[Anthony Gonzalez]] || Wide receiver
|-
| 3 || align=center|18 || [[Indianapolis Colts]] ||[[Quinn Pitcock]] || Defensive end
|-
| 4 || align=center|107 || [[New Orleans Saints]] ||[[Antonio Pittman]] || Running Back
|-
| 5 || align=center|138 || [[Oakland Raiders]] || [[Jay Richardson]] || Defensive tackle
|-
| 5 || align=center|169 || [[Indianapolis Colts]] || [[Roy Hall]] || Wide receiver
|-
| 5 || align=center|174 || [[Baltimore Ravens]] || [[Troy Smith]] || Quarterback
|-
| 6 || align=center|198 || [[Atlanta Falcons]] || [[Doug Datish]] || Center
|}

::::::'''2008 NFL draft selections'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Round !! Pick # !! Team !! Player !!
|-
| 1 || align=center|6 || [[New York Jets]] ||[[Vernon Gholston]] || Defensive Line
|-
| 7 || align=center|214 || [[San Francisco 49ers]] ||[[Larry Grant (American football)|Larry Grant]] || Linebacker
|-
| 7 || align=center|247 || [[Chicago Bears]] ||[[Kirk Barton]] || Offensive Tackle
|}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
* [http://www.ohiostatebuckeyes.com/SportSelect.dbml?DB_OEM_ID=17300&KEY=&SPID=10408&SPSID=87743 Official site Ohio State Football]
*[http://ohiostatebuckeyes.cstv.com/trads/osu-m-footbl-trad.html Ohio State Football Traditions]
*{{cite book
| author=Jack Park
| chapter=
| title=The Official Ohio State Football Encyclopedia
| editor=
| publisher=Sports Publishing LLC
| id= ISBN 1-58261-006-1
| year=2002| pages=}}
*{{cite book
| author=Jim Tressel
| chapter=
| title=What It Means To Be A Buckeye
| editor=Jeff Snook
| publisher=Triumph Books
| id= ISBN 1-57243-602-6
| year=2003| pages=}}
*{{cite book
| author=Greenberg, S.; Ratermann, D.
| chapter=
| title=I Remember Woody
| editor=
| publisher=Triumph Books
| id= ISBN 1-57243-674-3
| year=2004| pages=}}
*{{cite book
| author=Robert Vare
| chapter=
| title=Buckeye: A Study of Coach Woody Hayes and the Ohio State Football Machine
| editor=
| publisher=Harper's Magazine Press
| id= ISBN 0-06-129150-1
| year=1974| pages=}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ohiostatebuckeyes.com/ Official Site]

{{BuckeyesFootballTeams}}
{{1942 Buckeyes}}
{{1954 Buckeyes}}
{{1957 Buckeyes}}
{{1961 Buckeyes}}
{{1968 Buckeyes}}
{{1970 Buckeyes}}
{{2002 Buckeyes}}
{{Big Ten football}}
{{CurrentB10FBCoaches}}
{{Big Ten Football Venues}}
{{Big Ten Marching Bands}}
{{BCSChamps}}

[[Category:Ohio State Buckeyes football|*]]

Benjamin Ruggiero

2008-11-26T04:42:22Z

Tkynerd: Reverted 1 edit by 67.83.133.215 identified as vandalism to last revision by Ground Zero. using TW

{{Unreferenced|date=March 2008}}

{{Infobox Person
| name = Benjamin Ruggiero
| image = Benjaminruggiero1.JPG
| image_size = 150px
| caption = FBI surveillance photo of Benjamin Ruggiero leaving a bank after planning a robbery c. 1980
| birth_date = {{birth date|1926|4|19|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Hell's Kitchen]], [[Manhattan]], [[New York]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1994|11|24|1926|4|19}}
| death_place = [[United States|U.S.]]
}}

'''Benjamin Ruggiero''', also known as "Lefty," "Lefty Guns," "Lefty Two Guns" (April 19, 1926 - November 24, 1994), was a member of the [[Bonanno crime family]] best known for his close association and mentorship of [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) [[espionage|undercover agent]] [[Joseph D. Pistone]], also known as "Donnie Brasco."

==Early life==
Born in the "Fourth Ward" neighborhood of Manhattan, Ruggiero grew up in the [[Knickerbocker Village]] private housing development in [[Little Italy, Manhattan]]. Knickerbocker Village was home to many future members of the Bonanno family. Ruggiero joined the Bonanno family as a young man, serving as a street soldier under [[Caporegime]] [[Michael Sabella]]. Ruggiero soon became successful in [[bookmaking]], [[extortion]] and [[loansharking]] rackets. During this period, Ruggiero became good friends with future family boss [[Philip Rastelli|Philip "Rusty" Rastelli]] and fellow mobster [[Anthony Mirra]]. Ruggiero was also a [[hitman]], allegedly murdering at least 26 people during his criminal career.

Ruggiero became the part owner of a fishery in the [[Fulton Fish Market]] in Manhattan. As a part-owner, Ruggiero was able to put himself on the company payroll with a $5,000-a-month "no-show" job. During the 1970s, he purchased a [[social club]] in Little Italy.

Ruggiero relished his life as a mobster. He explained it this way to Tony Rossi (who was actually an undercover FBI agent named Ed Robb): "Tony, as a wiseguy you can lie, you can cheat, you can steal, you can kill people - legitimately. You can do any 'goddamn' thing you want, and nobody can say anything about it. Who wouldn't want to be a wiseguy?"{{Fact|date=June 2008}}

==Personal life==
Ruggiero was a six-foot tall, lean-bodied man with a narrow face, intense eyes, slightly stooped shoulders and a cigarette-raspy voice. Ruggiero reportedly earned his nickname from tossing dice left-handed while playing craps. He lived in an apartment on Monroe Street in Manhattan in the same building as his friend and fellow Bonanno mobster Anthony Mirra. Ruggiero reportedly owned a [[cigarette boat]] that he kept docked on the [[East River]] in New York.

Ruggiero had three daughters and one son, Thomas Sbano, with his first wife. In the late 1950s, Ruggiero left his first wife, eventually moving in with his future second wife, Louise. In September 1977, Ruggiero married Louise in a small ceremony at [[New York City Hall]]. Ruggiero was reportedly very protective and faithful to Louise, but not especially sensitive.{{fact|date=November 2008}}

Ruggiero's son Thomas struggled with a [[heroin]] dependency until he checked into a drug rehabilitation center in 1979. After Thomas' release, Ruggiero got him a job at the Fulton Fish Market. Ruggiero's younger daughter worked at a New York hospital and managed a booth at the [[Feast of San Gennaro]], in Little Italy. Two of Ruggiero's daughters reportedly married mobsters. The Bonanno family allegedly discovered that Ruggiero's son-in-law Marco was cheating the family and told Ruggiero to eliminate him. Marco disappeared, and his body was never recovered.

==Donnie Brasco==
Around the time that Ruggiero became a member of the Bonanno family, he met Donnie Brasco. Fellow mobster Mirra introduced Brasco, a small-time jewelry thief, to Ruggiero in a Manhattan bar. What Ruggiero didn't realize was that Brasco was really Joseph D. Pistone, an undercover FBI agent. Pistone's original mission had been to infiltrate a jewelry [[Fence (criminal)|fencing]] ring; Pistone prepared for this assignment by taking [[gemology]] classes taught by the FBI. However, the friendships Pistone developed (as Brasco) with Mirra, Napolitano, and Ruggiero now gave the FBI the chance to infiltrate the Bonanno family itself.

Brasco was soon placing bets with Ruggiero and helping him make collections for the bookmaking operation in Ruggiero's social club. Ruggiero became a mentor to Brasco and eventually sponsored him for membership in the family. Ruggiero's good relationship with Brasco soon caused friction with old friend Mirra, who had originally introduced Brasco to Ruggiero. Ruggiero and Brasco became good friends; Brasco served as best man at Ruggiero's 1977 wedding and frequently advised Ruggiero on handling his son's drug dependency.

At one point, Ruggiero almost discovered Brasco's true identity. Ruggiero and Brasco were sitting in a [[Miami Beach, Florida]] restaurant one day and Ruggiero was reading a copy of ''[[Time Magazine|Time]]'' magazine. The article was about the infamous [[Abscam]] scandal and detailed how FBI agents posed as rich [[Arab]] businessmen to catch [[U.S. Congress]]men taking bribes. What caught Ruggiero's eye was a picture of a white yacht that the FBI used to entertain the congressmen. Suddenly, Ruggiero recognized the boat - the "Left Hand;" it was the same craft that Brasco had provided several months before for a party with Ruggiero and other Bonanno mobsters. Fortunately for Brasco, he was able to convince Ruggiero that he had not known the boat's owner was related to the FBI.

==Gambling addiction and financial instability==
By the 1970s, Ruggiero had acquired a gambling dependency; he was betting and losing heavily on horse races at [[Aqueduct Racetrack]], in Queens. Soon he was borrowing money from mobster [[Nicholas Marangello]] to feed this addiction. By 1977, Ruggiero owed Marangello $160,000. The Bonanno family finally told Ruggiero that he would have to repay Marangello before he could become a [[made man]], or full family member. By the summer of 1977, Ruggiero had paid most of his debt to Marangello and the family accepted his membership. However, by 1978, Ruggiero was back in debt again to Marangello. To settle the debt this time, the family arranged to transfer the revenues from part of Ruggiero's criminal operations directly to Marangello. Due to his gambling problem, Ruggiero was always trying to hide his few assets from his creditors Marangello and Sabella and was always scheming on how to make money.

During a later criminal enterprise, Ruggiero met the mafia boss of [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]. During the process of collaborating a scam in Milwaukee, Ruggiero openly admitted to Pistone that he felt threatened while in the presence of Milwaukee mob boss [[Frank Balistrieri]]. In 1979, Ruggiero converted his social club into a candy store and gave it to one of his daughters to manage. At the same time, Ruggiero and Brasco started a bookmaking operation out of the store. However, Ruggiero was soon dropped from the partnership because he was unable to provide the initial required investment of $2,500.

==Family turmoil==
In 1979, Bonanno boss [[Carmine Galante]] was murdered, creating a power vacuum in the family. After Galante's murder, [[Philip Rastelli]] took over, running things from prison. However, one faction in the family rebelled at Rastelli's assumption of leadership. At this time, Ruggiero joined the crew of [[Dominic Napolitano|Dominic "Sonny Black" Napolitano]], a strong Rastelli supporter. On May 5, 1981, three rebel capos were lured to a meeting and murdered. Alphonse Indelicato's body was discovered in a vacant lot in [[Queens]], but the bodies of Philip Giaccone and [[Dominick Trinchera]] were never found. Ruggiero and Napolitano were prime suspects in these murders. After the deaths of the three capos, the rebellion against Rastelli was quashed.

==Incarceration and death==
In 1981, the FBI decided to end the Brasco investigation and terminate Pistone's assignment. FBI agents soon visited both Ruggiero and Napolitano at a social club and informed them of Brasco's true identity. After the Bonanno leadership learned the truth about Brasco, they immediately went after the men who brought Brasco into their midst. Mirra and Napolitano were murdered, and a contract was put out on Ruggiero. On August 30, 1981, the FBI intercepted Ruggiero as he was going to a meeting at Marangello's social club and placed Ruggiero under [[protective custody]]. If Ruggiero had attended that meeting, the family would have murdered him.

After the FBI put Ruggiero in protective custody, they tried several times to persuade him to become a government witness and join the [[Witness Protection Program]]. However, Ruggiero refused to cooperate with the FBI and even tried to bail himself out of jail. In 1982, Ruggiero was charged with violations of the [[Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act]] (RICO Act) in both New York and [[Florida]]. The specific charges included conspiring to murder the three capos in New York, distributing [[methaqualone]] in New York, and committing extortion, the planning of a bank robbery, and the running of illegal gambling operations in Florida.

Ruggiero was convicted in both New York and Florida and sentenced to 20 years in prison. In 1992, Ruggiero was released from prison after serving 11 years, sick with lung and [[testicular cancer]].<ref name="pistone interview">{{cite web
| title = THE JOSEPH PISTONE/DONNIE BRASCO INTERVIEW
| publisher = ''Gangsters Inc.''
| url = http://gangstersinc.tripod.com/PistoneInterview.html
| accessdate = 2008-06-21 }}</ref> On November 24, 1994, Benjamin Ruggiero died of [[lung cancer]] at age 68.

==In popular culture==
Ruggiero was portrayed by [[Al Pacino]] in the 1997 film ''[[Donnie Brasco (film)|Donnie Brasco]]''.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* Pistone, Joseph D.; & Woodley, Richard (1999) Donnie Brasco: My Undercover Life in the Mafia, p. 402, Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-66637-4.

==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/blog/organizedcrime/bonanno/ruggiero.html American Organized Crime - Bonanno Crime Family - Benjamin "Lefty Guns" Ruggiero]{{Dead link|date=August 2008}}
*[http://www.ipsn.org/court_cases/us_v_ruggiero_726_f2d-913.htm UNITED STATES OF AMERICA v. BENJAMIN RUGGIERO]
*[http://cases.justia.com/us-court-of-appeals/F2/754/927/ Justia.com UNITED STATES OF AMERICA v. BENJAMIN RUGGIERO]
*[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,966489,00.html?promoid=googlep Time Magazine: Strife And Death in the Family] by DAVID BRAND

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ruggiero, Benjamin}}
[[Category:1926 births]]
[[Category:1994 deaths]]
[[Category:Bonanno crime family]]
[[Category:Burials at Calvary Cemetery (Queens)]]
[[Category:Italian-American mobsters]]
[[Category:Deaths from lung cancer]]
[[Category:People from New York City]]
[[Category:Cancer deaths in the United States]]

[[lt:Benjamin Ruggiero]]
[[pl:Benjamin Ruggiero]]

Wyandotte (Michigan)

2008-11-25T20:33:55Z

Tkynerd: Reverted 1 edit by 141.217.173.100 identified as vandalism to last revision by 98.224.129.0. (TW)

{{Infobox Settlement
|official_name = Wyandotte, Michigan
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_caption =
|image_seal =
|image_map = Wayne_County_Michigan_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Wyandotte_highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250x200px
|map_caption = Location in [[Wayne County, Michigan|Wayne County]] and the state of [[Michigan]]
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =
|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Michigan|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Michigan]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Wayne County, Michigan|Wayne]]
|government_type =
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_name = James DeSana
|established_date =
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 18.1
|area_total_sq_mi = 7
|area_land_km2 = 13.7
|area_land_sq_mi = 5.3
|area_water_km2 = 4.4
|area_water_sq_mi = 1.7
|elevation_ft = 581
|elevation_m = 177
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_footnotes =
|population_total = 28006
|population_metro =
|population_density_km2 = 2037.9
|population_density_sq_mi = 5278.1
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|latd = 42 |latm = 12 |lats = 31 |latNS = N
|longd = 83 |longm = 9 |longs = 45 |longEW = W
|timezone_DST = EDT
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 48192
|area_code = [[Area code 734|734]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 26-88900{{GR|2}}
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1616849{{GR|3}}
|footnotes =
|website =
}}
'''Wyandotte''' is a city in [[Wayne County, Michigan|Wayne County]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]]. The population was 28,006 at the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 census]]. The Population percent change from 1990 to 2000 was a -9.0% showing a slightly decreasing population. Wyandotte is located in the southeastern [[Lower Peninsula of Michigan|lower peninsula]], approximately eleven miles south of Detroit on the [[Detroit River]] and is part of the collection of communities known as [[Downriver]]. Wyandotte is bounded by [[Southgate, Michigan|Southgate]] (west), [[Lincoln Park, Michigan|Lincoln Park]] (northwest), [[Riverview, Michigan|Riverview]] (south) and [[Ecorse, Michigan|Ecorse]] (north).

Wyandotte is a [[sister city]] to [[Komaki, Aichi|Komaki, Japan]], and each year delegates from Komaki come to Wyandotte to tour the city.

==History==
{{main|History of Wyandotte, Michigan}}

Incorporated as a city in 1867, the site where Wyandotte sits today in the 1700s was a village for the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribe known as the [[Wyandot]] or Wendat, part of the Huron nation. It was from here in 1763 that [[Chief Pontiac]] plotted his attack on Detroit. The center of the village was near modern-day Eureka Avenue and Oak Street.

In 1818, the Wyandot signed a treaty with the U.S. government relinquishing this land, moving to an area near [[Flat Rock, Michigan]], then to [[Ohio]], [[Kansas]] and finally [[Oklahoma]]. The name somewhat lives on as [[Wyandotte County, Kansas]]. [http://www.angelfire.com/mi/WYMUSEUM/page8.html]

One of the first white settlers to come to Wyandotte in the years after the Native Americans left was [[John Biddle (Michigan)|John Biddle]], a Pennsylvania-born former Army Major who fought in the [[War of 1812]] (and later went on to a prolific political career, serving as mayor of Detroit, delegate from the Territory of Michigan in the U.S. Congress, president of the [[Michigan Central Railroad]], member and later speaker of the [[Michigan House of Representatives]] and one-time candidate for [[Michigan Governor]] [http://www.infoplease.com/biography/us/congress/biddle-john.html]. (West Jefferson Boulevard, which runs from downtown Detroit south to [[Monroe County, Michigan|Monroe County]] is named renamed Biddle Avenue within Wyandotte city limits.)

Biddle purchased a {{convert|2200|acre|km2|sing=on}} plot near modern Biddle Avenue and Vinewood Avenue in 1835 and created a farm he called "The Wyandotte." He sold the plot in 1854 to Eber Ward of the Eureka Iron Co. for $44,000. In 1864, he took iron ore from [[Upper Peninsula]] and smelted it into iron in huge furnaces which came to be known as [[Bessemer process|Bessemer]] steel mills, the first in the nation. [http://www.michmarkers.com/startup.asp?startpage=S0158.htm]. In 1865, the process created steel rails and allowed an explosion of iron-related businesses to open in the region. As a result, Detroit soon became a major center of iron production, especially for use in stoves (Wyandotte was home to several companies as well, including the Regeant Stove Co.) It would be this technology that would give [[Henry Ford]] from nearby [[Dearborn, Michigan|Dearborn]] the capabilities to create large amounts of steel for his automobile assembly lines.

A Eureka representative named John Van Alstyne laid out a master plan for the city in the late 1850s. In 1867, Wyandotte became a city, with Van Alstyne as mayor (a street along Wyandotte's [[Detroit River]] is named after him).

Eureka Iron Works prospered through the late 1800s, but suffered a shortage of raw materials. It closed in 1892, but not before Wyandotte became a major hub in the chemical production industry, possible because of the many salt mines deep below the city.

==Business and industry==

An early figure was [[John Baptiste Ford|Captain John Baptiste Ford]], who used the salt to create soda ash, which in turn was used to create plate glass. In 1893, he created [[Michigan Alkali Company]], which created [[baking soda]], [[soda ash]] and [[lye]]. The company, later renamed Wyandotte Chemicals Co., went on to create a variety of [[soaps]] and [[cleaners]], and eventually became part of [[BASF]] and expanded into the BASF industrial complex.

[[Image:Wyandotte.gif|275px|left|thumb|Wyandotte, 1896]]

Ward also help create Wyandotte's shipbuilding role, which existed from the 1870s into the 1920s. During that time, a wide variety of boats were created along Wyandotte's riverbank, from steamers and tugs to huge ferries. In 1873, Ward's Wyandotte Iron Ship Building Works built the nation's earliest steel-hulled vessel, a tug called the Sport. [http://www.michmarkers.com/startup.asp?startpage=S0158.htm]

Beginning in the 1920s Wyandotte was a major source of toy production, with the [[All Metal Products Company]] founded in 1920 and located in Wyandotte on Sycamore St. between 14th and 15th St. From the 1920s until the 1950s the company, under the name "[[Wyandotte Toys]]", was the nation's largest manufacturer of toy guns and pistols, producing a wide variety of pop guns, clicker pistols, dart guns, cap guns and a variety of plastic pistols. The company also produced a wide range of toy airplanes and other vehicles by pressing scrap metal obtained from local automobile factories. The company's motto was "Wyandotte Toys Are Good and Safe." In the early 1950s the company moved to Ohio, and was bought out by [[Louis Marx and Company]] three years later. [http://www.angelfire.com/mi/WYMUSEUM/page4.html]

Wyandotte's Bishop Park used to have a dock to board the Boblo Boat ferry to [[Boblo Island]].

Today, much of the industry has disappeared. An notable exception is [[BASF]] Wyandotte.

In July 2001, three workers at an Atofina plant just south of Wyandotte were killed when a rail car leaked a colorless gas called [[methyl mercaptan]]. The gas exploded into flames and led to the [[emergency evacuation]] of 2,000 area residents, including some Wyandotte citizens.

==Government and municipal services==

James R. Desana is the current mayor of Wyandotte as of 2007. A City Council and other elected officials oversee the community's governance. Wyandotte has its own community owned municipal services, called [[Wyandotte Municipal Services]], it provides its own power through a [[municipal]] power plant and operates city-owned water and cable television services.

The Wyandotte [[Police]] Department, like that of its fellow [[Downriver]] community [[Woodhaven, Michigan|Woodhaven]], has a [[Law Enforcement Exploring|Police Explorers]] post for youths ages 14-21 that have interest in law enforcement.

==Schools and Education==
*[[Our Lady of Mount Carmel High School (Wyandotte, Michigan)|Our Lady of Mount Carmel High School (9 - 12 Grades)]]
*[[Our Lady of Mount Carmel Elementary School (Wyandotte, Michigan)|Our Lady of Mount Carmel Elementary School (Preschool - 8 Grades)]]
*Wyandotte Catholic Consolidated Elementary School (K-8)
*Garfield Elementary School
*Monroe Elementary School
*Taft Elementary School
*McKinley Elementary School
*Washington Elementary School
*Jefferson Elementary School
*Wilson Middle School
*Roosevelt High School

[[Our Lady of Mount Carmel Roman Catholic Church|Our Lady of Mount Carmel Catholic Church]] is a [[Roman-Catholic Church]] built in the [[Polish Cathedral style]] known for its [[Old World]] opulence. Founded in 1899 by [[Polish people|Polish]] immigrants, it is also home to a full Catholic Pre-School, Elementary and High School.

Wyandotte's public high school is [[Theodore Roosevelt High School]], with the sports teams being known as the Bears. The school runs a full sports program, including [[American football|football]], [[golf]], [[cross-country]], [[tennis]], [[basketball]], [[scholastic wrestling|wrestling]], [[competitive cheer]], [[baseball]], [[softball]], [[swimming]], [[volleyball]], [[ice hockey]], [[Sport rowing|crew]], [[track and field]] and -- more recently -- [[bowling]] & [[figure skating.]]

The school also has a music program. In March 2004, the Roosevelt High School A Capella Choir performed at [[Carnegie Hall]] in [[New York City]], and followed just over a year later with a May 2005 performance at the [[National Cathedral]] in [[Washington DC]]. They performed at the Sydney Opera House in [[Sydney, Australia|Sydney]], [[Australia]] in the summer of 2006, all under the direction of Kathleen Kane. For the first time in Roosevelt High School history, the A Cappella Choir went to [[MSVMA]] State level and took a 1, which is the highest score applicable. The A cappella choir will be attending a vocal festival in [[Austria]] in 2009.

In 2006 the Roosevelt High School [[jazz]] ensemble performed in [[Lansing, Michigan|Lansing]], [[Michigan]] and competed in the [[Western Michigan University]] Jazz festival, led by director Mark D'angelo.
Every year, the jazz ensemble performs at the [[Firefly Club]] in [[Ann Arbor, MI]] with the [[Paul Keller Orchestra]].
In 2009, the jazz ensemble will be traveling to [[Washington D.C.]] with the marching band and other students.

The 2006-2007 Marching Band Season was groundbreaking for the Wyandotte Marching Chiefs, as the Roosevelt marching band is known. They performed "A Nightmare Before Christmas" and scored a 2 at MSBOA, receiving medals of achievement. The Chiefs also hosted the second annual Downriver Fanfare, their own scholastic competition for all [[Downriver]] marching band shows, all organized by D'angelo. The following year (2007-2008) the RHS Marching Chiefs performed the marching show "Dangerously in Love", which they received a score of 1 at [[MSBOA]]. This marks a high score for the Marching Chiefs. The Marching Chiefs also compete in Flight II of the [[Michigan Competing Bands Association|MCBA]]. This year's show, Aqua, recieved a score of 62.4 in competing through MCBA. This is also a record high score for the Marching Cheifs.

== Street layout ==
For the most part, north-and-south streets are numbered, starting with 1st Street on the East Side and ending with 23rd Street on the West Side. The majority of the East and West streets are named after trees such as Walnut, Oak, and Cherry. The city is divided into East and West sides with 4 sets of railroad tracks. (The divider line in [[Detroit]] is [[Woodward Avenue]].) Most of the numbered streets are at some point one way.

Michigan State Highways criss-cross Wyandotte: [[M-85 (Michigan highway)|M-85/Fort Street]].

==Geography==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 7.0 square miles (18.1 km²), of which, 5.3 square miles (13.8 km²) of it is land and 1.7 square miles (4.3 km²) of it (23.82%) is water.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 28,006 people, 11,816 households, and 7,420 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 5,278.1 per square mile (2,036.4/km²). There were 12,303 housing units at an average density of 2,318.7/sq mi (894.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.32% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.52% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.49% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.33% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.72% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 1.59% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 2.91% of the population. Residents are predominantly of Polish descent.

There were 11,816 households out of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.3% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.2% were non-families. 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.99.

In the city the population was spread out with 22.6% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 31.6% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 15.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 96.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $43,740, and the median income for a family was $54,106. Males had a median income of $42,469 versus $27,261 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $22,185. About 4.7% of families and 6.2% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 8.7% of those under age 18 and 4.0% of those age 65 or over.

Ancestries: Polish (22.5%), German (21.9%), Irish (17.5%), English (9.0%), French (8.5%), Italian (8.4%).

==Notable people From Wyandotte==

* [[Lucille Ball]], actress who lived in the city as a child.
* [[Michelle Belaskie]], actress. [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0067594/ IMDB page for Michelle Belaskie]
* [[Susan Cygan]], actress, born in Wyandotte, grew up in [[Windsor, Ontario]], worked with [[Steppenwolf Theatre Company]] in [[Chicago]], now resident in [[London]]
* [[Aaron Diaz (artist)|Aaron Diaz]], science popularizer and creator of the comic [[Dresden Codak]]
* [[Amy Hayes]], boxing announcer and fashion model.
* [[Charles Hendrix]], actor. [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1213098/ IMDB page for Charles Hendrix]
* [[Bob Kuzava]], baseball pitcher. [http://www.baseball-reference.com/k/kuzavbo01.shtml]
* [[Lee Majors]], actor most noted as [[The Six Million Dollar Man]].
* [[Thomas McGuane]], novelist known for such works as ''Ninety-Two in the Shade'' and husband of actress [[Margot Kidder]].
* [[Valerie Meachum]], actress. [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0574870/ IMDB page for Valerie Meachum]
* [[Dave Preston]], actor and production designer. [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1084695/ IMDB page for Dave Preston (II)]
* [[Justin Hicks]], golfer who currently plays on the [[Nationwide Tour]].
* [[Eric Salla]], Roosevelt High School athletic hall of famer, karaoke icon, and creator of "The Swamp Life Tour."
* [[Garrett Shatzer]], film composer. [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm2209390/ IMDB page for Garrett Shatzer]
* [[Lisa Cole]], actress, grew up in Wyandotte. [http://imdb.com/name/nm1565266/ IMDBD page for Lisa Cole]
*Timothy N. Shay,film maker, grew up in Wyandotte (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm3041409/)

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.preservedetroit.com/search.php PreserveDetroit.com > Building Search]
*[http://www.wyandotte.net/ City of Wyandotte]
*[http://www.wyandotte.net/mayor/mayors/mayorsofwyandotte.htm Mayors of the City of Wyandotte]
*[http://www.wyandotte.org/ School]
*[http://www.ourladyofmountcarmel.org/ Our Lady of Mount Carmel]
*[http://www.wyan.org/ Wyandotte Municipal Services]
{{Downriver}}
{{Cities of Wayne County, Michigan}}
{{Metro Detroit}}

[[Category:Cities in Michigan]]
[[Category:Wayne County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Metro Detroit]]
[[Category:Settlements on the Great Lakes]]

[[fr:Wyandotte (Michigan)]]
[[nl:Wyandotte (Michigan)]]
[[pl:Wyandotte (Michigan)]]
[[pt:Wyandotte (Michigan)]]
[[vo:Wyandotte (Michigan)]]

Pierre Bouvier

2008-11-25T17:25:28Z

Tkynerd: Reverted good faith edits by 91.113.70.220; Rv test/vandalism (not sure which). (TW)

{{Infobox Musical artist 
| Name = Pierre Bouvier
| Img = Bouviertokyo.JPG
| Img_capt =
| Img_size =
| Background = solo_singer
| Birth_name =
| Alias =
| Born = {{birth date and age|mf=yes|1979|5|9}} [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], Canada
| Died =
| Instrument = [[Vocals]], [[Guitar]], [[bass guitar|Bass]]
| Genre = [[Pop punk]] [[Alternative rock]] [[Punk rock]] [[Pop rock]]
| Occupation = [[Musician]]
| Years_active = 1993–present
| Label = [[Lava Records|Lava]] / [[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]
| Associated_acts = [[Simple Plan]], [[Reset (band)|Reset]]
| URL = [http://www.myspace.com/officialpierre Bouvier's MySpace] [http://www.simpleplan.com Simple Plan's Official Website]
}}

'''Pierre Charles Bouvier''' (born May 9, 1979)<ref>[http://www.variety.com/profiles/people/main/1121719/Pierre%20Bouvier.html?dataSet=1 ''Variety'': Pierre Bouvier profile]</ref> is a [[French Canadian]] musician, who is best known as the lead singer for [[pop punk]] band [[Simple Plan]].

==Biography==

Before and partly during his musical career, Bouvier worked in a restaurant called [[St-Hubert]] in his hometown of [[Montreal]] as a cook. At age 13, he founded the [[punk rock]] band [[Reset (band)|Reset]] with his schoolmate [[Chuck Comeau]], in which he was the lead singer and bassist.

Dissatisfied with the artistic direction of the band, Bouvier helped establish [[Simple Plan]], of which he is the front man and lead singer and is, along with Comeau, a principal songwriter for the band. Additionally, Bouvier was the band's original bassist until the position was yielded to [[David Desrosiers]], when he later joined the band.

In live performance, he sometimes plays the guitar (electric and acoustic) for certain songs. He also hosted a show on [[MTV]] called ''[[Damage Control (TV series)|Damage Control]]'', which has since ended its run as originally planned.

==Role Model Clothing==
[[Image:Bouvierquebec.jpg|left|thumb|230px|Bouvier at the Quebec show, July 1, 2008]]
He is co-owner of Role Model Clothing, along with [[Chuck Comeau]] and Simple Plan's [[webmaster]], [[photographer]], and [[videographer]] [[Simple_Plan#Patrick_Langlois|Patrick Langlois]].

Role Model Clothing is a clothing line owned by Bouvier, Langlois and Chuck Comeau (who are often seen wearing the shirts on stage and in the band's music videos). The line mostly markets shirts, which invariably include the words "ROLE MODEL" in the design. [[Erik Chandler]], from the band [[Bowling for Soup]], is often seen wearing a Role Model shirt. In the illustration in this article, Bouvier wears a Role Model shirt.

==Damage Control==
[[Damage Control (TV series)|Damage Control]] was a reality television series hosted by Bouvier that first aired on MTV on March 6, 2005. On Damage Control, parents would tell their teenage son or daughter that they would be going away over the weekend, but in actuality, they are just a few houses down monitoring them with Bouvier via hidden cameras and microphones. The teenager would be placed in awkward situations, in which he/she must make decisions. Parents can earn money if they can guess what their teenager will do, and after the parents come back (always with too little time for the teenager to conceal what has occurred), the teenager, still unaware of the filming, can earn money by confessing. Two seasons were filmed before any episodes aired, and no more were planned or filmed, due to the likelihood that once the episodes aired, potential subjects would quickly catch on to what was going on.

==Personal life==
He attended College Beaubois, a high school in Montreal along with other band members [[Sébastien Lefebvre]], [[Jeff Stinco]] and [[Chuck Comeau]] (but not [[David Desrosiers]]).

==Filmography==
{|class=wikitable
|-
!Year!!Title!!Role!!Notes
|-
| ||[[What's New, Scooby-Doo?]]||Himself (voice)||1 episode
|-
|rowspan=2|2003||[[The New Tom Green Show]]||Himself||1 episode
|-
|Simple Plan: [[A Big Package for You]]||Himself||
|-
|rowspan=2|2004||[[New York Minute]]||Himself||
|-
|Simple Plan: [[Still Not Getting Any...]]||Himself||
|-
|rowspan=2|2005||[[Damage Control (TV series)|Damage Control]]||Himself||Host
|-
|Simple Plan: [[MTV Hard Rock Live]]||Himself||
|-
|2008||Simple Plan: [[Simple Plan (album)|Simple Plan]]||Himself||
|}

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*{{myspace|officialpierre}}
*{{imdb name|1282556}}
*[http://www.simpleplan.com/ Simple Plan's Official website]
*[http://www.rolemodelclothing.com/ Role Model Clothing website]
*[http://www.mtv.com/ontv/dyn/damage_control/series.jhtml Damage Control's Official Page]
*[http://www.myspace.com/officialrolemodelclothing Official Rolemodel Clothing MySpace]

{{Simple Plan}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bouvier, Pierre}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Canadian male singers]]
[[Category:Quebec musicians]]
[[Category:Canadian rock singers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Montreal]]
[[Category:Simple Plan members]]

[[bg:Пиер Бувие]]
[[ca:Pierre Charles Bouvier]]
[[de:Pierre Charles Bouvier]]
[[et:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[es:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[fr:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[it:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[he:פייר בובייה]]
[[pl:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[pt:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[fi:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[sv:Pierre Bouvier]]
[[bg:Pierre Bouvier]]

Wolford Chapel

2008-11-16T16:53:21Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.83 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

[[Image:Wolfordchapel.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Wolford Chapel in November 2008.]]
'''Wolford Chapel''' is the burial place of [[John Graves Simcoe]], the first lieutenant governor of [[Upper Canada]]. It is the property of the [[Ontario]] people, and flies the [[Flag of Canada]] despite being in the [[England|English]] countryside.

The chapel was part of the Simcoe Estate near [[Honiton]], [[Devon]] in South West England and was build on John Graves Simcoe's commission in 1802.

Following Simcoe's death on October 26th, 1806 the estate remained with the family, but was eventually sold and some parts broken up. The Chapel, alongside most of the estate, was acquired by British [[publisher]] [[Sir Geoffrey Harmsworth]]. Consideration of what to do with the chapel remained, and various ideas were but forward including transporting it to Canada. However, in 1966, Harmsworth decided to donate the chapel to Ontario Heritage Trust for the people of Ontario.

On September 27, 1966, just under 160 years after Simcoe's death, Harmsworth gave a deed to Prime Minister of Ontario [[John Robarts]], alongside a deed making a permanent [[Rights_of_way_in_England_and_Wales|Right of Way]]to access the property, presented by Mr A G LeMarchant.

Simcoe's wife and children are also buried at the site, which is maintained by local people on behalf of the John Graves Simcoe Memorial Foundation.

==References==
http://www.ontarioplaques.com/Plaques_MNO/Plaque_Outside03.html 
http://www.thestar.com/comment/columnists/article/163546

Folkearth

2008-11-16T16:42:32Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.83 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Infobox musical artist
| Name = Folkearth
| Background = group_or_band
| Origin = International
| Genre = [[Folk metal]] [[Viking metal]] [[Black metal]] (recent)
| Years_active = 2003 – present
| Label = Stygian Crypt Productions
| URL = [http://www.folkearth.cjb.net folkearth.cjb.net]
}}

'''Folkearth''' is an international music project, created by musicians playing [[folk metal|folk]] and [[viking metal]]. The name ([[folk]] + [[earth]]) symbolizes musicians from all over the world playing folk music.<ref name="Metalglory interview"/>

== History ==
The band started in 2003<ref name="Folkearth Myspace profile">{{cite web
| title = Folkearth Myspace profile
| url = http://www.myspace.com/folkearth
| accessdate = 2007-09-16 }}</ref> as an idea of Ruslanas from Lithuania, who sent the idea to his friendly bands. With Magnus Wohlfart from Nae'blis as a composer of music, Wulfstan and Athelstan from Forefather and Marios "Prince Imrahil" Koutsoukos as lyric composers the group started to form. Many other musicians were recruited and finally in spring 2004 the recording started.<ref name="fourteen g interview">{{cite web
| title = fourteen g interview with Marios "Prince Imrahil" Koutsoukos
| url = http://www.fourteeng.net/interviews/folkearth.html
| date = 2007-05-15
| accessdate = 2007-09-16 }}</ref>There was around 60 minutes of material, but some of it got lost, and the album [[A Nordic Poem]] is only 40 minutes long.<ref name="Holy Sword note">{{cite web
| title = Holy Sword ''By the Sword of My Father'' note
| url = http://www.truemetal.org/holysword/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=171
| date = 2006-08-04
| accessdate = 2007-09-18 }}</ref> Because of the bad quality of this record, the band decided to remaster and reissue their debut.<ref name="Folkearth Myspace profile"/> 2006-09-01, shortly after the reissue of ''A Nordic Poem'' the seccond album titled [[By the Sword of My Father]] is released. Even more bands, such as Van Langen, Thiasos Dionysos, Hildr Valkyrie, [[Death Army (band)|Death Army]], [[The Soil Bleeds Black]] have joined Folkearth in the production of this album, so the total line-up consisted of 31 musicians from 8 different countries. Folkearth's latest album [[Drakkars in the Mist]] was released 2007-05-28<ref name="Folkearth Myspace profile"/> with the biggest lineup so far. Currently, more than 30 musicians are working on the 4th album.<ref name="Metalglory interview">{{cite web
| title = Metalglory interview with Ruslanas Danisevskis
| url = http://www.metalglory.de/interviews.php?nr=466
| date = 2006-06-11
| accessdate = 2007-09-16 }}</ref>However, some people believe, that in many cases the lineup for Folkearth has been extended unnecessarily, since a token performance on a single track will list someone on the booklet as a full-fledged member.<ref name="Deadtide interview">{{cite web
| title = Deadtide ''A Nordic Poem'' review
| url = http://www.deadtide.com/reviews/albums/page.php?id=4129
| accessdate = 2007-09-18 }}</ref> The band members also don't make money out of the project, and do not promote it, probably because of the lack of funds.<ref name="Rockpages interview">{{cite web
| title = Rockpages interview with Marios "Prince Imrahil" Koutsoukos
| url = http://www.rockpages.gr/detailspage.aspx?id=788&type=1&sub=%20&lang=EN
| accessdate = 2007-09-16 }}</ref>

Because of the musical project's complex structure, Folkearth has not performed live, and it's unlikely they will perform live in the future.<ref name="fourteen g interview"/>

== Style ==
Because of the unical structure of Folkearth, the [[Sound recording|recording]] is also different from the one that the usual bands do. Each song begins from one single person or band that is involved in Folkearth and later the other members add their touch to it. Sometimes the work on a single song is based on a single [[riff]] or melody, other times some artist writes a song entirely on his own and other musicians simply [[Orchestration|orchestrate]] minor details on it. The band members also don't work all together, but rather with small groups, exchanging material they recorded with others.<ref name="Metalglory interview"/> The music Folkearth makes is regular folk/viking metal, while they incorporate a diverse selection of folk instruments, such as [[lute]], [[nyckelharpa]], [[shawm]], [[saz]] and many others. Because of the nature of this project, Folkearth albums are inconsistent, and sound rather like compilations and the musical style varies from one track to another. Some tracks, especially in recent albums, are closely related to [[black metal]].

