Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

King’s College Chapel (Cambridge)

2019-09-13T21:03:37Z

Textorus: /* Building of the chapel */ combine 2 paragraphs

{{Other uses|King's Chapel (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}
{{Infobox church
| name = King's College Chapel
| image = KingsCollegeChapel.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = King's College Chapel (partially obscured by the Gibbs' Building), seen from [[The Backs]].
| coordinates = {{coord|52.2048|N|0.1165|E|display=title,inline|type:landmark_region:GB}}
| location = [[Cambridge]]
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| denomination = [[Church of England]]
| previous denomination = [[Roman Catholic]]
| website = 
| founded date = 
| founder =
| dedication =
| dedicated date =
| consecrated date =
| status = Collegiate chapel
| functional status = Active
| heritage designation = [[Grade I listed buildings in Cambridge|Grade I listed]]
| designated date = 26 April 1950<ref>{{citeweb|title=KING'S COLLEGE, CHAPEL|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1139003|publisher=[[Historic England]]}}</ref>
| architect = Disputed
| architectural type = Church
| style = [[English Gothic architecture|English Gothic]]
| years built = 1446–1515
| groundbreaking =
| completed date =
| capacity =
| length = {{convert|289|ft|m}}<ref name="Stones, A.">Alison Stones, [http://vrcoll.fa.pitt.edu/medart/image/England/Cambridge/KingsCollege/Cambr-kings-main.html Images of Medieval Art and Architecture — Britain: England, Cambridge (King's College Chapel)].</ref>
| width = Vault: {{convert|40|ft|m}}<ref name="Stones, A."/>
| width nave = 
| height = Interior: {{convert|80|ft|m}} Exterior: {{convert|94|ft|m}}<ref name="Stones, A."/>
| diameter = 
| other dimensions =
| spire quantity = 4
| spire height = 
| materials =
| dean = Revd Dr Stephen Cherry
| organistdom = [[Stephen Cleobury|Stephen Cleobury CBE]]
| musicgroup = [[Choir of King's College, Cambridge|King's College Choir]]
}}
'''King's College Chapel''' is the chapel at [[King's College, Cambridge|King's College]] in the [[University of Cambridge]]. It is considered one of the finest examples of late [[Perpendicular Gothic]] [[English architecture]].<ref>[[John Saltmarsh (historian)|Saltmarsh, John]]: ''King's College'' (in ''Victoria County History of Cambridgeshire'', Volume III, ed. J.P.C. Roach, 1959)</ref> The chapel was built in phases by a succession of [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|kings of England]] from 1446 to 1515, a period which spanned the [[Wars of the Roses]]. The chapel's large [[stained glass]] windows were not completed until 1531, and its early [[Renaissance]] [[rood screen]] was erected in 1532–36. The chapel is an active house of worship, and home of the [[Choir of King's College, Cambridge|King's College Choir]]. The chapel is a significant tourist site and a commonly used symbol of the city of [[Cambridge]].<ref>[http://www.visitcambridge.org/ Visit Cambridge ]</ref><ref>[http://www.cambridge.gov.uk/ccm/portal/ Cambridge City Council] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107043829/http://www.cambridge.gov.uk/ccm/portal/ |date=7 November 2012 }}</ref>

==Building of the chapel==
[[File:Kings college cambridge ceiling.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The world's largest [[fan vault]] (1512–1515)]]
[[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]] planned a university counterpart to [[Eton College]] (whose [[Eton College Chapel, Eton|chapel]] is very similar, but not on the scale intended by Henry). The King decided the dimensions of the Chapel. The architect of the chapel is disputed: [[Reginald Ely]], who was commissioned in 1444 as the head press mason, was a possible architect; however, [[Nicholas Close]] (or Cloos) was recorded as the "surveyor", which has been generally accepted to be synonymous with architect.<ref>Thomas John P. Carter, ''King's college chapel: notes on its history and present condition'' (Macmillan and Co, 1867), 10</ref>

The first stone of the Chapel was laid, by Henry himself, on the Feast of St James the Apostle, 25 July 1446, the College having been begun in 1441. By the end of the reign of [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] (1485), despite the [[Wars of the Roses]], five bays had been completed and a timber roof erected. [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] visited in 1506, paying for the work to resume and even leaving money so that the work could continue after his death. In 1515, under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], the building was complete but the great windows had yet to be made.

The chapel features the world's largest [[fan vault]], constructed between 1512 and 1515 by master mason [[John Wastell]]. It also features fine medieval stained glass and, above the altar, ''[[Adoration of the Magi (Rubens, Cambridge)|The Adoration of the Magi]]'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]], originally painted in 1634 for the Convent of the White Nuns at [[Leuven|Louvain]] in Belgium. The painting was installed in the Chapel in 1968; this involved the lowering of the [[Sanctuary]] floor leading up to the High Altar. It was previously believed that gradations were created in 1774 by [[James Essex]], when Essex had in fact ''lowered'' the floor by 5 1/2 inches,<ref>''A Century of King's, 1873–1972'' by L.P. Wilkinson, 1980: 130–131</ref> but at the demolition of these steps, it was found that the floor instead rested on Tudor brick arches.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chainey|first1=Graham|title=The East End of King's College Chapel|journal=Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society|date=1994|volume=LXXXIII|pages=141–168}}</ref>

During the removal of these Tudor steps, built at the Founder's specific request that the high altar should be 3 ft above the choir floor, human remains in intact lead coffins with brass plaques were discovered, dating from the 15th to 18th centuries, and were disinterred.<ref>{{cite web|last1=GRAHAM|first1=CHAINEY|title=A season for crying in the chapel: Millions will enjoy today's festival of carols from King's College, Cambridge. But Graham Chainey mourns a botched 'restoration'|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/a-season-for-crying-in-the-chapel-millions-will-enjoy-todays-festival-of-carols-from-kings-college-1565376.html|website=The Independent|accessdate=14 Mar 2017}}</ref>

The eventual installation of the Rubens was also not without problems: once seen beneath the east window, a conflict was felt between the picture's swirling colours and those of the stained glass.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Plommer|first1=Hugh|journal=Cambridge Review|date=12 June 1965}}</ref> The Rubens was also a similar shape to the window, which "dwarfed it and made it look rather like a dependent postage stamp".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilkinson|first1=L. P.|title=A Century of King's|date=1980|publisher=Cambridge|pages=130–131}}</ref> Plain shutters were proposed, one on each side, to give it a [[triptych]] shape (although the picture was never part of a triptych) and lend it independence of form, which is how one sees the Rubens today. The installation was designed by architect Sir Martyn Beckett, who was "philosophical about the furore this inevitably occasioned - which quickly became acceptance of a solution to a difficult problem."<ref>{{cite news |title=Obituary: Sir Martyn Beckett, Bt |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1336490/Sir-Martyn-Beckett-Bt.html |accessdate=2 September 2019 |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=6 August 2001}}</ref>

During the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] the chapel was used as a training ground by [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s troops, but escaped major damage, possibly because Cromwell himself, being a Cambridge student, gave orders for it to be spared. Graffiti left by these soldiers is still visible on the north and south walls near the altar. During [[World War II]] most of the stained glass was removed and the chapel again escaped damage.<ref>[http://www.britainexpress.com/counties/cambridgeshire/az/cambridge/kings-college-chapel.htm King's College Chapel, Cambridge at britainexpress.com]</ref>

{{Css Image Crop
| Image = FanVaultKingsCollegeChapel.jpg
| bSize = 500
| cWidth = 440
| cHeight = 120
| oLeft = 35
| oTop = 48
| Location = center
| Description = Fan vaulting diagram
}}
[[File:Cambridge King's College Chapel.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]
[[File:Cambridge King's College Chapel Vault.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]
[[File:King's College Chapel Vault.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]

==Great windows==
[[File:King's College Chapel, Cambridge - The Great East Window.jpg|thumb|upright|The Great East Window]]
The windows of King's College Chapel are some of the finest in the world from their era. There are 12 large windows on each side of the chapel, and larger windows at the east and west ends. With the exception of the west window, they are by [[Flemings|Flemish]] hands and date from 1515 to 1531. [[Barnard Flower]], the first non-Englishman appointed as the King's Glazier, completed four windows. [[Gaylon Hone]] and three partners (two English and one Flemish) are responsible for the east window and 16 others between 1526 and 1531. The final four were made by [[Francis Williamson (glazier)|Francis Williamson]] and [[Symon Symondes]]. The one modern window is that in the west wall, which was donated by King's alumnus [[Francis Stacey]] and is by the [[Clayton and Bell]] company and dates from 1879.
[[File:Cambridge King's College Chapel Vaults.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]

==Rood screen==

This large wooden screen, which separates the [[nave]] from the [[altar]] and supports the chapel [[Organ (music)|organ]], was erected in 1532–36 by Henry VIII in celebration of his marriage to [[Anne Boleyn]]. The screen is an example of early Renaissance architecture: a striking contrast to the [[Perpendicular Gothic]] chapel; [[Sir Nikolaus Pevsner]] said it is "the most exquisite piece of Italian decoration surviving in England".<ref>Pevsner, ''An Outline of European architecture'' 1963:292f.</ref>

==Current use==
The Chapel is actively used as a place of worship and also for some concerts and college events. Notable college events include the annual King's College Music Society May Week Concert, held on the Monday of [[May Week]]. The event is highly popular with students, alumni and visitors to the city.

The Chapel is noted for its splendid [[acoustics]]. The world-famous [[Choir of King's College, Cambridge|Chapel choir]] consists of choral scholars, organ scholars{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} (male students at the college), and choristers (boys educated at the nearby [[King's College School, Cambridge|King's College School]]), conducted by [[Stephen Cleobury]]. The choir sings services on most days in term-time, and also performs concerts and makes recordings and broadcasts.

In particular, it has broadcast its [[Nine Lessons and Carols]] on the [[BBC]] from the Chapel on Christmas Eve, during which a solo [[Treble voice|treble]] sings the first verse of ''[[Once in Royal David's City]]''. There is also a chapel choir of male and female students, [[King's Voices]], which sings [[Evening Prayer (Anglican)|Evensong]] on Mondays during term-time.

The Chapel is widely seen as a symbol of Cambridge (for example in the logo of [[Cambridge City Council]]).
<gallery mode=packed heights=250px>
File:20130808 Kings College Chapel 01.jpg|Side view of the Chapel from inside the college.
File:King's College Chapel, Cambridge, South Entrance by Henry Fox Talbot.jpg|King's College Chapel, Cambridge, South Entrance by [[Henry Fox Talbot]], circa 1845
</gallery>
[[File:Vault of King's College Chapel.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]

==Dean of the Chapel==

The Dean of the Chapel is responsible to the College Council and the Governing Body for the conduct of services within the Chapel. King's College Chapel, like other Cambridge colleges, is not formally part of the structure of the Church of England, but the Dean is customarily licensed by the [[Bishop of Ely]]. Both he and the Chaplain take a regular part in chapel services: each is normally present at services six days a week during [[Full Term]], and each preaches once or twice a term. The Chapel is run by a Chapel Committee chaired by the Dean. A Use of Choirs Committee, also chaired by the Dean, organises the engagements of the Chapel choir.<ref name="Kings-dean vacancy-2014">{{cite news |url=http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/about/job-vacancies/dean.html |title=Job vacancies » Dean of Chapel |work=King's College, Cambridge |date=2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140420034750/http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/about/job-vacancies/dean.html |archivedate=2014-04-20 |accessdate=2014-06-12 }}</ref>

===Recent deans===
{{expand list|date=February 2016}}

* 1918 to 1941 - The Revd [[Eric Milner-White]]
* 1942 to 1948 - The Revd [[Rollo Graham Campbell]]
* 1949 to 1956 - The Very Revd [[Ivor Ramsay]]
* 1956 to 1966 - The Revd Dr. [[Alec Vidler|Alexander Vidler]]
* 1966 to 1970 - The Revd [[David Edwards (priest)|David Edwards]]
* 1970 to 1980 - The Revd [[Michael Till]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/9788535/The-Very-Reverend-Michael-Till.html|title=The Very Reverend Michael Till|date=2013|access-date=2018-01-12|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref>
* 1981 to 1991 - The Revd Canon [[John Drury (dean of Christ Church)|John Drury]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Very Revd Dr John Drury|url=https://www.asc.ox.ac.uk/person/17|website=All Souls College|publisher=University of Oxford|accessdate=11 February 2016}}</ref>
* 1991 to 2001 - The Revd [[George Pattison]]
* 2002 to 2004 - The Revd [[C. J. Ryan|Christopher Ryan]]<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kirkpatrick|first1=Robin|title=The Rev C. J. Ryan|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/the-rev-c-j-ryan-38099.html|accessdate=11 February 2016|work=The Independent|date=2 March 2004}}</ref>
* 2005 to 2009 - The Revd Ian Thompson<ref>{{cite news|last1=Johnston|first1=Ian|last2=Lefort|first2=Rebecca|title=Cambridge theologian Rev Ian Thompson found dead amid allegations of 'indecency'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/6234917/Cambridge-theologian-Rev-Ian-Thompson-found-dead-amid-allegations-of-indecency.html|accessdate=11 February 2016|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=26 September 2009}}</ref>
* 2010 to 2014 - The Revd [[Jeremy Morris]]
* 2014 to present - The Revd Stephen Cherry<ref>{{cite web|title=New Dean of King's|url=http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/news/2014/new-dean.html|website=King's College, Cambridge|accessdate=11 February 2016|date=29 April 2014}}</ref>

== Bibliography ==
* Warrior, Josephine. ''A Guide to King's College Chapel''. Photography and design by [[Tim Rawle]] (Cambridge 1994, reprinted 1997, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2014)

== References ==
{{reflist|33em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/chapel/index.html King's College: the Chapel]
* [http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile19148/The-Kings-College-Chapel-in-3D,-GE4.htm 3D model of the chapel for use in Google Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720005114/http://www.ofchoristers.net/Chapters/CambridgeKingsCollege.htm A history of the choristers of King's College Chapel]
* [http://www.kingsmembers.org/s/1306/interior-2-col.aspx?sid=1306&gid=1&pgid=405 Supporting the Chapel of King’s College, Cambridge]

[[Category:Religious buildings and structures completed in 1515]]
[[Category:King's College, Cambridge|Chapel]]
[[Category:Chapels of Colleges of the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Tudor architecture]]
[[Category:Grade I listed churches in Cambridgeshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Cambridge]]

King’s College Chapel (Cambridge)

2019-09-13T21:02:26Z

Textorus: /* Building of the chapel */ add paragraph breaks for readability; add info and refs

{{Other uses|King's Chapel (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}
{{Infobox church
| name = King's College Chapel
| image = KingsCollegeChapel.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = King's College Chapel (partially obscured by the Gibbs' Building), seen from [[The Backs]].
| coordinates = {{coord|52.2048|N|0.1165|E|display=title,inline|type:landmark_region:GB}}
| location = [[Cambridge]]
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| denomination = [[Church of England]]
| previous denomination = [[Roman Catholic]]
| website = 
| founded date = 
| founder =
| dedication =
| dedicated date =
| consecrated date =
| status = Collegiate chapel
| functional status = Active
| heritage designation = [[Grade I listed buildings in Cambridge|Grade I listed]]
| designated date = 26 April 1950<ref>{{citeweb|title=KING'S COLLEGE, CHAPEL|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1139003|publisher=[[Historic England]]}}</ref>
| architect = Disputed
| architectural type = Church
| style = [[English Gothic architecture|English Gothic]]
| years built = 1446–1515
| groundbreaking =
| completed date =
| capacity =
| length = {{convert|289|ft|m}}<ref name="Stones, A.">Alison Stones, [http://vrcoll.fa.pitt.edu/medart/image/England/Cambridge/KingsCollege/Cambr-kings-main.html Images of Medieval Art and Architecture — Britain: England, Cambridge (King's College Chapel)].</ref>
| width = Vault: {{convert|40|ft|m}}<ref name="Stones, A."/>
| width nave = 
| height = Interior: {{convert|80|ft|m}} Exterior: {{convert|94|ft|m}}<ref name="Stones, A."/>
| diameter = 
| other dimensions =
| spire quantity = 4
| spire height = 
| materials =
| dean = Revd Dr Stephen Cherry
| organistdom = [[Stephen Cleobury|Stephen Cleobury CBE]]
| musicgroup = [[Choir of King's College, Cambridge|King's College Choir]]
}}
'''King's College Chapel''' is the chapel at [[King's College, Cambridge|King's College]] in the [[University of Cambridge]]. It is considered one of the finest examples of late [[Perpendicular Gothic]] [[English architecture]].<ref>[[John Saltmarsh (historian)|Saltmarsh, John]]: ''King's College'' (in ''Victoria County History of Cambridgeshire'', Volume III, ed. J.P.C. Roach, 1959)</ref> The chapel was built in phases by a succession of [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|kings of England]] from 1446 to 1515, a period which spanned the [[Wars of the Roses]]. The chapel's large [[stained glass]] windows were not completed until 1531, and its early [[Renaissance]] [[rood screen]] was erected in 1532–36. The chapel is an active house of worship, and home of the [[Choir of King's College, Cambridge|King's College Choir]]. The chapel is a significant tourist site and a commonly used symbol of the city of [[Cambridge]].<ref>[http://www.visitcambridge.org/ Visit Cambridge ]</ref><ref>[http://www.cambridge.gov.uk/ccm/portal/ Cambridge City Council] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107043829/http://www.cambridge.gov.uk/ccm/portal/ |date=7 November 2012 }}</ref>

==Building of the chapel==
[[File:Kings college cambridge ceiling.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The world's largest [[fan vault]] (1512–1515)]]
[[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]] planned a university counterpart to [[Eton College]] (whose [[Eton College Chapel, Eton|chapel]] is very similar, but not on the scale intended by Henry). The King decided the dimensions of the Chapel. The architect of the chapel is disputed: [[Reginald Ely]], who was commissioned in 1444 as the head press mason, was a possible architect; however, [[Nicholas Close]] (or Cloos) was recorded as the "surveyor", which has been generally accepted to be synonymous with architect.<ref>Thomas John P. Carter, ''King's college chapel: notes on its history and present condition'' (Macmillan and Co, 1867), 10</ref>

The first stone of the Chapel was laid, by Henry himself, on the Feast of St James the Apostle, 25 July 1446, the College having been begun in 1441. By the end of the reign of [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] (1485), despite the [[Wars of the Roses]], five bays had been completed and a timber roof erected. [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] visited in 1506, paying for the work to resume and even leaving money so that the work could continue after his death. In 1515, under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], the building was complete but the great windows had yet to be made.

The chapel features the world's largest [[fan vault]], constructed between 1512 and 1515 by master mason [[John Wastell]]. It also features fine medieval stained glass and, above the altar, ''[[Adoration of the Magi (Rubens, Cambridge)|The Adoration of the Magi]]'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]], originally painted in 1634 for the Convent of the White Nuns at [[Leuven|Louvain]] in Belgium. The painting was installed in the Chapel in 1968; this involved the lowering of the [[Sanctuary]] floor leading up to the High Altar. It was previously believed that gradations were created in 1774 by [[James Essex]], when Essex had in fact ''lowered'' the floor by 5 1/2 inches,<ref>''A Century of King's, 1873–1972'' by L.P. Wilkinson, 1980: 130–131</ref> but at the demolition of these steps, it was found that the floor instead rested on Tudor brick arches.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chainey|first1=Graham|title=The East End of King's College Chapel|journal=Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society|date=1994|volume=LXXXIII|pages=141–168}}</ref>

During the removal of these Tudor steps, built at the Founder's specific request that the high altar should be 3 ft above the choir floor, human remains in intact lead coffins with brass plaques were discovered, dating from the 15th to 18th centuries, and were disinterred.<ref>{{cite web|last1=GRAHAM|first1=CHAINEY|title=A season for crying in the chapel: Millions will enjoy today's festival of carols from King's College, Cambridge. But Graham Chainey mourns a botched 'restoration'|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/a-season-for-crying-in-the-chapel-millions-will-enjoy-todays-festival-of-carols-from-kings-college-1565376.html|website=The Independent|accessdate=14 Mar 2017}}</ref>

The eventual installation of the Rubens was also not without problems: once seen beneath the east window, a conflict was felt between the picture's swirling colours and those of the stained glass.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Plommer|first1=Hugh|journal=Cambridge Review|date=12 June 1965}}</ref> The Rubens was also a similar shape to the window, which "dwarfed it and made it look rather like a dependent postage stamp".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilkinson|first1=L. P.|title=A Century of King's|date=1980|publisher=Cambridge|pages=130–131}}</ref> Plain shutters were proposed, one on each side, to give it a [[triptych]] shape (although the picture was never part of a triptych) and lend it independence of form, which is how one sees the Rubens today.

The installation of the Rubens was planned by architect Sir Martyn Beckett, who was "philosophical about the furore this inevitably occasioned - which quickly became acceptance of a solution to a difficult problem."<ref>{{cite news |title=Obituary: Sir Martyn Beckett, Bt |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1336490/Sir-Martyn-Beckett-Bt.html |accessdate=2 September 2019 |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=6 August 2001}}</ref>

During the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] the chapel was used as a training ground by [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s troops, but escaped major damage, possibly because Cromwell himself, being a Cambridge student, gave orders for it to be spared. Graffiti left by these soldiers is still visible on the north and south walls near the altar. During [[World War II]] most of the stained glass was removed and the chapel again escaped damage.<ref>[http://www.britainexpress.com/counties/cambridgeshire/az/cambridge/kings-college-chapel.htm King's College Chapel, Cambridge at britainexpress.com]</ref>

{{Css Image Crop
| Image = FanVaultKingsCollegeChapel.jpg
| bSize = 500
| cWidth = 440
| cHeight = 120
| oLeft = 35
| oTop = 48
| Location = center
| Description = Fan vaulting diagram
}}
[[File:Cambridge King's College Chapel.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]
[[File:Cambridge King's College Chapel Vault.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]
[[File:King's College Chapel Vault.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]

==Great windows==
[[File:King's College Chapel, Cambridge - The Great East Window.jpg|thumb|upright|The Great East Window]]
The windows of King's College Chapel are some of the finest in the world from their era. There are 12 large windows on each side of the chapel, and larger windows at the east and west ends. With the exception of the west window, they are by [[Flemings|Flemish]] hands and date from 1515 to 1531. [[Barnard Flower]], the first non-Englishman appointed as the King's Glazier, completed four windows. [[Gaylon Hone]] and three partners (two English and one Flemish) are responsible for the east window and 16 others between 1526 and 1531. The final four were made by [[Francis Williamson (glazier)|Francis Williamson]] and [[Symon Symondes]]. The one modern window is that in the west wall, which was donated by King's alumnus [[Francis Stacey]] and is by the [[Clayton and Bell]] company and dates from 1879.
[[File:Cambridge King's College Chapel Vaults.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]

==Rood screen==

This large wooden screen, which separates the [[nave]] from the [[altar]] and supports the chapel [[Organ (music)|organ]], was erected in 1532–36 by Henry VIII in celebration of his marriage to [[Anne Boleyn]]. The screen is an example of early Renaissance architecture: a striking contrast to the [[Perpendicular Gothic]] chapel; [[Sir Nikolaus Pevsner]] said it is "the most exquisite piece of Italian decoration surviving in England".<ref>Pevsner, ''An Outline of European architecture'' 1963:292f.</ref>

==Current use==
The Chapel is actively used as a place of worship and also for some concerts and college events. Notable college events include the annual King's College Music Society May Week Concert, held on the Monday of [[May Week]]. The event is highly popular with students, alumni and visitors to the city.

The Chapel is noted for its splendid [[acoustics]]. The world-famous [[Choir of King's College, Cambridge|Chapel choir]] consists of choral scholars, organ scholars{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} (male students at the college), and choristers (boys educated at the nearby [[King's College School, Cambridge|King's College School]]), conducted by [[Stephen Cleobury]]. The choir sings services on most days in term-time, and also performs concerts and makes recordings and broadcasts.

In particular, it has broadcast its [[Nine Lessons and Carols]] on the [[BBC]] from the Chapel on Christmas Eve, during which a solo [[Treble voice|treble]] sings the first verse of ''[[Once in Royal David's City]]''. There is also a chapel choir of male and female students, [[King's Voices]], which sings [[Evening Prayer (Anglican)|Evensong]] on Mondays during term-time.

The Chapel is widely seen as a symbol of Cambridge (for example in the logo of [[Cambridge City Council]]).
<gallery mode=packed heights=250px>
File:20130808 Kings College Chapel 01.jpg|Side view of the Chapel from inside the college.
File:King's College Chapel, Cambridge, South Entrance by Henry Fox Talbot.jpg|King's College Chapel, Cambridge, South Entrance by [[Henry Fox Talbot]], circa 1845
</gallery>
[[File:Vault of King's College Chapel.jpg|thumb|Cambridge King's College Chapel]]

==Dean of the Chapel==

The Dean of the Chapel is responsible to the College Council and the Governing Body for the conduct of services within the Chapel. King's College Chapel, like other Cambridge colleges, is not formally part of the structure of the Church of England, but the Dean is customarily licensed by the [[Bishop of Ely]]. Both he and the Chaplain take a regular part in chapel services: each is normally present at services six days a week during [[Full Term]], and each preaches once or twice a term. The Chapel is run by a Chapel Committee chaired by the Dean. A Use of Choirs Committee, also chaired by the Dean, organises the engagements of the Chapel choir.<ref name="Kings-dean vacancy-2014">{{cite news |url=http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/about/job-vacancies/dean.html |title=Job vacancies » Dean of Chapel |work=King's College, Cambridge |date=2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140420034750/http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/about/job-vacancies/dean.html |archivedate=2014-04-20 |accessdate=2014-06-12 }}</ref>

===Recent deans===
{{expand list|date=February 2016}}

* 1918 to 1941 - The Revd [[Eric Milner-White]]
* 1942 to 1948 - The Revd [[Rollo Graham Campbell]]
* 1949 to 1956 - The Very Revd [[Ivor Ramsay]]
* 1956 to 1966 - The Revd Dr. [[Alec Vidler|Alexander Vidler]]
* 1966 to 1970 - The Revd [[David Edwards (priest)|David Edwards]]
* 1970 to 1980 - The Revd [[Michael Till]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/9788535/The-Very-Reverend-Michael-Till.html|title=The Very Reverend Michael Till|date=2013|access-date=2018-01-12|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref>
* 1981 to 1991 - The Revd Canon [[John Drury (dean of Christ Church)|John Drury]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Very Revd Dr John Drury|url=https://www.asc.ox.ac.uk/person/17|website=All Souls College|publisher=University of Oxford|accessdate=11 February 2016}}</ref>
* 1991 to 2001 - The Revd [[George Pattison]]
* 2002 to 2004 - The Revd [[C. J. Ryan|Christopher Ryan]]<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kirkpatrick|first1=Robin|title=The Rev C. J. Ryan|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/the-rev-c-j-ryan-38099.html|accessdate=11 February 2016|work=The Independent|date=2 March 2004}}</ref>
* 2005 to 2009 - The Revd Ian Thompson<ref>{{cite news|last1=Johnston|first1=Ian|last2=Lefort|first2=Rebecca|title=Cambridge theologian Rev Ian Thompson found dead amid allegations of 'indecency'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/6234917/Cambridge-theologian-Rev-Ian-Thompson-found-dead-amid-allegations-of-indecency.html|accessdate=11 February 2016|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=26 September 2009}}</ref>
* 2010 to 2014 - The Revd [[Jeremy Morris]]
* 2014 to present - The Revd Stephen Cherry<ref>{{cite web|title=New Dean of King's|url=http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/news/2014/new-dean.html|website=King's College, Cambridge|accessdate=11 February 2016|date=29 April 2014}}</ref>

== Bibliography ==
* Warrior, Josephine. ''A Guide to King's College Chapel''. Photography and design by [[Tim Rawle]] (Cambridge 1994, reprinted 1997, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2014)

== References ==
{{reflist|33em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/chapel/index.html King's College: the Chapel]
* [http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile19148/The-Kings-College-Chapel-in-3D,-GE4.htm 3D model of the chapel for use in Google Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720005114/http://www.ofchoristers.net/Chapters/CambridgeKingsCollege.htm A history of the choristers of King's College Chapel]
* [http://www.kingsmembers.org/s/1306/interior-2-col.aspx?sid=1306&gid=1&pgid=405 Supporting the Chapel of King’s College, Cambridge]

[[Category:Religious buildings and structures completed in 1515]]
[[Category:King's College, Cambridge|Chapel]]
[[Category:Chapels of Colleges of the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Tudor architecture]]
[[Category:Grade I listed churches in Cambridgeshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Cambridge]]

Kunstraub von Boston

2018-03-18T04:09:38Z

Textorus: /* Leads */ diction

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{good article}}
[[File:Empty Frames at Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|thumb|right|The frame which once held ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]''|alt=An empty frame hanging on a wall, between several portraits]]
In the early hours of March 18, 1990, guards at the [[Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum]] in [[Boston]] admitted two men posing as police officers responding to a disturbance call. Once inside, the men tied up the guards and, over the next hour, [[art theft|stole 13 works of art]] valued at $500 million{{snd}}the largest-value theft of private property in history. Despite efforts by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and multiple probes around the world, no arrests have been made and no works have been recovered. The museum initially offered a reward of $5 million for information leading to their recovery, but in 2017 this was doubled temporarily to $10 million with an expiration date set to the end of the year. The reward was extended into 2018 following helpful tips from the public.

The stolen works were originally purchased by art collector [[Isabella Stewart Gardner]] (1840–1924) and intended to be left on permanent display at the museum with the rest of her collection. Since the collection and its layout are permanent, empty frames remain hanging both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned. Experts are puzzled by the choice of paintings that were stolen, especially since more valuable artwork was left untouched. Among the stolen works was ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'', one of only 34 known works by [[Johannes Vermeer|Vermeer]] and thought to be the most valuable unrecovered painting at over $200 million. Also missing is ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'', [[Rembrandt]]'s only known [[seascape]]. Other works by Rembrandt, [[Edgar Degas|Degas]], [[Édouard Manet|Manet]], and [[Govaert Flinck|Flinck]] were also stolen.

According to the FBI, the stolen artwork was moved through the region and offered for sale in [[Philadelphia]] during the early 2000s. They believe the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]]. They also claim to have identified two suspects, although they have not been publicly identified and are now deceased. Boston gangster [[Robert Donati|Bobby Donati]], murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars, has been cited as a possible collaborator in the heist. Significant evidence suggests that [[Hartford, Connecticut]] gangster Robert Gentile knows the location of the works, although he denies involvement.

==Robbery==
Around midnight on Sunday morning, March 18, 1990, a red [[Dodge Daytona]] pulled up near the side entrance of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum along Palace Road.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /><ref name=searchcont /> Two men with fake police uniforms waited for at least an hour in the car, possibly trying to avoid being noticed by people leaving a [[Saint Patrick's Day]] party nearby.<ref name=abathstory>{{cite news|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/10/guard-who-opened-door-robbers-notorious-gardner-museum-heist-under-suspicion-years-later/1TUiDyi1GbcnBgQT64oISP/story.html |title=Decades after the Gardner heist, police focus on guard |first=Stephen |last=Kurkjian |work=Boston Globe |date=March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928031507/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/10/guard-who-opened-door-robbers-notorious-gardner-museum-heist-under-suspicion-years-later/1TUiDyi1GbcnBgQT64oISP/story.html |archivedate=September 28, 2015 |df= }}</ref> Later at around 1{{nbsp}}a.m., security guard Richard Abath returned to the front desk after patrolling the museum to switch positions with the other security guard. The two guards were the only people in the building. At this time, Abath opened and quickly shut the Palace Road door, claiming he was trained to do this to ensure the door was locked. He claimed security logs from other nights would show that he had done this many times previously. The FBI has seized the logs, but has not commented on the issue further.<ref name = abathstory />

[[File:ISGardnerMuseum.JPG|thumb|right|The Gardner Museum in 2008|alt=refer to caption]]

At 1:24{{nbsp}}a.m., one of the two men outside pushed the buzzer near the door and told Abath they were policemen who heard of a disturbance in the courtyard, and requested to be let inside. Abath knew he should not let uninvited guests inside, but he was unsure on whether the rule applied to police officers. He could see the men and believed them to be police officers based on their uniforms. With his partner on patrol, Abath decided to buzz in the men.<ref name = abathstory /> When the intruders arrived at the main security desk, one of them told Abath that he looked familiar and there was a default warrant out for his arrest. Abath stepped out from behind his desk, where the only alarm button to alert police could be accessed. He was quickly asked for his ID, ordered to face the wall, and then handcuffed. Abath believed the arrest was a misunderstanding, until he realized he hadn't been frisked before being cuffed, and one officer's mustache was made of wax.<ref name = abathstory /> The second security guard arrived minutes later and was also handcuffed, after which he asked the intruders why he was being arrested. The thieves explained that they were not being arrested, but rather this was a robbery, and proceeded to take the guards to the museum's basement. They handcuffed the guards to pipes and wrapped duct tape around their hands, feet, and heads.<ref name=insider>{{cite news|date=May 2009 |first=Milton |last=Esterow |title=Inside the Gardner Case |url=http://www.artnews.com/2009/05/01/inside-the-gardner-case/ |work=ArtNews |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225044341/http://www.artnews.com/2009/05/01/inside-the-gardner-case/ |archivedate=December 25, 2014 |df= }}</ref>

Since the museum was equipped with motion detectors, the thieves' movements throughout the museum were recorded. After tying up the guards, the thieves went upstairs to the Dutch Room. As one of them approached [[Rembrandt]]'s ''Self-Portrait'' (1629), a local alarm sounded, which they immediately smashed. They pulled the painting off the wall and attempted to take the wooden panel out of its heavy frame. Unsuccessful at the attempt, they left the painting on the floor. They cut Rembrandt's ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' out of the frame, as well as ''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]''. They also removed [[Vermeer]]'s ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'' and [[Govaert Flinck]]'s ''[[Landscape with Obelisk]]'' from their frames. Additionally, they also took a Chinese bronze [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] from the [[Shang dynasty]].<ref name=insider />

Elsewhere in the museum, they stole five [[Degas]] drawings and an eagle [[finial]]. The finial sat at the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, which they attempted to unscrew from the wall, but failed.<ref name=livescience /> [[Manet]]'s ''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' was also stolen from its location in the Blue Room. Motion detector records show that the only footsteps detected in the Blue Room that night were at 12:27{{nbsp}}a.m. and again at 12:53{{nbsp}}a.m. These times match to when Abath said he passed through on patrol. The frame for the painting was found on security chief Lyle W. Grindle's chair near the front desk.<ref name = abathstory /> The thieves made two trips to their car with artwork during the theft, which lasted 81 minutes. Before leaving, they visited the guards once more, telling them "You’ll be hearing from us in about a year," although they were never heard from again.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The guards remained handcuffed until police arrived at 8:15{{nbsp}}a.m. later that morning.<ref name=insider />

==Stolen artwork==
Altogether, thirteen pieces were stolen at an estimated loss of $500 million, making the robbery the largest private property theft in history.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/hot-canvases |title=Hot Canvases: A new book shatters myths about art theft |first=David |last=Menconi |work=Harvard Magazine |date=March–April 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322000716/http://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/hot-canvases |archivedate=March 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref> Empty frames remain hanging in the museum, both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned.<ref name=McShane>{{cite book |last= McShane |first= Thomas |title= Stolen Masterpiece Tracker |year= 2006 |publisher= Barricade Books |isbn=978-1-56980-314-1 |first2= Dary |last2= Matera |chapter= 18. No Boston Tea Party at Isabella's |lastauthoramp= yes}}</ref> One of the paintings, ''The Concert'', was Gardner's first major acquisition and one of only 34 known Vermeer works in the world.<ref name=fbigallery /> It is thought to be the most valuable unrecovered stolen painting, with a value estimated at over $200 million.<ref name="stolen">{{cite web|title=PBS – Stolen |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/stolen/index.html |website=PBS.org |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221032916/http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/stolen/index.html |archivedate=February 21, 2016 |df= }}</ref> Another painting, ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee'', is Rembrandt's only known [[seascape]].<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ripped-from-the-walls-and-the-headlines-74998018/ |title=Ripped from the Walls (and the Headlines) |author=Robert M. Poole |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20170605082748/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ripped-from-the-walls-and-the-headlines-74998018/ |date=July 2005 |archivedate=June 5, 2017 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> The bronze finial was taken from the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, possibly appearing like [[gold]] to the thieves.<ref name=fbigallery /> The museum is offering a $100,000 reward for this piece alone.<ref name=theftnews>{{cite web|title=Official Gardner Museum Site – Theft News |url=http://www.gardnermuseum.org/news/theft |publisher=Isabella Stewart Garndner Museum |accessdate=October 8, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029051932/http://www.gardnermuseum.org/news/theft |archivedate=October 29, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

The museum stresses that the paintings be kept in good condition by whoever has them. Museum director, Anne Hawley has stated that the works should be kept in a stable environment of 50% humidity and 70 °F. Additionally, they should be kept away from light and stored in acid-free paper. Hawley also warned against rolling the paintings, which will crack the paint. If these guidelines are not followed, the paintings could be damaged and drop in value. More repainting would need to be done too, which hurts the paintings' integrity.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

The following are the thirteen stolen works, all of which are still missing.<ref name=livescience>{{cite web|title=Lost Art: Photos of the Paintings Stolen from Gardner Museum |url=http://www.livescience.com/51808-photos-paintings-stolen-from-gardner-museum.html |publisher=LiveScience |accessdate=October 8, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004065621/http://www.livescience.com/51808-photos-paintings-stolen-from-gardner-museum.html |archivedate=October 4, 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref name=fbigallery>{{cite web|title=FBI – Have You Seen These? |url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/march/reward-offered-for-return-of-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork/image/hi-res |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate=September 8, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915152819/https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/march/reward-offered-for-return-of-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork/image/hi-res |archivedate=September 15, 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft |url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate=February 27, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624024938/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ |archivedate=June 24, 2016 |df= }}</ref>
<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" classes="center">
File:Vermeer The concert.JPG|alt=refer to caption|[[The Concert (Vermeer)|''The Concert'']] by [[Vermeer]] ({{circa}} 1664–1666)
File:Rembrandt Christ in the Storm on the Lake of Galilee.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' by [[Rembrandt]] (1633)
File:A lady and gentleman in black, by Rembrandt.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]'' by Rembrandt{{efn|name=fn1|The museum believes ''A Lady and Gentleman in Black'' to be a Rembrandt; however some scholars, including the Rembrandt Research Project in Amsterdam, say it is not.<ref name=insider />}} (1633)
File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 076.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Landscape with an Obelisk]]'' by [[Govert Flinck]]{{efn|name=fn2|''Landscape with an Obelisk'' was formerly attributed to Rembrandt until being associated with his pupil, Flinck.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vigderman|first=Patricia|title=The Memory Palace of Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_0f2uIlN0C&pg=PA151|publisher=Hol Art Books|isbn=978-1-936102-24-2|page=151}}</ref>}} (1638)
File:Édouard Manet Chez Tortoni.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' by [[Édouard Manet]] ({{circa}} 1878–1880)
File:La Sortie de Pesage by E Degas.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''La Sortie de Pesage'' by [[Degas]] (date unknown)
File:Rembrandt - Self portrait etching - ISGM.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Self-Portrait''{{efn|name=fn3|This ''Self-Portrait'' is postage-stamp sized. Not to be confused with Rembrandt's ''Self-Portrait'' (1629) oil painting also at the museum, which the thieves attempted to steal but did not take.<ref name=insider />}} by Rembrandt ({{circa}} 1634)
File:Degas - Cortege aux Environs de Florence.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Cortege aux Environs de Florence'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1857–1860)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 1.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 1'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 2.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 2'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas Three Mounted Jockeys.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Three Mounted Jockeys'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1885–1888)
File:Ku robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Musuem.gif|alt=refer to caption|An ancient Chinese [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] ({{circa}} 1200–1100 BC){{efn|name=fn4|The gu is dated during the [[Shang dynasty]]}}
File:Finial robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|alt=refer to caption|A bronze eagle [[finial]] ({{circa}} 1813–1814)
</gallery>

;Notes
{{reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

==Investigation==
The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] took control of the case on the grounds that the artwork could likely cross state lines.<ref name=nydn /> They have conducted hundreds of interviews with probes stretching across the world involving [[Scotland Yard]], [[Japan]]ese and [[France|French]] authorities, private investigators, museum directors, and art dealers.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The FBI believes the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]], and that the stolen paintings were moved through [[Connecticut]] and the [[Philadelphia]] area in the years following the theft. Some of the art may have been offered for sale in Philadelphia in the early 2000s, including ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''; however, their knowledge of what happened to the works after the attempted sale is limited.<ref name=searchcont /><ref>{{cite news |title= FBI Says It Has Clues in '90 Boston Art Heist |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/19/us/fbi-says-it-has-clues-in-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |work= The New York Times |accessdate= March 18, 2013}}</ref><ref name=fbipress1>{{cite press release|url=https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/boston/press-releases/2013/fbi-provides-new-information-regarding-the-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist |title=FBI Provides New Information Regarding the 1990 Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Art Heist: Information Sought from Those in Philadelphia and Connecticut Who May Have Knowledge of the Art's Location |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation, Boston Division |first=Greg |last=Comcowich |date=March 18, 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710143612/https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/boston/press-releases/2013/fbi-provides-new-information-regarding-the-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist |archivedate=July 10, 2017 |deadurl=no}}</ref> The FBI stated it believed to know the identity of the thieves in 2013, but in 2015 announced that they were now deceased. They have declined to identify the individuals.<ref>{{cite web|title=FBI says two suspects who stole $500m in art from Boston museum are dead |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/aug/07/fbi-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-theft-suspects-dead |website=The Guardian |accessdate=August 12, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814003900/http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/aug/07/fbi-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-theft-suspects-dead |archivedate=August 14, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

[[File:Sketches of Suspects Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft.jpg|thumb|right|Sketches of the suspects|alt=refer to caption]]
No single motive or pattern has emerged through the thousands of pages of evidence gathered.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The selection of works puzzles the experts, specifically since more valuable artworks were available.<ref name=McShane /> The FBI's lead agent assigned to the case, Geoffrey J. Kelly, finds it difficult to understand why this assortment of items was stolen despite the thieves being in the museum for enough time to take whatever they wished. On their way to the finial, the thieves passed by two [[Raphael]]s and a [[Botticelli]] painting.<ref name=insider /> [[Titian]]'s ''[[The Rape of Europa (Titian)|The Rape of Europa]]'', which is one of the museum's most well-known and valuable pieces, was not stolen.<ref name=insider /> Due to the brutish ways the criminals handled the robbery, cutting the paintings from their frames and smashing frames for two Degas sketches, investigators believe the thieves were amateur criminals, not experts commissioned to steal particular works.<ref name = abathstory /> Some investigators believe the works were destroyed, explaining why they have not reappeared.<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Theories on the theft include that it was organized by the [[Irish Republican Army]] in order to raise money or bargain for the release of imprisoned comrades. Another theory states [[Whitey Bulger]] was the ringleader of the theft. At the time of the heist, he was Boston's top crime boss and an FBI informant.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

The museum first offered a [[Bounty (reward)|reward]] of $1 million, but that was later increased to $5 million in 1997.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The reward is for "information that leads directly to the recovery of all of [their] items in good condition",<ref name=fbipress1 /> which remains on offer more than a quarter-century later.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> In May 2017, the bounty was doubled to $10 million, with an expiration date set for midnight on December 31 of that year.<ref name="10million">{{cite web|last1=Gardner Museum staff|title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum : Gardner Museum doubles reward to $10 million for return of stolen art|url=http://www.gardnermuseum.org/resources/theft/reward_doubled|website=www.gardnermuseum.org|accessdate=May 26, 2017|language=en|date=May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/arts/design/gardner-museum-doubles-reward-for-recovery-of-stolen-masterpieces.html |title=Gardner Museum Doubles Reward for Recovery of Stolen Masterpieces |last=Bowley |first=Graham |date=May 23, 2017 |work=The New York Times |access-date=May 24, 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524073316/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/arts/design/gardner-museum-doubles-reward-for-recovery-of-stolen-masterpieces.html |archivedate=May 24, 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Shelley |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/12/15/million-reward-for-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork-set-expire-end/3PD4IlwNU26FKpo4hLUCzK/story.html |title=$10m reward for stolen Gardner museum artwork set to expire at end of 2017 |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=December 15, 2017 |accessdate=December 16, 2017 }}</ref> This reward was extended into 2018 following an outpouring of tips from the public.<ref>{{cite web|title=$10M Reward Extended For Return Of Stolen Gardner Museum Art|url=http://boston.cbslocal.com/2018/01/11/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist-reward-extended/|website=CBS|accessdate=January 16, 2018|language=en|date=January 11, 2018}}</ref> Federal authorities have stated they will not charge anyone who voluntarily turns in the artwork, but anyone caught knowingly in possession of stolen items could be prosecuted.<ref name=searchcont /><ref name=suffolk_globe /> The thieves cannot face charges because the five-year statute of limitations has expired.<ref name=searchcont>{{cite web|last1=Murphy |first1=Shelley |title=Search for artworks from Gardner heist continues 25 years later |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/03/17/gardner-museum-art-heist-one-boston-most-enduring-mysteries-years-later/9U3tp1kJMa4Zn4uClI1cdM/story.html |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215221154/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/03/17/gardner-museum-art-heist-one-boston-most-enduring-mysteries-years-later/9U3tp1kJMa4Zn4uClI1cdM/story.html |archivedate=February 15, 2016 |df= }}</ref>

===Loss of DNA evidence===
In 2010, the FBI announced that some evidence from the original crime scene had been sent to the FBI's Laboratory in [[Quantico, Virginia]], for retesting with the hope of finding new [[DNA]] evidence to identify the culprits of the theft.