== Lyrics ==
The lyrics are all written in [[English language|English]] with the exception of "Gryningssång". The main topic of Folkearth's lyrics are [[ancient history]], [[belief]]s, and mythology, especially [[Norse mythology]]. [[Celtic mythology]] and [[Greek mythology]] are also present in Folkearth's lyrics.<ref name="Metalglory interview"/> Folkearth's songs [[story telling|tell stories]] and their purpose is to entertain, not to carry a symbolic or personal message.

== Band members ==
{|
|valign=top|
=== Current members ===
{{flag | Greece}}
* Polydeykis (Zion)
* Marios "Prince Imrahil" Koutsoukos (Dol Amroth)
* Stefanos Koutsoukos (Dol Amroth)
* Nikos Nezeritis (Dol Amroth)
* Thanasis Karapanos
* Hildr Valkyrie (Hildr Valkyrie)
* Faethon

{{flag | Lithuania}}
* Ruslanas (Ravenclaw)

{{flag | Sweden}}
* Magnus Wohlfart (Nae'blis)
* William Ekeberg (Broken Dagger)
* Simon Frodeberg

{{flag | Germany}}
* Morten Basse (Thulr)

{{flag | USA}}
* Dreogan (Peordh)
* Mark Riddick ([[The Soil Bleeds Black]])

{{flag | Italy}}
* Axel ([[Death Army (band)|Death Army]])
* Raven
* Ulven (Draugen)

{{flag | Belgium}}
* Roman Samonin (Morituri)
* Ralf Goossens (Morituri)

{{flag | Croatia}}
* Vojan Koceic (Koziak)

{{flag | Norway}}
* Haavard Tveito (Vetter)

{{flag | Russia}}
* Orey (Pagan Reign)
* Vetrodar (Pagan Reign)

{{flag | Spain}}
* Autumn ([[Hordak (band)|Hordak]])
* Winter ([[Hordak (band)|Hordak]])
* Antonio Mansilla (Last Deception)
* Jesus Sierra (Last Deception)
* Jose Luis Frias
* A. Pangin
* GG Karman

{{flag | Poland}}
* Shav ([[USOP(band)|USOP]])
* Yode ([[USOP(band)|USOP]])

|valign=top|

=== Former members ===
{{flag | Austria}}
* Alex "Hugin" Wieser (Uruk-Hai, Hrossharsgrani)

{{flag | Great Britain}}
* Athelstan ([[Forefather]])
* Wulfstan ([[Forefather]])

{{flag | Switzerland}}
* Chrigel Glanzmann ([[Eluveitie]])

{{flag | Sweden}}
* Jeremy Child (Yggdrasil)
* Jonas Fröberg (Trymheim)
* Kristofer Janiec
* Michelle Maas
* Niklas Olausson (Broken Dagger)
* Daniel Fredriksson ([[Otyg]])
* Daniel Pettersson (Pettersson & Fredriksson)

{{flag | Germany}}
* Tobias Andrelang
* Achim Eberle
* Ralf Gruber
* Bernd Intveen (Van Lagen)
* Sabine Stelzer (Van Lagen)
* Marcus Van Langen (Van Lagen)
* André Groschopp (Thiasos Dionysos)

{{flag | USA}}
* Shea Martinsson (Mag Mell)

{{flag | Italy}}
* Becky
* Alessandro Caruso (Hysterya)
* Francesca Crotti
* Igor Saviola
* Fabio Drovandi
|}

== Discography ==

* ''[[A Nordic Poem]]'' (2004)
* ''[[By the Sword of My Father]]'' (2006)
* ''[[Drakkars in the Mist]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Father of Victory]]'' (2008)
* ''[[Songs of Yore]]'' (2008)

== References ==

<references/>

== External links ==

* [http://members.lycos.co.uk/folkearth Folkearth homepage]
* [http://www.metal-archives.com/band.php?id=30998 Current members of the project]

[[Category:Folk metal musical groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 2003]]
[[Category:Viking metal musical groups]]

[[da:Folkearth]]
[[es:Folkearth]]
[[fr:Folkearth]]
[[pl:Folkearth]]
[[sk:Folkearth]]
[[fi:Folkearth]]

Glatter Hammerhai

2008-11-12T00:43:49Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.83 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Taxobox
| name = Smooth hammerhead
| status = LR/nt | status_system = IUCN2.3
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{IUCN2006|assessors=Simpfendorfer|year=2000|id=39388|title=Sphyrna zygaena|downloaded=11 May 2006}}</ref>
| trend = unknown
| image = Sphyrna zygaena (line art).jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Chondrichthyes]]
| subclassis = [[Elasmobranchii]]
| ordo = [[Carcharhiniformes]]
| familia = [[Sphyrnidae]]
| genus = ''[[Sphyrna]]''
| species = '''''S. zygaena'''''
| binomial = ''Sphyrna zygaena''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)
| range_map = Sphyrna zygaena distmap.png
| range_map_width = 240px
| range_map_caption = Range of the smooth hammerhead
| synonyms = ''Squalis pictus'' Blainville, 1816
 ''Squalus carolinensis'' Blainville, 1816
 ''Squalus malleus'' (Valenciennes, 1822)
 ''Squalus zygaena'' Linnaeus, 1758
 ''Zygaena malleus'' Valenciennes, 1822
 ''Zygaena subarcuata'' Storer, 1848
 ''Zygaena vulgaris '' Cloquet, 1830
}}
{{Sharksportal}}
The '''smooth hammerhead''', ''Sphyrna zygaena'', is a large [[hammerhead shark]], family [[Sphyrnidae]], found in [[temperate]] seas worldwide. Its common name comes from the shape of its "hammer", which lacks a central indentation at the front. A relatively common shark, it is taken by a number of [[fisheries]] throughout its range and its fins are valued for [[shark fin soup]]. It is potentially dangerous to humans, but is believed responsible for very few attacks.

==Taxonomy==
The [[Sweden|Swedish]] natural historian [[Karl Linnaeus]], known as the "father of [[taxonomy]]", originally described the smooth hammerhead in [[1758]] as ''Squalus zygaena'', which was later changed to ''Sphyrna zygaena''.<ref name="bester">Bester, Cathleen. [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/SmHammer/SmoothHammerhead.html Biological Profiles: Smooth Hammerhead]. ''Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department''. Retrieved on [[October 19]], [[2008]].</ref> Other common names for this species include common hammerhead, common smooth hammerhead, round-headed hammerhead, or simply hammerhead.<ref name="fishbase"> {{FishBase_species|genus=Sphyrna|species=zygaena|year=2008|month=January}}</ref> [[Phylogenetic]] analyses show that the closest relative of the smooth hammerhead is the [[scalloped hammerhead]] (''Sphyrna lewini''), and that they form a [[monophyletic]] group with the [[great hammerhead]] (''S. mokarran'').<ref name="cavalcanti">{{cite journal |author=Cavalcanti, M.J. |title=A Phylogenetic Supertree of the Hammerhead Sharks (Carcharhiniformes: Sphyrnidae) |journal=Zoological Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=6-11 |date=2007 |accessdate=2008-10-19}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
Smooth hammerheads are the hammerhead species most tolerant of [[temperate]] water, and can be found worldwide to higher [[latitude]]s than any other species. In the western [[Atlantic Ocean]], it occurs from [[Nova Scotia]] south to the [[Virgin Islands]] and from [[Brazil]] to southern [[Argentina]]. In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from the [[British Isles]] south to [[Côte d'Ivoire]], including the [[Mediterranean Ocean]]. In the western [[Indian Ocean]], it is found off [[South Africa]], [[India]], and [[Sri Lanka]]. In the western [[Pacific Ocean]], it occurs from the [[Gulf of Tonkin]] to southern [[Japan]] and [[Siberia]], to [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. It also occurs off the [[Hawaiian Islands]] in the central Pacific, and [[California]], [[Panama]], the [[Galapagos]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Chile]] in the east. This species has been considered amphitemperate (absent from the [[tropics]]) in distribution, but it has been reported from tropical waters such as the [[Gulf of Mannar]] off India and off southern [[Mozambique]]. Its tropical distribution is spottily known due to confusion with other hammerhead species.<ref name="compagno">Compagno, Leonard J. V. (1984) ''Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date''. [[Rome]]: [[Food and Agricultural Organization]]. ISBN 9251013845.</ref>

Compared to the [[scalloped hammerhead|scalloped]] and [[great hammerhead]]s, the smooth hammerhead stays closer to the surface, less than 20 m (65 ft) deep. However, it has been reported to a depth of 200 m (656 ft). It ranges from inshore waters, including [[bay]]s and [[estuaries]], over the [[continental shelf]], to offshore. It has also sometimes been reported entering [[freshwater]] habitats, such as in the [[Indian River (Florida)|Indian River]] in [[Florida]]. In the [[summer]], smooth hammerheads [[fish migration|migrate]] poleward to cooler water, sometimes forming large [[school (biology)|schools]], and return in the [[winter]].<ref name="bester"/>

==Description==
The second-largest hammerhead next to the [[great hammerhead]], the smooth hammerhead typically ranges between 2.5-3.5 m (8-12 ft) long, with a maximum length of 5 m (16 ft) and a maximum weight of 400 kg (880 lbs).<ref name="bester"/> The smooth hammerhead is distinguished from other large hammerheads by the shape of its hammer-shaped head, or "cephalofoil", which is broadly rounded and lacks a central indentation at the front. The cephalofoil is broad but short lengthwise, its width measuring 26-29% of the body length. The teeth are triangular, smooth to weakly serrated, numbering 13-15 on either side of the upper jaw and 12-14 in the lower jaw with a single [[symphysis|symphysial]] tooth.<ref name="bester"/>

The back is smooth, without a mid-dorsal ridge. The first [[dorsal fin]] is moderately tall and falcate ([[sickle]]-like) in shape, with a rounded tip. The [[pectoral fin]]s have only slightly falcate rear margins. The [[pelvic fin]]s are not falcate, with slightly concave rear margins. The [[anal fin]] is rather long, with a strong notch in the rear margin. Its coloration varies from brownish-gray to deep olive above, fading to white on its underside. This contrasts with the brown color of many other hammerheads. Some individuals have dusky or black edges on their pectoral fins.<ref name="bester"/>

==Biology and ecology==
[[Image:hammerhead.jpg|thumb|A migrating smooth hammerhead swimming with its dorsal fin exposed.]]
Adult smooth hammerheads are either solitary or form small groups. In some locales such as off the eastern Cape of [[South Africa]], juveniles under 1.5 m long form enormous migratory schools of over a hundred individuals.<ref name="compagno"/> During hot summer weather, they can be seen swimming close to the surface with their dorsal fins exposed.<ref name="bester"/>

The smooth hammerhead is an active predator of [[bony fish]]es and [[cephalopod]]s, also taking smaller [[shark]]s (including of its own species) and [[ray (fish)|rays]], [[shrimp]], [[crab]]s, and [[barnacle]]s.<ref name="compagno"/> In inshore habitats, its favorite prey are [[skate (fish)|skate]]s and [[stingray]]s, which comprise a majority of its diet. The [[venom]]ous barbs of stingrays are often found lodged in and around the mouths of these sharks; one examined specimen contained 95 such spines.<ref name="strong et al">{{cite journal |author=Strong, W.R., Snelson, Jr., F.F., and Gruber, S.H. |title=Hammerhead Shark Predation on Stingrays: An Observation of Prey Handling by ''Sphyrna mokarran'' |journal=Copeia |volume=1990 |issue=3 |pages=836-840 |date=September 19, 1990 |accessdate=2008-10-18}}</ref> In northern [[Europe]], the smooth hammerhead feeds on [[herring]] and [[seabass]], while in [[North America]] it takes [[Spanish mackerel]] and [[menhaden]]. They have also been observed [[scavenging]] from surface [[longline]]s in the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref name="bester"/> Off South Africa, the smooth hammerhead feeds on small schooling fish, such as [[pilchard]], and [[squid]] over the deep [[coral reef]]s at the edge of the [[continental shelf]], with individuals over 2 m long taking increasing numbers of smaller [[elasmobranch]]s.<ref name="smale">{{cite journal |author=Smale, M.J. |title=Occurrence and feeding of three shark species, ''Carcharhinus brachyurus'', ''C. obscurus'' and ''Sphyrna zygaena'', on the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa |journal=South African Journal of Marine Science |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=December 1991 |pages=31-42 |accessdate=2008-10-19}}</ref>

Like other hammerheads, the smooth hammerhead is [[viviparous]], with the young nourished inside the mother by a [[yolk sac]] [[placenta]]. Females bear relatively large litters fo 20-40 pups after a [[gestation period]] of 10-11 months. The pups measure approximately 50 cm (20 in) long at birth; females each maturity at 2.7 m (8.7 ft) and males at 2.1-2.5 m (7-8 ft) in length, depending upon locality.<ref name="bester"/> Off South Africa, newly mated females have been caught in February and females with full-term embryos in November; off the east coast of Australia, birth takes place between January and March, with [[ovulation]] taking place around the same time.<ref name="fowler et al">Fowler, Sarah L., ''et al''. (2005) ''Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes.'' [[Cambridge]]: [[International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]]. ISBN 2831707005.</ref> Its [[life span]] is believed to be 20 years or longer. Young smooth hammerheads are preyed upon by larger sharks such as the [[dusky shark]];<ref name="bester"/> adults have been observed being consumed by [[killer whale]]s off [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Visser, I.N. |title=First Observations of Feeding on Thresher (''Alopias vulpinus'') and Hammerhead (''Sphyrna zygaena'') Sharks by Killer Whales (''Orcinus orca'') Specialising on Elasmobranch Prey |journal=Aquatic Mammals |volume=31 |issue=1 |date=January 2005 |pages=83-88 |accessdate=2008-10-19}}</ref> Known [[parasite]]s of the smooth hammerhead include the [[nematode]]s ''Parascarophis sphyrnae'' and ''Contracaecum'' sp.<ref name="bester"/>

==Relationship to humans==
The smooth hammerhead is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans. The [[International Shark Attack File]] lists 21 unprovoked attacks attributable to ''Sphryna'' hammerhead sharks; however, due to the smooth hammerhead's occurrence in temperate regions where humans are less likely to enter the water, relatively few attacks can be attributed to this species.<ref name="bester"/> Off southern [[California]], it has been reported stealing catches from [[sport fishing|sportsfishermen]] and [[diver]]s.<ref name="compagno"/>

The shark fisheries of south [[Florida]] and the [[West Indies]] take smooth hammerheads for [[meat]], which is utilized fresh, dried-salted, and smoked. However, in most markets the meat is considered undesirable and there are reports of it causing [[poisoning]]. The [[shark liver oil|liver oil]] is used in [[vitamin]]s, the [[hides]] for [[leather]], and the carcasses for [[fishmeal]]. It is also used in [[Chinese medicine]], and it has the highest rated fins for use in [[shark fin soup]] in the [[Asia]]n market.<ref name="fishbase"/><ref name="bester"/> Most individuals are caught by [[gillnet]]s and [[longline]]s, and there is believed to be significant mortality of this species in longline and [[driftnet]] [[fisheries]]. At present, this species is relatively common and assessed as "Lower Risk/Near Threatened" on the [[IUCN Red List]].<ref name="iucn"/> Off [[New Zealand]], it is a prohibited target species and is the most abundant shark along the northwest coast. It also does not appear to have been negatively impacted by fishing off the southern coast of [[Australia]].<ref name="bester"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sphyrnidae]]
[[Category:Viviparous fish]]
[[ca:Peix martell]]
[[de:Glatter Hammerhai]]
[[fr:Requin-marteau lisse]]
[[ko:귀상어]]
[[nl:Gladde hamerhaai]]
[[ja:シロシュモクザメ]]
[[pl:Głowomłot pospolity]]
[[fi:Vasarahai]]
[[sv:Hammarhaj]]

Straßenbahn Warschau

2008-11-12T00:32:24Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.83 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

[[Image:Warsaw trams2.svg|thumb|A map of the Warsaw tram system]]
The '''[[Warsaw]] [[tram]] (streetcar)''' is the largest such system in [[Poland]]. As of 2008 the tram network consists of over 140 km of tracks[http://www.tw.waw.pl/info/eksploat.htm], reasonably covering about a third of the city's surface, inhabited by nearly half of the city's population, and has over 850 tram cars[http://www.tw.waw.pl/info/taborinw.htm] operating on about 30 lines[http://www.tw.waw.pl/sitemap/sitetras.htm]. Since 1994 the trams are run by the municipally owned company ''Tramwaje Warszawskie Sp. z o.o'' under the [[Warsaw Transport Authority]].

==History==
===Horse tram===
[[Image:Warszawa - Marszałkowska1867.jpg|thumb|Horse tram on [[Marszałkowska Street, Warsaw|Marszałkowska Street]], [[1867]]]]
[[Image:Warszawa-Marszałkowska1914.jpg|thumb|Electric trams on Marszałkowska Street, [[1914]]]]
The history of tram transport in Warsaw dates back to [[1866]] when a 6 km long [[horsecar]] line was created to transport goods and passengers between the Vienna railway station and the Wilno and Terespol stations across the Vistula river in order overcome limitations placed by the occupational Russian authorities which for strategic reasons prevented the construction of a railway bridge. In [[1880]] a second line was constructed by Belgian capital, this time intended as public transit within the city. The Belgian company quickly expanded its own lines and in [[1882]] took over the line between the railway stations, which has lost most of its original purpose after a railway bridge was built in [[1875]]. In [[1899]] the entire tram system, by then 30 km of tracks with 234 tram cars and 654 horses operating 17 lines, was purchased by the city. By [[1903]] plans were drafted to convert the system to [[electric tram]]s, which was done by [[1908]].

===Interbellum===
{{Expand-section|date=November 2008}}
The development mostly stagnated for the next 10 years with only a few short stretches built. After [[World War I]], when [[Poland]] managed to secure 20 years of independence, the network developed rapidly handling increased traffic and extending to the outskirts of the city with the network reaching the length of 60 km and 757 tram cars in [[1939]]. In [[1927]] a privately owned [[light rail]] line called EKD (today [[Warszawska Kolej Dojazdowa|WKD]]) was built, connecting several neighboring towns with the center of Warsaw using electric [[railcar]]s similar to trams, only larger and more massive, with frequent stops and tracks running along the streets in city, however the system was incompatible with the Warsaw trams as it used [[standard gauge]] tracks while the city network still used [[broad gauge]] left from Russian times. In [[1925]] the company operating the Warsaw trams decided to construct a [[Rapid transit|subway]] system, preliminary boring started, however work on the [[Warsaw metro]] was postponed because of the [[Great Depression]], the idea resurfaced in [[1938]] however was buried by the outbrake of [[World War II]].

===Second half of the 20th century===
{{Expand-section|date=November 2008}}
[[Image:Varšava, Śródmieście, Ogród Krasńskich, tramvaj.JPG|thumb|[[Konstal 13N]] tram]]
The tram system remained operational, although gradually deteriorating, during most the [[National Socialist]] German occupation until the [[Warsaw Uprising]] in [[1944]] after which all the infrastructure was [[Planned destruction of Warsaw|systematically destroyed]]. After the war it was rebuilt relatively fast. As the system was practically built from scratch the occasion was used to convert it to standard gauge. During the 1950s and 1960s the network was extended to newly built districts of soviet style [[panel house]]s and industrial plants and newer trams based on the design of [[Presidents' Conference Committee]] were introduced. Due to the city's lack of a metro system and the inherent inefficacy of the soviet installed [[communist economy]] preventing the surge of individual car ownership seen in the free world the tram system remained the backbone of Warsaws transport system. In the [[1960s]] however a [[planned economy|political decision]] was made to increase the dependency on [[oil]] imported from [[Russia]], while Polish [[coal]] was to be exported to [[Western Europe]] in exchange for [[hard currency]] and as a result newly developed districts were connected with the city center by buses rather then trams and even some of the existing tracks were closed.

===Present situation===
{{Expand-section|date=November 2008}}
[[Image:Pesa.120n.jpg|thumb|One of the 15 modern [[PESA 120N]] trams presently used in Warsaw]]
After Poland regained full independence in [[1989]] the tram system in Warsaw initially received little investment with a large part of the city's budget spent on the construction of the first subway line however since [[2005]] the situation is changing with the purchase of new rolling stock, modernization of key tram lines, deployment of a [[passenger information system]] and plans for an "intelligent" traffic management system which is to prioritize trams on traffic lights and plans to extend the network.

==Rolling stock==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Image
! Tram Car Type
! Amount
! Description
|-
|[[Image:Warsaw tram.JPG|120px]]
|[[Konstal 13N]]
|240 cars
|The first "modern" tram used in Warsaw. Produced by [[Konstal]] in [[Chorzow]] from [[1959]] to [[1969]], a Polish copy of the [[Czechoslovakia]]n [[Tatra T1]] produced by [[ČKD]] which supplied most of the trams in the [[Eastern Block]]. Presently used in sets of two.
|-
|{{ImageStackLeft|120|[[Image:Pętla tramwajowa Warszawa Os. Górczewska.jpg|120px]][[Image:Tramway warsaw.jpg|120px]]}}
|[[Konstal 105Na]] and derived, HCP 123N
|590 cars
|Presently the most commonly used in Warsaw. Produced from [[1973]] to [[2007]]. Based on the electrical systems used in 13N placed in a lighter body, later replaced with more efficient ones. Most commonly used in sets of two, however sets of three and single units also appear.
|-
|[[Image:116Na-12.jpg|120px]]
|[[Konstal 112]] [[Konstal 116N|Konstal 116N/116Na]]
|30 sets
|A single prototype Konstal 112N partially low-floor two segment articulated tram based on 105Na, built in [[1995]]. Additional units extended to three segments, designated 116N/116Na, produced between [[1998]] and [[2000]]|-
|-
|[[Image:PESA 120N W-wa.jpg|120px]]
|[[PESA 120N]]
|15 sets
|Produced in [[2007]] by [[PESA Bygoszcz|PESA]] in [[Bydgoszcz]] a modern fully low-floor five segment articulated tram. The initial 15 sets were purchased specifically for a modernized tram line in [[Aleje Jerozolimskie]].
|}
==External links==
*[http://www.tw.waw.pl/ Official website of ''Tramwaje Warszawskie''] {{pl icon}}
*[http://tramwar.republika.pl/ Tramwar - a private website about trams in Warsaw] {{pl icon}}

[[Category:Transport in Warsaw|Tram]]
[[Category:Tram transport in Poland]]

[[cs:Tramvajová doprava ve Varšavě]]
[[pl:Tramwaje Warszawskie]]
[[sk:Električková doprava vo Varšave]]
[[uk:Варшавський трамвай]]

Gaahl

2008-11-12T00:13:49Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.83 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Infobox musical artist 
| Name = Gaahl
| Img = Gaahlgorgoroth.jpg
| Img_capt = Gaahl live
| Img_size = 200px
| Landscape =
| Background = solo_singer
| Birth_name = Kristian Eivind Espedal<ref>[http://home.c2i.net/famhegg/BLACKMET.htm Norsk Black / Ekstrem Metal]</ref>
| Alias =
| Born = {{birth date and age|1975|8|7}}
| Died =
| Origin = [[Sunnfjord]], [[Norway]]
| Instrument = [[Singer|Vocals]]
| Genre = [[Black metal]]
| Occupation =
| Years_active = 1993-present
| Label =
| Associated_acts = [[Gorgoroth]] [[Gaahlskagg]] [[Trelldom]] [[Sigfader]]
| URL = [http://www.gorgoroth.org/ Gorgoroth Website]
}}

'''Kristian Eivind Espedal''' (born August 7, 1975), better known by his stage name '''Gaahl''', is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[black metal]] vocalist, known mostly for being the frontman of his version of Norwegian band [[Gorgoroth]].

== Biography ==
===Early life===
Gaahl was born in [[Sunnfjord]] in [[Sogn og Fjordane]], [[Norway]], in 1975. He spent his youth living in a small valley called Espedal, in the municipality of [[Fjaler]] in [[Sogn og Fjordane]]. Gaahl, along with his family, still reside in the valley, though they are fifteen minutes apart from each other.<ref name='True'>{{cite news | first=Peter | last=Beste | coauthors= | title=True Norwegian Black Metal | date=[[2007-04-27]] | publisher=[[YouTube]] | url =http://youtube.com/watch?v=i4U33U_UyzQ | work =VBS.tv | pages = | accessdate = 2008-02-10 | language = }}</ref> He has a reputation as an enigmatic character.<ref name='True'/>

Gaahl has been involved with black metal since 1992, and has been in bands such as [[Gaahlskagg]] (with Gorgoroth live guitarist Skagg)<ref>[http://www.metal-archives.com/band.php?id=4811 Encyclopaedia Metallum - Gaahlskagg]</ref>, [[Trelldom]]<ref>[http://www.metal-archives.com/band.php?id=2085 Encyclopaedia Metallum - Trelldom]</ref>, and Sigfader (with Skagg and Kvitrafn)<ref>[http://www.metal-archives.com/band.php?id=23121 Encyclopaedia Metallum - Sigfader]</ref>.

===Gorgoroth===
Gaahl joined Gorgoroth in 1998, and was first heard on their [[Nuclear Blast]] album ''[[Destroyer (Gorgoroth album)|Destroyer]]''; however, he only sang on the title track.

Gaahl was sentenced to one year in prison for assault in 2001, and was forced to pay the victim 158,000 NOK (26,963 US$).<ref name='gaahl-hist'>{{cite news | first=Chris | last=Campion | coauthors= | title=In the face of death | date=[[2005-02-20]] | publisher=Guardian Unlimited | url =http://arts.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,5127659-110428,00.html | work =[[The Observer]] | pages = | accessdate = 2008-02-10 | language = }}</ref>In 2006, Gaahl spent another 9 months (of a 14 month sentence) in prison for brutally assaulting a man and alleged torture in 2002. The victim received a total of 190,000 NOK (32,424 US$).<ref name='gaahl-hist'/> Gaahl was released in December 2006.<ref>[http://www.metalhammer.co.uk/news/article/?id=45971 Metal Hammer - News Article]</ref>

He was briefly interviewed for the 2005 documentary ''[[Metal: A Headbanger's Journey]]''. He gives commentary on the events in Norway in the early 90s as well as some of his views on Satanism and Christianity.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HU2Z7Q_FAyA Metal: A Headbanger's Journey - Gaahl Interview] on YouTube</ref>

In April 2007 Gaahl appeared in a five-part series entitled ''[[True Norwegian Black Metal]]''. The series was produced by photographer [[Peter Beste]]. The series debuted on ''vbs.tv'', the broadcast network of ''[[Vice Magazine]]''. Gaahl offered Beste an interview and tour of his estate.

===Gorgoroth dispute===
{{main|Gorgoroth#Band split controversy (2007-present)|l1=Gorgoroth band split controversy}}

===Fashion involvement===
In July 2008, Gaahl revealed in an online interview that he was involved in the creation of "Wynjo", an upcoming fashion collection for women, together with Norwegian modeling agent Dan De Vero and designer Sonja Wu.<ref name = 'devero1'>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title= GORGOROTH Frontman Had 'Close Relationship' With Norwegian Modeling Agent DAN DEVERO |url= http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=101511 |format= |work= |publisher= |location= |id= |pages= |page= |date= [[July 24]], [[2008]] |accessdate=2008-07-28 |language= |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref><ref name = 'devero2'>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |author= Hansen, Birthe Steen |coauthors= |title= - Jeg var gal etter Dan |url= http://www.nettavisen.no/innenriks/ibergen/article2086056.ece |format= |work= |publisher= ''[[Nettavisen]]'' |location= |id= |pages= |page= |date= ''undated'' |accessdate=2008-07-28 |language= Norwegian |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref>

== Beliefs ==
He is a practitioner of old Norse [[Shamanism]], and is opposed to imposition of one's own religious beliefs on others. He can often be seen wearing a [[Mjolnir]] pendant. <ref>[http://www.imhotep.fi/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2151&Itemid=135&lang=en Imhotep]</ref><ref>[http://www.tartareandesire.com/interviews/gorgoroth.html Gorgoroth interview @ Tartareandesire.com]</ref> He is also a [[vegetarian]] and is "very fussy about food" according to his mother.<ref>{{cite news | first=Jonathan | last=Tisdall | coauthors= | title=Black metal vocalist faces prison | date=[[2004-04-28]] | publisher=Aftenposten | url =http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article783522.ece | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-02-10 | language = }}</ref>

Gaahl has been popularly known as a [[Satanist]], although he in fact regards [[Satan]] as culturally and spiritually irrelevant, and only uses Satanism for its confrontational value to counter Christian imposition and to promote his staunch [[anti-Christianity]] on the basis that 'we live in a Christian world and we have to speak their language' - in contrast to ''bona fide'' Satanists such as Gorgoroth founder and guitarist [[Infernus]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.gorgoroth.org/band/band.html
|title = Bio/Manifesto
|accessdate = 2007-10-22
|publisher = Gorgoroth official website
}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
When his involvement in Wynjo was revealed in July 2008, it was also revealed that he had been involved in a close personal relationship with De Vero<ref name = 'devero1'/><ref name = 'devero2'/> since 2006 when De Vero was 18. but that they were no longer a couple but remained as good friends. De Vero stated in November 2008 that he had received threats from people within the Black Metal community, both at his door and by phone and email.<ref name = 'devero3'>{{cite news |author= Røyseland, Halstein |title= - Truet av black metal-miljøet etter homo-nyhet |url= http://www.vg.no/musikk/artikkel.php?artid=533466 |work= [[Verdens Gang]] |publisher= |location= Oslo, Norway |date= November 2, 2008 |accessdate=November 7, 2008 |language= Norwegian }}</ref> In an interview in the November 2008 issue of ''[[Rock Hard (magazine)|Rock Hard]]'', Gaahl confirmed his homosexual orientation. <ref>http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=107859</ref>

==Discography ==
===Gorgoroth===
*''[[Destroyer (Gorgoroth album)|Destroyer]]'' (1998)
*''[[Incipit Satan]]'' (2000)
*''[[Originators of the Northern Darkness - A Tribute to Mayhem]]'' ([[Tribute album]] to [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]) (Song: "Life Eternal") (2001)
*''[[Twilight of the Idols (album)|Twilight of the Idols]]'' (2003)
*''[[Ad Majorem Sathanas Gloriam]]'' (2006)
* ''[[True Norwegian Black Metal - Live in Grieghallen]]'' (2008)

===Trelldom===
*''Disappearing of the Burning Moon'' (demo) (1994)
*''Til Evighet'' (1995)
*''Til et Annet…'' (1998)
*''Til Minne...'' (2007)

===Sigfader===
*''Sigfaders hevner'' (demo) (1999)

===Wardruna===
*''Runaljóð - gap var Ginnunga''<ref>[http://www.wardruna.com/news/index.html Wardruna Official website - News]</ref><ref>[http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=107772 Blabbermouth.net - WARDRUNA Signs With INDIE RECORDINGS - Oct. 27, 2008]</ref> (2009)

===Secht===
*''True Narcotic Black Metal''<ref>[http://www.heavymetal.no/show.article.asp?menuid=&artid=6226 Heavymetal.no - Interview with Dirge Rep]</ref> (2006)

===Skitliv===
* ''Glem aldri korset''<ref>[http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=75518 Blabbermouth.net - GORGOROTH Frontman Guests On SKITLIV Track; Audio Available - June 25, 2007]</ref><ref>[http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=79782 Blabbermouth.net - Ex-MAYHEM Frontman MANIAC To Guest On 'Hell On Heels' Radio Show - Aug. 30, 2007]</ref> (TBA)

==Gaahlskagg==
{{Splitsection|Gaahlskagg|date=October 2008}}
Gaahlskagg is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Industrial metal]]/[[black metal]] band from Sunnfjord, [[Norway]], founded in 1998 by Gaahl and Skagg. Gaahl and Skagg were also members of the band Sigfader at the time, and they established this band to create more extreme and shocking music.

They first released the Split CD: ''Erotic Funeral Party I'' together with Stormfront in 1999. Then in 2000 they released their first full-length: ''Erotic Funeral'', which was recorded in Grieghallen studios during 1999.

Currently Gaahlskagg are working on their second full-length album: ''Av Norrønt Blod'' which is to be released in the near future. For this release Høst (of [[Taake]]) will do some guest vocals.

In near future Gaahlskagg will re-release their debut ''Erotic Funeral'' as a set of three 7" lp's containing the album split into ''Erotic Funeral party I - III'' and will contain lyrics.<ref>[http://www.myspace.com/gaahlskagg666 Official Gaahlskagg MySpace profile]</ref>

===Members===
====Current members====
*Gaahl - [[Vocals]] (1998-present)
*Skagg - Guitars (1998-present)

====Former members====
*[[Tormentor (musician)|Tormentor]] - Session bass
*Thurzur - Session drums
*Mutt - Session drums

===Discography===
*1999 - ''Split with Stormfront''
*2000 - ''Erotic Funeral''
*TBA - ''Av Norrønt Blod''<ref>[http://www.myspace.com/gaahlskagg666 Official Gaahlskagg MySpace profile]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.myspace.com/gaahlofficial Official Myspace]

#[http://youtube.com/watch?v=i4U33U_UyzQ True Norwegian Black Metal Part 1]
#[http://youtube.com/watch?v=KSUmKubFIUY True Norwegian Black Metal Part 2]
#[http://youtube.com/watch?v=VNN-ZnYg1Vo True Norwegian Black Metal Part 3]
#[http://youtube.com/watch?v=dRTHzR2Pxro True Norwegian Black Metal Part 4]
#[http://youtube.com/watch?v=avnsgYvHPK8 True Norwegian Black Metal Part 5]

{{Gorgoroth}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Anti-Christianity]]
[[Category:Black metal singers]]
[[Category:Gay musicians]]
[[Category:Heavy metal singers]]
[[Category:LGBT people from Norway]]
[[Category:Norwegian animists]]
[[Category:Norwegian black metal musicians]]
[[Category:Norwegian criminals]]
[[Category:Norwegian male singers]]
[[Category:Norwegian prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:Norwegian rock singers]]
[[Category:Norwegian vegetarians]]
[[Category:People convicted of assault]]
[[Category:People from Sogn og Fjordane]]

[[da:Gaahl]]
[[es:Gaahl]]
[[fr:Gaahl]]
[[it:Gaahl]]
[[no:Gaahl]]
[[pl:Gaahl]]
[[ro:Gaahl]]
[[ru:Гаал (певец)]]
[[fi:Gaahl]]
[[sv:Gaahl]]

Trades Hall

2008-11-10T18:17:28Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.83 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

A '''Trades Hall''' is an [[English English|English]] term for a building where [[trade union]]s meet together, or work from cooperatively, under a local representative organisation, known as a '''Labor Council''' or '''Trades Hall Council'''. The term is commonly used in [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Australia]].

They are sometimes colloquially called <nowiki>''the worker's parliament''</nowiki>.

===See also===

* [[Adelaide Trades Hall]] and the [[United Trades and Labour Council of South Australia]]
* [[Brisbane Trades Hall]] and the [[Queensland Council of Unions]]
* [[Glasgow Trades Hall]]
* [[Hobart Trades Hall]] and the [[Tasmanian Trades & Labor Council]]
* [[London Trades Hall]]
* [[Manchester Trades Hall]]
* [[Melbourne Trades Hall]] and the [[Victorian Trades Hall Council]]
* [[Perth Trades Hall]] and [[UnionsWA]]
* [[Sydney Trades Hall]] and the [[Labor Council of New South Wales]]

[[Category:Australian labour movement]]
[[Category:Trade unions of the United Kingdom]]

Unofficial Football World Championships

2008-09-24T03:22:00Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.79 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{| class="infobox" style="font-size: 85%;"
!bgcolor="FF8800" colspan="3"|Current Champions
|-
|colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" style="font-size: 100%;"| '''{{fb|Sweden}}'''
|-
|-
!bgcolor="FF8800" colspan="3"|Title Gained
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[September 10]] [[2008]]:
|colspan="2" valign="top"| 2-1 vs {{fb|Hungary}},[[2010 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)|World Cup qualifier]], [[Råsunda Stadium]], [[Solna Municipality|Solna]], [[Sweden]]

|-
!bgcolor="FF8800" colspan="3"|Next Title Match
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[October 11]] [[2008]]:
|colspan="2" valign="top"|vs {{fb|Portugal}}, [[2010 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)|World Cup qualifier]], [[Råsunda Stadium]], Solna, [[Sweden]]
|}

The '''Unofficial Football World Championships''' ('''UFWC''') is a way of calculating the world's best [[football (soccer)|football]] team, using a knock-out title system similar to that used in [[boxing]] and [[wrestling]]. The title is currently held by [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]], and will next be contested against [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] in a World Cup qualifying match on [[11 October]] [[2008]].

The idea stemmed originally from some [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] fans jokingly asserting that as they beat [[England national football team|England]] (who had won the [[1966 FIFA World Cup|1966 World Cup]]) in a [[British Home Championship]] match on [[April 15]] [[1967]] - England's first loss after their World Cup victory - they were the Unofficial World Champions.

Many years later, a website was created to show results of research triggered by this idea. The [[website]] was featured in respected football magazine [[FourFourTwo]], which gained it extra publicity. The FourFourTwo feature also suggested the compilation of an unofficial clubs' world championship.

It is not [[FIFA]]-sanctioned, nor does it have any sort of official backing.

==History==
===Early days===
The first ever international match was a "rather unexciting" 0-0 draw between England and Scotland, on [[November 30]] [[1872]] at [[Hamilton Crescent]]. The Unofficial World Championship thus remained undecided until the same two teams met again at the [[Kennington Oval]] on [[March 8]] [[1873]]. England won 4-2, and so are regarded as having become the Unofficial Football World Champions. [[Wales national football team|Wales]] entered the 'competition' in 1876, and [[Ireland national football team (1882–1950)|Ireland]] in 1882. The Championship however, continued to swap between Scotland and England until March 1903, when Ireland beat Scotland 2-0. Wales won the title for the first time in March 1907, beating Scotland 1-0.

Scotland regained the Championship the following year, which saw England playing internationally. Scotland however, didn't do the same and so retained the title. By the end of 1909, England had taken the title and defended it outside of the [[British Isles]] for the first time.

Following [[partition of Ireland|partition]], Ireland was to compete as [[Northern Ireland]] for the first time in 1923. The team went on to win for the first time in 1927, beating England 2-0.

The fact that none of the [[Home Nations]] teams competed in the [[1930 FIFA World Cup|1930]], [[1934 FIFA World Cup|1934]] or [[1938 FIFA World Cup|1938]] [[FIFA World Cup|World Cups]] kept the title from travelling too far abroad, and the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second]] World Wars hindered football's globalisation process further.