In June 2017, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' reported that some of the crime scene evidence collected by the FBI was missing and that, even after an exhaustive search, they were unable to locate the [[handcuffs]] and [[duct tape]] that were used to immobilize the museum's two security guards. The handcuffs and duct tape could have contained traces of DNA material from the thieves.<ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Shelley |last2=Kurkjian |first2=Stephen |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/06/12/evidence-gardner-museum-thefts-that-might-bear-dna-missing/bQgapZNs1FKlTczoAijqnJ/story.html |title=Evidence in Gardner Museum thefts that might bear DNA is missing |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=June 12, 2017 |accessdate=June 12, 2017 }}</ref>

===Leads===
In 1994, the museum director Anne Hawley received a letter that promised the return of the pieces for $2.6 million. If interested, the museum had to get ''The Boston Globe'' to publish a coded message in a business story. The message was published, but the writer disappeared after law enforcement got involved.<ref name=nydn />

Late one night in 1997, ''[[Boston Herald]]'' reporter Tom Mashberg was driven to a warehouse in [[Red Hook, Brooklyn]] by William Youngworth to see what was purported to be ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''. Youngworth was a career criminal and associate of New England art thief Myles Connor Jr.<ref name=nydn /> Mashberg had been investigating the theft and was briefly allowed to view the painting with a flashlight. He was given a vial of paint chips for authenticity. These were later confirmed by experts to be fragments of Dutch 17th-century origin—but not from the stolen painting.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> It was never concretely determined to be real or fake, and the FBI quit speaking to Youngworth after not making any progress.<ref name=nydn /> The painting has since disappeared.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

[[File:Suffolk Downs.jpg|thumb|right|[[Suffolk Downs]] was searched in December 2015 without result.|alt=Suffolk Downs]]
On August 6, 2015, police released a video from the night before the theft, that is believed to show a dry run of the robbery. Two men appear on the tape; one of them remains unidentified, while the other has been confirmed as Richard Abath, a security guard on duty the night of the heist. The video appears to show Abath buzzing the unidentified man into the museum twice within a few minutes. The man stayed for about three minutes in the lobby, then returned to a car and drove off.<ref>{{cite web|title=New video shows possible dry run for Gardner Museum art Heist |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2015/08/06/new-video-shows-possible-dry-run-for-gardner-museum-art-heist/rxxqmXXfKI8ap180aT2BjL/story.html?p1=ClickedOnBreakingNewsBox |website=boston.com |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125203802/http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2015/08/06/new-video-shows-possible-dry-run-for-gardner-museum-art-heist/rxxqmXXfKI8ap180aT2BjL/story.html?p1=ClickedOnBreakingNewsBox |archivedate=January 25, 2016 |df= }}</ref> Police say the video opens new lines of investigation, and ''[[The New York Times]]'' points out that it draws new attention to Abath as a potential collaborator.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jones |first1=Jonathan |title=Is America's greatest art heist about to be solved? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2015/aug/07/americas-greatest-art-heist-solved-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum |website=The Guardian |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214212739/http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2015/aug/07/americas-greatest-art-heist-solved-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum |archivedate=February 14, 2016 |df= }}</ref> However, the guards have previously been interviewed and deemed too unimaginative to have pulled off the heist.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

In December 2015 FBI agents searched [[East Boston]]'s [[Suffolk Downs]] [[horse racing]] track, acting on a tip consistent with rumors among Suffolk Downs employees in the 1990s that the stolen art was there. Stables, parts of the grandstand closed since the early 1990s, and two safes (which had to be drilled open) were searched without result.<ref name=suffolk_globe>{{cite web|last1=Kurkjian |first1=Stephen |title=Search of Suffolk Downs for Gardner Museum masterpieces came up empty |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/12/27/search-suffolk-downs-for-gardner-museum-masterpieces-came-empty/H1iiRlZopLFfxOkM9Nm41J/story.html |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=January 7, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231020612/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/12/27/search-suffolk-downs-for-gardner-museum-masterpieces-came-empty/H1iiRlZopLFfxOkM9Nm41J/story.html |archivedate=December 31, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

=== Potential collaborators ===
{{further|Robert Donati#Possible role in Gardner Museum theft}}

Boston [[gangster]] [[Bobby Donati]] may have been involved in the heist. New England art thief Myles J. Connor Jr., in prison at the time of the robbery, has stated that he and associate Bobby Donati eyed the museum in the 1980s and Donati oversaw the operation.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Shortly before the robbery, Donati was seen at a nightclub with a sack of police uniforms.<ref name=nydn /> Donati worked under Boston crime boss [[Vincent M. Ferrara|Vincent Ferrara]], and visited him in prison in the early 1990s. When Ferrara asked about the robbery, Donati said he "buried the stuff" and would find a way to negotiate his release. Donati was murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars.<ref name=nydn />

[[Hartford, Connecticut]], gangster Robert "Bobby the Cook" Gentile has been suggested on multiple occasions as knowing the location of the Gardner works.<ref name=suffolk_globe /><ref name=courant /> In May 2012, FBI agents searched Gentile's home in [[Manchester, Connecticut|Manchester]], Connecticut. They did not find any stolen works, despite searching his preferred hiding spot beneath a false floor with the help of his son. However, in the basement, they found a sheet of paper listing what each stolen piece might draw on the [[black market]].<ref name=suffolk_globe /> In January 2016, the FBI contrived gun charges against Gentile to force him to reveal the location of the missing works. During a hearing, a federal prosecutor revealed significant evidence tying Gentile to the crime. The prosecutor stated that Gentile and mob partner Robert Guarente attempted to use the return of two stolen pieces to reduce a prison sentence for one of their associates. Guarente's wife told investigators in early 2015 that her husband once had possession of some of the art, and gave two paintings to Gentile before Guarente died of cancer in 2004. Also, while in federal prison during 2013–2014, Gentile told at least three people he had knowledge of the stolen art. In 2015, Gentile submitted to a [[polygraph|lie detector]] test, denying advanced knowledge of the heist or ever possessing any paintings. The result showed a 0.1% chance that he was truthful.<ref name=courant>{{cite web|last1=Mahoney |first1=Edmund H. |title=Prosecutors Reveal More Evidence They Say Ties Robert Gentile To Gardner Museum Robbery |url=http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-art-heist-0107-20160106-story.html |website=courant.com |publisher=Hartford Courant |accessdate=January 7, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082228/http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-art-heist-0107-20160106-story.html |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |df= }}</ref> According to Gentile's lawyer, federal agents are convinced that Gentile has the stolen works.<ref name=suffolk_globe /> Gentile's home was searched again by the FBI on May 2, 2016, even though his lawyer insists that if Gentile had the stolen artwork or knowledge of its whereabouts, he would have turned it in for the reward money a long time ago.<ref name="wcvb2may">{{Cite web|url=http://m.wcvb.com/news/fbi-returns-to-home-of-man-linked-to-500m-art-heist/39340372 |title=FBI searching mobster's home for stolen Gardner masterpieces |website=WCVB |access-date=May 2, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510215744/http://m.wcvb.com/news/fbi-returns-to-home-of-man-linked-to-500m-art-heist/39340372 |archivedate=May 10, 2016 |df= }}</ref> On September 5, 2017, Gentile was scheduled to be sentenced for a separate weapons charge in Connecticut.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-sentencing-20170905-story.html|title=Feds Say Gentile's Feigning Mental Issues, But Gangster's Sentencing Postponed|last=MAHONY|first=EDMUND H.|work=courant.com|access-date=September 5, 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>

When the museum raised its bounty in 1997, Myles J. Connor Jr. said he could locate the missing artwork in exchange for [[legal immunity]]. Authorities rejected his offer. Connor now believes that the Gardner works have passed into other, unknown hands. “I was probably told, but I don't remember,” he said, blaming a heart attack that affected his memory.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Louis Royce, another Boston area gangster, claims he is still owed 15% for devising the plan for two fake policemen to request access to the museum at night.<ref name=nydn>{{cite web|last1=Connelly |first1=Sherryl |title=Possible leads in $500M Boston museum robbery in 1990 |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/leads-500m-boston-museum-robbery-1990-article-1.2115903 |work=New York Daily News |accessdate=January 8, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213151704/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/leads-500m-boston-museum-robbery-1990-article-1.2115903 |archivedate=December 13, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
Due to the high profile of the museum theft, it has been referenced and parodied in many different works. The theft was the subject of the 2005 documentary ''Stolen'', which first appeared in a slightly different version on [[Court TV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internationalfilmcircuit.com/stolen/pressbook_stolen.pdf |title=Stolen: Is it still a masterpiece if no one can find it? |first=Rebecca |last=Dreyfus |date=April 13, 2006 |work=Stolen pressbook |publisher=International Film Circuit |accessdate=June 24, 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713045940/http://www.internationalfilmcircuit.com/stolen/pressbook_stolen.pdf |archivedate=July 13, 2011 |df= }}</ref> The more well-known paintings have been referenced in multiple TV shows, including ''[[The Blacklist (TV series)|The Blacklist]]'' episode "The Courier",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2013/10/starring_role_for_boston_on_new_hit_blacklist |title=Starring role for Boston on new hit Blacklist |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date=October 30, 2013 |publisher=Boston Herald |accessdate=December 9, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126132327/http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2013/10/starring_role_for_boston_on_new_hit_blacklist |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode "[[American History X-cellent]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2010/04/%E2%80%98simpsons%E2%80%99_cracks_case_gardner_heist |title='Simpsons' crack case of Gardner heist |date=April 13, 2010 |publisher=Boston Herald |accessdate=December 9, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126120453/http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2010/04/%E2%80%98simpsons%E2%80%99_cracks_case_gardner_heist |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[Drunk History]]'' episode "Boston",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cc.com/video-clips/uo66zq/drunk-history-art-heist---uncensored |title=Art Heist – Uncensored Drunk History Video Clip – Comedy Central |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date=July 30, 2013 |publisher=Comedy Central |accessdate=December 1, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222104921/http://www.cc.com/video-clips/uo66zq/drunk-history-art-heist---uncensored |archivedate=December 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref> and ''[[American Greed]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/100000093 |title=American Greed – Unsolved $300 Million Art Heist |date=October 14, 2012 |publisher=CNBC |accessdate=December 11, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120206/http://www.cnbc.com/id/100000093 |archivedate=December 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

Several books were written by former investigators: ''Artful Deception'' (2012) by James J. McGovern; ''Priceless: How I Went Undercover to Rescue the World's Stolen Treasures'' (2010), by [[Robert King Wittman|Robert Wittman]] and John Shiffman; and ''Stolen Masterpiece Tracker'' (2006) by Thomas McShane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://crimescenedb.com/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist/ |title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Heist {{!}} Crime Scene Database |last=Database |first=Crime Scene |website=crimescenedb.com |language=en-GB |access-date=April 15, 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517003130/http://crimescenedb.com/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist/ |archivedate=May 17, 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref name="globe_mar2013">{{cite web|last1=Valencia |first1=Milton |title=Observers, investigators say now is time to find Gardner art before it is lost – The Boston Globe |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/24/observers-investigators-say-now-time-find-gardner-art-before-lost/Z4HQc74zz6ek7QWOcZvNsO/story.html |website=BostonGlobe.com |publisher=The Boston Globe |accessdate=January 8, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125145212/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/24/observers-investigators-say-now-time-find-gardner-art-before-lost/Z4HQc74zz6ek7QWOcZvNsO/story.html |archivedate=January 25, 2016 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/arts/design/07wittman.html |title=F.B.I. Art Sleuth, Now Author of ‘Priceless’ |last=Kennedy |first=Randy |date=June 6, 2010 |work=The New York Times |access-date=April 15, 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517004838/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/arts/design/07wittman.html |archivedate=May 17, 2017 |df= }}</ref>

Stephen Kurkjian, a reporter for ''The Boston Globe'', has written a book about his experience titled ''Master Thieves: The Boston Gangsters Who Pulled Off the World’s Greatest Art Heist'' (2015).<ref name="nydn" /> Journalist [[Ulrich Boner|Ulrich Boser]] wrote a book called ''The Gardner Heist'' (2009), leaning heavily on the documented investigation of Harold Smith, an insurance underwriter who worked on art cases.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/feb/19/ulrich-boser-gardner-heist |title=Sketching in the details of the Gardner heist |last=Capps |first=Kriston |date=February 19, 2009 |work=The Guardian |access-date=April 14, 2017 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516215827/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/feb/19/ulrich-boser-gardner-heist |archivedate=May 16, 2017 |df= }}</ref>

The theft is central to the plot of the 2013 novel ''Irreplaceable'' by Charles Pinning.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Coale |first1=Sam |title=Book review: ‘Irreplaceable’ a delightful tale with R.I. color |url=http://www.providencejournal.com/article/20131117/ENTERTAINMENT/311179957 |website=providencejournal.com |publisher=Providence Journal |accessdate=July 4, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815202629/http://www.providencejournal.com/article/20131117/ENTERTAINMENT/311179957 |archivedate=August 15, 2016 |df= }}</ref> It also features in ''The Art Forger'' (2012) by [[B.A. Shapiro]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Taylor|first1=Art|title=Book World: Drawing on reality|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/book-world-drawing-on-reality/2012/10/21/3771ac9e-0668-11e2-858a-5311df86ab04_story.html|website=The Washington Post|accessdate=March 26, 2017|date=October 21, 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|1990s|Boston|Criminal justice|Visual arts}}
*[[1990 in the United States]]
*[[Crime in Massachusetts]]
*[[List of stolen paintings]]
*[[300 million yen robbery]], 1968 theft of cash from armored car in Japan also carried out by a thief posing as a police officer, likewise still unsolved
*[[Great Brink's Robbery]], 1950 theft of $2.7 million in cash and financial instruments, also in Boston, at the time also the largest theft in American history
*[[John Tillmann]], along with his wife and mother-in-law stole over ten thousand pieces of art over decades in largest haul by a single art thief
*[[1972 Montreal Museum of Fine Arts robbery]], largest art theft and largest theft of private property in Canadian history.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum}}
*[http://www.gardnermuseum.org/ Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum website]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160624024938/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ FBI theft page] and [https://www.fbi.gov/gardner/ Mar 2013 update]
*{{IMDb title|0453552|Stolen}}

[[Category:1990 crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:1990 in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:20th century in Boston]]
[[Category:Art crime]]
[[Category:Robberies in the United States]]
[[Category:Individual thefts]]
[[Category:Crime in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Unsolved crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:March 1990 events]]
[[Category:Museum crime]]

Kunstraub von Boston

2018-03-18T04:07:47Z

Textorus: /* Stolen artwork */ diction

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{good article}}
[[File:Empty Frames at Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|thumb|right|The frame which once held ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]''|alt=An empty frame hanging on a wall, between several portraits]]
In the early hours of March 18, 1990, guards at the [[Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum]] in [[Boston]] admitted two men posing as police officers responding to a disturbance call. Once inside, the men tied up the guards and, over the next hour, [[art theft|stole 13 works of art]] valued at $500 million{{snd}}the largest-value theft of private property in history. Despite efforts by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and multiple probes around the world, no arrests have been made and no works have been recovered. The museum initially offered a reward of $5 million for information leading to their recovery, but in 2017 this was doubled temporarily to $10 million with an expiration date set to the end of the year. The reward was extended into 2018 following helpful tips from the public.

The stolen works were originally purchased by art collector [[Isabella Stewart Gardner]] (1840–1924) and intended to be left on permanent display at the museum with the rest of her collection. Since the collection and its layout are permanent, empty frames remain hanging both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned. Experts are puzzled by the choice of paintings that were stolen, especially since more valuable artwork was left untouched. Among the stolen works was ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'', one of only 34 known works by [[Johannes Vermeer|Vermeer]] and thought to be the most valuable unrecovered painting at over $200 million. Also missing is ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'', [[Rembrandt]]'s only known [[seascape]]. Other works by Rembrandt, [[Edgar Degas|Degas]], [[Édouard Manet|Manet]], and [[Govaert Flinck|Flinck]] were also stolen.

According to the FBI, the stolen artwork was moved through the region and offered for sale in [[Philadelphia]] during the early 2000s. They believe the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]]. They also claim to have identified two suspects, although they have not been publicly identified and are now deceased. Boston gangster [[Robert Donati|Bobby Donati]], murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars, has been cited as a possible collaborator in the heist. Significant evidence suggests that [[Hartford, Connecticut]] gangster Robert Gentile knows the location of the works, although he denies involvement.

==Robbery==
Around midnight on Sunday morning, March 18, 1990, a red [[Dodge Daytona]] pulled up near the side entrance of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum along Palace Road.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /><ref name=searchcont /> Two men with fake police uniforms waited for at least an hour in the car, possibly trying to avoid being noticed by people leaving a [[Saint Patrick's Day]] party nearby.<ref name=abathstory>{{cite news|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/10/guard-who-opened-door-robbers-notorious-gardner-museum-heist-under-suspicion-years-later/1TUiDyi1GbcnBgQT64oISP/story.html |title=Decades after the Gardner heist, police focus on guard |first=Stephen |last=Kurkjian |work=Boston Globe |date=March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928031507/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/10/guard-who-opened-door-robbers-notorious-gardner-museum-heist-under-suspicion-years-later/1TUiDyi1GbcnBgQT64oISP/story.html |archivedate=September 28, 2015 |df= }}</ref> Later at around 1{{nbsp}}a.m., security guard Richard Abath returned to the front desk after patrolling the museum to switch positions with the other security guard. The two guards were the only people in the building. At this time, Abath opened and quickly shut the Palace Road door, claiming he was trained to do this to ensure the door was locked. He claimed security logs from other nights would show that he had done this many times previously. The FBI has seized the logs, but has not commented on the issue further.<ref name = abathstory />

[[File:ISGardnerMuseum.JPG|thumb|right|The Gardner Museum in 2008|alt=refer to caption]]

At 1:24{{nbsp}}a.m., one of the two men outside pushed the buzzer near the door and told Abath they were policemen who heard of a disturbance in the courtyard, and requested to be let inside. Abath knew he should not let uninvited guests inside, but he was unsure on whether the rule applied to police officers. He could see the men and believed them to be police officers based on their uniforms. With his partner on patrol, Abath decided to buzz in the men.<ref name = abathstory /> When the intruders arrived at the main security desk, one of them told Abath that he looked familiar and there was a default warrant out for his arrest. Abath stepped out from behind his desk, where the only alarm button to alert police could be accessed. He was quickly asked for his ID, ordered to face the wall, and then handcuffed. Abath believed the arrest was a misunderstanding, until he realized he hadn't been frisked before being cuffed, and one officer's mustache was made of wax.<ref name = abathstory /> The second security guard arrived minutes later and was also handcuffed, after which he asked the intruders why he was being arrested. The thieves explained that they were not being arrested, but rather this was a robbery, and proceeded to take the guards to the museum's basement. They handcuffed the guards to pipes and wrapped duct tape around their hands, feet, and heads.<ref name=insider>{{cite news|date=May 2009 |first=Milton |last=Esterow |title=Inside the Gardner Case |url=http://www.artnews.com/2009/05/01/inside-the-gardner-case/ |work=ArtNews |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225044341/http://www.artnews.com/2009/05/01/inside-the-gardner-case/ |archivedate=December 25, 2014 |df= }}</ref>

Since the museum was equipped with motion detectors, the thieves' movements throughout the museum were recorded. After tying up the guards, the thieves went upstairs to the Dutch Room. As one of them approached [[Rembrandt]]'s ''Self-Portrait'' (1629), a local alarm sounded, which they immediately smashed. They pulled the painting off the wall and attempted to take the wooden panel out of its heavy frame. Unsuccessful at the attempt, they left the painting on the floor. They cut Rembrandt's ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' out of the frame, as well as ''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]''. They also removed [[Vermeer]]'s ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'' and [[Govaert Flinck]]'s ''[[Landscape with Obelisk]]'' from their frames. Additionally, they also took a Chinese bronze [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] from the [[Shang dynasty]].<ref name=insider />

Elsewhere in the museum, they stole five [[Degas]] drawings and an eagle [[finial]]. The finial sat at the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, which they attempted to unscrew from the wall, but failed.<ref name=livescience /> [[Manet]]'s ''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' was also stolen from its location in the Blue Room. Motion detector records show that the only footsteps detected in the Blue Room that night were at 12:27{{nbsp}}a.m. and again at 12:53{{nbsp}}a.m. These times match to when Abath said he passed through on patrol. The frame for the painting was found on security chief Lyle W. Grindle's chair near the front desk.<ref name = abathstory /> The thieves made two trips to their car with artwork during the theft, which lasted 81 minutes. Before leaving, they visited the guards once more, telling them "You’ll be hearing from us in about a year," although they were never heard from again.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The guards remained handcuffed until police arrived at 8:15{{nbsp}}a.m. later that morning.<ref name=insider />

==Stolen artwork==
Altogether, thirteen pieces were stolen at an estimated loss of $500 million, making the robbery the largest private property theft in history.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/hot-canvases |title=Hot Canvases: A new book shatters myths about art theft |first=David |last=Menconi |work=Harvard Magazine |date=March–April 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322000716/http://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/hot-canvases |archivedate=March 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref> Empty frames remain hanging in the museum, both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned.<ref name=McShane>{{cite book |last= McShane |first= Thomas |title= Stolen Masterpiece Tracker |year= 2006 |publisher= Barricade Books |isbn=978-1-56980-314-1 |first2= Dary |last2= Matera |chapter= 18. No Boston Tea Party at Isabella's |lastauthoramp= yes}}</ref> One of the paintings, ''The Concert'', was Gardner's first major acquisition and one of only 34 known Vermeer works in the world.<ref name=fbigallery /> It is thought to be the most valuable unrecovered stolen painting, with a value estimated at over $200 million.<ref name="stolen">{{cite web|title=PBS – Stolen |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/stolen/index.html |website=PBS.org |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221032916/http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/stolen/index.html |archivedate=February 21, 2016 |df= }}</ref> Another painting, ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee'', is Rembrandt's only known [[seascape]].<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ripped-from-the-walls-and-the-headlines-74998018/ |title=Ripped from the Walls (and the Headlines) |author=Robert M. Poole |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20170605082748/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ripped-from-the-walls-and-the-headlines-74998018/ |date=July 2005 |archivedate=June 5, 2017 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> The bronze finial was taken from the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, possibly appearing like [[gold]] to the thieves.<ref name=fbigallery /> The museum is offering a $100,000 reward for this piece alone.<ref name=theftnews>{{cite web|title=Official Gardner Museum Site – Theft News |url=http://www.gardnermuseum.org/news/theft |publisher=Isabella Stewart Garndner Museum |accessdate=October 8, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029051932/http://www.gardnermuseum.org/news/theft |archivedate=October 29, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

The museum stresses that the paintings be kept in good condition by whoever has them. Museum director, Anne Hawley has stated that the works should be kept in a stable environment of 50% humidity and 70 °F. Additionally, they should be kept away from light and stored in acid-free paper. Hawley also warned against rolling the paintings, which will crack the paint. If these guidelines are not followed, the paintings could be damaged and drop in value. More repainting would need to be done too, which hurts the paintings' integrity.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

The following are the thirteen stolen works, all of which are still missing.<ref name=livescience>{{cite web|title=Lost Art: Photos of the Paintings Stolen from Gardner Museum |url=http://www.livescience.com/51808-photos-paintings-stolen-from-gardner-museum.html |publisher=LiveScience |accessdate=October 8, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004065621/http://www.livescience.com/51808-photos-paintings-stolen-from-gardner-museum.html |archivedate=October 4, 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref name=fbigallery>{{cite web|title=FBI – Have You Seen These? |url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/march/reward-offered-for-return-of-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork/image/hi-res |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate=September 8, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915152819/https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/march/reward-offered-for-return-of-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork/image/hi-res |archivedate=September 15, 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft |url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate=February 27, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624024938/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ |archivedate=June 24, 2016 |df= }}</ref>
<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" classes="center">
File:Vermeer The concert.JPG|alt=refer to caption|[[The Concert (Vermeer)|''The Concert'']] by [[Vermeer]] ({{circa}} 1664–1666)
File:Rembrandt Christ in the Storm on the Lake of Galilee.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' by [[Rembrandt]] (1633)
File:A lady and gentleman in black, by Rembrandt.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]'' by Rembrandt{{efn|name=fn1|The museum believes ''A Lady and Gentleman in Black'' to be a Rembrandt; however some scholars, including the Rembrandt Research Project in Amsterdam, say it is not.<ref name=insider />}} (1633)
File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 076.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Landscape with an Obelisk]]'' by [[Govert Flinck]]{{efn|name=fn2|''Landscape with an Obelisk'' was formerly attributed to Rembrandt until being associated with his pupil, Flinck.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vigderman|first=Patricia|title=The Memory Palace of Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_0f2uIlN0C&pg=PA151|publisher=Hol Art Books|isbn=978-1-936102-24-2|page=151}}</ref>}} (1638)
File:Édouard Manet Chez Tortoni.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' by [[Édouard Manet]] ({{circa}} 1878–1880)
File:La Sortie de Pesage by E Degas.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''La Sortie de Pesage'' by [[Degas]] (date unknown)
File:Rembrandt - Self portrait etching - ISGM.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Self-Portrait''{{efn|name=fn3|This ''Self-Portrait'' is postage-stamp sized. Not to be confused with Rembrandt's ''Self-Portrait'' (1629) oil painting also at the museum, which the thieves attempted to steal but did not take.<ref name=insider />}} by Rembrandt ({{circa}} 1634)
File:Degas - Cortege aux Environs de Florence.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Cortege aux Environs de Florence'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1857–1860)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 1.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 1'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 2.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 2'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas Three Mounted Jockeys.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Three Mounted Jockeys'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1885–1888)
File:Ku robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Musuem.gif|alt=refer to caption|An ancient Chinese [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] ({{circa}} 1200–1100 BC){{efn|name=fn4|The gu is dated during the [[Shang dynasty]]}}
File:Finial robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|alt=refer to caption|A bronze eagle [[finial]] ({{circa}} 1813–1814)
</gallery>

;Notes
{{reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

==Investigation==
The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] took control of the case on the grounds that the artwork could likely cross state lines.<ref name=nydn /> They have conducted hundreds of interviews with probes stretching across the world involving [[Scotland Yard]], [[Japan]]ese and [[France|French]] authorities, private investigators, museum directors, and art dealers.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The FBI believes the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]], and that the stolen paintings were moved through [[Connecticut]] and the [[Philadelphia]] area in the years following the theft. Some of the art may have been offered for sale in Philadelphia in the early 2000s, including ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''; however, their knowledge of what happened to the works after the attempted sale is limited.<ref name=searchcont /><ref>{{cite news |title= FBI Says It Has Clues in '90 Boston Art Heist |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/19/us/fbi-says-it-has-clues-in-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |work= The New York Times |accessdate= March 18, 2013}}</ref><ref name=fbipress1>{{cite press release|url=https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/boston/press-releases/2013/fbi-provides-new-information-regarding-the-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist |title=FBI Provides New Information Regarding the 1990 Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Art Heist: Information Sought from Those in Philadelphia and Connecticut Who May Have Knowledge of the Art's Location |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation, Boston Division |first=Greg |last=Comcowich |date=March 18, 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710143612/https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/boston/press-releases/2013/fbi-provides-new-information-regarding-the-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist |archivedate=July 10, 2017 |deadurl=no}}</ref> The FBI stated it believed to know the identity of the thieves in 2013, but in 2015 announced that they were now deceased. They have declined to identify the individuals.<ref>{{cite web|title=FBI says two suspects who stole $500m in art from Boston museum are dead |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/aug/07/fbi-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-theft-suspects-dead |website=The Guardian |accessdate=August 12, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814003900/http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/aug/07/fbi-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-theft-suspects-dead |archivedate=August 14, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

[[File:Sketches of Suspects Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft.jpg|thumb|right|Sketches of the suspects|alt=refer to caption]]
No single motive or pattern has emerged through the thousands of pages of evidence gathered.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The selection of works puzzles the experts, specifically since more valuable artworks were available.<ref name=McShane /> The FBI's lead agent assigned to the case, Geoffrey J. Kelly, finds it difficult to understand why this assortment of items was stolen despite the thieves being in the museum for enough time to take whatever they wished. On their way to the finial, the thieves passed by two [[Raphael]]s and a [[Botticelli]] painting.<ref name=insider /> [[Titian]]'s ''[[The Rape of Europa (Titian)|The Rape of Europa]]'', which is one of the museum's most well-known and valuable pieces, was not stolen.<ref name=insider /> Due to the brutish ways the criminals handled the robbery, cutting the paintings from their frames and smashing frames for two Degas sketches, investigators believe the thieves were amateur criminals, not experts commissioned to steal particular works.<ref name = abathstory /> Some investigators believe the works were destroyed, explaining why they have not reappeared.<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Theories on the theft include that it was organized by the [[Irish Republican Army]] in order to raise money or bargain for the release of imprisoned comrades. Another theory states [[Whitey Bulger]] was the ringleader of the theft. At the time of the heist, he was Boston's top crime boss and an FBI informant.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

The museum first offered a [[Bounty (reward)|reward]] of $1 million, but that was later increased to $5 million in 1997.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The reward is for "information that leads directly to the recovery of all of [their] items in good condition",<ref name=fbipress1 /> which remains on offer more than a quarter-century later.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> In May 2017, the bounty was doubled to $10 million, with an expiration date set for midnight on December 31 of that year.<ref name="10million">{{cite web|last1=Gardner Museum staff|title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum : Gardner Museum doubles reward to $10 million for return of stolen art|url=http://www.gardnermuseum.org/resources/theft/reward_doubled|website=www.gardnermuseum.org|accessdate=May 26, 2017|language=en|date=May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/arts/design/gardner-museum-doubles-reward-for-recovery-of-stolen-masterpieces.html |title=Gardner Museum Doubles Reward for Recovery of Stolen Masterpieces |last=Bowley |first=Graham |date=May 23, 2017 |work=The New York Times |access-date=May 24, 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524073316/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/arts/design/gardner-museum-doubles-reward-for-recovery-of-stolen-masterpieces.html |archivedate=May 24, 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Shelley |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/12/15/million-reward-for-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork-set-expire-end/3PD4IlwNU26FKpo4hLUCzK/story.html |title=$10m reward for stolen Gardner museum artwork set to expire at end of 2017 |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=December 15, 2017 |accessdate=December 16, 2017 }}</ref> This reward was extended into 2018 following an outpouring of tips from the public.<ref>{{cite web|title=$10M Reward Extended For Return Of Stolen Gardner Museum Art|url=http://boston.cbslocal.com/2018/01/11/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist-reward-extended/|website=CBS|accessdate=January 16, 2018|language=en|date=January 11, 2018}}</ref> Federal authorities have stated they will not charge anyone who voluntarily turns in the artwork, but anyone caught knowingly in possession of stolen items could be prosecuted.<ref name=searchcont /><ref name=suffolk_globe /> The thieves cannot face charges because the five-year statute of limitations has expired.<ref name=searchcont>{{cite web|last1=Murphy |first1=Shelley |title=Search for artworks from Gardner heist continues 25 years later |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/03/17/gardner-museum-art-heist-one-boston-most-enduring-mysteries-years-later/9U3tp1kJMa4Zn4uClI1cdM/story.html |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215221154/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/03/17/gardner-museum-art-heist-one-boston-most-enduring-mysteries-years-later/9U3tp1kJMa4Zn4uClI1cdM/story.html |archivedate=February 15, 2016 |df= }}</ref>

===Loss of DNA evidence===
In 2010, the FBI announced that some evidence from the original crime scene had been sent to the FBI's Laboratory in [[Quantico, Virginia]], for retesting with the hope of finding new [[DNA]] evidence to identify the culprits of the theft.

In June 2017, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' reported that some of the crime scene evidence collected by the FBI was missing and that, even after an exhaustive search, they were unable to locate the [[handcuffs]] and [[duct tape]] that were used to immobilize the museum's two security guards. The handcuffs and duct tape could have contained traces of DNA material from the thieves.<ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Shelley |last2=Kurkjian |first2=Stephen |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/06/12/evidence-gardner-museum-thefts-that-might-bear-dna-missing/bQgapZNs1FKlTczoAijqnJ/story.html |title=Evidence in Gardner Museum thefts that might bear DNA is missing |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=June 12, 2017 |accessdate=June 12, 2017 }}</ref>

===Leads===
In 1994, the museum director Anne Hawley received a letter that promised the return of the pieces for $2.6 million. If interested, the museum had to get ''The Boston Globe'' to publish a coded message in a business story. The message was published, but the writer disappeared after law enforcement got involved.<ref name=nydn />

Late one night in 1997, ''[[Boston Herald]]'' reporter Tom Mashberg was driven to a warehouse in [[Red Hook, Brooklyn]] by William Youngworth to see what was purported to be ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''. Youngworth was a career criminal and associate to New England art thief Myles Connor Jr.<ref name=nydn /> Mashberg had been investigating the theft and was briefly allowed to view the painting with a flashlight. He was given a vial of paint chips for authenticity. These were later confirmed by experts to be fragments of Dutch 17th-century origin—but not from the stolen painting.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> It was never concretely determined to be real or fake, and the FBI quit speaking to Youngworth after not making any progress.<ref name=nydn /> The painting has since disappeared.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

[[File:Suffolk Downs.jpg|thumb|right|[[Suffolk Downs]] was searched in December 2015 without result.|alt=Suffolk Downs]]
On August 6, 2015, police released a video from the night before the theft, that is believed to show a dry run of the robbery. Two men appear on the tape; one of them remains unidentified, while the other has been confirmed as Richard Abath, a security guard on duty the night of the heist. The video appears to show Abath buzzing the unidentified man into the museum twice within a few minutes. The man stayed for about three minutes in the lobby, then returned to a car and drove off.<ref>{{cite web|title=New video shows possible dry run for Gardner Museum art Heist |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2015/08/06/new-video-shows-possible-dry-run-for-gardner-museum-art-heist/rxxqmXXfKI8ap180aT2BjL/story.html?p1=ClickedOnBreakingNewsBox |website=boston.com |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125203802/http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2015/08/06/new-video-shows-possible-dry-run-for-gardner-museum-art-heist/rxxqmXXfKI8ap180aT2BjL/story.html?p1=ClickedOnBreakingNewsBox |archivedate=January 25, 2016 |df= }}</ref> Police say the video opens new lines of investigation, and ''[[The New York Times]]'' points out that it draws new attention to Abath as a potential collaborator.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jones |first1=Jonathan |title=Is America's greatest art heist about to be solved? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2015/aug/07/americas-greatest-art-heist-solved-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum |website=The Guardian |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214212739/http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2015/aug/07/americas-greatest-art-heist-solved-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum |archivedate=February 14, 2016 |df= }}</ref> However, the guards have previously been interviewed and deemed too unimaginative to have pulled off the heist.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

In December 2015 FBI agents searched [[East Boston]]'s [[Suffolk Downs]] [[horse racing]] track, acting on a tip consistent with rumors among Suffolk Downs employees in the 1990s that the stolen art was there. Stables, parts of the grandstand closed since the early 1990s, and two safes (which had to be drilled open) were searched without result.<ref name=suffolk_globe>{{cite web|last1=Kurkjian |first1=Stephen |title=Search of Suffolk Downs for Gardner Museum masterpieces came up empty |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/12/27/search-suffolk-downs-for-gardner-museum-masterpieces-came-empty/H1iiRlZopLFfxOkM9Nm41J/story.html |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=January 7, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231020612/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/12/27/search-suffolk-downs-for-gardner-museum-masterpieces-came-empty/H1iiRlZopLFfxOkM9Nm41J/story.html |archivedate=December 31, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

=== Potential collaborators ===
{{further|Robert Donati#Possible role in Gardner Museum theft}}

Boston [[gangster]] [[Bobby Donati]] may have been involved in the heist. New England art thief Myles J. Connor Jr., in prison at the time of the robbery, has stated that he and associate Bobby Donati eyed the museum in the 1980s and Donati oversaw the operation.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Shortly before the robbery, Donati was seen at a nightclub with a sack of police uniforms.<ref name=nydn /> Donati worked under Boston crime boss [[Vincent M. Ferrara|Vincent Ferrara]], and visited him in prison in the early 1990s. When Ferrara asked about the robbery, Donati said he "buried the stuff" and would find a way to negotiate his release. Donati was murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars.<ref name=nydn />

[[Hartford, Connecticut]], gangster Robert "Bobby the Cook" Gentile has been suggested on multiple occasions as knowing the location of the Gardner works.<ref name=suffolk_globe /><ref name=courant /> In May 2012, FBI agents searched Gentile's home in [[Manchester, Connecticut|Manchester]], Connecticut. They did not find any stolen works, despite searching his preferred hiding spot beneath a false floor with the help of his son. However, in the basement, they found a sheet of paper listing what each stolen piece might draw on the [[black market]].<ref name=suffolk_globe /> In January 2016, the FBI contrived gun charges against Gentile to force him to reveal the location of the missing works. During a hearing, a federal prosecutor revealed significant evidence tying Gentile to the crime. The prosecutor stated that Gentile and mob partner Robert Guarente attempted to use the return of two stolen pieces to reduce a prison sentence for one of their associates. Guarente's wife told investigators in early 2015 that her husband once had possession of some of the art, and gave two paintings to Gentile before Guarente died of cancer in 2004. Also, while in federal prison during 2013–2014, Gentile told at least three people he had knowledge of the stolen art. In 2015, Gentile submitted to a [[polygraph|lie detector]] test, denying advanced knowledge of the heist or ever possessing any paintings. The result showed a 0.1% chance that he was truthful.<ref name=courant>{{cite web|last1=Mahoney |first1=Edmund H. |title=Prosecutors Reveal More Evidence They Say Ties Robert Gentile To Gardner Museum Robbery |url=http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-art-heist-0107-20160106-story.html |website=courant.com |publisher=Hartford Courant |accessdate=January 7, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082228/http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-art-heist-0107-20160106-story.html |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |df= }}</ref> According to Gentile's lawyer, federal agents are convinced that Gentile has the stolen works.<ref name=suffolk_globe /> Gentile's home was searched again by the FBI on May 2, 2016, even though his lawyer insists that if Gentile had the stolen artwork or knowledge of its whereabouts, he would have turned it in for the reward money a long time ago.<ref name="wcvb2may">{{Cite web|url=http://m.wcvb.com/news/fbi-returns-to-home-of-man-linked-to-500m-art-heist/39340372 |title=FBI searching mobster's home for stolen Gardner masterpieces |website=WCVB |access-date=May 2, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510215744/http://m.wcvb.com/news/fbi-returns-to-home-of-man-linked-to-500m-art-heist/39340372 |archivedate=May 10, 2016 |df= }}</ref> On September 5, 2017, Gentile was scheduled to be sentenced for a separate weapons charge in Connecticut.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-sentencing-20170905-story.html|title=Feds Say Gentile's Feigning Mental Issues, But Gangster's Sentencing Postponed|last=MAHONY|first=EDMUND H.|work=courant.com|access-date=September 5, 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>

When the museum raised its bounty in 1997, Myles J. Connor Jr. said he could locate the missing artwork in exchange for [[legal immunity]]. Authorities rejected his offer. Connor now believes that the Gardner works have passed into other, unknown hands. “I was probably told, but I don't remember,” he said, blaming a heart attack that affected his memory.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Louis Royce, another Boston area gangster, claims he is still owed 15% for devising the plan for two fake policemen to request access to the museum at night.<ref name=nydn>{{cite web|last1=Connelly |first1=Sherryl |title=Possible leads in $500M Boston museum robbery in 1990 |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/leads-500m-boston-museum-robbery-1990-article-1.2115903 |work=New York Daily News |accessdate=January 8, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213151704/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/leads-500m-boston-museum-robbery-1990-article-1.2115903 |archivedate=December 13, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
Due to the high profile of the museum theft, it has been referenced and parodied in many different works. The theft was the subject of the 2005 documentary ''Stolen'', which first appeared in a slightly different version on [[Court TV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internationalfilmcircuit.com/stolen/pressbook_stolen.pdf |title=Stolen: Is it still a masterpiece if no one can find it? |first=Rebecca |last=Dreyfus |date=April 13, 2006 |work=Stolen pressbook |publisher=International Film Circuit |accessdate=June 24, 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713045940/http://www.internationalfilmcircuit.com/stolen/pressbook_stolen.pdf |archivedate=July 13, 2011 |df= }}</ref> The more well-known paintings have been referenced in multiple TV shows, including ''[[The Blacklist (TV series)|The Blacklist]]'' episode "The Courier",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2013/10/starring_role_for_boston_on_new_hit_blacklist |title=Starring role for Boston on new hit Blacklist |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date=October 30, 2013 |publisher=Boston Herald |accessdate=December 9, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126132327/http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2013/10/starring_role_for_boston_on_new_hit_blacklist |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode "[[American History X-cellent]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2010/04/%E2%80%98simpsons%E2%80%99_cracks_case_gardner_heist |title='Simpsons' crack case of Gardner heist |date=April 13, 2010 |publisher=Boston Herald |accessdate=December 9, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126120453/http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2010/04/%E2%80%98simpsons%E2%80%99_cracks_case_gardner_heist |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[Drunk History]]'' episode "Boston",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cc.com/video-clips/uo66zq/drunk-history-art-heist---uncensored |title=Art Heist – Uncensored Drunk History Video Clip – Comedy Central |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date=July 30, 2013 |publisher=Comedy Central |accessdate=December 1, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222104921/http://www.cc.com/video-clips/uo66zq/drunk-history-art-heist---uncensored |archivedate=December 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref> and ''[[American Greed]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/100000093 |title=American Greed – Unsolved $300 Million Art Heist |date=October 14, 2012 |publisher=CNBC |accessdate=December 11, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120206/http://www.cnbc.com/id/100000093 |archivedate=December 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

Several books were written by former investigators: ''Artful Deception'' (2012) by James J. McGovern; ''Priceless: How I Went Undercover to Rescue the World's Stolen Treasures'' (2010), by [[Robert King Wittman|Robert Wittman]] and John Shiffman; and ''Stolen Masterpiece Tracker'' (2006) by Thomas McShane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://crimescenedb.com/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist/ |title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Heist {{!}} Crime Scene Database |last=Database |first=Crime Scene |website=crimescenedb.com |language=en-GB |access-date=April 15, 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517003130/http://crimescenedb.com/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist/ |archivedate=May 17, 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref name="globe_mar2013">{{cite web|last1=Valencia |first1=Milton |title=Observers, investigators say now is time to find Gardner art before it is lost – The Boston Globe |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/24/observers-investigators-say-now-time-find-gardner-art-before-lost/Z4HQc74zz6ek7QWOcZvNsO/story.html |website=BostonGlobe.com |publisher=The Boston Globe |accessdate=January 8, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125145212/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/24/observers-investigators-say-now-time-find-gardner-art-before-lost/Z4HQc74zz6ek7QWOcZvNsO/story.html |archivedate=January 25, 2016 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/arts/design/07wittman.html |title=F.B.I. Art Sleuth, Now Author of ‘Priceless’ |last=Kennedy |first=Randy |date=June 6, 2010 |work=The New York Times |access-date=April 15, 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517004838/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/arts/design/07wittman.html |archivedate=May 17, 2017 |df= }}</ref>

Stephen Kurkjian, a reporter for ''The Boston Globe'', has written a book about his experience titled ''Master Thieves: The Boston Gangsters Who Pulled Off the World’s Greatest Art Heist'' (2015).<ref name="nydn" /> Journalist [[Ulrich Boner|Ulrich Boser]] wrote a book called ''The Gardner Heist'' (2009), leaning heavily on the documented investigation of Harold Smith, an insurance underwriter who worked on art cases.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/feb/19/ulrich-boser-gardner-heist |title=Sketching in the details of the Gardner heist |last=Capps |first=Kriston |date=February 19, 2009 |work=The Guardian |access-date=April 14, 2017 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516215827/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/feb/19/ulrich-boser-gardner-heist |archivedate=May 16, 2017 |df= }}</ref>

The theft is central to the plot of the 2013 novel ''Irreplaceable'' by Charles Pinning.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Coale |first1=Sam |title=Book review: ‘Irreplaceable’ a delightful tale with R.I. color |url=http://www.providencejournal.com/article/20131117/ENTERTAINMENT/311179957 |website=providencejournal.com |publisher=Providence Journal |accessdate=July 4, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815202629/http://www.providencejournal.com/article/20131117/ENTERTAINMENT/311179957 |archivedate=August 15, 2016 |df= }}</ref> It also features in ''The Art Forger'' (2012) by [[B.A. Shapiro]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Taylor|first1=Art|title=Book World: Drawing on reality|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/book-world-drawing-on-reality/2012/10/21/3771ac9e-0668-11e2-858a-5311df86ab04_story.html|website=The Washington Post|accessdate=March 26, 2017|date=October 21, 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|1990s|Boston|Criminal justice|Visual arts}}
*[[1990 in the United States]]
*[[Crime in Massachusetts]]
*[[List of stolen paintings]]
*[[300 million yen robbery]], 1968 theft of cash from armored car in Japan also carried out by a thief posing as a police officer, likewise still unsolved
*[[Great Brink's Robbery]], 1950 theft of $2.7 million in cash and financial instruments, also in Boston, at the time also the largest theft in American history
*[[John Tillmann]], along with his wife and mother-in-law stole over ten thousand pieces of art over decades in largest haul by a single art thief
*[[1972 Montreal Museum of Fine Arts robbery]], largest art theft and largest theft of private property in Canadian history.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum}}
*[http://www.gardnermuseum.org/ Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum website]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160624024938/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ FBI theft page] and [https://www.fbi.gov/gardner/ Mar 2013 update]
*{{IMDb title|0453552|Stolen}}

[[Category:1990 crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:1990 in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:20th century in Boston]]
[[Category:Art crime]]
[[Category:Robberies in the United States]]
[[Category:Individual thefts]]
[[Category:Crime in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Unsolved crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:March 1990 events]]
[[Category:Museum crime]]

Kunstraub von Boston

2018-03-18T04:06:19Z

Textorus: /* Robbery */ diction

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{good article}}
[[File:Empty Frames at Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|thumb|right|The frame which once held ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]''|alt=An empty frame hanging on a wall, between several portraits]]
In the early hours of March 18, 1990, guards at the [[Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum]] in [[Boston]] admitted two men posing as police officers responding to a disturbance call. Once inside, the men tied up the guards and, over the next hour, [[art theft|stole 13 works of art]] valued at $500 million{{snd}}the largest-value theft of private property in history. Despite efforts by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and multiple probes around the world, no arrests have been made and no works have been recovered. The museum initially offered a reward of $5 million for information leading to their recovery, but in 2017 this was doubled temporarily to $10 million with an expiration date set to the end of the year. The reward was extended into 2018 following helpful tips from the public.

The stolen works were originally purchased by art collector [[Isabella Stewart Gardner]] (1840–1924) and intended to be left on permanent display at the museum with the rest of her collection. Since the collection and its layout are permanent, empty frames remain hanging both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned. Experts are puzzled by the choice of paintings that were stolen, especially since more valuable artwork was left untouched. Among the stolen works was ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'', one of only 34 known works by [[Johannes Vermeer|Vermeer]] and thought to be the most valuable unrecovered painting at over $200 million. Also missing is ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'', [[Rembrandt]]'s only known [[seascape]]. Other works by Rembrandt, [[Edgar Degas|Degas]], [[Édouard Manet|Manet]], and [[Govaert Flinck|Flinck]] were also stolen.

According to the FBI, the stolen artwork was moved through the region and offered for sale in [[Philadelphia]] during the early 2000s. They believe the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]]. They also claim to have identified two suspects, although they have not been publicly identified and are now deceased. Boston gangster [[Robert Donati|Bobby Donati]], murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars, has been cited as a possible collaborator in the heist. Significant evidence suggests that [[Hartford, Connecticut]] gangster Robert Gentile knows the location of the works, although he denies involvement.

==Robbery==
Around midnight on Sunday morning, March 18, 1990, a red [[Dodge Daytona]] pulled up near the side entrance of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum along Palace Road.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /><ref name=searchcont /> Two men with fake police uniforms waited for at least an hour in the car, possibly trying to avoid being noticed by people leaving a [[Saint Patrick's Day]] party nearby.<ref name=abathstory>{{cite news|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/10/guard-who-opened-door-robbers-notorious-gardner-museum-heist-under-suspicion-years-later/1TUiDyi1GbcnBgQT64oISP/story.html |title=Decades after the Gardner heist, police focus on guard |first=Stephen |last=Kurkjian |work=Boston Globe |date=March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928031507/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/10/guard-who-opened-door-robbers-notorious-gardner-museum-heist-under-suspicion-years-later/1TUiDyi1GbcnBgQT64oISP/story.html |archivedate=September 28, 2015 |df= }}</ref> Later at around 1{{nbsp}}a.m., security guard Richard Abath returned to the front desk after patrolling the museum to switch positions with the other security guard. The two guards were the only people in the building. At this time, Abath opened and quickly shut the Palace Road door, claiming he was trained to do this to ensure the door was locked. He claimed security logs from other nights would show that he had done this many times previously. The FBI has seized the logs, but has not commented on the issue further.<ref name = abathstory />

[[File:ISGardnerMuseum.JPG|thumb|right|The Gardner Museum in 2008|alt=refer to caption]]

At 1:24{{nbsp}}a.m., one of the two men outside pushed the buzzer near the door and told Abath they were policemen who heard of a disturbance in the courtyard, and requested to be let inside. Abath knew he should not let uninvited guests inside, but he was unsure on whether the rule applied to police officers. He could see the men and believed them to be police officers based on their uniforms. With his partner on patrol, Abath decided to buzz in the men.<ref name = abathstory /> When the intruders arrived at the main security desk, one of them told Abath that he looked familiar and there was a default warrant out for his arrest. Abath stepped out from behind his desk, where the only alarm button to alert police could be accessed. He was quickly asked for his ID, ordered to face the wall, and then handcuffed. Abath believed the arrest was a misunderstanding, until he realized he hadn't been frisked before being cuffed, and one officer's mustache was made of wax.<ref name = abathstory /> The second security guard arrived minutes later and was also handcuffed, after which he asked the intruders why he was being arrested. The thieves explained that they were not being arrested, but rather this was a robbery, and proceeded to take the guards to the museum's basement. They handcuffed the guards to pipes and wrapped duct tape around their hands, feet, and heads.<ref name=insider>{{cite news|date=May 2009 |first=Milton |last=Esterow |title=Inside the Gardner Case |url=http://www.artnews.com/2009/05/01/inside-the-gardner-case/ |work=ArtNews |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225044341/http://www.artnews.com/2009/05/01/inside-the-gardner-case/ |archivedate=December 25, 2014 |df= }}</ref>

Since the museum was equipped with motion detectors, the thieves' movements throughout the museum were recorded. After tying up the guards, the thieves went upstairs to the Dutch Room. As one of them approached [[Rembrandt]]'s ''Self-Portrait'' (1629), a local alarm sounded, which they immediately smashed. They pulled the painting off the wall and attempted to take the wooden panel out of its heavy frame. Unsuccessful at the attempt, they left the painting on the floor. They cut Rembrandt's ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' out of the frame, as well as ''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]''. They also removed [[Vermeer]]'s ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'' and [[Govaert Flinck]]'s ''[[Landscape with Obelisk]]'' from their frames. Additionally, they also took a Chinese bronze [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] from the [[Shang dynasty]].<ref name=insider />

Elsewhere in the museum, they stole five [[Degas]] drawings and an eagle [[finial]]. The finial sat at the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, which they attempted to unscrew from the wall, but failed.<ref name=livescience /> [[Manet]]'s ''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' was also stolen from its location in the Blue Room. Motion detector records show that the only footsteps detected in the Blue Room that night were at 12:27{{nbsp}}a.m. and again at 12:53{{nbsp}}a.m. These times match to when Abath said he passed through on patrol. The frame for the painting was found on security chief Lyle W. Grindle's chair near the front desk.<ref name = abathstory /> The thieves made two trips to their car with artwork during the theft, which lasted 81 minutes. Before leaving, they visited the guards once more, telling them "You’ll be hearing from us in about a year," although they were never heard from again.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The guards remained handcuffed until police arrived at 8:15{{nbsp}}a.m. later that morning.<ref name=insider />

==Stolen artwork==
Altogether, thirteen pieces were stolen at an estimated loss of $500 million, making the robbery the largest private property theft in history.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/hot-canvases |title=Hot Canvases: A new book shatters myths about art theft |first=David |last=Menconi |work=Harvard Magazine |date=March–April 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322000716/http://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/hot-canvases |archivedate=March 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref> Empty frames remain hanging in the museum, both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned.<ref name=McShane>{{cite book |last= McShane |first= Thomas |title= Stolen Masterpiece Tracker |year= 2006 |publisher= Barricade Books |isbn=978-1-56980-314-1 |first2= Dary |last2= Matera |chapter= 18. No Boston Tea Party at Isabella's |lastauthoramp= yes}}</ref> One of the paintings, ''The Concert'', was Gardner's first major acquisition and one of only 34 known Vermeer works in the world.<ref name=fbigallery /> It is thought to be the most valuable unrecovered stolen painting, with a value estimated at over $200 million.<ref name="stolen">{{cite web|title=PBS – Stolen |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/stolen/index.html |website=PBS.org |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221032916/http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/stolen/index.html |archivedate=February 21, 2016 |df= }}</ref> Another painting, ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee'', is Rembrandt's only known [[seascape]].<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ripped-from-the-walls-and-the-headlines-74998018/ |title=Ripped from the Walls (and the Headlines) |author=Robert M. Poole |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20170605082748/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ripped-from-the-walls-and-the-headlines-74998018/ |date=July 2005 |archivedate=June 5, 2017 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> The bronze finial was taken from the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, possibly appearing like [[gold]] to the thieves.<ref name=fbigallery /> The museum is offering a $100,000 reward for this piece alone.<ref name=theftnews>{{cite web|title=Official Gardner Museum Site – Theft News |url=http://www.gardnermuseum.org/news/theft |publisher=Isabella Stewart Garndner Museum |accessdate=October 8, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029051932/http://www.gardnermuseum.org/news/theft |archivedate=October 29, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

The museum stresses that the paintings be kept in good condition by whoever has them. Museum director, Anne Hawley has stated that the works should be kept in a stable environment of 50% humidity and 70 °F. Additionally, they should be kept away from light and stored in acid-free paper. Hawley also noted to avoid rolling the paintings, which will crack the paint. If these guidelines are not followed, the paintings could be damaged and drop in value. More repainting would need to be done too, which hurts the paintings' integrity.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