===1930s-2000===
It was 1931 when the title was first passed outside the [[British Isles]], to [[Austria national football team|Austria]]. It was back with the home nations within four months, and for all but the last few months of the decade it was held by those four teams. In the 1940s the title was held by continental teams, notably those representing the [[Axis powers]] and countries neutral during [[World War II]], but was recaptured by England in time for the [[1950 FIFA World Cup|1950 World Cup]]. Here, in a shock result, they lost to the [[United States men's national soccer team|United States]] in one of the [[England v United States (1950)|biggest upsets ever]]. This was the first venture of the title onto the [[Americas]], where it remained for all but one of the following 16 years.
[[Image:World Map FIFA.svg|thumb|left|FIFA's divisions]]
This time included the reign of the [[Netherlands Antilles national football team|Netherlands Antilles]], who beat [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]] 2-1 in a [[CONCACAF Gold Cup|CONCACAF Championship]] match to become the smallest country ever to hold the title. The UFWC returned to Europe in time for the [[1966 FIFA World Cup]] with the [[USSR national football team|Soviet Union]]. As it happened, the England v Scotland match of 1967, which first gave rise to the idea of an unofficial world championship, really was a UFWC title match. The title stayed in Europe until 1978, when it was taken by [[Argentina national football team|Argentina's]] [[1978 FIFA World Cup|1978 World Cup]] winning side. It remained in South America until the [[1982 FIFA World Cup|1982 World Cup]] where [[Peru national football team|Peru]] lost to [[Poland national football team|Poland]]. The UFWC remained in Europe for the next ten years, except for a one year tenure by Argentina.

In 1992, the title returned to the United States and then was held for one match by [[Australia national football team|Australia]], and then worked its way through several [[South America]]n nations, back through Europe and to its first [[Asia]]n holders, [[Korea Republic national football team|South Korea]]. The Koreans lost the title to [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] at the first time of asking, and the UFWC remained in Europe until March 1998 when [[Germany national football team|Germany]] lost it to [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in a friendly. [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] then defeated Brazil in a friendly to carry the UFWC into the [[1998 FIFA World Cup|1998 World Cup]].

[[France national football team|France]] repeated Argentina's 1978 feat by taking the title as they won the World Cup on home turf, beating [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]. England took the title for the last time to date at [[UEFA Euro 2000]]. France and Spain enjoyed spells as champions before the [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]] won the title in March 2002. As the Dutch had failed to qualify for the [[2002 FIFA World Cup|2002 World Cup]], the UFWC was, unusually, not at stake at the official World Cup. The Netherlands retained the title until [[September 10]] [[2003]], when they lost 3-1 to the [[Czech Republic national football team|Czech Republic]].

===Full globalisation===
The Czechs defended their title a few times, before losing it to the Republic of Ireland in a friendly. The title then went to an [[Africa]]n nation for the first time, as they lost it to [[Nigeria national football team|Nigeria]]. Minnows [[Angola national football team|Angola]] won and kept this title through late 2004 and early 2005. They were then beaten by [[Zimbabwe national football team|Zimbabwe]], who held the title for six months before [[Nigeria national football team|Nigeria]] re-gained it in October 2005. Nigeria were beaten by [[Romania national football team|Romania]] who lost it to [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] within six months. Uruguay became the highest ranked team to hold the title since 2004, but their failure to qualify for the [[2006 FIFA World Cup|World Cup finals]] meant that, for the second time in succession, the unofficial title was not available at the official championships.

===Return to Europe===
The title was brought back to Europe by [[Georgia national football team|Georgia]] on [[15 November]] [[2006]]. They lost the title to the highest ranked team in the UWFC of all time, [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]], on [[March 24]] [[2007]], nearly forty years since Scotland had last gained the title, in the game against [[England national football team|England]] at [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley]] that had inspired the concept of the UFWC. Just four days later, Scotland conceded the title to FIFA World Cup holders [[Italy national football team|Italy]], and the title passed through the hands of [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] twice, [[Turkey national football team|Turkey]] and [[Greece national football team|Greece]], before being claimed by Sweden.

==Rankings table==

Because of the unofficial nature of the title, there is no authoritative criteria for ranking the historical holders of the title. The UFWC website sorts teams by how many championship deciding matches they have won: others have used cumulative length of time holding the title, a points system for matches won, drawn and lost, or other methods.

This table ranks the teams according to the number of matches that they have started as title holders, and in the event of a tie, uses cumulative days as title holder and then length of time since the title was last held as second and third criteria.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Rank!! Country!! Matches as champion!! | Days as champion!! | Reigns as champion!! | Title matches won* !! | Title last held
|-
|1||{{fb|SCO}}||103||13,003 ||20 ||86 || 2007-03-28 [[28 March]] [[2007]]
|-
|2||{{fb|ENG}}||88||7,506 ||21 ||74 ||2000-06-20 [[20 June]] [[2000]]
|-
|3||{{fb|ARG}}||61||2,443 ||10 ||50 ||1998-07-04 [[4 July]] [[1998]]
|-
|4||{{fb|RUS}}<ref>Russia's statistics include figures for the [[USSR national football team|Soviet Union]] before 1990</ref>||50||1,580 ||6 ||41 ||2000-02-23 [[23 February]] [[2000]]
|-
|5||{{fb|NED}}||44||1,700 ||8 ||32 ||2003-09-10 [[10 September]] [[2003]]
|-
|6||{{fb|BRA}}||37||1,251 ||7 ||29 ||1988-04-29 [[29 April]] [[1988]]
|-
|7||{{fb|GER}}<ref>Germany's statistics include figures for [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]] 1945-1990</ref>||36||1,198 ||9 ||27 ||2000-06-17 [[17 June]] [[2000]]
|-
|8||{{fb|FRA}}||34||1,333 ||6 ||25 ||2001-03-28 [[28 March]] [[2001]]
|-
|9||{{fb|ITA}}||30||1,002 ||9 ||27 ||2007-08-22 [[22 August]] [[2007]]
|-
|10||{{fb|HUN}}||27||1,138 ||7 ||17 ||2008-09-10 [[10 September]] [[2008]]
|-
|11||{{fb|SWE}}||26||{{#expr:{{JULIANDAY|{{CURRENTYEAR}}|{{CURRENTMONTH}}|{{CURRENTDAY}}}} - {{JULIANDAY|2008|09|10}}+1435}}†<ref>Sweden's next defence will be on [[11 October]] [[2008]], by which time they will have held the title for 31 days in this reign, and a cumulative total of 1,466 days</ref> ||6 ||26 ||current champions
|-
|12||{{fb|CZE}}<ref>Czech Republic's statistics include figures for [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]] before 1990</ref>||23||648||5 ||15 ||2004-03-31 [[31 March]] [[2004]]
|-
|13||{{fb|ESP}}||21||1,198 ||4 ||15 ||2002-03-27 [[27 March]] [[2002]]
|-
|14||{{fb|URU}}||20||1,031 ||6 ||16 ||2006-11-15 [[15 November]] [[2006]]
|-
|15||{{fb|SUI}}||14||1,124 ||7 ||9 ||1994-06-26 [[26 June]] [[1994]]
|-
|16||{{fb|AUT}}||14||816 ||2 ||12 ||1968-06-16 [[16 June]] [[1968]]
|-
|17||{{fb|WAL}}||13||1,821 ||8 ||12 ||1988-09-14 [[14 September]] [[1988]]
|-
|18||{{fb|COL}}||13||1,109 ||3 ||8 ||1995-01-31 [[31 January]] [[1995]]
|-
|19||{{fb|CHI}}||13||1,066 ||4 ||11 ||1982-03-30 [[30 March]] [[1982]]
|-
|20||{{fb|GRE}}||12||528||2 ||11 ||2008-05-24 [[24 May]] [[2008]]
|-
|21||{{fb|PAR}}||11||452 ||2 ||7 ||1979-12-05 [[5 December]] [[1979]]
|-
|22||{{fb|PER}}||11||308 ||4 ||7 ||1982-06-22 [[22 June]] [[1982]]
|-
|23||{{fb|ROU}}||10||269 ||4 ||8 ||2006-05-23 [[23 May]] [[2006]]
|-
|24||{{fb|BUL}}||9||422 ||3 ||6 ||1985-09-04 [[4 September]] [[1985]]
|-
|25||{{fb|NIR}}<ref>Northern Ireland's statistics include figures for [[Ireland national football team (IFA)|Ireland]] before 1921</ref>||8||2,709 ||4 ||5 ||1933-10-14 [[14 October]] [[1933]]
|-
|26||{{fb|ANG}}||8||280 ||1 ||7 ||2005-03-27 [[27 March]] [[2005]]
|-
|27||{{fb|ZIM}}||8||195 ||1 ||7 ||2005-10-08 [[8 October]] [[2005]]
|-
|28||{{fb|BEL}}||7||188 ||4 ||5 ||1990-01-17 [[17 January]] [[1990]]
|-
|29||{{fb|CRC}}||6||160 ||1 ||5 ||1963-09-04 [[4 September]] [[1963]]
|-
|30||{{fb|SRB}}<ref>Serbia has never held the title in its own right, but is credited by FIFA with the records of the national teams of [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] (title holders in 1939), [[SFR Yugoslavia]] (holders in 1984) and [[FR Yugoslavia]] (holders in 1995)</ref>||5||144 ||3 ||5 ||1995-05-31 [[31 May]] [[1995]]
|-
|31||{{flagicon|Ireland}} [[Republic of Ireland national football team|Republic of Ireland]]||5||122 ||2 ||3 ||2004-05-29 [[29 May]] [[2004]]
|-
|32||{{fb|BOL}}||5||55 ||3 ||5 ||1994-04-20 [[20 April]] [[1994]]
|-
|33||{{fb|POL}}||5||41 ||2 ||4 ||1989-05-07 [[7 May]] [[1989]]
|-
|34||{{fb|NGA}}||4||61 ||2 ||4 ||2005-11-16 [[16 November]] [[2005]]
|-
|35||{{fb|POR}}||3||314 ||2 ||2 ||1992-06-04 [[4 June]] [[1992]]
|-
|36||{{fb|DEN}}||3||75 ||2 ||3 ||1989-08-23 [[23 August]] [[1989]]
|-
|37||{{fb|ECU}}||3||63 ||1 ||2 ||1965-08-22 [[22 August]] [[1965]]
|-
|38||{{fb|USA}}||3||13 ||2 ||2 ||1992-06-14 [[14 June]] [[1992]]
|-
|39||{{fb|GEO}}||2||129 ||1||2||2007-03-24 [[24 March]] [[2007]]
|-
|40||{{fb|ISR}}||2||63 ||1 ||1 ||2000-04-26 [[26 April]] [[2000]]
|-
|41||{{fb|TUR}}||2||35||1 ||1 ||2007-10-17 [[17 October]] [[2007]]
|-
|42||{{fb|MEX}}||1||290 ||1 ||1 ||1963-03-24 [[24 March]] [[1963]]
|-
|43||{{fb|VEN}}||1||21 ||1 ||1 ||2006-10-18 [[18 October]] [[2006]]
|-
|44||{{fb|KOR}}||1||4 ||1 ||1 ||1995-02-04 [[4 February]] [[1995]]
|-
|45||{{fb|AUS}}||1||4 ||1 ||1 ||1992-06-18 [[18 June]] [[1992]]
|-
|46||{{fb|ANT}}||1||4 ||1 ||1 ||1963-03-28 [[28 March]] [[1963]]
|}*: Including matches won on extra time and penalties.
† As of [[{{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}]] [[{{CURRENTYEAR}}]]

==Rules==
*The first team to win an international football match were declared first ever ''Football World Champions''.
*The next match this team competes in is considered a title match, with the winners taking the title.
**In the event of a title match being a draw, the current holders of the title remain champions. UFWC title matches are decided by their ultimate outcome, including extra time and penalties.
*The title is passed on like so, with any FIFA accredited international 'A' match involving a title holder being considered a title match.
*Title matches are contested under the rules of the governing body which they are sanctioned by.

==UFWC at major championships==
===[[FIFA World Cup|World Cup finals]]===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year!! UFWC contested?!! |Holders going into competition!! | Holders at end of competition!! | Holders absent from competition
|-
|[[1930 FIFA World Cup|1930]]||No||- ||- ||{{fb|ENG}}
|-
|[[1934 FIFA World Cup|1934]]||No||- ||- ||{{fb|ENG}}
|-
|[[1938 FIFA World Cup|1938]]||No||- ||- ||{{fb|SCO}}
|-
|[[1950 FIFA World Cup|1950]]||Yes||{{fb|ENG}}||{{fb|CHI}}||-
|-
|[[1954 FIFA World Cup|1954]]||No||-||-||{{fb|PAR}}
|-
|[[1958 FIFA World Cup|1958]]||Yes||{{fb|ARG}}||{{fb|BRA}}||-
|-
|[[1962 FIFA World Cup|1962]]||Yes||{{fb|ESP}}||{{fb|MEX}}||-
|-
|[[1966 FIFA World Cup|1966]]||Yes||{{fb|USSR}}||{{fb|ENG}}||-
|-
|[[1970 FIFA World Cup|1970]]||No||-||-||{{fb|SUI}}
|-
|[[1974 FIFA World Cup|1974]]||Yes||{{fb|NED}}||{{fb|West Germany}}||-
|-
|[[1978 FIFA World Cup|1978]]||Yes||{{fb|FRA}}||{{fb|ARG}}||-
|-
|[[1982 FIFA World Cup|1982]]||Yes||{{fb|PER}}||{{fb|ITA}}||-
|-
|[[1986 FIFA World Cup|1986]]||Yes||{{fb|West Germany}}||{{fb|ARG}}||-
|-
|[[1990 FIFA World Cup|1990]]||No||-||-||{{fb|GRE}}
|-
|[[1994 FIFA World Cup|1994]]||Yes||{{fb|ROM}}||{{fb|COL}}||-
|-
|[[1998 FIFA World Cup|1998]]||Yes||{{fb|GER}}||{{fb|FRA}}||-
|-
|[[2002 FIFA World Cup|2002]]||No||-||-||{{fb|NED}}
|-
|[[2006 FIFA World Cup|2006]]||No||-||-||{{fb|URU}}
|}

The championships of each of the continental championships are only listed when the title was contested during the tournament.

===[[UEFA European Football Championship|European Championships]]===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year!!Holders going into competition!! | Holders at end of competition
|-
|[[1976 UEFA European Football Championship|1976]]||{{fb|Czechoslovakia}} || {{fb|Czechoslovakia}}
|-
|[[1984 UEFA European Football Championship|1984]]||{{fb|Yugoslavia}} ||{{fb|France}}
|-
|[[1996 UEFA European Football Championship|1996]]||{{fb|Russia}} ||{{fb|Germany}}
|-
|[[2000 UEFA European Football Championship|2000]]||{{fb|Germany}} ||{{fb|France}}
|}

===[[Copa América|South American Championships/Copa América]]===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year!!Holders going into competition!! | Holders at end of competition
|-
|[[South American Championship 1953|1953]]||{{fb|Brazil}} ||{{fb|Uruguay}}
|-
|[[South American Championship 1955|1955]]||{{fb|Paraguay}}||{{fb|Argentina}}
|-
|[[South American Championship 1956|1956]]*||{{fb|Argentina}}||{{fb|Brazil}}
|-
|[[South American Championship 1957|1957]]||{{fb|Argentina}} ||{{fb|Peru}}
|-
|[[South American Championship 1959 (Argentina)|1959]]||{{fb|Brazil}}||{{fb|Brazil}}
|-
|[[South American Championship 1959 (Ecuador)|1959]]*||{{fb|Argentina}} ||{{fb|Peru}}
|-
|[[Copa América 1979|1979]]||{{fb|Paraguay}}||{{fb|Chile}}
|-
|[[Copa América 1993|1993]]||{{fb|Argentina}} ||{{fb|Argentina}}
|}
<nowiki>*:</nowiki> "Extra" tournaments in which no cup was presented, but now regarded as official championships by [[CONMEBOL]]

===[[CONCACAF Gold Cup|CONCACAF Championships]]===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year!!Holders going into competition!! | Holders at end of competition
|-
|[[1963 CONCACAF Championship|1963]]||{{fb|Mexico}} ||{{fb|Costa Rica}}
|}

The continental championships of Africa, Asia and Oceania have not yet seen competition for this title.

==Nasazzi's Baton==
A similar virtual title, [[José Nasazzi|Nasazzi]]'s Baton, traces the "championship" from the first [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]] winners Uruguay, after whose captain it is named. Nasazzi's Baton follows the same rules as the UFWC, except that it treats all matches according to their result after 90 minutes. [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] are the current holders of this title as well as the UFWC, the two titles having most recently been united when [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], the UFWC holders, beat Nasazzi's baton champions [[Norway national football team|Norway]] 1-0 in Oslo in a friendly on [[21 August]] 2002.

==Virtual World Championship==
Another virtual title, the Virtual World Championship, operates along the same boxing-style lines but only counts matches in FIFA-recognised championships and their qualifying stages. This is to circumvent the criticism of the UFWC that because countries do not always play their strongest teams in non-competitive matches, the honour could be unwittingly lost by a sub-strength team. This title is traced from the 1908 Olympic final. Olympic competitions since 1936 are not considered, as full international teams ceased to take part after that tournament. The honour is currently held by [[Ecuador national football team|Ecuador]], who won it from [[Bolivia national football team|Bolivia]] in a [[2010 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONMEBOL)|2010 World cup qualifier]] on [[6 September]] [[2008]], and will defend it away to [[Chile national football team|Chile]] in the same competition on [[2008-10-12]]. The Virtual World Championship treats all matches according to their result after 90 minutes. It most recently separated from the UFWC when Nigeria lost the latter title to [[Romania national football team|Romania]] in a friendly on [[2005-11-16]].

==Media coverage==
Although world-wide awareness of the title is low, the novelty of this tracking of results has drawn media attention as deciding matches have approached.[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=A1YourView&xml=/sport/2007/03/25/sfnrod25.xml] [http://worldcup.blogs.nytimes.com/2006/06/25/another-world-championship/][http://blogs.reuters.com/blog/2007/03/27/scots-face-italians-in-battle-of-world-champs/]

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[List of winners of Unofficial Football World Championships]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ufwc.co.uk/ Unofficial Football World Championships]
*[http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/nasazzibaton.html RSSSF - Nasazzi's Baton]
*[http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/virtualwc.html RSSSF - Virtual World Championship]

[[Category:International national football (soccer) competitions]]

[[de:Nasazzi-Stab]]
[[fr:Bâton de Nasazzi]]
[[it:Unofficial Football World Championships]]
[[hu:Nem hivatalos labdarúgó-világbajnokság]]
[[nl:Onofficieel wereldkampioenschap voetbal]]
[[pt:Campeonato Mundial Oficioso de Futebol]]
[[ru:Неофициальный чемпионат мира по футболу]]

The Bostonian Society

2008-09-04T01:20:02Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.78 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

[[Image:USA Old State House 3 MA.jpg|thumb|The Bostonian Society maintains a [[library]] and [[museum]] inside the [[Old State House (Boston)|Old State House]].]]
'''The Bostonian Society''' is a [[non-profit organization]] that was founded in 1881 for the purpose of preventing the [[Old State House (Boston)|Old State House]] (built in 1713) from being "moved brick by brick"<ref name="heir">[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/editorials/articles/2006/08/18/tarnished_heirloom/] ''Boston Globe'' "Tarnished heirloom" (August 18, 2006)</ref> from [[Boston, Massachusetts]] to [[Chicago, Illinois]].<ref name="visit">[http://www.bostonusa.com/visitor/resdet.php?cat=Museums+%26+Attractions&cat_seqnum=10&type=org&seqnum=2850] Greater Boston Convention & Visitors Bureau</ref><ref name="globe">[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/08/30/bostons_cultural_legacy/] ''Boston Globe'' "Boston's cultural legacy" (August 30, 2006)</ref> Determined to save the historic building that was the site of the [[Boston Massacre]] and the place for the proclamation of the [[Declaration of Independence]] in Massachusetts, a group of citizens banded together formed "Boston's first successful [[historic preservation]] movement".<ref name="quasar">[http://www1.epinions.com/content_104002522756] Quasar's Full Review: Old State House and Bostonian Society Museum</ref><ref name="his">[http://www.bostonhistory.org/?s=osh] Old State House Museum</ref><ref name="old">[http://www.bostonhistory.org/old_state_hs_hist.php] Old State House History. The Bostonian Society</ref>
<ref name="white">''Boston Celebrates July '76'', Boston 200 Office of the Boston Bicentennial, Kevin H. White, Mayor. Published Boston, MA: Addison House, 1976. ISBN 0-89169-011-5 (paperback) and 0-89169-010-7 (cloth).</ref><ref name="jfk">[http://www.hks.harvard.edu/rappaport/charterday/partners.htm] 2005 Boston Charter Day Event Committee,
Rappaport Institute for Greater Boston, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard university</ref>

Now stewardship of the Old State House -- "one of the most important public buildings in [[U.S. history]]"<ref>[http://www.ettractions.com/ettractions/att/9414.asp] Attraction Information: Old State House-The Bostonian Society (ettractions.com)</ref> and the oldest surviving public building in Boston -- is the society's primary purpose. Today the 18th century building stands above the [[Rapid transit|underground]] [[State (MBTA station)|State Street]] [[MBTA|MBTA Station]] in a busy area of Boston situated between [[Downtown Crossing]] and [[South Station]].<ref name="visit"/><ref name="old"/> According to a 2008 press release, mission of the Bostonian Society is:<blockquote>
...to strengthen the fabric of civil society by building meaningful connections to Boston and all Bostonians—past, present, and future—through the creative use of public history. Serving a city with a rich historical [[legacy]], the Society illuminates all aspects of Boston’s history, the contributions of its [[citizen]]s, and the strength and continuity of its [[diversity|diverse]] [[neighborhood]]s.<ref>[http://www.bostonusa.com/images/admin/logos/oldstatehouse6jan2008.htm]Media Relations & Tourism Sales Department of the Greater Boston Convention and Visitors Bureau, January 2008</ref>
</blockquote>

The city owns of Boston still owns the structure, and major maintenance is the responsibility of the [[National Park Service]], but day-to-day management of the site is in the hands of the Bostonian Society<ref name="heir"/> and the Society maintains a [[museum]] and [[research]] [[library]] in the building. Materials in the collection date back to 1630s [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] and include 7,500 [[book]]s, 350 [[map]]s, 30,000 [[photograph]]s, and other [[primary source]] materials.<ref name="phil">2007 Catalogue For Philanthropy</ref> [[Exhibit]]s at the museum focus on the [[American Revolution]] and the [[Revolutionary War]], the [[neighborhood]]s of Boston, and similar local themes.<ref name="visit"/><ref name="old"/><ref name="white"/> Some of the [[artifacts]] on display on the walls and in glass cases are [[antique]] [[rifle]]s and other [[weapon]]s, old [[nautical]] [[tool|instrument]]s from the [[Age of Sail]], images from 18th century [[London]] [[newspaper]]s expressing how [[British people|Briton]]s viewed the war, and an original [[Paul Revere]] [[political cartoon]] that was passed down through the family of [[Josiah Quincy]] until it one of them donated it to the Bostonian Society in the 1880s. There is also a model of showing what Boston looked like when it was a city in [[Colonial America]].<ref name="quasar"/>

According to the Greater Boston Convention & Visitors Bureau, "The Bostonian Society is the first stop for anyone interested in the city's history" and "the Society brings [[History of Boston, Massachusetts|Boston history]] to life."<ref name="visit"/> The Bostonian Society has various programs and educational resources for children and adults and has been called "a comprehensive historical and educational resource"<ref name="jfk"/> (though one visitor noticed that "a few [[Loudspeaker|audio wand]]s scattered around which tend to be out of order more often than they work."<ref name="quasar"/>) The Society oversees a [[historic marker]] program across the city of Boston and runs a teacher training program called "Teaching Boston History Workshops" bringing together leading experts on various subjects, community-based organizations, teachers and museum educators, and the Society's "unequalled collections of[[ primary source]]s".<ref name="phil"/> The Society also makes the Old State House available for various events from private [[wedding]]s to public [[concert]]s.<ref name="quasar"/><ref>[http://www.playbillarts.com/news/article/6819.html] ''Playbill'' Arts: Period Instruments in a Period Setting: Boston's Old State House Presents Summer Baroque Series (20 Jul 2007)</ref>

The Bostonian Society operates two off-site [[gift shop]]s: The Bostonian Society Museum Shop in [[Faneuil Hall]] and, close by, The Bostonian Society Museum Shop at [[Quincy Market]]. These shops specialize in books (especially children's books) and gifts related to Boston History including the sale of "[[Boston Tea Party]]" premium blend [[tea]] and antique reproduction [[teapot]]s.<ref>[http://www.gobostoncard.com/discount-shopping/Bostonian-Society-Museum-Shop.html] Go Boston: Bostonian Society Museum Shops </ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:United States historical societies]]
[[Category:History of Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:History of Massachusetts]]
[[Category:History of New England]]
[[Category:History organizations]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Massachusetts]]

American School of Paris

2008-08-30T02:08:01Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.78 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Infobox Secondary school
| name = American School of Paris
| logo =
| motto =
| type =
| city = [[Saint-Cloud]]
| country =[[France]]
| established = 1946
| founder =
| head_label = Headmaster
| head = Jack Davis
| faculty =
| students = 800+
| grades = Pre-K - 13
| website = [http://www.asparis.org American School of Paris]
}}

The '''American School of Paris''' is an independent, [[coeducational]] day school located in [[Saint-Cloud]], a suburb of [[Paris, France]]. It was founded in 1946 shortly after the end of [[World War II]] by the combined efforts of the American Embassy and the American Express Company. It is the oldest American school in Europe. <ref name="state">
{{cite web
|accessdate=2008-04-17
|url=http://www.state.gov/m/a/os/1399.htm
|title= France, Paris: American School of Paris
|publisher=Office of Overseas Schools. US State Dept.}}</ref>
The [[student body]] represents over 50 nations with [[English language|English]] as the primary language of instruction. <ref name="profile">
{{cite web
|accessdate=2008-04-17
|url=http://france.english-schools.org/american-school-of-paris.htm
|title= American School of Paris Profile
|publisher=Worldwide Schools International}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.asparis.org American School of Paris]
*http://www.state.gov/m/a/os/1399.htm

{{France-school-stub}}
[[Category:Schools in France]]

William Kneale

2008-08-23T14:05:23Z

Tkynerd: Disambiguate English to England using popups

'''William Kneale''' (1905-1990) was an [[England|English]] [[logician]] who is familiar to all English-speaking historians of [[logic]] through his book ''The Development of Logic'' (1962), a history of logic from its beginnings in [[Ancient Greece]] written with his wife Martha. Kneale was also known as a philosopher of science and the author of a book on [[Probability]] and [[Induction]]. He was a Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1965 succeeded to the White Professorship of Moral Philosophy previously occupied by the linguistic philosopher [[J.L. Austin]]. He retired in 1966.

== Life and work ==

Kneale's interest in the [[history of logic]] began in the 1940's. The focus of much of Kneale's early work was the legacy of the work of the 19th century logican [[George Boole]]. His first major publication in the history of logic was his paper "Boole and the Revival of Logic," published in the philosophy journal [[Mind]] in 1948. He was also the author of a number of papers in [[Philosophical logic]], particularly on the nature of [[truth]] for [[natural language]]s, and the role which linguistic concepts play in the treatment of logical [[paradoxes]].

Kneale worked on his great history of logic from [[1947]] to [[1957]] together with his wife Martha (who was responsible for the chapters on the ancient Greeks). The result was the 800-page ''The Development of Logic'', first published in 1962 which went through five impressions before going into a second, paperback, edition in 1984.

The history is commonly referred to in the academic world simply as "Kneale and Kneale". It was the only major history of logic available in English in the mid-twentieth century, and the first major history of logic in English since ''The Development of Symbolic Logic'' published in [[1906]] by [[A.T. Shearman]]. The treatise has been a standard work in the history of logic for decades.

== References ==

* Thomas Drucker and Irving H. Anellis, 'William Kneale' memorial notice, ''Modern Logic'' Volume 3, Number 2 (1993), 158-161.

Matthew Syed

2008-08-23T14:04:08Z

Tkynerd: Disambiguate English to England using popups

{{Infobox Person
|name = Matthew Syed
|image =
|caption =
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1970|11|2}}
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|other_names =
|known_for =
|occupation = [[Sportscaster]]
|nationality = [[England|English]]
|religion = [[Atheism]]<ref>{{cite news |first=Matthew |last=Syed |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Gordon Brown - is that all there is? |url=http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/the_way_we_live/article3970359.ece |work=[[Times2]] |publisher=[[The Times]] |date=2008-05-21 |accessdate=2008-08-23 }}</ref>
}}
'''Matthew Syed''' (born [[2 November]], [[1970]]) is a former English [[table tennis]] international, and was the English number one for many years. He was three times the Men's Singles Champion at the [[Commonwealth Table Tennis Championships]] (in 1997, 2000 and 2001)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comtab.com/championships/index.htm |title=Championships |accessdate=2008-08-23 |work=comtab.com |publisher=Commonwealth Table Tennis Federation}}</ref>, and also competed for Great Britain in two [[Olympic Games]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.olympics.org.uk/athleterecord.aspx?at=2964 |title=Matthew Syed |accessdate=2008-08-23 |work=olympics.org.uk |publisher=[[British Olympic Association]]}}</ref>

A right-handed defender, he now works as a commentator for [[Eurosport]], and as a journalist for [[The Times]]. He also stood as the [[Labour Party (UK) | Labour]] candidate for [[Wokingham]] in the [[United Kingdom general election, 2001 | 2001 General Election]], but was unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vote2001 Results & Constituencies |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/vote2001/results_constituencies/constituencies/639.stm |work=[[bbc.co.uk]] |publisher=[[BBC News]] |accessdate=2008-08-23 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{UK-sport-bio-stub}}
{{tabletennis-bio-stub}}


{{Persondata
|NAME = Matthew Syed
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = Former Olympic table tennis player
|DATE OF BIRTH = [[November 2]], [[1970]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH =
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Syed, Matthew}}
[[Category:1970 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:English atheists]]
[[Category:English table tennis players]]

Gilpin Tramway

2008-08-17T15:51:00Z

Tkynerd: Disambiguate Passenger car to Passenger car (rail) using popups

{{nofootnotes|date=August 2008}}
[[Image:Enginehouse-01.jpg|right|thumb|The Gilpin Tramway locomotives and enginehouse]]The story of the '''Gilpin Tramway''' starts in April 1859 when [[John H. Gregory]] started up Clear Creek from [[Golden, Colorado|Golden]] searching for [[gold]]. Gold flakes were being found in the creek, so the question was, where was the gold coming from. Working up the creek and following the north branch of Clear Creek at what is now know as Forks (for years, a station and restaurant, now a traffic light), Gregory found the richest gold dust in what is now called Gregory Gulch above [[Blackhawk, Colorado|Blackhawk]]. The Gregory Lode had been found.

==Gold extraction==
The news of gold hit the nation. By September, a population of 900 in log shanties and tents had invaded the valley. By the summer of 1860 sixty ore mills and thirty arastras (a kind of ore grinding pit) were in operation and the population had risen to 15,000. Soon numerous mining camps had sprung up including [[Black Hawk, Colorado|Black Hawk]], [[Central City, Colorado|Central City]], Nevadaville, Russell Gulch and Apex.

But by the mid-1860s, the easy gold had been mined out. Gilpin county came on hard times. What was needed was both better technology in milling, and a means of transporting the ore from mine to mill and mill to the rest of the world. New technology did come, with the first smelter being setup in Black Hawk in 1865. As for transportation, that came in the form of the {{RailGauge|3}} [[narrow gauge railway|narrow gauge]] [[Colorado Central Railroad]] (CCRR). The CCRR was formed in 1870 with construction starting in September 1871. Based in [[Golden, Colorado|Golden]], the trackage worked its way up Clear Creek, splitting at Forks with the first branch going on to Black Hawk. The train arrived in Black Hawk on [[December 15]], [[1873]]. The mills now had a way to get their product to Denver and the world beyond. In 1878, a switchback extension was built the one mile (1.6 km) distance from Black Hawk to Central City with four miles (6 km) of trackage, and the first train arriving on [[May 21]], [[1878]].

==Gilpin Tramway Company==
The problem still remained on how to economically get the gold bearing quartz ore down to the mills of Central City and Black Hawk. It was a dangerous, slow and expensive process to bring the ore down in horse drawn wagons. In Summer 1886 five mining men met to solve the problem. The solution was the Gilpin Tramway Company, formed on [[July 29]] in Central City by Henry C. Bolsinger, Bradford H. Locke, Robert A. Campbell, Andrew W. Rogers and Henry J. Hawley. The purpose of the company was to build a {{RailGauge|2}} [[Rail gauge|gauge]] railroad to transport ore from the mines above Black Hawk to the mills.

===Construction of the tramway===
Grading was started in May 1887. A frame barn was purchased above Black Hawk as an engine house. The first rails were laid on [[July 1]], [[1887]]. [[Shay locomotive]] #1 arrived on [[August 26]], with its first run on [[September 1]]. Trackage worked its way back down Clear Creek climbing the side of the hill and climbing up into Gregory Gulch. The maximum grade was six percent with several curves having a {{convert|50|ft|m|sing=on}} radius. The trackage continued on above Central City (there was an excursion train for Central City residents from where the tram crossed Eureka Gulch to Black Hawk on [[September 29]], [[1887]]). From there the trackage continued up to Nevadaville, Quartz Hill and Russel Gultch.

Much of the altitude gained by the Gilpin was done by the use of [[Zig zag (railway)|switchback]]s. The Tram had more switchbacks than any other American railroad. At one point, seven switchbacks were used to reach a single mine.

===Opposition===
The railroad was not without its opponents. The Gilpin was in direct competition to the various teamster outfits. An agreement had been made with the Colorado Central to lay a third rail through Black Hawk (creating a [[dual gauge]] track) to allow the Gilpin to reach its various mills and smelters. Mayor William Fick, associated with many of the teamsters, fought to stop the Gilpin from coming through 'his' town. The third rail was laid after various legal actions starting in December 1887. But that was not the end of it, in April 1888, the Mayor accompanied by the marshal ordered laborers to stop laying the third rail and to start removing trackage that had already been laid. Fick declared that the tram would throw teamsters out of work, a great calamity for the city. But with a payment from the Gilpin of $450 to the city, the Mayor was advised to quit his losing fight, and none of the trackage was removed.

===Tourism===
Ore and supplies were not the only cargo carried on the Gilpin. On [[May 23]], [[1888]], the tram received six new excursion [[Passenger car (rail)|passenger car]]s. As with many other railroads in the west, tourist traffic created a good supplement to the railroads income. Excursions occurred throughout each summer. A round trip from Black Hawk with lunch was 75 cents. A combined trip on the Colorado Central from Denver was $2.40.

===Extensions===
Throughout 1888, track was extended to mines and mills leading to fifteen and a half miles of track by winter of that year. Once winter arrived, a new and interesting problem arrived as well. Ore comes from wet ground, and in the winter, it has a tendency to freeze solid in the cars before delivery to the mills. The tram solved this problem with a unique solution. A warming house was built near the engine house with tracks running its entire length. Steam pipes and stoves warmed the building to a high of {{convert|120|F}}, thus keeping the ore warm and dry.

===Sale to the Colorado and Southern===
Traffic continued to grow throughout the 1890s, with three [[Shay locomotive|Shays]] taking up the load. Accidents did happen on occasion with engines jumping the track and rolling over. By 1900, new shays were replacing the old ones.

In January 1899, the Colorado Central (then owned by the bankrupt [[Union Pacific Railroad]]) was taken over by the [[Colorado and Southern Railway|Colorado and Southern]] (C&S). The Gilpin had been showing a nice profit in the early 1900s so by 1905, the C&S was looking at the Gilpin as a likely acquisition. On [[June 27]], [[1906]], the Gilpin was sold to the Colorado and Southern.

===Closure of the tramway===
1910 saw the Gilpin at its greatest length of {{convert|26.46|mi|km}} including spurs and sidings. But unfortunately, the C&S bought the Gilpin at the height of its profitability. The profit margins on mining gold was dropping both due to increased cost to extract the gold, and fixed prices in the gold market due to government. As such, traffic was dropping. Soon the Gilpin was running in the red. The last train ran on [[January 17]], [[1917]]. The railroad was sold for scrap in June 1917.

== Locomotives ==
{|class="wikitable"
!Number
!Builder
!Type
!Date
!Works number
!Notes
|-
|1
|[[Lima Locomotive Works]]
|10-ton Shay
|August 1887
|181
|sold [[Silver City, Pinos Altos and Mogollon Railroad]] #1 1905
|-
|2
|[[Lima Locomotive Works]]
|12-ton Shay
|February 1888
|199
|sold [[Silver City, Pinos Altos and Mogollon Railroad]] #2 1905
|-
|3
|[[Lima Locomotive Works]]
|15-ton Shay
|December 1889
|264
|scrapped 1938
|-
|4
|[[Lima Locomotive Works]]
|17-ton Shay
|January 1900
|594
|scrapped 1938
|-
|5
|[[Lima Locomotive Works]]
|18-ton Shay
|April 1902
|696
|scrapped 1938
|}

== Cars ==
{|class="wikitable"
!Number
!Builder
!Type
!Date
!Length
!Notes
|-
|1-5
|
|[[flatcar]]s
|1888
|{{convert|17|ft|abbr=on}}
|#3 rebuilt to coal car #14
|-
|6-13
|
|coal cars
|1888
|17 ft
|
|-
|14-17
|
|coal cars
|
|17 ft
|
|-
|18-37
|[[Lima Locomotive Works]]
|ore cars
|1887
|{{convert|17|ft|7|in|abbr=on}}
|originally 1/2 cord capacity rebuilt to 3/4 cord capacity
|-
|38-87
|[[Lima Locomotive Works]]
|ore cars
|1888
|17 ft 7 in
|one cord capacity
|-
|88-155
|[[Lima Locomotive Works]]
|ore cars
|1889
|17 ft 7 in
|one card capacity
|-
|300
|Gilpin
|[[tank car|water car]]
|
|{{convert|23|ft|abbr=on}}
|{{convert|2200|USgal}} capacity
|-
|1st #400
|Gilpin
|[[caboose]]
|1904
|{{convert|13|ft|2|in|abbr=on}}
|destroyed 1912
|-
|2nd #400
|[[Colorado and Southern Railroad]]
|[[caboose]]
|1912
|{{convert|14|ft|2|in|abbr=on}}
|
|-
|401
|[[Colorado and Southern Railroad]]
|[[caboose]]
|1913
|14 ft 2 in
|
|-
|500-505
|
|excursion cars
|1888
|{{convert|21|ft|abbr=on}}
|one rebuilt to flatcar 2nd #4; one rebuilt to rail & boiler car #01 in 1906; one used as parts for caboose #401 in 1913; last one (#500) renumbered #1 in 1915
|}

==References==
* {{cite book| title=Silver City Narrow Gauge |author=Ericson, Duane |publisher=M2FQ Publications |year=2007}}
* {{cite book| title=The Gilpin Gold Tram |author=Ferrell, Mallory Hope |publisher=Pruett Publishing |year=1970| id=ISBN 0-87108-045-1}}
* {{cite book| title=The Shay Locomotive Titan of the Timber |author=Koch, Michael |publisher=The World Press |year=1971}}

==External links==
*[http://www.gilpintram.com/ www.gilpintram.com]

[[Category:Defunct Colorado railroads]]
[[Category:Two foot gauge railways]]
[[Category:Narrow gauge railroads in the United States]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1886]]
[[Category:1917 disestablishments]]

Kolonialarchitektur in Nordamerika

2008-08-16T16:32:21Z

Tkynerd: Disambiguate English to England using popups

[[Image:Salem Mass CorwinHouse.jpg|thumb|Corwin House, Salem, Massachusetts, built ca. 1660, First Period English]]

[[Image:Josiah Dennis House.jpg|thumb|Josiah Dennis House, Dennis, Massachusetts, built 1735, Georgian colonial]]

'''American colonial architecture''' includes several building design styles associated with the colonial period of the [[United States]], including First Period English (late-medieval), [[French Colonial]], [[Spanish Colonial]], [[Dutch Colonial|Dutch]], German Colonial and [[Georgian architecture|Georgian Colonial]].<ref>[http://www.oldhouses.com/styleguide/colonial-houses.htm oldhouses.com]</ref> These styles are associated with the houses, churches and government buildings of the period between about 1600 through 1850.

==Background==
By about 1640, [[European]] settlers from several nations were establishing new colonies in what would later become the [[United States]], bringing their traditional housebuilding ideas and techniques and adapting them to their new landscapes. The colonies initially developed in five distinct areas: (1) the English settled in [[Virginia]] and [[New England]], (2) the Dutch settled in the [[Hudson River]] Valley, (3) [[Germans]] and [[Scotch-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] settled in the [[Delaware River]] Valley while (5) the [[Spanish]] had built a military settlement at [[St. Augustine, Florida]] in 1565. (The [[French]] would later establish [[New Orleans]] in 1712. Each of these colonies would develop distinctive styles of house building, which would later expand into other styles as the new country evolved in the late 1700s.

==First Period English (late-Medieval)==
Developed from two earliest English settlements at [[Jamestown, Virginia]] (1607) and [[Plymouth, Massachusetts]] (1620), and later in the other [[British]] colonies along the Eastern seaboard.

These buildings typically included medieval details including steep roofs, small windows (usually due to a scarcity of glass in the colonies), minimal ornamentation and a massive central chimney.<ref>[http://www.antiquehomesmagazine.com/style_guide/colonial.html Antique Homes]</ref>

==French Colonial==
[[Image:Maison Bequette-Ribault.jpg|thumb|Bequette-Ribault House in Ste. Geneviève, Missouri, built 1778, French colonial]]
Developed in French-settled areas of North America beginning with the founding of [[Quebec]] in 1608 and [[New Orleans, Louisiana]] in 1718, as well as along the [[Mississippi River]] valley to [[Missouri]].

The early French Colonial house type of the [[Mississippi River]] Valley region was the "poteaux-en-terre", constructed of heavy upright cedar logs set vertically into the ground. These basic houses featured double-pitched hipped roofs and were surrounded by porches (galleries) to handle the hot summer climate.

By 1825, in areas prone to flooding the "raised cottage" was developed with the houses being constructed atop raised brick walls, typically eight feet tall for protection from flood waters. In dry times, the basement remained cool and was used for cooking and storage.

By 1770, the basic French Colonial house form evolved into the "briquette-entre-poteaux" (small bricks between posts) style familiar in the historic areas of [[New Orleans]] and other areas. These homes featured double louvered doors, flared hip roofs, dormers and shutters.<ref>American Shelter, Lester Walker, 1996, p.92</ref>

==Spanish Colonial==
[[Image:St Aug NHL Gonzalez-Alvarez01.jpg|thumb|Gonzalez-Alvarez House, St. Augustine, Florida, built 1723, Spanish colonial]]
Developed with the earlier Spanish settlements in the [[Caribbean Sea]] and [[Mexico]], the '''Spanish Colonial''' style in the [[United States]] can be traced back to [[St. Augustine, Florida]], the oldest established city in the country, founded in 1565. The style would also develop in the Southwest and in [[California]] with the founding of the missions by the Spanish between 1769 and 1823.

The early type of dwelling in [[Spanish Florida]] was the "board house", a small one-room cottage construced of pit-sawn softwood boards, typically with a thached roof.

During the 1700s, the "common houses" were covered whitewashed lime [[mortar]] with an oyster shell aggregate. Typcially two stories, the houses included cooling porches to accomodate the Florida climate.
<ref>American Shelter, Lester Walker, 1996, p.41</ref>

==Dutch Colonial==
[[Image:Bronck-house.jpg|thumb|Bronck House, Coxsackie, NY, built 1663; Dutch Colonial]]
Developed from around 1630 with the arrival of Dutch colonists to [[New Amsterdam]] and the [[Hudson River Valley]] in what is now [[New York]].<ref>[http://www.hudsonrivervalley.net/themes/ColonialEra.php Hudson River Valley]</ref> Initally the settlers built small, one room cottages with stone walls and steep roofs to allow a second floor loft. By 1670 or so, two-stepped gable-end homes were common in [[New Amsterdam]].

In the countryside of the Hudson Valley, the Dutch farmhouse evolved into a linear-plan home with straight-edged gables moved to the end walls. Around 1720, the distinctive [[Gambrel]] roof was adopted from the [[England|English]] styles, with the addition of overhangs on the front and rear to protect the mud mortar used in the typically stone walls and foundations. <ref>American Shelter, Lester Walker, 1996, p.58</ref>

==German Colonial==
[[Image:De Turck House.jpg|thumb|De Turck House, Oley, Pennsylvania, built 1767, German Colonial Style]]
Developed after about 1675 or so, when the [[Delaware River Valley]] area (Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware) of the [[United States]] was settled by immigrants from [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]], [[Germany]] (Deutsch) and several other northern [[European]] nations. The early colonists to this region adapted the "half-timber" style of construction then popular in [[Europe]], which used a frame of braced timbers filled-in with masonry (brick or stone). However, the colonists modified the method to typically include a first floor of field stones, and a second floor and roof system of timbers or logs. Eventually, field stones became the building material of choice for the entire homes, as they grew from one-room cottages to larger farmhouses.

The "bank house" was a popular form of home during this period, typically constructed into a hillside for protection during the cold winters and hot summers of the region.

The two-story "country townhouse" was also common around [[Pennsylvania]] during this time. <ref>American Shelter, Lester Walker, 1996, p.72</ref>

==Georgian Colonial==
(New England and mid-Atlantic Regions) [1720-1780]
The defining characteristics of [[Georgian architecture]] are its square, symmetrical shape, central door, and straight lines of windows on the first and second floor. There is usually a decorative crown above the door and flattened columns to either side of it. The door leads to an entryway with stairway and hall aligned along the center of the house. <ref>[http://architecture.about.com/od/periodsstyles/ig/House-Styles/Georgian.htm Georgian Colonial House Styles]</ref> All rooms branch off of these. Georgian buildings, in the English manner were ideally in brick, with wood trim, wooden columns and entablatures painted white. In the US, one found both brick buildings as well as those in wood with clapboards. They were usually painted white, though sometimes a pale yellow. This differentiated them from most other structures that were usually not painted.

A Georgian Colonial-style house usually has a formally-defined [[living room]], [[dining room]] and sometimes a [[family room]]. The [[bedroom]]s are typically on the second floor. They also have one or two chimneys that can be very large.

==See also==
*[[List of house types]]
*[[List of house styles]]
*[[Saltbox]]
*[[Cape Cod (house)]]
*[[Colonial Revival architecture]]
*[[Federal architecture]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==

*[http://www.americancenturies.mass.edu/activities/architecture/wellsthorne_ell.html Wells-Thorn House, Deerfield, Massachusetts]
*[http://architecture.about.com/library/bl-georgiancolonial.htm About: Colonial Houses]
*[http://images.google.com/images?q=houses%20of%20colonial%20williamsburg&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&sa=N&tab=wi Examples of Colonial House style at Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia]
*[http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=houses+of+colonial+salem&btnG=Search+Images Examples of Colonial House style at Colonial Salem, Massachusetts]
*[http://www.enonhall.com The Restoration of a Colonial House in Virginia]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/colonialhouse/ Colonial House PBS series.]
{{arch-style-stub}}

[[Category:House styles]]
[[Category:American architectural styles]]

[[de:Kolonialstil]]

Philippa Gregory

2008-08-16T16:10:53Z

Tkynerd: Disambiguate English to England using popups

{{Infobox Writer 
| name =Philippa Gregory
| image =
| caption =
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1954|1|9|df=y}}
| birthplace = [[Kenya]]
| deathdate =
| deathplace =
| occupation = Novelist
| genre = [[Fantasy literature|Fantasy]], [[Historical novel]]
| movement =
| influences =
| influenced =
| website =
}}
'''Philippa Gregory''' (born [[9 January]], [[1954]]) is an [[England|English]] [[historical novel]]ist.

==Biography==
===Early life and academic career===

Philippa Gregory was born in [[Kenya]]. When Gregory was two years old, her family moved to England. She was a "rebel" at school, but eventually decided to go to University and was educated at the [[University of Sussex]]. She worked in [[BBC]] radio for two years before attending the [[University of Edinburgh]], where she earned her doctorate in 18th century [[literature]]. Gregory, who has taught at the [[University of Durham]], [[University of Teesside]], and the [[Open University]], was made a Fellow of [[Kingston University]] in 1994.

===Writing===

Gregory's academic background has given her a knowledge of and enthusiasm for many periods of history but particularly for the [[Tudor period]] and the 18th Century. Her research in 18th-century literature led her to write the bestselling Lacey trilogy - ''Wideacre'' which is a gripping story about the love of land and incest, ''The Favoured Child'' and ''Meridon''. This was followed by ''The Wise Woman'', described{{Fact|date=August 2007}} as a dazzling, disturbing novel of dark powers and desires set against the rich tapestry of the Reformation. ''A Respectable Trade'', a novel of [[slave trade]] in England, set in 18th century [[Bristol]], was adapted by Gregory for an acclaimed four part drama series for BBC television. Gregory's script was nominated for a [[BAFTA]], won an award from the Committee for Racial Equality, and the film was shown worldwide.

Two novels about a gardening family at the heart of the [[English Civil War]]: ''Earthly Joys'' and ''Virgin Earth'' won her new fans, while her contemporary novels--''Perfectly Correct'', ''Mrs Hartley,'' ''Growth Centre'', ''The Little House'' and ''Zelda's Cut''--remain favourites with many readers. She has also written for children.

Some of Gregory's novels have won awards and have been adapted into television dramas. The most successful of her novels has been ''[[The Other Boleyn Girl]],'' which was published in 2002 and adapted for BBC television in 2003 with [[Natascha McElhone]], [[Jodhi May]] and [[Jared Harris]]. In the year of its publication, ''The Other Boleyn Girl'' also won the '''Parker Romantic Novel of the Year''' and it has subsequently spawned sequels - ''[[The Queen's Fool]],'' ''[[The Virgin's Lover]],'' ''[[The Constant Princess]],'' ''[[The Boleyn Inheritance]],'' and ''The Other Queen'' (to be published 2008.) [[Miramax]] bought the film rights to ''The Other Boleyn Girl'' and produced a film starring [[Scarlett Johansson]] as the title character and co-starring [[Natalie Portman]], [[Eric Bana]], [[Juno Temple]] and [[Kristin Scott Thomas]]. It was filmed in England and generally released in February 2008.

===Media===

Gregory is a frequent contributor to magazines and newspapers, with short stories, features and reviews. She is also a frequent broadcaster and a regular contestant on [[Round Britain Quiz]] for [[BBC Radio 4]] and the Tudor expert for [[Channel 4]]'s [[Time Team]].

===Private life===

She lives in the North of England with her husband and two children. Her interests include riding, walking, skiing, and gardening.

===Charity work===

Gregory also runs a small charity building wells in school gardens in [[The Gambia]]. Fifty-six wells have been built by UK donors to date.

==Bibliography (US Books)==
===Wideacre trilogy===
#''[[Wideacre]]'' (1987)
#''The Favored Child'' (1989)
#''Meridon'' (1990)

===The Tudor series===
#''[[The Other Boleyn Girl]]'' (2001)
#''[[The Queen's Fool]]'' (2003)
#''[[The Virgin's Lover]]'' (2004)
#''[[The Constant Princess]]'' (2005)
#''[[The Boleyn Inheritance]]'' (2006)
#''[[The Other Queen]]'' (2008)

On her website, Philippa Gregory says she does not write her Tudor series books in order. Read chronologically:
<ul>
<li>The Constant Princess (Katherine of Aragon)
<li>The Other Boleyn Girl (Anne Boleyn)
<li>The Boleyn Inheritance (Anne of Cleves and Katherine Howard)
<li>The Queens Fool (Mary Tudor and Elizabeth 1)
<li>The Virgin’s Lover (Elizabeth 1)
<li>The Other Queen (Mary Queen of Scots)
</ul>

===Earthly Joys===
#''Earthly Joys'' (1998)
#''Virgin Earth'' (1999)

===Other works (Including UK Books)===
*''A Respectable Trade'' (1992)
*''The Wise Woman'' (1992)
*''Fallen Skies'' (1994)
*''A Wisewoman'' (2002)<ref>A dazzling story of witch craft, disturbing love and sex. </ref>
*''The Little House'' (1998)
*''Zelda's Cut'' (2001)
*''Perfectly Correct'' (1992)
*''Mrs. Hartley and the Growth Centre'' (1992)
*''Bread and Chocolate'' (2002)

===Children's Works===
*''A Pirate Story''
*''Diggory and the Boa Conductor''
*''The Little Pet Dragon''
*''Princess Florizella''
*''Princess Florizella and the Giant''
*''Princess Florizella and the Wolves''

== External links ==
* [http://www.philippagregory.com/ Philippa Gregory's official website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gregory, Philippa}}
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:English novelists]]
[[Category:English historical novelists]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Sussex]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Teesside]]
[[Category:Writers of historical novels set in Early Modern period]]
[[Category:Writers of historical romances]]

[[fr:Philippa Gregory]]
[[it:Philippa Gregory]]
[[no:Philippa Gregory]]
[[pt:Philippa Gregory]]
[[sv:Philippa Gregory]]

Peter Sunde

2008-08-07T00:04:44Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.77 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

'''Peter Sunde''' (born [[1978]]), alias '''brokep''', is a [[Norway|Norwegian]]-[[Finland|Finnish]] computer expert,<ref name="dagbladet">{{cite news
| first = Joakim
| last = Thorkildsen
| title = Norske Peter tiltalt i The Pirate Bay-saken
| url = http://www.dagbladet.no/kultur/2008/01/31/525530.html
| publisher = [[Dagbladet]]
| date = 2008-01-31
| accessdate = 2008-06-29
| language = Norwegian
}}</ref> known as the co-founder of the [[BitTorrent (protocol)|BitTorrent]] site [[The Pirate Bay]].<ref name="dagbladet" />

Segments of an interview with Sunde talking about [[copyright]], the [[internet]] and [[culture]] are featured in the 2007 documentary [[Steal This Film]] (Two).

On [[31 January]] [[2008]], the [[Pirate Bay]] operators [[Fredrik Neij]], Per Svartholm Warg, Peter Sunde and Carl Lundström were charged with "promoting other people's infringements of copyright laws."<ref>[http://blog.wired.com/27bstroke6/2008/01/pirate-bay-futu.html Pirate Bay Future Uncertain After Operators Busted | Threat Level from Wired.com]</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

== External links ==
*[http://blog.brokep.com/ Personal blog]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sunde, Peter}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:Movement against intellectual property]]

{{Norway-bio-stub}}
{{Sweden-bio-stub}}
{{Finland-bio-stub}}

{{compu-bio-stub}}

[[it:Peter Sunde]]

Alan Berg

2008-07-21T19:49:57Z

Tkynerd: /* Films and plays inspired by Berg's assassination */ Fix dab, fix punc

'''Alan Berg''' (January, [[1934]] – [[June 18]], [[1984]]), was an [[United States|American]] [[attorney]] turned [[liberal talk radio|liberal]] [[radio]] talk show host from [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]], [[Colorado]]. Berg was known for being abrasive and combative, and his [[debate]]s sometimes turned into shouting matches. He was assassinated in his driveway on [[June 18]], [[1984]] by a [[White Nationalism|White nationalist]] group called [[The Order (group)|The Order]].

==Early life==
A native of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]], Alan Berg attended the [[University of Colorado at Denver]] before transferring to the [[University of Denver]]. At age 22, Berg was one of the youngest people to pass the Illinois [[bar examination]], but he began to experience a series of neuromuscular [[seizure]]s which he believed were caused by job pressures and increasing alcohol dependency. Berg's first wife, Judith Lee Berg (nee Halpern), convinced him to quit his Chicago law practice to seek medical help. They moved to Denver where Berg committed himself at [[St. Joseph's Hospital]]. However, Alan Berg continued to be plagued by seizures and, in [[1976]], he was diagnosed with a [[brain tumor]]. After it was removed, he made a full recovery and his problem with seizures ended.

==Radio career==
Alan Berg later opened a clothing store where he met Laurence Gross, a radio talk show host on KGMC-AM in Denver. Impressed with Berg, Gross made him a guest on several occasions. When Gross took a job in [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], Berg was hired as replacement at Gross's behest.

From KGMC, which had changed to KWBZ, he moved to [[KHOW]] in Denver. After being fired from KHOW, Berg went back to KWBZ before it changed to an all-music format and he was again fired. Berg, now unemployed, was courted by KTOK in [[Oklahoma City]] and WXYZ in [[Detroit]]. He ended up taking a job at [[KOA (AM)|KOA]] in Denver, debuting on [[February 23]], [[1981]] where he remained on the air until his death.

Listeners in more than thirty [[US state|states]] over KOA's 50,000-[[watt]] signal heard Alan Berg's opinions about [[gun control]], [[homosexuality]], [[religion]], [[antisemitism]] and other topics. Berg became notorious for upsetting callers who vociferously disagreed with him to the point of being unable to express themselves which Berg would then further berate. While his style was controversial, in the latter stages of his life, Alan Berg did begin to tone down somewhat. This was especially true after he returned to the airwaves after serving a suspension for berating former Colorado secretary of state [[Ellen Kaplan]] on his show.

==Death==
On [[June 18]], [[1984]], Alan Berg was shot thirteen times in the driveway of his home next to his [[Volkswagen Beetle]]. The murder weapon was reportedly an [[MAC-10|Ingram MAC-10]].

Four members of The Order were indicted, including [[Robert Jay Mathews|Robert Mathews]], who conceived the plan to assassinate Berg, but only the actual shooter, [[Bruce Pierce]], and the getaway driver, [[David Lane (white nationalist)|David Lane]], were convicted. Lane, who called Berg's show at least once and goaded him into an argument, died in prison on [[May 28]], [[2007]] while serving a 190-year sentence for violating Berg's civil rights and [[Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act|Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations statutes]].

Lane, a former [[Ku Klux Klan|klansman]] who joined the [[Neo-Nazism|neo Nazi]]/[[Christian Identity]] group [[Aryan Nations]] steadfastly denied any involvement in Alan Berg's murder, but also never expressed sorrow over it. In the [[The History Channel|History Channel]] documentary, ''Nazi America: A Secret History'', Lane, who had called into Berg's show and deliberately goaded him into an argument, stated: "The only thing I have to say about Alan Berg is: regardless of who did it, he has not mouthed his hate-whitey propaganda from his 50,000-[[watt]] [[Zionism|Zionist]] pulpit for quite a few years."

==Films and plays inspired by Berg's assassination==
Berg's murder was the basis for [[Eric Bogosian|Eric Bogosian's]] [[1987]] play, [[Talk Radio (play)|''Talk Radio'']] and the [[Talk Radio (film)|1988 motion picture adaptation]] directed by [[Oliver Stone]]. Steven Dietz's 1988 play ''God's Country'' and the 1988 film ''[[Betrayed (1988 film)|Betrayed]]'' were also based on the incident.

==Similarity of Berg's assassination to scene in ''The Turner Diaries''==
Alan Berg's assassination is similar to a scene described in the [[1978]] novel, ''[[The Turner Diaries]]'', which was written by [[William Luther Pierce]] (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald). Pierce, a former member of the [[American Nazi Party]] in the mid-1960's, founded the [[National Alliance (United States)|National Alliance]] organization in 1970. ''[[The Turner Diaries]]'' was first published in [[1978]], six years before Berg's murder. In ''[[The Turner Diaries]]'', an unnamed [[Judaism|Jewish]] radio talk show host is shot dead as he steps from his car in his own driveway. The book has also been cited as an inspiration for the [[Oklahoma City Bombing]].

==External links==
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0073686/bio Alan Berg] at the [[IMDb]]
*[http://www.wfmu.org/LCD/GreatDJ/berg.html Talk Radio Assassination!], [[WFMU]] website 1996
*[http://www.citybeat.com/2004-07-14/livingoutloud.shtml "Living Out Loud: Death of a Radiohead"], [[Cincinnati CityBeat]] July 14, 2004
*[http://www.expertclick.com/ProfilePage/default.cfm?GroupID=1345&SearchCriteria=Holocaust&Serial=19-922 Judith Lee Berg], a profile of Alan Berg's widow

{{DEFAULTSORT:Berg, Alan}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:American radio personalities]]
[[Category:Antisemitic attacks and incidents]]
[[Category:American Jews]]
[[Category:Shock jocks]]
[[Category:Murdered entertainers]]
[[Category:People from Denver, Colorado]]
[[Category:Victims of religiously motivated violence in the United States]]
[[Category:Crime in Colorado]]
[[Category:Political violence in the United States]]
[[Category:Assassinated American people]]
[[Category:Liberals]]

[[sv:Alan Berg]]

Universität Ovidius Constanța

2008-06-22T14:20:38Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.76 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Infobox University|
name=Ovidius University|
established=[[1961]]|
type=Public|
rector=Prof. Dr. Victor Ciupina|
students=17,500|
faculty=?|
city=[[Constanţa]]|
country=[[Romania]]|
website=[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro www.univ-ovidius.ro] |
}}

'''Ovidius University''', founded in 1961, offers comprehensive facilities for 17,500 students.

==Faculties==

These are the faculties in which the university is divided into:
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/litere Faculty of Literatures]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/teologie Faculty of Theology]
*[http://www.istorie-constantza.go.ro/ Faculty of History and Political Sciences]
*[http://www.drept.univ-ovidius.ro Faculty of Law and Administrative Sciences]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/faculties/Nat_Science/ Faculty of Natural Sciences]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/sport Faculty of Physical Education and Sport]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/faculties/phys_chem_pe Faculty of Chemistry, Physics and Oil Technology]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/math Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/stec Faculty of Economics]
*[http://www.medcon.ro Faculty of Medicine]
*[http://www.stomapharma.ro Faculty of Dental Medicine]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro Faculty of Pharmacy]
*[http://www.imim.ro Faculty of Mechanical, Industrial and Maritime Engineering]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/faculties/civil_eng/ Faculty of Constructions]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/arte Faculty of Arts]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/psihologie Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences]

==Partner Universities==

Ovidius University of Constanta performs cooperation and student exchanges with many universities. It has signed cooperation agreements with the following international universities
<ref>http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/socrates/candidati.htm Programul Socrates: Linkuri Utile]</ref>:

{{flagicon|Bulgaria}} [[Higher School International College-Albena]], [[Bulgaria]]

{{flagicon|Bulgaria}} [[Technical University of Varna]], [[Bulgaria]]

{{flagicon|Bulgaria}} [[University of Veliko Turnovo]], [[Bulgaria]]

{{flagicon|Germany}} [[TECHNISCHE UNIVERAITAT BRAUNSCHWEIG]], [[Germany]]

{{flagicon|Germany}} [[GEORG-AUGUST-UNIVERSITAT GOTTINGEN]], [[Germany]]

{{flagicon|Germany}} [[CHRISTIAN-ALBRECHTS-UNIVERSITAT ZU KIEL]], [[Germany]]

{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[TIETGEN BUSINESS COLLEGE]], [[Denmark]]

{{flagicon|Spain}} [[University of Barcelona]], [[Spain]]

and a lot of other universities from [[France]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[The Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Portugal]], [[Poland]], [[Sweden]], [[Slovakia]] and [[Turkey]].

==Trivia==
* According to [[alexa.com]], 4.6% of the visitors of Ovidius University's website are from [[South Africa]].
* Currently there are 2 programs offered in [[English language|english]]: [[Cultural Studies]] and [[Mathematics]].
* [[As of 2008]], students coming from: [[Moldova]], [[Turkey]], [[India]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[South Africa]] are enrolled as international students.
* The tuition fee for international students, for an academic undergraduate year, varies from $3200 for technical, economics, humanities, agronomy, sport programs, $3500 for medical and pharmaceutic programs, $4700 for musical and artistic programs, to $7600 for dramatic arts, theatrical and film direction.<ref>http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/admission/admission-requirements-ovidius-university-2007.php </ref>
* [[PhD]] programs are offered in English, [[French language|French]] or [[Romanian language|Romanian]] <ref>http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/admission/phd-programs.php </ref>.
* Usually, international students learn Romanian during a preparatory year. The candidates who speak Romanian can skip the preparatory year after having passed a test of Romanian language. The candidates, who can formally prove that they have studied in Romanian for at least four years consecutively, do not need to pass the Romanian language test or to attend the preparatory year.

==References==

<references/>

==See also==
{{commonscat|University of Craiova}}
* [[History of Romanian education]]
* [[List of universities in Romania]]

==External links==
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/ Ovidius University of Constanta Website]
*[http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/socrates/candidati.htm]

{{UniversitiesinRomania}}
{{Romania-struct-stub}}
{{Euro-university-stub}}
[[Category:Universities in Romania]]

Walt Disney World Railroad

2008-06-11T02:51:39Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.76 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Infobox Disney ride
|name=Walt Disney World Railroad
|image= Magic Kingdom - Walt Disney World Railroad poster.jpg
|caption=
|park=[[Magic Kingdom]]
|land=
|designer=
|manufacturer=
|type=
|theme=
|control_system=
|propulsion=
|soft_opened=
|opened=October 1, 1971
|closed=
|host=
|music=
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The '''Walt Disney World Railroad''' is a [[narrow gauge railway|narrow gauge railroad]] circling the [[Magic Kingdom]] theme park at [[Walt Disney World Resort]]. Operated by Main Street Operations, the {{RailGauge|36}} gauge, 1.5-mile (2.4 km) railroad circles the entire park with stations at [[Main Street, U.S.A.]], [[Frontierland]], and [[Mickey's Toontown Fair]]. One of the busiest steam-powered railroads in the country, it transports over 1.5 million passengers each year.

==History==
[[Walt Disney]] was an avid railroad enthusiast, who had built a miniature steam railroad, called the [[Carolwood Pacific Railroad]] in his backyard. A full-size, narrow gauge railroad known as the [[Disneyland Railroad]] had been included in the design of [[Disneyland]], and would be included in later parks in [[Paris]] and [[Tokyo]].

Disney scouts, lead by [[Roger Broggie]], purchased five locomotives from [[Ferrocarrilles Unidos de Yucatan]] (United Railways of Yucatan) on Mexico's [[Yucatan]] peninsula in 1968. One of the five was deemed to be in too poor a condition to be restored and was later sold; the other four were brought to Tampa Shipyards in [[Tampa, Florida]] and restored by a crew headed by Disney imagineer and accomplished live steam builder [[Bob Harpur]]. New [[diesel]] boilers were constructed for the trains by Dixon Boiler Works of [[Los Angeles, California]] and the trains themselves were cosmetically backdated to appear older, including the use of bright colors and polished brass. The trains went into use with the opening of Walt Disney World on [[October 1]], [[1971]].

During 1989–1990, the train played different versions of a song called "Mickey's Birthdayland Express" and "Rollin' on the Walt Disney World Express". After arriving at Frontierland, it went to Duckberg Station in what was then named Mickey's Birthdayland. During November 1990–1991, when [[Splash Mountain]] was under construction, the train only had one destination: it went backwards to Mickey's Starland, and then back to the Main Street U.S.A. station.

In recent years it has become necessary for the locomotives and some of the passenger cars to be overhauled. Key modifications to the passenger coaches in the past have involved removing the PA system/conductor's panel from a position on the rear of the third car, leaving the panel on a deck at the rear of the train for safer operation. Side panels were also recently added to the outside-facing sides of the coaches to keep passengers' legs (and other body parts) from reaching out the sides of the cars.

== Trains ==
The railroad has four different [[locomotive]]s and four sets of [[Passenger car (rail)|passenger car]]s. The four locomotives are rebuilt narrow-gauge locomotives, originally built more than seventy years ago by the [[Baldwin Locomotive Works]] of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]].

The railroad rosters four complete trainsets. A regular train consists of a steam locomotive, tender, and five passenger cars with a capacity of approximately 360 passengers and 2 wheelchairs. The tender has a capacity for 1,837 U.S. gallons (6,953 l) of water and 664 U.S. gallons (2,513 l) of fuel oil. The tender needs to be topped off with water every two or three trips (or circuits) around the park. The water tower is located at the Mickey's Toontown Fair station.

== Locomotives ==

Each of the four locomotives is named after those who greatly contributed to the efforts of the Disney Company and Walt Disney World.

===No. 1 "Walter E. Disney"===
[[Image:Walt Disney World Railroad train.jpg|thumb|right|"Walter E. Disney"]]

This locomotive is named for the man behind the mouse, Walt Disney (1901-1966). Walt loved railroads and his parks have always displayed his love for trains.

* Built: 1925
* Wheel Configuration: [[4-6-0]] "Ten-Wheeler"
* Construction: 58444
* Locomotive Colors: Red
* Driver Diameter: 44 inches (111 cm)
* Locomotive and Tender Weight (dry): 67000 pounds (30,390 kg)

===No. 2 "Lilly Belle"===

[[Image:Lilly Belle on track.jpg|thumb|right|"Lilly Belle"]]

The Lilly Belle is named after Walt Disney's wife [[Lillian Disney]] (born Lillian Marie Bounds) (1899-1997). "Lilly Belle" is also the name of the scaled-down steam locomotive Disney ran in his own backyard and the parlour car of the [[Disneyland Railroad]].

* Built: 1928
* Wheel Configuration: [[2-6-0]] "Mogul"
* Construction Number : 60598
* Locomotive Color: Green
* Driver Diameter: 44 inches (111 cm)
* Locomotive and Tender Weight (dry): 61000 pounds (27,669 kg)

Lilly Belle has been retired from day to day passenger service and has been made the show train. All cars on her train except for the last do not have the new side plates. She is steamed up for the opening show where she brings Mickey Mouse and company to the front entrance. She is then brought back to the roundhouse and put on standby. Should one of the other trains have a problem, Lilly Belle would be attached to the other train's cars, since it takes several hours to add or remove the siding.

It should also be noted that Lilly Belle was built in 1928, which would make her as old as Mickey Mouse.

===No. 3 "Roger E. Broggie"===
[[Image:Roger E Broggie on track.jpg|thumb|right|"Roger E. Broggie"]]

This locomotive is named after [[Roger E. Broggie]] (1908-1991), who led the effort of acquiring the locomotives for the Walt Disney World Railroad and helped build Disney's own Carolwood Pacific Railroad. Roger Broggie was also the original Disney [[Imagineer]] who worked on the [[EPCOT]] Project.

* Built: 1925
* Wheel Configuration: [[4-6-0]] "Ten Wheeler"
* Construction: 58445
* Locomotive Colors: Red/Green
* Driver Diameter: 44 inches (111 cm)
* Locomotive and Tender Weight (dry): 67000 pounds (30,390 kg)

===No. 4 "Roy O. Disney"===
[[Image:Walt disney world railroad no 4.jpg|thumb|right|"Roy O. Disney" at the Mickey's Toontown Fair station.]]
The Number 4 locomotive is named after Walt Disney's older brother and business partner, [[Roy Oliver Disney]](1893-1971). Roy saw to the completion of his brother's dream after Walt's death in 1966 and completed the construction of then named "Disney World." Roy renamed the resort in Walt's honor to "Walt Disney World" and died just shortly after the Magic Kingdom opened in 1971.

* Year Built: 1916
* Wheel Configuration: [[4-4-0]] "American"
* Serial Number: 42915
* Locomotive Colors: Red/Green
* Driver Diameter: 46 inches (116 cm)
* Locomotive and Tender Weight (dry): 51000 pounds (23,133 kg)

==Operation==
The railroad operates daily, taking its first passengers at 9 AM, year-round. In the past, for safety reasons, it was closed during the fireworks show due to its proximity to the staging area (about 100 yards (91 m) or so behind [[Fantasyland]]). Currently the policy is to remove the trains back to the roundhouse one hour before fireworks. The trains do not operate during special events such as [[Grad Nite]], Night of Joy, Mickey's Pirate and Princess Party and [[Mickey's Very Merry Christmas Party]].

A round trip on the WDWRR is usually 20 minutes.

==Crew==
Each locomotive is manned by three Disney "cast members," a Conductor, an engineer, and a fireman. The engineer is charged with operation of the locomotive and the fireman is responsible for maintaining the fire as well as water level in the boiler.

The Conductors are responsible for the operation and safety of each station and the trains. Duties as station attendants involve passenger counts, answering questions and assisting passengers. While on the train the conductor runs the spiel box and makes safety announcements. Trains cannot move without approval from the conductor. The conductors work in rotation.

There are three different rotations that conductors can be assigned to. Conductors are in each spot of the rotation for 20 minutes. The rotation is also assigned a train. The two main rotations, called roundhouses, are called roundhouse one and roundhouse 2. Roundhouse one is responsible for fronterland greeter, station and train 1. Roundhouse two is responsible for main street and toontown station and train 2. When there is a third train, only one conductor works that train, the third train is staffed by 1 conductor, a fireman, an engineer, and a breaker who rotates to each position breaking the other cast members for one trip.
===Opening===
Early in the morning the first crew arrives at the [[enginehouse]] to get the first train ready to depart. The maintenance crew will mark on the board which trains are to be used and the order they are to be removed from the roundhouse.

The first crew will prep and take out the first train listed. A crew consists of 3 individuals: the engineer (charged with operation of the locomotive), the fireman (charged with operation of the boiler to provide the steam for the locomotive to operate), and the conductor (charged with management and safe operation of the train and its passengers). Safety and readiness checks are performed by the conductor as the enginemen prepare the locomotive for a day of operation, known as [[hostling]].

As the atomizer requires around 30 pounds/inch² (200 [[Pascal (unit)|kPa]]) of steam pressure to operate, a compressed air line must be tapped into the atomizer line when the fire is first lit until enough steam has been raised to re-light the fire atomizing on steam. The conductor, who is in charge of the train and its motion at all times, will inspect the track and arrangement of the switches in the yard outside of the roundhouse to ensure the train will have safe passage out of the roundhouse all the way to the park.

Once the boiler has reached working pressure and the engineers are ready to go, they will signal using the forward motion whistle (2 short whistles). After a reply from the conductor's buzzer (2 short buzzes) recognizing the whistle signal, the train will proceed into the park.

At different times during the trip into the park the engineers will test the safety systems on the train. The two main tests include intentionally popping the safety valves and running the train and running a red block light. The safety valves are set to release excess steam to maintain the boiler's maximum certified working pressure. Running the block light will trigger the brakes automatically, and this system is tested daily to insure it is working properly. These two tests are considered the most important to ensure safe operation of these steam trains. After the first train is on the line the second is not far behind. As this is going on, other conductors arrive at the stations in the park and prepare for the trains' arrival.

===In Service===
When the park opens, the first train departs from Main Street Station. The second will be just behind; at the block light between Toontown Fair and Main Street stations or in the Toontown Fair station. Typically, two trains are used daily, with a third sometimes coming out on busy days later in the morning.

Each lap around the Magic Kingdom should be completed in approximately 20 minutes. This timing is established and maintained by the first train. The second and third trains keep up with the first train as much as possible. The goal is to have the first train at Main Street Station on the hour and at :20 and :40 past. If the trains fall behind, they will need to catch up or drop behind a lap to get the first train to the top of the hour. This is necessary to facilitate proper closing procedures on the park's schedule.

====Block Signals====
The block signals let the engineers and conductor know the position of the trains on the system. The block signals on the WDWRR resemble a typical traffic light with three lights that are green, yellow, and red. On the main line there are six blocks. Three of them are the stations which include some length of track before the station. The other three blocks are spread out with one between each station.

The lights typically change in this order in both directions:
Green <--> Yellow/Green <--> Red <--> Yellow/Red

* Green Only; The next 2 blocks are completely clear. It is safe to proceed.
* Yellow and Green; The next block is clear, however, the block beyond is occupied. It is safe to proceed, but be prepared to stop at the next block.
* Red Only; The next block is occupied and it is not safe to proceed past this point.
* Yellow and Red; The next 2 blocks are both occupied; it is not safe to proceed past this point.

In a two train operation the conductors will not allow the train to proceed on a Yellow/Green signal. This keeps the trains spaced for more consistent service in the stations and prevents the train from having to stop in between stations. In a three train operation conductors can move trains on the yellow/green signal. The reason for this is because there will almost always be a train in the second block ahead. Four train operations are not possible as there is not enough space, nor are there enough blocks to do so safely.

====Whistles====
As with any railroad, the whistles you hear all have meaning as they are warning/signaling devices. Many guests are unaware that whistles/horns' primary purpose was in fact communication. On the WDWRR, engineers use the whistle to communicate while the conductor uses the same patterns with a button which activates a buzzer in the cab of the locomotive. While the train is operated as a team, the conductor has the final say in the operation of the train; he is in command. At the stations, engineers will request to depart by signaling with 2 short whistles. The conductor will signal it is safe to do so by buzzing the cab with two short buzzes. The common whistles on the WDWRR are listed below:

* One Short - Attention
* Two Short – Forward Movement
* Three Short – Reverse Movement
* One Long, One Short – Approaching Station
* One Long, Two Short – Crew spotted along track. (Also used as a general greeting)
* Two Long, One Short, One Long – Public Crossing ahead.
* Two Long, One Short – Meeting Point (Junction)
* One Long – Stop Immediately / Emergent stop.
* Four Long – Train in distress.

The train bell is rung upon the train's arrival towards a station as well as on its departure from it. As with the whistle, the bell being rung is an official and mandatory signaling sequence. This method is also used at the [[Disneyland Railroad]].

===Closing===
At the end of the evening the conductors announce the departure of the last train. All guests can ride until the train arrives back at Main Street. Once back at Main Street the conductors walk the length of the train to ensure that there are no passengers remaining and any items left behind are unloaded to the station attendants and brought to lost and found. The procedure is the same for all trains.

After the train is cleared for departure, the conductor will signal the engineers with the forward movement signal. The train then departs for the Toontown Fair station. As the train passes through Frontierland, the station attendants can give a "thumbs up" indicating that they would like to jump aboard and will do so while the train is in motion. Once a train arrives at Toontown, the conductor jumps off and throws the switch to allow the train to back to the roundhouse.

At this point the engineer relies on the conductor to guide the train to back towards the enginehouse. The fireman will jump off the train to throw the Toontown switch back to allow another train to leave if one remains, otherwise the switch is left where it is. At each switch and crossing the conductor will signal to let the engineer know that the train successfully cleared a switch and can continue. This continues until the train is backed completely into the roundhouse.