The following are the thirteen stolen works, all of which are still missing.<ref name=livescience>{{cite web|title=Lost Art: Photos of the Paintings Stolen from Gardner Museum |url=http://www.livescience.com/51808-photos-paintings-stolen-from-gardner-museum.html |publisher=LiveScience |accessdate=October 8, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004065621/http://www.livescience.com/51808-photos-paintings-stolen-from-gardner-museum.html |archivedate=October 4, 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref name=fbigallery>{{cite web|title=FBI – Have You Seen These? |url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/march/reward-offered-for-return-of-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork/image/hi-res |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate=September 8, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915152819/https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/march/reward-offered-for-return-of-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork/image/hi-res |archivedate=September 15, 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft |url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate=February 27, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624024938/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ |archivedate=June 24, 2016 |df= }}</ref>
<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" classes="center">
File:Vermeer The concert.JPG|alt=refer to caption|[[The Concert (Vermeer)|''The Concert'']] by [[Vermeer]] ({{circa}} 1664–1666)
File:Rembrandt Christ in the Storm on the Lake of Galilee.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' by [[Rembrandt]] (1633)
File:A lady and gentleman in black, by Rembrandt.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]'' by Rembrandt{{efn|name=fn1|The museum believes ''A Lady and Gentleman in Black'' to be a Rembrandt; however some scholars, including the Rembrandt Research Project in Amsterdam, say it is not.<ref name=insider />}} (1633)
File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 076.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Landscape with an Obelisk]]'' by [[Govert Flinck]]{{efn|name=fn2|''Landscape with an Obelisk'' was formerly attributed to Rembrandt until being associated with his pupil, Flinck.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vigderman|first=Patricia|title=The Memory Palace of Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_0f2uIlN0C&pg=PA151|publisher=Hol Art Books|isbn=978-1-936102-24-2|page=151}}</ref>}} (1638)
File:Édouard Manet Chez Tortoni.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' by [[Édouard Manet]] ({{circa}} 1878–1880)
File:La Sortie de Pesage by E Degas.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''La Sortie de Pesage'' by [[Degas]] (date unknown)
File:Rembrandt - Self portrait etching - ISGM.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Self-Portrait''{{efn|name=fn3|This ''Self-Portrait'' is postage-stamp sized. Not to be confused with Rembrandt's ''Self-Portrait'' (1629) oil painting also at the museum, which the thieves attempted to steal but did not take.<ref name=insider />}} by Rembrandt ({{circa}} 1634)
File:Degas - Cortege aux Environs de Florence.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Cortege aux Environs de Florence'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1857–1860)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 1.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 1'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 2.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 2'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas Three Mounted Jockeys.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Three Mounted Jockeys'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1885–1888)
File:Ku robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Musuem.gif|alt=refer to caption|An ancient Chinese [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] ({{circa}} 1200–1100 BC){{efn|name=fn4|The gu is dated during the [[Shang dynasty]]}}
File:Finial robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|alt=refer to caption|A bronze eagle [[finial]] ({{circa}} 1813–1814)
</gallery>

;Notes
{{reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

==Investigation==
The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] took control of the case on the grounds that the artwork could likely cross state lines.<ref name=nydn /> They have conducted hundreds of interviews with probes stretching across the world involving [[Scotland Yard]], [[Japan]]ese and [[France|French]] authorities, private investigators, museum directors, and art dealers.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The FBI believes the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]], and that the stolen paintings were moved through [[Connecticut]] and the [[Philadelphia]] area in the years following the theft. Some of the art may have been offered for sale in Philadelphia in the early 2000s, including ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''; however, their knowledge of what happened to the works after the attempted sale is limited.<ref name=searchcont /><ref>{{cite news |title= FBI Says It Has Clues in '90 Boston Art Heist |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/19/us/fbi-says-it-has-clues-in-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |work= The New York Times |accessdate= March 18, 2013}}</ref><ref name=fbipress1>{{cite press release|url=https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/boston/press-releases/2013/fbi-provides-new-information-regarding-the-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist |title=FBI Provides New Information Regarding the 1990 Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Art Heist: Information Sought from Those in Philadelphia and Connecticut Who May Have Knowledge of the Art's Location |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation, Boston Division |first=Greg |last=Comcowich |date=March 18, 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710143612/https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/boston/press-releases/2013/fbi-provides-new-information-regarding-the-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist |archivedate=July 10, 2017 |deadurl=no}}</ref> The FBI stated it believed to know the identity of the thieves in 2013, but in 2015 announced that they were now deceased. They have declined to identify the individuals.<ref>{{cite web|title=FBI says two suspects who stole $500m in art from Boston museum are dead |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/aug/07/fbi-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-theft-suspects-dead |website=The Guardian |accessdate=August 12, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814003900/http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/aug/07/fbi-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-theft-suspects-dead |archivedate=August 14, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

[[File:Sketches of Suspects Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft.jpg|thumb|right|Sketches of the suspects|alt=refer to caption]]
No single motive or pattern has emerged through the thousands of pages of evidence gathered.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The selection of works puzzles the experts, specifically since more valuable artworks were available.<ref name=McShane /> The FBI's lead agent assigned to the case, Geoffrey J. Kelly, finds it difficult to understand why this assortment of items was stolen despite the thieves being in the museum for enough time to take whatever they wished. On their way to the finial, the thieves passed by two [[Raphael]]s and a [[Botticelli]] painting.<ref name=insider /> [[Titian]]'s ''[[The Rape of Europa (Titian)|The Rape of Europa]]'', which is one of the museum's most well-known and valuable pieces, was not stolen.<ref name=insider /> Due to the brutish ways the criminals handled the robbery, cutting the paintings from their frames and smashing frames for two Degas sketches, investigators believe the thieves were amateur criminals, not experts commissioned to steal particular works.<ref name = abathstory /> Some investigators believe the works were destroyed, explaining why they have not reappeared.<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Theories on the theft include that it was organized by the [[Irish Republican Army]] in order to raise money or bargain for the release of imprisoned comrades. Another theory states [[Whitey Bulger]] was the ringleader of the theft. At the time of the heist, he was Boston's top crime boss and an FBI informant.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

The museum first offered a [[Bounty (reward)|reward]] of $1 million, but that was later increased to $5 million in 1997.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The reward is for "information that leads directly to the recovery of all of [their] items in good condition",<ref name=fbipress1 /> which remains on offer more than a quarter-century later.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> In May 2017, the bounty was doubled to $10 million, with an expiration date set for midnight on December 31 of that year.<ref name="10million">{{cite web|last1=Gardner Museum staff|title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum : Gardner Museum doubles reward to $10 million for return of stolen art|url=http://www.gardnermuseum.org/resources/theft/reward_doubled|website=www.gardnermuseum.org|accessdate=May 26, 2017|language=en|date=May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/arts/design/gardner-museum-doubles-reward-for-recovery-of-stolen-masterpieces.html |title=Gardner Museum Doubles Reward for Recovery of Stolen Masterpieces |last=Bowley |first=Graham |date=May 23, 2017 |work=The New York Times |access-date=May 24, 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524073316/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/arts/design/gardner-museum-doubles-reward-for-recovery-of-stolen-masterpieces.html |archivedate=May 24, 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Shelley |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/12/15/million-reward-for-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork-set-expire-end/3PD4IlwNU26FKpo4hLUCzK/story.html |title=$10m reward for stolen Gardner museum artwork set to expire at end of 2017 |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=December 15, 2017 |accessdate=December 16, 2017 }}</ref> This reward was extended into 2018 following an outpouring of tips from the public.<ref>{{cite web|title=$10M Reward Extended For Return Of Stolen Gardner Museum Art|url=http://boston.cbslocal.com/2018/01/11/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist-reward-extended/|website=CBS|accessdate=January 16, 2018|language=en|date=January 11, 2018}}</ref> Federal authorities have stated they will not charge anyone who voluntarily turns in the artwork, but anyone caught knowingly in possession of stolen items could be prosecuted.<ref name=searchcont /><ref name=suffolk_globe /> The thieves cannot face charges because the five-year statute of limitations has expired.<ref name=searchcont>{{cite web|last1=Murphy |first1=Shelley |title=Search for artworks from Gardner heist continues 25 years later |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/03/17/gardner-museum-art-heist-one-boston-most-enduring-mysteries-years-later/9U3tp1kJMa4Zn4uClI1cdM/story.html |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215221154/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/03/17/gardner-museum-art-heist-one-boston-most-enduring-mysteries-years-later/9U3tp1kJMa4Zn4uClI1cdM/story.html |archivedate=February 15, 2016 |df= }}</ref>

===Loss of DNA evidence===
In 2010, the FBI announced that some evidence from the original crime scene had been sent to the FBI's Laboratory in [[Quantico, Virginia]], for retesting with the hope of finding new [[DNA]] evidence to identify the culprits of the theft.

In June 2017, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' reported that some of the crime scene evidence collected by the FBI was missing and that, even after an exhaustive search, they were unable to locate the [[handcuffs]] and [[duct tape]] that were used to immobilize the museum's two security guards. The handcuffs and duct tape could have contained traces of DNA material from the thieves.<ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Shelley |last2=Kurkjian |first2=Stephen |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/06/12/evidence-gardner-museum-thefts-that-might-bear-dna-missing/bQgapZNs1FKlTczoAijqnJ/story.html |title=Evidence in Gardner Museum thefts that might bear DNA is missing |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=June 12, 2017 |accessdate=June 12, 2017 }}</ref>

===Leads===
In 1994, the museum director Anne Hawley received a letter that promised the return of the pieces for $2.6 million. If interested, the museum had to get ''The Boston Globe'' to publish a coded message in a business story. The message was published, but the writer disappeared after law enforcement got involved.<ref name=nydn />

Late one night in 1997, ''[[Boston Herald]]'' reporter Tom Mashberg was driven to a warehouse in [[Red Hook, Brooklyn]] by William Youngworth to see what was purported to be ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''. Youngworth was a career criminal and associate to New England art thief Myles Connor Jr.<ref name=nydn /> Mashberg had been investigating the theft and was briefly allowed to view the painting with a flashlight. He was given a vial of paint chips for authenticity. These were later confirmed by experts to be fragments of Dutch 17th-century origin—but not from the stolen painting.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> It was never concretely determined to be real or fake, and the FBI quit speaking to Youngworth after not making any progress.<ref name=nydn /> The painting has since disappeared.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

[[File:Suffolk Downs.jpg|thumb|right|[[Suffolk Downs]] was searched in December 2015 without result.|alt=Suffolk Downs]]
On August 6, 2015, police released a video from the night before the theft, that is believed to show a dry run of the robbery. Two men appear on the tape; one of them remains unidentified, while the other has been confirmed as Richard Abath, a security guard on duty the night of the heist. The video appears to show Abath buzzing the unidentified man into the museum twice within a few minutes. The man stayed for about three minutes in the lobby, then returned to a car and drove off.<ref>{{cite web|title=New video shows possible dry run for Gardner Museum art Heist |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2015/08/06/new-video-shows-possible-dry-run-for-gardner-museum-art-heist/rxxqmXXfKI8ap180aT2BjL/story.html?p1=ClickedOnBreakingNewsBox |website=boston.com |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125203802/http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2015/08/06/new-video-shows-possible-dry-run-for-gardner-museum-art-heist/rxxqmXXfKI8ap180aT2BjL/story.html?p1=ClickedOnBreakingNewsBox |archivedate=January 25, 2016 |df= }}</ref> Police say the video opens new lines of investigation, and ''[[The New York Times]]'' points out that it draws new attention to Abath as a potential collaborator.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jones |first1=Jonathan |title=Is America's greatest art heist about to be solved? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2015/aug/07/americas-greatest-art-heist-solved-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum |website=The Guardian |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214212739/http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2015/aug/07/americas-greatest-art-heist-solved-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum |archivedate=February 14, 2016 |df= }}</ref> However, the guards have previously been interviewed and deemed too unimaginative to have pulled off the heist.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

In December 2015 FBI agents searched [[East Boston]]'s [[Suffolk Downs]] [[horse racing]] track, acting on a tip consistent with rumors among Suffolk Downs employees in the 1990s that the stolen art was there. Stables, parts of the grandstand closed since the early 1990s, and two safes (which had to be drilled open) were searched without result.<ref name=suffolk_globe>{{cite web|last1=Kurkjian |first1=Stephen |title=Search of Suffolk Downs for Gardner Museum masterpieces came up empty |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/12/27/search-suffolk-downs-for-gardner-museum-masterpieces-came-empty/H1iiRlZopLFfxOkM9Nm41J/story.html |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=January 7, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231020612/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/12/27/search-suffolk-downs-for-gardner-museum-masterpieces-came-empty/H1iiRlZopLFfxOkM9Nm41J/story.html |archivedate=December 31, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

=== Potential collaborators ===
{{further|Robert Donati#Possible role in Gardner Museum theft}}

Boston [[gangster]] [[Bobby Donati]] may have been involved in the heist. New England art thief Myles J. Connor Jr., in prison at the time of the robbery, has stated that he and associate Bobby Donati eyed the museum in the 1980s and Donati oversaw the operation.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Shortly before the robbery, Donati was seen at a nightclub with a sack of police uniforms.<ref name=nydn /> Donati worked under Boston crime boss [[Vincent M. Ferrara|Vincent Ferrara]], and visited him in prison in the early 1990s. When Ferrara asked about the robbery, Donati said he "buried the stuff" and would find a way to negotiate his release. Donati was murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars.<ref name=nydn />

[[Hartford, Connecticut]], gangster Robert "Bobby the Cook" Gentile has been suggested on multiple occasions as knowing the location of the Gardner works.<ref name=suffolk_globe /><ref name=courant /> In May 2012, FBI agents searched Gentile's home in [[Manchester, Connecticut|Manchester]], Connecticut. They did not find any stolen works, despite searching his preferred hiding spot beneath a false floor with the help of his son. However, in the basement, they found a sheet of paper listing what each stolen piece might draw on the [[black market]].<ref name=suffolk_globe /> In January 2016, the FBI contrived gun charges against Gentile to force him to reveal the location of the missing works. During a hearing, a federal prosecutor revealed significant evidence tying Gentile to the crime. The prosecutor stated that Gentile and mob partner Robert Guarente attempted to use the return of two stolen pieces to reduce a prison sentence for one of their associates. Guarente's wife told investigators in early 2015 that her husband once had possession of some of the art, and gave two paintings to Gentile before Guarente died of cancer in 2004. Also, while in federal prison during 2013–2014, Gentile told at least three people he had knowledge of the stolen art. In 2015, Gentile submitted to a [[polygraph|lie detector]] test, denying advanced knowledge of the heist or ever possessing any paintings. The result showed a 0.1% chance that he was truthful.<ref name=courant>{{cite web|last1=Mahoney |first1=Edmund H. |title=Prosecutors Reveal More Evidence They Say Ties Robert Gentile To Gardner Museum Robbery |url=http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-art-heist-0107-20160106-story.html |website=courant.com |publisher=Hartford Courant |accessdate=January 7, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082228/http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-art-heist-0107-20160106-story.html |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |df= }}</ref> According to Gentile's lawyer, federal agents are convinced that Gentile has the stolen works.<ref name=suffolk_globe /> Gentile's home was searched again by the FBI on May 2, 2016, even though his lawyer insists that if Gentile had the stolen artwork or knowledge of its whereabouts, he would have turned it in for the reward money a long time ago.<ref name="wcvb2may">{{Cite web|url=http://m.wcvb.com/news/fbi-returns-to-home-of-man-linked-to-500m-art-heist/39340372 |title=FBI searching mobster's home for stolen Gardner masterpieces |website=WCVB |access-date=May 2, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510215744/http://m.wcvb.com/news/fbi-returns-to-home-of-man-linked-to-500m-art-heist/39340372 |archivedate=May 10, 2016 |df= }}</ref> On September 5, 2017, Gentile was scheduled to be sentenced for a separate weapons charge in Connecticut.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-sentencing-20170905-story.html|title=Feds Say Gentile's Feigning Mental Issues, But Gangster's Sentencing Postponed|last=MAHONY|first=EDMUND H.|work=courant.com|access-date=September 5, 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>

When the museum raised its bounty in 1997, Myles J. Connor Jr. said he could locate the missing artwork in exchange for [[legal immunity]]. Authorities rejected his offer. Connor now believes that the Gardner works have passed into other, unknown hands. “I was probably told, but I don't remember,” he said, blaming a heart attack that affected his memory.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Louis Royce, another Boston area gangster, claims he is still owed 15% for devising the plan for two fake policemen to request access to the museum at night.<ref name=nydn>{{cite web|last1=Connelly |first1=Sherryl |title=Possible leads in $500M Boston museum robbery in 1990 |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/leads-500m-boston-museum-robbery-1990-article-1.2115903 |work=New York Daily News |accessdate=January 8, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213151704/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/leads-500m-boston-museum-robbery-1990-article-1.2115903 |archivedate=December 13, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
Due to the high profile of the museum theft, it has been referenced and parodied in many different works. The theft was the subject of the 2005 documentary ''Stolen'', which first appeared in a slightly different version on [[Court TV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internationalfilmcircuit.com/stolen/pressbook_stolen.pdf |title=Stolen: Is it still a masterpiece if no one can find it? |first=Rebecca |last=Dreyfus |date=April 13, 2006 |work=Stolen pressbook |publisher=International Film Circuit |accessdate=June 24, 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713045940/http://www.internationalfilmcircuit.com/stolen/pressbook_stolen.pdf |archivedate=July 13, 2011 |df= }}</ref> The more well-known paintings have been referenced in multiple TV shows, including ''[[The Blacklist (TV series)|The Blacklist]]'' episode "The Courier",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2013/10/starring_role_for_boston_on_new_hit_blacklist |title=Starring role for Boston on new hit Blacklist |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date=October 30, 2013 |publisher=Boston Herald |accessdate=December 9, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126132327/http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2013/10/starring_role_for_boston_on_new_hit_blacklist |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode "[[American History X-cellent]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2010/04/%E2%80%98simpsons%E2%80%99_cracks_case_gardner_heist |title='Simpsons' crack case of Gardner heist |date=April 13, 2010 |publisher=Boston Herald |accessdate=December 9, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126120453/http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2010/04/%E2%80%98simpsons%E2%80%99_cracks_case_gardner_heist |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[Drunk History]]'' episode "Boston",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cc.com/video-clips/uo66zq/drunk-history-art-heist---uncensored |title=Art Heist – Uncensored Drunk History Video Clip – Comedy Central |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date=July 30, 2013 |publisher=Comedy Central |accessdate=December 1, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222104921/http://www.cc.com/video-clips/uo66zq/drunk-history-art-heist---uncensored |archivedate=December 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref> and ''[[American Greed]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/100000093 |title=American Greed – Unsolved $300 Million Art Heist |date=October 14, 2012 |publisher=CNBC |accessdate=December 11, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120206/http://www.cnbc.com/id/100000093 |archivedate=December 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

Several books were written by former investigators: ''Artful Deception'' (2012) by James J. McGovern; ''Priceless: How I Went Undercover to Rescue the World's Stolen Treasures'' (2010), by [[Robert King Wittman|Robert Wittman]] and John Shiffman; and ''Stolen Masterpiece Tracker'' (2006) by Thomas McShane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://crimescenedb.com/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist/ |title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Heist {{!}} Crime Scene Database |last=Database |first=Crime Scene |website=crimescenedb.com |language=en-GB |access-date=April 15, 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517003130/http://crimescenedb.com/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist/ |archivedate=May 17, 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref name="globe_mar2013">{{cite web|last1=Valencia |first1=Milton |title=Observers, investigators say now is time to find Gardner art before it is lost – The Boston Globe |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/24/observers-investigators-say-now-time-find-gardner-art-before-lost/Z4HQc74zz6ek7QWOcZvNsO/story.html |website=BostonGlobe.com |publisher=The Boston Globe |accessdate=January 8, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125145212/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/24/observers-investigators-say-now-time-find-gardner-art-before-lost/Z4HQc74zz6ek7QWOcZvNsO/story.html |archivedate=January 25, 2016 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/arts/design/07wittman.html |title=F.B.I. Art Sleuth, Now Author of ‘Priceless’ |last=Kennedy |first=Randy |date=June 6, 2010 |work=The New York Times |access-date=April 15, 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517004838/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/arts/design/07wittman.html |archivedate=May 17, 2017 |df= }}</ref>

Stephen Kurkjian, a reporter for ''The Boston Globe'', has written a book about his experience titled ''Master Thieves: The Boston Gangsters Who Pulled Off the World’s Greatest Art Heist'' (2015).<ref name="nydn" /> Journalist [[Ulrich Boner|Ulrich Boser]] wrote a book called ''The Gardner Heist'' (2009), leaning heavily on the documented investigation of Harold Smith, an insurance underwriter who worked on art cases.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/feb/19/ulrich-boser-gardner-heist |title=Sketching in the details of the Gardner heist |last=Capps |first=Kriston |date=February 19, 2009 |work=The Guardian |access-date=April 14, 2017 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516215827/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/feb/19/ulrich-boser-gardner-heist |archivedate=May 16, 2017 |df= }}</ref>

The theft is central to the plot of the 2013 novel ''Irreplaceable'' by Charles Pinning.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Coale |first1=Sam |title=Book review: ‘Irreplaceable’ a delightful tale with R.I. color |url=http://www.providencejournal.com/article/20131117/ENTERTAINMENT/311179957 |website=providencejournal.com |publisher=Providence Journal |accessdate=July 4, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815202629/http://www.providencejournal.com/article/20131117/ENTERTAINMENT/311179957 |archivedate=August 15, 2016 |df= }}</ref> It also features in ''The Art Forger'' (2012) by [[B.A. Shapiro]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Taylor|first1=Art|title=Book World: Drawing on reality|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/book-world-drawing-on-reality/2012/10/21/3771ac9e-0668-11e2-858a-5311df86ab04_story.html|website=The Washington Post|accessdate=March 26, 2017|date=October 21, 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|1990s|Boston|Criminal justice|Visual arts}}
*[[1990 in the United States]]
*[[Crime in Massachusetts]]
*[[List of stolen paintings]]
*[[300 million yen robbery]], 1968 theft of cash from armored car in Japan also carried out by a thief posing as a police officer, likewise still unsolved
*[[Great Brink's Robbery]], 1950 theft of $2.7 million in cash and financial instruments, also in Boston, at the time also the largest theft in American history
*[[John Tillmann]], along with his wife and mother-in-law stole over ten thousand pieces of art over decades in largest haul by a single art thief
*[[1972 Montreal Museum of Fine Arts robbery]], largest art theft and largest theft of private property in Canadian history.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum}}
*[http://www.gardnermuseum.org/ Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum website]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160624024938/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ FBI theft page] and [https://www.fbi.gov/gardner/ Mar 2013 update]
*{{IMDb title|0453552|Stolen}}

[[Category:1990 crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:1990 in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:20th century in Boston]]
[[Category:Art crime]]
[[Category:Robberies in the United States]]
[[Category:Individual thefts]]
[[Category:Crime in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Unsolved crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:March 1990 events]]
[[Category:Museum crime]]

The Swan (Theater)

2018-02-19T07:20:27Z

Textorus: nix pretentious caps

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2015}}
{{for|the theatre in Stratford|Swan Theatre (Stratford)}}
[[File:Swan exterior.jpg|thumb|alt=Swan Exterior.|The exterior of the Swan Theatre: a redrawing of a detail from a [[panorama of London]] by [[Claes Van Visscher]]]]
[[File:The Swan cropped.png|thumb|A 1595 sketch of a performance in progress on the [[thrust stage]] of the Swan]]
[[File:London map showing Shakespearean theatres.png|thumb|The Swan is labelled in the bottom centre of this London street map. [[:File:London map showing Shakespearean theatres.png|Enlarge]]]]
[[File:The Manor of Paris Gardens and The Swan.png|thumb|The Manor of Paris Gardens, Bankside, showing the location of The Swan. [[:File:The Manor of Paris Gardens and The Swan.png|Enlarge]]]]

'''The Swan''' was a theatre in [[Southwark]], London, England, built in 1595 on top of a previously standing structure,<ref name="Adams" /> during the first half of [[William Shakespeare]]'s career.<ref>[[F. E. Halliday]], ''A Shakespeare Companion 1564–1964'', Baltimore, Penguin, 1964; p. 481.</ref> It was the fifth in the series of large public playhouses of London, after [[James Burbage]]'s [[The Theatre]] (1576) and [[Curtain Theatre|Curtain]] (1577), the [[Newington Butts]] Theatre (between 1575 and 1577) and Philip Henslowe's [[The Rose (theatre)|Rose]] (1587–88).

The Swan Theatre was located in the manor of Paris Gardens, on the west end of the [[Bankside]] district of Southwark, across the [[Thames River]] from the City of London. It was at the northeast corner of the Paris Garden estate nearest to London Bridge that [[Francis Langley]] had purchased in May 1589, four hundred and twenty-six feet from the river's edge. Playgoers could arrive also by water landing at the Paris Garden Stairs or the Falcon Stairs, both short walking distances from the theatre.<ref name="Trussler">Trussler, Simon. ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of British Theatre''. New York: Press Syndicate of the U. of Cambridge, 1994; pp. 164.</ref> The structure originally belonged to the Monastery of [[Bermondsey]]. After the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], it became royal property and passed through several hands before being sold to Langley for £850.<ref name="Adams">''Adams, Joseph Q. ''Shakespearean Playhouses: A History of English Theaters from the Beginnings to the Restoration''. Cornell University, 1917; pp. 160–180.''</ref> The Mayor of London opposed Langley's permit to open a theatre, but his protests held no ground as the property had formerly belonged to the crown and the Mayor had no jurisdiction.

Langley had the theatre built almost certainly in 1595–96. When it was new, the Swan was the most visually impressive of the existing London theatres. [[Johannes De Witt]], a Dutchman who visited London around 1596, left a description of the Swan in a manuscript titled ''Observationes Londiniensis'', now lost. Translated from the Latin, his description identifies the Swan as the "finest and biggest of the London amphitheatres", with a capacity for 3000 spectators. It was built of flint concrete, and its wooden supporting columns were so cleverly painted that "they would deceive the most acute observer into thinking that they were marble", giving the Swan a "Roman" appearance. (De Witt also drew a sketch of the theatre. The original is lost, but a copy by Arendt van Buchell survives, and is the only sketch of an Elizabethan playhouse known to exist. If the [[Lord Chamberlain's Men]] acted at the Swan in the summer of 1596—which is possible, though far from certain—they would be the actors shown in the Swan sketch.) When Henslowe built the new [[Hope Theatre]] in 1613, he had his carpenter copy the Swan, rather than his own original theatre, the Rose, which must have appeared dated and out of style in comparison.<ref>[[Edmund Kerchever Chambers|E. K. Chambers]], ''The Elizabethan Stage,'' 4 Volumes, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923; Vol. 2, pp. 411–14.</ref>

In 1597, the Swan housed the acting company [[Pembroke's Men]]. Actors Richard Jones, Thomas Downtown, and leader [[Edward Alleyn]]<ref name="Mateer">Mateer, David. ''"Edward Alleyn, Richard Perkins and the Rivalry between the Swan and the Rose Playhouses."'' Review of English Studies: The Leading Journal of English Literature and the English Language 60 (2009): MLA International Bibliography. Web. 5 March 2010.</ref> joined the troupe after leaving their positions in Lord [[Admirals Men]] at the rival playhouse [[The Rose (theatre)|The Rose]].<ref name="Thomson">Thomson, Peter.''The Cambridge History of British Theatres.'' Ed. Jane Milling. Vol. 1. UK: Cambridge University, 2004; pp. 70–92.</ref> In 1597 Pembroke's Men staged the infamous play ''[[The Isle of Dogs (play)|The Isle of Dogs]]'', by [[Thomas Nashe]] and [[Ben Jonson]], the content of which gave offence, most likely for its "satirical"<ref name="Adams" /> nature on the attack of some people high in authority. Jonson was imprisoned, along with [[Gabriel Spenser]], an actor in the play, and others. Langley, already in trouble with the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] over matters unrelated to theatre, may have exacerbated his danger by allowing his company to stage the play after a royal order that all playing stop and all theatres be demolished. This order may have been directed at Langley alone; the other companies, the Lord Chamberlain's Men and the [[Admiral's Men]], had been authorised to return to the stage by October. They were granted licenses to perform. The Swan continued to operate without a license until 19 February 1598, when the two licensed companies called attention to them. Following the scandal, the Swan only held sporadic performances.<ref name="Adams" /> Another scandal rocked the Swan in 1602, when [[Richard Vennar]] advertised a new play, ''England's Joy'', to be performed at the Swan on 6 November.<ref name="Thomson" /> Vennar claimed the play was a fantastical story in honour of Queen Elizabeth, and seats sold out quickly. However, the play was never performed. The townspeople were enraged and vandalised the theatre, and the theatre never seemed to recover its former popularity.

Because both court and city were interested in limiting the number of acting troupes in London, and because there was, consequently, a glut of large open-roof venues in the city, the Swan was only intermittently home to drama. Along with ''The Isle of Dogs'', the most famous play to premiere there was [[Thomas Middleton]]'s ''[[A Chaste Maid in Cheapside]]'', performed by the newly merged [[Lady Elizabeth's Men]] in 1613. The theatre offered other popular entertainments, such as [[swashbuckling]] competitions and [[bear-baiting]].

For the next eight years, the building was used occasionally for special entertainment. After 1615 the Swan was deserted for five years, but used again in 1621 by some actors who are unknown. They did not stay for long.<ref name="Adams" />

The building grew decrepit over the next two decades. In Nicholas Goodman's 1632 pamphlet ''[[Holland's Leaguer#Pamphlet and ballad|Holland's Leaguer]]'', the theatre is described as "now fallen into decay, and, like a dying swan, hangs her head and sings her own dirge."<ref>George Pierce, ''The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist'', New York, Macmillan, 1907; p. 50 n. 2.</ref> Historical sources do not mention the Swan after that date.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{commons category-inline}}
*''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/22397 Shakespearean Playhouses]'', by [[Joseph Quincy Adams, Jr.]] from [[Project Gutenberg]]

{{coord |51|30|25|N|0|6|11|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}} 

{{DEFAULTSORT:Swan (Theatre)}}
[[Category:1595 establishments in England]]
[[Category:1632 disestablishments]]
[[Category:17th century in London]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures in the London Borough of Southwark]]
[[Category:Former theatres in London]]
[[Category:Theatres completed in 1595]]

Henry Willson

2018-01-24T11:47:05Z

Textorus: /* Hollywood years */ diction

{{Refimprove|date=August 2011}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Henry Willson
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1911|07|31}}
| birth_place = [[Lansdowne, Pennsylvania]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1978|11|02|1911|07|31}}
| death_place = [[Motion Picture & Television Country House and Hospital]] in [[Woodland Hills, California]]
| death_cause = [[Cirrhosis]] of the liver
| nationality = American
| other_names =
| occupation = Talent agent
| years_active =
| known_for = Popularizing the beefcake craze of the 1950s
| notable_works =
}}

'''Henry Leroy Willson''' (July 31, 1911 – November 2, 1978) was an American [[Hollywood]] [[talent agent]] who played a large role in popularizing the [[beefcake]] craze of the 1950s. He was known for his stable of young, attractive clients, including [[Rock Hudson]], [[Tab Hunter]], [[Chad Everett]], [[Robert Wagner]], [[Nick Adams (actor, born 1931)|Nick Adams]], [[Guy Madison]], [[Troy Donahue]], [[Mike Connors]], [[Rory Calhoun]], [[John Saxon]], [[Yale Summers]], [[Clint Walker]], [[Doug McClure]], [[Dack Rambo]], [[Ty Hardin]], and [[John Derek]]. He noticed [[Rhonda Fleming]] as she was walking to [[Beverly Hills High School]], brought her to the attention of [[David O. Selznick]], and helped groom her for stardom. He was also instrumental in advancing [[Lana Turner]]'s career.

==Early life==
Willson was born into a prominent [[show business]] family in [[Lansdowne, Pennsylvania|Lansdowne]], [[Pennsylvania]]. His father, Horace, was the vice-president of the [[Columbia Records|Columbia Phonograph Company]] and advanced to the presidency in 1922. Willson came in close contact with many [[Broadway theatre]], [[opera]], and [[vaudeville]] performers. [[Will Rogers]], [[Fanny Brice]], and [[Fred Stone]] numbered among the family's friends, after they moved to [[Forest Hills, Queens|Forest Hills]], an upscale neighborhood in the [[New York City]] borough of [[Queens, New York|Queens]].<ref>Ferber, Lawrence. [http://www.gaylesbiantimes.com/?id=6244 "Oh, Henry Oh, Henry: The Pretty Boys and Dirty Deeds of Hollywood Agent Henry Willson"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721021757/http://www.gaylesbiantimes.com/?id=6244 |date=2009-07-21 }}. ''[[Gay and Lesbian Times]]'', November 17, 2005. Accessed June 18, 2009. "During his youth in Forest Hills, N.Y., Willson was close to his father, a man who both enabled his showbiz obsession and hindered his personal development."</ref>

Concerned about his son's interest in [[tap dance]], the elder Willson enrolled Henry in the [[Asheville School]] in [[North Carolina]], where he hoped the school's many team sports and rugged weekend activities, such as rock climbing and backpacking, would have a positive influence on the boy. He later attended [[Wesleyan University]] in [[Middletown, Connecticut]], spending weekends in [[Manhattan]], where he wrote weekly [[gossip]] columns for ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]''.

==Hollywood years==
In 1933, Willson traveled to Hollywood by steamship via the [[Panama Canal]]. On board he cultivated a friendship with [[Bing Crosby]]'s wife, [[Dixie Lee]], who introduced him to the Hollywood elite and secured him a job with ''[[Photoplay]]'', where his first article was about the newborn [[Gary Crosby (actor)|Gary Crosby]]. He began writing for the ''[[The Hollywood Reporter|Hollywood Reporter]]'' and the ''New Movie Magazine'', became a junior agent at the Joyce & Polimer Agency, moved into a [[Beverly Hills]] home purchased by his father, and became a regular at [[Sunset Strip]] gay bars, where he wooed young men for both professional and personal reasons. One of his first clients (and lovers) was [[Junior Durkin]], whose career was cut short when he died in an automobile accident on May 4, 1935.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stern and Ian McKellen|first=Keith|title=Queers in History|year=2009|location=Dallas, Texas|isbn=978-1933771878|page=493}}</ref>

Willson joined the [[Zeppo Marx]] Agency, where he represented newcomers [[Marge Champion|Marjorie Bell]], [[Jon Hall (actor)|Jon Hall]], and [[William T. Orr]]. He was introduced to Judy Turner, a [[Hollywood High School]] student, in 1937, whom he renamed "Lana Turner" and got cast in small roles, finally introducing her to [[Mervyn LeRoy]] at [[Warner Brothers]]. In 1943, David O. Selznick hired Willson to head the talent division of his newly formed Vanguard Pictures. The first film he cast was the [[World War II]] drama ''[[Since You Went Away]]'' with [[Claudette Colbert]], [[Jennifer Jones (actor)|Jennifer Jones]], and [[Shirley Temple]]. He placed [[Guy Madison]], [[Craig Stevens (actor)|Craig Stevens]], and [[John Derek]] (billed as Dare Harris) in small supporting roles.

Willson eventually opened his own talent agency, where he nurtured the careers of his young finds, frequently coercing them into sexual relationships in exchange for publicity and film roles. In his book, ''Screened Out: Playing Gay in Hollywood from Edison to Stonewall'', [[Richard Barrios]] writes, "Talent agent Henry Willson... had a singular knack for discovering and renaming young actors whose visual appeal transcended any lack of ability. Under his tutelage, Robert Mosely became [[Guy Madison]], Orison Whipple Hungerford Jr. was renamed [[Ty Hardin]], Arthur Gelien was changed to [[Tab Hunter]], and Roy Scherer turned into [[Rock Hudson]]. So successful was the [[beefcake]] aspect of this enterprise, and so widely recognized was Willson's sexuality, that it was often, and often inaccurately, assumed that all of his clients were gay." [[Suzanne Finstad]] confirms that "Some of the would-be actors Willson represented were heterosexual, but a disproportionate number were homosexual, bisexual, or 'co-operated' with Willson 'to get gigs,' in the observation of Natalie [Wood]'s costar [[Bobby Hyatt]]. ..." "If a young, handsome actor had Henry Willson for an agent, 'it was almost assumed he was gay, like it was written across his forehead,' recalls [[Ann Doran]], one of Willson's few female clients."<ref>[[Suzanne Finstad|Finstad, Suzanne]] (2001). ''Natasha: The Biography of Natalie Wood''. p. 140.</ref>

His most prominent client was Rock Hudson, whom he transformed from a clumsy, naive, [[Chicago]]-born truck driver named Roy Scherer into one of Hollywood's most popular leading men. The two were teamed professionally until 1966. In 1955, ''[[Confidential (magazine)|Confidential]]'' magazine threatened to publish an expose about Hudson's secret homosexual life, and Willson disclosed information about [[Rory Calhoun]]'s years in prison and Tab Hunter's arrest at a gay party in 1950 in exchange for the tabloid not printing the Hudson story. At his agent's urging, Hudson married Willson's secretary [[Phyllis Gates]] in order to put the rumors to rest and maintain a macho image, but the union dissolved after three years.

==Later years and death==
In his later years, Willson struggled with drug addiction, alcoholism, paranoia, and weight problems. Because his own homosexuality had become public knowledge, many of his clients, both gay and straight, distanced themselves from him for fear of being branded the same. In 1974, the unemployed and destitute agent moved into the [[Motion Picture & Television Country House and Hospital]], where he remained until he died of [[cirrhosis]] of the liver. With no money to cover the cost of a gravestone, he was interred in an unmarked grave, in Valhalla Memorial Park Cemetery, in [[North Hollywood, California]].

==Notes==


{{reflist}}

==References==
*{{Find a Grave|24550637}} - unmarked
*Richard Barrios, ''Screened Out: Playing Gay in Hollywood from Edison to Stonewall'' (2002).
*Robert Hofler, ''The Man Who Invented Rock Hudson: The Pretty Boys and Dirty Deals of Henry Willson''. Carroll & Graf, 2005, {{ISBN|0-7867-1607-X}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Willson, Henry}}
[[Category:1911 births]]
[[Category:1978 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Lansdowne, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:American talent agents]]
[[Category:Deaths from cirrhosis]]
[[Category:Hollywood talent agents]]
[[Category:Hollywood history and culture]]
[[Category:People from Forest Hills, Queens]]
[[Category:Wesleyan University alumni]]
[[Category:LGBT people from the United States]]
[[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]]

This Is the Army

2017-07-02T21:36:40Z

Textorus: /* Release */ {cn}

{{Infobox film
| name = This Is the Army
| image = Titapos.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Original [[film poster]]
| director = [[Michael Curtiz]]
| producer = [[Hal B. Wallis]] [[Jack L. Warner]]
| writer = [[Irving Berlin]] [[Casey Robinson]] Claude Binyon
| narrator =
| starring = [[George Murphy]] [[Joan Leslie]] [[Ronald Reagan]] [[George Tobias]] [[Alan Hale, Sr.]] [[Kate Smith]] [[Victor Moore]] [[Irving Berlin]]
| conductor = [[Milton Rosenstock]]
| music = [[Ray Heindorf]] [[Max Steiner]]
| cinematography = [[Bert Glennon]] [[Sol Polito]]
| editing = George Amy
| distributor = [[Warner Bros.]]
| released = {{Film date|1943|8|14}}
| runtime = 121 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget =
| gross = $8.5 million (est. US/ Canada rentals)<ref>"All Time Domestic Champs", ''Variety'', 6 January 1960 p 34</ref>
}}

'''''This Is the Army''''' is a 1943 American wartime [[musical film|musical]] [[comedy film]] produced by [[Hal B. Wallis]] and [[Jack L. Warner]], and directed by [[Michael Curtiz]],<ref name="This Is the Army">{{cite web|url=http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/92968/This-Is-the-Army/|title=This Is the Army|work=[[Turner Classic Movies]]|accessdate=April 1, 2016}}</ref> adapted from a wartime stage musical with the same name, designed to boost morale in the U.S. during [[World War II]], directed by [[Ezra Stone]]. The [[screenplay]] by [[Casey Robinson]] and [[Claude Binyon]] was based on the 1942 [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[musical theatre|musical]] by [[Irving Berlin]], who also composed the film's 19 songs and broke screen protocol by singing one of them. The movie features a large ensemble cast, including [[George Murphy]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Joan Leslie]], [[Alan Hale, Sr.]] and [[Rosemary DeCamp]], while both the stage play and film included soldiers of the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] who were actors and performers in civilian life.

==Plot==
[[File:This is the Army.ogg|thumb|Full movie]]
In World War I song-and-dance man Jerry Jones ([[George Murphy]]) is drafted into the US Army, where he stages a revue called ''Yip Yip Yaphank.'' It is a rousing success, but one night during the show orders are received to leave immediately for France: instead of the finale, the troops march up the aisles through the audience, out the theater's main entrance and into a convoy of waiting trucks. Among the teary, last-minute goodbyes Jones kisses his newlywed bride Ethel ([[Rosemary DeCamp]]) farewell.

In the trenches of France, several of the soldiers in the production are killed or wounded by shrapnel from a German artillery barrage. Jones is wounded in the leg and must walk with a cane, ending his career as a dancer. Nevertheless, he is resolved to find something useful to do, especially now that he is the father of a son. Sgt. McGee ([[Alan Hale, Sr.]]) and Pvt. Eddie Dibble ([[Charles Butterworth (actor)|Charles Butterworth]]), the troop bugler, also survive.

Twenty-five years later World War II is raging in Europe. Jerry's son Johnny ([[Ronald Reagan]]) enlists in the Army shortly after [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]]. He tells his sweetheart Eileen Dibble ([[Joan Leslie]]) that they cannot marry until he returns, since he doesn't want to make her a widow.

Johnny reluctantly accepts an order to stage another musical, following in his father's footsteps. The show goes on tour throughout the United States and eventually plays [[Washington, D.C.]], in front of [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] ('''Jack Young'''). During the show it is announced that this is the last performance: the soldiers in the production have been ordered back to their combat units.

Eileen, who has joined the [[Red Cross]] auxiliary, appears backstage. During a break in the show she brings a [[Religious minister|minister]] and convinces Johnny that they should marry now - which they do, in the alley behind the theater, with their fathers acting as witnesses.

The plot provides an envelope to showcase both revues.

==Cast==
* [[George Murphy]] as Jerry Jones
* [[Joan Leslie]] as Eileen Dibble
* [[George Tobias]] as Maxie Twardofsky
* [[Alan Hale, Sr.]] as Sgt. McGee
* [[Charles Butterworth (actor)|Charles Butterworth]] as Eddie Dibble
* [[Dolores Costello]] as Mrs. Davidson
* [[Una Merkel]] as Rose Dibble
* [[Stanley Ridges]] as Maj. John B. Davidson
* [[Rosemary DeCamp]] as Ethel Jones
* [[Ruth Donnelly]] as Mrs. O'Brien
* [[Dorothy Peterson]] as Mrs. Nelson
* [[Gertrude Niesen]] as World War I Vocalist
* [[Ronald Reagan]] as Cpl. Johnny Jones
As Themselves:
* [[Irving Berlin]]
* [[Frances Langford]]
* [[Joe Louis]]
* [[Kate Smith]]
* [[Ezra Stone]]

==Broadway musical==
{{Infobox Musical
|name = This Is the Army
|subtitle =
|image = ThisIsTheArmy_CastRecording.jpg
|caption = Movie Soundtrack album (1970's bootleg issue)
|music = Irving Berlin
|lyrics = Irving Berlin and [[Carmen Miranda]]
|book =
|basis = Irving Berlin's play ''[[Yip Yip Yaphank|Yip! Yip! Yaphank]]''
|productions = 1942 Broadway 1943-1945 traveling show

|awards =
}}
In May 1941, ex-Sergeant [[Irving Berlin]] was on tour at [[Camp Upton]], his old Army base in [[Yaphank]], [[New York (state)|New York]] during [[World War I]]. There he spoke with the commanding officers, including [[Doc Rankin|Capt. A.H. Rankin]] of Special Services, about restaging his original 1917 Army play, ''[[Yip Yip Yaphank|Yip! Yip! Yaphank]]''.<ref name="Irving Berlin Comes to Yaphank">Middle Island Mail. "It May Be "Yip, Yip, Yaphank" Again After Irving Berlin Visits Camp Upton" at [http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/history/newspaper/midislanmail/berlin.htm]. May 28, 1941. Retrieved on September 17, 2006</ref> Gen. [[George Marshall]] approved a Broadway production of a wartime musical for the army, allowing Berlin to conduct the arrangements and rehearsals at Camp Upton much like he had done during World War I. Sgt. Ezra Stone was selected as director for the new contemporary play, and the two set up on base during the weekdays to put together the story and crew. Insisting on [[Racial integration|integration]], Berlin was granted the chance to add [[African American]]s into this play, which he was not allowed to do in ''Yip, Yip Yaphank.'' This would not be unconventional for Berlin, but it would be for the United States Army—no whites and African Americans would appear on stage simultaneously. Though progressive in that regard, Berlin was still planning on opening with a [[Minstrel show|minstrel skit]]. Ezra Stone told his civilian boss that it would be impossible to get 110 men out of [[blackface]] in time for the next number. Casting aside his minstrel show, Berlin instead wrote a "new" "[[Puttin' on the Ritz]]", calling it "That's What the Well-Dressed Man in Harlem Will Wear".

The retooled play ran on Broadway, at the Broadway Theatre from July 4, 1942, to September 26, 1942.<ref name="This Is the Army Production Credits">Internet Broadway Database. ''This Is the Army'' at [http://www.ibdb.com/production.asp?ID=1208]. Retrieved on September 17, 2006.</ref> The show was directed by Sgt. Ezra Stone, choreographed by Cpl. Nelson Barclift and Sgt. Robert Sidney.

The show was such a success that it went on the road. The national tour of the revue ended in [[San Francisco]], [[California|CA]], on February 13, 1943. By that time, it had earned $2 million (equal to ${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|2000000|1943}}}} today) for the Army Emergency Relief Fund.<ref name="Irving Berlin
This Is the Army, Part 2">NARA, by Laurence Bergreen at [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1996/summer/irving-berlin-2.html] 1996.</ref> The company of men that staged the play were the only Army outfit to be fully integrated, but only so off-stage.

==Production==
The title of the movie is the same as the title of the stage version of the show. The movie features star appearances by Irving Berlin, [[Kate Smith]], [[Frances Langford]] and [[Joe Louis]] as themselves. If Washington, D.C. officials did not like the idea of a musical/revue about the Army, playwright Irving Berlin was ready to call it ''This Is the Navy'', or ''This Is the Air Corps''. Smith's full-length rendition of Berlin's "[[God Bless America]]" is arguably the most famous cinematic rendition of the piece. Louis appears in a revue piece called "What the Well-Dressed Man in Harlem Will Wear", with James Cross (lead singer and dancer), William Wycoff (dancer in drag), Marion Brown (heavyset dancer), and a chorus of perhaps a dozen,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.listal.com/movie/this-is-the-army/cast | title = Cast and Credits of This Is the Army | publisher = listal.com | accessdate = 2011-07-03 }}</ref> the only spoken/sung scene that includes African-Americans. Louis also appears in two other scenes, one in a boxing match, and the second being the stage door canteen number (he did not speak in either scene).

One of the film's highlights is Irving Berlin himself singing his song "[[Oh! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning]]", a scene borrowed from ''Yip! Yip! Yaphank!''.

The celebrity impersonation "hamburger" sequence includes accurate spoofs of Broadway stars [[Jane Cowl]], [[Lynn Fontanne]], [[Alfred Lunt]] and [[Ethel Barrymore]], and film stars [[Charles Boyer]] and [[Herbert Marshall]].

The revue pieces also include [[acrobatics|acrobat]] routines, several [[comedy]] pieces, including one with Hale in drag, a [[minstrel show]] sketch (often removed from consumer videos and television broadcasts), and tributes to the [[United States Navy|Navy]] and the [[United States Army Air Corps|Air Corps]].

Although the core of the movie consists of the musical numbers, the movie also contains a veneer of a plot involving the wartime love interests of both the father and the son.

==Release==
[[File:ThisIsTheArmy Earle.jpg|thumb|200px|''This is the Army'' premiere]]
The movie premiered at the [[Warner Theatre (Washington, D.C.)|Warner's Earle Theater]] on August 12, 1943.
It grossed $9,555,586.44 (equal to ${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|9555586.44|1943}}}} today), which was donated to [[Army Emergency Relief]].<ref>http://blogs.archives.gov/prologue/?p=6516</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/variety153-1944-01#page/n51/mode/2up "Top Grossers of the Season", ''Variety'', 5 January 1944 p 54]</ref>

The ending of the war saw the ending of the road show, the last performance being on Maui, Hawaii October 22, 1945, with Irving Berlin once again singing his "Oh! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning." The Army Emergency Relief Fund collected millions of dollars, but the total amount was never accounted, nor released to the public.{{cn|date=July 2017}}

By the mid-1970s, the movie itself fell into the public domain, occasionally airing on television to a new generation of viewers. Renewed interest in some of the actors helped those players that might have been considered down-and-out, most notably [[Stump and Stumpy]]'s [[James Cross (entertainer)|Jimmy Cross]] and [[Stumpy Cromer|Harold Cromer]].

George Murphy and Ronald Reagan would run for public office in California. George Murphy served one term (1965–71) in the U.S. Senate. Ronald Reagan served two terms as Governor of California (1967–75) and then President of the United States (1981–89), with both contributing to each other's Republican campaigns. {{cns|date=July 2017|text=Reagan would warmly and jokingly refer to Murphy, who preceded him into politics by a couple of years, as "my John the Baptist."}}

Many of the soldiers who had participated in the show held reunions every five years after the end of World War II. Their 50th and final reunion (1992) was held in New York's Theater District.

==Musical numbers (movie)==
[[File:This Is the Army, Mr. Jones.ogg|thumb|"This Is The Army, Mr. Jones"]]
* "It's Your Country and My Country"
* "'''My Sweetie'''"
* "Poor Little Me"
* "We're On Our Way to France"
* "Goodbye, France"
* "[[God Bless America]]"
* "What Does He Look Like"
* "'''This Is The Army, Mr. Jones'''"
* "I'm Getting Tired So I Can Sleep"
* "[[Mandy (1919 song)]]"
* "Ladies of the Chorus"
* "That's What the Well Dressed Man in Harlem Will Wear"
* "How About a Cheer for the Navy"
* "I Left My Heart at the Stage Door Canteen"
* "With My Head in the Clouds/American Eagles"
* "'''Oh, How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning'''"
* "This Time"

"My British Buddy", also sung by Irving Berlin, was cut from the movie version but released on DVD. It was originally added to the British production of the musical.

==Awards==
[[File:This is the Army (clip).ogv|thumbtime=1:03|thumb|Ronald Reagan and Joan Leslie (clip)]]
The musical score was nominated and won for Scoring of a Musical Picture at the 16th Annual [[Academy Award]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/DisplayMain.jsp;jsessionid=F10A30B0EF61EC472834B2AA660BFFA4?curTime=1299121061491 |title=Academy Awards Database: This Is The Army; Warner Bros. 1943 (16th) |accessdate=3 March 2011 |work=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences}}</ref> The film was also nominated in the category [[Academy Award for Best Sound|Best Sound]] ([[Nathan Levinson]]).<ref name="Oscars1944">{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1944 |title=The 16th Academy Awards (1944) Nominees and Winners |accessdate=2011-08-14|work=oscars.org}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Ronald Reagan filmography]]
*''[[Winged Victory (film)|Winged Victory]]''
*''[[Call Me Mister]]''

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|This Is the Army (film)}}
* {{AFI film|719|This Is the Army}}
* {{IMDb title|0036430}}
* {{Internet Archive film|id=this_is_the_army}}
* {{amg movie|49566}}
* {{tcmdb title|92968}}
* [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1996/summer/irving-berlin-1.html ''Prologue Magazine'' story "Irving Berlin ''This Is the Army''" by Laurence Bergreen]

{{Michael Curtiz}}
{{Irving Berlin}}
{{Pearl Harbor attack}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:This Is The Army}}
[[Category:1943 films]]
[[Category:1940s comedy films]]
[[Category:American black-and-white films]]
[[Category:American comedy films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Blackface minstrel shows and films]]
[[Category:Film scores by Irving Berlin]]
[[Category:Films based on musicals]]
[[Category:Films directed by Michael Curtiz]]
[[Category:Films produced by Hal B. Wallis]]
[[Category:Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award]]
[[Category:Pearl Harbor films]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]
[[Category:Western Front films (World War I)]]
[[Category:World War II films made in wartime]]

This Is the Army

2017-07-02T21:35:12Z

Textorus: /* Release */ {cns)

{{Infobox film
| name = This Is the Army
| image = Titapos.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Original [[film poster]]
| director = [[Michael Curtiz]]
| producer = [[Hal B. Wallis]] [[Jack L. Warner]]
| writer = [[Irving Berlin]] [[Casey Robinson]] Claude Binyon
| narrator =
| starring = [[George Murphy]] [[Joan Leslie]] [[Ronald Reagan]] [[George Tobias]] [[Alan Hale, Sr.]] [[Kate Smith]] [[Victor Moore]] [[Irving Berlin]]
| conductor = [[Milton Rosenstock]]
| music = [[Ray Heindorf]] [[Max Steiner]]
| cinematography = [[Bert Glennon]] [[Sol Polito]]
| editing = George Amy
| distributor = [[Warner Bros.]]
| released = {{Film date|1943|8|14}}
| runtime = 121 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget =
| gross = $8.5 million (est. US/ Canada rentals)<ref>"All Time Domestic Champs", ''Variety'', 6 January 1960 p 34</ref>
}}

'''''This Is the Army''''' is a 1943 American wartime [[musical film|musical]] [[comedy film]] produced by [[Hal B. Wallis]] and [[Jack L. Warner]], and directed by [[Michael Curtiz]],<ref name="This Is the Army">{{cite web|url=http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/92968/This-Is-the-Army/|title=This Is the Army|work=[[Turner Classic Movies]]|accessdate=April 1, 2016}}</ref> adapted from a wartime stage musical with the same name, designed to boost morale in the U.S. during [[World War II]], directed by [[Ezra Stone]]. The [[screenplay]] by [[Casey Robinson]] and [[Claude Binyon]] was based on the 1942 [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[musical theatre|musical]] by [[Irving Berlin]], who also composed the film's 19 songs and broke screen protocol by singing one of them. The movie features a large ensemble cast, including [[George Murphy]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Joan Leslie]], [[Alan Hale, Sr.]] and [[Rosemary DeCamp]], while both the stage play and film included soldiers of the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] who were actors and performers in civilian life.

==Plot==
[[File:This is the Army.ogg|thumb|Full movie]]
In World War I song-and-dance man Jerry Jones ([[George Murphy]]) is drafted into the US Army, where he stages a revue called ''Yip Yip Yaphank.'' It is a rousing success, but one night during the show orders are received to leave immediately for France: instead of the finale, the troops march up the aisles through the audience, out the theater's main entrance and into a convoy of waiting trucks. Among the teary, last-minute goodbyes Jones kisses his newlywed bride Ethel ([[Rosemary DeCamp]]) farewell.

In the trenches of France, several of the soldiers in the production are killed or wounded by shrapnel from a German artillery barrage. Jones is wounded in the leg and must walk with a cane, ending his career as a dancer. Nevertheless, he is resolved to find something useful to do, especially now that he is the father of a son. Sgt. McGee ([[Alan Hale, Sr.]]) and Pvt. Eddie Dibble ([[Charles Butterworth (actor)|Charles Butterworth]]), the troop bugler, also survive.

Twenty-five years later World War II is raging in Europe. Jerry's son Johnny ([[Ronald Reagan]]) enlists in the Army shortly after [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]]. He tells his sweetheart Eileen Dibble ([[Joan Leslie]]) that they cannot marry until he returns, since he doesn't want to make her a widow.

Johnny reluctantly accepts an order to stage another musical, following in his father's footsteps. The show goes on tour throughout the United States and eventually plays [[Washington, D.C.]], in front of [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] ('''Jack Young'''). During the show it is announced that this is the last performance: the soldiers in the production have been ordered back to their combat units.

Eileen, who has joined the [[Red Cross]] auxiliary, appears backstage. During a break in the show she brings a [[Religious minister|minister]] and convinces Johnny that they should marry now - which they do, in the alley behind the theater, with their fathers acting as witnesses.

The plot provides an envelope to showcase both revues.

==Cast==
* [[George Murphy]] as Jerry Jones
* [[Joan Leslie]] as Eileen Dibble
* [[George Tobias]] as Maxie Twardofsky
* [[Alan Hale, Sr.]] as Sgt. McGee
* [[Charles Butterworth (actor)|Charles Butterworth]] as Eddie Dibble
* [[Dolores Costello]] as Mrs. Davidson
* [[Una Merkel]] as Rose Dibble
* [[Stanley Ridges]] as Maj. John B. Davidson
* [[Rosemary DeCamp]] as Ethel Jones
* [[Ruth Donnelly]] as Mrs. O'Brien
* [[Dorothy Peterson]] as Mrs. Nelson
* [[Gertrude Niesen]] as World War I Vocalist
* [[Ronald Reagan]] as Cpl. Johnny Jones
As Themselves:
* [[Irving Berlin]]
* [[Frances Langford]]
* [[Joe Louis]]
* [[Kate Smith]]
* [[Ezra Stone]]

==Broadway musical==
{{Infobox Musical
|name = This Is the Army
|subtitle =
|image = ThisIsTheArmy_CastRecording.jpg
|caption = Movie Soundtrack album (1970's bootleg issue)
|music = Irving Berlin
|lyrics = Irving Berlin and [[Carmen Miranda]]
|book =
|basis = Irving Berlin's play ''[[Yip Yip Yaphank|Yip! Yip! Yaphank]]''
|productions = 1942 Broadway 1943-1945 traveling show

|awards =
}}
In May 1941, ex-Sergeant [[Irving Berlin]] was on tour at [[Camp Upton]], his old Army base in [[Yaphank]], [[New York (state)|New York]] during [[World War I]]. There he spoke with the commanding officers, including [[Doc Rankin|Capt. A.H. Rankin]] of Special Services, about restaging his original 1917 Army play, ''[[Yip Yip Yaphank|Yip! Yip! Yaphank]]''.<ref name="Irving Berlin Comes to Yaphank">Middle Island Mail. "It May Be "Yip, Yip, Yaphank" Again After Irving Berlin Visits Camp Upton" at [http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/history/newspaper/midislanmail/berlin.htm]. May 28, 1941. Retrieved on September 17, 2006</ref> Gen. [[George Marshall]] approved a Broadway production of a wartime musical for the army, allowing Berlin to conduct the arrangements and rehearsals at Camp Upton much like he had done during World War I. Sgt. Ezra Stone was selected as director for the new contemporary play, and the two set up on base during the weekdays to put together the story and crew. Insisting on [[Racial integration|integration]], Berlin was granted the chance to add [[African American]]s into this play, which he was not allowed to do in ''Yip, Yip Yaphank.'' This would not be unconventional for Berlin, but it would be for the United States Army—no whites and African Americans would appear on stage simultaneously. Though progressive in that regard, Berlin was still planning on opening with a [[Minstrel show|minstrel skit]]. Ezra Stone told his civilian boss that it would be impossible to get 110 men out of [[blackface]] in time for the next number. Casting aside his minstrel show, Berlin instead wrote a "new" "[[Puttin' on the Ritz]]", calling it "That's What the Well-Dressed Man in Harlem Will Wear".

The retooled play ran on Broadway, at the Broadway Theatre from July 4, 1942, to September 26, 1942.<ref name="This Is the Army Production Credits">Internet Broadway Database. ''This Is the Army'' at [http://www.ibdb.com/production.asp?ID=1208]. Retrieved on September 17, 2006.</ref> The show was directed by Sgt. Ezra Stone, choreographed by Cpl. Nelson Barclift and Sgt. Robert Sidney.

The show was such a success that it went on the road. The national tour of the revue ended in [[San Francisco]], [[California|CA]], on February 13, 1943. By that time, it had earned $2 million (equal to ${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|2000000|1943}}}} today) for the Army Emergency Relief Fund.<ref name="Irving Berlin
This Is the Army, Part 2">NARA, by Laurence Bergreen at [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1996/summer/irving-berlin-2.html] 1996.</ref> The company of men that staged the play were the only Army outfit to be fully integrated, but only so off-stage.

==Production==
The title of the movie is the same as the title of the stage version of the show. The movie features star appearances by Irving Berlin, [[Kate Smith]], [[Frances Langford]] and [[Joe Louis]] as themselves. If Washington, D.C. officials did not like the idea of a musical/revue about the Army, playwright Irving Berlin was ready to call it ''This Is the Navy'', or ''This Is the Air Corps''. Smith's full-length rendition of Berlin's "[[God Bless America]]" is arguably the most famous cinematic rendition of the piece. Louis appears in a revue piece called "What the Well-Dressed Man in Harlem Will Wear", with James Cross (lead singer and dancer), William Wycoff (dancer in drag), Marion Brown (heavyset dancer), and a chorus of perhaps a dozen,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.listal.com/movie/this-is-the-army/cast | title = Cast and Credits of This Is the Army | publisher = listal.com | accessdate = 2011-07-03 }}</ref> the only spoken/sung scene that includes African-Americans. Louis also appears in two other scenes, one in a boxing match, and the second being the stage door canteen number (he did not speak in either scene).

One of the film's highlights is Irving Berlin himself singing his song "[[Oh! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning]]", a scene borrowed from ''Yip! Yip! Yaphank!''.

The celebrity impersonation "hamburger" sequence includes accurate spoofs of Broadway stars [[Jane Cowl]], [[Lynn Fontanne]], [[Alfred Lunt]] and [[Ethel Barrymore]], and film stars [[Charles Boyer]] and [[Herbert Marshall]].

The revue pieces also include [[acrobatics|acrobat]] routines, several [[comedy]] pieces, including one with Hale in drag, a [[minstrel show]] sketch (often removed from consumer videos and television broadcasts), and tributes to the [[United States Navy|Navy]] and the [[United States Army Air Corps|Air Corps]].

Although the core of the movie consists of the musical numbers, the movie also contains a veneer of a plot involving the wartime love interests of both the father and the son.

==Release==
[[File:ThisIsTheArmy Earle.jpg|thumb|200px|''This is the Army'' premiere]]
The movie premiered at the [[Warner Theatre (Washington, D.C.)|Warner's Earle Theater]] on August 12, 1943.
It grossed $9,555,586.44 (equal to ${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|9555586.44|1943}}}} today), which was donated to [[Army Emergency Relief]].<ref>http://blogs.archives.gov/prologue/?p=6516</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/variety153-1944-01#page/n51/mode/2up "Top Grossers of the Season", ''Variety'', 5 January 1944 p 54]</ref>

The ending of the war saw the ending of the road show, the last performance being on Maui, Hawaii October 22, 1945, with Irving Berlin once again singing his "Oh! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning." The Army Emergency Relief Fund collected millions of dollars, but the total amount was never accounted, nor released to the public. By the mid-1970s, the movie itself fell into the public domain, occasionally airing on television to a new generation of viewers. Renewed interest in some of the actors helped those players that might have been considered down-and-out, most notably [[Stump and Stumpy]]'s [[James Cross (entertainer)|Jimmy Cross]] and [[Stumpy Cromer|Harold Cromer]].

George Murphy and Ronald Reagan would run for public office in California. George Murphy served one term (1965–71) in the U.S. Senate. Ronald Reagan served two terms as Governor of California (1967–75) and then President of the United States (1981–89), with both contributing to each other's Republican campaigns. {{cns|date=July 2017|text=Reagan would warmly and jokingly refer to Murphy, who preceded him into politics by a couple of years, as "my John the Baptist."}}

Many of the soldiers who had participated in the show held reunions every five years after the end of World War II. Their 50th and final reunion (1992) was held in New York's Theater District.

==Musical numbers (movie)==
[[File:This Is the Army, Mr. Jones.ogg|thumb|"This Is The Army, Mr. Jones"]]
* "It's Your Country and My Country"
* "'''My Sweetie'''"
* "Poor Little Me"
* "We're On Our Way to France"
* "Goodbye, France"
* "[[God Bless America]]"
* "What Does He Look Like"
* "'''This Is The Army, Mr. Jones'''"
* "I'm Getting Tired So I Can Sleep"
* "[[Mandy (1919 song)]]"
* "Ladies of the Chorus"
* "That's What the Well Dressed Man in Harlem Will Wear"
* "How About a Cheer for the Navy"
* "I Left My Heart at the Stage Door Canteen"
* "With My Head in the Clouds/American Eagles"
* "'''Oh, How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning'''"
* "This Time"

"My British Buddy", also sung by Irving Berlin, was cut from the movie version but released on DVD. It was originally added to the British production of the musical.

==Awards==
[[File:This is the Army (clip).ogv|thumbtime=1:03|thumb|Ronald Reagan and Joan Leslie (clip)]]
The musical score was nominated and won for Scoring of a Musical Picture at the 16th Annual [[Academy Award]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/DisplayMain.jsp;jsessionid=F10A30B0EF61EC472834B2AA660BFFA4?curTime=1299121061491 |title=Academy Awards Database: This Is The Army; Warner Bros. 1943 (16th) |accessdate=3 March 2011 |work=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences}}</ref> The film was also nominated in the category [[Academy Award for Best Sound|Best Sound]] ([[Nathan Levinson]]).<ref name="Oscars1944">{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1944 |title=The 16th Academy Awards (1944) Nominees and Winners |accessdate=2011-08-14|work=oscars.org}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Ronald Reagan filmography]]
*''[[Winged Victory (film)|Winged Victory]]''
*''[[Call Me Mister]]''

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|This Is the Army (film)}}
* {{AFI film|719|This Is the Army}}
* {{IMDb title|0036430}}
* {{Internet Archive film|id=this_is_the_army}}
* {{amg movie|49566}}
* {{tcmdb title|92968}}
* [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1996/summer/irving-berlin-1.html ''Prologue Magazine'' story "Irving Berlin ''This Is the Army''" by Laurence Bergreen]

{{Michael Curtiz}}
{{Irving Berlin}}
{{Pearl Harbor attack}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:This Is The Army}}
[[Category:1943 films]]
[[Category:1940s comedy films]]
[[Category:American black-and-white films]]
[[Category:American comedy films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Blackface minstrel shows and films]]
[[Category:Film scores by Irving Berlin]]
[[Category:Films based on musicals]]
[[Category:Films directed by Michael Curtiz]]
[[Category:Films produced by Hal B. Wallis]]
[[Category:Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award]]
[[Category:Pearl Harbor films]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]
[[Category:Western Front films (World War I)]]
[[Category:World War II films made in wartime]]

Colfax (Washington)

2017-03-20T21:20:58Z

Textorus: /* Public services, businesses, and churches */ nix mindless italics, clarify, cut wordiness

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Colfax
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|image_skyline = ColfaxWA1.jpg
|imagesize = 300px
|image_caption = Colfax, looking southeast
|image_flag =
|image_seal =


|nickname =
|motto =


|image_map = Whitman_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Colfax_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location of Colfax, Washington
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =


|coordinates = {{coord|46|53|N|117|22|W|region:US_type:city|display=inline,title}}
|subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Washington|County]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Whitman County, Washington|Whitman]]


|established_title =
|established_date =


|government_footnotes =
|government_type = Strong Mayor
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_name = G Todd Vanek
|leader_title1 = City Administrator
|leader_name1 = Vacant
|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes = <ref name ="Gazetteer files"/>
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 9.82
|area_total_sq_mi = 3.79
|area_land_km2 = 9.82
|area_land_sq_mi = 3.79
|area_water_km2 = 0
|area_water_sq_mi = 0


|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m = 601
|elevation_ft = 1972
|population_total = 2805
|population_as_of = [[2010 United States Census|2010]]
|population_footnotes = <ref name ="FactFinder"/>
|population_density_km2 = 285.8
|population_density_sq_mi = 740.1


|population_est = 2870
|pop_est_as_of = 2015
|pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="2015 Pop Estimate">{{cite web|title=Population Estimates|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2015/SUB-EST2015-3.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=July 9, 2016}}</ref>
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 99111
|area_code = [[Area code 509|509]]
|area_code_type = [[North American Numbering Plan|Area code]]
| unemployment_rate =
|website = http://www.colfaxwa.org/
|footnotes =
|timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific (PST)]]
|utc_offset = -8
|timezone_DST = PDT
|utc_offset_DST = -7
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 53-13785
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1533329<ref name="GR3">{{cite web|url=http://geonames.usgs.gov|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=US Board on Geographic Names|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|date=2007-10-25}}</ref>
| Mayor = G. Todd Vanek
}}

'''Colfax''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Whitman County, Washington|Whitman County]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[United States]].<ref name="GR6">{{cite web|url=http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx |accessdate=2011-06-07 |title=Find a County |publisher=National Association of Counties |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531210815/http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx |archivedate=2011-05-31 |df= }}</ref>
The population was 2,805 at the [[2010 United States Census|2010 census]]. The population is estimated at 2,826 per the State of Washington Office of Financial Management in 2015 making Colfax the second largest city in Whitman County behind Pullman. It is situated amidst wheat-covered hills in a valley at the confluence of the north and south forks of the [[Palouse River]]. [[U.S. Route 195#Washington|U.S. Route 195]], which forms the town's main street, intersects with [[Washington State Route 26|State Route 26]] at the north end of town; in the past, Colfax also lay at the junction of three major railway lines. It was named after [[Schuyler Colfax]], the [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]] from 1869-73.

==History==
[[Palus (tribe)|Palouse Indians]] were the first known human inhabitants of the Colfax area. White settlers arrived in the summer of 1870, and soon built a sawmill. A flour mill and other businesses followed, and Colfax soon grew into a prosperous town. Originally, pioneer citizen James Perkin called the settlement "Belleville" in honor of his girlfriend; when he found a new love, he changed the town's name to Colfax<ref>LaFollette, Taber, ''The History of Colfax'', Colfax History Committee, 1956, p. 8.</ref> for then-Vice President [[Schuyler Colfax]].<ref name=majors>{{Cite book| last = Majors | first = Harry M. | title = Exploring Washington | publisher = Van Winkle Publishing Co | year = 1975 | page = 143 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoWrPQAACAAJ| isbn = 978-0-918664-00-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Meany|first=Edmond S.|title=Origin of Washington geographic names|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027074981;view=1up;seq=68|year=1923|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|page=52}}</ref>

Colfax was officially incorporated on November 29, 1873. In 1889–90, the town vied with several other finalists to become the site of a new state agricultural college, present-day [[Washington State University]]. The honor ultimately fell to nearby [[Pullman, Washington|Pullman]], {{convert|15|mi}} southeast.

The early history of Colfax was marred by prominent lynchings in 1894 and 1898.<ref name=majors/>

Until passed by Pullman at the [[1930 United States Census|1930 census]], Colfax was the largest city in the county.

==Notable people==
{{div col}}
* [[Dinsmore Alter]], astronomer and meteorologist
* [[Ida Lou Anderson]], radio pioneer, professor
* [[Roland Bainton]], professor of ecclesiastical history, Reformation scholar
* [[Willard Bond]], painter
* [[Yakima Canutt]], rodeo champion and Hollywood stuntman
* [[John Crawford (actor)|John Crawford]], born Cleve A. Richardson, Hollywood actor
* [[Timothy Ely]], contemporary artist
* [[William La Follette]], politician, [[United States Congress|congressman]] from Washington
* [[Abe Goff]], politician, Republican [[United States Congress|congressman]] from Idaho
* [[John Kitzhaber]], twice-[[Governor of Oregon]] (1995–2003; 2011–2015)
* [[Morten Lauridsen]], composer of classical music
* [[Virgil T. McCroskey]], 1876–1970, an amateur conservationist who created two state parks: [[Steptoe Butte]] state park in Washington and [[Mary Minerva McCroskey State Park]] in Idaho. A pharmacist until 1920, McCroskey owned the Elk Drugstore on Main Street, the facade of which still bears his name.
* [[Robert Osborne]], Hollywood historian and journalist, prime-time host of [[Turner Classic Movies]]. As a teenager, he worked at ''The Rose'', a long-defunct movie theater in downtown Colfax, and broke both arms while putting [[Elizabeth Taylor]]'s name on the marquee.<ref>Waugh, Lisa. "Oscar expert held court with Hollywood's elite", ''CNN Interactive'', March 20, 1998 ([http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1998/showbiz/oscars/news/oscars.osbourne/ Full Text)]</ref>
* [[Mimi LaFollette Summerskill]], author, educator, political activist and vintner
* [[Jay H. Upton]], Oregon lawyer and politician
{{div col end}}

==Geography and climate==
Colfax is located in southeastern Washington at {{coord|46|53|3|N|117|21|49|W|type:city}} (46.884033, -117.363668),<ref name="GR1">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/gazette.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2011-04-23|date=2011-02-12|title=US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990}}</ref> at an elevation of {{convert|1962|ft|m}}. The nearest cities are [[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]], [[Pullman, Washington|Pullman]], [[Moscow, Idaho|Moscow]], and [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]]/[[Clarkston, Washington|Clarkston]]. The area is geologically interesting, lying in the midst of the fertile [[Palouse|Palouse country]] in the middle of the [[Columbia River Plateau]], with the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the east, the [[Channeled Scablands]] to the west, and the [[Snake River]] to the south.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of {{convert|3.79|sqmi|sqkm|2}}, all of it land.<ref name="Gazetteer files">{{cite web|title=US Gazetteer files 2010 |url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=2012-12-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/68hmXDfkx?url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |archivedate=2012-06-26 |df= }}</ref>
The Palouse River, confined for flood control to a concrete bed that reduces it to an eighteen-inch-wide stream during the dry season, runs through the middle of town, parallel to Main Street.

Colfax has a four-season [[Humid continental climate|continental climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Dsb''), with hot, dry summers, cold winters, and a rainy season that generally runs from autumn til spring. The annual rainfall averages less than {{convert|20|in|mm}} a year. This climate, together with the deep, rich palouse topsoil, makes for near-ideal wheat growing conditions.
{{Weather box
|single line= yes
|location= Colfax, Washington (1971–2000)
|Jan record high F = 63
|Feb record high F = 67
|Mar record high F = 78
|Apr record high F = 93
|May record high F = 98
|Jun record high F = 102
|Jul record high F = 110
|Aug record high F = 108
|Sep record high F = 103
|Oct record high F = 95
|Nov record high F = 75
|Dec record high F = 65
|year record high F=
|Jan high F= 37.4
|Feb high F= 43.5
|Mar high F= 51.2
|Apr high F= 58.9
|May high F= 66.8
|Jun high F= 73.9
|Jul high F= 82.7
|Aug high F= 83.3
|Sep high F= 74.6
|Oct high F= 62.0
|Nov high F= 45.6
|Dec high F= 37.6
|Jan mean F= 30.9
|Feb mean F= 35.3
|Mar mean F= 41.0
|Apr mean F= 47.3
|May mean F= 54.1
|Jun mean F= 60.5
|Jul mean F= 66.6
|Aug mean F= 66.4
|Sep mean F= 58.2
|Oct mean F= 47.7
|Nov mean F= 37.8
|Dec mean F= 31.3
|Jan low F= 24.3
|Feb low F= 27.0
|Mar low F= 30.8
|Apr low F= 35.7
|May low F= 41.3
|Jun low F= 47.0
|Jul low F= 50.4
|Aug low F= 49.4
|Sep low F= 41.7
|Oct low F= 33.3
|Nov low F= 29.9
|Dec low F= 24.9
|Jan record low F = -32
|Feb record low F = -23
|Mar record low F = -5
|Apr record low F = 10
|May record low F = 16
|Jun record low F = 23
|Jul record low F = 24
|Aug record low F = 24
|Sep record low F = 19
|Oct record low F = -1
|Nov record low F = -11
|Dec record low F = -33
|year record low F=
|Jan precipitation inch= 2.33
|Feb precipitation inch= 1.94
|Mar precipitation inch= 2.02
|Apr precipitation inch= 1.73
|May precipitation inch= 1.80
|Jun precipitation inch= 1.37
|Jul precipitation inch= 0.72
|Aug precipitation inch= 0.72
|Sep precipitation inch= 0.73
|Oct precipitation inch= 1.20
|Nov precipitation inch= 2.55
|Dec precipitation inch= 2.93
|source 1= NOAA (normals, 1971–2000) <ref name= NCDC >{{Cite web |url=http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov/climatenormals/clim81/WAnorm.pdf |title=Climatography of the United States NO.81 |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |accessdate=January 11, 2011 }}</ref>
|date=April 2011}}

==Community resources==
[[File:CodgerPoleColfaxWA.jpg|thumb|The Codger Pole]]

===Tourist attractions===
* '''The Codger Pole''' is a chainsaw-carved monument by master carver Jonathan LaBenne. It is located on Main Street and commemorates a 1988 rematch, 50 years after the original 1938 game, between archrival football teams from [[Colfax High School (Washington)|Colfax High School]] and [[St. John, Washington|St. John.]] At {{convert|65|ft|m}} tall, it is the largest sculpture of its type in the world, and consists of portraits, carved into five upended red cedar logs, of the 51 players involved. The players are shown in old age but are wearing the football uniforms of the thirties. The Codger Pole was recently renovated as of May 2016. It is located at the intersection of Main and Rock Streets.
* '''Downtown Colfax''' Downtown Colfax is a National Register Historic District consisting of a rich collection of historic architecture ranging from the 1890s to the 1930s. The Downtown District boundaries are Upton Street to the north, Stevens Street to the south, Mill Street to the east, and the Palouse River to the west.
* '''Former St. Ignatius Hospital''' The Former St. Ignatius Hospital (1009 S. Mill Street) which dates from 1892 is perched on the south hill at the very south end of Mill Street.This location served as a hospital for central and northern Whitman County from 1892 to 1968. When the hospital was relocated up the hill a nursing facility wsa located on the lower floors from 1968 to 2002. The property has been abandoned since 2002 after a water main broke on the upper floors in winter. The Colfax Chamber of Commerce and Downtown Association held ghost tours at the facility during October and December 2015. The site is currently closed to the public and owned by Anthony Girges.
* '''The Perkins House''', on Perkins Avenue, is a meticulously restored Victorian home built in 1886. The original owner was James Perkins, a leading pioneer citizen. The Perkins family occupied the home until 1968, by which time it was sadly dilapidated and slated for demolition. In 1970, the Whitman County Historical Society assumed ownership and began restoring the house, which is now listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. Behind the house is a [[log cabin]], built in 1870, where Perkins lived for sixteen years. This cabin is the oldest standing structure in Whitman County. The house is open for tours from May to September, on Thursdays and Saturdays. The house is now home of the Colfax Chamber of Commerce and Colfax Downtown Association and is open from 8 AM to 5 PM Monday thru Friday and Saturdays. For more information, [[explorecolfax.com]]
* '''Schmuck Park''' This park is the most utilized park in the City. It lies at the intersection of Sixth and Morton Street. The park consists of a skate park, swimming pool, baseball diamond, track, and picnic facilities.
* '''Colfax Golf Course and Country Club''' is a nine-hole course beside the river on North Palouse River Road.
* '''McDonald Park''', located immediately north of the golf course, consists of playing fields surrounded by a paved walking/jogging path. Regional baseball and softball tournaments are hosted here.
* '''The Colfax Trail''' is a three-mile (5 km) path converted from a disused railway line. It begins at a gravel quarry off Highway 26, just beyond the town's western limit, and follows the [[Palouse River]] westward, traversing cow pastures, pine woods, [[wetlands]], and [[basalt]] cliffs.
° In 1932 George Barns, AKA [[Machine Gun Kelly]], robbed the First Savings & Trust Bank at 102 N Main Street of $77,000 ($1,319,572.04 in 2014). This was the first time in its history it was robbed. Barns was later apprehended by the FBI (coining the term "G-man" during his arrest) and sent to Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary in San Francisco Bay.

===Public services, businesses, and churches===
Among the town's other amenities are Leonard Jennings Elementary School, Colfax High School, Whitman Community Hospital, multiple retirement facilities (Hill-Ray Plaza, Whitman Nursing Home, and The Courtyard), Paul's Place Assisted Living, eleven city parks, a skateboard park, a swimming pool and a [http://www.whitco.lib.wa.us public library] that was recently named among the best in Washington State. As the county seat, Colfax is also home to the Whitman County Courthouse and the Whitman County Jail. The local government consists of a seven-member [[City Council]] and a mayor (currently G. Todd Vanek, in his second term).

There is a small assortment of businesses, including building and farm supply stores, a medium-sized grocery ([[Rosauers]]), a pharmacy, two hotels (Best Western and Siesta Motel), a Bed & Breakfast guesthouse, a fitness center, a florist, a coffee stall, four gift shops, a pawn shop, and ten restaurants. Local service-based businesses include lawyers, dentists, auto mechanics, banks, and retirement homes.

[http://www.switchboard.com Switchboard.com] lists nine churches in Colfax, including one [[Catholic Church]], Peace Lutheran Church, one congregation of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (aka LDS or Mormon), Colfax Assembly ([[Assemblies of God]]), Colfax Nazarene Church, First Baptist Church, [[United Methodist Church]], and the Community Bible Church.

A weekly newspaper called [http://www.wcgazette.com ''Whitman County Gazette''] is published in Colfax. In addition, ''The Daily Bulletin'', a one-page paper with daily news and advertisements, is published in Colfax. The ''Moscow-Pullman Daily News'' also carries quite a bit of local news.

===Annual Colfax events===
[[File:ThreshingbeeColfaxWA.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Old-fashioned threshing techniques are demonstrated at the annual threshing bee]]
* '''Palouse Plowing Bee''' and '''Palouse Empire Threshing Bee'''− held respectively on the third weekend in April and the first weekend after [[Labor Day]]. Farmers demonstrate traditional plowing and harvesting methods in a {{convert|15|acre|m2|adj=on}} field {{convert|5|mi|abbr=on}} west of town.
* '''Perkins House Ice Cream Social''' − Held on the last Sunday in June on the lawn of the Perkins House; ice cream, pie, live [[Dixieland]] music, displays, and free house tours.
* '''Concrete River Days''' − A summer festival held on the second weekend in July, with a parade, sidewalk sales, and many outdoor activities; so named because the Palouse riverbed in downtown Colfax has been lined with concrete for the sake of flood control, and the water descends into a narrow central channel during the dry season. The website is www.concreteriverfestival.com
* '''Palouse Empire Fair''' − Held in early September {{convert|5|mi|abbr=on}} west of town; a midway, a rodeo, live music, and barns full of livestock and handicrafts.
* '''Winter Festival'''− a night parade held in downtown Colfax, Main Street, on the first Thursday in December. Festive floats, free candy, special programs at the public library, and Santa Claus.

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|1880= 444
|1890= 1649
|1900= 2121
|1910= 2783
|1920= 3027
|1930= 2782
|1940= 2853
|1950= 3057
|1960= 2860
|1970= 2664
|1980= 2780
|1990= 2713
|2000= 2844
|2010= 2805
|estyear=2015
|estimate=2870
|estref=<ref name="USCensusEst2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2015/SUB-EST2015.html|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015|accessdate=July 2, 2016}}</ref>
|footnote=Sources:<ref>Moffatt, Riley. ''Population History of Western U.S. Cities & Towns, 1850-1990''. [[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]]: Scarecrow, 1996, 317.</ref><center>U.S. Decennial Census<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html |title=Census of Population and Housing |author=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=September 4, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6YSasqtfX?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fprod%2Fwww%2Fdecennial.html |archivedate=May 11, 2015 |df= }}</ref> 2015 Estimate<ref name="2015 Pop Estimate"/></center>
}}

The population has hovered near 3,000 since 1910.<ref>Erickson, Edith E. ''Colfax 100 Plus'', 1981, p. 64 (privately printed)</ref>

===2010 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name ="FactFinder">{{cite web|title=American FactFinder|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2012-12-19}}</ref> of 2010, there were 2,805 people, 1,236 households, and 718 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was {{convert|740.1|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. There were 1,405 housing units at an average density of {{convert|370.7|/sqmi|/km2|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95.6% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.5% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.4% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.5% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.1% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.5% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.4% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 2.8% of the population.

There were 2,236 households of which 27.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.4% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.9% were non-families. 37.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.89.

The median age in the city was 42.7 years. 22.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.7% were from 45 to 64; and 21.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.7% male and 50.3% female.

===2000 census===
As of the 2000 census, there were 2,844 people, 1,191 households, and 740 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,705.6 people per square mile (657.5/km²). There were 1,357 housing units at an average density of 813.8 per square mile (313.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 94.16% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.25% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.84% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.07% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.60% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 2.07% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 1.48% of the population.

There were 1,191 households out of which 27.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.6% were married couples living together, 6.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.8% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.90.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 23.5% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 22.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years, well above the national average of 35.3—possibly due to the presence of several retirement communities. For every 100 females there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $36,622, and the median income for a family was $47,589. Males had a median income of $32,188 versus $26,349 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $18,519. About 6.1% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* City of Colfax, Washington (www.colfaxwa.org)
* Explore Colfax - Chamber/Downtown Association (www.explorecolfax.com)
* [http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=9580 History of Colfax] at [[HistoryLink]]
*{{dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Washington/Localities/C/Colfax}}

{{Whitman County, Washington}}

[[Category:Cities in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Cities in Whitman County, Washington]]
[[Category:County seats in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1873]]
[[Category:1873 establishments in Washington Territory]]

Colfax (Washington)

2017-03-20T21:15:47Z

Textorus: /* History */ diction

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Colfax
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|image_skyline = ColfaxWA1.jpg
|imagesize = 300px
|image_caption = Colfax, looking southeast
|image_flag =
|image_seal =


|nickname =
|motto =


|image_map = Whitman_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Colfax_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location of Colfax, Washington
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =


|coordinates = {{coord|46|53|N|117|22|W|region:US_type:city|display=inline,title}}
|subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Washington|County]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Whitman County, Washington|Whitman]]


|established_title =
|established_date =


|government_footnotes =
|government_type = Strong Mayor
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_name = G Todd Vanek
|leader_title1 = City Administrator
|leader_name1 = Vacant
|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes = <ref name ="Gazetteer files"/>
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 9.82
|area_total_sq_mi = 3.79
|area_land_km2 = 9.82
|area_land_sq_mi = 3.79
|area_water_km2 = 0
|area_water_sq_mi = 0


|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m = 601
|elevation_ft = 1972
|population_total = 2805
|population_as_of = [[2010 United States Census|2010]]
|population_footnotes = <ref name ="FactFinder"/>
|population_density_km2 = 285.8
|population_density_sq_mi = 740.1


|population_est = 2870
|pop_est_as_of = 2015
|pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="2015 Pop Estimate">{{cite web|title=Population Estimates|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2015/SUB-EST2015-3.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=July 9, 2016}}</ref>
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 99111
|area_code = [[Area code 509|509]]
|area_code_type = [[North American Numbering Plan|Area code]]
| unemployment_rate =
|website = http://www.colfaxwa.org/
|footnotes =
|timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific (PST)]]
|utc_offset = -8
|timezone_DST = PDT
|utc_offset_DST = -7
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 53-13785
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1533329<ref name="GR3">{{cite web|url=http://geonames.usgs.gov|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=US Board on Geographic Names|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|date=2007-10-25}}</ref>
| Mayor = G. Todd Vanek
}}

'''Colfax''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Whitman County, Washington|Whitman County]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[United States]].<ref name="GR6">{{cite web|url=http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx |accessdate=2011-06-07 |title=Find a County |publisher=National Association of Counties |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531210815/http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx |archivedate=2011-05-31 |df= }}</ref>
The population was 2,805 at the [[2010 United States Census|2010 census]]. The population is estimated at 2,826 per the State of Washington Office of Financial Management in 2015 making Colfax the second largest city in Whitman County behind Pullman. It is situated amidst wheat-covered hills in a valley at the confluence of the north and south forks of the [[Palouse River]]. [[U.S. Route 195#Washington|U.S. Route 195]], which forms the town's main street, intersects with [[Washington State Route 26|State Route 26]] at the north end of town; in the past, Colfax also lay at the junction of three major railway lines. It was named after [[Schuyler Colfax]], the [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]] from 1869-73.

==History==
[[Palus (tribe)|Palouse Indians]] were the first known human inhabitants of the Colfax area. White settlers arrived in the summer of 1870, and soon built a sawmill. A flour mill and other businesses followed, and Colfax soon grew into a prosperous town. Originally, pioneer citizen James Perkin called the settlement "Belleville" in honor of his girlfriend; when he found a new love, he changed the town's name to Colfax<ref>LaFollette, Taber, ''The History of Colfax'', Colfax History Committee, 1956, p. 8.</ref> for then-Vice President [[Schuyler Colfax]].<ref name=majors>{{Cite book| last = Majors | first = Harry M. | title = Exploring Washington | publisher = Van Winkle Publishing Co | year = 1975 | page = 143 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoWrPQAACAAJ| isbn = 978-0-918664-00-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Meany|first=Edmond S.|title=Origin of Washington geographic names|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027074981;view=1up;seq=68|year=1923|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|page=52}}</ref>

Colfax was officially incorporated on November 29, 1873. In 1889–90, the town vied with several other finalists to become the site of a new state agricultural college, present-day [[Washington State University]]. The honor ultimately fell to nearby [[Pullman, Washington|Pullman]], {{convert|15|mi}} southeast.

The early history of Colfax was marred by prominent lynchings in 1894 and 1898.<ref name=majors/>

Until passed by Pullman at the [[1930 United States Census|1930 census]], Colfax was the largest city in the county.

==Notable people==
{{div col}}
* [[Dinsmore Alter]], astronomer and meteorologist
* [[Ida Lou Anderson]], radio pioneer, professor
* [[Roland Bainton]], professor of ecclesiastical history, Reformation scholar
* [[Willard Bond]], painter
* [[Yakima Canutt]], rodeo champion and Hollywood stuntman
* [[John Crawford (actor)|John Crawford]], born Cleve A. Richardson, Hollywood actor
* [[Timothy Ely]], contemporary artist
* [[William La Follette]], politician, [[United States Congress|congressman]] from Washington
* [[Abe Goff]], politician, Republican [[United States Congress|congressman]] from Idaho
* [[John Kitzhaber]], twice-[[Governor of Oregon]] (1995–2003; 2011–2015)
* [[Morten Lauridsen]], composer of classical music
* [[Virgil T. McCroskey]], 1876–1970, an amateur conservationist who created two state parks: [[Steptoe Butte]] state park in Washington and [[Mary Minerva McCroskey State Park]] in Idaho. A pharmacist until 1920, McCroskey owned the Elk Drugstore on Main Street, the facade of which still bears his name.
* [[Robert Osborne]], Hollywood historian and journalist, prime-time host of [[Turner Classic Movies]]. As a teenager, he worked at ''The Rose'', a long-defunct movie theater in downtown Colfax, and broke both arms while putting [[Elizabeth Taylor]]'s name on the marquee.<ref>Waugh, Lisa. "Oscar expert held court with Hollywood's elite", ''CNN Interactive'', March 20, 1998 ([http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1998/showbiz/oscars/news/oscars.osbourne/ Full Text)]</ref>
* [[Mimi LaFollette Summerskill]], author, educator, political activist and vintner
* [[Jay H. Upton]], Oregon lawyer and politician
{{div col end}}

==Geography and climate==
Colfax is located in southeastern Washington at {{coord|46|53|3|N|117|21|49|W|type:city}} (46.884033, -117.363668),<ref name="GR1">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/gazette.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2011-04-23|date=2011-02-12|title=US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990}}</ref> at an elevation of {{convert|1962|ft|m}}. The nearest cities are [[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]], [[Pullman, Washington|Pullman]], [[Moscow, Idaho|Moscow]], and [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]]/[[Clarkston, Washington|Clarkston]]. The area is geologically interesting, lying in the midst of the fertile [[Palouse|Palouse country]] in the middle of the [[Columbia River Plateau]], with the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the east, the [[Channeled Scablands]] to the west, and the [[Snake River]] to the south.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of {{convert|3.79|sqmi|sqkm|2}}, all of it land.<ref name="Gazetteer files">{{cite web|title=US Gazetteer files 2010 |url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=2012-12-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/68hmXDfkx?url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |archivedate=2012-06-26 |df= }}</ref>
The Palouse River, confined for flood control to a concrete bed that reduces it to an eighteen-inch-wide stream during the dry season, runs through the middle of town, parallel to Main Street.

Colfax has a four-season [[Humid continental climate|continental climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Dsb''), with hot, dry summers, cold winters, and a rainy season that generally runs from autumn til spring. The annual rainfall averages less than {{convert|20|in|mm}} a year. This climate, together with the deep, rich palouse topsoil, makes for near-ideal wheat growing conditions.
{{Weather box
|single line= yes
|location= Colfax, Washington (1971–2000)
|Jan record high F = 63
|Feb record high F = 67
|Mar record high F = 78
|Apr record high F = 93
|May record high F = 98
|Jun record high F = 102
|Jul record high F = 110
|Aug record high F = 108
|Sep record high F = 103
|Oct record high F = 95
|Nov record high F = 75
|Dec record high F = 65
|year record high F=
|Jan high F= 37.4
|Feb high F= 43.5
|Mar high F= 51.2
|Apr high F= 58.9
|May high F= 66.8
|Jun high F= 73.9
|Jul high F= 82.7
|Aug high F= 83.3
|Sep high F= 74.6
|Oct high F= 62.0
|Nov high F= 45.6
|Dec high F= 37.6
|Jan mean F= 30.9
|Feb mean F= 35.3
|Mar mean F= 41.0
|Apr mean F= 47.3
|May mean F= 54.1
|Jun mean F= 60.5
|Jul mean F= 66.6
|Aug mean F= 66.4
|Sep mean F= 58.2
|Oct mean F= 47.7
|Nov mean F= 37.8
|Dec mean F= 31.3
|Jan low F= 24.3
|Feb low F= 27.0
|Mar low F= 30.8
|Apr low F= 35.7
|May low F= 41.3
|Jun low F= 47.0
|Jul low F= 50.4
|Aug low F= 49.4
|Sep low F= 41.7
|Oct low F= 33.3
|Nov low F= 29.9
|Dec low F= 24.9
|Jan record low F = -32
|Feb record low F = -23
|Mar record low F = -5
|Apr record low F = 10
|May record low F = 16
|Jun record low F = 23
|Jul record low F = 24
|Aug record low F = 24
|Sep record low F = 19
|Oct record low F = -1
|Nov record low F = -11
|Dec record low F = -33
|year record low F=
|Jan precipitation inch= 2.33
|Feb precipitation inch= 1.94
|Mar precipitation inch= 2.02
|Apr precipitation inch= 1.73
|May precipitation inch= 1.80
|Jun precipitation inch= 1.37
|Jul precipitation inch= 0.72
|Aug precipitation inch= 0.72
|Sep precipitation inch= 0.73
|Oct precipitation inch= 1.20
|Nov precipitation inch= 2.55
|Dec precipitation inch= 2.93
|source 1= NOAA (normals, 1971–2000) <ref name= NCDC >{{Cite web |url=http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov/climatenormals/clim81/WAnorm.pdf |title=Climatography of the United States NO.81 |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |accessdate=January 11, 2011 }}</ref>
|date=April 2011}}

==Community resources==
[[File:CodgerPoleColfaxWA.jpg|thumb|The Codger Pole]]

===Tourist attractions===
* '''The Codger Pole''' is a chainsaw-carved monument by master carver Jonathan LaBenne. It is located on Main Street and commemorates a 1988 rematch, 50 years after the original 1938 game, between archrival football teams from [[Colfax High School (Washington)|Colfax High School]] and [[St. John, Washington|St. John.]] At {{convert|65|ft|m}} tall, it is the largest sculpture of its type in the world, and consists of portraits, carved into five upended red cedar logs, of the 51 players involved. The players are shown in old age but are wearing the football uniforms of the thirties. The Codger Pole was recently renovated as of May 2016. It is located at the intersection of Main and Rock Streets.
* '''Downtown Colfax''' Downtown Colfax is a National Register Historic District consisting of a rich collection of historic architecture ranging from the 1890s to the 1930s. The Downtown District boundaries are Upton Street to the north, Stevens Street to the south, Mill Street to the east, and the Palouse River to the west.
* '''Former St. Ignatius Hospital''' The Former St. Ignatius Hospital (1009 S. Mill Street) which dates from 1892 is perched on the south hill at the very south end of Mill Street.This location served as a hospital for central and northern Whitman County from 1892 to 1968. When the hospital was relocated up the hill a nursing facility wsa located on the lower floors from 1968 to 2002. The property has been abandoned since 2002 after a water main broke on the upper floors in winter. The Colfax Chamber of Commerce and Downtown Association held ghost tours at the facility during October and December 2015. The site is currently closed to the public and owned by Anthony Girges.
* '''The Perkins House''', on Perkins Avenue, is a meticulously restored Victorian home built in 1886. The original owner was James Perkins, a leading pioneer citizen. The Perkins family occupied the home until 1968, by which time it was sadly dilapidated and slated for demolition. In 1970, the Whitman County Historical Society assumed ownership and began restoring the house, which is now listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. Behind the house is a [[log cabin]], built in 1870, where Perkins lived for sixteen years. This cabin is the oldest standing structure in Whitman County. The house is open for tours from May to September, on Thursdays and Saturdays. The house is now home of the Colfax Chamber of Commerce and Colfax Downtown Association and is open from 8 AM to 5 PM Monday thru Friday and Saturdays. For more information, [[explorecolfax.com]]
* '''Schmuck Park''' This park is the most utilized park in the City. It lies at the intersection of Sixth and Morton Street. The park consists of a skate park, swimming pool, baseball diamond, track, and picnic facilities.
* '''Colfax Golf Course and Country Club''' is a nine-hole course beside the river on North Palouse River Road.
* '''McDonald Park''', located immediately north of the golf course, consists of playing fields surrounded by a paved walking/jogging path. Regional baseball and softball tournaments are hosted here.
* '''The Colfax Trail''' is a three-mile (5 km) path converted from a disused railway line. It begins at a gravel quarry off Highway 26, just beyond the town's western limit, and follows the [[Palouse River]] westward, traversing cow pastures, pine woods, [[wetlands]], and [[basalt]] cliffs.
° In 1932 George Barns, AKA [[Machine Gun Kelly]], robbed the First Savings & Trust Bank at 102 N Main Street of $77,000 ($1,319,572.04 in 2014). This was the first time in its history it was robbed. Barns was later apprehended by the FBI (coining the term "G-man" during his arrest) and sent to Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary in San Francisco Bay.

===Public services, businesses, and churches===
Among the town's other amenities are Leonard Jennings Elementary School, Colfax High School, Whitman Community Hospital, multiple retirement facilities (Hill-Ray Plaza, Whitman Nursing Home, and The Courtyard), Paul's Place Assisted Living, eleven city parks, a skateboard park, a swimming pool and a [http://www.whitco.lib.wa.us public library] that was recently named among the best in Washington State. As the county seat, Colfax is also home to the Whitman County Courthouse and the Whitman County Jail. The local government consists of a seven-member [[City Council]] and a mayor (currently G. Todd Vanek, in his second term).

There is a small assortment of businesses, including building and farm supply stores, a medium-sized grocery ([[Rosauers]]), a pharmacy, two hotels (Best Western and Siesta Motel), a Bed & Breakfast guesthouse, a fitness center, a florist, a coffee stall, four gift shops, a pawn shop, and ten restaurants. Local service-based businesses include lawyers, dentists, auto mechanics, banks, and retirement homes.

[http://www.switchboard.com Switchboard.com] lists nine churches in Colfax, including one [[Catholic Church]], Peace Lutheran Church, one congregation of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (aka LDS or Mormon), and various [[Protestant]] and non-denominational churches including, ''Colfax Assembly ([[Assemblies of God]])'', ''Colfax Nazarene Church'', ''First Baptist Church'', ''[[United Methodist Church]]'', and ''The Community Bible Church''.

A weekly newspaper called [http://www.wcgazette.com Whitman County Gazette] is published in Colfax. In addition, there is a daily newspaper called "The Daily Bulletin" which consists of a one-page paper with daily news and advertisements that is published in Colfax. Moscow-Pullman Daily News also carries quite a bit of local news.

===Annual Colfax events===
[[File:ThreshingbeeColfaxWA.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Old-fashioned threshing techniques are demonstrated at the annual threshing bee]]
* '''Palouse Plowing Bee''' and '''Palouse Empire Threshing Bee'''− held respectively on the third weekend in April and the first weekend after [[Labor Day]]. Farmers demonstrate traditional plowing and harvesting methods in a {{convert|15|acre|m2|adj=on}} field {{convert|5|mi|abbr=on}} west of town.
* '''Perkins House Ice Cream Social''' − Held on the last Sunday in June on the lawn of the Perkins House; ice cream, pie, live [[Dixieland]] music, displays, and free house tours.
* '''Concrete River Days''' − A summer festival held on the second weekend in July, with a parade, sidewalk sales, and many outdoor activities; so named because the Palouse riverbed in downtown Colfax has been lined with concrete for the sake of flood control, and the water descends into a narrow central channel during the dry season. The website is www.concreteriverfestival.com
* '''Palouse Empire Fair''' − Held in early September {{convert|5|mi|abbr=on}} west of town; a midway, a rodeo, live music, and barns full of livestock and handicrafts.
* '''Winter Festival'''− a night parade held in downtown Colfax, Main Street, on the first Thursday in December. Festive floats, free candy, special programs at the public library, and Santa Claus.