==Other Information==
*The Walter E. Disney and Roger Broggie locomotives have serial numbers that are sequential (58444 and 58445). These locomotives were on the shop floor at the same time in 1925 for the U de Y and still operate together to this day. They are referred to as the "twins" because of this.

*During locomotive refurbishing, it was common to see the passenger cars from one locomotive to be placed on another. While most guests wouldn't notice such a switch, railroad cast members behind the scenes often referred to these trains with a hybrid name. Examples include - "Roger Disney”, "Walter Broggie", "Walter Belle" and many other confusing combinations.

* The Magic Kingdom offers a behind the scenes tour of the Walt Disney World Railroad on select days of the week, called "The Magic Behind our Steam Trains" It is recommended that you reserve spots in advance if you wish to attend. Park Admission is required.

*Originally, a fifth locomotive was brought up from [[Mexico]]. It had been displayed in a park across from the railroad tracks in Merida and brought to Tampa with the other four, however, was found to be in poor shape and was not restored. It was sold to a party in California and its disposition is unknown. It was presumed scrapped.

*In 1995, Southern California railroad enthusiast Bill Norred traded his 1927 Davenport locomotive (a 2-4-4 Forney type) to Disneyland in exchange for the five retired clerestory-roofed "Retlaw One" coaches. The locomotive was instead sent to Walt Disney World after deemed too large to operate in California and was dedicated as #5 "Ward Kimball". Unfortunately, the locomotive never pulled a public train on the WDWRR as it was found to be far too small for operation on the WDWRR. It was displayed at Epcot during Black History Month in 1996, and later returned to the WDWRR enginehouse. It was traded in 1999 to [[Cedar Point]] for a smaller Forney locomotive which was restored and is now Disneyland Railroad #5 "Ward Kimball".

* On the trip from Mickey's ToonTown to the Main Street U.S.A., "Night Fire Dance" by [[Andreas Vollenweider]] from the old Tomorrowland area music can be heard during the narration.

* There are several areas built for viewing on the train, including an Indian camp.

* Just before arriving at the Frontierland depot, trains pass through [[Splash Mountain]], where one of the ride's show scenes is visible.

* Guests may be able to spot a hidden "[[hidden Mickey]]" along the track between Main Street and Frontierland.

==See also==
*[[Magic Kingdom attraction and entertainment history]]
* [[Disneyland Railroad]]
* [[List of heritage railroads in the United States]]

==External links==
*[http://disneyworld.disney.go.com/wdw/parks/attractionDetail?id=WaltDisneyWorldRailroadAttractionPage Walt Disney World Resort - Walt Disney World Railroad]
*[http://railfanning.org/trackside/wdw.htm Railfanning.org: The Walt Disney World Railroad]

{{MK}}

[[Category:Disney attractions]]
[[Category:Magic Kingdom]]
[[Category:Railways of amusement parks]]
[[Category:Heritage railroads in Florida]]
[[Category:Three foot gauge railways]]

[[fr:Walt Disney World Railroad]]

Jordbro

2008-05-22T17:45:15Z

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{{Ortsfakta Sverige|kommun=[[Haninge kommun]]|län=[[Stockholms län]]|församling=[[Österhaninge församling]]|invår=2005|areaår=2005|invtotalt=9 316|areaort=449 hektar|landskap=[[Södermanland]]|koor1=|koor2=|fotnot=Befolknings- och arealfakta från [[SCB]]<ref>Statistik från [[SCB]]: [http://www.scb.se/MI0810 Tätorter; arealer, befolkning 2005]</ref> (uppdaterad 10 maj 2008)|koordinat={{coord|59|09|N|18|07|E|region:SE_type:city}}}}

'''Jordbro''' är en [[tätort]] och kommundel i [[Haninge kommun]] på [[Södertörn]] i [[Stockholms län]].

Jordbro delas av på mitten av järnvägen ([[Nynäsbanan]]). Strax öster om Jordbro passerar väg 73, "[[Nynäsvägen]]", som går mellan Stockholm och Nynäshamn.

Öster om Jordbro station ligger ett bostadsområde som består dels av ett hyreshusområde i centrala Jordbro, byggt mestadels under 1960- och 1970-talen, dels av något yngre villaområden i både i norr och söder. År 2007 hade Jordbro cirka 9700 invånare.

I det relativt stora industriområdet "Jordbro företagspark" som ligger väster om bostadsområdet och järnvägen, finns ett stort antal lager- och industrilokaler i varierande storlekar. Bland annat finns där huvudkontor och produktionsanläggning för Coca-Cola samt distributionslager för Dagab, Lagena, Osram och Åhlens.

Väster om industriområdet ligger skogsområdet [[Hanveden]].

Strax söder om Jordbro ligger [[Jordbro gravfält]], mellan Jordbro och [[Västerhaninge]]. Det antas att gravfältet var i bruk cirka 500 f.Kr. - 500 e.Kr. (det vill säga, långt före vikingatiden). Söder om det stora gravfältet ligger ett mindre naturreservat, [[Gullringskärret]].

Skolor i Jordbro: Jordbromalmsskolan (högstadieskola) samt Lundaskolan, Kvarnbäcksskolan och Montessoriskolan Fredsduvan som är låg- och mellanstadieskolor.

I dokumentärfilmen ''[[Från en barndomsvärld]]'' från 1973, började filmaren [[Rainer Hartleb]] följa ett antal familjer i Jordbro, något han fortsatt med i över 30 år. Filmen ''[[En pizza i Jordbro]]'' (1994) vann en [[guldbagge]]. Baggen donerade Hartleb till pizzerian vid [[Höglundabadet]], där den finns att beskåda. Hartleb har senare producerat nya filmer där han följer Jordbro-barnens liv.

Jordbro kallades på 60 och 70-talet för Jordbroslavien på grund av att majoriteten av Jordbros [[immigranter]] var ifrån före detta Jugoslavien dvs. [[Serbien]], [[Bosnien]], [[Kroatien]] och [[Montenegro]]. Nu är dock immigrationen blandad.

Något som också kännetecknar Jordbro till skillnad från många andra "miljonprogramsbyggen" är att det har värnats om grönytor och små skogsområden i hela boende området, och en vacker körsbärs allé i centrum.

==Noter==
<references/>

{{Pendeltåg}}

[[Kategori:Haninge kommun]]

[[en:Jordbro]]
[[nl:Jordbro]]
[[no:Jordbro]]

Bodil Ipsen

2008-05-11T14:46:33Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.75 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Infobox actor
| name = '''Bodil Ipsen'''
| image = Replace this image female.svg 
| imagesize = 150px
| caption =
| birthname = '''Bodil Louise Jensen Ipsen'''
| birthdate = {{Birth date|1889|8|30}}
| birthplace = Copenhagen, Denmark
| deathdate = {{Death date|1964|11|26}}
| deathplace = Copenhagen, Denmark
| othername =
| occupation = Actor, Director
| yearsactive = 1909–1960
| spouse =
| domesticpartner =
| website =
| academyawards =
| awards = {{awd|Cannes Grand Prize|1946|De Røde Enge}} {{awd|Bodil Award|1951|Cafe Paradis}} {{awd|Bodil Award|1953|De Sande Ansigt}} {{awd|Bodil Best Actress|1960|Tro, Håb og Trolddom}}

}}

'''Bodil Ipsen''' ([[1889]]–[[1964]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] actress and director, whose name along with that of [[Bodil Kjer]] is given to Denmark's oldest and most celebrated film prize, the [[Bodil Award]].

==Biography==

'''Bodil Louise Jensen Ipsen''' was born on August 30 1889 in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]. In 1908, after obtaining her high school diploma, Ipsen began studying at The Royal Theater and made her stage debut there one year later. Her work on stage quickly received attention. Especially noted was her work in 1915 with Danish actor[[ Poul Reumert]].<ref>{{cite web
| title = Bodil Ipsen
| publisher =Grave Site
| url = http://www.gravsted.dk/person.php?navn=bodilipsen
| accessdate =2008-05-08 }}
</ref>
Throughout her career, Ipsen performed at The Royal Theater as well as the Dagmar Theater, The Folketeatret, and The Batty Nansen Theater. She also performed on stage in Sweden and Norway.

In 1920, Ipsen made her film debut as a leading actress in ''Lavinen,'' directed by her third husband, [[Emmanuel Gregers]]. She made films with Gregers in 1922 and 1923. Off and on, she acted in 12 films during her career. However, she became a director in 1942 and directed 10 films in 10 years. These included five films she co-directed with [[Lau Lauritzen]]. Their second film, ''[[De Røde Enge]]'' (''The Red Meadows''), about the Nazi Occupation in Denmark received the 1946 Grand Prize at the Cannes Film Festival. In 1950, Ipsen and Lauritzen again won acclaim for their film ''[[Cafe Paradis]]'' (''Paradise Cafe''). The harsh story about alcoholism is considered a masterpiece of Danish cinema, and for which Ipsen won her namesake award, the [[Bodil]], named after her and fellow actress, [[Bodil Kjer]]. Two years later, Ipsen and Lauritzen again won the [[Bodil]] for best film for ''[[De Sande Ansigt]]''.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Bodil Ipsen
| publisher = IMDb
| url = http://akas.imdb.com/name/nm0409741/
| accessdate =2008-05-08 }}
</ref>

Ipsen's steady career on stage was offset by a volatile personal life. She was married four times. Ipsen was married first in 1910 with the actor, Jacob Texière; then in 1914 with civil engineer H.H.O. Moltke; in 1919 with film director [[Emanuel Gregers]]; and in 1932 with journalist Ejnar Black.

In 1960, at age 71, Ipsen was awarded the [[Bodil]] again, this time as Leading Actress of the Year for the film ''[[Tro, Håb og Trolddom]].'' Ipsen retired afterwards. She died on November 26, 1964 in Copenhagen.

The movie ''[[Bodil Ipsen og Filmen]]'' (''Bodil Ipsen and the Film''), released in 2006, is a portrait of her life and career.

==Filmography==
'''Actress:''' 

* ''[[Lavinen]]'' (1920)
* ''[[Frie fugle]]'' (1922)
* ''[[Madsalune]]'' (1923)
* ''[[Paustians Uhr]]'' - [[1932 in movies|(1932)]]
* ''[[Det gyldne smil]]'' - [[1935 in movies|1935]]
* ''[[Bolettes brudefærd]]'' - [[1938 in movies|1938]]
* ''[[Sørensen og Rasmussen]]'' - [[1940 in movies|1940]]
* ''[[Gå med mig hjem]]'' - [[1941 in movies|1941]]
* ''[[Forellen]]'' - [[1942 in movies|1942]]
* ''[[Ingen tid til kærtegn]]'' - [[1957 in movies|1957]]
* ''[[Tro, håb og trolddom]]'' - [[1960 in movies|1960]]

'''Director:''' 
* ''[[Afsporet]]'' [[1942 in movies|1942]]
* ''[[En Herre i kjole og hvidt]]'' (aka ''[[A Gentleman in Top Hat and Tails]]'') [[1942 in movies|1942]]
* ''[[Drama på slottet]]'' [[1943 in movies|1943]]
* ''[[Mordets melodi]]'' (aka ''[[Murder Melody]]'') [[1944 in movies|1944]]
* ''[[Besættelse]]'' [[1944 in movies|1944]]
* ''[[De røde enge]]'' (aka ''[[La Terre sera rouge]]'' (France), ''[[Earth will be red]]'' (UK) ''The Red Meadows'' (USA) [[1945 in movies|1945]]
* ''[[Bröllopsnatten]]'' (aka ''Wedding Night'') [[1947 in movies|1947]]
* ''[[Støt står den danske sømand]]'' [[1948 in movies|1948]]
* ''[[Café Paradis]]'' (aka ''[[Cafe Paradise]]'') [[1950 in movies|1950]]
* ''[[Det sande ansigt]]'' [[1951 in movies|1951]] 

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{imdb name|id=0409741|name=Bodil Ipsen}} 

 

{{CinemaofDenmark}}

{{Denmark-actor-stub}}
{{euro-film-director-stub}}

[[da:Bodil Ipsen]]
[[fr:Bodil Ipsen]]
[[sv:Bodil Ipsen]]

[[category: danish actors|Ipsen, Bodil]]
[[category: danish film actors|Ipsen, Bodil]]

Cajsa Warg

2008-05-03T16:20:10Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.75 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

'''Cajsa or Kajsa (Anna Christina) Warg''', ([[23 March]] [[1703]] in [[Örebro]]- [[5 February]] [[1769]] in [[Stockholm]]), was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] cookery book author. She is the best known historical cook and cookery book author in her country's history.

Anna Christina Warg was born in [[Örebro]] to accountant Anders Warg and Karin Livijn. She left home early to be the cook and house keeper of several powerful people in Stockholm, such as count [[Wolter Reinhold von Stackelberg]], called ”the greatest glutton of his time”.

In [[1755]] she published was was to be a very long lived classic of the kitchen: ''Hjelpreda I Hushållningen För Unga Fruentimber,'' followed by a long row of new versions, of which the last version was printed in 1822. The book contained not only recipes but also such things as coloring of textiles and other things concerning a household. It was to be the leading household guide for generations, until the new equipment for a kitchen outdated it in the 20th century. It also describes the Swedish kitchen before the use of potatoes, which makes it an important historical document.

Cajsa Warg is famous for the saying: "You take what you can get, says Cajsa Warg"; the original phrase was: "You take what it is you possess...", which she mentions in several recipes.

==References==
* Österberg, Carin m.fl., ''Svenska kvinnor: föregångare, nyskapare.'' Lund: [[Signum]] (1990) ISBN 91-87896-03-6

{{DEFAULTSORT:Warg, Cajsa}}
[[Category:1703 births]]
[[Category:1769 deaths]]
[[Category:Women writers (18th century)]]
[[Category:Swedish chefs]]
[[sv:Cajsa Warg]]

Jacoby Shaddix

2008-05-03T15:35:10Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.75 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Infobox musical artist
|Img=Replace this image male.svg  |
|Name = Jacoby Shaddix
||Img_capt =
|Img_size =
|Background = solo_singer
|Birth_name = Jacoby Dakota Shaddix
|Alias = '''Jacoby Shaddix''' Coby Dick Dakota Gold Jonny Vodka John Doe Mr. Dick.
|Born = {{birth date and age|1976|7|28}}
|Origin = [[Vacaville, California|Vacaville]], [[California]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|Instrument = [[Vocals]]
|Genre = [[Post-Hardcore]], [[Alternative Rock]] , [[Talk:Papa Roach#Genre Controversy|Unresolved subgenres]]
|Occupation = [[Songwriter]] [[Singer]]
|Years_active = 1993 - Present
|Label = Geffen Records
|Associated_acts = [[Papa Roach]] [[Fight the Sky]]
|URL =
|Current_members = Jacoby Shaddix [[Jerry Horton]] [[Tobin Esperance]] [[Dave Buckner]]
|Past_members =
}}

'''Jacoby Dakota Shaddix''' (born [[July 28]], [[1976]], in [[Vacaville, California|Vacaville]], [[California]]) is the lead singer of the [[alternative rock]] band [[Papa Roach]]. He also goes by the [[pseudonym]]s '''Coby Dick''' (used on the ''[[Infest (album)|Infest]]'' album) and '''Jonny Vodka''' but he only used Coby Dick until 2001. He also calls himself '''Dakota Gold'''. Jacoby is also working on a side project in the [[post-hardcore]] band, [[Fight the Sky]], where he originally used the name '''John Doe'''. He is also working as the host for [[MTV]]'s ''[[Scarred]]''.

Jacoby Shaddix went to Vacaville High School in [[Vacaville, California]]. He is fluent in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[English language|English]]

==Personal life==

Shaddix has admittedly taken part in [[self-injury|self-mutilation]], which once led him to a [[Las Vegas metropolitan area|Las Vegas]] hospital where he had to have 11 staples put in his head.<ref name=mtv>Montgomery, James & D'Angelo, Joe. [http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1492204/20041012/story.jhtml "Papa Roach Ready To Take Their Rock Anthems On The Road"] MTV.com (October 12, 2004).</ref> He has also struggled with alcohol addiction during his career.<ref name=telegram>McLennan, Scott. [http://www.telegram.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20061105/COLUMN14/611050418/1110 "Living a rock 'n' roll fantasy"] Telegram.com (November 5, 2006).</ref>

Shaddix has many tattoos; one of which, reads "Here Lies Jacoby Dakota Shaddix" and, at the bottom of the scroll, "Born With Nothing, Die With Everything." His neck bears the [[Chinese character]] for "love", which he explained in an edition of ''[[MTV Cribs]]'' that featured his home. He also has tattoos on both of his hands. His right hand says "love", and his left hand says "hate". Shaddix has been known to closely follow various fashion [[Fads and trends|trends]] of a given period (i.e. [[Ray-Ban Aviator|Aviator sunglasses]] and black [[nail polish]] in 2002, a [[scarf]] and [[Jack Daniel's]] T-shirt in [[2005]]).
He is married to Kelly Shaddix and has two sons, Makaile Cielo Shaddix and Jagger Shaddix.

==Discography==
Studio albums with [[Papa Roach]]:
{{main|Papa Roach discography}}

* "''[[Infest (album)|Infest]]''", 2000
* "''[[Lovehatetragedy]]''", 2002
* "''[[Getting Away with Murder (album)|Getting Away with Murder]]''", 2004
* "''[[The Paramour Sessions]]''", 2006

Studio albums with [[Fight the Sky]]:

* "''Seven Deadly Songs''", 2003

==Guest appearances==
* 2003 – "Anxiety" – [[Black Eyed Peas]] album, ''[[Elephunk]]''
* 2003 – "Conquer The World" – [[Die Trying (band)|Die Trying]] album, ''[[Die Trying (album)|Die Trying]]''
* 2003 – "Oxygen's Gone" – The video of ''Die Trying's'' sencillo
* 2003 – "Come Apart" – Reach 454 album, ''Reach 454''
* 2003 – "Don't Look Back" – [[Biker Boyz]] [[Soundtrack]] (feat. [[N.E.R.D.]])
* 2005 – "Forever In Our Hearts" – ''[[Tsunami|Tsunami Relief]]'' single
* 2006 – "Americans" – [[X-Clan]] album, ''[[Return From Mecca]]''
* 2006 – "Phoenix and the Fall" – [[Fight of Your Life]]- Próximo álbum
* 2007 – "Forgot How To Love" – ''[[Mams Taylor]]'' - Próximo álbum
* 2008 – "Saints of Los Angeles" – ''[[Mötley Crüe]]'' - Saints of Los Angeles album

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Papa Roach}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shaddix, Jacoby}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American rock singers]]
[[Category:American male singers]]
[[Category:American television personalities]]
[[Category:People from Solano County, California]]
[[Category:California musicians]]

[[da:Jacoby Dakota Shaddix]]
[[es:Jacoby Shaddix]]
[[fi:Jacoby Shaddix]]
[[fr:Jacoby Shaddix]]
[[it:Jacoby Shaddix]]
[[no:Jacoby Shaddix]]
[[pl:Jacoby Shaddix]]
[[pt:Jacoby Shaddix]]
[[ru:Джекоби Шэддикс]]

Jordbro

2008-04-04T04:26:26Z

Tkynerd: Kroatiens --> Kroatien

{{Ortsfakta Sverige|kommun=[[Haninge kommun]]|län=[[Stockholms län]]|församling=[[Österhaninge församling]]|invår=2005|areaår=2005|invtotalt=9 316|areaort=449 hektar|landskap=[[Södermanland]]|koor1=59_09_N_18_07_E|koor2=59° 09' N 18° 07' Ö|fotnot=Befolknings- och arealfakta från [[SCB]]<ref>Statistik från [[SCB]]: [http://www.scb.se/MI0810 Tätorter; arealer, befolkning 2005]</ref> (uppdaterad 2008-03-10)}}

'''Jordbro''' är en [[tätort]] och kommundel i [[Haninge kommun]] på [[Södertörn]] i [[Stockholms län]].

Jordbro delas av på mitten av järnvägen ([[Nynäsbanan]]). Strax öster om Jordbro passerar väg 73, "[[Nynäsvägen]]", som går mellan Stockholm och Nynäshamn.

Öster om Jordbro station ligger ett bostadsområde som består dels av ett hyreshusområde i centrala Jordbro, byggt mestadels under 1960- och 1970-talen, dels av något yngre villaområden i både i norr och söder. År 2003 hade Jordbro cirka 9300 invånare.

I det relativt stora industriområdet "Jordbro företagspark" som ligger väster om bostadsområdet och järnvägen, finns ett stort antal lager- och industrilokaler i varierande storlekar. Bland annat finns där huvudkontor och produktionsanläggning för Coca-Cola samt distributionslager för Dagab, Lagena, Osram och Åhlens.

Väster om industriområdet ligger skogsområdet [[Hanveden]].

Strax söder om Jordbro ligger [[Jordbro gravfält]], mellan Jordbro och [[Västerhaninge]]. Det antas att gravfältet var i bruk cirka 500 f.Kr. - 500 e.Kr. (det vill säga, långt före vikingatiden). Söder om det stora gravfältet ligger ett mindre naturreservat, [[Gullringskärret]].

Skolor i Jordbro: Jordbromalmsskolan (högstadieskola) samt Lundaskolan, Kvarnbäcksskolan och Montessoriskolan Fredsduvan som är låg- och mellanstadieskolor.

I dokumentärfilmen ''[[Från en barndomsvärld]]'' från 1973, började filmaren [[Rainer Hartleb]] följa ett antal familjer i Jordbro, något han fortsatt med i över 30 år. Filmen ''[[En pizza i Jordbro]]'' (1994) vann en [[guldbagge]]. Baggen donerade Hartleb till pizzerian vid [[Höglundabadet]], där den finns att beskåda. Hartleb har senare producerat nya filmer där han följer Jordbro-barnens liv.

Jordbro kallades på 60 och 70-talet för Jordbroslavien på grund av att majoriteten av Jordbros [[immigranter]] var ifrån före detta Jugoslavien dvs. [[Serbien]], [[Bosnien]], [[Kroatien]] och [[Montenegro]]. Nu är dock immigrationen blandad.

==Noter==
<references/>

{{Pendeltåg}}

[[Kategori:Haninge kommun]]

[[en:Jordbro]]

Jordbro

2008-04-04T04:24:45Z

Tkynerd: produktionsanlänning --> produktionsanläggning

{{Ortsfakta Sverige|kommun=[[Haninge kommun]]|län=[[Stockholms län]]|församling=[[Österhaninge församling]]|invår=2005|areaår=2005|invtotalt=9 316|areaort=449 hektar|landskap=[[Södermanland]]|koor1=59_09_N_18_07_E|koor2=59° 09' N 18° 07' Ö|fotnot=Befolknings- och arealfakta från [[SCB]]<ref>Statistik från [[SCB]]: [http://www.scb.se/MI0810 Tätorter; arealer, befolkning 2005]</ref> (uppdaterad 2008-03-10)}}

'''Jordbro''' är en [[tätort]] och kommundel i [[Haninge kommun]] på [[Södertörn]] i [[Stockholms län]].

Jordbro delas av på mitten av järnvägen ([[Nynäsbanan]]). Strax öster om Jordbro passerar väg 73, "[[Nynäsvägen]]", som går mellan Stockholm och Nynäshamn.

Öster om Jordbro station ligger ett bostadsområde som består dels av ett hyreshusområde i centrala Jordbro, byggt mestadels under 1960- och 1970-talen, dels av något yngre villaområden i både i norr och söder. År 2003 hade Jordbro cirka 9300 invånare.

I det relativt stora industriområdet "Jordbro företagspark" som ligger väster om bostadsområdet och järnvägen, finns ett stort antal lager- och industrilokaler i varierande storlekar. Bland annat finns där huvudkontor och produktionsanläggning för Coca-Cola samt distributionslager för Dagab, Lagena, Osram och Åhlens.

Väster om industriområdet ligger skogsområdet [[Hanveden]].

Strax söder om Jordbro ligger [[Jordbro gravfält]], mellan Jordbro och [[Västerhaninge]]. Det antas att gravfältet var i bruk cirka 500 f.Kr. - 500 e.Kr. (det vill säga, långt före vikingatiden). Söder om det stora gravfältet ligger ett mindre naturreservat, [[Gullringskärret]].

Skolor i Jordbro: Jordbromalmsskolan (högstadieskola) samt Lundaskolan, Kvarnbäcksskolan och Montessoriskolan Fredsduvan som är låg- och mellanstadieskolor.

I dokumentärfilmen ''[[Från en barndomsvärld]]'' från 1973, började filmaren [[Rainer Hartleb]] följa ett antal familjer i Jordbro, något han fortsatt med i över 30 år. Filmen ''[[En pizza i Jordbro]]'' (1994) vann en [[guldbagge]]. Baggen donerade Hartleb till pizzerian vid [[Höglundabadet]], där den finns att beskåda. Hartleb har senare producerat nya filmer där han följer Jordbro-barnens liv.

Jordbro kallades på 60 och 70-talet för Jordbroslavien på grund av att majoriteten av Jordbros [[immigranter]] var ifrån före detta Jugoslavien dvs. [[Serbien]], [[Bosnien]], [[Kroatiens]] och [[Montenegro]]. Nu är dock immigrationen blandad.

==Noter==
<references/>

{{Pendeltåg}}

[[Kategori:Haninge kommun]]

[[en:Jordbro]]

We Don’t Need Another Hero

2008-03-29T13:29:42Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.71 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Infobox Single
| Name = We Don't Need Another Hero (Thunderdome)
| Cover = Tina Turner We dont need another hero.jpg
| Artist = [[Tina Turner]]
| from Album = [[Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome]] Soundtrack
| Released = [[1985]]
| Format = [[vinyl record|7"]], [[vinyl record|12"]], [[CD single]]
| Recorded =
| Genre = Pop
| Length =
| Label = [[Capitol Records]]
| Writer = [[Terry Britten]] [[Graham Lyle]]
| Producer = Terry Britten
| Certification =
| Chart position =
* <nowiki>#</nowiki>1 ([[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Poland]], [[Spain]])
* <nowiki>#</nowiki>2 ([[United States|US]], [[Ireland]], [[Austria]], [[Italy]], [[Norway]])
* <nowiki>#</nowiki>3 ([[United Kingdom|UK]], [[France]])
* <nowiki>#</nowiki>4 ([[Sweden]])
* <nowiki>#</nowiki>7 ([[Netherlands]])
* <nowiki>#</nowiki>9 ([[South Africa]])
| Last single = "[[Show Some Respect]]" (1985)
| This single = "We Don't Need Another Hero''' (1985)
| Next single = "[[One of the Living]]" (1985)
}}
"'''We Don't Need Another Hero (Thunderdome)'''" was the hit theme song to the [[1985]] film ''[[Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome]]''. Written by [[Terry Britten]] and [[Graham Lyle]], the song was performed by [[Tina Turner]], who also played the role of Aunty Entity in the movie, and produced by Terry Britten.

"We Don't Need Another Hero (Thunderdome)" was released at the peak of Tina Turner's musical career, on the heels of her multiplatinum ''[[Private Dancer]]'' album and its many hit singles. The song's lyrical content and theme is mostly a statement of anti-war and anti-violence. The version played during the film differs from the version on the album and single. The song was also released in an extended, six-minute-plus 12" version.

The song received a [[Golden Globe]] nomination for [[Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song]] in [[1986]] and a 1986 [[Grammy]] nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.

==Music video==
[[Image:Tina Turner We dont need another hero video.jpg|thumb|left|The video, from a 2006 broadcasting by [[VH1]]]]
The video is generally considered to be one of Tina Turner's best, and remains one of her most well-known and recognizable music videos. The video features an iconic Tina Turner dressed in a heavy [[chain mail]] gown, more or less in character as Aunt Entity. Striking a bold pose atop an illuminated circular pedestal, as several spotlights train themselves on her and the camera swoops beneath her, she proceeds to sing atop the platform while various scenes from the movie are shown. In the last part of the song, Turner's tour [[saxophonist]] [[Tim Capello]] and a children's [[choir]] accompany Tina.

The music video received an [[MTV]] [[MTV Video Music Awards|Video Music Award]] nomination for [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video|Best Female Video]].

==Recording==
The song was written and produced by the same people behind Turner's ''Private Dancer'' album. Turner was backed by a [[choir|choral]] group from Kings House School in [[London Borough of Richmond upon Thames|Richmond]], [[London]]. In an interesting postscript to the story of this song, the [[Musicians' Union (UK)|Musicians' Union]] realized in October [[2005]] that none of the 21 choir members who sang on the track had been paid royalties for their appearance on the record. One of the choir members who appeared on the record, [[Lawrence Dallaglio]], became famous in a totally different field as a [[rugby union]] star and captain of the [[England national rugby union team|England national team]].

==Chart performance==
The single peaked at #2 on the United States [[Billboard Hot 100]], at #3 in the UK and became #1 in Australia, Germany, and in Switzerland. ''We Don't Need Another Hero (Thunderdome)'' became one Tina Turner's biggest worldwide hit singles.

===Chart positions===
{| class="wikitable" width="250px"
!align="right"|Chart
!align="right"|Peakposition
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''[[Billboard]]'' [[Hot 100]]
|align="left"|2
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles and Tracks|Hot R&B Songs]]
|align="left"|3
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks|Hot Adult Contemporary]]
|align="left"|3
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Mainstream Rock Tracks]]
|align="left"|29
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Hot Dance Club Play|Hot Dance/Club Play]]
|align="left"|23
|-
|align="left"|[[UK Singles Chart]]
|align="left"|3
|-
|align="left"|Germany
|align="left"|'''1'''
|-
|align="left"|Australia
|align="left"|'''1'''
|-
|align="left"|Switzerland
|align="left"|'''1'''
|-
|align="left"|Poland
|align="left"|'''1'''
|-
|align="left"|Austria
|align="left"|2
|-
|align="left"|France
|align="left"|3
|-
|align="left"|Canada
|align="left"|'''1'''
|-
|align="left"|Norway
|align="left"|2
|-
|align="left"|Sweden
|align="left"|4
|-
|align="left"|Netherlands
|align="left"|7
|-
|align="left"|Ireland
|align="left"|2
|-
|align="left"|Italy
|align="left"|2
|-
|align="left"|Spain
|align="left"|'''1'''
|-
|align="left"|South Africa
|align="left"|9
|}

UK Chart Run: 37-11-{3}-3-4-7-10-18-25-32-41-59-68->13weeks in the Top75

===Cover versions===
In 1998, the [[Croatia]]n group Vatrogasci (Firefighters) made a cover of this song in [[Gypsy]] life thematic, translating it into the [[Croatian language]] and naming it "Daj još jednu", giving it a [[tamburica]]/[[folk music]] arrangement.

A cover version of the song was released in 2007 as a single from [[Northern Kings]]' debut album ''[[Reborn (Northern Kings album)|Reborn]]''). The band is a [[Finland|Finnish]] [[Heavy Metal music|heavy metal]] vocalist supergroup featuring [[Marco Hietala]], [[Tony Kakko]], [[Jarkko Ahola]] and [[Juha-Pekka Leppäluoto]].

[["Weird Al" Yankovic]] parodied the song as "We Won't Eat Another Hero". Though he has performed it a few times in concert, this parody has not been released. {{Fact|date=December 2007}}

{{Madmax}}

[[Category:1985 singles]]
[[Category:Theme music]]
[[Category:Tina Turner songs]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Germany]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Switzerland]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Australia]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Canada]]
[[Category:Mad Max]]

[[es:We Don't Need Another Hero]]

… Baby One More Time (Lied)

2008-03-22T13:40:49Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.71 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{for|the album of the same name|...Baby One More Time}}
{{Infobox Single 
| Name = …Baby One More Time
| Cover = BS-...BabyOneMoreTime1.jpg
| Artist = [[Britney Spears]]
| from Album = [[...Baby One More Time]]
| B-side = "Autumn Goodbye"
| Released = {{flagicon|US}} [[November 3]], [[1998]] {{flagicon|Germany}} [[November 3]], [[1998]] {{flagicon|UK}} [[February 22]], [[1999]]
| Format = [[CD single]], [[cassette single]], [[12-inch single|12" single]]
| Recorded = 1998
| Genre = [[pop music|Teen Pop]]
| Length = 3:30
| Label = [[Jive Records|Jive]]
| Writer = [[Max Martin]]
| Producer = [[Denniz PoP]], [[Max Martin]], [[Rami Yacoub|Rami]]
| Video director = Nigel Dick
| Certification = 3x [[Platinum single|Platinum]] ([[Australian Recording Industry Association|ARIA]]) 2x Platinum ([[British Phonographic Industry|BPI]],[[Recording Industry Association of America|RIAA]], Norway) 3x Gold (Germany) Platinum (Austria, France, Germany, Netherlands, [[Recording Industry Association of New Zealand|RIANZ]], Sweden, Switzerland)
| Reviews = <nowiki></nowiki>
| Last single =
| This single = "…Baby One More Time" (1998)
| Next single = "[[Sometimes (Britney Spears song)|Sometimes]]" (1999)
| Misc = {{Extra album cover
| Upper caption = Alternate cover
| Background = khaki
| Cover = Baby uk2 cover.jpg
}}{{Audiosample
| Upper caption = Audio sample
| Name = …Baby One More Time
| Audio file= BabyOneMoreTimeSample.ogg
}}
}}

"'''…Baby One More Time'''", written by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] music producer [[Max Martin]], is the debut [[single (music)|single]] from [[Pop music|pop]] [[singer]] [[Britney Spears]], released from her debut [[album]] ''[[...Baby One More Time]]'' during the fourth quarter of 1998.<ref>{{Google video | id = -1029130264901170490| title = Hit Me Baby One More Time}}</ref> ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' and [[Fuse TV]] declare the song as one of the most successful pop songs of all-time.<ref>''Rock on the Net'' [http://www.rockonthenet.com/archive/2000/rsmtv100.htm Rolling Stone & MTV: 100 Greatest Pop Songs]. Retrieved on [[May 26]], [[2007]]</ref>

==Britney Spears's breakout hit==
The song, which was written and produced by long time hit-makers [[Max Martin]] and [[Rami]], recalls the singer regretting her previous decision to end a relationship and how much she wishes to reconcile because of what he means to her, emphasizing how much she wants him to "hit me baby one more time". Max Martin originally wrote the song for TLC's album [[FanMail]] but the album production was done.

Baby One More Time is ranked at No.25 on Rolling Stone & MTV's 100 Greatest Pop Songs of all time<ref>''Rock on the Net'' [http://www.rockonthenet.com/archive/2000/rsmtv100.htm Rolling Stone & MTV: 100 Greatest Pop Songs] Retrieved on [[May 26]], [[2007]]</ref>, Blender reported it as #9 on their list of 'The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born'<ref>[http://www.blender.com/guide/articles.aspx?ID=1775 Blender Magazine - 'The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born']</ref> and it is listed as the 38th best selling song of all-time on the United World Chart<ref>''United World Chart'' [http://www.mediatraffic.de/alltime-track-chart.htm]</ref> and #5 in the chart from 1999 to the present (only behind [[Cher]]'s [[Believe (Cher song)|Believe]], [[Shakira]]'s [[Hips Don't Lie]], [[James Blunt]]'s [[You're Beautiful]] and [[Madonna]]'s [[Hung Up]]).<ref>''United World Chart'' [http://www.mediatraffic.de/alltime-track-chart.htm]</ref>

===Covers by other artists===
*The song has been recorded by [[Fountains of Wayne]], and this version gained popularity after being played on [[Howard Stern]]'s radio show. It was never released as a single, although the song is present on Fountains of Wayne's 2005 two-disc set of [[b-sides]] and [[cover songs]], ''[[Out of State Plates]]''.
*[[Ahmet Zappa|Ahmet]] and [[Dweezil Zappa]], sons of rockstar [[Frank Zappa]], recorded an [[electronica]] and guitar-based version of this song for the soundtrack of the 2000 film ''[[Ready To Rumble]]''.
*South African Punk/Ska Band "Hog Hoggidy Hog" recorded a cover of Baby One More Time for their 2001 Album "Driving Over Miss Davie".
*The song has notably also been recorded by [[Travis (band)|Travis]], [[The Dresden Dolls]], and Doll Factory.
*A [[Bowling for Soup]] version is on the soundtrack of [[Freaky Friday (2003 film)]], with an intro by the actor [[Chad Michael Murray]], in which he is interrupted while singing "hit me."
*[[Mr. Bungle]] has performed the song during live acts.
*The parody band Poop 'N Stain parodied this song under the title "Hit me up one more time"
*[[Brendon Urie]] from [[Panic! at the Disco]] sang cover with Dresden Dolls on July 1, 2006.<ref>''Cleveland.com'' [http://www.cleveland.com/weblogs/reviews/index.ssf?/mtlogs/cleve_reviews/archives/2006_07.html The Plain Dealer]. Retrieved on [[May 26]], [[2007]]</ref>
*It was originally offered to the group [[TLC (music)|TLC]] to record, which they passed on.<ref name="uk">''UKBritney.tv'' [http://www.ukbritney.tv/discography/1babyonemoretime_01baby.php Britney Spears — …Baby One More Time (UK)]. Retrieved on [[May 26]], [[2007]]</ref>
*It has spawned a series of spoofs such as [http://www.chriscsefalvay.com/back-on-popular-demand-echr-one-more-time/ this one by Chris Csefalvay] relating to constitutional law.
*It was parodied as "Lick My Baby Back Behind" by sketch-comedy show [[MADtv]], with [[Nicole Sullivan]] playing Spears.<ref>{{Google video | id = -2057604909436470048 | title = Lick My Baby Back Behind }}</ref>
*Nicotine's version is on the [[Punk Goes Pop]] compilation.
*Hardcore [[techno]] artists Heretik Sound System released a cover LP of the song.
*A band from the Netherlands named Intwine have also recorded a live version of this song.
*[[Darius Danesh]] performed a rather novel version of the song on the British show [[Popstars]].
*The British [[cover band]] [[Ten Masked Men]] has done a [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nypusXmF5BI death metal] version of the song on their second album.
*An [[United States of America|American]] band named Kevorkian has also performed a death metal version of the song on their first album.
*The [[Germany|German]] [[a cappella]] group Wise Guys covered the song under the title "Schlag mich baby noch einmal", after translating the lyrics into [[German language|German]].
*The doom metal band [[Type O Negative]] does a version of "baby one more time"
*Actor [[Billy Boyd]] sang "Baby One More Time" on a [[Sharon Osbourne]] talk show, while playing guitar.
*[[Finland|Finnish]] [[melodic death metal]] badn [[Children of Bodom]] have covered this song during live performances.
* The band Fire99 (now apparently disbanded) recorded an industrial version.
*The [[France|French]] former [[ska punk]] band [[Les Betteraves]] recorded a parodic version of the song.
*[[Marilyn Manson]] has performed it live.
*[[Weezer]] has done live coverage of the tune.

===Other uses of the title===
In April [[2005]], the British network [[ITV]] aired a short series called ''[[Hit Me Baby One More Time]]'' hosted by [[Vernon Kay]]. The show pitted [[one-hit wonders]] who generally had their moments of fame in the [[1980s]] against each other to play their own hits and a currently popular cover song. The favorites were chosen by audience voting. The American version of the show also aired on [[NBC]] later in the year, and it was also hosted by Kay. The song was also featured in an episode of ''[[The Young and the Restless]]''.