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|1880= 444
|1890= 1649
|1900= 2121
|1910= 2783
|1920= 3027
|1930= 2782
|1940= 2853
|1950= 3057
|1960= 2860
|1970= 2664
|1980= 2780
|1990= 2713
|2000= 2844
|2010= 2805
|estyear=2015
|estimate=2870
|estref=<ref name="USCensusEst2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2015/SUB-EST2015.html|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015|accessdate=July 2, 2016}}</ref>
|footnote=Sources:<ref>Moffatt, Riley. ''Population History of Western U.S. Cities & Towns, 1850-1990''. [[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]]: Scarecrow, 1996, 317.</ref><center>U.S. Decennial Census<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html |title=Census of Population and Housing |author=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=September 4, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6YSasqtfX?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fprod%2Fwww%2Fdecennial.html |archivedate=May 11, 2015 |df= }}</ref> 2015 Estimate<ref name="2015 Pop Estimate"/></center>
}}

The population has hovered near 3,000 since 1910.<ref>Erickson, Edith E. ''Colfax 100 Plus'', 1981, p. 64 (privately printed)</ref>

===2010 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name ="FactFinder">{{cite web|title=American FactFinder|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2012-12-19}}</ref> of 2010, there were 2,805 people, 1,236 households, and 718 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was {{convert|740.1|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. There were 1,405 housing units at an average density of {{convert|370.7|/sqmi|/km2|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95.6% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.5% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.4% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.5% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.1% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.5% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.4% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 2.8% of the population.

There were 2,236 households of which 27.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.4% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.9% were non-families. 37.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.89.

The median age in the city was 42.7 years. 22.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.7% were from 45 to 64; and 21.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.7% male and 50.3% female.

===2000 census===
As of the 2000 census, there were 2,844 people, 1,191 households, and 740 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,705.6 people per square mile (657.5/km²). There were 1,357 housing units at an average density of 813.8 per square mile (313.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 94.16% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.25% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.84% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.07% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.60% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 2.07% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 1.48% of the population.

There were 1,191 households out of which 27.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.6% were married couples living together, 6.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.8% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.90.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 23.5% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 22.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years, well above the national average of 35.3—possibly due to the presence of several retirement communities. For every 100 females there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $36,622, and the median income for a family was $47,589. Males had a median income of $32,188 versus $26,349 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $18,519. About 6.1% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* City of Colfax, Washington (www.colfaxwa.org)
* Explore Colfax - Chamber/Downtown Association (www.explorecolfax.com)
* [http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=9580 History of Colfax] at [[HistoryLink]]
*{{dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Washington/Localities/C/Colfax}}

{{Whitman County, Washington}}

[[Category:Cities in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Cities in Whitman County, Washington]]
[[Category:County seats in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1873]]
[[Category:1873 establishments in Washington Territory]]

Colfax (Washington)

2017-03-20T21:13:02Z

Textorus: /* Annual Colfax events */ diction

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Colfax
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|image_skyline = ColfaxWA1.jpg
|imagesize = 300px
|image_caption = Colfax, looking southeast
|image_flag =
|image_seal =


|nickname =
|motto =


|image_map = Whitman_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Colfax_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location of Colfax, Washington
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =


|coordinates = {{coord|46|53|N|117|22|W|region:US_type:city|display=inline,title}}
|subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Washington|County]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Whitman County, Washington|Whitman]]


|established_title =
|established_date =


|government_footnotes =
|government_type = Strong Mayor
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_name = G Todd Vanek
|leader_title1 = City Administrator
|leader_name1 = Vacant
|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes = <ref name ="Gazetteer files"/>
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 9.82
|area_total_sq_mi = 3.79
|area_land_km2 = 9.82
|area_land_sq_mi = 3.79
|area_water_km2 = 0
|area_water_sq_mi = 0


|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m = 601
|elevation_ft = 1972
|population_total = 2805
|population_as_of = [[2010 United States Census|2010]]
|population_footnotes = <ref name ="FactFinder"/>
|population_density_km2 = 285.8
|population_density_sq_mi = 740.1


|population_est = 2870
|pop_est_as_of = 2015
|pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="2015 Pop Estimate">{{cite web|title=Population Estimates|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2015/SUB-EST2015-3.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=July 9, 2016}}</ref>
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 99111
|area_code = [[Area code 509|509]]
|area_code_type = [[North American Numbering Plan|Area code]]
| unemployment_rate =
|website = http://www.colfaxwa.org/
|footnotes =
|timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific (PST)]]
|utc_offset = -8
|timezone_DST = PDT
|utc_offset_DST = -7
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 53-13785
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1533329<ref name="GR3">{{cite web|url=http://geonames.usgs.gov|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=US Board on Geographic Names|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|date=2007-10-25}}</ref>
| Mayor = G. Todd Vanek
}}

'''Colfax''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Whitman County, Washington|Whitman County]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[United States]].<ref name="GR6">{{cite web|url=http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx |accessdate=2011-06-07 |title=Find a County |publisher=National Association of Counties |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531210815/http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx |archivedate=2011-05-31 |df= }}</ref>
The population was 2,805 at the [[2010 United States Census|2010 census]]. The population is estimated at 2,826 per the State of Washington Office of Financial Management in 2015 making Colfax the second largest city in Whitman County behind Pullman. It is situated amidst wheat-covered hills in a valley at the confluence of the north and south forks of the [[Palouse River]]. [[U.S. Route 195#Washington|U.S. Route 195]], which forms the town's main street, intersects with [[Washington State Route 26|State Route 26]] at the north end of town; in the past, Colfax also lay at the junction of three major railway lines. It was named after [[Schuyler Colfax]], the [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]] from 1869-73.

==History==
[[Palus (tribe)|Palouse Indians]] were the first known human inhabitants of the Colfax area. White settlers arrived in the summer of 1870, and soon built a sawmill. A flour mill and other businesses followed, and Colfax soon grew into a prosperous town. Originally, pioneer citizen James Perkin called the settlement "Belleville" in honor of his girlfriend; when he found a new love, he changed the town's name to Colfax<ref>LaFollette, Taber, ''The History of Colfax'', Colfax History Committee, 1956, p. 8.</ref> for then-Vice President [[Schuyler Colfax]].<ref name=majors>{{Cite book| last = Majors | first = Harry M. | title = Exploring Washington | publisher = Van Winkle Publishing Co | year = 1975 | page = 143 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoWrPQAACAAJ| isbn = 978-0-918664-00-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Meany|first=Edmond S.|title=Origin of Washington geographic names|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027074981;view=1up;seq=68|year=1923|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|page=52}}</ref>

Colfax was officially incorporated on November 29, 1873. In 1889–90, the town vied with several other finalists to become the site of a new state agricultural college, present-day [[Washington State University]]. The honor ultimately fell to nearby [[Pullman, Washington|Pullman]], {{convert|15|mi}} southeast.

The early history of Colfax was distinguished by prominent lynchings in 1894 and 1898.<ref name=majors/>

Until passed by Pullman at the [[1930 United States Census|1930 census]], Colfax was the largest city in the county.

==Notable people==
{{div col}}
* [[Dinsmore Alter]], astronomer and meteorologist
* [[Ida Lou Anderson]], radio pioneer, professor
* [[Roland Bainton]], professor of ecclesiastical history, Reformation scholar
* [[Willard Bond]], painter
* [[Yakima Canutt]], rodeo champion and Hollywood stuntman
* [[John Crawford (actor)|John Crawford]], born Cleve A. Richardson, Hollywood actor
* [[Timothy Ely]], contemporary artist
* [[William La Follette]], politician, [[United States Congress|congressman]] from Washington
* [[Abe Goff]], politician, Republican [[United States Congress|congressman]] from Idaho
* [[John Kitzhaber]], twice-[[Governor of Oregon]] (1995–2003; 2011–2015)
* [[Morten Lauridsen]], composer of classical music
* [[Virgil T. McCroskey]], 1876–1970, an amateur conservationist who created two state parks: [[Steptoe Butte]] state park in Washington and [[Mary Minerva McCroskey State Park]] in Idaho. A pharmacist until 1920, McCroskey owned the Elk Drugstore on Main Street, the facade of which still bears his name.
* [[Robert Osborne]], Hollywood historian and journalist, prime-time host of [[Turner Classic Movies]]. As a teenager, he worked at ''The Rose'', a long-defunct movie theater in downtown Colfax, and broke both arms while putting [[Elizabeth Taylor]]'s name on the marquee.<ref>Waugh, Lisa. "Oscar expert held court with Hollywood's elite", ''CNN Interactive'', March 20, 1998 ([http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1998/showbiz/oscars/news/oscars.osbourne/ Full Text)]</ref>
* [[Mimi LaFollette Summerskill]], author, educator, political activist and vintner
* [[Jay H. Upton]], Oregon lawyer and politician
{{div col end}}

==Geography and climate==
Colfax is located in southeastern Washington at {{coord|46|53|3|N|117|21|49|W|type:city}} (46.884033, -117.363668),<ref name="GR1">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/gazette.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2011-04-23|date=2011-02-12|title=US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990}}</ref> at an elevation of {{convert|1962|ft|m}}. The nearest cities are [[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]], [[Pullman, Washington|Pullman]], [[Moscow, Idaho|Moscow]], and [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]]/[[Clarkston, Washington|Clarkston]]. The area is geologically interesting, lying in the midst of the fertile [[Palouse|Palouse country]] in the middle of the [[Columbia River Plateau]], with the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the east, the [[Channeled Scablands]] to the west, and the [[Snake River]] to the south.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of {{convert|3.79|sqmi|sqkm|2}}, all of it land.<ref name="Gazetteer files">{{cite web|title=US Gazetteer files 2010 |url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=2012-12-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/68hmXDfkx?url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |archivedate=2012-06-26 |df= }}</ref>
The Palouse River, confined for flood control to a concrete bed that reduces it to an eighteen-inch-wide stream during the dry season, runs through the middle of town, parallel to Main Street.

Colfax has a four-season [[Humid continental climate|continental climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Dsb''), with hot, dry summers, cold winters, and a rainy season that generally runs from autumn til spring. The annual rainfall averages less than {{convert|20|in|mm}} a year. This climate, together with the deep, rich palouse topsoil, makes for near-ideal wheat growing conditions.
{{Weather box
|single line= yes
|location= Colfax, Washington (1971–2000)
|Jan record high F = 63
|Feb record high F = 67
|Mar record high F = 78
|Apr record high F = 93
|May record high F = 98
|Jun record high F = 102
|Jul record high F = 110
|Aug record high F = 108
|Sep record high F = 103
|Oct record high F = 95
|Nov record high F = 75
|Dec record high F = 65
|year record high F=
|Jan high F= 37.4
|Feb high F= 43.5
|Mar high F= 51.2
|Apr high F= 58.9
|May high F= 66.8
|Jun high F= 73.9
|Jul high F= 82.7
|Aug high F= 83.3
|Sep high F= 74.6
|Oct high F= 62.0
|Nov high F= 45.6
|Dec high F= 37.6
|Jan mean F= 30.9
|Feb mean F= 35.3
|Mar mean F= 41.0
|Apr mean F= 47.3
|May mean F= 54.1
|Jun mean F= 60.5
|Jul mean F= 66.6
|Aug mean F= 66.4
|Sep mean F= 58.2
|Oct mean F= 47.7
|Nov mean F= 37.8
|Dec mean F= 31.3
|Jan low F= 24.3
|Feb low F= 27.0
|Mar low F= 30.8
|Apr low F= 35.7
|May low F= 41.3
|Jun low F= 47.0
|Jul low F= 50.4
|Aug low F= 49.4
|Sep low F= 41.7
|Oct low F= 33.3
|Nov low F= 29.9
|Dec low F= 24.9
|Jan record low F = -32
|Feb record low F = -23
|Mar record low F = -5
|Apr record low F = 10
|May record low F = 16
|Jun record low F = 23
|Jul record low F = 24
|Aug record low F = 24
|Sep record low F = 19
|Oct record low F = -1
|Nov record low F = -11
|Dec record low F = -33
|year record low F=
|Jan precipitation inch= 2.33
|Feb precipitation inch= 1.94
|Mar precipitation inch= 2.02
|Apr precipitation inch= 1.73
|May precipitation inch= 1.80
|Jun precipitation inch= 1.37
|Jul precipitation inch= 0.72
|Aug precipitation inch= 0.72
|Sep precipitation inch= 0.73
|Oct precipitation inch= 1.20
|Nov precipitation inch= 2.55
|Dec precipitation inch= 2.93
|source 1= NOAA (normals, 1971–2000) <ref name= NCDC >{{Cite web |url=http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov/climatenormals/clim81/WAnorm.pdf |title=Climatography of the United States NO.81 |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |accessdate=January 11, 2011 }}</ref>
|date=April 2011}}

==Community resources==
[[File:CodgerPoleColfaxWA.jpg|thumb|The Codger Pole]]

===Tourist attractions===
* '''The Codger Pole''' is a chainsaw-carved monument by master carver Jonathan LaBenne. It is located on Main Street and commemorates a 1988 rematch, 50 years after the original 1938 game, between archrival football teams from [[Colfax High School (Washington)|Colfax High School]] and [[St. John, Washington|St. John.]] At {{convert|65|ft|m}} tall, it is the largest sculpture of its type in the world, and consists of portraits, carved into five upended red cedar logs, of the 51 players involved. The players are shown in old age but are wearing the football uniforms of the thirties. The Codger Pole was recently renovated as of May 2016. It is located at the intersection of Main and Rock Streets.
* '''Downtown Colfax''' Downtown Colfax is a National Register Historic District consisting of a rich collection of historic architecture ranging from the 1890s to the 1930s. The Downtown District boundaries are Upton Street to the north, Stevens Street to the south, Mill Street to the east, and the Palouse River to the west.
* '''Former St. Ignatius Hospital''' The Former St. Ignatius Hospital (1009 S. Mill Street) which dates from 1892 is perched on the south hill at the very south end of Mill Street.This location served as a hospital for central and northern Whitman County from 1892 to 1968. When the hospital was relocated up the hill a nursing facility wsa located on the lower floors from 1968 to 2002. The property has been abandoned since 2002 after a water main broke on the upper floors in winter. The Colfax Chamber of Commerce and Downtown Association held ghost tours at the facility during October and December 2015. The site is currently closed to the public and owned by Anthony Girges.
* '''The Perkins House''', on Perkins Avenue, is a meticulously restored Victorian home built in 1886. The original owner was James Perkins, a leading pioneer citizen. The Perkins family occupied the home until 1968, by which time it was sadly dilapidated and slated for demolition. In 1970, the Whitman County Historical Society assumed ownership and began restoring the house, which is now listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. Behind the house is a [[log cabin]], built in 1870, where Perkins lived for sixteen years. This cabin is the oldest standing structure in Whitman County. The house is open for tours from May to September, on Thursdays and Saturdays. The house is now home of the Colfax Chamber of Commerce and Colfax Downtown Association and is open from 8 AM to 5 PM Monday thru Friday and Saturdays. For more information, [[explorecolfax.com]]
* '''Schmuck Park''' This park is the most utilized park in the City. It lies at the intersection of Sixth and Morton Street. The park consists of a skate park, swimming pool, baseball diamond, track, and picnic facilities.
* '''Colfax Golf Course and Country Club''' is a nine-hole course beside the river on North Palouse River Road.
* '''McDonald Park''', located immediately north of the golf course, consists of playing fields surrounded by a paved walking/jogging path. Regional baseball and softball tournaments are hosted here.
* '''The Colfax Trail''' is a three-mile (5 km) path converted from a disused railway line. It begins at a gravel quarry off Highway 26, just beyond the town's western limit, and follows the [[Palouse River]] westward, traversing cow pastures, pine woods, [[wetlands]], and [[basalt]] cliffs.
° In 1932 George Barns, AKA [[Machine Gun Kelly]], robbed the First Savings & Trust Bank at 102 N Main Street of $77,000 ($1,319,572.04 in 2014). This was the first time in its history it was robbed. Barns was later apprehended by the FBI (coining the term "G-man" during his arrest) and sent to Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary in San Francisco Bay.

===Public services, businesses, and churches===
Among the town's other amenities are Leonard Jennings Elementary School, Colfax High School, Whitman Community Hospital, multiple retirement facilities (Hill-Ray Plaza, Whitman Nursing Home, and The Courtyard), Paul's Place Assisted Living, eleven city parks, a skateboard park, a swimming pool and a [http://www.whitco.lib.wa.us public library] that was recently named among the best in Washington State. As the county seat, Colfax is also home to the Whitman County Courthouse and the Whitman County Jail. The local government consists of a seven-member [[City Council]] and a mayor (currently G. Todd Vanek, in his second term).

There is a small assortment of businesses, including building and farm supply stores, a medium-sized grocery ([[Rosauers]]), a pharmacy, two hotels (Best Western and Siesta Motel), a Bed & Breakfast guesthouse, a fitness center, a florist, a coffee stall, four gift shops, a pawn shop, and ten restaurants. Local service-based businesses include lawyers, dentists, auto mechanics, banks, and retirement homes.

[http://www.switchboard.com Switchboard.com] lists nine churches in Colfax, including one [[Catholic Church]], Peace Lutheran Church, one congregation of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (aka LDS or Mormon), and various [[Protestant]] and non-denominational churches including, ''Colfax Assembly ([[Assemblies of God]])'', ''Colfax Nazarene Church'', ''First Baptist Church'', ''[[United Methodist Church]]'', and ''The Community Bible Church''.

A weekly newspaper called [http://www.wcgazette.com Whitman County Gazette] is published in Colfax. In addition, there is a daily newspaper called "The Daily Bulletin" which consists of a one-page paper with daily news and advertisements that is published in Colfax. Moscow-Pullman Daily News also carries quite a bit of local news.

===Annual Colfax events===
[[File:ThreshingbeeColfaxWA.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Old-fashioned threshing techniques are demonstrated at the annual threshing bee]]
* '''Palouse Plowing Bee''' and '''Palouse Empire Threshing Bee'''− held respectively on the third weekend in April and the first weekend after [[Labor Day]]. Farmers demonstrate traditional plowing and harvesting methods in a {{convert|15|acre|m2|adj=on}} field {{convert|5|mi|abbr=on}} west of town.
* '''Perkins House Ice Cream Social''' − Held on the last Sunday in June on the lawn of the Perkins House; ice cream, pie, live [[Dixieland]] music, displays, and free house tours.
* '''Concrete River Days''' − A summer festival held on the second weekend in July, with a parade, sidewalk sales, and many outdoor activities; so named because the Palouse riverbed in downtown Colfax has been lined with concrete for the sake of flood control, and the water descends into a narrow central channel during the dry season. The website is www.concreteriverfestival.com
* '''Palouse Empire Fair''' − Held in early September {{convert|5|mi|abbr=on}} west of town; a midway, a rodeo, live music, and barns full of livestock and handicrafts.
* '''Winter Festival'''− a night parade held in downtown Colfax, Main Street, on the first Thursday in December. Festive floats, free candy, special programs at the public library, and Santa Claus.

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|1880= 444
|1890= 1649
|1900= 2121
|1910= 2783
|1920= 3027
|1930= 2782
|1940= 2853
|1950= 3057
|1960= 2860
|1970= 2664
|1980= 2780
|1990= 2713
|2000= 2844
|2010= 2805
|estyear=2015
|estimate=2870
|estref=<ref name="USCensusEst2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2015/SUB-EST2015.html|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015|accessdate=July 2, 2016}}</ref>
|footnote=Sources:<ref>Moffatt, Riley. ''Population History of Western U.S. Cities & Towns, 1850-1990''. [[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]]: Scarecrow, 1996, 317.</ref><center>U.S. Decennial Census<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html |title=Census of Population and Housing |author=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=September 4, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6YSasqtfX?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fprod%2Fwww%2Fdecennial.html |archivedate=May 11, 2015 |df= }}</ref> 2015 Estimate<ref name="2015 Pop Estimate"/></center>
}}

The population has hovered near 3,000 since 1910.<ref>Erickson, Edith E. ''Colfax 100 Plus'', 1981, p. 64 (privately printed)</ref>

===2010 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name ="FactFinder">{{cite web|title=American FactFinder|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2012-12-19}}</ref> of 2010, there were 2,805 people, 1,236 households, and 718 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was {{convert|740.1|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. There were 1,405 housing units at an average density of {{convert|370.7|/sqmi|/km2|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95.6% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.5% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.4% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.5% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.1% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.5% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.4% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 2.8% of the population.

There were 2,236 households of which 27.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.4% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.9% were non-families. 37.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.89.

The median age in the city was 42.7 years. 22.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.7% were from 45 to 64; and 21.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.7% male and 50.3% female.

===2000 census===
As of the 2000 census, there were 2,844 people, 1,191 households, and 740 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,705.6 people per square mile (657.5/km²). There were 1,357 housing units at an average density of 813.8 per square mile (313.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 94.16% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.25% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.84% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.07% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.60% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 2.07% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 1.48% of the population.

There were 1,191 households out of which 27.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.6% were married couples living together, 6.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.8% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.90.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 23.5% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 22.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years, well above the national average of 35.3—possibly due to the presence of several retirement communities. For every 100 females there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $36,622, and the median income for a family was $47,589. Males had a median income of $32,188 versus $26,349 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $18,519. About 6.1% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* City of Colfax, Washington (www.colfaxwa.org)
* Explore Colfax - Chamber/Downtown Association (www.explorecolfax.com)
* [http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=9580 History of Colfax] at [[HistoryLink]]
*{{dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Washington/Localities/C/Colfax}}

{{Whitman County, Washington}}

[[Category:Cities in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Cities in Whitman County, Washington]]
[[Category:County seats in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1873]]
[[Category:1873 establishments in Washington Territory]]

The Fontane Sisters

2017-01-04T17:42:54Z

Textorus: Per WP:BURDEN, delete irrelevant and unsourced claim

{{Infobox musical artist 
| name = The Fontane Sisters
| image = The Fontane Sisters.jpg
| caption = The Fontane Sisters Geri (left), Marge (center), Bea (right)|
image_size = 
| background = group_or_band
| alias =
| origin = [[New Milford, New Jersey|New Milford]], [[New Jersey]], United States
| instrument =
| genre =
| occupation =
| years_active = 1941–1961
| label =
| associated_acts =The Ross Trio
| website =
| current_members =
| past_members = Bea Rosse –born December 12, 1915<ref name=Bea/> Marge Rosse – born October 19, 1917 Geri Rosse - born October 15, 1921<ref name=Geri/> Frank Rosse
| notable_instruments =
}}


'''The Fontane Sisters''' were a [[Trio (music)|trio]] ('''Bea, Geri and Marge Rosse''') from [[New Milford, New Jersey|New Milford]], [[New Jersey]].<ref name="Supper Club">{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=8mEvAAAAIBAJ&sjid=49wFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4280,2872001&dq=perry+como&hl=en|title=Two Gypsy Folk Tales|date=8 August 1949|publisher=Ottawa Citizen|accessdate=24 June 2010}}</ref>

==Early years==
Their mother, Louise Rosse, was both a soloist and the leader of the St. Joseph's Church choir in New Milford.<ref name=Billboard/> Bea and Marge started out singing for local functions, doing so well, they were urged to audition in New York City. Originally they performed as a trio with their [[guitar]]ist brother Frank, under the name the Ross Trio (Rosse with the "e" omitted).<ref name=History>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=lBxgAAAAIBAJ&sjid=DW4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=2644,4116763&dq=fontaine+sisters&hl=en|title=Fontane Sisters' Mother Still Keeps Busy|date=27 June 1975|author=Werley, Judy|publisher=The Evening News|accessdate=11 January 2011}}</ref> The group auditioned for [[NBC]] and was soon sent off to work in [[Cleveland]].<ref name="Fontane">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=pb9FAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mb0MAAAAIBAJ&pg=1145,5918721&dq=perry+como&hl=en|title=Fontane Sisters Spend Yule with Parents in Cornwall|date=26 December 1951|publisher=The Newburgh News|accessdate=3 November 2010}}</ref> When they returned to New York in 1944, Frank was drafted into the Army; he was killed in action in [[World War II]].<ref name=sunday>{{cite news|url=http://i.ebayimg.com/00/s/MTYwMFgxMTAw/z/jzgAAOSwrklU22Is/$_57.JPG?rt=nc |title=They Have Hair Harmony, Too. |author=Okon, May |date=20 February 1955 |publisher=New York Sunday News |page=7 |accessdate=4 April 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404034902/http://i.ebayimg.com/00/s/MTYwMFgxMTAw/z/jzgAAOSwrklU22Is/$_57.JPG?rt=nc |archivedate=April 4, 2015 }}</ref> Geri, who had just finished school, took her brother's place, making it an all-girl trio.<ref name=Billboard>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KSMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=fontane+sisters+intitle:billboard&hl=en&ei=uOYrTaqMA82nnAeNxcDfDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=fontane%20sisters%20intitle%3Abillboard&f=false|title=Biographies of Dot Artists-The Fontane Sisters|date=9 March 1954|publisher=Billboard|accessdate=10 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="Fontane"/>

The sisters first recorded together as The Three Sisters. Sheet music was published in the late 1940s/early 50s with at least two of their songs with a full photograph of the three: "I'm Gonna See My Baby," and "Pretty Kitty Blue Eyes."

==Success==
The now all-female group chose the name of Fontaine from a great-grandmother; they decided to drop the "i", making themselves the Fontane Sisters.<ref name=History/> The sisters worked on sustaining (non-sponsored) programs for NBC, meeting and working with Perry Como soon after he came to the network. Word reached the sisters, then in [[Chicago]] for NBC, that "Supper Club" would be making cast changes; they were eager for a chance to join Como's show, which also meant being closer to their home.<ref name="Fontane"/> Beginning in the summer of 1948, they were featured on his [[radio]] show and [[television]] show known as ''The [[Chesterfield Supper Club]]'' and later (1950–1954) as ''The Perry Como Show''.<ref name = "Bio">{{Citation | editor-last = Macfarlane | editor-first = Malcolm | title = Perry Como: A Biography and Complete Career Record | year = 2009 | pages = 310 | publisher = McFarland | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iymN4zko8JkC&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=perry+como+sands+point&source=bl&ots=jS2EmKP72m&sig=kn-5GRUFqADRo4Kxm1vsvffZaTo&hl=en&ei=tkrWS4fpBoTcM7DQyc8D&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CBgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=perry%20como%20sands%20point&f=false | isbn = 0-7864-3701-4 | accessdate = 2010-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Networks Budget Millions For 'Rainbow' TV Shows|author=Slifka, Adrian M.|date=14 August 1954|publisher=Youngstown Vindicator|accessdate=24 October 2010|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=13E_AAAAIBAJ&sjid=41QMAAAAIBAJ&pg=5894,3744973&dq=perry+como&hl=en}}</ref> The trio also did appearances on ''Chesterfield Sound Off Time'' when the program originated from New York; however, the television show lasted only one season.<ref name="Fontane"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0043233/|title=Chesterfield Sound Off Time|publisher=Internet Movie Database|accessdate=3 November 2010}}</ref>
The street Fontane Dr in Cornwall, NY was named after the Fontane sisters.{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}}

In 1949 they were signed by [[RCA Victor]], and appeared on several recordings as backup to Como.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBcEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT15&dq=fontane+sisters+intitle:billboard&hl=en&ei=xPErTZbYA4qOnweS1KXbDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CDYQ6AEwBTha#v=onepage&q=fontane%20sisters%20intitle%3Abillboard&f=false|title=Recorders Snare Wax Talent|date=22 January 1949|publisher=Billboard|accessdate=11 January 2011}}</ref> In 1951 they had a minor hit with "[[The Tennessee Waltz]]", of which bigger selling recordings were made by [[Patti Page]] and [[Les Paul and Mary Ford]].

In 1954 they switched to Randy Wood's [[Dot Records]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rh8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA17&dq=fontane+sisters+dot+intitle:billboard&hl=en&ei=pPIrTbq3OMmmnAemhOjPDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=fontane%20sisters%20dot%20intitle%3Abillboard&f=false|title=Dot Inks Term Pact With Fontane Sisters|date=17 April 1954|publisher=Billboard|accessdate=11 January 2011}}</ref> where they had 18 songs reaching the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' pop charts, including ten in the [[Top 40]]. Their late 1954 [[sound recording and reproduction|recording]], "[[Hearts of Stone]]", sold over one million copies, and was awarded a [[music recording sales certification|gold disc]].<ref name="The Book of Golden Discs">{{cite book
| first= Joseph
| last= Murrells
| year= 1978
| title= The Book of Golden Discs
| edition= 2nd
| publisher= Barrie and Jenkins Ltd
| location= London
| page= 68
| isbn= 0-214-20512-6}}</ref>

==Retirement==
The Fontane Sisters retired from [[show business]] around 1961, when youngest sister Geri was expecting her daughter.<ref name=Update>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=fh1gAAAAIBAJ&sjid=R24NAAAAIBAJ&pg=4154,3842124&dq=fontane+sisters&hl=en|title=Where Are The Fontane Sisters Now?|author=Schiff, Martha|date=23 January 1977|publisher=The Evening News|accessdate=10 January 2011}}</ref> The daughter was named after Geri, and as an adult she went by the name 'Geri Fontane Latchford' — 'Latchford' coming from her father's name, Al(bert) Latchford.<ref name=History/> Geri and Al had one daughter; neither Bea nor Marge had any children.<ref name=Billboard/><ref name="Fontane"/><ref name=Update/> Marge Fontane felt that the trio did not want to continue the grind of tours and mixing with the newer members of the music scene. The sisters agreed that they did not want to be part of the evolving [[rock and roll]] scene, and wanted private lives. Geri married Al Latchford, a history professor.<ref name=sunday/> Marge was married to Franklin Hobbs, who became a long-time on air personality at [[WCCO (AM)|WCCO]] in [[Minneapolis-St. Paul]]. They met while the sisters were still working in Chicago for NBC.<ref name=Billboard/><ref name="Fontane"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pavekmuseum.org/hobbs.html|title=Franklin Hobbs|publisher=Minneapolis-St. Paul Museum of Broadcasting|accessdate=10 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://docs.newsbank.com/g/GooglePM/MN/lib00173,0EFD665E85914FE5.html|title=Voice of all-night radio legend Franklin Hobbs falls still|date=20 October 1995|publisher=Star-Tribune|accessdate=10 January 2011}} "Hobbs married Marge Fontane, one of the three Fontane sisters who performed on radio and TV." (pay-per-view)</ref> She remarried and became Marge Smith, the wife of an advertising executive. Only Marge left the area, relocating to Florida with her second husband.<ref name=Update/> Bea became Mrs. E. Holmes Douglass in 1964.<ref name=Update/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=l7pGAAAAIBAJ&sjid=-zMNAAAAIBAJ&pg=659,96746&dq=fontane+sisters&hl=en|title=Attendants For Fontane Bridal Named|date=1 April 1964|publisher=The Evening News|accessdate=10 January 2011}}</ref>

In 1963, Dot Records did release one last album, ''Tips of my Fingers'', and single ("Tips of My Fingers" / "Summertime Love") by The Fontane Sisters. But these recordings did not mark a return to performing for the trio, who remained retired despite having agreed to make the recordings for Dot.

==Deaths==
For the next 40 years, The Fontane Sisters remained mostly out of the public's eye. In 2004 an article in the ''[[New York Daily News]]'' reported that Geri Fontane Latchford had received [[royalties]] due to her mother and two aunts. It was revealed in this same article that all three of The Fontane Sisters had died: Geri, on September 13, 1993;<ref name=Geri>{{cite web|url=http://otrrpedia.net/getpersonF.php?PN=2216|title=Geri Fontane|publisher=OTRRpedia|accessdate=6 April 2011}}</ref> Bea, on March 25, 2002;<ref name=Bea>{{cite web|url=http://otrrpedia.net/getpersonF.php?PN=2215|title=Bea Fontane|publisher=OTRRpedia|accessdate=6 April 2011}}</ref> and Marge, on December 3, 2003.<ref name="Daily News">{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/music-heirs-long-lost-royalties-delivered-article-1.614279|title=MUSIC TO THEIR HEIRS Long-lost royalties delivered|date=13 May 2004|author=Peterson, Helen|publisher=New York Daily News|accessdate=2 July 2010}}</ref>
In 2001, [[RCA Victor]] released a compilation of recordings made by the Fontane Sisters and Perry Como, "Perry Como With The Fontane Sisters", containing many of the songs featured on the Como radio and television shows.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.answers.com/topic/perry-como-with-the-fontane-sisters|title=Perry Como With The Fontane Sisters|date= 8 July 2001|publisher=RCA Victor|accessdate=2 July 2010}}</ref>

==Hit Records==
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center;" align="left" width="400"
|-
! rowspan="2"| Year
! rowspan="2"| Single
! colspan="1"|Chart positions
|-
! width="35"|[[Billboard Hot 100|U.S.]]
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1949
| align="left"| "N'yot N'yow" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kokomo.ca/early_years/nyot_nyow__the_pussycat_song_.htm |title=N'yot N'yow |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307175331/http://kokomo.ca/early_years/nyot_nyow__the_pussycat_song_.htm |archivedate=March 7, 2012 }}</ref>
| 20
|-
| align="left"| "A You're Adorable" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/a_youre_adorable.htm |title=A You're Adorable |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402140809/http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/a_youre_adorable.htm |archivedate=April 2, 2012 }}</ref>
| 1
|-
| align="left"| "A Dreamer's Holiday" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kokomo.ca/early_years/a_dreamers_holiday.htm |title=A Dreamer's Holiday |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225102223/http://kokomo.ca/early_years/a_dreamers_holiday.htm |archivedate=February 25, 2012 }}</ref>
| 3
|-
| align="left"| "I Wanna Go Home" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/i_wanna_go_home_with_you.htm |title=I Wanna Go Home |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609173617/http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/i_wanna_go_home_with_you.htm |archivedate=June 9, 2012 }}</ref>
| 18
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1950
| align="left"| "Bibbidi Bobbidi Boo" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kokomo.ca/early_years/bibbidi_bobbidi_boo.htm |title=Bibbidi Bobbidi Boo |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225102137/http://kokomo.ca/early_years/bibbidi_bobbidi_boo.htm |archivedate=February 25, 2012 }}</ref>
| 14
|-
| align="left"| "Hoop Dee Doo" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kokomo.ca/early_years/hoopdeedoo.htm |title=Hoop Dee Doo |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308071708/http://kokomo.ca/early_years/hoopdeedoo.htm |archivedate=March 8, 2012 }}</ref>
| 1
|-
| align="left"| "I Cross My Fingers" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/i_cross_my_fingers.htm |title=I Cross My Fingers |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612022516/http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/i_cross_my_fingers.htm |archivedate=June 12, 2011 }}</ref>
| 25
|-
| align="left"| "You're Just In Love" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/youre_just_in_love.htm |title=You're Just In Love |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614074220/http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/youre_just_in_love.htm |archivedate=June 14, 2012 }}</ref>
| 5
|-
| rowspan="6"| 1951
| align="left"| "Tennessee Waltz"
| 20
|-
| align="left"| "Let Me In"
| 24
|-
| align="left"| "There's No Boat Like A Rowboat" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/theres_no_boat_like_a_rowboat.htm |title=There's No Boat Like a Rowboat |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925205406/http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/theres_no_boat_like_a_rowboat.htm |archivedate=September 25, 2012 }}</ref>
| 20
|-
| align="left"| "Castle Rock"
| 27
|-
| align="left"| "Rollin' Stone" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kokomo.ca/early_years/rollin_stone.htm |title=Rollin' Stone |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308072818/http://kokomo.ca/early_years/rollin_stone.htm |archivedate=March 8, 2012 }}</ref>
| 24
|-
| align="left"| "Cold Cold Heart"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/cold_cold_heart.htm |title=Cold Cold Heart |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614074234/http://www.kokomo.ca/early_years/cold_cold_heart.htm |archivedate=June 14, 2012 }}</ref>
| 16
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1952
| align="left"| "Noodlin' Rag" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.discogs.com/Perry-Como-And-Fontane-Sisters-Noodlin-Rag-Play-Me-A-Hurtin-Tune/release/1572724|title=Noodlin' Rag|publisher=Discogs.com|accessdate=4 April 2015}}</ref>
| 23
|-
| align="left"| "My Love and Devotion" (with Perry Como)
| 22
|-
| align="left"| "To Know You (Is To Love You)" (with Perry Como)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kokomo.ca/early_years/to_know_you_is_to_love_you_.htm |title=To Know You (Is To Love You) |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311223414/http://kokomo.ca/early_years/to_know_you_is_to_love_you_.htm |archivedate=March 11, 2014 }}</ref>
| 19
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1954
| align="left"| "Kissin' Bridge"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kokomo.ca/xmas/kissing_bridge.htm |title=Kissin' Bridge |publisher=Kokomo |accessdate=2 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614074239/http://www.kokomo.ca/xmas/kissing_bridge.htm |archivedate=June 14, 2012 }}</ref>
| 22
|-
| align="left"| "Happy Days and Lonely Nights"
| 18
|-
| align="left"| "Hearts Of Stone"
| 1
|-
| rowspan="7"| 1955
| align="left"| "Rock Love"
| 13
|-
| align="left"| "Rollin' Stone"
| 13
|-
| align="left"| "Playmates"
| flip
|-
| align="left"| "Seventeen"
| 3
|-
| align="left"| "Daddy-O"
| 11
|-
| align="left"| "Adorable"
| 71
|-
| align="left"| "Nuttin' for Christmas"
| 36
|-
| rowspan="7"| 1956
| align="left"| "Eddie My Love"
| 11
|-
| align="left"| "I'm In Love Again"
| 38
|-
| align="left"| "Voices"(with Pat Boone)
| 47
|-
| align="left"| "Lonesome Lover Blues"
| 93
|-
| align="left"| "Please Don't Leave Me"
| 55
|-
| align="left"| "Still"
| 86
|-
| align="left"| "The Banana Boat Song"
| 13
|-
| 1957
| align="left"| "I'm Stickin' With You"
| 72
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1958
| align="left"| "Chanson D'Amour"
| 12
|-
| align="left"| "Jealous Heart"
| 94
|-
|}
{{clear|left}}

==Recordings ==
*"[[The Tennessee Waltz|Tennessee Waltz]]" (1951) (bigger hits by [[Patti Page]] and [[Les Paul and Mary Ford]])
*"Kissing Bridge" (1953)
*"[[Happy Days and Lonely Nights]]" (1954)
*"[[Hearts Of Stone]]" (1954) (their first and biggest hit, originally recorded by Johnny Torrence and The Jewels)
*"[[Adorable (song)|Adorable]]" (originally recorded by [[The Colts]]; a bigger hit by [[The Drifters]]) (1955)
*"[[Nuttin' For Christmas]]" (1955) (also recorded by [[Art Mooney]], [[Barry Gordon]] and [[Stan Freberg]] the same year)
*"[[Playmates (song)|Playmates]]" (1955) (originally recorded by [[Kay Kyser]] in 1940)
*"[[Daddy-O]]" (1955) (originally recorded by "Mary Kath" known as [[Bonnie Lou]])
*"[[Rock Love (song)|Rock Love]]" (1955) (originally recorded by [[Eddie Fontaine]])
*"[[Rollin' Stone]]" (1955), (originally recorded by The Marigolds)
*"[[Seventeen (Boyd Bennett song)|Seventeen]]" (1955) (originally recorded by [[Boyd Bennett]])
*"[[Eddie My Love]]" (1956) (a bigger hit for [[The Chordettes]], but originally recorded by [[The Teen Queens]])
*"[[I'm In Love Again]]" (1956), (originally recorded by [[Fats Domino]])
*"[[Lonesome Lover Blues]]" (1956) (originally recorded [[Billy Eckstine]] in 1946)
*"Doin' The Rock and Rolla" (1956) (a rewording of the Andrews Sisters, Rum & Coca-Cola)
*"[[(Remember Me) I'm the One Who Loves You]]" (1956) – (Remake of the Stuart Hamblen c/w hit)
*"[[Please Don't Leave Me (1956 song)|Please Don't Leave Me]]" (1956), (originally recorded by [[Fats Domino]])
*"[[Still (1956 song)|Still]]" (1956), (originally recorded by [[Lavern Baker]])
*"[[Voices (Fontaine Sisters song)|Voices]]" (1956)
*"[[With a Little Bit of Luck]] (1957)" (a bigger hit for [[Harry Belafonte]] and [[The Tarriers]])
*"[[The Banana Boat Song]] (1957)" (originally recorded by [[The Tarriers]])
*"[[I'm Stickin' with You]]" (1957) (originally recorded by [[Jimmy Bowen]] in 1957.
*"[[Jealous Heart]]" (1958) (originally recorded by [[Tex Ritter]] in 1945)
*"[[Chanson D'Amour]]" (1958) (bigger hit for [[Art and Dotty Todd]])

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Wikipedia books|The Fontane Sisters}}
{{commons category}}
*[https://archive.org/details/ChesterfieldSupperClub-27november1949 Video of Chesterfield Supper Club-November 27 1949-Fontane Sisters-Internet Archive]
*[https://archive.org/details/thePerryComoShow-24december1952 Video of "Perry Como Show" December 24, 1952-Fontane Sisters-Internet Archive]
*[https://archive.org/details/thePerryComoShow-16september1953 Video of "Perry Como Show" September 16, 1953-Fontane Sisters-Internet Archive]
*[https://archive.org/details/thePerryComoShow-20january1954 Video of "Perry Como Show" 20 January 1954-Fontane Sisters-Internet Archive]
*[https://archive.org/details/perrycomoshow Video of 1954 "Perry Como Show"-Fontane Sisters-Internet Archive]

{{The Fontane Sisters}}
{{The Chesterfield Supper Club}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fontane Sisters, The}}
[[Category:American female singers]]
[[Category:American pop music groups]]
[[Category:American girl groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups from New Jersey]]
[[Category:People from New Milford, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Traditional pop music singers]]
[[Category:RCA Victor artists]]
[[Category:Dot Records artists]]
[[Category:Charly Records artists]]
[[Category:Sibling musical trios]]

Kingston (Mississippi)

2016-11-15T17:46:57Z

Textorus: /* History */ clarify per source cited

{{Infobox settlement
|name = Kingston, Mississippi
|official_name =
|settlement_type = [[Unincorporated area|Unincorporated community]]
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|subdivision_name = United States
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Mississippi]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Mississippi|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Adams County, Mississippi|Adams]]


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|blank_info = 672177<ref name=GNIS1>{{gnis|672177|Kingston}}</ref>
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'''Kingston''' (also called '''Jersey Town''') is an [[Unincorporated area|unincorporated community]] in [[Adams County, Mississippi]], United States.

Founded in 1784 in what was then [[British West Florida]], Kingston is one of the earliest settlements in Adams County.<ref name="Rowland">{{cite book | last = Rowland | first = Dunbar | title = Mississippi: Comprising Sketches of Counties, Towns, Events, Institutions, and Persons, Arranged in Cyclopedic Form | publisher = Southern Historical Publishing Association | year = 1907 | url = https://archive.org/details/mississippicomp01rowlgoog | volume = 1 | page = 1001, 1002}}</ref><ref name="Eaton">{{cite web | last = Eaton | first = Henry B. | title = Old England, New England, The "Deep South," The "North" America | work = Descendants of The Jersey Settlers - Kingston, Adams County, Mississippi | publisher = Descendants of The Jersey Settlers Organization | url = http://www.djs.org/HenryBlackburnEaton.pdf | accessdate = October 24, 2016}}</ref>

==History==
The area was first settled in 1772 by Richard and Samuel Swayze of [[New Jersey]], who purchased {{convert|1900|acre|ha|abbr=on}} of land.<ref>{{cite book | title = Biographical and Historical Memoirs of Mississippi | publisher = Goodspeed | year = 1891 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=eMX-Snn_mEsC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false | page = 159}}</ref> A number of families from New Jersey followed and were known as the "Jersey Settlers", of whom actors [[William Holden]] and [[Patrick Swayze]] are descendants.<ref>{{cite book | last = Leigh | first = Wendy | title = Patrick Swayze: One Last Dance | publisher = Simon and Schuster | year = 2009 | url = https://books.google.ca/books?id=GzYZtVlRZIEC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false | page = 6}}</ref>

In 1773, Samuel Swayze, a [[Congregational Church|Congregational]] pastor, organized what was then the first Protestant church in British West Florida. The church lasted only until his death in 1784.<ref name="Eaton"/>

An early settler, Caleb King, laid out the town in 1784 and named it after his himself. King was a surveyor by profession and came to the Jersey Settlement to survey the newly acquired lands. King briefly returned to New Jersey to marry Richard Swayze's daughter Mary, after which the couple returned to Mississippi.<ref name="Eaton"/>

Tobias Gibson, the founder of [[Port Gibson, Mississippi]], established a [[Methodism|Methodist]] church in Kingston in 1799.<ref name="O'Neal">{{cite web | last = O'Neal | first = Karen | title = The Jersey Settlers | work = Countryroads Magazine | date = March 31, 2014 | url = http://countryroadsmagazine.com/art-and-culture/history/the-jersey-settlers/}}</ref> Gibson said he "went to Kingston and procured a spot of ground by selling my watch for a meeting house." The [[Kingston Methodist Church]] was built from logs in about 1802, and its deed was the first issued to a church of the Protestant faith in Mississippi (then called the [[Mississippi Territory]]).<ref name="Eaton"/><ref name="O'Neal"/> In 1822, Caleb King's son-in-law Daniel Farrar donated a plot of land where a brick church was built.<ref name="O'Neal"/>

Kingston was prosperous from 1800 to 1824, when it had three stores and a number of shops, with a population of about 150.<ref name="Rowland"/> A tornado in 1840 destroyed most of Kingston.<ref name="O'Neal"/> By the early 1900s, all that remained of Kingston was a doctor's office, the church, and one dwelling.<ref name="Rowland"/>

==Present day==
Kingston Methodist Church and Cemetery are still located south of the settlement, and were placed on the [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Adams County, Mississippi|National Register of Historic Places]] in 1982.<ref name="O'Neal"/><ref name=GNIS2>{{gnis|672179|Kingston Church}}</ref><ref name=GNIS3>{{gnis|672178|Kingston Cemetery}}</ref>

A station belonging to the Kingston Volunteer Fire Department is located west of the settlement.<ref name=GNIS4>{{gnis|2667868|Kingston Volunteer Fire Department}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Adams County, Mississippi}}

[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Adams County, Mississippi]]
[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Mississippi]]

Hurrikan Alice (Dezember 1954)

2016-01-16T17:53:35Z

Textorus: /* Meteorological history */ nix cap

{{Other hurricane uses|Tropical Storm Alice (disambiguation){{!}}Tropical Storm Alice|the Atlantic hurricane of 1954–55}}
{{Infobox Hurricane
| Name=Hurricane Alice
| Type=hurricane
| Year=1954
| Basin=Atl
| Image location=Hurricane Alice 01 jan 1955 radar.jpg
| Image name=A radar image of Hurricane Alice north of the [[Virgin Islands]]
| Formed= {{start-date|December 30, 1954}}
| Dissipated= {{end-date|January 6, 1955}}
| 1-min winds=80
| Pressure=980
| Damages=.623
| Inflated=0
| Fatalities=None reported
| Areas=[[Lesser Antilles]]
| Hurricane season=[[1954 Atlantic hurricane season]]
}}
'''Hurricane Alice''' is the only known [[Atlantic hurricane]] to span two calendar years and one of only two named Atlantic tropical cyclones, along with [[Tropical Storm Zeta]] of 2005, to do so. The twelfth [[tropical cyclone]] and the eighth hurricane of the [[1954 Atlantic hurricane season]], Alice developed on December 30, 1954 from a [[trough (meteorology)|trough]] of low pressure in the central Atlantic Ocean in an area of unusually favorable conditions. The storm moved southwestward and gradually strengthened to reach hurricane status. After passing through the [[Leeward Islands]] on January 2, 1955, Alice reached peak winds of 90 mph (150 km/h) before encountering cold air and turning to the southeast. It dissipated on January 6 over the southeastern [[Caribbean Sea]].

Alice produced heavy rainfall and moderately strong winds across several islands along its path. [[Saba]] and [[Anguilla]] were affected the most, with total damage amounting to $623,500 (1955 USD). There was an earlier hurricane named [[Hurricane Alice (June 1954)|Alice]] in the season. Operationally, lack of definitive data prevented the [[NOAA|U.S. Weather Bureau]] from declaring the system a hurricane until January 2. It received the name ''Alice'' in early 1955, though re-analysis of the data supported extending its track to the previous year, resulting in two tropical cyclones of the same name in one season.

==Meteorological history==
{{storm path|Alice2 1954 track.png}}
A [[Surface weather analysis|cold front]] moved southeastward from the [[East Coast of the United States]] on December 23, 1954, and passed over [[Bermuda]] two days later. A strong [[anticyclone]] developed behind the cold front, and on December 26 a [[trough (meteorology)|trough]] extended southward from the cold front. The anticyclone moved southeastward as the trough and cold front moved eastward. The trough gradually decelerated as high pressures altered the upper level flow to that of an easterly flow. Convection increased over the trough as it moved over relatively warm waters, about 1 °[[Celsius|C]] above normal, and began undergoing [[tropical cyclogenesis]] after a circulation began to develop along the northern portion of the trough. The system continued to organize as it moved to the west, and based on three ship reports confirming a closed circulation, it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression on December 31 while located 770 miles (1245 km) east-northeast of [[Barbuda]] in the [[Lesser Antilles]].<ref name="mwr">{{cite web|author=José A. Colón|year=1955|title=On the formation of Hurricane Alice, 1955|publisher=U.S. Weather Bureau|accessdate=2006-12-07|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/084/mwr-084-01-0001.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>

With a narrow ridge of high pressure to its north, the depression moved west-southwestward. Atmospheric conditions were unusually favorable for the time of the year due to the ridge of high pressure preventing cold air from reaching the central Atlantic Ocean. This allowed the depression to intensify into a tropical storm later on December 30, based on direct observations. There were few direct observations for the following days, but it is estimated the storm intensified into a hurricane on December 31 while located about 475 miles (770 km) east-northeast of Barbuda. On January 1, 1955, a ship within 10 miles (16 km) of the center reported hurricane force winds and a pressure of 987 [[Bar (unit)|mbar]]. Based on this report and several other ship reports, the system was recognized as a tropical low by the [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] [[NOAA|Weather Bureau Office]]. The hurricane continued to the southwest, and entered the [[Caribbean Sea]] on January 2 after passing between [[Saint Martin]] and [[Saint Barthélemy]]. A portion of the [[eye (cyclone)|eyewall]] moved over Saint Martin and [[Saba]]. Based on near-hurricane force winds from the affected islands, an information bulletin named the system as Hurricane Alice while in the northeastern Caribbean Sea. Throughout its track, Alice was a small tropical cyclone with a diameter of only around 60 miles (95 km).<ref name="mwr"/>

[[Hurricane Hunters|Reconnaissance aircraft]] flew into Hurricane Alice on January 3 and confirmed the existence of the tropical cyclone by reporting winds between 60 to 65 mph (95 to 105 km/h) and a warm core center. It is estimated Alice continued to intensify as it tracked southwestward in the Caribbean Sea, and attained peak winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) while located about 95 miles (150 km) west-northwest of [[Montserrat]]. While near its peak the hurricane developed a ring of convection around its eye, and Alice maintained peak winds for about 24 hours until cold air from the north weakened it. Extratropical [[cyclogenesis]] occurred north of [[Bermuda]] on January 3, which weakened the high pressure system to the north of Alice and turned the flow in the Caribbean Sea to that of cold northwesterly winds. Alice turned to the southeast on January 4 and weakened to a tropical storm shortly thereafter. Convection gradually became disorganized, and after weakening to a tropical depression on January 5, Alice dissipated on January 6 while located about 100 miles (160 km) west-northwest of [[Grenada]].<ref name="mwr"/>

==Impact, naming and records==
[[Image:January 3, 1955 Alice.PNG|right|thumb|Surface weather analysis of Hurricane Alice on January 3, 1955]]
Subsequent to the confirmation of the existence of Hurricane Alice, the U.S. Weather Bureau Office in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]] warned the islands of the northern [[Lesser Antilles]] to prepare for strong winds and rough seas.<ref name="mwr"/> Hurricane Alice produced moderate to strong winds across the islands, peaking at 81 mph (130 km/h) in [[Saint Barthélemy]] and 75 mph (120 km/h) in [[Saba]].<ref name="1955mwr">{{cite web|author=Gordon E. Dunn, Walter R. Davis, Paul L. Moore|year=1955|title=Hurricanes of 1955|publisher=Miami, Florida Weather Bureau Office|accessdate=2006-12-07|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/083/mwr-083-12-0315.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> The hurricane dropped moderate to heavy rainfall across several islands, including a peak of 11.27 inches (286 mm) in 48 hours recorded at Saba. Due to its small size, only a few islands received significant effects from the hurricane. Saint-Barthélemy, Saba, [[Anguilla]], [[Sint Eustatius]], and [[Saint Kitts]] reported damage from the hurricane, totaling $623,500 (1955 USD, $4.7 million 2006 USD). Damage was heaviest on Saba and Anguilla, occurring primarily to shipping facilities and crops.<ref name="mwr"/> 626 houses were destroyed or severely damaged on Anguilla, as well.<ref name="wama">{{cite web|author=Alan Warren|year=2001|title=Flood risk management for a Caribbean island|publisher=Institution of Civil Engineers on Anguilla|accessdate=2006-12-07|url=http://www.atypon-link.com/TELF/doi/pdf/10.1680/wama.154.3.199.38729|format=PDF}}</ref> The damage was caused mostly by heavy rainfall and rough seas, not the direct action of the wind. The passage of Hurricane Alice greatly troubled the economies of the small affected islands.<ref name="mwr"/> Additionally, the outer [[rainband]]s of the storm alleviated dry conditions on [[Puerto Rico]] which had persisted since the previous October. No deaths were reported.<ref name="1955mwr"/>

This storm formed on December 30; however, in the days before [[satellites]], meteorologists had to rely on reports from ships and islands in the Atlantic to locate and track storms. This information was often sketchy; two cyclones, including a [[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale|Category 2]] hurricane, operationally went undetected in 1954. It was officially recognized as a significant tropical cyclone on January 2, 1955. At the time, the [[National Weather Service]] used the same naming list each year, so the name given to this storm was "Alice" and it was designated as a part of the [[1955 Atlantic hurricane season]]. However, it was found during post-storm analysis that the storm had actually formed on December 30, and was instead a part of the [[1954 Atlantic hurricane season|1954 season]]. Therefore, the season had two storms named "Alice" — the first storm of the season, and the last. Had Alice been discovered before the end of the calendar year, it would have been named Irene, the next name on the 1954 list. Some reports named this storm ''Alice2'' to avoid confusion with the [[Hurricane Alice (June 1954)|earlier Alice]] from June 1954.<ref name="mwr"/><ref name="noaa">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=2006|title=Has there ever been a Tropical Storm so late in the year before?|accessdate=2006-12-07|url=http://www.weather.gov/storms/zeta/}}</ref><ref name="bonus">{{cite web|author=Hurricane Enterprises LLC|year=2006|title=Oddball Tropical Systems|accessdate=2006-12-07|url=http://www.hurricanealmanac.com/BonusContentOddball.pdf|format=PDF|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060816064230/http://www.hurricanealmanac.com/BonusContentOddball.pdf|archivedate=2006-08-16}}</ref>

Alice formed later in the calendar year than any Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, forming six hours later in the season than [[Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)|Tropical Storm Zeta]] in [[2005 Atlantic hurricane season|2005]]. Alice was one of only eight Atlantic tropical cyclones to form in the month of December. Alice was the first of two Atlantic tropical cyclones to exist in two calendar years, the other being 2005's Zeta. The hurricane was also one of only six tropical or subtropical cyclones to exist in the month of January and the strongest to do so.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Tropical cyclones}}
* [[1955 Atlantic hurricane season]]
* [[List of tropical cyclones]]
* [[List of Atlantic hurricanes]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/084/mwr-084-01-0001.pdf Monthly Weather Review: On The Formation Of Hurricane Alice, 1955]
* [http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1955.pdf 1955 Monthly Weather Review]


{{Off-season Atlantic hurricanes}}
{{1954 Atlantic hurricane season buttons}}

{{Good article}}

[[Category:1954 Atlantic hurricane season|Alice2]]
[[Category:1954 in the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Category 1 Atlantic hurricanes|Alice 1954]]
[[Category:Off-season Atlantic tropical cyclones|Alice 1954]]
[[Category:1954 meteorology]]
[[Category:1955 meteorology]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in the Leeward Islands|Alice 1954]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Saba|Alice 1954]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Anguilla|Alice 1954]]

Proclamation of Rebellion

2015-03-22T06:41:43Z

Textorus: rearranging confusing sequence of paragraphs into chronological order; clarify confusing phrase

[[Image:Kings Proclamation 1775 08 23.png|thumb|right|A 1775 printing of the proclamation]]
The '''Proclamation of Rebellion''', officially titled '''A Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition''', was the response of [[George III of Great Britain]] to the news of the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]] at the outset of the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Issued August 23, 1775, it declared elements of the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] in a state of "open and avowed [[rebellion]]." It ordered officials of the [[British Empire]] "to use their utmost endeavours to withstand and suppress such rebellion." The Proclamation also encouraged subjects throughout the Empire, including those in Great Britain, to report anyone carrying on "traitorous correspondence" with the rebels so that they could be punished.

The Proclamation was written before Colonial Secretary [[William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth|Lord Dartmouth]] had been given a copy of the [[Olive Branch Petition]] from the Continental Congress. Because the king refused to receive the petition, the Proclamation effectively served as an answer to the petition.<ref>Pauline Maier, ''American Scripture'' (New York: Knopf, 1997), 24–25, 249–50.</ref>

On October 27, 1775, King George expanded on the Proclamation in his [[Speech from the Throne]] at the [[opening of Parliament]].<ref>http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/amrev/shots/address.html</ref> The King insisted that rebellion was being fomented by a "desperate conspiracy" of leaders whose claims of allegiance to him were insincere; what the rebels really wanted, he said, was to create an "independent Empire." The king indicated that he intended to deal with the crisis with armed force, and was even considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance" to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists towards independence, something that many colonial leaders had insisted they did not desire.<ref>Maier, ''American Scripture'', 25.</ref>

The [[Second Continental Congress]] issued a response to the Proclamation on December 6, saying that while they had always been [[Allegiance|loyal to the king]], the [[Parliament of Great Britain|British Parliament]] never had any [[Legitimacy (law)|legitimate]] claim to [[authority]] over them, because the colonies were not democratically represented. Congress argued that it was their duty to continue resisting [[Coercive Acts|Parliament's violations]] of the [[British Constitution]], and that they would retaliate if any supporters in Great Britain were punished for "favouring, aiding, or abetting the cause of American liberty." Congress maintained that they still hoped to avoid the "calamities" of a "civil war."

The Proclamation and the Speech from the Throne undermined moderates in the Continental Congress like [[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]], who had been arguing that the king would find a way to resolve the dispute between the colonies and Parliament. When it became clear that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator, colonial attachment to the Empire was weakened, and a movement towards declaring independence became a reality, culminating in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] on [[Fourth of July|July 4, 1776]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Wikisource|Declaration of Rebellion}}
{{Wikisource|Response of the Continental Congress to the Proclamation of Rebellion by King George III}}

==External links==
* [http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/procreb.html Text of the Proclamation]
* [http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/amrev/shots/responds.html Response from the Continental Congress]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/rbpe:@field(DOCID+@lit(rbpe1440150a)) King George's speech of October 1775]

{{British law and the American Revolution}}

[[Category:1775 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1775 in the Thirteen Colonies]]
[[Category:British laws relating to the American Revolution]]
[[Category:Political history of Great Britain]]
[[Category:Political repression in the United States]]
[[Category:George III of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1775 in British law]]
[[Category:Proclamations]]

Houghton Hall (Norfolk)

2015-03-18T05:49:06Z

Textorus: /* Parkland and gardens */ {dead link}

{{Coord|52.82690|0.65760|display=title|format=dms}}
:''For the building of a similar name in the East Riding of Yorkshire see [[Houghton Hall, East Riding of Yorkshire|Houghton Hall]]. For the ruined building in Bedfordshire see [[Houghton House]]. For the Lancashire stately home, see [[Hoghton Tower]].''
[[File:Houghton Hall 01.jpg|thumb|300px|The façade of Houghton Hall in 2007.]]
[[File:Houghton Hall.jpg|thumb|right|The façade of Houghton Hall from [[Colen Campbell]]'s ''[[Vitruvius Britannicus]]''. The corner towers were replaced with domes in the final design.]]
'''Houghton Hall''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aʊ|t|ən|}} {{respell|HOW|tən}})<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/houses_Pronounce.asp|title= British pronunciation of country house names|author= DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses|accessdate=2009-12-05}}</ref> is a [[country house]] in [[Norfolk]], [[England]]. It is the home of [[David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Restoration man: the story of Houghton Hall|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/gardenstovisit/9331651/Restoration-man-the-story-of-Houghton-Hall.html|newspaper=Daily Telegraph}}</ref>

It was built for the ''[[de facto]]'' first [[British Prime Minister]], Sir [[Robert Walpole]], and it is a key building in the history of [[Palladian architecture]] in England. It is a Grade I [[listed building]]<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=221600 |title=Images of England: Houghton Hall |publisher=[[English Heritage]] | accessdate= 24 February 2009 |postscript=.}}</ref> surrounded by {{convert|1000|acre|km2}} of parkland adjacent to [[Sandringham House]].

The house has a rectangular main block which consists of a rustic basement at ground level, with a ''[[piano nobile]]'', bedroom floor and attics above. There are also two lower flanking wings joined to the main block by [[colonnade]]s. To the south of the house there is a detached quadrangular stable block.

The exterior is both grand and restrained, constructed of fine-grained, silver-white stone. The Gibbs-designed domes punctuate each corner. In line with Palladian conventions, the interiors are much more colourful, exuberant and opulent than the exteriors.

The parklands surrounding Houghton was redesigned in the 18th-century by [[Charles Bridgeman]].<ref name="garden">Donald, Caroline. [http://property.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/property/gardens/article3889802.ece "The new garden at Houghton Hall, King’s Lynn, Norfolk,"] ''The Times'' (London). May 11, 2008.</ref> In the process, the village of [[Houghton, Norfolk|Houghton]] was demolished and rebuilt outside the park,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y7959lrL2VgC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=place+names+of+norfolk+houghton&source=bl&ots=ZuJtBWjWRN&sig=JJwdcAW0i6Vk4sfyg4dKh54wugI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2gPmUL35Lo-U0QXjrIHgBQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=place%20names%20of%20norfolk%20houghton&f=false |title=Samuel Lewis, ''A Popular Guide to Norfolk Place Names'', The Lark's Press, 1991 ISBN 0-948400-15-3 (p.25) |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref> with the exception of the medieval [[Church of England parish church|parish church]], which was heavily restored.<ref>{{cite web|author=Good Stuff IT Services |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-221599-church-of-st-martin-houghton-norfolk |title=Church of St Martin, Houghton |publisher=British Listed Buildings |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Chimneypiece.jpg|thumb|left|Chimneypiece to Hall, Houghton Hall, Norfolk The Plans, Elevations and Sections, Chimney-pieces and Cielings [sic] of Houghton in Norfolk, 1735 V&A Museum no. 13095]]

This new building was placed on the site of earlier Walpole family houses. Sir Robert Walpole became the 1st Earl of Orford in 1742. Ownership passed to his son and grandson, the [[Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford|2nd]] and [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford|3rd earl]]s. On the death of the 3rd earl it reverted to his uncle the 4th Earl of Orford, better known as [[Horace Walpole]]. On his death in 1797, possession passed to the family of his sister, Lady Cholmondeley, who died at just 26 years in 1731, more than 65 years before.
Sir Robert Walpole's daughter, Mary, had married [[George Cholmondeley, 3rd Earl of Cholmondeley]] and Houghton Hall was modified and maintained by her Cholmondeley family across a further span of generations. [[Colonel Robert Walpole]] borrowed a book about the [[Archbishop of Bremen]] from the [[Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge|Sidney Sussex College]] library in 1667 or 1668. The overdue library book was discovered at Houghton in the mid-1950s, and returned 288 years later.<ref>Vickroy, Donna. [http://www.southtownstar.com/lifestyles/vickroy/1405793,020109vickroy.article "Throwing the book at library scofflaws,"] ''Southtown Star'' (Chicago). February 1, 2009.</ref>

The house has remained largely untouched, having remained "unimproved" despite the Victorian passion for remodelling and redecorating. Houghton still belongs to the [[Marquess of Cholmondeley]], and parts of the structure and grounds are opened to the public throughout the year.

Houghton Hall featured in Breathless Beauty, Broken Beauty by artist film maker VanessaJane Hall, which was exhibited at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London during 2014. The Hall's grand interiors were captured in incredible detail in the film, which was was the worlds first sculptural 4k triptych film installation.

===Art===
Houghton once contained part of [[Sir Robert Walpole]]'s [[Walpole collection|great picture collection]], which his grandson [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford|the 3rd earl]] sold in 1779 to [[Catherine the Great]] of [[Russia]] to pay off some of the estate's accumulated debt. Included in the current collection of paintings is [[Thomas Gainsborough]]'s oil painting of his own family -- [http://galeria.klp.pl/p-2839.html ''Thomas Gainsborough, with His Wife and Elder Daughter, Mary''] (circa 1751-1752).

[[File:Cholmondeley Oudry White Duck.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]]'s ''The White Duck,'' which was stolen from Houghton Hall in 1990]]
Walpole's collection of marble Roman busts was also noteworthy.<ref>Michaelis, Adolph. (1882). [http://books.google.com/books?id=C9AaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA323&lpg=PA323&dq=marquis+of+cholmondeley&source=web&ots=NHGsw_JC_F&sig=YZ-2_Uwp1Nt80nOYNxRjlB-M8Vo&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6&ct=result#PPA324,M1 ''Ancient Marbles in Great Britain,'' p. 324.]</ref>

In the early 1990s, [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]]'s "Lady With a Squirrel and a Starling" (1528) was removed from the walls of Houghton where it had hung since 1780. It was put up for auction to raise money to pay inheritance taxes and for maintenance of the house and grounds;<ref>Vogel, Carol. [http://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/21/arts/the-art-market.html?scp=14&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "The Art Market,"] ''New York Times.'' February 21, 1992.</ref> and eventually, negotiations led to the painting's sale to the [[National Gallery]] for £17-million tax free because of special incentives in England for selling works of art that are considered national treasures.<ref>Vogel, Carol. [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/04/arts/inside-art.html?scp=22&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "Inside Art,"] ''New York Times.'' March 4, 1994.</ref>

In the 21st century, art market inflation has placed enormous temptations in the way of the old families with substantial collections. In recent years, ownership of several pieces have been transferred in lieu of tax from the Cholmondeleys to the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]. Some artwork, such as [[William Hogarth]]'s portrait of the Cholmondeley family is unlikely to be let go, and it remains on view at Houghton; but the marquis admits that he is very aware that risk of theft is neither negligible nor negotiable.<ref>Bryant, Chris. [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article2085194.ece "Heritage for sale,"] ''Times'' (London). July 17, 2007.</ref> [[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]]'s ''White Duck,'' stolen from the Cholmondeley collection in 1990, is still missing.<ref>Lyall, Sarah. [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/19/arts/arts-abroad-a-titian-is-no-longer-at-large-its-thief-is.html?scp=17&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "A Titian Is No Longer at Large; Its Thief Is,"] ''New York Times.'' September 19, 2002.</ref>

===Parkland and gardens===
Charles Bridgeman's landscaping plan for the parkland at Houghton remains intact. His "twisting wilderness paths" were cleared in the early 18th century; and they have been maintained since then.<ref>Conan, Michael. (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=3y4VbYgwPrIC&pg=PA399&lpg=PA399&dq= ''Baroque Garden Cultures: Emulation, Sublimation, Subversion,'' p. 399.]</ref>

Bridgeman replaced the formal geometry of intersecting avenues with blocks of woodland and parkland which, as he saw it, was better able to compliment the Hall's compelling architectural statement.<ref>Whyte, Ian D. (2002). [http://books.google.com/books?id=zjH6VjS7bVEC&pg=PA81&dq= ''Landscape and History since 1500,'' p. 81.]</ref>

[[File:ha-ha.svg|thumb|right|130px|Cross-section of a sunken [[ha-ha]] barrier like the ones laid out by Charles Bridgeman at Houghton Hall.]]
The [[ha-ha]] barriers at Houghton were an innovative feature credited to Bridgeman. In his 1780 "Essay upon Modern Gardening," [[Horace Walpole]] explained: "The contiguous ground of the park without the sunk fence was to be harmonized with the lawn within; and the garden in its turn was to be set free from its prim regularity, that it might assort with the wilder country without."<ref>Walpole, Horace. (1780). [http://www.gardenvisit.com/t/w9.htm ''Essay upon Modern Gardening;''] n.b., Walpole was unaware that the technical innovation had been presented in [[Dezallier d'Argenville]]'s ''La theorie et la pratique du jardinage'' (1709), which had been translated into English by the architect [[John James (architect)|John James]] in 1712.</ref>

Sir Robert Walpole constructed a watertower (1731–1732) with the appearance of an architectural [[folly]]. It was designed by [[Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke]]. It was restored in 1982.<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Park, photo of Pembroke's watertower folly]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref>

In this well-established context, a number of contemporary outdoor sculptures have been commissioned in recent years by [[David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley]]. To the west of the house is a circle of Cornish slate at the end of a path mown through the grass. This [[land art]] feature was designed by the British sculptor [[Richard Long (artist)|Richard Long]].<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Park, photo of Long's land art sculpture]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref>

Two modern follies lie in a wooded area to the side of the west front.

American artist [[James Turrell]] contrived "Skyspace" for Houghton. Turrell's construction presents itself from the exterior as an oak-clad building raised on stilts. From the inside of the structure, the viewer's point of view is focused upwards and inevitably lured into contemplating the sky as framed by the open roof.<ref name="garden"/>

"The Sybil Hedge" is another folly in this vicinity.<ref name="artlandish">McCarthy, Anna. "Focus on Jeffe Hein," [http://schools.norfolk.gov.uk/myportal/custom/files_uploaded/uploaded_resources/4477/Spr_09_Houghton_Newsletter%5B1%5D.doc ''Houghton Hall Education Newsletter,''] January 2009, p. 3.]</ref> It is based on the signature of the current marquis' grandmother, [[Sybil Sassoon]]. Scottish artist [[Anya Gallaccio]] has created a sarcophagus-like marble structure which is sited at the end of a path; and nearby is a copper-beech hedge which is planted in lines mirroring Sybil’s signature.<ref name="garden"/>

A {{convert|5|acre|m2|adj=on}} walled kitchen garden lies beyond the stables. Over the course of time, the productive area was reduced in size, and the enclosure was mostly grassed over. In 1996, the fallow enclosure was redesigned and replanted. The effort was rewarded in 2007 when it was named Historic Houses Association and Christie’s Garden of the Year. Yew hedges divide the space into a formal grid of discrete areas or "rooms", each intending to provoke a different interest and mood. The hedges, some cut in swags, give height and form. The garden rooms include an Italian enclosure with box parterres; a formal rose garden laid out in a pattern based on one of the William Kent ceilings in the house; a French garden of pleached limes and plum trees which have been underplanted with spring bulbs; and a croquet lawn.<ref name="garden"/>

Danish artist [[Jeppe Hein]] created a "Water Flame" sculpture/fountain for this garden.<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Garden, photo of Hein's sculpture/fountain]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref>{{dead link}} In all seasons, this jet of water surmounted by a ball of flame illustrates a 21st century folly on a smaller scale than the contemporary pieces outside the garden walls.<ref name="garden"/>

===Model soldiers===
The stable block at Houghton Hall houses the Cholmondeley Collection of Model Soldiers, previously at [[Cholmondeley Castle]] and moved to Houghton Hall in 1980 soon after it was opened to the public. The collection was started in 1928 by the [[Hugh Cholmondeley, 6th Marquess of Cholmondeley|6th Marquess]], expanded throughout his life, and now includes about 20,000 figures.<ref>[http://houghtonhall.com/index.php/soldier-museum Soldier Museum], Houghton Hall</ref><ref>''The Cholmondeley Collection of Model Soldiers'', leaflet, Houghton Hall</ref>

==See also==
* [[Eventing]], "Houghton International Horse Trials"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.houghtoninternational.co.uk |title=Houghton International |publisher=Houghton International |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{commons category|Houghton Hall}}
* Conan, Michael. (2005). ''Baroque Garden Cultures: Emulation, Sublimation, Subversion.'' Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 10-ISBN 0884023044/13-ISBN 9780884023043; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/185320499 OCLC 185320499]
* Adolf Michaelis, Adolf. (1882). ''Ancient marbles in Great Britain.'' Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/68091266 OCLC 68091266]
* Moore, Andrew W. (1996). ''Houghton Hall: The Prime Minister, The Empress and The Heritage.'' London: Philip Wilson Publishers. 10-ISBN 0-85667-438-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-85667-438-9; [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/36167076 OCLC 36167076]
* Whyte, Ian D. (2002). ''Landscape and History Since 1500.'' London : [[Reaktion Books]]. 10_ISBN 1-861-89138-5/13-ISBN 978-1-861-89138-9; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/248507175 OCLC 248507175]

==External links==
*[http://www.houghtonhall.com Official website]
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_detail.asp?ID=1099 Houghton Hall entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses]
*[http://www.houghtoninternational.co.uk/ Houghton International Horse Trials], held annually in May.

[[Category:Country houses in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Gardens in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Robert Walpole]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Prime Ministerial homes in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Walpole family]]
[[Category:Cholmondeley family]]
[[Category:Militaria]]

Houghton Hall (Norfolk)

2015-03-18T05:47:37Z

Textorus: /* Parkland and gardens */ nix comma

{{Coord|52.82690|0.65760|display=title|format=dms}}
:''For the building of a similar name in the East Riding of Yorkshire see [[Houghton Hall, East Riding of Yorkshire|Houghton Hall]]. For the ruined building in Bedfordshire see [[Houghton House]]. For the Lancashire stately home, see [[Hoghton Tower]].''
[[File:Houghton Hall 01.jpg|thumb|300px|The façade of Houghton Hall in 2007.]]
[[File:Houghton Hall.jpg|thumb|right|The façade of Houghton Hall from [[Colen Campbell]]'s ''[[Vitruvius Britannicus]]''. The corner towers were replaced with domes in the final design.]]
'''Houghton Hall''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aʊ|t|ən|}} {{respell|HOW|tən}})<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/houses_Pronounce.asp|title= British pronunciation of country house names|author= DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses|accessdate=2009-12-05}}</ref> is a [[country house]] in [[Norfolk]], [[England]]. It is the home of [[David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Restoration man: the story of Houghton Hall|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/gardenstovisit/9331651/Restoration-man-the-story-of-Houghton-Hall.html|newspaper=Daily Telegraph}}</ref>

It was built for the ''[[de facto]]'' first [[British Prime Minister]], Sir [[Robert Walpole]], and it is a key building in the history of [[Palladian architecture]] in England. It is a Grade I [[listed building]]<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=221600 |title=Images of England: Houghton Hall |publisher=[[English Heritage]] | accessdate= 24 February 2009 |postscript=.}}</ref> surrounded by {{convert|1000|acre|km2}} of parkland adjacent to [[Sandringham House]].

The house has a rectangular main block which consists of a rustic basement at ground level, with a ''[[piano nobile]]'', bedroom floor and attics above. There are also two lower flanking wings joined to the main block by [[colonnade]]s. To the south of the house there is a detached quadrangular stable block.

The exterior is both grand and restrained, constructed of fine-grained, silver-white stone. The Gibbs-designed domes punctuate each corner. In line with Palladian conventions, the interiors are much more colourful, exuberant and opulent than the exteriors.

The parklands surrounding Houghton was redesigned in the 18th-century by [[Charles Bridgeman]].<ref name="garden">Donald, Caroline. [http://property.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/property/gardens/article3889802.ece "The new garden at Houghton Hall, King’s Lynn, Norfolk,"] ''The Times'' (London). May 11, 2008.</ref> In the process, the village of [[Houghton, Norfolk|Houghton]] was demolished and rebuilt outside the park,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y7959lrL2VgC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=place+names+of+norfolk+houghton&source=bl&ots=ZuJtBWjWRN&sig=JJwdcAW0i6Vk4sfyg4dKh54wugI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2gPmUL35Lo-U0QXjrIHgBQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=place%20names%20of%20norfolk%20houghton&f=false |title=Samuel Lewis, ''A Popular Guide to Norfolk Place Names'', The Lark's Press, 1991 ISBN 0-948400-15-3 (p.25) |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref> with the exception of the medieval [[Church of England parish church|parish church]], which was heavily restored.<ref>{{cite web|author=Good Stuff IT Services |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-221599-church-of-st-martin-houghton-norfolk |title=Church of St Martin, Houghton |publisher=British Listed Buildings |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Chimneypiece.jpg|thumb|left|Chimneypiece to Hall, Houghton Hall, Norfolk The Plans, Elevations and Sections, Chimney-pieces and Cielings [sic] of Houghton in Norfolk, 1735 V&A Museum no. 13095]]

This new building was placed on the site of earlier Walpole family houses. Sir Robert Walpole became the 1st Earl of Orford in 1742. Ownership passed to his son and grandson, the [[Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford|2nd]] and [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford|3rd earl]]s. On the death of the 3rd earl it reverted to his uncle the 4th Earl of Orford, better known as [[Horace Walpole]]. On his death in 1797, possession passed to the family of his sister, Lady Cholmondeley, who died at just 26 years in 1731, more than 65 years before.
Sir Robert Walpole's daughter, Mary, had married [[George Cholmondeley, 3rd Earl of Cholmondeley]] and Houghton Hall was modified and maintained by her Cholmondeley family across a further span of generations. [[Colonel Robert Walpole]] borrowed a book about the [[Archbishop of Bremen]] from the [[Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge|Sidney Sussex College]] library in 1667 or 1668. The overdue library book was discovered at Houghton in the mid-1950s, and returned 288 years later.<ref>Vickroy, Donna. [http://www.southtownstar.com/lifestyles/vickroy/1405793,020109vickroy.article "Throwing the book at library scofflaws,"] ''Southtown Star'' (Chicago). February 1, 2009.</ref>

The house has remained largely untouched, having remained "unimproved" despite the Victorian passion for remodelling and redecorating. Houghton still belongs to the [[Marquess of Cholmondeley]], and parts of the structure and grounds are opened to the public throughout the year.

Houghton Hall featured in Breathless Beauty, Broken Beauty by artist film maker VanessaJane Hall, which was exhibited at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London during 2014. The Hall's grand interiors were captured in incredible detail in the film, which was was the worlds first sculptural 4k triptych film installation.

===Art===
Houghton once contained part of [[Sir Robert Walpole]]'s [[Walpole collection|great picture collection]], which his grandson [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford|the 3rd earl]] sold in 1779 to [[Catherine the Great]] of [[Russia]] to pay off some of the estate's accumulated debt. Included in the current collection of paintings is [[Thomas Gainsborough]]'s oil painting of his own family -- [http://galeria.klp.pl/p-2839.html ''Thomas Gainsborough, with His Wife and Elder Daughter, Mary''] (circa 1751-1752).

[[File:Cholmondeley Oudry White Duck.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]]'s ''The White Duck,'' which was stolen from Houghton Hall in 1990]]
Walpole's collection of marble Roman busts was also noteworthy.<ref>Michaelis, Adolph. (1882). [http://books.google.com/books?id=C9AaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA323&lpg=PA323&dq=marquis+of+cholmondeley&source=web&ots=NHGsw_JC_F&sig=YZ-2_Uwp1Nt80nOYNxRjlB-M8Vo&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6&ct=result#PPA324,M1 ''Ancient Marbles in Great Britain,'' p. 324.]</ref>

In the early 1990s, [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]]'s "Lady With a Squirrel and a Starling" (1528) was removed from the walls of Houghton where it had hung since 1780. It was put up for auction to raise money to pay inheritance taxes and for maintenance of the house and grounds;<ref>Vogel, Carol. [http://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/21/arts/the-art-market.html?scp=14&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "The Art Market,"] ''New York Times.'' February 21, 1992.</ref> and eventually, negotiations led to the painting's sale to the [[National Gallery]] for £17-million tax free because of special incentives in England for selling works of art that are considered national treasures.<ref>Vogel, Carol. [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/04/arts/inside-art.html?scp=22&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "Inside Art,"] ''New York Times.'' March 4, 1994.</ref>

In the 21st century, art market inflation has placed enormous temptations in the way of the old families with substantial collections. In recent years, ownership of several pieces have been transferred in lieu of tax from the Cholmondeleys to the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]. Some artwork, such as [[William Hogarth]]'s portrait of the Cholmondeley family is unlikely to be let go, and it remains on view at Houghton; but the marquis admits that he is very aware that risk of theft is neither negligible nor negotiable.<ref>Bryant, Chris. [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article2085194.ece "Heritage for sale,"] ''Times'' (London). July 17, 2007.</ref> [[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]]'s ''White Duck,'' stolen from the Cholmondeley collection in 1990, is still missing.<ref>Lyall, Sarah. [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/19/arts/arts-abroad-a-titian-is-no-longer-at-large-its-thief-is.html?scp=17&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "A Titian Is No Longer at Large; Its Thief Is,"] ''New York Times.'' September 19, 2002.</ref>

===Parkland and gardens===
Charles Bridgeman's landscaping plan for the parkland at Houghton remains intact. His "twisting wilderness paths" were cleared in the early 18th century; and they have been maintained since then.<ref>Conan, Michael. (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=3y4VbYgwPrIC&pg=PA399&lpg=PA399&dq= ''Baroque Garden Cultures: Emulation, Sublimation, Subversion,'' p. 399.]</ref>

Bridgeman replaced the formal geometry of intersecting avenues with blocks of woodland and parkland which, as he saw it, was better able to compliment the Hall's compelling architectural statement.<ref>Whyte, Ian D. (2002). [http://books.google.com/books?id=zjH6VjS7bVEC&pg=PA81&dq= ''Landscape and History since 1500,'' p. 81.]</ref>

[[File:ha-ha.svg|thumb|right|130px|Cross-section of a sunken [[ha-ha]] barrier like the ones laid out by Charles Bridgeman at Houghton Hall.]]
The [[ha-ha]] barriers at Houghton were an innovative feature credited to Bridgeman. In his 1780 "Essay upon Modern Gardening," [[Horace Walpole]] explained: "The contiguous ground of the park without the sunk fence was to be harmonized with the lawn within; and the garden in its turn was to be set free from its prim regularity, that it might assort with the wilder country without."<ref>Walpole, Horace. (1780). [http://www.gardenvisit.com/t/w9.htm ''Essay upon Modern Gardening;''] n.b., Walpole was unaware that the technical innovation had been presented in [[Dezallier d'Argenville]]'s ''La theorie et la pratique du jardinage'' (1709), which had been translated into English by the architect [[John James (architect)|John James]] in 1712.</ref>

Sir Robert Walpole constructed a watertower (1731–1732) with the appearance of an architectural [[folly]]. It was designed by [[Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke]]. It was restored in 1982.<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Park, photo of Pembroke's watertower folly]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref>

In this well-established context, a number of contemporary outdoor sculptures have been commissioned in recent years by [[David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley]]. To the west of the house is a circle of Cornish slate at the end of a path mown through the grass. This [[land art]] feature was designed by the British sculptor [[Richard Long (artist)|Richard Long]].<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Park, photo of Long's land art sculpture]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref>

Two modern follies lie in a wooded area to the side of the west front.

American artist [[James Turrell]] contrived "Skyspace" for Houghton. Turrell's construction presents itself from the exterior as an oak-clad building raised on stilts. From the inside of the structure, the viewer's point of view is focused upwards and inevitably lured into contemplating the sky as framed by the open roof.<ref name="garden"/>

"The Sybil Hedge" is another folly in this vicinity.<ref name="artlandish">McCarthy, Anna. "Focus on Jeffe Hein," [http://schools.norfolk.gov.uk/myportal/custom/files_uploaded/uploaded_resources/4477/Spr_09_Houghton_Newsletter%5B1%5D.doc ''Houghton Hall Education Newsletter,''] January 2009, p. 3.]</ref> It is based on the signature of the current marquis' grandmother, [[Sybil Sassoon]]. Scottish artist [[Anya Gallaccio]] has created a sarcophagus-like marble structure which is sited at the end of a path; and nearby is a copper-beech hedge which is planted in lines mirroring Sybil’s signature.<ref name="garden"/>

A {{convert|5|acre|m2|adj=on}} walled kitchen garden lies beyond the stables. Over the course of time, the productive area was reduced in size, and the enclosure was mostly grassed over. In 1996, the fallow enclosure was redesigned and replanted. The effort was rewarded in 2007 when it was named Historic Houses Association and Christie’s Garden of the Year. Yew hedges divide the space into a formal grid of discrete areas or "rooms", each intending to provoke a different interest and mood. The hedges, some cut in swags, give height and form. The garden rooms include an Italian enclosure with box parterres; a formal rose garden laid out in a pattern based on one of the William Kent ceilings in the house; a French garden of pleached limes and plum trees which have been underplanted with spring bulbs; and a croquet lawn.<ref name="garden"/>

Danish artist [[Jeppe Hein]] created a "Water Flame" sculpture/fountain for this garden.<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Garden, photo of Hein's sculpture/fountain]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref> In all seasons, this jet of water surmounted by a ball of flame illustrates a 21st century folly on a smaller scale than the contemporary pieces outside the garden walls.<ref name="garden"/>

===Model soldiers===
The stable block at Houghton Hall houses the Cholmondeley Collection of Model Soldiers, previously at [[Cholmondeley Castle]] and moved to Houghton Hall in 1980 soon after it was opened to the public. The collection was started in 1928 by the [[Hugh Cholmondeley, 6th Marquess of Cholmondeley|6th Marquess]], expanded throughout his life, and now includes about 20,000 figures.<ref>[http://houghtonhall.com/index.php/soldier-museum Soldier Museum], Houghton Hall</ref><ref>''The Cholmondeley Collection of Model Soldiers'', leaflet, Houghton Hall</ref>

==See also==
* [[Eventing]], "Houghton International Horse Trials"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.houghtoninternational.co.uk |title=Houghton International |publisher=Houghton International |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{commons category|Houghton Hall}}
* Conan, Michael. (2005). ''Baroque Garden Cultures: Emulation, Sublimation, Subversion.'' Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 10-ISBN 0884023044/13-ISBN 9780884023043; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/185320499 OCLC 185320499]
* Adolf Michaelis, Adolf. (1882). ''Ancient marbles in Great Britain.'' Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/68091266 OCLC 68091266]
* Moore, Andrew W. (1996). ''Houghton Hall: The Prime Minister, The Empress and The Heritage.'' London: Philip Wilson Publishers. 10-ISBN 0-85667-438-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-85667-438-9; [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/36167076 OCLC 36167076]
* Whyte, Ian D. (2002). ''Landscape and History Since 1500.'' London : [[Reaktion Books]]. 10_ISBN 1-861-89138-5/13-ISBN 978-1-861-89138-9; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/248507175 OCLC 248507175]

==External links==
*[http://www.houghtonhall.com Official website]
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_detail.asp?ID=1099 Houghton Hall entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses]
*[http://www.houghtoninternational.co.uk/ Houghton International Horse Trials], held annually in May.

[[Category:Country houses in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Gardens in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Robert Walpole]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Prime Ministerial homes in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Walpole family]]
[[Category:Cholmondeley family]]
[[Category:Militaria]]

Houghton Hall (Norfolk)

2015-03-18T05:46:53Z

Textorus: /* Parkland and gardens */ grammar

{{Coord|52.82690|0.65760|display=title|format=dms}}
:''For the building of a similar name in the East Riding of Yorkshire see [[Houghton Hall, East Riding of Yorkshire|Houghton Hall]]. For the ruined building in Bedfordshire see [[Houghton House]]. For the Lancashire stately home, see [[Hoghton Tower]].''
[[File:Houghton Hall 01.jpg|thumb|300px|The façade of Houghton Hall in 2007.]]
[[File:Houghton Hall.jpg|thumb|right|The façade of Houghton Hall from [[Colen Campbell]]'s ''[[Vitruvius Britannicus]]''. The corner towers were replaced with domes in the final design.]]
'''Houghton Hall''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aʊ|t|ən|}} {{respell|HOW|tən}})<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/houses_Pronounce.asp|title= British pronunciation of country house names|author= DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses|accessdate=2009-12-05}}</ref> is a [[country house]] in [[Norfolk]], [[England]]. It is the home of [[David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Restoration man: the story of Houghton Hall|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/gardenstovisit/9331651/Restoration-man-the-story-of-Houghton-Hall.html|newspaper=Daily Telegraph}}</ref>

It was built for the ''[[de facto]]'' first [[British Prime Minister]], Sir [[Robert Walpole]], and it is a key building in the history of [[Palladian architecture]] in England. It is a Grade I [[listed building]]<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=221600 |title=Images of England: Houghton Hall |publisher=[[English Heritage]] | accessdate= 24 February 2009 |postscript=.}}</ref> surrounded by {{convert|1000|acre|km2}} of parkland adjacent to [[Sandringham House]].

The house has a rectangular main block which consists of a rustic basement at ground level, with a ''[[piano nobile]]'', bedroom floor and attics above. There are also two lower flanking wings joined to the main block by [[colonnade]]s. To the south of the house there is a detached quadrangular stable block.

The exterior is both grand and restrained, constructed of fine-grained, silver-white stone. The Gibbs-designed domes punctuate each corner. In line with Palladian conventions, the interiors are much more colourful, exuberant and opulent than the exteriors.

The parklands surrounding Houghton was redesigned in the 18th-century by [[Charles Bridgeman]].<ref name="garden">Donald, Caroline. [http://property.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/property/gardens/article3889802.ece "The new garden at Houghton Hall, King’s Lynn, Norfolk,"] ''The Times'' (London). May 11, 2008.</ref> In the process, the village of [[Houghton, Norfolk|Houghton]] was demolished and rebuilt outside the park,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y7959lrL2VgC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=place+names+of+norfolk+houghton&source=bl&ots=ZuJtBWjWRN&sig=JJwdcAW0i6Vk4sfyg4dKh54wugI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2gPmUL35Lo-U0QXjrIHgBQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=place%20names%20of%20norfolk%20houghton&f=false |title=Samuel Lewis, ''A Popular Guide to Norfolk Place Names'', The Lark's Press, 1991 ISBN 0-948400-15-3 (p.25) |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref> with the exception of the medieval [[Church of England parish church|parish church]], which was heavily restored.<ref>{{cite web|author=Good Stuff IT Services |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-221599-church-of-st-martin-houghton-norfolk |title=Church of St Martin, Houghton |publisher=British Listed Buildings |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Chimneypiece.jpg|thumb|left|Chimneypiece to Hall, Houghton Hall, Norfolk The Plans, Elevations and Sections, Chimney-pieces and Cielings [sic] of Houghton in Norfolk, 1735 V&A Museum no. 13095]]

This new building was placed on the site of earlier Walpole family houses. Sir Robert Walpole became the 1st Earl of Orford in 1742. Ownership passed to his son and grandson, the [[Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford|2nd]] and [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford|3rd earl]]s. On the death of the 3rd earl it reverted to his uncle the 4th Earl of Orford, better known as [[Horace Walpole]]. On his death in 1797, possession passed to the family of his sister, Lady Cholmondeley, who died at just 26 years in 1731, more than 65 years before.
Sir Robert Walpole's daughter, Mary, had married [[George Cholmondeley, 3rd Earl of Cholmondeley]] and Houghton Hall was modified and maintained by her Cholmondeley family across a further span of generations. [[Colonel Robert Walpole]] borrowed a book about the [[Archbishop of Bremen]] from the [[Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge|Sidney Sussex College]] library in 1667 or 1668. The overdue library book was discovered at Houghton in the mid-1950s, and returned 288 years later.<ref>Vickroy, Donna. [http://www.southtownstar.com/lifestyles/vickroy/1405793,020109vickroy.article "Throwing the book at library scofflaws,"] ''Southtown Star'' (Chicago). February 1, 2009.</ref>

The house has remained largely untouched, having remained "unimproved" despite the Victorian passion for remodelling and redecorating. Houghton still belongs to the [[Marquess of Cholmondeley]], and parts of the structure and grounds are opened to the public throughout the year.

Houghton Hall featured in Breathless Beauty, Broken Beauty by artist film maker VanessaJane Hall, which was exhibited at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London during 2014. The Hall's grand interiors were captured in incredible detail in the film, which was was the worlds first sculptural 4k triptych film installation.

===Art===
Houghton once contained part of [[Sir Robert Walpole]]'s [[Walpole collection|great picture collection]], which his grandson [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford|the 3rd earl]] sold in 1779 to [[Catherine the Great]] of [[Russia]] to pay off some of the estate's accumulated debt. Included in the current collection of paintings is [[Thomas Gainsborough]]'s oil painting of his own family -- [http://galeria.klp.pl/p-2839.html ''Thomas Gainsborough, with His Wife and Elder Daughter, Mary''] (circa 1751-1752).

[[File:Cholmondeley Oudry White Duck.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]]'s ''The White Duck,'' which was stolen from Houghton Hall in 1990]]
Walpole's collection of marble Roman busts was also noteworthy.<ref>Michaelis, Adolph. (1882). [http://books.google.com/books?id=C9AaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA323&lpg=PA323&dq=marquis+of+cholmondeley&source=web&ots=NHGsw_JC_F&sig=YZ-2_Uwp1Nt80nOYNxRjlB-M8Vo&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6&ct=result#PPA324,M1 ''Ancient Marbles in Great Britain,'' p. 324.]</ref>

In the early 1990s, [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]]'s "Lady With a Squirrel and a Starling" (1528) was removed from the walls of Houghton where it had hung since 1780. It was put up for auction to raise money to pay inheritance taxes and for maintenance of the house and grounds;<ref>Vogel, Carol. [http://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/21/arts/the-art-market.html?scp=14&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "The Art Market,"] ''New York Times.'' February 21, 1992.</ref> and eventually, negotiations led to the painting's sale to the [[National Gallery]] for £17-million tax free because of special incentives in England for selling works of art that are considered national treasures.<ref>Vogel, Carol. [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/04/arts/inside-art.html?scp=22&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "Inside Art,"] ''New York Times.'' March 4, 1994.</ref>

In the 21st century, art market inflation has placed enormous temptations in the way of the old families with substantial collections. In recent years, ownership of several pieces have been transferred in lieu of tax from the Cholmondeleys to the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]. Some artwork, such as [[William Hogarth]]'s portrait of the Cholmondeley family is unlikely to be let go, and it remains on view at Houghton; but the marquis admits that he is very aware that risk of theft is neither negligible nor negotiable.<ref>Bryant, Chris. [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article2085194.ece "Heritage for sale,"] ''Times'' (London). July 17, 2007.</ref> [[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]]'s ''White Duck,'' stolen from the Cholmondeley collection in 1990, is still missing.<ref>Lyall, Sarah. [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/19/arts/arts-abroad-a-titian-is-no-longer-at-large-its-thief-is.html?scp=17&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "A Titian Is No Longer at Large; Its Thief Is,"] ''New York Times.'' September 19, 2002.</ref>

===Parkland and gardens===
Charles Bridgeman's landscaping plan for the parkland at Houghton remains intact. His "twisting wilderness paths" were cleared in the early 18th century; and they have been maintained since then.<ref>Conan, Michael. (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=3y4VbYgwPrIC&pg=PA399&lpg=PA399&dq= ''Baroque Garden Cultures: Emulation, Sublimation, Subversion,'' p. 399.]</ref>

Bridgeman replaced the formal geometry of intersecting avenues with blocks of woodland and parkland which, as he saw it, was better able to compliment the Hall's compelling architectural statement.<ref>Whyte, Ian D. (2002). [http://books.google.com/books?id=zjH6VjS7bVEC&pg=PA81&dq= ''Landscape and History since 1500,'' p. 81.]</ref>

[[File:ha-ha.svg|thumb|right|130px|Cross-section of a sunken [[ha-ha]] barrier like the ones laid out by Charles Bridgeman at Houghton Hall.]]
The [[ha-ha]] barriers at Houghton were an innovative feature credited to Bridgeman. In his 1780 "Essay upon Modern Gardening," [[Horace Walpole]] explained: "The contiguous ground of the park without the sunk fence was to be harmonized with the lawn within; and the garden in its turn was to be set free from its prim regularity, that it might assort with the wilder country without."<ref>Walpole, Horace. (1780). [http://www.gardenvisit.com/t/w9.htm ''Essay upon Modern Gardening;''] n.b., Walpole was unaware that the technical innovation had been presented in [[Dezallier d'Argenville]]'s ''La theorie et la pratique du jardinage'' (1709), which had been translated into English by the architect [[John James (architect)|John James]] in 1712.</ref>

Sir Robert Walpole constructed a watertower (1731–1732) with the appearance of an architectural [[folly]]. It was designed by [[Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke]]. It was restored in 1982.<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Park, photo of Pembroke's watertower folly]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref>

In this well-established context, a number of contemporary outdoor sculptures have been commissioned in recent years by [[David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley]]. To the west of the house is a circle of Cornish slate at the end of a path mown through the grass. This [[land art]] feature was designed by the British sculptor [[Richard Long (artist)|Richard Long]].<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Park, photo of Long's land art sculpture]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref>

Two modern follies lie in a wooded area to the side of the west front.

American artist [[James Turrell]] contrived "Skyspace" for Houghton. Turrell's construction presents itself from the exterior as an oak-clad building raised on stilts. From the inside of the structure, the viewer's point of view is focused upwards and inevitably lured into contemplating the sky as framed by the open roof.<ref name="garden"/>

"The Sybil Hedge" is another folly in this vicinity.<ref name="artlandish">McCarthy, Anna. "Focus on Jeffe Hein," [http://schools.norfolk.gov.uk/myportal/custom/files_uploaded/uploaded_resources/4477/Spr_09_Houghton_Newsletter%5B1%5D.doc ''Houghton Hall Education Newsletter,''] January 2009, p. 3.]</ref> It is based on the signature of the current marquis' grandmother, [[Sybil Sassoon]]. Scottish artist [[Anya Gallaccio]] has created a sarcophagus-like marble structure which is sited at the end of a path; and nearby is a copper-beech hedge which is planted in lines mirroring Sybil’s signature.<ref name="garden"/>

A {{convert|5|acre|m2|adj=on}}, walled kitchen garden lies beyond the stables. Over the course of time, the productive area was reduced in size, and the enclosure was mostly grassed over. In 1996, the fallow enclosure was redesigned and replanted. The effort was rewarded in 2007 when it was named Historic Houses Association and Christie’s Garden of the Year. Yew hedges divide the space into a formal grid of discrete areas or "rooms", each intending to provoke a different interest and mood. The hedges, some cut in swags, give height and form. The garden rooms include an Italian enclosure with box parterres; a formal rose garden laid out in a pattern based on one of the William Kent ceilings in the house; a French garden of pleached limes and plum trees which have been underplanted with spring bulbs; and a croquet lawn.<ref name="garden"/>

Danish artist [[Jeppe Hein]] created a "Water Flame" sculpture/fountain for this garden.<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Garden, photo of Hein's sculpture/fountain]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref> In all seasons, this jet of water surmounted by a ball of flame illustrates a 21st century folly on a smaller scale than the contemporary pieces outside the garden walls.<ref name="garden"/>

===Model soldiers===
The stable block at Houghton Hall houses the Cholmondeley Collection of Model Soldiers, previously at [[Cholmondeley Castle]] and moved to Houghton Hall in 1980 soon after it was opened to the public. The collection was started in 1928 by the [[Hugh Cholmondeley, 6th Marquess of Cholmondeley|6th Marquess]], expanded throughout his life, and now includes about 20,000 figures.<ref>[http://houghtonhall.com/index.php/soldier-museum Soldier Museum], Houghton Hall</ref><ref>''The Cholmondeley Collection of Model Soldiers'', leaflet, Houghton Hall</ref>

==See also==
* [[Eventing]], "Houghton International Horse Trials"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.houghtoninternational.co.uk |title=Houghton International |publisher=Houghton International |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{commons category|Houghton Hall}}
* Conan, Michael. (2005). ''Baroque Garden Cultures: Emulation, Sublimation, Subversion.'' Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 10-ISBN 0884023044/13-ISBN 9780884023043; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/185320499 OCLC 185320499]
* Adolf Michaelis, Adolf. (1882). ''Ancient marbles in Great Britain.'' Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/68091266 OCLC 68091266]
* Moore, Andrew W. (1996). ''Houghton Hall: The Prime Minister, The Empress and The Heritage.'' London: Philip Wilson Publishers. 10-ISBN 0-85667-438-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-85667-438-9; [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/36167076 OCLC 36167076]
* Whyte, Ian D. (2002). ''Landscape and History Since 1500.'' London : [[Reaktion Books]]. 10_ISBN 1-861-89138-5/13-ISBN 978-1-861-89138-9; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/248507175 OCLC 248507175]

==External links==
*[http://www.houghtonhall.com Official website]
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_detail.asp?ID=1099 Houghton Hall entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses]
*[http://www.houghtoninternational.co.uk/ Houghton International Horse Trials], held annually in May.