==Music video==
[[Image:BOMTV.jpg|175px|left|thumb|Spears in the schoolgirl outfit.]]
Directed by [[Nigel Dick]], the ''…Baby One More Time'' music video is what arguably fueled the single to become a success. Its original setup, however, was in high contrast to what eventually became the final product. The plan was to have the video in a cartoon-like environment, in a likely attempt to attract the audience of younger children. However, Spears was unhappy with this, and argued that the set should be a bit more mature. So, the childish nature of the primary plan was scrapped, and instead was replaced with Spears's idea for the video to be shot in a school. Spears also came up with the concept of tying up the uniform shirts to bare her midriff.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

Shot at [[Venice High School (Los Angeles)|Venice High School]] in [[California]], the music video for ''…Baby One More Time'' begins with Spears in a particularly boring class right before the end of the day. Her assistant [[Felicia Culotta]] played the role of Spears's teacher. When the bell rings, Spears runs out into the hall and begins a choreographed dance. After this, Spears is outside, now adorned in an athletic outfit. Along with a couple of other students, she performs a number of [[gymnastic]] moves before heading back inside. She is then sitting on the bleachers in the gymnasium watching a basketball game. Her love interest in the video is revealed. After this short segment, Spears begins her final dance routine and the video ends shortly afterwards, revealing that the whole thing had actually just been Spears's daydream.

The video became an instant hit on [[MTV]] and other music channel vehicles, and eventually became her first to retire on ''[[Total Request Live|TRL]]''.

The schoolgirl outfit worn by Spears in the video is on display at the Hard Rock Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas, NV.

The ''[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative (DVD)|Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]] [[DVD]]'' released in [[2004]] contains two alternate versions of the video. One features Britney in her pink singlet top and white pants dancing with her back-up dancers. The other alternate version sees Britney in her school girl uniform dancing through the school hall from the start of the song to the end of the first chorus. It differs slightly from the original as the shots are longer.

== Formats and track listings ==
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of "…Baby One More Time".<ref name="uk"/>
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
Australia CD Single
#"…Baby One More Time" — 3:30
#"…Baby One More Time" [Instrumental] — 3:30
#"Autumn Goodbye" 3:41
#"…Baby One More Time" [Davidson Ospina Club Mix] — 5:40
#Enhanced With "…Baby One More Time" Video

Europe 2-Track CD
#"…Baby One More Time" — 3:30
#"…Baby One More Time" [Instrumental] — 3:30

UK CD 1/Europe CD Single
#"…Baby One More Time" — 3:30
#"…Baby One More Time" [Sharp Platinum Vocal Remix] — 8:11
#"…Baby One More Time" [Davidson Ospina Club Mix] — 5:40

UK Limited Edition CD 2
#"…Baby One More Time" — 3:30
#"…Baby One More Time" [Instrumental] — 3:30
#"Autumn Goodbye" — 3:41

Japan Promo CD
#"…Baby One More Time" [Spoken Introduction Full] — 0:12
#"…Baby One More Time" [Spoken Introduction Edit] — 0:04
#"…Baby One More Time" — 3:30
{{col-2}}
U.S. CD Single
#"…Baby One More Time" — 3:30
#"Autumn Goodbye" — 3:41
#Enhanced with "…Baby One More Time" Video

U.S. 12" Vinyl
Side A
#"…Baby One More Time" [Davidson Ospina Club Mix] — 5:40
#"…Baby One More Time" [Davidson Ospina Chronicles Dub] — 6:30
#"…Baby One More Time — 3:30
Side B
#"…Baby One More Time" [Sharp Platinum Vocal Remix] — 8:11
#"…Baby One More Time" [Sharp Trade Dub] — 6:50

International Deluxe Edition Single
#"…Baby One More Time" [Alternative Version]— 3:53
#"…Baby One More Time" [Instrumental Version]— 3:40
{{col-end}}

==Remixes/Official versions==
* Album Version — 03:30
* Instrumental — 03:31
* Answering Machine Message — 00:20
* Boy Wunder Radio Mix — 03:33
* Davidson Ospina Radio Mix — 03:24
* Davidson Ospina Club Mix — 05:43
* Davidson Ospina 2005 Remix — 04:41
* Davidson Ospina Chronicles Dub — 06:34
* Sharp Platinum Vocal Mix — 08:12
* Sharp Trade Dub — 06:50
* [[Dream Within a Dream Tour]] Remix by Wade J. Robson

==Awards==
As mentioned above, the music video became a hit and it earned Spears her first three [[MTV Video Music Award]] nominations in the categories of [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Pop Video|Best Pop Video]], [[MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist|Best New Artist]] and, most prominently, [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video|Best Female Video]].

Despite her losses at the VMAs, the single still won numerous awards, including a [[Teen Choice Award]] for Choice Single and an [[MTV Europe Music Award]] for Best Song, proving that the single's success was not limited to the U.S.

The song was nominated for a [[Grammy Award]] for [[Best Female Pop Vocal Performance]].

A successful dance mix was released into dance clubs the Summer before the single's album and radio release.

{| class="wikitable"
!align="left"|Year
!align="left"|Ceremony
!align="left"|Award
!align="left"|Result
|-
|align="left"|1999
|align="left"|[[Teen Choice Awards]]
|align="left"|Choice Single
|align="left"|Won
|-
|align="left"|1999
|align="left"|MTV Video Music Awards
|align="left"|Best Female Video
|align="left"|Nominated
|-
|align="left"|1999
|align="left"|MTV Video Music Awards
|align="left"|Best Pop Video
|align="left"|Nominated
|-
|align="left"|1999
|align="left"|MTV Video Music Awards
|align="left"|Best New Artist
|align="left"|Nominated
|-
|align="left"|1999
|align="left"|M6 Awards
|align="left"|Best Music Video
|align="left"|Won
|-
|align="left"|1999
|align="left"|MTV Europe Music Awards
|align="left"|Best Song
|align="left"|Won
|-
|align="left"|2000
|align="left"|Grammy Awards
|align="left"|Best Female Pop Vocal Performance
|align="left"|Nominated
|-
|}

==Chart performance==
"…Baby One More Time" remains Spears's biggest U.S. (and international) hit to date. The song debuted at number seventeen on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] (the highest debut of her career), and was able to climb to number one on the chart, staying there for two weeks and becoming her first (and only to date) number one single in the U.S. The song also reached the top spot of the [[Hot 100 Singles Sales]], staying there for a solid four weeks; this eventually propelled the single to a [[Platinum single|Platinum]] certification. Though not as strong as its sales tallies, the single also experienced considerable airplay, becoming one of her top ten hits on the [[Hot 100 Airplay]] chart. The track spent thirty-two weeks on the Hot 100 (her longest run on the chart), with a vast majority (twenty-nine) of these weeks within the top forty.

The single also became an all-around hit on [[Top 40]] radio, going top ten on both the [[Top 40 Tracks]] and [[Rhythmic Top 40]], and to number one for five weeks on the [[Mainstream Top 40]].

Internationally, it was an even huger hit, reaching the top spot in every European country charted (including the UK) and also ascending to the summit in other countries, such as Canada and Australia. It was #1 in Australia for 9 weeks and was the second biggest selling single of 1999, behind [[Lou Bega|Lou Bega's]] [[Mambo No. 5|Mambo #5]].This is the best-selling debut single by a female artist of all times in the music history.

Spears broke a first-week sales record for a debut act when "…Baby One More Time" sold a total of 190,000 in its first week of release in the UK. The single went on to sell 1.45 million copies, making it the biggest-selling single of 1999 in the UK,<ref name="uk"/> and until 2002 the best selling debut single ever in the UK, and in the U.S. has sold over 2.44 million copies.
It is the 44th biggest song in [[New Zealand]] history.

The single has achieved 9,154,000 (500,000 in 1998 and 8,654,000 copies in 1999).<ref>[http://www.mediatraffic.de/countdown1999.htm United World Chart - Top Singles 1999]</ref> points for sales and airplay according to [[United World Chart]]

===Certifications===
{| class="wikitable"
!align="left"|Country
!align="center"|Certification
!align="center"|Sales
|-
|align="left"|United World Chart
|align="center"|Platinum
|align="center"|11 million
|-
|align="left"|Australia <ref>[http://www.aria.com.au/pages/ARIACharts-Accreditations-2006Singles.htm Australia Certification]</ref>
|align="center"|3× Platinum
|align="center"|210,000
|-
|align="left"|Austria <ref>[http://www.ifpi.at/ Austria Certification]</ref>
|align="center"|Platinum
|align="center"|30,000
|-
|align="left"|France <ref>[http://www.infodisc.fr/S_Certif_Platine.php?debut=90 France Certification]</ref>
|align="center"|Platinum
|align="center"|578,000
|-
|align="left"|Germany <ref>[http://www.ifpi.de/ Germany Certification]</ref>
|align="center"|Platinum/ 3× Gold
|align="center"|750,000
|-
|align="left"|Greece
|align="center"|Gold
|align="center"|7,500+
|-
|align="left"|Netherlands
|align="center"|Platinum
|align="center"|60,000
|-
|align="left"|New Zealand <ref>[http://www.rianz.org.nz/rianz/chart.asp New Zealand Certification]</ref>
|align="center"|Platinum
|align="center"|15,000
|-
|align="left"|Norway
|align="center"|2× Platinum
|align="center"|40,000
|-
|align="left"|Sweden
|align="center"|Platinum
|align="center"|20,000
|-
|align="left"|Switzerland <ref>[http://swisscharts.com/awards.asp?year=2006 Switzerland Certification]</ref>
|align="center"|Platinum
|align="center"|30,000
|-
|align="left"|United Kingdom
|align="center"|2× Platinum
|align="center"|1,450,000
|-
|align="left"|United States <ref>[http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?resultpage=2&table=SEARCH_RESULTS&action=&title=&artist=shakira&format=&debutLP=&category=&sex=&releaseDate=&requestNo=&type=&level=&label=&company=&certificationDate=&awardDescription=&catalogNo=&aSex=&rec_id=&charField=&gold=&platinum=&multiPlat=&level2=&certDate=&album=&id=&after=&before=&startMonth=1&endMonth=1&startYear=1958&endYear=2007&sort=Artist&perPage=25US Certification]</ref>
|align="center"|2× Platinum
|align="center"|2,440,000
|}

{| class="wikitable"
!align="center"|Chart (1998/1999)<ref>Chart peak positions:
*''[[Billboard magazine]]'' [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:kpfuxq9jldte~T51 Britney spears — Billboard Singles]. Retrieved on [[May 26]], [[2007]]
*''Mariah-Charts.net'' [http://www.mariah-charts.com/chartdata/PBritneySpears.htm Britney Spears — Chart Data]. Retrieved on [[May 26]], [[2007]]</ref>
!align="center"|Peak Position
|-
|align="left"|[[United World Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Austrian Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|[[ARIA Charts|Australian ARIA Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Belgian Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|[[Canadian Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Danish Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|[[Dutch Top 40|Dutch Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|[[Eurochart Hot 100 Singles|European Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|French Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|[[Media Control|German Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|[[Irish Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Israeli Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Italian Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|[[RIANZ|New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Norwegian Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Philippine Top Hits
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Portuguese Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Russian Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Spanish Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Swedish Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Swiss Singles Chart
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|[[UK Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|U.S. [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|U.S. Billboard [[Top 40 Mainstream]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.britneyspears.com/ Britney Spears — Official Web Site]
*[http://youtube.com/watch?v=_bsniYwSaWg The Music Video At YouTube]

{{Britney Spears}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-ach|aw}}
{{s-bef|before="[[Have You Ever?]]" by [[Brandy (entertainer)|Brandy]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Billboard Hot 100]] [[List of number-one hits (United States)|number one single]]|years=[[January 30]] [[1999]] – [[February 6]] [[1999]]}}
{{s-aft|after="[[Angel of Mine]]" by [[Monica (singer)|Monica]]}}

{{s-bef|before="[[Silly Love Songs (Ardijah song)|Silly Love Songs]]" by [[Ardijah]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[RIANZ|RIANZ (New Zealand)]] number one single|years=[[21 February]] [[1999]] – [[6 March]] [[1999]]}}
{{s-aft|after="[[You Get What You Give]]" by [[New Radicals]]}}

{{s-bef|before="[[Fly Away (Lenny Kravitz song)|Fly Away]]" by [[Lenny Kravitz]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[UK Singles Chart]] [[1999 in British music|number-one single]]|years=[[February 21]] [[1999]] - [[6 March]] [[1999]]}}
{{s-aft|after="[[When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going]]" by [[Boyzone]]}}

{{s-bef|before="[[Believe (Cher song)|Believe]]" by [[Cher]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Australian Singles Chart]] [[List of number-one singles in Australia during the 1990s#1999|number-one single]]|years=[[February 28]] [[1999]] - [[May 2]] [[1999]]}}
{{s-aft|after="[[No Scrubs]]" by [[TLC (band)|TLC]]}}

{{s-bef|before="[[My Side Of Town]]" by [[Lutricia McNeal]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[RIANZ|RIANZ (New Zealand)]] number one single|years=[[21 March]] [[1999]] – [[27 March]] [[1999]]}}
{{s-aft|after="[[Heartbeat / Tragedy]]" by [[Steps (group)|Steps]]}}

{{s-bef|before="[[I Love The Way You Love Me]]" by [[Boyzone]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[RIANZ|RIANZ (New Zealand)]] number one single|years=[[18 April]] [[1999]] – [[24 April]] [[1999]]}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after="[[No Scrubs]]" by [[TLC (band)|TLC]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before="[[Believe (Cher song)|Believe]]" by [[Cher]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[United World Chart]] number one single|years=[[March 20]] [[1999]] - [[May 1]] [[1999]]}}

{{s-bef|before="Tu m'oublieras" by Larusso}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[SNEP|SNEP (France)]] [[SNEP number-one hits of 1999|number one single]]|years=[[24 April]] [[1999]] – [[1 March]] [[1999]]}}
{{s-aft|after="Au Nom de la rose" by Moos}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baby One More Time, …}}
[[Category:1990s pop songs]]
[[Category:1998 singles]]
[[Category:1998 songs]]
[[Category:1999 singles]]
[[Category:Debut singles]]
[[Category:Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles]]
[[Category:Britney Spears songs]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Canada]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Chile]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Australia]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Austria]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in New Zealand]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Italy]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Brazil]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in France]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Germany]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Belgium]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Spain]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Switzerland]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Portugal]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Norway]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Denmark]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Sweden]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Ireland]]
[[Category:Signature songs]]

[[cs:...Baby One More Time (píseň)]]
[[es:...Baby One More Time (canción)]]
[[fi:...Baby One More Time (single)]]
[[he:...Baby One More Time (שיר)]]
[[it:...Baby One More Time (canzone)]]
[[nl:...Baby One More Time (single)]]
[[pl:...Baby One More Time]]
[[pt:...Baby One More Time]]
[[ru:...Baby One More Time (песня)]]
[[sv:...Baby One More Time (sång)]]

Geographie und Kartographie im mittelalterlichen Islam

2008-03-08T16:27:29Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.70 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

[[Image:Kashgari map.jpg|thumb|150px|Map from [[Mahmud al-Kashgari]]'s ''Diwanu Lughat at-Turk'', showing the 11th century distribution of Turkic tribes.]]
'''Islamic geography''' includes the advancement of [[geography]], [[cartography]] and [[earth sciences]] under various [[Islamic civilization]]s. During the medieval ages, Islamic geography was driven by a number of factors: the [[Islamic golden age]], parallel development of [[Islamic astronomy]], translation of ancient texts (particularly [[Hellenistic geography|Hellenistic ones]]) into Arabic, and increased travel due to [[commerce]] and [[Hajj]] (the Islamic pilgrimage).

After its beginning in the 8th century, Islamic geography was patronized by the Abbasid caliphs of [[Baghdad]]. Various Islamic scholars contributed to its development, and the most notable include, [[al-Biruni]], [[Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi|Abū Zayd al-Balkhī]] (founder of the 'Balkhī school'), [[Al-Khwārizmī]] and [[Avicenna]]. Muslim geography reached its apex with [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] in the 12th century. Later developments took place under [[Turks]] (particularly under the [[Ottoman empire]]) and notable scholars include [[Mahmud al-Kashgari]] and [[Piri Reis]].

==Impetus==

===Islamic golden age===
{{see also|Islamic golden age}}
When the capital of the [[Muslim world]] moved to [[Baghdad]] in 750, the city became the center study and translation of scintific writings, attracting scholars of all sorts. Learned men enjoyed caliphal patronage, especially of [[Harun al-Rashid]] and [[Al-Mamun]]. This learning was undertaken by both [[Muslim]]s and non-Muslims and by those who spoke [[Greek]], [[Syriac]], [[Arabic]], [[Persian]] and [[Hebrew]]; although Arabic remained the ''lingua franca'' and Islam the dominant faith.<ref>Edson and Savage-Smith (2004), p. 30</ref>

===Islamic astronomy===
{{see also|Islamic astronomy}}
Muslim Arabs, for various reasons, were interested in astronomy: Bedouin land caravans and sea merchants used them for navigation during the night, and the encouragement given by certain verses of the Qur'an. Interest in astronomy directly led to the belief that earth was a globe.<ref>Edson and Savage-Smith (2004), p. 31-2</ref> Technologies used for the furtherance of astronomy had immediate applications in geography as well (e.g. the [[astrolabe]] used in astronomy was also used for land surveying).<ref>Edson and Savage-Smith (2004), p. 40</ref>

===Previous learning===
{{see also|Hellenistic geography}}
Both the Greeks and Romans were known to have made maps, albeit very primitive. In the case of the Romans this was a natural outcome of the expansion of their empire. Many of these writings and works were studied and translated by Muslims.<ref>Edson and Savage-Smith (2004), p. 49</ref>

===Travels===
{{see also|Hajj}}
Long distance travel created a need for mapping, and travelers often provided the information to achieve the task. While such travel during the medieval period was hazardous, Muslims nonetheless undertook long journeys. One motive for these was the [[Hajj]] or the Muslim pilgrimage. Annually, Muslims came to Mecca in Arabia from [[Africa]], [[Islamic Spain]], [[Persia]] and [[India]]. Another motive for travels was commerce. Muslims were involved in trade with Europeans, Indians and the Chinese, and Muslim merchants travelled long distances to conduct commercial activities.<ref name = ESS116>Edson and Savage-Smith (2004), p. 113-6</ref>

==History==
Muslims translated many of the Hellenistic documents. The way in which earlier knowledge reached Muslim scholars is crucial. For example, since Muslims inherited Greek writings directly without the influence of the Latin west, T-O maps play no role in Islamic cartography though popular in the European counterpart. <ref name = E61-3/>

Some of important Greek writings include: the ''[[Almagest]]'' and the ''[[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]]''.

An important influence in the development of cartography was the patronage of the caliph al-Ma'mun, who reigned from 813 to 833. He commissioned several geographers to re-measure the distance on earth that corresponds to one degree of celestial meridian. Thus his patronage resulted in the refinement of the definition of the [[mile]] used by Arabs (''mīl'' in Arabic) in comparison to the ''stadion'' used by Greeks. These efforts also enabled Muslims to calculate the circumference of the earth. Al-Mamun also commanded the production of a large map of the world, which has not survived.<ref name = E61-3>Edson and Savage-Smith (2004), p. 61-3</ref>

[[Image:1154 world map by Moroccan cartographer al-Idrisi for king Roger of Sicily.jpg|thumb|150px|right|The world map of Al-Idrisi (12th century)]]

In the early tenth century, Abū Zayd al-Balkhī, originally from [[Balkh]], founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial mapping in [[Baghdad]]. The geographers of this school also wrote extensively of the peoples, products, and customs of areas in the Muslim world, with little interest in the non-Muslim realms.<ref name = E61-3/>

Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim geographer, accompanied a book of geographical coordinates with instructions for making a rectangular world map, with [[equirectangular projection]] or cyclindrical cylindrical equidistant projection.<ref name = E61-3/>

In the 14th century, Ibn Baṭṭūṭah, a [[Moroccan]], began his travels. He started as a pilgrim to Mecca, but continued his journeys for the next 30 years. Before returning home, he had visited most of the Muslim world, from southern Africa to eastern Asia. The universal use of Arabic and his status as judge trained in law gave him access to royal courts at most locations he visited.<ref name = ESS116/>

==Earth sciences==
Muslim scientists made a number of contributions to geography and the [[Earth science]]s in general. [[Alkindus]] was the first to introduce [[experiment]]ation into the Earth sciences.<ref name=Plinio>Plinio Prioreschi, "Al-Kindi, A Precursor Of The Scientific Revolution", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 17-19.</ref> [[Biruni]] is regarded as the father of [[geodesy]] for his important contributions to the field,<ref name=Ahmed>Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref><ref>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> along with his significant contributions to [[geography]] and [[geology]].

Among his writings on geology, Biruni wrote the following on the [[geology of India]]:
{{quote|"But if you see the soil of [[India]] with your own eyes and meditate on its nature, if you consider the rounded stones found in earth however deeply you dig, stones that are huge near the mountains and where the rivers have a violent current: stones that are of smaller size at a greater distance from the mountains and where the streams flow more slowly: stones that appear pulverised in the shape of sand where the streams begin to stagnate near their mouths and near the sea - if you consider all this you can scarcely help thinking that India was once a sea, which by degrees has been filled up by the alluvium of the streams."<ref>[[Abdus Salam|A. Salam]] (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam'', 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.</ref>}}

John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'':
{{quote|"Important contributions to geodesy and geography were also made by al-Biruni. He introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using [[triangulation]]. He found the [[radius]] of the earth to be 6339.6 km, a value not obtained in the [[Western world|West]] until the 16th century. His ''Masudic canon'' contains a table giving the coordinates of six hundred places, almost all of which he had direct knowledge."<ref name=Biruni>{{MacTutor|id=Al-Biruni|title=Al-Biruni}}</ref>}}

[[Fielding H. Garrison]] wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
{{quote|"The [[Saracen]]s themselves were the originators not only of [[algebra]], [[chemistry]], and [[geology]], but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization..."}}

[[George Sarton]], the father of the history of science, wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':
{{quote|"We find in his (Jabir, Geber) writings remarkably sound views on methods of chemical research, a theory on the [[geology|geologic]] formation of [[metal]]s (the six metals differ essentially because of different proportions of [[sulfur|sulphur]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]] in them)..."<ref name=Zahoor>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni], [[Hasanuddin University]].</ref>}}

In [[geology]], [[Avicenna]] hypothesized on two causes of [[mountain]]s in ''[[The Book of Healing]]''.

The earliest known treatises dealing with [[environmentalism]] and [[environmental science]], especially [[pollution]], were Arabic treatises written by [[al-Kindi]], [[al-Razi]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[al-Tamimi]], [[al-Masihi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ali ibn Ridwan]], [[Abd-el-latif]], and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[municipal solid waste]] mishandling, and [[environmental impact assessment]]s of certain localities.<ref>L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", ''Environment and History'' '''8''' (4), pp. 475-488.</ref> [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], [[al-Andalus]] also had the first [[waste container]]s and [[waste disposal]] facilities for [[litter]] collection.<ref>S. P. Scott (1904), ''History of the Moorish Empire in Europe'', 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. F. B. Artz (1980), ''The Mind of the Middle Ages'', Third edition revised, [[University of Chicago Press]], pp 148-50. ([[cf.]] [http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=441 References], 1001 Inventions)</ref>

==Regional cartography==
Islamic regional cartography is sually categorized into three groups: that produced by the "Balkhī school", the type devised by al-Idrīsī, and the type that are uniquely foundin the ''Book of curiosities''.<ref name = ESS85/>

The maps by the Balkhī schools were defined by political, not longitudonal boundaries and covered only the Muslim world. In these maps the distances between various "stops" (cities or rivers) were equalized. The only shapes used in designs were verticals, horizontals, 90-degree angles, and arcs of circles; unnecessary geographical details was eliminated. This approach is similar to that used in [[Rapid transit|subway]] maps, most notable used in the "[[London Underground]] Tube Map" in 1931 by [[Harry Beck (graphic designer)|Harry Beck]].<ref name = ESS85>Edson and Savage-Smith (2004), p. 85-7</ref>

Al-Idrīsī defined his maps differently. He considered the extent of the known world to be 160° in longitude, and divided the region into ten parts, each 16° wide. In terms of lattitude, he portioned the known world into seven 'climes', determined by the length of the longest day. In his maps, many dominant geogrpahical features can be found.<ref name = ESS85/>

==Notable works==
===Book of curiosities===
Compiled between 1020 and 1050, the anonymous work contains a series of maps. It includes both regional and world maps, many of which are without parallel. The work deals with Islamic geography alongside cosmography ahnd map-making. The book contained rectangular map with a carefully executed graphic scale.<ref name = E61-3/> The work contains a highly accurate map of the Mediterranean, including the earliest known map of the island [[Cyprus]].<ref name = ESS85/>

===Book on the appearance of the Earth===
[[Al-Khwārizmī]]'s ''{{transl|ar|Kitāb ṣūrat al-Arḍ}}'' ("Book on the appearance of the Earth") was completed in [[833]]. It is a revised and completed version of [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'', consisting of a list of 2402 coordinates of cities and other geographical features following a general introduction.<ref>[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Cartography.html MacTutor: Cartography]</ref>

===Compendium of the languages of the Turks===
[[Qarakhanid]] scholar [[Mahmud al-Kashgari]] compiled a "Compendium of the languages of the Turks" in the 11th century. The manuscript is illustrated with a "Turkocentric" world map, oriented with east (or rather, perhaps, the direction of midsummer sunrise) on top, centered on the ancient city of [[Balasagun]] in what is now [[Kyrgyzstan]], showing the [[Caspian Sea]] to the north, and [[Iraq]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Yemen]] and [[Egypt]] to the west, [[China]] and [[Japan]] to the east, [[Hindustan]], [[Kashmir]], [[Gog and Magog]] to the south. Conventional symbols are used throughout- blue lines for rivers, red lines for mountain ranges etc. The world is shown as encircled by the ocean.<ref>[http://strangemaps.wordpress.com/2007/02/22/81-the-first-turkish-world-map-by-kashgari-1072/ 81 - The First Turkish World Map, by Kashgari (1072) « Strange Maps]</ref>

The map is now kept at the Pera Museum in Istanbul.
 

===Tabula Rogeriana===
{{Main|Tabula Rogeriana}}
[[Image:TabulaRogeriana.jpg|thumb|The [[Tabula Rogeriana]], drawn by [[Al-Idrisi]] for [[Roger II of Sicily]] in 1154.]]

The [[Arab]] geographer [[Al-Idrisi]] Mappa Mundi 's incorporated the knowledge of [[Africa]], the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Far East]] gathered by [[Islamic Golden Age#Age of discovery|Arab merchants and explorers]] with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create one of the most accurate maps of the world to date.

The [[Tabula Rogeriana]] was drawn by Al-Idrisi in 1154 for the [[Normans|Norman]] King [[Roger II of Sicily]], after a stay of eighteen years at his court, where he worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map. The map, written in Arabic, shows the eurasian continent in its entirety, but only shows the northern part of the African continent.

[[Image:Piri reis world map 01.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Surviving fragment of the [[Piri Reis map|first World Map]] of Piri Reis (1513)]]

===Kitab-ı Bahriye===
{{See also|Piri Reis Map}}
The Muslim Ottoman cartographer Piri Re'is navigational maps in his ''Kitab-ı Bahriye''. The work includes an atlas of charts for small segments of the mediterranean, accompanied by sailing instructions covering the sea. In the second version of the work, he included a map of the Americas.<ref>Edson and Savage-Smith (2004), p. 106</ref> The [[Piri Reis map]] drawn by the Ottoman cartographer [[Piri Reis]] in 1513, is the oldest surviving map to show the Americas,<ref>Dutch, Steven.[http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/PiriRies.HTM The Piri Reis Map]. [[University of Wisconsin]] - Green Bay</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| last = Hamdani
| first = Abbas
| title = Ottoman Response to the Discovery of America and the New Route to India
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 101
| issue = 3
| pages = 327
| publisher = American Oriental Society
| location =
| date = Jul. - Sep., 1981
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| last = Papp-vÁry
| first = Á
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Egy térképészeti rejtély : Piri Reis Dél-Amerika térképe [Un mystère cartographique : carte de Piri Reis de l'Amérique du Sud]
| journal = Földrajzi kõzlemények
| volume = 53
| issue = 3-4
| pages = 177-187
| publisher =
| location = Hungary
| date = 2005
| accessdate = }}
</ref> and perhaps the first to include [[Antarctica]]. His map of the world was considered the most accurate in the 16th century.

==See also==
*[[History of geography]]
*[[History of cartography]]
*[[Islamic science]]
*[[Islamic Golden Age]]
*[[Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world]]
*[[List of Arab scientists and scholars]]
*[[List of Muslim geographers]]
*[[Chinese geography]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
*Edson, E; Savage-Smith E. ''Medieval Views of the Cosmos''. Bodleian Library, [[University of Oxford]].
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''X–XII''': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 1–3|year=2000|language=German|location=Frankfurt am Main}}
*Alavi, S. M. Ziauddin (1965). ''Arab geography in the ninth and tenth centuries''. [[Aligarh]]: Aligarh Muslim University Press. 

==External links==
* [http://geography.about.com/od/historyofgeography/a/islamicgeo.htm Islamic Geography in the Middle Ages]

[[Category:Islamic geography| ]]
[[Category:Islamic history|Geography]]

Aylar Lie

2008-03-08T16:24:31Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.70 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

{{Female adult bio|
photo=|
caption=|
birth={{birth date and age|1984|02|22}}|
death=|
location= [[Tehran]], [[Iran]]|
birthname=Sharareh|
measurements= 91-60-80 cm (36D-24-32)|
height = {{height|m=1.57}}|
weight = {{convert|42|kg|lb st|abbr=on}}|
eye color = Hazel|
hair color = Black|
natural bust = No|
orientation = |
ethnicity = half[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], half [[Norwegian people|Norwegian]]|
spouse = |
alias = Diena Lie Princess Diana Aylar Dianati|
homepage= http://www.aylar.no|
iafd=Diana02|
imdb=1536949|
afdb=36836|
}}
'''Aylar Dienati Leo''' {{lang-fa|'''آیلار دیانتی لی'''}}, born [[February 12]], [[1984]] as '''Sharareh''' in [[Tehran]], [[Iran]]) to [[Iran|Iranian ]] parents has gained [[celebrity]] in [[Norway]] as a [[model (person)|model]] and former pornographic actress.

== Career ==
Aylar arrived in Norway as a two-year-old and was raised by Norwegian foster parents.{{ref|childhood}} She speaks [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] fluently, and some English.{{ref|aylarsite}}

In 2004 Aylar participated in the [[Miss Norway]] contest, but was disqualified when the judges found out that she had taken part in [[adult film]]s in the years 2002 and 2003.

In December 2004, Lie claimed to have had a sexual encounter with [[Robbie Williams]]. The claim was dismissed as false by Williams and his agents.{{ref|robbie}}

In 2005, she participated in [[Big Brother (Swedish TV series)|Big Brother (Sweden vs. Norway)]].

She is a friend of swedish glamour models [[Marie Plosjö]], [[Natacha Peyre]] and [[Elita Löfblad]] which all also appeared in her "Team Aylar" and in Lies documentary [[Aylar - Ett År I Rampelyset]]. Elita and Aylar met for the first time inside the Big Brother house in 2005 as they were both contestants on the show.

Her plans for 2006 included the promotion of her hand-picked team of models, called ''[[Team Aylar]]''. The members of Team Aylar currently include: [[Elita Löfblad]], Natacha Peyre, Marie Plosjö Charlotte Fredriksen, Linn Irene (Linni) Meister, Cathrine Aschim and Lisa Marie Winther.{{ref|teamaylar}} Aylar later kicked Meister out, due to her homemade pornographic movie with her former boyfriend Kristian Hilberg, which became public on the internet.

In 2006 she relased a single, which was a cover of [[Sabrina Salerno|Sabrina]]'s "Boys (Summertime Love)" hit from 1987. She also stars in the [[Basshunter]] video for the song "Now You're Gone".

== Personal Life ==

Lie is currently in a relationship with the 25 year old Norwegian model [[Frederik Midtboe]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

In January 2008, it was reported that Lie "can't return to her homeland because of death threats over her X-rated past". <ref>http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/bizarre/article714849.ece</ref> In 2008 she was mysteriously granted an [[Iran|Iranian]] visa with [[Norway|Norwegian]] citizenship.

== References ==
*{{note|robbie}} [http://pub.tv2.no/nettavisen/english/article315943.ece Nettavisen article on Robbie Williams response to Lie's allegations] ([[December 15]], [[2004]]; retrieved on [[November 24]], [[2005]])
*{{note|aylarsite}} http://www.aylar.no ; retrieved on [[April 07]], [[2006]])
*{{note|teamaylar}} http://pub.tv2.no/nettavisen/side2/kjendis/article462121.ece ; ([[September 25]], [[2005]] retrieved on [[April 07]], [[2006]])
*{{note|miss_norway}} http://pub.tv2.no/nettavisen/english/article267959.ece ; ([[August 20]], [[2004]] retrieved on [[April 07]], [[2006]])
*{{note|childhood}} http://pub.tv2.no/nettavisen/english/article267959.ece ; ([[August 20]], [[2004]] retrieved on [[April 07]], [[2006]])

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lie, Aylar}}
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:Female porn stars]]
[[Category:Iranian porn stars]]
[[Category:Iranian female models]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Norwegian porn stars]]
[[Category:People from Tehran]]

[[fa:آیلار دیانتی لی]]
[[ia:Aylar Lie]]
[[no:Aylar Lie]]
[[nn:Aylar Lie]]
[[sv:Aylar Lie]]

Angriffe auf Nordamerika während des Zweiten Weltkriegs

2008-03-08T15:55:53Z

Tkynerd: WikiCleaner 0.70 - Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help!

'''Attacks on [[North America]] during [[World War II]]''' by the [[Axis Powers]] were rare, mainly due to the continent's [[geographical]] separation from the central [[Theater (warfare)|theaters of conflict]] in [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. This article includes attacks on continental territory (extending 200 miles [370 km] into the ocean) which is today under the sovereignty of the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] but excludes military action involving the [[Denmark|Danish]] territory of [[Greenland]] and the [[Caribbean]].

Although not an attack on North America, the [[December 7]], [[1941]] [[Japan]]ese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] which drew the [[United States]] into [[World War II]] was the precursor to a number of Japanese assaults on the North American mainland. At the time, [[Hawaii]] was a [[United States territory]] and not a state; the [[Territory of Hawaii]] did not obtain statehood until 1959.

==Japanese assaults==
===Ellwood shelling===
The United States [[mainland]] was first [[Bombardment|shelled]] by the Axis on [[February 23]], [[1942]] when the Japanese [[Japanese submarine I-17|submarine ''I-17'']] attacked the Ellwood oil production facilities at [[Goleta, California|Goleta]], near [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]], [[California]]. Although only the pumphouse and catwalk were damaged, ''I-17'' [[captain]] Nishino Kozo radioed [[Tokyo]] that he had left Santa Barbara in flames. No casualties were reported and the total cost of the damage was officially estimated at approximately $500-1000.<ref name=Ellwood>{{Citation
|url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/Ellwood.html
|title=The Shelling of Ellwood
|publisher=The California State Military Museum
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref> However news of the shelling triggered an [[The Battle of Los Angeles|invasion scare]] along the West Coast.<ref>Young, Donald J. [http://www.historynet.com/magazines/world_war_2/3031956.html Phantom Japanese Raid on Los Angeles] Word War II Magazine, September issue 2003</ref>

===Battle of the Aleutian Islands===
{{main|Battle of the Aleutian Islands}}

On [[June 3]], [[1942]] the [[Aleutian Islands]], running southwest from mainland [[Alaska]], were invaded by Japanese forces as a diversion to deflect attention from the main [[Battle of Midway|Japanese attack on Midway Atoll]]. Having [[Cryptanalysis|broken]] the [[Magic (cryptography)#Other Japanese ciphers|Japanese military code]]s, however, the United States military knew it was a diversion and did not expend large amounts of effort defending the islands. Although most of the civilian population had been moved to camps on the [[Alaska Panhandle]], some Americans were captured and taken to Japan as [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]].<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/e-resources/ebooks/images/efd2929.pdf
|title=The Battle of Attu—60 Years Later
|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service
|accessdate=2008-02-09}}</ref>

In what became known as the [[Battle of the Aleutian Islands]], American forces engaged the Japanese on [[Attu Island]] and regained control by the end of May 1943, after taking significant casualties in difficult terrain in which hundreds died. A large invasion force, mainly US, but including some Canadian troops, assaulted [[Kiska Island]] on [[August 7]], [[1943]], but the Japanese had already withdrawn, undetected, ten days earlier.

Although Alaska was a U.S. territory and not yet a state (statehood was not granted until 1959) it was part of the North American continent. This battle also marks the only time since the [[War of 1812]] that U.S. territory in North America has been occupied by a foreign power.

In response to the United States' success at the [[Battle of Midway]], the invasion alert for [[San Francisco]] was canceled on [[June 8]], [[1942]].

===Estevan Point lighthouse attack===
On [[June 20]], [[1942]], the Japanese submarine [[Japanese submarine I-26|''I-26'']], under the command of Yokota Minoru<ref name=sensuikan>{{Citation
|url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/I-26.htm
|title=SENSUIKAN! — HIJMS Submarine I-26: Tabular Record of Movement
|publisher=combinedfleet.com
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref>, fired 25-30 rounds of 5.5" shells at the [[Estevan Point]] lighthouse on [[Vancouver Island]] in [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] but failed to hit its target.<ref>{{Citation
|title=Guarding the United States and its Outposts
|first1=Stetson
|last1=Conn
|last2=Engelman
|first=Rose C.
|last3=Fairchild
|first3=Byron
|publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army
|chapter-url=http://www.army.mil/cmh/books/wwii/Guard-US/ch4.htm#b1
|chapter=The Continental Defense Commands After Pearl Harbor
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref> This marked the first enemy shelling of Canadian soil since the [[War of 1812]]. Though no casualties were reported, the subsequent decision to turn off the lights of outer stations was disastrous for shipping activity.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.pinetreeline.org/rds/detail/rds99-34.html
|title=Japanese Submarines on the West Coast of Canada
|publisher=pinetreeline.org
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref>

===Fort Stevens attack===
In what became the only attack on a mainland American military installation during World War II, the Japanese submarine [[Japanese submarine I-25|''I-25'']], under the command of Tagami Meiji,<ref name=sensuikan />, surfaced near the mouth of the [[Columbia River]], [[Oregon]] on the night of [[June 21]] and [[June 22]], [[1942]], and fired shells toward [[Fort Stevens (Oregon)|Fort Stevens]]. The only damage officially recorded was to a [[baseball|baseball field]]'s backstop. Probably the most significant damage was a shell that damaged some large phone cables. The Fort Stevens gunners were refused permission to return fire, since it would have helped the Japanese locate their target more accurately. American aircraft on training flights spotted the submarine, which was subsequently attacked by a US bomber, but it escaped.

===Lookout Air Raid===
{{main|Lookout Air Raid}}
[[Image:Fujita&Glen.jpg|thumb|[[Nobuo Fujita]] standing by his [[Yokosuka E14Y]] "Glen" seaplane.]]

The Lookout Air Raid occurred on [[September 9]], [[1942]]. The first [[aerial bombing]] of mainland America by a foreign power occurred when an attempt to start a [[forest fire]] was made by a Japanese [[Yokosuka E14Y1]] [[seaplane]] dropping two 80 kg (170 pound) [[incendiary bomb]]s over [[Mount Emily]], near [[Brookings, Oregon|Brookings]], [[Oregon]]. The seaplane, piloted by [[Nobuo Fujita]], had been launched from the Japanese [[submarine aircraft carrier]] ''[[I-25 (submarine)|I-25]]''. No significant damage was officially reported following the attack, nor after a repeat attempt on [[September 29]].

===Fire balloons===
{{main|Fire balloon}}

Between November 1944 and April 1945, Japan launched over 9,000 fire balloons toward North America. Carried by the recently-discovered Pacific [[jet stream]], they were to sail over the [[Pacific Ocean]] and land in North America, where the Japanese hoped they would start forest fires and cause other damage. About three hundred were reported as reaching North America, but little damage was caused. Six people (five children and a woman) became the only deaths due to enemy action to occur on mainland America during World War II when one of the children tried to recover a balloon from a tree near [[Bly, Oregon|Bly]], [[Oregon]] in the [[United States]] and it exploded. Recently released reports by the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] and the Canadian military indicate that fire balloons reached as far inland as [[Saskatchewan]]. A fire balloon is also considered to be a possible cause of the final fire in the [[Tillamook Burn]].

==German assaults==
====''German landings in the United States''====
[[Image:Fbi duquesne.jpg|right|thumb|FBI file photo.]]
===Duquesne Spy Ring===
{{main|Duquesne Spy Ring}}
Even before the war, a large Nazi spy ring was found operating in the United States. The ''Duquesne Spy Ring'' is still the largest espionage case in United States history that ended in convictions. The 33 German agents that formed the Duquesne spy ring were placed in key jobs in the United States to get information that could be used in the event of war and to carry out acts of sabotage: one person opened a restaurant and used his position to get information from his customers; another person worked on an airline so that he could report allied ships that were crossing the Atlantic Ocean; others in the ring worked as delivery people so that they could deliver secret messages alongside normal messages. The ring was led by Captain [[Fritz Joubert Duquesne]], a colorful South African Boer who spied for Germany in both World Wars and is best known as "''The man who killed [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Kitchener]]''" after he was awarded the [[Iron Cross]] for his key role in the sabotage and sinking of ''[[HMS Hampshire (1903)|HMS Hampshire]]'' in 1916.<ref name="clementwood">{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Clement |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The man who killed Kitchener; the life of Fritz Joubert Duquesne |year=1932 |publisher=William Faro, inc |location=New York |isbn= }}</ref> [[William G. Sebold]], a [[double agent]] for the United States, was a major factor in the [[FBI]]'s successful resolution of this case. For nearly two years, Sebold ran a radio station in New York for the ring, giving the FBI valuable information on what Germany was sending to its spies in the United States while also controlling the information that was being transmitted to Germany. On [[June 29]], [[1941]], the FBI closed in. All 33 spies were arrested, found guilty, and sentenced to serve a total of over 300 years in prison.

===Operation Pastorius===
{{main|Operation Pastorius}}
When the United States entered World War II, [[Adolf Hitler]] ordered the remaining German [[saboteur]]s to wreak havoc on the country. The responsibility for carrying this out was given to German Intelligence ([[Abwehr]]). In June 1942, eight agents were recruited and divided into two teams: the first, commanded by [[George John Dasch]], with Ernest Burger, Heinrich Heinck and Richard Quirin. The second, under the command of Edward Kerling, with Hermann Neubauer, Werner Thiel and Herbert Haupt.

On [[June 12]], [[1942]], U-Boat ''U-202'' landed Dasch's team with explosives and plans at [[East Hampton (town), New York|East Hampton]], [[Long Island]], [[New York]].<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.spectacle.org/yearzero/tribunal.html
|title=Military Tribunals
|author=Jonathan Wallace
|publisher=spectacle.org
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref> Their mission was to destroy power plants at Niagara Falls and three Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA) factories in Illinois, Tennessee and New York. However, the team was observed following landing by a [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guardsman]] who immediately raised the alarm. After being captured, Dasch and Burger gave a full confession to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] and obtained more lenient treatment.

Kerling's team landed from ''U-584'' at [[Ponte Vedra Beach]] (25 miles [40 km] south-east of [[Jacksonville]], [[Florida]]), on [[June 17]]. They were tasked with laying mines in four areas: the [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] in [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark NJ.]], canal sluices in both St. Louis and Cincinnati, and New York City's water supply pipes. The team made their way to [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] and split up, with two going to [[Chicago, Illinois]] and the others to New York. However, the Dasch confession led to the arrest of all of the men by [[July 10]].

All eight were tried and convicted by Military Commission. President Roosevelt approved the sentences. The constitutionality of the military commissions was upheld by the Supreme Court in [[Ex parte Quirin]] and six of the eight men were executed by electrocution on [[August 8]]. Dasch and Burger were given thirty-year prison sentences. Both were released in 1948 and deported to Germany.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20051104050405/http://www.uboatwar.net/1ufbkagents.htm
|title=Agents delivered by U-boat
|publisher=uboatwar.net
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}} (from internet archive)</ref> Dasch (aka George Davis), who had been a longtime American resident prior to the war, suffered a difficult life in Germany after his return from U.S. custody due to his cooperation with U.S. authorities. As a condition of his deportation, he was not permitted to return to the United States, even though he spent many years writing letters to prominent American authorities (J. Edgar Hoover, President Eisenhower, etc.) requesting permission to return. He eventually fled to Switzerland and wrote a book, titled ''Eight Spies Against America''. <ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1970/3/1970_3_66.shtml
|title=The spies who came in from the sea
|author=W. A. Swanberg
|publisher=American Heritage Magazine
|month=April
|year=1970
|volume=21
|issue=3
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref>

===Operation Elster===
In 1944 there was another attempt at infiltration, codenamed ''Operation Elster'' ("Magpie"). Elster involved [[Erich Gimpel]] and German American defector [[William Colepaugh]]. Their mission objective was to gather intelligence on the [[Manhattan Project]] and attempt sabotage if possible. The pair sailed from Kiel on ''[[Unterseeboot 1230|U-1230]]'' and landed at [[Nazi Spy Landing Site|Hancock Point]], [[Maine]] on [[November 30]], [[1944]]. Both made their way to New York, but the operation degenerated into total failure. Colepaugh turned himself in to the FBI on [[December 26]], confessing the whole plan; Gimpel was arrested four days later in New York. Both men were sentenced to death but eventually had their sentences commuted. Gimpel spent 10 years in prison; Colepaugh was released in 1960 and operated a business in [[King of Prussia, Pennsylvania]] before retiring to Florida.

==== ''German landings in Canada'' ====

===St. Martins, New Brunswick===
At about the same time as the Dasch operation (on [[April 25]]), a solitary [[Abwehr]] agent (Marius A Langbein) was landed by U-boat (possibly ''U-217'') near [[St. Martins, New Brunswick]], Canada. His mission was to observe and report shipping movements at [[City of Halifax|Halifax]], Nova Scotia (a busy departure port for North Atlantic convoys). Langbein changed his mind, however, and moved to Ottawa where he lived off his Abwehr funds, before surrendering to the Canadian authorities in December 1944.

===Bell Island===
In November, the U-518 sank two iron ore freighters and damaged another off [[Bell Island]] in [[Conception Bay]], [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]], en route to the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] where, despite an attack by a [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] aircraft, it successfully landed a spy, Werner von Janowski, at [[New Carlisle, Quebec]] on [[November 9]], [[1942]]. He was soon apprehended after Earl Annett Jr., manager of the New Carlisle Hotel, at which Janowski was staying, became suspicious and alerted authorities to a stranger using obsolete currency at the hotel bar.<ref>Essex, James W. 2004. ''Victory in the St. Lawrence: the unknown u-boat war.'' Erin, Ontario: Boston Mills Press</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|R.C.M.P.]] arrested Janowski on a [[Canadian National Railways|CNR]] passenger train headed for [[Montreal]]. Inspection of Janowski's personal effects upon his arrest revealed that he was carrying a powerful radio transmitter, among other things. Janowski later spent some time as a double agent, sending false messages to the Abwehr in Germany, while gathering valuable intelligence for the Allies.

==== ''German landings in Newfoundland'' ====

===Martin Bay===
Accurate weather reporting was important to the sea war and on [[18 September]] [[1943]], ''U-537'' sailed from [[Kiel]], via [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] (Norway), with a meteorological team lead by Professor Kurt Sommermeyer. They landed at Martin Bay near the northern tip of [[Labrador]] on [[22 October]] [[1943]] and successfully set up an automatic weather station ("[[Weather Station Kurt]]" or "''Wetter-Funkgerät Land-26''"), despite the constant risk of Allied air patrols; this only worked for a short time, however. At the beginning of July 1944, ''U-867'' left Bergen to replace the failed equipment, but was sunk en route. The weather station was recovered in the 1980s and is now at the [[Canadian War Museum]].

===U-Boat operations===
====''United States''====
The [[Atlantic Ocean]] was a major strategic battle zone (''[[Second Battle of the Atlantic]]'') and when Germany declared war on the U.S., the [[East Coast of the United States]] offered easy pickings for [[Germany|German]] [[U-Boat]]s (referred to as the ''[[Second happy time]]''). After a highly successful foray by five [[German Type IX submarine|Type IX]] long-range U-boats, the offensive was maximised by the use of short-range [[German Type VII submarine|Type VII]] U-boats, with increased fuel stores, replenished from [[German Type XIV submarine|supply U-boats]] or "''Milchkuh''". From February to May, 1942, 348 ships were sunk, for the loss of 2 U-boats during April and May. U.S. naval commanders were reluctant to introduce the convoy system that had protected trans-Atlantic shipping and, without coastal blackouts, shipping was silhouetted against the bright lights of American towns and cities.

Several ships were torpedoed within sight of [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] cities such as [[New York City|New York]] and [[Boston]]; indeed, some civilians sat on [[beach]]es and watched battles between U.S. and German ships. The only documented World War II sinking of a U-boat close to New England shores occurred on May 5, 1945, when the [[U-853]] torpedoed and sank the collier ship [[Black Point]] off Newport, Rhode Island. When the Black Point was hit, the U.S. Navy immediately chased down the sub and began dropping depth charges. The next day, when an oil slick and floating debris appeared, they confirmed that the U-853 and its entire crew had been destroyed. In recent years, the U-853 has become a popular dive site. Its intact hull, with open hatches, is located in 130 feet of water off [[Block Island]], Rhode Island.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.ecophotoexplorers.com/u853.asp
|title= On Final Attack, The Story of the U853
|author=Michael Salvarezza
|author2=Christopher Weaver
|publisher=ecophotoexplorers.com
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref>

Once convoys and air cover were introduced, sinking numbers were reduced and the U-boats shifted to attack shipping in the [[Gulf of Mexico]], with 121 losses in June. In one instance, the [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] ''Virginia'' was torpedoed in the mouth of the [[Mississippi River]] by the German U-Boat [[U-507]] on [[May 12]], [[1942]], killing 26 crewmen. There were 14 survivors. Again, when defensive measures were introduced, ship sinkings decreased and U-boat sinkings increased.

The cumulative effect of this campaign was severe; a quarter of all wartime sinkings—3.1 million tons. There were several reasons for this. The naval commander, Admiral [[Ernest King]], was averse to taking British recommendations to introduce convoys, U.S. Coast Guard and Navy patrols were predictable and could be avoided by U-boats, poor inter-service co-operation, and the U.S. Navy did not possess enough suitable escort vessels (British and Canadian warships were transferred to the U.S. east coast).

====''Canada''====
From the start of the war in 1939 through to VE Day, several of Canada's Atlantic coast ports became important to the resupply effort for the [[United Kingdom]] and later for the Allied land offensive on the Western Front. [[City of Halifax|Halifax]] and [[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]], [[Nova Scotia]] became the primary convoy assembly ports, with Halifax being assigned the fast or priority convoys (largely troops and essential materiel) with the more modern merchant ships, while Sydney was given slow convoys which conveyed bulkier materiel on older and more vulnerable merchant ships. Both ports were heavily fortified with shore radar emplacements, search light batteries, and extensive coastal artillery stations all manned by RCN and Canadian Army regular and reserve personnel. Military intelligence agents enforced strict blackouts throughout the areas and anti-torpedo nets were in place at the harbour entrances. Despite the fact that no landings of German personnel took place near these ports, there were frequent attacks by U-boats on convoys departing for Europe. Less extensively used, but no less important, was the port of [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] which also saw war materiel funnelled through the port, largely after the [[United States]] entered the war in December 1941 and the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] mainline from central Canada (which crossed the state of [[Maine]]) could be used to transport in aid of the war effort.

Although not crippling to the Canadian war effort, given the country's rail network to the east coast ports, but possibly more destructive to the morale of the Canadian public, was the [[Battle of the St. Lawrence]], when U-boats began to attack domestic coastal shipping along Canada's east coast in the [[St. Lawrence River]] and [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] from spring [[1942]] through to the end of the shipping season in late fall [[1944]].

====''Newfoundland''====
Three significant attacks took place in 1942 when German U-boats attacked four [[iron ore]] carriers serving the [[Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation|DOSCO]] iron mine at [[Wabana, Newfoundland and Labrador|Wabana]] on [[Bell Island]] in [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]]'s [[Conception Bay]]. The ships S.S. ''Saganaga'' and the S.S. ''Lord Strathcona'' were sunk by ''U-513'' on [[September 5]], [[1942]], while the S.S. ''Rosecastle'' and ''P.L.M 27'' were sunk by ''U-518'' on [[November 2]] with the loss of 69 lives. However, one of the most dramatic incidents of the attack occurred after the sinkings when the submarine fired a torpedo that missed its target, the 3000 ton collier ''Anna T'', and struck the DOSCO loading pier and exploded. As a result of the torpedo missing its target, [[Bell Island]] became the only location in [[North America]] to be subject to direct attack by German forces during World War II. On [[October 14]], [[1942]], the [[Newfoundland Railway]] ferry [[SS Caribou|SS ''Caribou'']] was torpedoed by the German U-boat U-''69'' and sunk in the [[Cabot Strait]] south of [[Channel-Port aux Basques, Newfoundland and Labrador|Port aux Basques]]. ''Caribou'' was carrying 45 crew and 206 civilian and military passengers. 137 lost their lives, many of them Newfoundlanders.

====''Caribbean''====
German submarines shelled a [[Standard Oil]] refinery on Dutch-owned [[Aruba]] on [[February 16]], [[1942]], causing no damage.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,884455,00.html
|title=Shells at Aruba
|date=[[February 23]], [[1942]]
|publisher=Time Magazine
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist9/aaf1.html
|title=Defense of the Western Hemisphere
|publisher=The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref>

A German sub shelled the island of [[Mona, Puerto Rico|Mona]], some 40 miles from [[Puerto Rico]], on [[March 2]]. No damage or casualties resulted.

An oil refinery on [[Curacao]] was shelled on [[April 19]].
====''Mexico''====
Although not an attack on Mexican territory, the sinking of the Mexican tanker [[Faja de oro|''Faja de Oro'']] by the German U-boat, U-160, on [[May 21]], [[1942]] off [[Key West]], prompted the entry of Mexico into World War II. Mexico and Brazil were the only Latin American countries to send troops to fight overseas against Germany and Japan.

==False alarms==
===The Battle of Los Angeles===
{{main|Battle of Los Angeles}}
In an incident now known as ''The Battle of [[Los Angeles]]'', the [[U.S. Army]] fired several thousand [[anti-aircraft]] shells into the air over [[Los Angeles, California]] during the night of [[February 24]]-[[February 25]], [[1942]] at two stationary [[Unidentified Flying Objects]], in which none of the targets were intercepted or damaged at all. The target was later officially determined to be a lost [[weather balloon]]. <ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/BattleofLA.html
|publisher=The California State Military Museum
|title=California and the Second World War; The Battle of Los Angeles
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}
</ref><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist9/aaf2.html
|title=The Battle of Los Angeles
|publisher=Virtual Museum of the City of San francisco
|accessdate=[[2007-12-09]]}}</ref>

===The San Francisco Bay Area on alert===
In May and June 1942, the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] underwent a series of alerts:
* [[May 12]]: A twenty-five minute [[air-raid]] alert.
* [[May 27]]: [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] defenses put on alert after Army [[Cryptanalysis|codebreakers]] learned that the Japanese intended a series of [[Hit-and-run tactics|hit-and-run attack]]s in reprisal for the [[Doolittle Raid]].
* [[May 31]]: The battleships [[USS Colorado (BB-45)|USS ''Colorado'']] and [[USS Maryland (BB-46)|USS ''Maryland'']] set sail from the [[Golden Gate]] to form a line of defense against any Japanese attack mounted on [[San Francisco]].

===Radio silences===
On [[June 2]], [[1942]] , a nine-minute air-raid alert, including at 9:22pm a [[radio silence]] order applied to all [[radio station]]s from [[Mexico]] to [[Canada]].

==Notes==

{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Black Tom Explosion]] – Possible German sabotage in [[World War I]]
*[[Bell Island]], the only location in [[North America]] to be subject to direct attack by German forces in World War II
*[[Weather Station Kurt]]

==Further reading==
*Dobbs, Michael. ''Saboteurs: The Nazi Raid on America'' ISBN 0-375-41470-3 (2004)
*Duffy, J.P. [http://www.jp.duffy.net/ TARGET: AMERICA, Hitler's Plan to Attack the United States], Praeger Publishers; PB: The Lyons Press (A [[Booklist]] [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0275966844 review])
*Gimpel, Erich. ''Agent 146: The True Story of a Nazi Spy in America'' ISBN 0-312-30797-7 (2003)
*Griehl, Manfred. ''Luftwaffe over America: The Secret Plans to Bomb the United States in World War II'' ISBN 1-85367-608-X (2004)
*{{cite book
| last = Horn
| first = Steve
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 2005
| chapter =
| title = The Second Attack on Pearl Harbor: Operation K And Other Japanese Attempts to Bomb America in World War II
| publisher = Naval Institute Press
| location =
| id = ISBN 1-59114-388-8
}}
*Mikesh, Robert C. ''Japan's World War II Balloon Bomb Attacks on North America'', Smithsonian Institution Press, (1973)
*{{Citation
|last=Kesich
|first=Gregory D.
|title=1944: When spies came to Maine
|url=http://travel.mainetoday.com/regions/da/spies.shtml
|publisher=Portland Press Herald
|date=[[April 13]], [[2003]]
|accessdate\[[2007-12-09]]}}
*Webber, Bert. ''Silent Siege: Japanese Attacks Against North America in World War II'', Ye Galleon Press, Fairfield, Washington (1984). ISBN 0-87770-315-9 (hardcover). ISBN 0-87770-318-3 (paperbound).

==External links==
*[http://www.military.com/NewsContent/0,13319,77031,00.html American targets]
*[http://www.portorfordlifeboatstation.org/article1.html Japanese submarine attacks]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq114-2.htm German Sabotage operations]
*[http://www.sfmuseum.org/war/42.html the bay area at war]
*[http://www.army.mil/cmh/books/wwii/guard-us/index.htm#contents army responses]
*[http://www.german-navy.de/kriegsmarine/articles/feature2.html Details of German secret agents landed in North America]
*[http://www.alaskainvasion.com/ Red White Black & Blue - feature documentary about The Battle of Attu in the Aleutians during World War II]
*[http://www.army.mil/cmh/brochures/DOA/DOA.htm Defense of Americas]
*[http://uboat.net/articles/index.html?article=29 The Battle of the St. Lawrence]
{{Campaignbox World War II}}

[[Category:Campaigns and theatres of World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of Japan during World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of the United States during World War II]]

[[es:Ataques al territorio de Estados Unidos durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial]]
[[ja:アメリカ本土空襲]]
[[pt:Ataques na América durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial]]

Axel Leijonhufvud

2008-02-15T17:07:39Z

Tkynerd: Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help! - Wikipedia Cleaner 0.62

'''Axel Leijonhufvud''' ([[1933]] [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]) is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[economist]], currently professor [[emeritus]] at [[UCLA]]. He received his Ph.D. from [[Northwestern University]] in [[1967]]. His most famous scholarly article is ''On Keynesian Economics and the Economics of Keynes'' which appeared in the [[AER]] in [[1968]].

== Link ==

[http://www.econ.ucla.edu/people/Faculty/Leijonhufvud.html Homepage]

[[Category:Economist]]

Aylar Lie

2008-02-15T16:52:22Z

Tkynerd: Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help! - Wikipedia Cleaner 0.62

{{Female adult bio|
photo=|
caption=|
birth={{birth date and age|1984|02|22}}|
death=|
location= [[Tehran]], [[Iran]]|
birthname=Sharareh|
measurements= 91-60-80 cm (36D-24-32)|
height = {{height|m=1.57}}|
weight = {{convert|42|kg|lb st|abbr=on|lk=on}}|
eye color = Hazel|
hair color = Black|
natural bust = No|
orientation = |
ethnicity = half[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], half [[Norwegian people|Norwegian]]|
spouse = |
alias = Diena Lie Princess Diana Aylar Dianati|
homepage= http://www.aylar.no|
iafd=Diana02|
imdb=1536949|
afdb=36836|
}}
'''Aylar Dienati Leo''' {{lang-fa|'''آیلار دیانتی لی'''}}, born [[February 12]], [[1984]] as '''Sharareh''' in [[Tehran]], [[Iran]]) to [[Iran|Iranian ]] parents has gained [[celebrity]] in [[Norway]] as a [[model (person)|model]] and former pornographic actress.

Aylar arrived in Norway as a two-year-old and was raised by Norwegian foster parents.{{ref|childhood}} She speaks [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] fluently, and some English.{{ref|aylarsite}}

In 2004 Aylar participated in the [[Miss Norway]] contest, but was disqualified when the judges found out that she had taken part in [[adult film]]s in the years 2002 and 2003.

In [[December 2004]], Lie claimed to have had a sexual encounter with [[Robbie Williams]]. The claim was dismissed as false by Williams and his agents.{{ref|robbie}}

In 2005, she participated in [[Big Brother (Swedish TV series)|Big Brother (Sweden vs. Norway)]].

Her plans for 2006 included the promotion of her hand-picked team of models, called ''[[Team Aylar]]''. The members of Team Aylar currently include: Elita Löfblad, Charlotte Fredriksen, Linn Irene (Linni) Meister, Cathrine Aschim and Lisa Marie Winther.{{ref|teamaylar}} Aylar later kicked Meister out, due to her home made pornographic movie with her former boyfriend Kristian Hilberg, which became public on the internet.

In 2006 she relased a single, which was a cover of [[Sabrina Salerno|Sabrina]]'s "Boys (Summertime Love)" hit from 1987. She also stars in the [[Basshunter]] video for the song "Now You're Gone".

She is currently in a relationship with the 25 year old Norwegian model Frederik Midtboe.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

In [[January]] [[2008]], it was reported that Lie "can't return to her homeland because of death threats over her X-rated past". <ref>http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/bizarre/article714849.ece</ref> The saucy star in the [[Basshunter]] video, which helped the single [[Now You're Gone]] to number one position. She has also previously starred in [[porn]] films, because of which Aylar has been told that she would be killed if she entered [[Iran]].

== References ==
*{{note|robbie}} [http://pub.tv2.no/nettavisen/english/article315943.ece Nettavisen article on Robbie Williams response to Lie's allegations] ([[December 15]], [[2004]]; retrieved on [[November 24]], [[2005]])
*{{note|aylarsite}} http://www.aylar.no ; retrieved on [[April 07]], [[2006]])
*{{note|teamaylar}} http://pub.tv2.no/nettavisen/side2/kjendis/article462121.ece ; ([[September 25]], [[2005]] retrieved on [[April 07]], [[2006]])
*{{note|miss_norway}} http://pub.tv2.no/nettavisen/english/article267959.ece ; ([[August 20]], [[2004]] retrieved on [[April 07]], [[2006]])
*{{note|childhood}} http://pub.tv2.no/nettavisen/english/article267959.ece ; ([[August 20]], [[2004]] retrieved on [[April 07]], [[2006]])

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lie, Aylar}}
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:Female porn stars]]
[[Category:Iranian porn stars]]
[[Category:Iranian female models]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Norwegian porn stars]]
[[Category:People from Tehran]]

[[fa:آیلار دیانتی لی]]
[[ia:Aylar Lie]]
[[no:Aylar Lie]]
[[nn:Aylar Lie]]
[[sv:Aylar Lie]]

Sven Erik Kristiansen

2008-02-15T16:46:49Z

Tkynerd: Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help! - Wikipedia Cleaner 0.62

{{Infobox musical artist
| Name = Sven Erik Kristiansen
| Img = Replace this image male.svg
| Img_capt =
| Img_size =
| Background = solo_singer
| Birth_name = Sven Erik Kristiansen
| Alias = Maniac
| Born = {{Birth date and age|1967|2|19|mf=y}}
| Died =
| Origin = [[Norway]]
| Instrument = [[Vocals]], [[Guitar]]
| Genre = [[Black metal]]
| Occupation = [[Musician]]
| Years_active =
| Label =
| Associated_acts = [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]
| URL =
| Current_members =
| Past_members =
| Notable_instruments =
}}

'''Sven Erik Kristiansen''' (born [[February 19]], [[1967]]) is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] musician. He is best known as the former vocalist in the [[black metal]] band [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]] under the stage name '''Maniac'''. He joined the band in 1986 after the departure of the bands original vocalist Messiah (Eirik Nordheim).While in the band, he was known for cutting himself along with is replacement, Dead. He was in the band until his departure in 1988. He was replaced by Dead ([[Per Yngve Ohlin]]).

When Hellhammer ([[Jan Axel Blomberg]]) decided to revive Mayhem in 1995 after the deaths of both Euronymous ([[Øystein Aarseth]]) and Dead, he invited Maniac to return as the band's vocalist.

Maniac was in the band until 2004 when he was forced to leave.

==Beliefs==
Maniac had been a [[Theistic Satanism|Theistic Satanist]] like many other members in the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Black Metal]] scene for many years. Yet he recently converted to [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Christianity]] in late 2006. Claiming in an interview that Satanism is "''Nothing but destructive to mankind. And it's too bad it took me over 20 f***ing years to figure that out. I have found a true God now.''"

==Other Projects==
He is now a member of the [[hardcore punk]] band [[Bomberos (music group)|Bomberos]] as well as the side project [[Skitliv]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kristiansen, Sven Erik}}
{{mayhem (band)}}

{{Norway-musician-stub}}
{{Metal-music-stub}}
{{Singer-stub}}

[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Mayhem (band) members]]
[[Category:Norwegian black metal musicians]]
[[Category:Norwegian rock singers]]
[[Category:Heavy metal singers]]
[[Category:Black metal singers]]
[[Category:Punk rock singers]]
[[Category:Norwegian male singers]]

[[id:Sven Erik Kristiansen]]
[[it:Sven Erik Kristiansen]]
l

Ruth Landes

2008-02-15T16:22:03Z

Tkynerd: Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help! - Wikipedia Cleaner 0.62

'''Ruth Landes''' ([[October 8]], [[1908]], [[New York City]] - [[February 11]], [[1991]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]) was an [[USA|American]] [[cultural anthropologist]] best known for studies on [[Brazil]]ian [[Candomble]] cults and her published study on the topic, ''City of Women'' (1947).

==Biography==

Dr. Landes was born in Manhattan, the daughter of [[Joseph Schlossberg]], a co-founder of the [[Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America]]<ref>http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE6DE103AF937A15751C0A967958260&scp=1&sq=ruth+landes&st=nyt</ref>. Landes received her B.A. in [[Sociology]] from [[New York University]] in 1928, and a Masters degree from The New York of Social Work (now part of [[Columbia University]]) in 1929, before studying for her doctorate in anthropology at Columbia University. She earned her Ph.D. under the mentorship of [[Ruth Benedict]], a pioneer in the field of anthropology and former student of [[Franz Boas]]<ref>http://www.nmnh.si.edu/naa/guide/_l1.htm</ref>.

==Field Studies==
Landes began her career of investigating the social organization and religious practices of marginalized subjects with her masters thesis on Black Jews in [[Harlem]]. Seeking to enhance her analysis of this group, she contacted Professor Boas whose keen response introduced her into the field of anthropology. On Benedict's advice, Landes shifted her focus toward [[Native Americans]] - then considered to be more traditional anthropological subjects. Between 1932 and 1936, she undertook field work with the [[Ojibwa]] of [[Ontario]] and [[Minnesota]], the [[Santee Dakota]] in Minnesota, and the [[Potawatomi]] in [[Kansas]]. Using her notes from these trips, Landes produced a large body of written research, including the landmark texts ''Ojibwa Sociology'' (1937), ''The Ojibwa Woman'' (1938), and, much later, ''Ojibwa Religion and the Midewiwin'' (1968) and ''The Mystic Lake Sioux'' (1968). In ''Ojibwa Sociology'' and ''Ojibwa Woman'', Landes details her notes on [[kinship]], religious rites and social organization, and in the latter, through the tales of chief informant Maggie Wilson, reported how women navigated within their requisite gender roles to assert autonomy in the face of economic and personal hardship. In ''Ojibwa Religion'' and ''The Mystic Lake Sioux'', Landes discussed her subjects' strategies to maintain religious and cultural beliefs and practices, while also responding to rapid changes in their cultural and political environment.

In 1938-1939, Ruth Landes worked in [[Bahia]], [[Brazil]], to study [[religious syncretism]] and identity construction among [[Afro-Brazilian]] [[candomblé]] practictioners. She found that the women-centered sphere of candomblé was a source of power for certain disenfranchised blacks and a creative outlet for what she called "[[passive homosexuals]]". In her published work on these findings, ''The City of Women'' (1947), Landes included her analysis of how racial politics in Brazil engender the form of many candomblé practices. She returned to Brazil in 1966 to study the effects of urban development in Rio de Janeiro.

==Career==
For much of her professional career, Ruth Landes held a number of contract research positions. In 1939, she became a researcher for [[Gunnar Myrdal]]'s study of African Americans. In 1941, she became research director for the Office of the Coordinator for Inter-American Affairs. In 1941-1945, she was the representative for African-American and Mexican-American Affairs on [[President Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s Committee on Fair Employment Practices. At the same time, she began to study the [[Acadians]] of [[Louisiana]]. In 1948-1951, she was study director of the [[American Jewish Commission]] in New York. She was a consultant on Jewish families of New York for Ruth Benedict's Research in Contemporary Cultures during 1949-1951. In 1950-1952, Landes studied problems of immigrants of Asian and African descent in the [[United Kingdom]]. During 1946-1947 and again in the late 1950s and early 1960s, Landes lived in [[California]] and, through several consultantships, became involved with the study of [[Hispanic]]/[[Latino]] culture. At the same time, she became interested in the role of culture in minority education and in the processes and effects of aging. In 1968, she began an investigation of [[bilingualism]] and bi-culturalism that developed from her interest in [[Quebec]] nationalism in Canada. The project took her to [[Spain]] and [[Nevada]] to study the [[Basques]], to [[Switzerland]] to examine the four language groups there, and to [[South Africa]] to study the interaction of [[Africans]], [[English language|English]]-speakers, and [[Afrikaans]]-speakers. She resumed interest in the Acadians of Louisiana in 1963.

Until 1965, Landes's institutional affiliations consisted of fairly short-term appointments. Besides those already named, she was an instructor at [[Brooklyn College]] in 1937 and at [[Fisk University]] in 1937-1938. She was a lecturer at the William Alanson White Psychiatric Institution in New York in 1953-1954 and at the [[New School for Social Research]] in New York in 1953-1955. She was a visiting professor at the [[University of Kansas]] in 1957 and at the [[University of Southern California]] in 1957-1965. In 1959-1962, she was [[visiting professor]] and director of the anthropology and education program at the [[Claremont Graduate School]]. She was an [[extension lecturer]] at Columbia University and at [[Los Angeles State College]] in 1963, a visiting professor at [[Tulane University]] during the early months of 1964, and a visiting professor at the University of Kansas in the summer of 1964. Her association with [[McMaster University]] in [[Hamilton, Ontario]], began in 1965 and continued after 1977 with her appointment as [[professor emerita]].

==Death and Legacy==
Ruth Landes died in Hamilton, Ontario on February 11, 1991, at the age of 83. Her contributions to multiple fields of scholarship were documented in ''Ruth Landes: A Life in Anthropology'' by Sally Cooper Cole. Landes' legacy also lives on in the The Ruth Landes Prize awarded each year to the McMaster University student who has demonstrated outstanding academic achievement in anthropology<ref>http://registrar.mcmaster.ca/CALENDAR/year2006/awd_721.htm</ref>. Additionally, the Ruth Landes Memorial Research Fund, a part of the Research Institute for the Study of Man, was established to encourage interdisciplinary scholarship on the various subjects that were of interest to her during her professional and academic career<ref>http://rism.org/rism_landes/Landes.html</ref>.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

Cole, Sally. 2003. ''Ruth Landes: A Life in Anthropology''. University of Nebraska.

Margrethe Eriksdatter von Dänemark

2008-02-03T00:53:29Z

Tkynerd: Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help! - Wikipedia Cleaner 0.62

'''Martha (Margaret) of Denmark ([[Swedish language|Swedish]]: Märta)''' ([[1277]]-[[1341]]) was a Medieval [[Sweden|Swedish]] Queen known as '''''Queen Märta (Martha)''''' ; in Swedish spelled as "Märta". She was a politically influential queen and played a part in the Håtuna games and the Nyköping Banquet.

She was daughter of King [[Eric V]] of [[Denmark]] and Agnes of Brandenburg and sister of king [[Eric VI of Denmark|Eric VI]]. Her father was murdered in [[1286]], and her mother, who was made regent, remarried in [[1293]]. She was married to King [[Birger of Sweden]] in [[1298]]; two years before, her brother had been married to her husband's sister, Princess Ingeborg of Sweden. The marriage was decided when she was a child, and she had in fact spent a lot of her childhood in Sweden; engaged to the Swedish crown prince as a child, she had been largely brought up at the Swedish court, by her future mother-in-law, the queen dowager [[Helwig of Holstein]]; she lived in Sweden from at least [[1295]].

The two children, Märta and Birger, grew up together and loved each other, and their marriage was therefore to become a happy one, which was perhaps the reason to why she was to have a such a large influence on him. In [[1298]], it was decided that it was time to celebrate their formal wedding, which is described as very grand, with processions of knights, theatre played by nobles, and the title of duke given by her husband to his brother Erik. She herself asked for political prisoners to be let free, which was granted. She was crowned in [[1302]].

Queen Martha had great political influence on her husband and participated in many the intrigues of his court. In [[1299]], she gave birth to a son, who was proclaimed heir to the throne in [[1304]]. In [[1306]], however, the brothers of the king took the actual power away from the royal couple in the famous [[Håtuna games]]. Märta sent her son and heir to her brother and her husband's sister, the king and queen of Denmark.

In Swedish history, queen Märta had a bloodthirsty reputation; in the second of her husband's controversies with his brothers the dukes - the king and Queen had, during the first one, the [[Håtuna games]] in [[1306]], been captured and imprisoned by them, and forced to hand over the real power to them - the royal couple invited the dukes to great festivities, during which the dukes vere captured and imprisoned, and left to starve to death. The festivitys is described in a famous medieval song; ''" Everyone danced all the way from indoors to outdoors, the Queen had never looked so happy before,"'' which was seen as a cruel sign of excitement (as she was aware of the plans on capturing them in the middle of the festivities) that she and her husband would now get their revenge. Sometimes, it is even believed, that she was the creator of the entire plan of event; she is mentioned as the creator of the [[Nyköping Banquet]] together with minister Johann Brunkow.

When her husband was deposed in [[1318]] and Nyköpingshus castle was taken, she fled to her brother in Denmark, were she spent the rest of her life. Her husband joined her, and she became a widow in [[1321]], after having witnessed her son's murder in [[1320]] and her brother's death in [[1319]]. She was buried in the curch of Saint Bent in [[Ringsted]].

== Children ==

* Prince Magnus Birgersson of Sweden ([[1300]]-[[1320]])
* Prince Eric Birgersson of Sweden
* Princess Agnes Birgersdotter of Sweden
* Princess Katarina Birgersdotter

== See also ==

[[List of Swedish queens]]

== Source ==
* Herman Lindqvist, "Historien om Sverige".
* Svensk Uppslagsbok, 1947 års utgåva.
* http://runeberg.org/sqvinnor/0306.html
* Åke Ohlmarks, "Alla Sveriges drottningar"

{{start box}}
{{s-hou|||1277||1341}}
{{s-roy|se}}
{{succession box|before=[[Helwig of Holstein]] '''''([[Queen consort]])''|title=[[Royal Consorts of Sweden|Royal Consort of Sweden]] '''''([[Queen consort]])''|years=[[1298]] - [[1318]]|after=[[Blanka of Namur]] ''([[Queen consort]])|)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Medieval women]]
[[Category:Swedish queens]]
[[Category:1277 births]]
[[Category:1341 deaths]]

[[es:Marta Eriksdotter de Dinamarca]]
[[nl:Martha van Denemarken]]
[[sv:Märta av Danmark]]

Bermondsey (London)

2008-01-27T21:52:50Z

Tkynerd: Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help! - Wikipedia Cleaner 0.62

{{infobox UK place|
|country = England
|map_type = Greater London
|region= London
|population=
|official_name= Bermondsey
|latitude= 51.4986
|longitude= -0.0757
|os_grid_reference= TQ335795
|london_borough= Southwark
|post_town= LONDON
|postcode_area=SE
|postcode_district=SE1, SE16
|dial_code=020
|london_borough= Southwark
|constituency_westminster= [[North Southwark and Bermondsey (UK Parliament constituency)|North Southwark and Bermondsey]]
}}
'''Bermondsey''' is an area of south [[London]] in the [[London Borough of Southwark]]. It is a built-up district located 2.1 miles (3.4 km) east of [[Charing Cross]].
==History==
===11th century===
The area was originally named "Beormund's Ey", Beormund being a [[Old English language|Saxon]] personal name, "ey" being [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] for "island". At this time it would have been little more than a marshy riverside island.

Bermondsey appears in [[Domesday Book]] as ''Bermundesy(e)''. It was held by [[William the Conqueror|King William]]. Its Domesday Assets were: 12 [[hide (unit)|hide]]s; 'A new and handsome' church, 5 [[plough]]s, 20 acres of [[meadow]], [[woodland]] worth 5 [[hog (swine)|hog]]s. It rendered (in total): £15.<ref>[http://www.gwp.enta.net/surrnames.htm Surrey Doomsday Book]</ref>

A community of [[Cluny|Cluniac]] monks established [[Bermondsey Abbey]] on the site in [[1082]] and began the development of the area, cultivating the land and embanking the riverside. They turned an adjacent tidal inlet at the mouth of the [[River Neckinger]] into a dock, naming it [[St Saviour's Dock]] after their abbey's patron.
[[Image:Joris Hoefnagel Fete at Bermondsey c 1569.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''A Fête at Bermondsey'' by [[Joris Hoefnagel]] c. 1569, with the [[Tower of London]] in the distance.]]
[[Image:AlaskaBuildingsBermondsey.jpg|thumb|Former Alaska factory in Bermondsey]]
[[Image:Bermondsey leather exchange 1.jpg|thumb|Leather, Hide and Wool Exchange, Bermondsey. (March 2007)]]
The [[Knights Templar]] also owned land here and gave their names to one of the most distinctive streets in London, [[Shad Thames]] (a corruption of "St John at Thames"). Other ecclesiastical properties stood nearby at Tooley (a corruption of "[[Saint Olaf|St Olave's]]") Street, where wealthy citizens and clerics had their houses, including the Priors of [[Lewes]], the Abbots of [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]] and the Priors of [[Augustine of Canterbury|St Augustine]], Canterbury.