[[Category:Country houses in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Gardens in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Robert Walpole]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Prime Ministerial homes in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Walpole family]]
[[Category:Cholmondeley family]]
[[Category:Militaria]]

Houghton Hall (Norfolk)

2015-03-05T21:28:24Z

Textorus: /* Parkland and gardens */ needless caps

{{Coord|52.82690|0.65760|display=title|format=dms}}
:''For the building of a similar name in the East Riding of Yorkshire see [[Houghton Hall, East Riding of Yorkshire|Houghton Hall]]. For the ruined building in Bedfordshire see [[Houghton House]]. For the Lancashire stately home, see [[Hoghton Tower]].''
[[File:Houghton Hall 01.jpg|thumb|300px|The façade of Houghton Hall in 2007.]]
[[File:Houghton Hall.jpg|thumb|right|The façade of Houghton Hall from [[Colen Campbell]]'s ''[[Vitruvius Britannicus]]''. The corner towers were replaced with domes in the final design.]]
'''Houghton Hall''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aʊ|t|ən|}} {{respell|HOW|tən}})<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/houses_Pronounce.asp|title= British pronunciation of country house names|author= DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses|accessdate=2009-12-05}}</ref> is a [[country house]] in [[Norfolk]], [[England]]. It is the home of [[David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Restoration man: the story of Houghton Hall|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/gardenstovisit/9331651/Restoration-man-the-story-of-Houghton-Hall.html|newspaper=Daily Telegraph}}</ref>

It was built for the ''[[de facto]]'' first [[British Prime Minister]], Sir [[Robert Walpole]], and it is a key building in the history of [[Palladian architecture]] in England. It is a Grade I [[listed building]]<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=221600 |title=Images of England: Houghton Hall |publisher=[[English Heritage]] | accessdate= 24 February 2009 |postscript=.}}</ref> surrounded by {{convert|1000|acre|km2}} of parkland adjacent to [[Sandringham House]].

The house has a rectangular main block which consists of a rustic basement at ground level, with a ''[[piano nobile]]'', bedroom floor and attics above. There are also two lower flanking wings joined to the main block by [[colonnade]]s. To the south of the house there is a detached quadrangular stable block.

The exterior is both grand and restrained, constructed of fine-grained, silver-white stone. The Gibbs-designed domes punctuate each corner. In line with Palladian conventions, the interiors are much more colourful, exuberant and opulent than the exteriors.

The parklands surrounding Houghton was redesigned in the 18th-century by [[Charles Bridgeman]].<ref name="garden">Donald, Caroline. [http://property.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/property/gardens/article3889802.ece "The new garden at Houghton Hall, King’s Lynn, Norfolk,"] ''The Times'' (London). May 11, 2008.</ref> In the process, the village of [[Houghton, Norfolk|Houghton]] was demolished and rebuilt outside the park,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y7959lrL2VgC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=place+names+of+norfolk+houghton&source=bl&ots=ZuJtBWjWRN&sig=JJwdcAW0i6Vk4sfyg4dKh54wugI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2gPmUL35Lo-U0QXjrIHgBQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=place%20names%20of%20norfolk%20houghton&f=false |title=Samuel Lewis, ''A Popular Guide to Norfolk Place Names'', The Lark's Press, 1991 ISBN 0-948400-15-3 (p.25) |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref> with the exception of the medieval [[Church of England parish church|parish church]], which was heavily restored.<ref>{{cite web|author=Good Stuff IT Services |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-221599-church-of-st-martin-houghton-norfolk |title=Church of St Martin, Houghton |publisher=British Listed Buildings |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Chimneypiece.jpg|thumb|left|Chimneypiece to Hall, Houghton Hall, Norfolk The Plans, Elevations and Sections, Chimney-pieces and Cielings [sic] of Houghton in Norfolk, 1735 V&A Museum no. 13095]]

This new building was placed on the site of earlier Walpole family houses. Sir Robert Walpole became the 1st Earl of Orford in 1742. Ownership passed to his son and grandson, the [[Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford|2nd]] and [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford|3rd earl]]s. On the death of the 3rd earl it reverted to his uncle the 4th Earl of Orford, better known as [[Horace Walpole]]. On his death in 1797, possession passed to the family of his sister, Lady Cholmondeley, who died at just 26 years in 1731, more than 65 years before.
Sir Robert Walpole's daughter, Mary, had married [[George Cholmondeley, 3rd Earl of Cholmondeley]] and Houghton Hall was modified and maintained by her Cholmondeley family across a further span of generations. [[Colonel Robert Walpole]] borrowed a book about the [[Archbishop of Bremen]] from the [[Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge|Sidney Sussex College]] library in 1667 or 1668. The overdue library book was discovered at Houghton in the mid-1950s, and returned 288 years later.<ref>Vickroy, Donna. [http://www.southtownstar.com/lifestyles/vickroy/1405793,020109vickroy.article "Throwing the book at library scofflaws,"] ''Southtown Star'' (Chicago). February 1, 2009.</ref>

The house has remained largely untouched, having remained "unimproved" despite the Victorian passion for remodelling and redecorating. Houghton still belongs to the [[Marquess of Cholmondeley]], and parts of the structure and grounds are opened to the public throughout the year.

===Art===
Houghton once contained part of [[Sir Robert Walpole]]'s [[Walpole collection|great picture collection]], which his grandson [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford|the 3rd earl]] sold in 1779 to [[Catherine the Great]] of [[Russia]] to pay off some of the estate's accumulated debt. Included in the current collection of paintings is [[Thomas Gainsborough]]'s oil painting of his own family -- [http://galeria.klp.pl/p-2839.html ''Thomas Gainsborough, with His Wife and Elder Daughter, Mary''] (circa 1751-1752).

[[File:Cholmondeley Oudry White Duck.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]]'s ''The White Duck,'' which was stolen from Houghton Hall in 1990]]
Walpole's collection of marble Roman busts was also noteworthy.<ref>Michaelis, Adolph. (1882). [http://books.google.com/books?id=C9AaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA323&lpg=PA323&dq=marquis+of+cholmondeley&source=web&ots=NHGsw_JC_F&sig=YZ-2_Uwp1Nt80nOYNxRjlB-M8Vo&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6&ct=result#PPA324,M1 ''Ancient Marbles in Great Britain,'' p. 324.]</ref>

In the early 1990s, [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]]'s "Lady With a Squirrel and a Starling" (1528) was removed from the walls of Houghton where it had hung since 1780. It was put up for auction to raise money to pay inheritance taxes and for maintenance of the house and grounds;<ref>Vogel, Carol. [http://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/21/arts/the-art-market.html?scp=14&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "The Art Market,"] ''New York Times.'' February 21, 1992.</ref> and eventually, negotiations led to the painting's sale to the [[National Gallery]] for £17-million tax free because of special incentives in England for selling works of art that are considered national treasures.<ref>Vogel, Carol. [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/04/arts/inside-art.html?scp=22&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "Inside Art,"] ''New York Times.'' March 4, 1994.</ref>

In the 21st century, art market inflation has placed enormous temptations in the way of the old families with substantial collections. In recent years, ownership of several pieces have been transferred in lieu of tax from the Cholmondeleys to the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]. Some artwork, such as [[William Hogarth]]'s portrait of the Cholmondeley family is unlikely to be let go, and it remains on view at Houghton; but the marquis admits that he is very aware that risk of theft is neither negligible nor negotiable.<ref>Bryant, Chris. [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article2085194.ece "Heritage for sale,"] ''Times'' (London). July 17, 2007.</ref> [[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]]'s ''White Duck,'' stolen from the Cholmondeley collection in 1990, is still missing.<ref>Lyall, Sarah. [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/19/arts/arts-abroad-a-titian-is-no-longer-at-large-its-thief-is.html?scp=17&sq=cholmondeley&st=nyt "A Titian Is No Longer at Large; Its Thief Is,"] ''New York Times.'' September 19, 2002.</ref>

===Parkland and gardens===
Charles Bridgeman's landscaping plan for the parkland at Houghton remains intact. His "twisting wilderness paths" were cleared in the early 18th century; and they have been maintained since then.<ref>Conan, Michael. (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=3y4VbYgwPrIC&pg=PA399&lpg=PA399&dq= ''Baroque Garden Cultures: Emulation, Sublimation, Subversion,'' p. 399.]</ref>

Bridgeman replaced the formal geometry of intersecting avenues with blocks of woodland and parkland which, as he saw it, was better able to compliment the Hall's compelling architectural statement.<ref>Whyte, Ian D. (2002). [http://books.google.com/books?id=zjH6VjS7bVEC&pg=PA81&dq= ''Landscape and History since 1500,'' p. 81.]</ref>

[[File:ha-ha.svg|thumb|right|130px|Cross-section of a sunken [[ha-ha]] barrier like the ones laid out by Charles Bridgeman at Houghton Hall.]]
The [[ha-ha]] barriers at Houghton was an innovative feature credited to Bridgeman. In his 1780 "Essay upon Modern Gardening," [[Horace Walpole]] explained: "The contiguous ground of the park without the sunk fence was to be harmonized with the lawn within; and the garden in its turn was to be set free from its prim regularity, that it might assort with the wilder country without."<ref>Walpole, Horace. (1780). [http://www.gardenvisit.com/t/w9.htm ''Essay upon Modern Gardening;''] n.b., Walpole was unaware that the technical innovation had been presented in [[Dezallier d'Argenville]]'s ''La theorie et la pratique du jardinage'' (1709), which had been translated into English by the architect [[John James (architect)|John James]] in 1712.</ref>

Sir Robert Walpole constructed a watertower (1731–1732) with the appearance of an architectural [[folly]]. It was designed by [[Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke]]. It was restored in 1982.<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Park, photo of Pembroke's watertower folly]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref>

In this well-established context, a number of contemporary outdoor sculptures have been commissioned in recent years by [[David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley]]. To the west of the house is a circle of Cornish slate at the end of a path mown through the grass. This [[land art]] feature was designed by the British sculptor [[Richard Long (artist)|Richard Long]].<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Park, photo of Long's land art sculpture]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref>

Two modern follies lie in a wooded area to the side of the west front.

American artist [[James Turrell]] contrived "Skyspace" for Houghton. Turrell's construction presents itself from the exterior as an oak-clad building raised on stilts. From the inside of the structure, the viewer's point of view is focused upwards and inevitably lured into contemplating the sky as framed by the open roof.<ref name="garden"/>

"The Sybil Hedge" is another folly in this vicinity.<ref name="artlandish">McCarthy, Anna. "Focus on Jeffe Hein," [http://schools.norfolk.gov.uk/myportal/custom/files_uploaded/uploaded_resources/4477/Spr_09_Houghton_Newsletter%5B1%5D.doc ''Houghton Hall Education Newsletter,''] January 2009, p. 3.]</ref> It is based on the signature of the current marquis' grandmother, [[Sybil Sassoon]]. Scottish artist [[Anya Gallaccio]] has created a sarcophagus-like marble structure which is sited at the end of a path; and nearby is a copper-beech hedge which is planted in lines mirroring Sybil’s signature.<ref name="garden"/>

A {{convert|5|acre|m2|adj=on}}, walled kitchen garden lies beyond the stables. Over the course of time, the productive area was reduced in size, and the enclosure was mostly grassed over. In 1996, the fallow enclosure was redesigned and replanted. The effort was rewarded in 2007 when it was named Historic Houses Association and Christie’s Garden of the Year. Yew hedges divide the space into a formal grid of discrete areas or "rooms", each intending to provoke a different interest and mood. The hedges, some cut in swags, give height and form. The garden rooms include an Italian enclosure with box parterres; a formal rose garden laid out in a pattern based on one of the William Kent ceilings in the house; a French garden of pleached limes and plum trees which have been underplanted with spring bulbs; and a croquet lawn.<ref name="garden"/>

Danish artist [[Jeppe Hein]] created a "Water Flame" sculpture/fountain for this garden.<ref>[http://www.houghtonhall.com/htmlfiles/index.htm Houghton Hall>Garden, photo of Hein's sculpture/fountain]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref> In all seasons, this jet of water surmounted by a ball of flame illustrates a 21st century folly on a smaller scale than the contemporary pieces outside the garden walls.<ref name="garden"/>

===Model soldiers===
The stable block at Houghton Hall houses the Cholmondeley Collection of Model Soldiers, previously at [[Cholmondeley Castle]] and moved to Houghton Hall in 1980 soon after it was opened to the public. The collection was started in 1928 by the [[Hugh Cholmondeley, 6th Marquess of Cholmondeley|6th Marquess]], expanded throughout his life, and now includes about 20,000 figures.<ref>[http://houghtonhall.com/index.php/soldier-museum Soldier Museum], Houghton Hall</ref><ref>''The Cholmondeley Collection of Model Soldiers'', leaflet, Houghton Hall</ref>

==See also==
* [[Eventing]], "Houghton International Horse Trials"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.houghtoninternational.co.uk |title=Houghton International |publisher=Houghton International |date= |accessdate=2014-01-05}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{commons category|Houghton Hall}}
* Conan, Michael. (2005). ''Baroque Garden Cultures: Emulation, Sublimation, Subversion.'' Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 10-ISBN 0884023044/13-ISBN 9780884023043; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/185320499 OCLC 185320499]
* Adolf Michaelis, Adolf. (1882). ''Ancient marbles in Great Britain.'' Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/68091266 OCLC 68091266]
* Moore, Andrew W. (1996). ''Houghton Hall: The Prime Minister, The Empress and The Heritage.'' London: Philip Wilson Publishers. 10-ISBN 0-85667-438-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-85667-438-9; [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/36167076 OCLC 36167076]
* Whyte, Ian D. (2002). ''Landscape and History Since 1500.'' London : [[Reaktion Books]]. 10_ISBN 1-861-89138-5/13-ISBN 978-1-861-89138-9; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/248507175 OCLC 248507175]

==External links==
*[http://www.houghtonhall.com Official website]
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_detail.asp?ID=1099 Houghton Hall entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses]
*[http://www.houghtoninternational.co.uk/ Houghton International Horse Trials], held annually in May.

[[Category:Country houses in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Gardens in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Robert Walpole]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Prime Ministerial homes in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Walpole family]]
[[Category:Cholmondeley family]]
[[Category:Militaria]]

French Quarter (New Orleans)

2015-02-22T08:05:40Z

Textorus: /* History */ accent acute

{{About|the French Quarter in New Orleans|other cities with "French Quarter" areas}}
{{Redirect|Vieux Carré|the play|Vieux Carré (play)}}
{{Geobox
| Settlement

| name = French Quarter
| native_name =
| other_name = Vieux Carré
| other_name1 =
| category = [[New Orleans neighborhoods|New Orleans Neighborhood]]

| image = ChrisLitherlandFrenchQuarter2011.jpg
| image_caption = The French Quarter, looking north with Mississippi River to the right

| flag =
| flag_size =
| symbol =
| symbol_size =

| etymology_type =
| etymology =
| nickname =
| motto =

| country = United States
| state = Louisiana
| region_type = City
| region = [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]
| district_type = Planning District
| district = District 1, French Quarter/CBD

| area_imperial = 0.66
| area_land_imperial = 0.49
| area_water_imperial = 0.17
| area_water_percentage = auto
| area_percentage_round = 2
| area_round = 1
| location =
| lat_d = 29
| lat_m = 57
| lat_s = 31
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 90
| long_m = 03
| long_s = 54
| long_EW = W
| elevation_imperial = 3
| elevation_round = 1

| population_as_of = 2010
| population = 3888
| population_density_imperial = 7935

| established_type = Mayor-Council<ref>[http://www.cityofno.com/pg-1-9.aspx City Of New Orleans : City Charter]</ref>
| established =
| mayor = Mitch Landrieu

| timezone = [[North American Central Time Zone|CST]]
| utc_offset = -6
| timezone_DST = [[North American Central Time Zone|CDT]]
| utc_offset_DST = -5
| postal_code = 70116 - 70130
| postal_code_type = ZIP Codes
| area_code = [[Area code 504|504]]
| area_code_type =
| code2_type =
| code2 =

| free_type =
| free =
| free1_type =
| free1 =

| map = French quarter-cbd.png
| map_size =
| map_caption = Location of the French Quarter and [[New Orleans Central Business District|Central Business District]] in New Orleans
| map_locator =
| map_locator_x =
| map_locator_y =

| website =
}}

The '''French Quarter''', also known as the '''Vieux Carré''', is the oldest [[New Orleans neighborhoods|neighborhood]] in the city of [[New Orleans]]. After New Orleans (''La Nouvelle-Orléans'' in French) was founded in 1718 by [[Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville]], the city developed around the ''Vieux Carré'' ("Old Square" in English), a central square. The district is more commonly called the French Quarter today, or simply "The Quarter," related to changes in the city with American immigration after the Louisiana Purchase.<ref>[http://www.inetours.com/New_Orleans/French_Quarter_History.html New Orleans French Quarter History, Architecture and Pictures]</ref> Most of the present-day historic buildings were constructed during the late 18th century, during the city's period of Spanish rule, and reflect Spanish colonial architecture.

The district as a whole has been designated as a [[National Historic Landmark]], with numerous contributing buildings that are separately deemed significant. It is a prime tourist destination in the city, as well as attracting loyal residents. Because of its distance from areas where the levee was breached during [[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005 as well as the strength and height of the nearest Mississippi River Levees in contrast to other levees along the canals and lakefront,<ref>http://www.nola.com/katrina/graphics/flashflood.swf</ref> it suffered relatively light damage from floodwater as compared to other areas of the city and the greater region.

==Geography==
The French Quarter is located at {{Coord|29|57|31|N|90|03|54|W|type:city}}<ref name="GR1">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/gazette.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2011-04-23|date=2011-02-12|title=US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990}}</ref> and has an elevation of {{convert|3|ft|1}}.<ref name="GR3">{{cite web|url=http://geonames.usgs.gov|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=US Board on Geographic Names|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|date=2007-10-25}}</ref> According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the district has a total area of {{convert|0.66|sqmi|1}}. {{convert|0.49|sqmi|1}} of which is land and {{convert|0.17|sqmi|1}} (25.76%) of which is water.

===Boundaries===
The most common definition of the French Quarter includes all the land stretching along the [[Mississippi River]] from [[Canal Street, New Orleans|Canal Street]] to [[Esplanade Avenue, New Orleans|Esplanade Avenue]] (13 blocks) and inland to [[Rampart Street|North Rampart Street]] (seven to nine blocks). It equals an area of 78 square blocks. Some definitions, such as city zoning laws, exclude the properties facing Canal Street, which had already been redeveloped by the time architectural preservation was considered, and the section between Decatur Street and the river, much of which had long served industrial and warehousing functions.

Any alteration to structures in the remaining blocks is subject to review by the Vieux Carré Commission, which determines whether the proposal is appropriate for the historic character of the district. Its boundaries as defined by the City Planning Commission are: Esplanade Avenue to the north, the [[Mississippi River]] to the east, Canal Street, [[Decatur Street (New Orleans)|Decatur Street]] and Iberville Street to the south and the [[Basin Street]], St. Louis Street and North Rampart Street to the west.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gnocdc.org/orleans/1/48/index.html|title=French Quarter Neighborhood|author=Greater New Orleans Community Data Center|accessdate=2008-06-21}}</ref>

The National Historic Landmark district is stated to be 85 square blocks.<ref name="nhlsum"/><ref name="nrhpinv2"/> The Quarter is subdistrict of the French Quarter/CBD Area.

===Adjacent neighborhoods===
{{Further2|[[New Orleans neighborhoods]]}}
* [[Faubourg Marigny]] (east)
* [[Mississippi River]] (south)
* [[New Orleans Central Business District|Central Business District]] (west)
* [[Iberville Projects|Iberville]] (north)
* [[Tremé]] (north)

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]] of 2000, there were 4,176 people, 2,908 households, and 509 families residing in the neighborhood.<ref name="French Quarter Neighborhood">{{cite web|title=French Quarter Neighborhood|url=http://gnocdc.org/NeighborhoodData/1/FrenchQuarter/index.html|publisher=Greater New Orleans Community Data Center|accessdate=5 January 2012}}</ref> The [[population density]] was 8,523 /mi² (3,212 /km²).

As of the [[census]] of 2010, there were 3,813 people, 2,635 households, and 549 families residing in the neighborhood.<ref name="French Quarter Neighborhood"/>

==History==
{{Infobox NRHP
| name = Vieux Carre Historic District
| nrhp_type = nhld
| image = UpperChartersNOLA.jpg
| caption = French Quarter: Upper Chartres street looking towards [[Jackson Square, New Orleans, Louisiana|Jackson Square]] and the spires of [[St. Louis Cathedral, New Orleans|St. Louis Cathedral]].
| location = [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]
| locmapin = Louisiana
| area =
| built = 1734
| architect = Multiple
| architecture = No Style Listed
| designated_nrhp_type = December 21, 1965<ref name="nhlsum">{{cite web | url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=258&ResourceType=District | title=Vieux Carre Historic District | accessdate=2008-01-31 | work=National Historic Landmark summary listing | publisher=National Park Service}}</ref>
| added = October 15, 1966<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|2007a}}</ref>
| governing_body = Local
| refnum = 66000377
}}
Many of the buildings date from 1803, when New Orleans was acquired by the [[United States]] in the Louisiana Purchase, although some late 19th century and early 20th century buildings were added to the area. Since the 1920s the historic buildings have been protected by law and cannot be demolished, and any renovations or new construction in the neighborhood must be done according to city regulations to preserve the period historic architectural style.

Most of the French Quarter's architecture was built during the late 18th century and the period of [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Spanish rule]] over the city, which is reflected in the architecture of the neighborhood. The [[Great New Orleans Fire (1788)]] and another great fire in 1794 destroyed most of the Quarter's old French colonial architecture, leaving the colony's new Spanish overlords to rebuild it according to more modern tastes. Their strict new fire codes mandated that all structures be physically adjacent and close to the curb to create a firewall. The exception to that rule, [http://www.thecornstalkhotel.com The Cornstalk Hotel], also listed on the National Historical Register, still stands today at 915 Royal Street and is considered the finest Boutique Hotel in New Orleans. The old French peaked roofs were replaced with flat tiled ones, and wooden siding was banned in favor of fire-resistant [[stucco]], painted in the pastel hues fashionable at the time. As a result, colorful walls and roofs and elaborately decorated ironwork balconies and galleries, from the late 18th and the early 19th centuries, abound. (In southeast Louisiana, a distinction is made between "balconies", which are self-supporting and attached to the side of the building, and "galleries," which are supported from the ground by poles or columns.)

When [[English language|Anglophone]] Americans began to move in after the [[Louisiana Purchase]], they mostly built on available land upriver, across modern-day [[Canal Street, New Orleans|Canal Street]]. This thoroughfare became the meeting place of two cultures, one [[Francophone]] [[Louisiana Creole people|Creole]] and the other Anglophone American. (Local landowners had retained architect and surveyor [[Barthelemy Lafon]] to subdivide their property to create an American suburb). The [[Central reservation|median]] of the wide boulevard became a place where the two contentious cultures could meet and do business in both French and English. As such, it became known as the "neutral ground", and this name is used for medians in the New Orleans area.

Even before the Civil War, French Creoles had become a minority in the French Quarter.<ref name="ellis1">{{cite book | last=Ellis | first=Scott S. | title=Madame Vieux Carré: the French Quarter in the Twentieth Century | publisher=University of Mississippi | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-60473-358-7 | page=7}}</ref> In the late 19th century the Quarter became a less fashionable part of town, and many immigrants from southern [[Italy]] and [[Ireland]] settled there. In 1905, the Italian consul estimated that one-third to one-half of the Quarter’s population were Italian-born or second generation Italian-Americans. Irish immigrants also settled heavily in the Esplanade area, which was called the "Irish Channel".<ref name="ellis2">''Madame Vieux Carré'', p. 11</ref>
[[File:New-orleans10.jpg|275px|thumb|left|Elaborate ironwork galleries on the corner of Royal and St. Peter streets]]

[[File:French Quarter-874.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The balconies and windows are an example of a late [[18th century]] [[Spanish architecture#Spanish Colonial architecture|Spanish architecture]] built after the Great Fires of [[Great New Orleans Fire (1788)|1788]] and [[Great New Orleans Fire (1794)|1794]].]]
In 1917, the closure of [[Storyville, New Orleans|Storyville]] sent much of the vice formerly concentrated therein back into the French Quarter, which "for most of the remaining French Creole families . . was the last straw, and they began to move uptown."<ref name="ellis3">''Madame Vieux Carré'', p. 20-21</ref> This, combined with the loss of the [[French Opera House]] two years later, provided a bookend to the era of French Creole culture in the Quarter.<ref name="ellis4">''Madame Vieux Carré'', p. 21</ref> Many of the remaining French Creoles moved to the University area.<ref>''New Orleans 1900 to 1920'' by Mary Lou Widmer. Pelican Publishing: 2007. ISBN 1-58980-401-5 pg 23</ref>

In the early 20th century, the Quarter's cheap rents and air of decay attracted a [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] artistic community, a trend which became pronounced in the 1920s. Many of these new inhabitants were active in the first preservation efforts in the Quarter, which began around that time.<ref name="ellis5">''Madame Vieux Carré'', p. 24</ref> As a result the Vieux Carré Commission (VCC) was established in 1925. Although initially only an advisory body, a 1936 referendum to amend the Louisiana constitution afforded it a measure of regulatory power. It began to exercise more power in the 1940s to preserve and protect the district.<ref name="ellis6">''Madame Vieux Carré'', p. 43</ref>

Meanwhile, [[World War II]] brought thousands of servicemen and war workers to New Orleans as well as to the surrounding region's military bases and shipyards. Many of these sojourners paid visits to the Vieux Carré. Although nightlife and vice had already begun to coalesce on [[Bourbon Street]] in the two decades following the closure of Storyville, the war produced a larger, more permanent presence of exotic, risqué, and often raucous entertainment on what became the city's most famous strip. Years of repeated crackdowns on vice in Bourbon Street clubs, which took on new urgency under Mayor [[deLesseps Story Morrison]], reached a crescendo with District Attorney [[Jim Garrison]]'s raids in 1962, but Bourbon Street's clubs were soon back in business.<ref>Souther, J. Mark. "New Orleans on Parade: Tourism and the Transformation of the Crescent City." Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2013. pp. 41-50.</ref>

The plan to construct an elevated Riverfront Expressway between the [[Mississippi River]] levee and the French Quarter consumed the attention of Vieux Carré preservationists through much of the 1960s. On December 21, 1965, the "Vieux Carre Historic District" was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]].<ref name="nhlsum"/><ref name="nrhpinv2">{{Cite journal | url=http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Text/66000377.pdf | title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Vieux Carré Historic District | date=February 1975 | author=Patricia Heintzelman | publisher=National Park Service | postscript=}}</ref> After waging a decade-long battle against the [[Vieux Carré Riverfront Expressway]] that utilized the newly passed [[National Historic Preservation Act of 1966]], preservationists and their allies forced the issue into federal court, eventually producing the cancellation of the freeway plan in 1969.<ref>Souther, "New Orleans on Parade," pp. 66-71</ref>

The victory was important for the preservation of the French Quarter, but it was hardly the only challenge. Throughout the 1960s, new hotels opened regularly, often replacing large sections of the French Quarter. The VCC approved these structures as long as their designers adhered to prevailing exterior styles. Detractors, fearing that the Vieux Carré's charm might be compromised by the introduction of too many new inns, lobbied successfully for passage in 1969 of a municipal ordinance that forbade new hotels within the district's boundaries. However, the ordinance failed to stop the proliferation of [[timeshare]] condominiums and clandestine [[bed and breakfast]] inns throughout the French Quarter or high-rise hotels just outside its boundaries.<ref>Souther, "New Orleans on Parade," pp. 54-63, 203</ref> In the 1980s, many long-term residents were driven away by rising rents, as property values rose dramatically with expectations of windfalls from the planned [[1984 World's Fair]] site nearby.

More of the neighborhood was developed to support [[tourism]], which is important to the city's economy. But, the French Quarter still combines residential, hotels, guest houses, bars, restaurants and tourist-oriented commercial properties.

===Effect of Hurricane Katrina===
{{main|Effects of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans}}
As with other parts of the city developed before the late 19th century and on dry land predating New Orleans's levee systems, the French Quarter remained substantially dry following Hurricane Katrina. It is 5 feet (1.5 m) above sea level.<ref>{{Wayback |date=20050911082124 |url=http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=topNews&storyID=2005-08-31T161230Z_01_ROB586049_RTRUKOC_0_UK-WEATHER-KATRINA.xml |title=Officials rescue Katrina's survivors amid 'chaos'}} By Rick Wilking, Wed Aug 31, 2005, retrieved on 2009-11-27.</ref> Some streets had minor flooding, and several buildings suffered significant wind damage. Most of the major landmarks suffered only minor damage.<ref>[http://www.frenchquarter.com/index.php FrenchQuarter.com: The Essential Guide to New Orleans' Oldest Neighborhood]</ref> In addition, the Quarter largely escaped the looting and violence that occurred after the storm; nearly all of the antique shops and art galleries in the French Quarter, for example, were untouched.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-rumors27sep27,0,5492806,full.story?coll=la-home-headlines | work=Los Angeles Times | first1=Susannah | last1=Rosenblatt | first2=James | last2=Rainey | title=Katrina Takes a Toll on Truth, News Accuracy – Los Angeles Times | date=September 27, 2005}}</ref>

Mayor [[Ray Nagin]] officially reopened the French Quarter on September 26, 2005 to business owners to inspect property and clean up. Within a month, a large selection of French Quarter businesses had re-opened. The [[Historic New Orleans Collection]]'s Williams Research Center annex was the first new construction completed in the French Quarter after Hurricane Katrina.<ref>[http://www.hnoc.org/visit/buildings_williams_add.html THNOC - WRC Addition]</ref>

==Landmarks and attractions==

===Jackson Square===
{{Main|Jackson Square (New Orleans)}}
[[File:Jackson Square New Orleans.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[Andrew Jackson|Jackson]] statue and Saint Louis Cathedral]]
'''Jackson Square''' (formerly ''Place d'Armes''), originally designed by architect and landscaper Louis H. Pilié (officially credited only with the iron fence), is a public gated park the size of a city-block, located at the front of the French Quarter (GPS {{Coord|29.95748|-90.06310|display=inline}}). After the 1815 [[Battle of New Orleans]], it was named after General (later President) [[Andrew Jackson]]. In 1856, city leaders purchased an [[Equestrian sculpture|equestrian statue]] of Jackson from the sculptor Clark Mills. The statue was placed at the center of the square, which was converted to a park from its previous use as a military parade ground and execution site (runaway slaves and others committing crimes were often hanged in the Place d’Armes).

The square originally overlooked the [[Mississippi River]] across Decatur Street; however, the view was blocked in the 19th century when larger levees were built along the river. The riverfront was long devoted to shipping-related activities at the heart of the port. The administration of Mayor [[Moon Landrieu]] put in a scenic boardwalk along the river across from the Square; it is known as the "Moon Walk" in his honor. At the end of the 1980s, old wharves and warehouses were demolished to create [[Woldenberg Park]], extending the riverfront promenade up to Canal Street.

On the opposite side of the square from the River are three 18th‑century historic buildings, which were the city's heart in the colonial era. The center of the three is [[St. Louis Cathedral, New Orleans|St. Louis Cathedral]]. The [[cathedral]] was designated a [[minor basilica]] by [[Pope Paul VI]]. To its left is [[The Cabildo]], the old city hall, now a museum, where the [[Louisiana Purchase]] was signed. To the Cathedral's right is [[The Presbytère]], built to match the Cabildo. The Presbytère, originally used to house the city's [[Roman Catholic]] priests and authorities, was adapted as a courthouse at the start of the 19th century after the Louisiana Purchase, when civilian government was elevated over the Catholic Church. In the 20th century it was adapted as a museum.

On each side of the square are the [[Pontalba Buildings]], matching red-brick one-block-long, four‑story buildings constructed between 1849 and 1851. The ground floors house shops and restaurants; the upper floors are apartments. The buildings were planned as row townhouses; they were not converted to rental apartments until the 1930s (during the [[Great Depression]]).

The buildings were designed and constructed by [[Baroness Micaela Almonester Pontalba]], daughter of Don [[Andres Almonaster y Rojas]], a prominent Spanish philanthropist in [[Louisiana Creole people|creole]] New Orleans. Micaela Almonaster was born in Louisiana in 1795. Her father died three years later, and she became sole heiress to his fortune and his New Orleans land holdings.

Directly across from Jackson Square is the [[Jax Brewery]] building, the original home of a local [[beer]]. After the company ceased to operate independently, the building was converted for use by retail businesses, including restaurants and specialty shops. In recent years, some retail space has been converted into riverfront [[condominium]]s. Behind the Jax Brewery lies the Toulouse Street Wharf, the regular pier for the excursion steamboat, ''[[Natchez (boat)#Current Natchez|Natchez]]''.

From the 1920s through the 1980s, Jackson Square became known for attracting [[Painting|painter]]s, young art students, and [[caricaturist]]s.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} In the 1990s, the artists were joined by [[tarot card readers]], [[mime artist|mime]]s, fortune tellers, and other street performers.

Live music has been a regular feature of the entire Quarter, including the Square. for more than a century. Formal concerts are also held, although more rarely. Street musicians play for tips.

Diagonally across the square from the Cabildo is ''[[Café du Monde]]'', open 24 hours a day except for [[Christmas Day]] and during [[hurricane]]s. The historic cafe is famous for the [[café au lait]] (literally coffee served with milk) -- coffee blended with [[chicory]]—and [[beignet]]s, made and served there continuously since the 19th century. It is a custom for anyone visiting for the first time to blow the [[powdered sugar]] off a beignet and make a wish.
<gallery>
File:French Quarter01 New Orleans.JPG|Carriage in French Quarter
File:BourbonStreet.jpg|The ''Rue Bourbon'', or [[Bourbon Street]], was named for the former ruling dynasty of France.
File:French Quarter02 New Orleans.JPG|French Quarter
File:French Quarter03 New Orleans.JPG|French Quarter
Musicians Performing.jpg|Musicians performing in the French Quarter
Flea Market.jpg|New Orleans Flea Market
</gallery>

===Bourbon Street===
{{Main|Bourbon Street}}
The most well known of the French Quarter streets, Bourbon Street, or Rue Bourbon, is known for its drinking establishments. Most of the bars frequented by tourists are new but the Quarter also has a number of notable bars with interesting histories. The [[Old Absinthe House]] has kept its name although the liquor has been illegal for a century in the United States because of its toxic qualities.

[[Pat O'Brien's Bar]] is well known both for inventing the red cocktail, [[Hurricane (cocktail)|Hurricane]], as well as having the first [[Dueling pianos|Dueling Piano Bar]]. Pat O'Brien's is located at 718 St. Peter Street.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Lind
| first = Angus
| url = http://blog.nola.com/anguslind/2008/11/pat_os_turns_75_this_week.html
| title = Home of the 'Hurricane' Pat O'Brien's turns 75 this week
| publisher = nola.com
| accessdate = 2009-06-19
}}</ref>

[[Lafitte's Blacksmith Shop]] is a tavern located on the corner of Bourbon and St. Philip streets. Built sometime before 1772, it is one of the older surviving structures in New Orleans (the [[Ursuline Convent, New Orleans (1751)|Ursuline Convent]], for example, is older). It has been called the oldest continually occupied bar in the United States. According to legend, the structure was once owned by the pirate [[Jean Lafitte]].

The [[Napoleon House]] bar and restaurant is in the former home of mayor [[Nicholas Girod]]. It was named for an unrealized plot to rescue [[Napoleon I]] from his exile in St. Helena and bring him to New Orleans.

The original [[Johnny White's]] bar is a favorite of [[motorcycle|motorcycle biker]]s. In 2005 an off-shoot called Johnny White's Hole in the Wall, along with [[Molly's at the Market]], drew national media attention as the only businesses in the city to stay open throughout Hurricane Katrina and the weeks after the storm.

[http://Spiritsonbourbon.com Spirits on Bourbon] was featured on the season three of ''Bar Rescue.'' It has become a staple of Bourbon Street, with its light-up skull cup and Resurrection drink.

The [[Bourbon Pub]] and Oz, both located at the intersection of Bourbon and St. Ann streets, are the two largest [[homosexual|gay]] clubs in New Orleans. [[Café Lafitte in Exile]], located at the intersection of Bourbon and Dumaine, is the oldest continuously running [[gay bar]] in the [[United States]]. These and other gay establishments sponsor the raucous [[Southern Decadence]] Festival during [[Labor Day]] weekend. This festival is often referred to as New Orleans's "Gay Mardi Gras". St. Ann Street is often called "the Lavender Line," in reference to its being on the edge of the French Quarter's predominately gay district. While gay residents live throughout the French Quarter, that portion northeast of St. Ann Street is generally considered to be the gay district.

New Orleans and its French Quarter are one of a few places in the [[United States]] where possession and consumption of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] in [[United States open container laws|open containers]] is allowed on the street.<ref>[http://secure.cityofno.com/SystemModules/PrintPage.aspx?portal=2&load=~/PortalModules/ViewPressRelease.ascx&itemid=509 City of New Orleans memo]</ref>

===Restaurants===
The neighborhood contains many restaurants, ranging from formal to casual, patronized by both visitors and locals. Some are well-known landmarks, such as [[Antoine's]] and [[Tujague's]], which have been in business since the 19th century. [[Arnaud's]], [[Galatoire's]], [[Broussard's]], and [[Brennan's]] are nearly as venerable. Less historic—but also well-known—French Quarter restaurants include those run by chefs [[Paul Prudhomme]] ("K-Paul's"), [[Emeril Lagasse]] ("NOLA"), and John Besh. Port of Call on Esplanade Avenue has been in business for more than 30 years, and is recognized for its popular Monsoon drinks as well as food.

===Hotels===
Accommodations in the French Quarter range from large international hotel chains, to [[bed and breakfasts]], to time-share condominiums, and small guest houses with only one or two rooms. The Audubon Cottages]] were built as creole cottages in the late 1700s . The [[Audubon Cottages]] were home to [[Antoine Amedée Peychaud]] during its history. [[Tennessee Williams]] was a frequent guest, and the hotel works to maintain its historic ambiance. He set his play, ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire (play)|A Streetcar Named Desire]],'' in the Quarter.

The French Quarter is well known for its traditional-style hotels, such as Bourbon Orleans [(Bourbon Orleans Hotel)],[[Hotel Monteleone]], Royal Sonesta, The Astor, and the [[Hyatt French Quarter Hotel]]. These hotels offer prime location, beautiful views, and historic atmosphere.

==Education==
{{Expand section|date=April 2011}}
Residents are within the jurisdiction of the [[New Orleans Public Schools]].

==See also==
{{Portal|New Orleans}}
* [[French Market]]
* [[New Orleans Mardi Gras]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|French Quarter}}
{{Wikivoyage|New_Orleans/French_Quarter|French Quarter}}
* {{Wayback |date=* |url=http://www.new-orleans.la.us/cnoweb/VCC/index.html |title=Vieux Carré Commission }} (VCC) (Archive) - City of New Orleans
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/United_States/Louisiana/New_Orleans/_Texts/Iron_Lace*.html Harriet Joor: ''The City of Iron Lace'']
*[http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=258&ResourceType=District National Historic Landmarks Program: Vieux Carré Historic District]
*[http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/20vieux/20vieux.htm ''Vieux Carré:A Creole Neighborhood in New Orleans,'' a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan]

{{New Orleans District 1}}
{{Registered Historic Places}}
{{New Orleans}}
{{Ethnic enclaves}}

[[Category:French Quarter| ]]
[[Category:Downtown New Orleans]]
[[Category:Neighborhoods in New Orleans, Louisiana]]
[[Category:Louisiana populated places on the Mississippi River]]
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in Louisiana]]
[[Category:Busking venues]]
[[Category:Villages in Louisiana]]
[[Category:Historic districts in Louisiana]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in New Orleans, Louisiana]]

Papst (Titel)

2015-01-31T12:12:01Z

Textorus: /* Protestant denominations */ Clarifying ambiguous or misleading or redundant phrasing

{{About|the leader of the Catholic Church|the popes of other churches, and other uses}}
{{redirect|The Pope|the current pope|Pope Francis|prior popes|List of popes}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox Bishopric
|border = catholic
|font_color = black
|bishopric = [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]
|coatofarms = Coat of arms Holy See.svg
|image = Pope Francis in March 2013 (cropped).jpg
|incumbent = {{Incumbent pope}}
|other = Since 13 March 2013
|episcopal conference = [[List of Roman Catholic dioceses (structured view)#Episcopal Conference of Italy|Italy]]
|province = [[List of Roman Catholic dioceses (structured view)#Ecclesiastical Province of Rome|Ecclesiastical Province of Rome]]
|diocese = [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]
|cathedral = [[Archbasilica of St. John Lateran]]
|first_bishop = According to traditional Christianity, [[Saint Peter]]
|date = According to traditional Christianity, the 1st century
|website = [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy Father]
}}
{{Catholic Church Hierarchy}}
The '''Pope''' ({{lang-la|papa}}; from {{lang-el|πάππας}} ''pappas'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/pope |title=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Education.yahoo.com |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> a child's word for ''father'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nlp.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=pa/ppas |title=Liddell and Scott |publisher=Oxford University Press |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref> is the '''[[Bishop (Catholicism)|Bishop]] of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]''' and the leader of the worldwide [[Catholic Church]].<ref name="section880">{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P2A.HTM#PZ|work=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title= Christ's Faithful - Hierarchy, Laity, Consecrated Life: The episcopal college and its head, the Pope|publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana|location=Vatican City|year=1993|accessdate=14 April 2013}}</ref> The importance of the Roman bishop is largely derived from his role as the traditional successor to [[Saint Peter]], to whom [[Jesus]] gave the [[keys of Heaven]] and the powers of "binding and loosing", naming him as the "rock" upon which the church would be built. The current pope is [[Pope Francis|Francis]], who was [[Papal conclave, 2013|elected]] on 13 March 2013, succeeding [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]].<ref>[http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/E/EU_VATICAN_POPE?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2013-03-13-14-10-46 News from The Associated Press]</ref>

The office of the Pope is the '''papacy'''. His [[ecclesiastical jurisdiction]], the [[Diocese of Rome]], is often called "the [[Holy See]]"<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/holy+see Merriam-Webster Dictionary]</ref> or "the [[Apostolic See]]", the latter name being based upon the belief that the Bishop of Rome is the successor of [[Peter the Apostle]].<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/apostolic-see Collins Dictionary]</ref> The pope is also [[head of state]] of [[Vatican City]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaticanstate.va/EN/State_and_Government/ |title=Vatican City State - State and Government |publisher=Vaticanstate.va |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> a sovereign [[city-state]] entirely [[Enclave and exclave|enclaved]] within the Italian capital city of [[Rome]].

The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in [[History of the world|world history]].<ref>Collins, Roger. ''Keepers of the keys of heaven: a history of the papacy''. Introduction (One of the most enduring and influential of all human institutions, (...) No one who seeks to make sense of modern issues within Christendom - or, indeed, world history - can neglect the vital shaping role of the popes.) Basic Books. 2009. ISBN 978-0-465-01195-7.</ref> The popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes.<ref name = "World History" /> In the [[Middle Ages]], they played a role of secular importance in [[Western Europe]], often acting as arbitrators between Christian [[monarch]]s.<ref name="Faus">Faus, José Ignacio Gonzáles. "''Autoridade da Verdade - Momentos Obscuros do Magistério Eclesiástico''". Capítulo VIII: Os papas repartem terras - Pág.: 64-65 e Capítulo VI: O papa tem poder temporal absoluto – Pág.: 49-55. Edições Loyola. ISBN 85-15-01750-4. Embora Faus critique profundamente o poder temporal dos papas ("''Mais uma vez isso salienta um dos maiores inconvenientes do status político dos sucessores de Pedro''" - pág.: 64), ele também admite um papel secular positivo por parte dos papas ("''Não podemos negar que intervenções papais desse gênero evitaram mais de uma guerra na Europa''" - pág.: 65).</ref><ref name="Papal Arbitration">{{cathEncy|wstitle=Papal Arbitration|author=Jarrett, Bede}}</ref><ref>Such as regulating the [[colonization]] of the [[New World]]. See [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] and [[Inter caetera]].</ref> Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in [[ecumenism]] and [[interfaith dialog]], charitable work, and the defense of [[human rights]].<ref>''História das Religiões. Crenças e práticas religiosas do século XII aos nossos dias''. Grandes Livros da Religião. Editora Folio. 2008. Pág.: 89, 156-157. ISBN 978-84-413-2489-3</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.suapesquisa.com/pesquisa/papa.htm |title=último Papa - Funções, eleição, o que representa, vestimentas, conclave, primeiro papa |publisher=Suapesquisa.com |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref>

Popes, who originally had no [[temporal power (papal)|temporal power]]s, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, and papal authority is now once again almost exclusively restricted to matters of religion.<ref name = "World History" /> Over the centuries, papal claims of spiritual authority have been ever more firmly expressed, culminating in 1870 with the proclamation of the [[Roman Catholic dogma|dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for rare occasions when the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]''—literally "from the chair (of [[Saint Peter]])"—to issue a formal definition of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]].<ref name = "World History" />

==History==
{{Roman Catholicism}}
{{Main|History of the papacy}}

===Title and etymology===
The word ''pope'' derives from [[Greek language|Greek]] '''πάππας''' meaning "Father". In the early centuries of [[Christianity]], this title was applied, especially in the east, to all bishops and other senior clergy, and later became reserved in the west to the Bishop of Rome, a reservation made official only in the 11th century.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=Elwell+%22term+pappa%22 |first=Walter A. |last=Elwell|title=''Evangelical Dictionary of Theology'' |publisher=Baker Academic|year= 2001|isbn= 9780801020759|page=888|accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=Greer+Lewis+%22any+bishop+or%22 |first=Thomas H.|last= Greer|author2=Gavin Lewis|title=A Brief History of the Western World|publisher=Cengage Learning|year= 2004|isbn=9780534642365|page=172 |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=Mazza+%22synonymous+with+bishop%22 |first=Enrico|last= Mazza|title=The Eucharistic Prayers of the Roman Rite|publisher=Liturgical Press|year= 2004|isbn=9780814660782|page=63 |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=O%27Malley+%22term+was+applied+to+all+bishops%22 |first=John W.|last= O'Malley|title=A History of the Popes|publisher=Government Institutes|year= 2009|isbn= 9781580512275| page=xv|accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=Schatz+%22number+of+individual+bishops%22 |first=Klaus|last= Schatz|title=Papal Primacy|publisher=Liturgical Press|year= 1996|isbn=9780814655221|pages=28–29|accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref> The earliest record of the use of this title was in regard to the by then deceased [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], [[Pope Heraclas of Alexandria]] (232–248).<ref>Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica Book VII, chapter 7.7</ref> The earliest recorded use of the title "pope" in English dates to the mid-10th century, when it was used in reference to [[Pope Vitalian]] in an Old English translation of [[Bede]]'s ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]''.<ref>"pope, n.1". OED Online. September 2011. Oxford University Press. 21 November 2011</ref>

The title was from the early 3rd century a general term used to refer to all bishops.<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> From the 6th century, the title began to be used particularly of the Bishop of Rome, and in the late 11th century [[Pope Gregory VII]] issued a declaration that has been widely interpreted as stating this by then established Western convention.<ref name=ODCC:Pope>{{citation |title=Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |ISBN=978-0-19-280290-3 |contribution=Pope}}</ref> By the same 6th century, this was also the normal practice of the imperial chancery of Constantinople.<ref name=ODCC:Pope/>

===Position within the Church===

The Catholic Church teaches that the pastoral office, the office of [[Shepherd#In religion|shepherding]] the Church, that was held by the apostles, as a group or "college" with [[Saint Peter]] at their head, is now held by their successors, the bishops, with the bishop of Rome (the pope) at their head.<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church, 880–881]</ref>

The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as leader of the Church and in its dogmatic constitution ''[[Lumen Gentium]]'' makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the pope as successor of Peter in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |title=''Lumen gentium'', 22 |publisher=Vatican.va |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome and founded the episcopal see there can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century.<ref name="O'Grady 146">{{cite book |first=John |last=O'Grady |title=The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature |page=146 |isbn=0-8091-3740-2}}</ref> The writings of the [[Church Father]] [[Irenaeus]] who wrote around AD 180 reflect a belief that Peter "founded and organised" the Church at Rome.<ref>{{cite book |first=J |last=Stevenson |title=A New Eusebius |page=114 |isbn=0-281-00802-7}}</ref> Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. [[Pope Clement I|Clement of Rome]] wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, ''c.'' 96,<ref name="fn_2">{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1010.htm |title=Letter to the Corinthians (Clement)|publisher=New Advent |work=Catholic Encyclopedia: The Fathers of the Church|accessdate=14 April 2013}}</ref> about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the "struggles in our time" and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, "first, the greatest and most just columns", the "good apostles" Peter and Paul.<ref name="Gröber, 510">Gröber, 510</ref> [[Ignatius of Antioch|St. Ignatius of Antioch]] wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did.<ref name="fn_3">{{cite web |url=http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html |title=Letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans |publisher=Crossroads Initiative}}</ref> Given this and other evidence, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero, although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Saint Peter the Apostle|year=2013|author=O'Connor, Daniel William|encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle/5632/Tradition-of-Peter-in-Rome|page=5|accessdate=14 April 2013|quote=[M]any scholars… accept Rome as the location of the martyrdom and the reign of Nero as the time.}}</ref><ref>{{citation |language=German |title=Zeitschr. fur Kirchengesch. |year=1901 |pages=1 sqq., 161 sqq.}}</ref><ref>''The Secrets of the 12 Disciples'', [[Channel 4]], transmitted on 23 March 2008.</ref>

Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome.<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=O'Grady |title=The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature |page=143 |isbn=0-8091-3740-2}}</ref> Others, using Peter's own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter.<ref>Was Peter in Rome, ''Catholic Answers''. http://www.catholic.com/tracts/was-peter-in-rome</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Scofield|title=Scofield Reference Notes on Matthew 16|url=http://studylight.org/com/srn/view.cgi?book=mt&chapter=16&verse=18#Mt16_18|work=Scofield Reference Notes (1917 Edition)|accessdate=1 August 2011}}</ref> Others have argued that the church is indeed built upon Jesus and faith, but also on the disciples as the roots and foundations of the church on the basis of Paul's teaching in Romans and Ephesians, though not primarily Peter.<ref>Proof and Reason for the Papal Office, ''About Catholics''. http://www.aboutcatholics.com/worship/proof_reason_papal_office/</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://studylight.org/com/mhc-com/view.cgi?book=mt&chapter=16&verse=18#Mt16_18 |title=Matthew 16:18 - Matthew Henry's Complete Commentary on the Bible - Commentaries |publisher=StudyLight.org |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref>

First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches. Gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas.<ref name="O'Grady 140">{{cite book |first=John |last=O'Grady |title=The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature |page=140 |isbn=0-8091-3740-2}}</ref> Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome.<ref name="O'Grady 140"/> In Rome there were many who claimed to be the rightful bishop though again Irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of St. Peter up to his contemporary [[Pope Victor I]] and listed them.<ref>{{cite book |first=J |last=Stevenson |title=A New Eusebius |pages=114–115 |isbn=0-281-00802-7}}</ref> Some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops but not necessarily monarchical bishops.<ref name="O'Grady 146"/>

Documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the [[Holy See]] had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is very unclear at this period.<ref>"From an historical perspective, there is no conclusive documentary evidence from the 1st century or the early decades of the second of the exercise of, or even the claim to, a primacy of the Roman bishop or to a connection with Peter, although documents from this period accord the church at Rome some kind of pre‑eminence" ([http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8523 Emmanuel Clapsis, Papal Primacy], extract from ''Orthodoxy in Conversation'' (2000), p. 110); and "The see of Rome, whose prominence was associated with the deaths of Peter and Paul, became the principle center in matters concerning the universal Church" (Clapsis, p. 102). The same writer quotes with approval the words of [[Pope Benedict XVI|Joseph Ratzinger]]: "In Phanar, on 25 July 1976, when [[Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople|Patriarch Athenegoras]] addressed [[Pope Paul VI|the visiting pope]] as Peter's successor, the first in honor among us, and the presider over charity, this great church leader was expressing the essential content of the declarations of the primacy of the first millennium" (Clapsis, p. 113).</ref>

===Early Christianity (''c.'' 30–325)===
It seems that at first the terms "episcopos" and "presbyter" were used interchangeably.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 1997 edition revised 2005, page 211: "It seems that at first the terms 'episcopos' and 'presbyter' were used interchangeably..."</ref> The consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable.<ref>Cambridge History of Christianity, volume 1, 2006, "The general consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the first and second centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable."</ref> Some say that there was probably "no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century...and likely later."<ref>Cambridge History of Christianity, volume 1, 2006, page 418: "Probably there was no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century...and likely later.</ref> Other scholars and historians disagree, citing the historical records of [[Ignatius of Antioch|St. Ignatius of Antioch]] and [[Irenaeus|St. Irenaeus]] who recorded the linear succession of Bishops of Rome (the popes) up until their own times. They also cite the importance accorded to the popes in the [[ecumenical council]]s, including the early ones.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Harrison |first=Brian W. |url=http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/1991/9101fea2.asp |title=Papal Authority at the Earliest Councils |journal=This Rock |volume=2 |issue=1 |date=January 1991 |publisher=[[Catholic Answers]] |accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>

In the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on the leadership of worldwide Church. [[James the Just]], known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honored as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his [[Epistle to the Romans]], and according to tradition Paul was martyred there.