===17th century===

As it developed over the centuries, Bermondsey underwent some striking changes. After the [[Great Fire of London]], it was settled by the well-to-do and took on the character of a garden suburb. A pleasure garden was founded there in the [[17th century]], commemorated by the [[Cherry Garden Pier]]. [[Samuel Pepys]] visited "Jamaica House" at Cherry Gardens in [[1664]] and recorded in his diary that he had left it "singing finely".

Though not many buildings survive from this era, one notable exception is the church of [[St Mary Magdalen (Bermondsey)|St Mary Magdalen]] on [[Bermondsey Street]], completed in 1690 (although a church has been recorded on this site from the 13th Century). This church came through both 19th-century redevelopment and [[The Blitz]] unscathed. It is not just an unusual survivor for
Bermondsey; buildings of this era are relative rarities in [[Inner London]] in general.

===18th century===

In the [[18th century]], the discovery of a spring in the area led to Bermondsey becoming a spa. It was from the Bermondsey riverside that the painter [[J.M.W. Turner]] executed his famous painting of ''The Fighting "Temeraire" Tugged to her Last Berth to be Broken Up'' ([[1839]]), depicting the veteran warship being towed to [[Rotherhithe]] to be scrapped.

===19th century===

By the mid-[[19th century]] parts of Bermondsey had become a notorious slum - with the arrival of industrial plants, docks and immigrant housing. The area around St Saviour's Dock, known as [[Jacob's Island]], was one of the worst in London. It was immortalised by [[Charles Dickens]]'s novel ''[[Oliver Twist]]'', in which the principal villain [[Bill Sikes]] meets a nasty end in the mud of 'Folly Ditch' - the scene of an attack by [[Spring Heeled Jack]] in 1845 - surrounding Jacob's Island. Dickens provides a vivid description of what it was like:

: "... crazy wooden galleries common to the backs of half a dozen houses, with holes from which to look upon the slime beneath; windows, broken and patched, with poles thrust out, on which to dry the linen that is never there; rooms so small, so filthy, so confined, that the air would seem to be too tainted even for the dirt and squalor which they shelter; wooden chambers thrusting themselves out above the mud and threatening to fall into it - as some have done; dirt-besmeared walls and decaying foundations, every repulsive lineament of poverty, every loathsome indication of filth, rot, and garbage: all these ornament the banks of Jacob's Island."

Bermondsey Town Hall was built on Spa Road in [[1881]].
[[Image:MandelaWayT34.jpg|thumb|[[T34 on Mandela Way]]]]
The area was extensively redeveloped during the [[19th century]] and early [[20th century]] with the expansion of the river trade and the arrival of the [[railway]]s. London's first passenger railway terminus was built by the [[London to Greenwich Railway]] in [[1836]] at [[London Bridge station|London Bridge]], connecting Bermondsey with [[Greenwich]]. The line ran for four miles on 878 brick arches, with the linked [[Croydon Railway]] opening in [[1839]].This was an extension,to the London to Grenwich railway, the first terminus was at [[Spa Road Station]] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spa_Road_station).This had closed by 1915.

The industrial boom of the 19th century was an extension of Bermondsey's manufacturing role in earlier eras. As in the [[East End]], industries that were deemed too noisome to be carried on within the narrow confines of the [[City of London]] had been located here - one such that came to dominate central Bermondsey, away from the riverfront, was the processing and trading of [[leather]] and [[hides]]. Many buildings from this era survive around Leathermarket Street including the huge Leather, Hide and Wool Exchange (now residential and small work spaces). Hepburn and Gale's [[Tanning|tannery]] (disused as of early 2007) on Long Lane is also a substantial survivor of the leather trade.

===20th century===
[[Image:Bermondsey fashion museum 1.jpg|thumb|Bermondsey Fashion and Textiles Museum. (March 2007)]]

From [[1899]] to [[1965]], Bermondsey formed part of the [[Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey]].

To the east of Tower Bridge, Bermondsey's 3½ miles of riverside were lined with warehouses and wharves, of which the best known is [[Butler's Wharf]]. They suffered severe damage in [[World War II]] bombing and became redundant in the [[1960s]] following the collapse of the river trade. After standing derelict for some years, many of the wharves were redeveloped under the aegis of the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] during the [[1980s]]. They have now been converted into a mixture of residential and commercial accommodations and have become some of the most upmarket and expensive properties in London. In [[1997]], US President [[Bill Clinton]] and Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] visited the area to dine at the Pont de la Tour restaurant at Butler's Wharf.

Despite the presence of London Bridge station, Bermondsey's transport links with the rest of London have historically been poor. This was remedied in [[1999]] with the opening of [[Bermondsey tube station]] on the [[London Underground]]'s [[Jubilee Line Extension]].

[[Image:BermondseyAntiquesMarket.jpg|thumb|Bermondsey Antiques Market.]]
[[Image:Bermondsey mary magdalen 1.jpg|thumb|St Mary Magdalen, a rare 17th-century church. (March 2007)]]


==Places of interest==

* [[Bermondsey Market|Bermondsey antiques market]]
* [[Tower Bridge]]
* [[HMS Belfast]]
* [[London Dungeon]]
* [[Fashion and Textile Museum]]
* [[Shad Thames]]
* [[Mandela Way T-34 Tank]]
* [[Millwall F.C.]]
* [[Miloco Studios]]
* [[Bermondsey Spa Gardens]]

==Nearest places==

* [[Wapping]]
* [[Whitechapel]]
* [[Rotherhithe]]
* [[Newington, London|Newington]]
* [[Walworth, London|Walworth]]

==Nearest stations==

* [[Bermondsey tube station]]
* [[London Bridge station]]

==See also==

* [[Antenna Audio]], UK office
*[[Jade Goody]] who came fourth in the reality TV show ''[[Big Brother (UK)|Big Brother]]'' in 2002 grew up in Bermondsey and attended Bacons College secondary school in [[Rotherhithe]].
*[[Paul O'Grady]] a.k.a [[Lily Savage]] who is a comedian and all round TV presenter lives in Bermondsey near [[Tower Bridge]].
*[[Arthur Smith]]- comedian
*[[Millwall F.C.]]
*[[Madeline Duggan]], is an [[England|English]] [[Actress]] best known for playing [[Lauren Branning]] in the [[BBC1]] [[soap]] [[opera]] [[EastEnders]]
*Paterson Park in Bermondsey is named after a noted prison reformer, [[Alexander Paterson (penologist)|Sir Alexander Paterson]].<ref>[http://www.london-se1.co.uk/places/paterson-park London SE1 community website]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==

* [http://www.london-se1.co.uk/ London SE1 community website]
* [http://www.southwark.gov.uk/YourServices/RegenerationSection/BermondseySpaRegeneration/ Bermondsey Spa Regeneration Plans]
*[http://southwarkbermondsey.remotemanager.co.uk/app/716f198a94913dab07c062d62d8d83eb/live Bermondsey Spa Webcam]
*[http://www.bermondseyvillage.org.uk/pdf/TimeOut_BermonseySt.pdf Time Out London's Guide to Bermondsey]
*[http://www.bermondseysquare.co.uk Bermondsey Square]
*[http://www.discoverbermondsey.org.uk/ Discover Bermondsey]
*[http://www.pintlocator.co.uk/Bermondsey-16_SE16-pubs-bars.htm Pubs and Bars in Bermondsey]

{{LB Southwark}}
{{London Districts}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods of Southwark]]
[[Category:Districts of London]]

[[hi:बर्मंडसी]]
[[nl:Bermondsey]]
[[no:Bermondsey]]
[[sv:Bermondsey]]

Kirin Beer

2008-01-13T18:57:31Z

Tkynerd: Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help! - Wikipedia Cleaner 0.56

[[Image:A can of Kirin Beer's Original Brew.JPG|200px|thumb|A can of Kirin ichiban beer(Japanese version)]]
{{Nihongo|'''Kirin Brewery Company, Ltd.'''|麒麟麦酒株式会社|Kirin Bīru Kabushiki-gaisha}} ({{tyo|2503}}, {{nasdaq|KNBWY}}) is a [[Japan|Japanese]] company. It is a member of the [[Mitsubishi]] core group of companies.

Longtime leader of the Japanese [[beer]] market, Kirin Brewery Company, Limited in the early 2000s was overtaken by its arch-rival, [[Asahi Breweries]]. Kirin nevertheless continues to sell two of the most popular beers in Japan, Kirin Lager (the country's oldest beer brand) and Ichiban Shibori. In the burgeoning [[happoshu]] (low-malt) category, Kirin Tanrei is the top seller. In addition, Kirin handles domestic distribution for several foreign brands, including [[Budweiser]] and [[Heineken]]. Kirin's brewery operations also extend overseas, through strategic alliances, subsidiaries, and affiliates, to [[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Australia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Europe]], and the [[United States]]. The company holds a 46 percent stake in Lion Nathan Limited, a consolidated subsidiary that is based in Australia but has particularly important operations in China. Kirin has also invested a 15 percent stake in San Miguel Corporation, the dominant brewer in the Philippines. With more than 100 years of experience in the [[brewing]] business, Kirin now applies its [[fermentation]] technology to areas such as [[plant]] genetics, [[pharmaceutical]]s, and [[bioengineering]]. Although brewing and related businesses remain the core of Kirin's activities, the company is also involved in several other sectors: hard [[liquor]], [[wine]], [[soft drink]]s, and [[food]] products.

Incorporated: 1907
NAIC: 312120 Breweries; 422810 Beer and Ale Wholesalers; 312111 Soft Drink Manufacturing; 312112 Bottled Water Manufacturing; 312130 Wineries; 312140 Distilleries; 422820 Wine and Distilled Alcoholic Beverage Wholesalers; 325412 Pharmaceutical Preparation Manufacturing; 551112 Offices of Other Holding Companies

==History==

William Copeland, a naturalized U.S. citizen of [[Norwegian people|Norwegian]] descent, arrived in [[Yokohama]] in [[1864]]. Japan had recently reopened its ports to Western commerce, and Copeland hoped to make his fortune there. He first established a drayage ([[cart]]-hauling) business and later a [[dairy]] firm; both of these ventures were modestly successful. In 1869, however, responding to the large foreign contingents' demand for domestically brewed beer (Japan had no brewing industry to speak of at this time), Copeland opened the Spring Valley Brewery. In [[1872]] Copeland left Yokohama temporarily to search for a bride in Norway; later, he returned with his wife, but she died in [[1879]]. Shortly thereafter Copeland, who seemed dogged by misfortune, found that he lacked the necessary capital to improve and expand the business. By [[1884]] he had closed the brewery and sailed for the United States.

A year later W.H. Talbot and E. Abbott, both foreign entrepreneurs, entered into partnership with two Japanese businessmen, Yonosuke Iwasaki and Eiichi Shibusawa, to reopen Copeland's brewery with help from the Scottish merchant [[Thomas Blake Glover]]. With sound financial backing, the newly formed Japan Brewery Company, Ltd. soon became a profitable enterprise. By 1888, all of its beer carried the "[[Qilin|Kirin]]" label. According to ancient Chinese legend, the Kirin, which is half [[horse]] and half [[dragon]], heralds good [[fortune]] to those able to catch a glimpse of it.

Although Copeland's association with the company that would one day control a major share of the Japanese beer market was relatively short and difficult, he is credited with founding the only Yokohama brewery that has survived until the present with some degree of continuity. Copeland returned to Yokohama during the late 1880s to open the Spring Valley [[Beer Garden]] next door to his old brewery. He operated his establishment with a new wife, but it was not a success and he again left Yokohama. He returned once more in [[1901]] and died a year later. To this day, however, employees pay tribute to the founder by leaving cans of Kirin beer at his [[grave]].

Initially, many foreigners were involved with the company: Americans and Englishmen filled the executive ranks and German technicians supervised the brewing process. Over the years, however, their presence gradually diminished. By [[1907]], when the firm was incorporated as Kirin Brewery Company, Limited, management had been taken over entirely by the Japanese; the company was purchased that year by the Mitsubishi family, marking the beginning of Kirin's affiliation with the Mitsubishi [[keiretsu]]. It was not long before Kirin began to expand rapidly; in 1918 the company constructed a brewery in [[Amagasaki]] and later built another facility to house the operations of the Toyo Tozo Company, which Kirin had taken over.

In 1923 the [[Great Kanto Earthquake]] destroyed most of the company's facilities in Yokohama, including its main brewery. Kirin, however, soon built a new brewery at a different site in Yokohama. In 1929 Kirin opened its own [[bottling]] factory, the Yokohama Bottle Plant. It was clear by this time that the novel attraction of beer had developed into a large market demand; Kirin achieved record sales figures during the mid-[[1930s]].

With the start of [[World War II]], the government imposed strict controls over the entire brewing industry. Sales of Kirin beer dropped drastically. Despite a reduction in operations, Kirin established the foundation for its future [[research and development]] efforts. In [[January]] [[1943]] the company created the [[laboratory]] at the Yokohama brewery and the research department at the Amagasaki brewery.

Over the years, Kirin's research and development activities outgrew the original facilities. Consequently, to coordinate long-term projects and centralize its scientific investigations, the firm built a new laboratory in [[Takasaki]]. The General Research Laboratory, completed in [[1967]], placed Kirin in the forefront of brewing [[technology]]. At Kirin's Takasaki laboratory scientists offered the first explanation for the mechanics of [[diacetyl]] formation in the brewing process. Based on this discovery, Kirin devised a way to control [[metabolism]] during the period of fermentation. Another noteworthy research effort included the development of the "Amagi-Nijo" strain of [[malt]]ing [[barley]], which eventually commanded more than a 50 percent share of the worldwide market. More recently, company bacteriologists learned how to control a [[virus]] known to destroy the bitter flavor of [[hops]].

Sales improved dramatically after the war; during the [[1950s]] the average increase was 17 percent a year. In [[1954]] Kirin became the number one brewer in Japan, with a market share of 37.1 percent (Kirin had been aided in this by U.S. occupation forces who in 1949 broke the giant Dai Nippon Brewery into two regional companies--Asahi Beer, Ltd. [later Asahi Breweries, Ltd.] and Nippon Breweries, Ltd. [later [[Sapporo Breweries]] Limited]--leaving Kirin, temporarily at least, as the only national brewery). By the end of the 1950s, beer had replaced [[sake]] as Japan's most popular beverage, fueling additional Kirin growth.

A little more than ten years later, Kirin's sales figures were exceeded by only one other brewery in the world--the St. Louis-based [[Anheuser-Busch]] Company, Inc. Much of Kirin's success was attributed to its controlling more than 60 percent of Japan's beer market, which was itself growing by an annual rate of 8 percent. To keep up with this growth, Kirin opened several more breweries in the 1960s and early 1970s. The [[Nagoya]] Brewery was completed in 1962, the Takasaki Brewery in 1965, the [[Fukuoka]] Brewery in 1996, the Toride Brewery in 1970, the [[Okayama]] Brewery in 1972, and the Shiga Brewery in 1974.

During the early 1970s Kirin's management decided to diversify into new areas. In 1971 a partnership was announced with Joseph E. [[Seagram]] & Sons Inc., the U.S. subsidiary of the [[Montreal]]-based liquor company; Kirin-Seagram Ltd. operated a distillery in Japan to produce Robert Brown [[scotch whisky]]. The company also launched a variety of new soft drinks, and Kirin's Lemon Fizz and [[Orangeade]] were generating large sales. Later, dairy items and fruit juices were added to its product line. In 1977 Kirin established a U.S. subsidiary, KW, Inc. (later known as The [[Coca-Cola]] Bottling Company of Northern New England, Inc.), to bottle and sell Coca-Cola in [[New England]]. In addition, using its expertise and knowledge acquired from years of developing fermentation technology, Kirin introduced new drugs to the health care field.

Kirin's beer sales reached a record high in [[1977]]. But, threatened with an [[antitrust]] suit, the company president, Yasusaburo Sato, initiated a temporary program of self-imposed regulation. The plan was to control production, ration distribution, and tone down the advertising campaign. By the following year, Kirin achieved a stabilization in beer sales and still increased revenues because of its successful diversified businesses.

Kirin suffered a setback in the fiscal year of 1979-80. Following the [[yen]]'s depreciation, import costs for barley and fuel reduced the company's operating profits by 22.2 percent. Moreover, the increased price of domestic barley and [[wheat]], which Japanese brewers were forced to use by government decree, contributed to Kirin's unimpressive performance. The company had to raise the price of its beer; two years later Kirin reported an increase in operating profits.

Kirin had been deterred from selling its beer in foreign markets because of high transportation costs. But in 1984 a licensing contract was arranged with Heineken N.V., the [[Netherlands]]-based brewing company, whereby Kirin produced Heineken for the Japanese market and Heineken produced Kirin for the Dutch market.

As Japanese cuisine became popular with Americans, the demand for Kirin beer increased. The firm established the Cherry Company Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary in [[Hawaii]], to supervise Kirin's U.S. market distribution. Kirin USA, Inc. was then established in New York in [[1983]] to promote sales.

By 1986 Kirin's international operations encompassed Europe, North America, South America, Asia, and Australia. In West Germany, Kirin contracted [[Krones A.G.]] to market empty bottle inspection machinery. (This equipment marked the introduction of intelligent [[robot]]s to the brewing industry.) In Brazil, Kirin held a majority interest in a food and beverage company; in China, the company constructed a soft drink production factory; in Australia, the Kirin Australia Pty. Ltd. subsidiary manufactured and supplied Kirin products to the Australian market. In 1987 the company entered into an agreement with [[Molson]] Companies Ltd. (later known as Molson Breweries of Canada Limited) whereby Molson would brew Kirin beer in Canada for sale in Canada and the United States. The following year Kirin bought Raymond Vineyard and Cellars, Inc., a winery in California's [[Napa Valley]].

In the 1980s, management initiated major changes in Kirin's research and development program. The company's laboratory was divided and reorganized along three major fields of investigation--brewing science, pharmaceuticals, and plant bioengineering. New departments were also added at the administrative level to coordinate fund-raising activities for research projects.

A number of joint ventures with American companies established in the 1980s increased Kirin's participation in the field of biotechnology. In 1984 Kirin completed a 50-50 venture--known as Kirin-Amgen, Inc.--with Amgen Inc., a California-based company, to develop and market a synthetic human [[hormone]] to treat [[anemia]]. This pharmaceutical, called Erythropoietin, was created to help patients undergoing [[kidney]] [[dialysis]]. In the past, many patients commonly became anemic and required blood transfusions during treatment. Another potential application was as a drug for [[cancer]] patients suffering blood cell reduction from [[chemotherapy]]. Kirin also combined its resources with an agricultural biotechnology company, Plant Genetics Inc., to develop synthetic [[seed]]s for a variety of agricultural products.

A successful chain of beer [[pub]]s called Kirin City was started in the [[Roppongi]] district in 1983, eventually growing to 11 pubs across Japan. Similarly, the Kirin Food Service Co., Ltd. was established to operate a restaurant [[Franchising|franchise]]. Kirin also constructed a number of [[health club]]s and sports complexes across the nation. Another addition to Kirin's list of subsidiaries was Flower Gate Inc., which produced [[African violet]]s developed by an innovative [[tissue culture]] process.

In the mid-1980s Kirin maintained a domestic market share in beer of about 60 percent, with Sapporo holding 20 percent, Asahi at 10 percent, and [[Suntory]] Ltd., a whiskey distiller that had entered the beer market in 1963, at 8 to 9 percent. Asahi then made an extraordinary leap starting in the late 1980s, catching Kirin more or less flat-footed, with Asahi's most important move coming in March 1987 when Asahi Super Dry, Japan's first [[dry beer]], was introduced. Super Dry, a cold-filtered draft beer, quickly became popular with younger drinkers who liked its lighter, less [[bitter (taste)|bitter]] taste. Just a year after Super Dry's introduction, Asahi increased its domestic market share to 17 percent. By 1996 Super Dry became the top-selling beer in Japan, displacing Kirin Lager, and Asahi's market share had increased to 35 percent while Kirin's had fallen to 47 percent.

During this period Kirin faced not only stiffened competition but also changes in consumer [[taste]]s and distribution, to which the company failed to react quickly enough. Japanese consumers wanted lighter, less bitter beers--Super Dry delivered this; Kirin Lager did not. Kirin eventually, somewhat belatedly, in early [[1996]], gave in to consumer preferences and changed Kirin Lager to a less bitter, draft beer. In the intervening years, Kirin was not idle, however, having introduced, in 1990, the successful Kirin Ichiban Shibori (meaning "first pressing"), which quickly became the country's number three beer brand. Kirin Light also debuted in 1989. Nevertheless, Kirin was certainly slow to adapt to changes in beer distribution in Japan. For decades, beer had been sold in small liquor stores by the bottle, and Kirin had built a nationwide distribution network of special contract wholesalers who sold to the liquor stores. The emergence in Japan of [[convenience store]]s and discounters in the late 1980s marked a major shift in the way consumers purchased beer, and by the mid-1990s as much beer was sold through these new outlets as through the traditional liquor stores. With its long-established distribution network and with most of its beer still bottled rather than [[can]]ned (the new outlets preferred the easier-to-stock cans), Kirin was unable to shift quickly to the new outlets. By the mid-1990s, Kirin had gone a long way toward adapting to the new environment--offering more canned beer and shifting more of its stock to the convenience stores and discounters. But the firm's belated moves only slowed the steady decline of its [[market share]], and in late 1997 Kirin was forced to restructure. It closed three aging breweries located in Tokyo, [[[Kyoto]], and [[Hiroshima]], shiftng production to its remaining 12 plants, and began a process to reduce its workforce by 20 percent, or about 1,000 employees, through attrition by [[2000]].

At the same time that it was defending itself at home, Kirin was aggressively expanding its foreign brewing ventures. In 1989 the company established a brewing operation in [[Hong Kong]] called Kirin Brewery (H.K.) Co., Ltd. The following year Kirin entered into an agreement with [[South Korea]]'s Oriental Brewery Co., Ltd. whereby Kirin would sell OB Beer, South Korea's top beer, in Japan. In 1992 Kirin entered into a joint venture with [[Charles Wells Ltd]]. through which the [[U.K.]] brewer began making and selling Kirin beer in Europe. That same year the company's joint venture with Molson ended, and it began distributing its products in the United States. Kirin and Anheuser-Busch Companies, Inc. in 1993 entered into a joint venture, Budweiser Japan Co., for the distribution of Budweiser beer in Japan. Three years later the two companies established Kirin Brewery of America, LLC to produce and distribute the Kirin Lager, Kirin Ichiban (equivalent to Kirin Ichiban Shibori), and Kirin Light brands in the United States at an Anheuser-Busch facility in the Los Angeles area; Kirin invested an initial $8 million in this venture, which began production in April 1997. In addition to solidifying its position in the world's number one beer market--the United States--Kirin also aimed to grab a share of the Chinese market, number two in the world in the mid-1990s but predicted to surpass the United States in beer consumption in the early 21st century. In April 1995 Kirin signed a licensing agreement with China Resources (Shenyang) Snowflake Brewery Co. (the second largest brewer in China), through which Kirin beer would be brewed on a consignment basis for sale in seven large cities in northern China. Production began in June 1996. A few months later, Kirin entered into a joint venture called Zhuhai Kirin President Brewery Co., Ltd., which operated in China's Guangdong province, where it began brewing Haizhu Beer and Ichiban Shibori for the Chinese market.

In the late 1990s and into the early 2000s, the overall beer market in Japan was stagnant (in part because of the shrinking number of young people), but there was a significant shift occurring in the types of beers that Japanese people were consuming. Rapidly growing in popularity were low-malt beers known as happoshu. Starting in 1994, some Japanese brewers decided to take advantage of the Japanese [[tax]] system, which taxed beer according to its malt content. The tax on low-malt beers was significantly lower, resulting in a retail price about two-thirds that of a regular beer. Budget-conscious consumers, wracked by the lengthy Japanese [[recession]], snapped up the lower-priced beer in increasing numbers, such that by 2000 the happoshu segment accounted for 22 percent of the overall beer market. (To maintain a beer-like taste, producers of happoshu used various types of malt substitutes.) Kirin joined the happoshu bandwagon in February 1998 when it launched Kirin Tanrei. The new brew quickly captured the top spot in its sector, grabbing half of the happoshu market.

Amid the increasing competition at home, Kirin announced in September 1997 its intention to seek mergers and acquisitions to increase its presence overseas. Its first step in this direction came in April 1998 when it revealed it had purchased a 45 percent stake in Lion Nathan Limited for NZD 1.33 billion ($746.1 million). Lion Nathan operated two breweries in [[New Zealand]], where it had a 54 percent market share, and four in Australia, where its share was 42 percent. Its brands included [[Castlemaine XXXX]], Swan, Tooheys, [[Steinlager]], and Lion Red. Also attractive to Kirin was Lion Nathan's significant presence in China, where it had a joint venture brewery in Wuxi and a wholly owned brewery at Suzhou, both located in the Chang ([[Yangtze]]) River Delta area.

At the start of 2000 Anheuser-Busch dissolved its six-year-old joint venture with Kirin in Japan, Budweiser Japan Co., after the venture fell victim to the highly competitive market and turned loss-making. The venture was replaced by a licensing agreement between the two companies, whereby Kirin took over production and distribution of the Budweiser brand in Japan. Later in 2000, as part of its ongoing cost-containment efforts, Kirin closed another of its aging Japanese breweries, this one located in Takasaki. In January 2001 Kirin adopted a holding company structure to oversee its group companies' operations; each business sector--including brewing, soft drinks, distilled liquor, food, and pharmaceuticals--gained more independence. Also in 2001, Kirin entered another growing low-alcohol market in Japan, [[chu-hi]] drinks, canned mixtures of distilled liquor and fruit juices. Through the combined talents of Kirin's brewing, liquor, and soft drinks businesses, Kirin Chu-hi Hyoketsu had a strong debut and was offered in several varieties, including [[lemon]], [[grapefruit]], [[orange]], [[plum]], and [[lime]]. The liquor used was [[shochu]], a local spirit similar to [[vodka]] but specially distilled to remove all harsh flavors.

In February 2001 arch-rival Asahi Breweries launched its first happoshu beer, and despite being the last of the major Japanese brewers to enter the segment, Asahi Honnama captured 22.3 percent of the happoshu market for 2001. This strong debut finally knocked Kirin from its perch as the top Japanese brewer--a position it held for nearly 50 years--as Asahi grabbed 38.7 percent of the market in 2001, compared to Kirin's 35.8 percent.

Early in 2002 Kirin acquired the global rights to the Four Roses brand of [[bourbon]] whisky. The company completed its second acquisition of a stake in a major Asia-Pacific brewer in February of that year when it spent PHP 27.88 billion ($544 million) for a 15 percent stake in San Miguel Corporation, the overwhelmingly dominant beer maker in the Philippines, where it held a 90 percent market share. In addition to its five breweries in the Philippines, San Miguel also operated breweries in China, [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Australia]]. Meantime, Kirin and Lion Nathan joined forces in May 2002 to launch a new product in [[Taiwan]] called Kirin Bar Beer, the first low-priced beer sold outside of Japan under the Kirin name. In November 2002 Kirin Brewery's Kirin Beverage Corporation subsidiary, Groupe [[Danone]] of France, and Mitsubishi Corporation established a joint venture called Kirin MC Danone Waters Co., Ltd. with the explicit aim of creating the leading [[mineral water]] company in Japan.

In 2003, despite an unusually cool summer in Japan and an increase in the tax on happoshu, which made the low-malt beers more expensive but still cheaper than regular brews, Kirin Brewery managed to eke out a small increase in sales while seeing net income fall very slightly. Despite the tax increase, sales of happoshu kept growing, accounting for more than 40 percent of the overall beer market in Japan by 2003; Kirin predicted that during 2004 it would, for the first time, sell more happoshu than traditional beer. Nevertheless, sales of chu-hi drinks were growing even faster, and Kirin saw its revenues in that sector jump 44 percent in 2003. Overseas, Kirin and Lion Nathan continued to collaborate on new products, launching Kirin Pure and Light in Shanghai and Kirin Ichiban--First Press Beer in Australia and New Zealand. In April 2004 Kirin's Chinese affiliate Zhuhai Kirin President Brewery introduced Haizhu Draft Beer into its market area in Guangdong province. Kirin may have been dethroned from the top spot in Japanese brewing, but its aggressive pursuit of faster growing markets overseas boded well for the future.

==Holdings==
===Alcoholic beverage business===
*Kirin Distillery Co., Ltd. (Renamed from Kirin-Seagram Ltd. on July 1, 2002)
*Ei Sho Gen Co., Ltd.
*Kirin Communications Stage Co., Ltd.
*Heineken Japan Co., Ltd.

===Soft drink business===
*Kirin Beverage Co., Ltd.
*Kinki Coca-Cola Bottling Co., Ltd.

===Logistics===
*Kirin Logistics Co., Ltd.

===Engineering===
*Kirin Techno-System Co., Ltd.
*Kirin Engineering Co., Ltd.

===Restaurants===
*Kirin Dining Co., Ltd.
*Kirin City Co., Ltd.

===Real estate===
*Kirin Building Management Co., Ltd.
*Kirin Hotel Development Co., Ltd.

===Others of core business===
*Kirin Echo Co., Ltd.

===Nutrient food===
*Kirin Well-Foods Co., Ltd.
*Takeda-Kirin Foods Corporation
*Cosmo Foods Co., Ltd.

===Agribio===
*Kirin Green & Flower Co., Ltd.
*Flower Gate, Inc.
*Flower Season Co., Ltd.
*Verdy Co., Ltd.
*Tokita Seed Co., Ltd.
*Japan Potato Corporation

===Food===
*Nagano Tomato Co., Ltd.

===Service===
*Kirin Plaza Co., Ltd.
*Kamakura Kaihin Hotel, Co., Ltd.
*Yokohama Arena Co., Ltd.
*Tsurumi Warehouse Co., Ltd.
*Japan Travel Marketing Consultants Inc.
*Kirin International Trading Inc.
*Yokohama Aka Renga Co., Ltd.
*beerStyle 21. Inc.

===Function-oriented companies===
*Kirin Business System Co., Ltd.
*Kirin & Communications Co., Ltd.

==Holdings, International==
===Alcohol Beverage Business===
*[[Kirin Brewery of America LLC]] ([[USA]])
*[[Kirin Europe GmbH]] ([[Germany]])
*[[Lion Nathan]] Limited ([[Australia]])
*[[Zhuhai Kirin President Brewery Co., Ltd.]] ([[China]])
*[[Taiwan Kirin Company, Ltd.]] ([[Taiwan]])
*[[San Miguel Corporation]] ([[Philippines]]) (15%, managerial support [http://www.kirin.co.jp/english/ir/news_release011214_1.html])
*[[Four Roses Distillery]] (USA)
*[[Raymond Vineyard and Cellar, Inc.]] (USA)

===Soft Drink Business===
*[[Coca-Cola]] bottling Company of Northern New England<ref>{{cite news
| first = Denis
| last = Paiste
| title = Moxie, same taste, new owner
| url = http://newenglandpride.blogspot.com/2007/04/cornucopia-beverages-acquires-moxie.html
| format = reprint
| work = New Hampshire Union Leader
| publisher = Union Leader Corporation
| date = 2007-04-06
| page = B3
| accessdate = 2007-11-25
| quote = Cornucopia Beverages, a unit of Bedford-based Coca-Cola Co. of Northern New England Inc., has acquired the Moxie brand from Atlanta-based Monarch Beverage Co. Terms were undisclosed.
Cornucopia previously bottled Moxie under license from Monarch.

"There's really nothing to compare it to. It's not a cola, and it's not a root beer; it's its own little niche," Moxie brand manager Justin Conroy said in a telephone interview.

Conroy said no immediate changes are planned as a result of the brand purchase.

Last year, the Moxie brand sold about 450,000 192-ounce cases, equivalent to 7.2 million 12-ounce cans.

The drink is bottled in Londonderry, N.H., Worcester, Mass., and Catawissa, Pa. Conroy said 75 percent of production ships from Londonderry.

Tracing its roots to Maine-born Dr. Augustin Thompson, Moxie was first marketed as a carbonated soft drink in 1884. Today, the soft drink is available in regular, diet and energy drink versions. It is Maine's office state soft drink. The Moxie page on the Monarch Beverage Co. Web site states that Moxie was first marketed in 1876 as a medicine.

The word moxie has come to mean energy, or pep, in common usage.

Coca-Cola Bottling Co. of Northern New England Inc. is a subsidiary of Tokyo-based Kirin Brewery Co. Ltd. The firm bottles Coca-Cola brands under authority of the Coca-Cola company and also has license rights for Cadbury Schweppes brands, Dr. Pepper, Sunkist and Canada Dry.
| archiveurl =
| archivedate =
}}

</ref>
*[[Moxie]]

===Pharmaceutical Business===
*[[Kirin-Amgen, Inc.]] (USA)
*[[Gemini Science]] Inc. (USA)
*[[Hematech]] Inc. (USA)
*[[Jeil-Kirin Pharmaceutical Inc.]] ([[Korea]])
*[[Kirin Pharmaceuticals Co., Ltd.]] (Taiwan)
*[[Kirin Pharmaceuticals (Asia) Co., Ltd.]] ([[Hong Kong]])
*[[Kirin Kunpeng (China) Bio-Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.]] (China)

===Agribio Business===
*[[Twyford International, Inc.]] (USA)
*[[Kirin Agribio EC B.V.]] (Paris Office) ([[France]])
*[[Southern Glass House Produce Ltd.]] ([[England]])
*[[Fides Holding B.V.]] ([[Netherlands]])
*[[Barberet & Blanc, S.A.]] ([[Spain]])
*[[Qingdao International Seeds Co., Ltd.]] (China)
*[[Germicopa S.A.]] (France)
*[[Kirin Agribio Shanghai Co., Ltd.]] (China)

===Other Business===
*[[Kirin Australia]] Pty. Ltd. (Australia)
*[[Indústria Agrícola Tozan Ltda.]] ([[Brazil]])

==See also==
* [[Kirin Cup]]
* [[Hangzhou Qiandaohu Beer Co., Ltd.]] (Kirin owns a 25% share in this Chinese brewery)

==External links==
*{{en icon}} [http://www.kirin.co.jp/english/ Company website]
*{{ja icon}} [http://www.kirin.co.jp/ Company website]
* [http://www.kilian-nakamura.com/blog-english/?p=386 Kirin 100th Anniversary Beers]

{{TOPIX 100}}

[[Category:Beer and breweries in Japan]]
[[Category:Companies based in Tokyo]]
[[Category:Mitsubishi companies]]

[[bg:Кирин Бревери Кo.]]
[[fr:Kirin Brewery Company]]
[[ja:麒麟麦酒]]
[[oc:Kirin Brewery Company]]
[[sv:Kirinbryggeriet]]

Endeavour-River-Nationalpark

2008-01-13T17:46:08Z

Tkynerd: Repairing link to disambiguation page - You can help! - Wikipedia Cleaner 0.56

{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%;"
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size: medium;" | '''Endeavour River National Park'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[Image:Endeavour replica in Cooktown harbour.jpg|300px| ]] Replica of HM Bark ''Endeavour'' in the Endeavour River, Endeavour River National Park in the background
|-
| '''[[IUCN category]]''' = II
|-
| '''Coordinates''' = {{coor dms|15|26|31|S|145|13|03|E|type:landmark_region:AU}}
|-
| '''Nearest town or city''' = [[Cooktown, Queensland|Cooktown]]
|-
| '''Area''' = 21.7 km²
|-
| '''Established''' = First in 1975, expanded and newly gazetted 24 November 2006<ref name="DNR001"/>
|-
| '''Managing Authorities''' = Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service
|-
| '''Official Site''' = [http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/projects/park/index.cgi?parkid=199 Endeavour River National Park]
|-
|}

'''Endeavour River National Park''' (1561 kilometres northwest of [[Brisbane]]) is a [[Queensland]] [[national park| National Park]] gazetted to protect and preserve some of the natural and cultural resources in and around the mouth of the [[Endeavour River]], immediately north of the small town of [[Cooktown, Queensland| Cooktown]].

It is within the area of this National Park that back in [[1770]] naturalists [[Joseph Banks]] and [[Daniel Solander]] first collected early [[Europe| European]] specimens of local 'Australian' flora<ref name="QPWS001">[http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/projects/park/index.cgi?parkid=199 Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service webpage] Accessed 8 January 2008</ref>; [[Sydney Parkinson]] first illustrated local [[Indigenous Australians| Australian Aborigiinal peoples]] encountered, plus flora collected and fauna seen; and [[Kangaroo#Terminology| kangaroos]] were first given their modern [[English language|English]] name (borrowing from the local [[Guugu Yimithirr language]]).

The [[HM Bark Endeavour| HM Bark ''Endeavour'']], under the command of Lt [[James Cook]], had struck reefs and been pulled ashore for repairs along the river locally known within Guugu Yimithirr as [[Endeavour River| Wabalumbaal]], possibly near the present site of [[Cooktown#Cook.27s_Arrival| Cooktown]]. The river was renamed on James Cook's [[Navigation| charts]] as the [[Endeavour River]], after the HM Bark ''Endeavour'', and the current National Park appears, in turn, to be named after the river (although this name is not a formally registered place name)<ref name="DNR001">[http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/property/placenames/detail.php?id=44209 Queensland Placenames Database] Accessed 8 January 2008</ref>.

The present National Park contains coastal dunes, freshwater wetlands, mangrove forests, heathlands, tropical woodlands and the estuary plus parts of the Endeavour River catchment. It is mostly accessible by boat only, and still contains flora and fauna species of the kind collected and illustrated back in [[1770]]<ref name="QPWS001"/>.

==See also==
* [[Australian_Aboriginal_mythology#Captain_Cook| Captain Cook mythology: Australia]]
* [[Cooktown, Queensland]]
* [[Endeavour River]]
* [[Guugu Yimithirr language| Guugu Yimithirr]]
* [[HM Bark Endeavour]]
* [[Kangaroo#Terminology| Kangaroo]]
* [[Protected areas of Queensland (Australia)]]

==External links==
* [http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/media/parks_and_forests/parks/cooktown_parks_map.pdf PDF Map showing area and location of Endeavour River National Park near Cooktown]
* [http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/property/placenames/detail.php?id=44209 Queensland Placenames Database]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:National parks of Queensland]]
[[Category:Far North Queensland]]

[[es:Parque Nacional Río Endeavour]]

{{Queensland-protected-area-stub}}
{{FarNorthQueensland-geo-stub}}