During the 1st century of the Church (''ca.'' 30–130), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. [[Pope Clement I|Clement I]], at the end of the 1st century, wrote an epistle to the Church in [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]] intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier.<ref>Chadwick, Henry, ''Oxford History of Christianity'', OUP, quote: "Towards the latter part of the 1st century, Rome's presiding cleric named Clement wrote on behalf of his church to remonstrate with the Corinthian Christians who had ejected clergy without either financial or charismatic endowment in favor of a fresh lot; Clement apologized not for intervening but for not having acted sooner. Moreover, during the 2nd century the Roman community's leadership was evident in its generous alms to poorer churches. About 165 they erected monuments to their martyred apostles, to Peter in a necropolis on the Vatican Hill, to Paul on the road to Ostia, at the traditional sites of their burial. Roman bishops were already conscious of being custodians of the authentic tradition of true interpretation of the apostolic writings. In the conflict with Gnosticism Rome played a decisive role, and likewise in the deep division in Asia Minor created by the claims of the Montanist prophets."</ref> However, there are only a few other references of that time to recognition of the [[Primacy of the Bishop of Rome|authoritative primacy]] of the [[Holy See|Roman See]] outside of Rome. In the [[Declaration of Ravenna|Ravenna Document]] of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: "41. Both sides agree...that Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St [[Ignatius of Antioch]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html |title=Letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans: Prologue|publisher=Crossroads Productions |accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> occupied the first place in the ''taxis'', and that the [[bishop]] of Rome was therefore the ''protos'' among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the Bishop of Rome as ''protos'', a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium."

In the late 2nd century AD, there were more manifestations of Roman authority over other churches. In 189, assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in [[Irenaeus]]'s ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' (3:3:2): "With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree...and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." In AD 195, [[Pope Victor I]], in what is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the [[Quartodecimans]] for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, the date of the Jewish [[Passover]], a tradition handed down by [[John the Evangelist]] (see [[Easter controversy]]). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the pope, is the system that has prevailed (see [[computus]]).

===Nicaea to East-West Schism (325–1054)===
The [[Edict of Milan]] in 313 granted freedom to all religions in the Roman Empire,<ref>Davidson, Ivor (2005). The Birth of the Church. Monarch. Pág.: 341. ISBN 1-85424-658-5.</ref> beginning the [[Peace of the Church]]. In 325, the [[First Council of Nicaea]] condemned [[Arianism]], declaring [[trinitarianism]] dogmatic, and in its sixth canon recognized the special role of the sees of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch.<ref>"Let the ancient customs in Egypt, Libya and Pentapolis prevail, that the Bishop of Alexandria has jurisdiction over them all, since a similar arrangement is the custom for the Bishop of Rome. Likewise let the churches in Antioch and the other provinces retain their privileges" ([http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/nicaea-325-canons Canons of the Council of Nicaea]).</ref> Great defenders of Trinitarian faith included the popes, especially [[Pope Liberius]], who was exiled to [[Veria|Berea]] by [[Constantius II]] for his Trinitarian faith,<ref>{{cathEncy|wstitle=Pope Liberius|author=Chapman, Henry Palmer}}</ref> [[Pope Damasus I|Damasus I]], and several other bishops.<ref name="Alves J.">Alves J. ''Os Santos de Cada Dia'' (10 edição). Editora Paulinas. Pág.: 296, 696, 736. ISBN 978-85-356-0648-5.</ref>

In 380, [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicene]] Christianity was declared the state religion of the Roman Empire, with the name "Catholic Christians" reserved for those who accepted that faith.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html Theodosian Code] XVI.i.2, Medieval Sourcebook: Banning of Other Religions by Paul Halsall, June 1997, Fordham University, retrieved 2007-09-04</ref><ref>Wilken, Robert (2004). "Christianity". in Hitchcock, Susan Tyler; Esposito, John. Geography of Religion. National Geographic Society. Pág.: 286. ISBN 0-7922-7317-6.</ref> While the civil power in the East controlled the church, and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]], the capital, wielded much power,<ref name="GAETA">GAETA, Franco; VILLANI, Pasquale. Corso di Storia, per le scuole medie superiori. Milão. Editora Principato. 1986.</ref> in the West, the Bishops of Rome were able to consolidate the influence and power they already possessed.<ref name="GAETA"/> After the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], barbarian tribes were converted to Arian Christianity or Catholicism;<ref name="Le Goff">Le Goff, Jacques (2000). ''Medieval Civilization''. Barnes & Noble. p. 14, 21. ISBN 0-631-17566-0.</ref> [[Clovis I]], king of the [[Franks]], was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to Catholicism rather than Arianism, allying himself with the papacy. Other tribes, such as the [[Visigoths]], later abandoned Arianism in favour of Catholicism.<ref name="Le Goff"/>

====Medieval Age====
[[File:Gregorythegreat.jpg|thumb|upright|Gregory the Great (''c'' 540–604) who established medieval themes in the Church, in a painting by [[Carlo Saraceni]], c. 1610, Rome.]]
After the fall of Rome, the pope served as a source of authority and continuity. [[Gregory the Great]] (''c'' 540–604) administered the church with strict reform. From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the stern judgement and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook; his popular writings are full of dramatic miracles, potent relics, demons, angels, ghosts, and the approaching end of the world.{{sfn|Durant|1950|pp=517–551}}

Gregory's successors were largely dominated by the [[Exarchate of Ravenna|Exarch of Ravenna]], the Byzantine emperor's representative in Italy. These humiliations, the weakening of the empire in the face of Muslim expansion, and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the [[Lombards]], made [[Pope Stephen II]] turn from Emperor [[Constantine V]]. He appealed to the Franks to protect his lands. [[Pepin the Short]] subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the papacy. When Leo III crowned [[Charlemagne]] (800), he established the precedent that, in the West, no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope.{{sfn|Durant|1950|pp=517–551}}

From the 7th century it became common for European monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform [[investiture]] or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms, their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy.<ref name="H.G.B">''História Global Brasil e Geral''. Pág.: 101, 130, 149, 151, 159. Volume único. Gilberto Cotrim. ISBN 978-85-02-05256-7</ref><ref name="Missão Jovem">[http://www.pime.org.br/missaojovem/mjhistdaigrejareforma.htm MOVIMENTOS DE RENOVAÇÃO E REFORMA]. 2009-10-01.</ref> This practice had become common because often the prelates and secular rulers were also participants in public life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portalsaofrancisco.com.br/alfa/feudalismo/feudalismo.php |title=Feudalismo |publisher=Portalsaofrancisco.com.br |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref> To combat this and other practices that had corrupted the Church between the years 900 and 1050, centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform, the most important being the [[Abbey of Cluny]], which spread its ideals throughout Europe.<ref name="Missão Jovem"/> This reform movement gained strength with the election of [[Pope Gregory VII]] in 1073, who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the [[Gregorian Reform]], in order to fight strongly against [[simony]] and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline, including [[celibacy]].<ref name="Alves J."/> The conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as the Holy Roman Emperor [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] and [[Henry I of England]], known as the question of investiture, was only resolved in 1122, by the [[Concordat of Worms]], in which the pope decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders, and temporal rulers by lay investiture.<ref name="H.G.B"/> Soon after, [[Pope Alexander III]] began reforms that would lead to the establishment of [[canon law]].{{sfn|Durant|1950|pp=517–551}}

Since the beginning of the 7th century, the [[Caliphate]] had conquered much of the southern [[Mediterranean]], and represented a threat to Christianity.<ref>Vidmar, John (2005). ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages''. Paulist Press. p. 94. ISBN 0-8091-4234-1.</ref> In 1095, the Byzantine emperor, [[Alexios I Komnenos]], asked for military aid from [[Pope Urban II]] against the Muslim invasions.<ref>Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1997). ''The First Crusaders''. Cambridge University Press. P. 6. ISBN 978-0-511-00308-0.</ref> Urban, at the [[council of Clermont]], called the [[First Crusade]] to assist the Byzantine Empire to regain the old Christian territories, especially [[Jerusalem]].{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=140-141, 192}}

The low point of the papacy was 867–1049.{{sfn|Durant|1950|loc=chpt. 4}} The papacy came under the control of vying political factions. Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force. The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years. The official's great-grandson, [[Pope John XII]], held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran palace. Emperor Otto I of Germany had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected a layman as [[Pope Leo VIII]]. John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as pope. Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly.{{sfn|Durant|1950|loc=chpt. 4}}

In 1049, [[Pope Leo IX|Leo IX]] became pope, at last a pope with the character to face the papacy's problems. He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably [[simony]] and clerical marriage and concubinage. With his long journey, he restored the prestige of the papacy in the north.{{sfn|Durant|1950|loc=chpt. 4}}

===East–West Schism to Reformation (1054–1517)===
[[File:Mediterranean1400.png|thumb|upright=1.8|A historical map of the Mediterranean states in 1400. The [[Western Schism]] lasted from 1378 to 1417.]]
The East and West churches split definitively in 1054. This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed. Popes had galled the emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]], and driving into Greek Italy.{{sfn|Durant|1950|loc=chpt. 4}}

In the [[Middle Ages]], popes struggled with monarchs over power.<ref name="World History"/>

From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in [[Avignon]]. The [[Avignon Papacy]] was notorious for greed and corruption.{{sfn|Durant|1957|pp=3–25}} During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of France, alienating France's enemies, such as England.{{sfn|Durant|1957|pp=26–57}}

The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the "treasury" of merit built up by the saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences, reducing one's time in [[purgatory]]. The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution. The popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses, but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences.{{sfn|Durant|1957|pp=3–25}}

Popes also contended with the cardinals, who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of councils over the pope's. Conciliar theory holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope. Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century. The failure of the conciliar theory to gain broad acceptance after the 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation.<ref name="ReferenceA">"Conciliar theory". Cross, FL, ed. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005.</ref>

Various anti-popes challenged papal authority, especially during the [[Western Schism]] (1378–1417). In this schism, the papacy had returned to Rome from Avignon, but an anti-pope was installed in Avignon, as if to extend the papacy there.

The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern Emperor tried to force the Eastern Church to reunify with the West. Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople.

===Reformation to present (1517 to today)===
[[File:Council Trent.jpg|thumb|As part of the Catholic Reformation, [[Pope Paul III]] (1534–49) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–63), which established the triumph of the papacy over those who sought to reconcile with Protestants or oppose Papal claims.]]
Protestant Reformers criticized the papacy as corrupt and characterized the pope as the [[antichrist]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=FyTeW7vQ8K4C&pg=PA61&dq=%22made+the+Pope/Antichrist+connection%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=33UaUfSaI4bBhAfo5YGwCg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22made%20the%20Pope%2FAntichrist%20connection%22&f=false Paul S. Boyer, ''When Time Shall Be No More'' (Harvard University Press 1992 ISBN 978-0-67402861-6), p. 61;] cf. pp. 62, 274</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=toXLsJ28BvAC&pg=PA90&dq=Edwards+%22devil+and+Antichrist%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=K3IaUZTPNMyRhQe1yIHoDw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Edwards%20%22devil%20and%20Antichrist%22&f=false |first=Mark U.|last= Edwards, Jr|title=Printing, Propaganda and Martin Luther|publisher=Fortress Press|year= 2004|isbn=978-1-45141399-1|page=90|accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=Hillerbrand+%22identified+the+Pope%22 |first=Hans Joachim|last= Hillerbrand|title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism|publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2004|volume=1|page=124|accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1lMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA301&dq=Osborne+%22Pope+was+Antichrist%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=EXEaUZTpHIuJhQfszYD4Ag&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Osborne%20%22Pope%20was%20Antichrist%22&f=false |first=John|last= Osborne|title=Luther|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year= 1967|page=301 |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref>

Popes instituted a [[Counter-Reformation|Catholic Reformation]]<ref name="World History"/> (1560–1648), which addressed the challenges of the [[Protestant Reformation]] and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III initiated the [[Council of Trent]], whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with Protestants and opposed papal claims.<ref>"Counter-Reformation". Cross, FL, ed., ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>

Gradually forced to give up secular power, the popes focused on spiritual issues.<ref name="World History"/>

In 1870, the [[First Vatican Council]] proclaimed the [[dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' when issuing a solemn definition of faith or [[morals]].<ref name="World History">Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt & co. 1994.</ref>

Later the same year, Victor Emmanuel II [[Capture of Rome|seized Rome]] from the pope's control and substantially completed the unification of Italy.<ref name="World History"/>

In 1929, the [[Lateran Treaty]] between Italy and the Holy See established the [[Vatican City State]], guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule.<ref name="World History"/>

In 1950, the pope defined the [[Assumption of Mary]] as dogma, the only time that a pope has spoken ''ex cathedra'' since papal infallibility was explicitly declared.

The [[Primacy of Simon Peter|Petrine Doctrine]] is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western churches and separate Protestants from Rome.

==Saint Peter and the origin of the office==
{{See also|Primacy of Simon Peter}}
The [[Catholic Church]] teaches that, within the Christian community, the bishops as a body have succeeded to the body of the apostles and the Bishop of Rome has succeeded to Saint Peter.<ref name="section880"/>

Scriptural texts proposed in support of Peter's special position in relation to the church include the words of Jesus to him:
{{quote|I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.<ref>{{bibleverse||Matthew|16:18-19|ESV}}</ref>}}

{{quote|Simon, Simon, behold, Satan demanded to have you, that he might sift you like wheat, but I have prayed for you that your faith may not fail. And when you have turned again, strengthen your brothers.<ref>{{bibleverse||Luke|21:31-32|ESV}}</ref>}}

{{quote|Feed my sheep.<ref>{{bibleverse||John|21:17|ESV}}</ref>}}

The symbolic keys in the papal coats of arms are a reference to the phrase "the keys of the kingdom of heaven" in the first of these texts. Some Protestant writers have maintained that the "rock" that Jesus speaks of in this text is Jesus himself or the faith expressed by Peter.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lightfoot |first=John |authorlink=John Lightfoot|title=Commentary on Matthew 16:18 |url=http://www.studylight.org/com/jlc/view.cgi?book=mt&chapter=16&verse=18#Mt16_18|work=Commentary on the Gospels |accessdate=23 May 2013 |publisher=StudyLight.org |quote=It is readily answered by the Papists, that "Peter was the rock." But let them tell me why Matthew used not the same word in Greek, if our Saviour used the same word in Syriac. If he had intimated that the church should be built upon Peter, it had been plainer and more agreeable to be the vulgar idiom to have said, "Thou art Peter, and upon thee I will build my church.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.studylight.org/com/rwp/view.cgi?book=mt&chapter=16&verse=18 |title=Commentary on Matthew 16:18 |first=Archibald Thomas |last=Robertson |authorlink=Archibald Thomas Robertson |work=Word Pictures of the New Testament |publisher=StudyLight.org |accessdate=23 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Gill |first=John |title=Commentary on Matthew 16:18 |url=http://www.studylight.org/com/geb/view.cgi?book=mt&chapter=016&verse=018|work=Exposition of the Whole Bible|publisher=StudyLight.org|accessdate=23 May 2013|authorlink=John Gill (theologian)|quote=by the rock, is meant, either the confession of faith made by Peter; not the act, nor form, but the matter of it, it containing the prime articles of Christianity, and which are as immoveable as a rock; or rather Christ himself, who points, as it were, with his finger to himself, and whom Peter had made such a glorious confession of; and who was prefigured by the rock the Israelites drank water out of in the wilderness; and is comparable to any rock for height, shelter, strength, firmness, and duration; and is the one and only foundation of his church and people, and on whom their security, salvation, and happiness entirely depend.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Wesley|first=John|title=Commentary on Matthew 16:18 |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/wesley/notes.i.ii.xviii.html|work=Wesley's Notes on the Bible|publisher=[[Christian Classics Ethereal Library]]|accessdate=23 May 2013|authorlink=John Wesley|quote=On this rock - Alluding to his name, which signifies a rock, namely, the faith which thou hast now professed; I will build my Church - But perhaps when our Lord uttered these words, he pointed to himself, in like manner as when he said, Destroy this temple, John 2:19; meaning the temple of his body. And it is certain, that as he is spoken of in Scripture, as the only foundation of the Church, so this is that which the apostles and evangelists laid in their preaching. It is in respect of laying this, that the names of the twelve apostles (not of St. Peter only) were equally inscribed on the twelve foundations of the city of God, Revelation 21:14. The gates of hell - As gates and walls were the strength of cities, and as courts of judicature were held in their gates, this phrase properly signifies the power and policy of Satan and his instruments. Shall not prevail against it - Not against the Church universal, so as to destroy it. And they never did. There hath been a small remnant in all ages.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Scofield |first=C. I |authorlink=C. I. Scofield |title=Commentary on Matthew 16:18 |url=http://studylight.org/com/srn/view.cgi?book=mt&chapter=16&verse=18#Mt16_18|work=Scofield's Reference Notes |series=1917 edition |publisher=StudyLight.org|accessdate=23 May 2013 |quote=There is the Greek a play upon the words, "thou art Peter petros-- literally 'a little rock', and upon this rock Petra I will build my church." He does not promise to build His church upon Peter, but upon Himself, as Peter is careful to tell us (1 Peter 2:4-9).}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Henry |first=Matthew |title=Commentary on Matthew 16:18 |url=http://www.studylight.org/com/mhm/view.cgi?book=mt&chapter=16&verse=18#Mt16_18|work=Matthew Henry's Complete Commentary on the Bible |publisher=StudyLight.org |accessdate=23 May 2013 |authorlink=Matthew Henry |quote=First, Some by this rock understand Peter himself as an apostle, the chief, though not the prince, of the twelve, senior among them, but not superior over them. The church is built upon the foundation of the apostles, Ephesians 2:20. The first stones of that building were laid in and by their ministry; hence their names are said to be written in the foundations of the new Jerusalem, Revelation 21:14...First, Some by this rock understand Peter himself as an apostle, the chief, though not the prince, of the twelve, senior among them, but not superior over them. The church is built upon the foundation of the apostles, Ephesians 2:20. The first stones of that building were laid in and by their ministry; hence their names are said to be written in the foundations of the new Jerusalem, Revelation 21:14. ... Thirdly, Others by this rock understand this confession which Peter made of Christ, and this comes all to one with understanding it of Christ himself. It was a good confession which Peter witnessed, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God; the rest concurred with him in it. "Now", saith Christ, "this is that great truth upon which I will build my church." 1. Take away this truth itself, and the universal church falls to the ground. If Christ be not the Son of God, Christianity is a cheat, and the church is a mere chimera; our preaching is vain, your faith is vain, and you are yet in your sins, 1 Corinthians 15:14-17. If Jesus be not the Christ, those that own him are not of the church, but deceivers and deceived. 2. Take away the faith and confession of this truth from any particular church, and it ceases to be a part of Christ's church, and relapses to the state and character of infidelity. This is articulus stantis et cadentis ecclesia--that article, with the admission or the denial of which the church either rises or falls; "the main hinge on which the door of salvation turns;" those who let go this, do not hold the foundation; and though they may call themselves Christians, they give themselves the lie; for the church is a sacred society, incorporated upon the certainty and assurance of this great truth; and great it is, and has prevailed.}}</ref> This idea is undermined by the Biblical usage of "Cephas," which is the masculine form of "rock" in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], to describe Peter.<ref>[http://biblehub.com/john/1-42.htm John 1:42]. Bible Hub.</ref><ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Cephas "Cephas"]. Dictionary.com.</ref><ref>[http://www.behindthename.com/name/cephas "Cephas"]. Behind the Name.</ref> The ''[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]'' comments that "the consensus of the great majority of scholars today is that the most obvious and traditional understanding should be construed, namely, that rock refers to the person of Peter".<ref name="britannicapeter">{{cite encyclopedia|title = Saint Peter the Apostle|year=2013|author=O'Connor, Daniel William|encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle|accessdate=14 April 2013}}</ref>

==Election, death and resignation==

===Election===
{{Main|Papal conclave}}
[[File:Christ Handing the Keys to St. Peter by Pietro Perugino.jpg|thumb|''The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter'' painted by [[Pietro Perugino]] (1492)]]

The pope was originally chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. In 1059 the electorate was restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. The electors are now limited to those who have not reached 80 on the day before the death or resignation of a pope.{{sfn|John Paul II|1996|p=Introduction}} Since the pope is Bishop of Rome, only those who can be ordained a bishop can be elected, which means that any male baptized Catholic is eligible. The last to be elected when not yet a bishop was [[Pope Gregory XVI]] in 1831, and the last to be elected when not even a priest was [[Pope Leo X]] in 1513, and the last to be elected when not a cardinal was [[Pope Urban VI]] in 1378.<ref>[http://www.religionnews.com/2013/03/03/everything-you-need-to-know-about-popes-and-conclaves/ Religion News Service, "Pope and conclaves: everything you need to know"]</ref> If someone who is not a bishop is elected, he must be given episcopal ordination before the election is announced to the people.{{sfn|John Paul II|1996|pp=88-89}}

The [[Second Council of Lyon]] was convened on 7 May 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year ''[[sede vacante]]'' following the death of [[Pope Clement IV]] in 1268. By the mid-16th century, the electoral process had evolved into its present form, allowing for variation in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.

Traditionally, the vote was conducted by [[acclamation]], by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. [[Pope John Paul II]] abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth election will be by full vote by [[ballot]] of the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]].

[[File:Konklave Konzilsgebaude Konstanz.jpg|thumb|left|The conclave in [[Konstanz]] where [[Pope Martin V]] was elected]]
The election of the pope almost always takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a sequestered meeting called a "[[Papal conclave|conclave]]" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, ''cum clave'', i.e., with key, until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar (in the 2005 conclave, a special urn was used for this purpose instead of a chalice and plate). The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for electors to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the ballots are counted while still folded; if the number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until someone is elected by a two-thirds majority.<ref>With the promulgation of ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]'' in 1996, a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days was allowed, but this was revoked by [[Pope Benedict XVI]] by ''[[motu proprio]]'' in 2007.</ref>
[[File:Habemus Papam 1415.jpg|thumb|The formal declaration of "[[Habemus Papam]]" after the election of Pope Martin V]]

One of the most prominent aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special stove erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[Saint Peter's Square]]. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound to create black smoke, or ''[[fumata nera]]''. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to produce the black smoke, but this was not completely reliable. The chemical compound is more reliable than the straw.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (''[[fumata bianca]]'') through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. Starting with the 2005 conclave,<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Conference on the Tenth General Congregations of the College of Cardinals (11 March) and Regarding Events of the Coming Days: Tenth and Last General Congregation|url=http://press.catholica.va/news_services/bulletin/news/30611.php?index=30611&lang=en|publisher=Holy See Press Office|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> church bells are also rung as a signal that a new pope has been chosen.

The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks two solemn questions of the cardinal who has been elected. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election as Supreme Pontiff?" If he replies with the word ''"Accepto"'', his reign begins at that instant, ''not'' at the inauguration ceremony several days afterward. The Dean asks next, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen. (If the Dean is elected pope, the Vice Dean performs this task.)

The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room where three sets of white papal vestments (''immantatio'') await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" by the [[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church]], whom he first either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope assumes a place of honor as the rest of the cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" (''adoratio'') and to receive his blessing.

The [[Cardinal protodeacon|Senior Cardinal Deacon]] announces from a balcony over Saint Peter's Square the following proclamation: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! [[Habemus Papam]]!'' ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He announces the new pope's Christian name along with his newly chosen regnal name.

Until 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the [[Papal coronation]], which started with a procession with great pomp and circumstance from the [[Sistine Chapel]] to [[St. Peter's Basilica]], with the newly elected pope borne in the ''[[sedia gestatoria]]''. After a solemn [[Papal Mass]], the new pope was crowned with the ''[[Papal tiara|triregnum]]'' (papal tiara) and he gave for the first time as pope the famous blessing ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another renowned part of the coronation was the lighting of a bundle of [[flax]] at the top of a gilded pole, which would flare brightly for a moment and then promptly extinguish, as he said, ''[[Sic transit gloria mundi]]'' ("Thus passes worldly glory"). A similar warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the traditional exclamation, ''"Annos Petri non videbis"'', reminding the newly crowned pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter. According to tradition, he headed the church for 35 years and has thus far been the longest-reigning pope in the history of the Catholic Church.<ref>St [[Augustine]], speaking of the honours paid to bishops in his time, mentions the ''absides gradatae'' (apses with steps, a reference to the seating arrangement for the presbyters in the apse of the church, with the bishop in the middle ([http://books.google.com/books?id=LTb6zWm5PMcC&pg=PA186&dq=%22cathedrae+velatae%22&hl=en&ei=3ZR8Te7EM8fOhAeA3uHeBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22cathedrae%20velatae%22&f=false William Smith, Samuel Cheetham, ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Christian Antiquities], "elevated stalls" in the [http://www.scribd.com/doc/2512021/Letters-of-Augustine-of-Hippo Sparrow-Simpson translation] (p. 83), and appearing as "thrones ascended by flights of steps" in [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf101.vii.1.XXIII.html the Cunningham translation]), and ''[[cathedra]]e velatae'' (canopied thrones, appearing as "canopied pulpits" in both those translations) - [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Ms7AAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Augustinus+epistolae&hl=en&ei=knJ8TYm5Hc26hAeE5Yz4Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=maximino&f=false Letter 203 in the old arrangement], 23 in the chronological rearrangement</ref>

A [[traditionalist Catholic]] belief that lacks reliable authority claims that a [[Papal Oath (Traditionalist Catholic)|Papal Oath]] was sworn, at their coronation, by all popes from [[Pope Agatho]] to [[Pope Paul VI]] and that it was omitted with the abolition of the coronation ceremony.

The [[Latin]] term, ''sede vacante'' ("while the see is vacant"),<ref>[[Ablative absolute]], equivalent to a temporal clause</ref> refers to a papal [[interregnum]], the period between the death or resignation of a pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the term [[sedevacantism]], which designates a category of dissident Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected pope, and that there is therefore a ''sede vacante''. One of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]], and especially the replacement of the [[Tridentine Mass]] with the ''[[Mass of Paul VI]],'' are heretical and that those responsible for initiating and maintaining these changes are heretics and not true popes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmri.org/theolog.htm |title=Theological Position: Sede Vacante |publisher=Cmri.org |accessdate=2011-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popemichael.com/homepage-2/errors-of-the-novus-ordo |title=Pope Michael I |publisher=Popemichael.com |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.novusordowatch.org/benedict.htm |title=Exposing the Vatican II Pseudo-Catholic Church |publisher=Novusordowatch.org |accessdate=2011-11-21}}</ref> Sedevacantists are considered to be schismatics by the mainstream Roman Catholic Church.

For centuries, from 1378 on, those elected to the papacy were predominantly [[Italians]]. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal [[Pope John Paul II|Karol Wojtyla]] as Pope John Paul II in 1978, the last non-Italian was [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by election of the German-born Benedict XVI, who was in turn followed by Argentine-born Francis.

===Death===
[[File:Pope johnpaul funeral.jpeg|thumb|Funeral of [[Pope John Paul II]] at the Vatican in 2005, presided over by Cardinal Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict XVI]]
The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]]—that is, a ''[[sede vacante]]'' ("vacant seat")—were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]''. During the "sede vacante" period, the [[College of Cardinals]] is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church]]; however, canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]]. Any decision that requires the assent of the pope has to wait until the new pope has been elected and accepts office.

In recent centuries, when a pope was judged to have died, it was reportedly traditional for the Cardinal Camerlengo to confirm the death ceremonially by gently tapping the pope's head thrice with a silver hammer, calling his birth name each time.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.snopes.com/religion/hammer.asp|title = Hammer Time|date = 5 Apr 2005|accessdate = 2 Nov 2014|website = Snopes.com|publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> This was not done on the deaths of popes John Paul I<ref>Sullivan, George E. Pope John Paul II: The People's Pope. Boston: Walker & Company, 1984.</ref> and John Paul II.<ref>{{cite news|author= |url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101050411/path.html |title=''The Path to a New Pontiff'' Retrieved: 2010-03-29 |publisher=Time.com |date=2005-04-03 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> The Cardinal Camerlengo retrieves the [[Ring of the Fisherman]] and cuts it in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.

The body lies in state for several days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral; all popes who have died in the 20th and 21st centuries have been interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning (''novendialis'') follows the interment.

===Resignation===
{{Main|Papal resignation}}
It is highly unusual for a pope to resign. The [[1983 Code of Canon Law]]<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P16.HTM 332 §2 Vatican code]</ref> states, "If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone." [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]], who vacated the [[Holy See]] on 28 February 2013, was the most recent to do so since [[Pope Gregory XII|Gregory XII]]'s resignation in 1415.

==Titles==
{{Infobox manner of address
|background=#F7D79C
|name=The Pope
|image=[[File:Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg|60px]]
|reference=[[His Holiness]]
|spoken=Your Holiness
|religious=Holy Father
|posthumous=''See [[Canonization#Roman Catholic procedure since 1983|here]]''
}}

===Official list of titles===
The official list of titles of the Pope, in the order in which they are given in the ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'', is:

:Bishop of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]], [[Vicar of Christ|Vicar of Jesus Christ]], Successor of the [[Saint Peter|Prince of the Apostles]], [[Pontifex Maximus|Supreme]] [[Pontiff#Christianity|Pontiff]] of the Universal Church, [[Primate (bishop)|Primate]] of Italy, [[Metropolitan bishop|Archbishop and Metropolitan]] of the [[List of the Roman Catholic dioceses in Italy#Ecclesiastical Province of Rome|Roman]] [[Ecclesiastical province#Catholic Church|Province]], [[List of sovereigns of Vatican City State|Sovereign]] of the [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]], [[Servant of the servants of God]].<ref>''Annuario Pontificio'', published annually by Libreria Editrice Vaticana, p. 23*. ISBN of the 2012 edition: 978-88-209-8722-0.</ref>

The best-known title, that of "Pope", does not appear in the official list, but is commonly used in the titles of documents, and appears, in abbreviated form, in their signatures. Thus [[Pope Paul VI]] signed as "Paulus PP. VI", the "PP." standing for "''Papa''" ("Pope").<ref>{{cathEncy|author=Shahan, Thomas Joseph|wstitle=Ecclesiastical Abbreviations|volume=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year= 2013|title =Pope |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online|accessdate=14 April 2013|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469994/pope}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://inkunabeln.ub.uni-koeln.de/vdibDevelop/handapparat/nachs_w/cappelli/cappelli.html |author=Adriano Cappelli |title= Lexicon Abbreviaturarum |page=283 |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/incunabula/e/glossary/glo_11.html |title=Contractions and Abbreviations |publisher=Ndl.go.jp |date=2005-08-04 |accessdate=2011-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/Papa+Pontifex |title=What Does PP Stand For? |publisher=Acronyms.thefreedictionary.com |accessdate=2011-11-21}}</ref>

The title "Pope" was from the early 3rd century an honorific designation used for ''any'' bishop in the West.<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> In the East, it was used only for the Bishop of Alexandria.<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> [[Pope Marcellinus]] (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome shown in sources to have had the title "Pope" used of him. From the 6th century, the imperial chancery of [[Byzantine Empire|Constantinople]] normally reserved this designation for the Bishop of Rome.<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> From the early 6th century, it began to be confined in the West to the Bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the 11th century,<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> when [[Pope Gregory VII]] declared it reserved for the Bishop of Rome.

In [[Eastern Christianity]], where the title "Pope" is used also of the Bishop of Alexandria, the Bishop of Rome is often referred to as the "Pope of Rome", regardless of whether the speaker or writer is in communion with Rome or not.

===Vicar of Jesus Christ===
"Vicar of Jesus Christ" (''Vicarius Iesu Christi'') is one of the official titles of the Pope given in the ''Annuario Pontificio''. It is commonly used in the slightly abbreviated form "Vicar of Christ" (''Vicarius Christi''). While it is only one of the terms with which the Pope is referred to as "Vicar", it is "more expressive of his supreme headship of the Church on earth, which he bears in virtue of the commission of Christ and with vicarial power derived from him", a vicarial power believed to have been conferred on Saint Peter when Christ said to him: "Feed my lambs...Feed my sheep" ({{bibleverse||John|21:16-17}}).<ref name="New Advent - Vicar of Christ">{{cathEncy|wstitle=Vicar of Christ|author=Fanning, William Henry Windsor}}</ref>

The first record of the application of this title to a Bishop of Rome appears in a synod of 495 with reference to [[Pope Gelasius I]].<ref name="Macbrien">McBrien, Richard P. ''Os Papas. Os Pontífices de São Pedro a João Paulo II'' (original title: ''Lives of the Popes. The Pontiffs from St. Peter to John Paul II'' 1997. ISBN 0-06-065303-5), pp. 37, 85.</ref> But at that time, and down to the 9th century, other bishops too referred to themselves as vicars of Christ, and for another four centuries this description was sometimes used of kings and even judges,<ref>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article ''Vicar of Christ''</ref> as it had been used in the 5th and 6th centuries to refer to the [[Byzantine emperor]].<ref name="New Commentary"/> Earlier still, in the 3rd century, [[Tertullian]] used "vicar of Christ" to refer to the [[Holy Spirit]]<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm| title= Prescription against Heretics (Chapter 28) | accessdate=14 April 2013|publisher=New Advent| work= Catholic Encyclopedia: The Fathers of the Church}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0403.htm| title= On the Veiling of Virgins (Chapter 1) | accessdate=14 April 2013|publisher=New Advent| work= Catholic Encyclopedia: The Fathers of the Church}}</ref> sent by Jesus.<ref>Cf. {{bibleverse||John|16:7-14}}</ref> Its use specifically for the Pope appears in the 13th century in connection with the reforms of [[Pope Innocent III]],<ref name="New Commentary">{{cite book| url= http://books.google.com/?id=JKgZEjvB5cEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=New+commentary+on+the+Code+of+Canon+Law&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false| last= John P. Beal, James A. Coriden, Thomas J. (Thomas Joseph) Green, Thomas J. Green| first= | title= New Commentary on the Code of Canon Law (p. 432)|accessdate=18 February 2010 | work=| isbn= 978-0-8091-4066-4| date= 2002-06-27 }}</ref> as can be observed already in his 1199 letter to [[Leo I, King of Armenia]].<ref>Faus, José Ignacio Gonzáles. "''Autoridade da Verdade - Momentos Obscuros do Magistério Eclesiástico''" (Edições Loyola. ISBN 85-15-01750-4), p. 33.</ref> Other historians suggest that this title was already used in this way in association with the pontificate of [[Pope Eugene III]] (1145–1153).<ref name="Macbrien"/>

This title "Vicar of Christ" is thus not used of the Pope alone and has been used of all bishops since the early centuries.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7bjDsZHPiSYC&pg=PA264&dq=%22vicar+of+Christ%22+title&hl=en&ei=QaULTYnzN4bLhAf3vfjuCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFYQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=%22vicar%20of%20Christ%22%20title&f=false |title=Ken Untener, Elizabeth Picken, ''The Practical Prophet: Pastoral Writings'', p. 264 |publisher=Books.google.com |accessdate=2011-11-21}}</ref> The [[Second Vatican Council]] referred to all bishops as "vicars and ambassadors of Christ",<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html | last = | first = | title = Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution ''Lumen gentium'', 27 | accessdate=27 January 2010}}</ref> and this description of the bishops was repeated by [[Pope John Paul II]] in his encyclical ''[http://www.vatican.va/edocs/ENG0221/__PT.HTM Ut unum sint,]'' 95. The difference is that the other bishops are vicars of Christ for their own local churches, the Pope is vicar of Christ for the whole Church.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vJ78Vd4O9d4C&pg=PA991 |page=991 |first=Russell B. |last=Shaw |location=Huntington, Ind|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor|year=1979 |title=Church & State: A Novel of Politics and Power|accessdate=14 April 2013}}</ref>

On at least one occasion the title "Vicar of God" (a reference to Christ as God) was used of the pope.<ref name="New Advent - Vicar of Christ"/>

The title "Vicar of Peter" (''Vicarius Petri'') is used only of the Pope, not of other bishops. Variations of it include: "Vicar of the Prince of the Apostles" (''Vicarius Principis Apostolorum'') and "Vicar of the Apostolic See" (''Vicarius Sedis Apostolicae'').<ref name="New Advent - Vicar of Christ"/> [[Saint Boniface]] described [[Pope Gregory II]] as vicar of Peter in the oath of fealty that he took in 722.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/boniface1.html |title=Medieval Sourcebook |publisher=Fordham.edu |accessdate=2011-11-21}}</ref> In today's [[Roman Missal]], the description "vicar of Peter" is found also in the [[collect]] of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] for a saint who was a pope.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clerus.org/bibliaclerusonline/en/end.htm#cml |title=''Missale Romanum'', Vatican City, 2008, p. 928 |publisher=Clerus.org |accessdate=2011-11-21}}</ref>

===Pontiff===
[[File:Benedictus XVI pont max pontif I.jpg|thumb|Entrance to [[Vatican City]], with inscription "Benedictus XVI Pont(ifex) Max(imus) Anno Domini MMV Pont(ificatus) I.", i.e., "[[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]], Pontifex Maximus, in the year of Our Lord 2005, the first year of his pontificate."]]
The term "[[pontiff]]" is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''pontifex'', which literally means "bridge builder" (''pons'' + ''facere'') and which designated a member of the [[College of Pontiffs|principal college of priests]] in ancient Rome.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year= 2013|title =Pontifex|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online|accessdate=14 April 2013|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469745/pontifex}}</ref><ref>The bridge making has been interpreted in terms of "one who smoothes the way for the gods and to the gods" (Van Haeperen, Françoise, 2002. ''Le collège pontifical: 3ème s. a. C. - 4ème s. p. C.'' in series '' Études de Philologie, d'Archéologie et d'Histoire Anciennes'', no. 39. (Brussels: Brepols) ISBN 90-74461-49-2, reviewed in [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2003/2003-10-16.html Bryn Mawr Classical review, 2003])</ref> The Latin word was translated into ancient Greek variously: as ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, ἱερονόμος, ἱεροφύλαξ, ἱεροφάντης,<ref name="smithpontifex">{{cite encyclopedia |year= 1875|title =Pontifex |encyclopedia=[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities]] |publisher=J. Murray |location=London |editor-first=William |editor-last=Smith |editor-link=William Smith (lexicographer)|pages=939–942|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Pontifex.html }}</ref> or ἀρχιερεύς (high priest)<ref name=L&S>{{cite web|url=http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.8:10:135.LSJ |editors=Liddell and Scott |title=A Greek English Lexicon |publisher=Oxford University Press |accessdate=2013-02-18}}</ref><ref>[[Polybius]] 23.1.2 and 32.22.5; ''Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum'' 3.43, 3.428 und 3.458</ref> The head of the college was known as the [[Pontifex Maximus]] (the greatest pontiff).<ref>Translated literally into Greek as ἀρχιερεὺς μέγιστος (greatest high priest) in ''Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum'' 2.2696 and 3.346; [[Plutarch]] ''Numa'' 9.4 – [http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.8:10:135.LSJ Liddell and Scott: ἀρχιερεύς]</ref>

In Christian use, ''pontifex'' appears in the [[Vulgate]] translation of the [[New Testament]] to indicate the Jewish high priest (in the original, ἀρχιερεύς).<ref>There are 35 instances of the use of this term in the Vulgate: {{bibleverse||Mark|15:11}}; {{bibleverse||John|7:45}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:47}},{{bibleverse-nb||John|11:49}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:51}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:57}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:3}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:10}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:13}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:15-16}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:22}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:24}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:26}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:35}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|19:6}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|19:15}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|19:21}}; {{bibleverse||Hebrews|2:17}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|3:1}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|4:14-15}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|5:1}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|5:5}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|5:10}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|6:20}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|7:26}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|8:1}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|8:3}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|9:7}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|9:11}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|9:25}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|13:11}}</ref> The term came to be applied to any Christian [[bishop]],<ref name="New Advent - Pope">{{cathEncy|wstitle=Pope|author=Joyce, G. H.}}</ref> but since the 11th century commonly refers specifically to the Bishop of Rome,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Pontiff |title=Dictionary definition |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |accessdate=2010-11-07}}</ref> who is more strictly called the "Roman Pontiff". The use of the term to refer to bishops in general is reflected in the terms "[[Roman Pontifical]]" (a book containing rites reserved for bishops, such as [[confirmation]] and [[ordination]]), and "pontificals" (the insignia of bishops).<ref>{{cite web |title=pontifical |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/pontifical|work=Oxford Dictionaries |publisher=Oxford University Press |accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref>

The ''Annuario Pontificio'' lists as one of the official titles of the pope that of "Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church" (in Latin, ''Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis'').<ref>Annuario Pontificio 2008 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana ISBN 978-88-209-8021-4), p. 23*</ref> He is also commonly called the Supreme Pontiff or the Sovereign Pontiff (in Latin, ''Summus Pontifex'').

''Pontifex Maximus'', similar in meaning to ''Summus Pontifex'', is a title commonly found in inscriptions on papal buildings, paintings, statues and coins, usually abbreviated as "Pont. Max" or "P.M." The office of [[Pontifex Maximus]], or head of the [[College of Pontiffs]], was held by [[Julius Caesar]] and thereafter, by the Roman emperors, until [[Gratian]] (375-383) relinquished it.<ref name="smithpontifex"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Gratian|year=2013|encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/242251/Gratian|accessdate=14 April 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.livius.org/pn-po/pontifex/maximus.html Pontifex Maximus] Livius.org article by Jona Lendering retrieved 15 August 2006</ref> [[Tertullian]], when he had become a [[Montanist]], used the title derisively of either the Pope or the [[episcopal see of Carthage|Bishop of Carthage]].<ref name=ODCC:PM/> The Popes began to use this title regularly only in the 15th century.<ref name=ODCC:PM>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article ''Pontifex Maximus''</ref>

===Servant of the servants of God===
Although the description "[[servant of the servants of God]]" (''servus servorum Dei'') was also used by other Church leaders, including [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] and [[Benedict of Nursia|St. Benedict]], it was first used extensively as a papal title by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope St. Gregory the Great]], reportedly as a lesson in humility for Patriarch of Constantinople, [[Patriarch John IV of Constantinople|John the Faster]], who had assumed the title "[[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriarch]]". It became reserved for the pope in the 12th century and is used in [[papal bull]]s and similar important papal documents.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Servus servorum Dei|author=Meehan, Andrew Brennan}}</ref>

===Patriarch of the West===
From 1863 until 2005, the ''Annuario Pontificio'' also included the title "[[Patriarch]] of the West". This title was first used by [[Pope Theodore I]] in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On 22 March 2006, the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church—and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the [[Eastern Churches]], as solemnly proclaimed by the [[Second Vatican Council]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/general-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20060322_patriarca-occidente_fr.html |title=Communiqué concernant la suppression du titre "Patriarche d'Occident" dans l'Annuaire pontifical 2006 |publisher=Vatican.va |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>

===Other titles===
Other titles commonly used are "[[His Holiness]]" (either used alone or as an honorific prefix "His Holiness Pope Francis"; and as "Your Holiness" as a form of address)), "Holy Father". In Spanish and Italian, "''Beatísimo/Beatissimo Padre''" (Most Blessed Father) is often used in preference to "''Santísimo/Santissimo Padre''" (Most Holy Father). In the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]], "''Dominus Apostolicus''" ("the [[Saint Peter|Apostolic]] Lord") was also used.

===Signature===
[[File:FirmaPapaFrancisco.svg|thumb|alt=The signature of Pope Francis|The signature of [[Pope Francis]].]]
[[File:Pope Benedict XVI Signature.svg|thumb|alt=The signature of Pope Benedict XVI|The signature of [[Pope Benedict XVI]] during his pontificate.]]
Pope Francis signs some documents with his name alone, either in Latin ("Franciscus", as in an [[encyclical]] dated 29 June 2013)<ref>[http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20130629_enciclica-lumen-fidei.html Encyclical letter ''Lumen fidei'']</ref> or in another language.<ref>Examples are "Francesco" in the frontispiece of the 2013 ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' published in Italian shortly after his election (''Annuario Pontificio 2013'', Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2013, ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1) and [http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/it/letters/2014/documents/papa-francesco_20140401_cardinale-baldisseri.html a letter in Italian dated 1 April 2014].</ref> Other documents he signs in accordance with the tradition of using Latin only and including, in the abbreviated form "PP.",<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01022a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia:''Ecclesiastical Abbreviations'']</ref> the description "Papa".<ref>Examples are documents dated [http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/motu_proprio/documents/papa-francesco-motu-proprio_20130808_prevenzione-contrasto.html 8 August 2013]; [http://www.holyseemission.org/press/release.aspx?id=452 17 January 2014]; [http://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/de/bollettino/pubblico/2014/04/04/0238/00534.html 2 April 2014]</ref> Popes who have an ordinal numeral in their name traditionally place the abbreviation "PP." before the ordinal numeral, as in "Benedictus PP. XVI" (Pope Benedict XVI), except in [[papal bull|bulls]] of canonization and decrees of ecumenical councils, which a Pope signs with the formula, "Ego N. Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae", without the numeral, as in "Ego Benedictus Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae" (I, Benedict, Bishop of the Catholic Church).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Curia_Romana |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20070221192811/http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Curia_Romana |title=Classic Encyclopedia: ''Curia Romana'' |publisher=1911encyclopedia.org |date=October 6, 2006 |archivedate=February 21, 2007 |accessdate=August 11, 2010}}</ref> The Pope's signature is followed, in bulls of canonization, by those of all the cardinals resident in Rome, and in decrees of ecumenical councils, by the signatures of the other bishops participating in the council, each signing as Bishop of a particular see.

[[Papal bull]]s are headed ''N. Episcopus [[Servant of the servants of God|Servus Servorum Dei]]'' ("Name, Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God"). In general, they are not signed by the Pope, but [[Pope John Paul II|Pope John Paul II]] introduced in the mid-1980s the custom by which the Pope signs not only bulls of canonization but also, using his normal signature, such as "Benedictus PP. XVI", bulls of nomination of bishops.

==Regalia and insignia==
{{Main|Papal regalia and insignia}}
* "[[Papal tiara|Triregnum]]", also called the "tiara" or "triple crown", represents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor", "supreme teacher" and "supreme priest". Recent popes have not, however, worn the ''triregnum'', though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies the Pope wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
* [[Crosier]] topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the 13th century (see [[Papal ferula]]).
* [[Pallium]], or pall, a circular band of fabric worn around the neck over the [[chasuble]]. It forms a yoke about the neck, breast and shoulders and has two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Previously, the pallium worn by the Pope was identical to those he granted to the [[Primate (bishop)|primates]], but in 2005, Pope Benedict XVI began to use a distinct papal pallium that is larger than the primatial, and was adorned with red crosses instead of black.
* "Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
* [[Ring of the Fisherman]], a gold or gilt ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the Pope's name around it.
* ''[[Umbraculum]]'' (better known in the Italian form ''ombrellino'') is a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions.
* ''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'', a mobile throne carried by twelve [[footmen]] (''palafrenieri'') in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing ''[[flabella]]'' (fans made of white ostrich feathers), and sometimes a large [[baldachin|canopy]], carried by eight attendants. The use of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul I]]. The use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]].
[[File:Coat of arms Holy See.svg|thumb|upright|The [[coat of arms]] of the Holy See. That of the State of Vatican City is the same except that the positions of the gold and silver keys are interchanged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fotw.net/flags/va).html |title=Vatican City (Holy See) - The Keys and Coat of Arms |publisher=Fotw.net |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>]]

In [[heraldry]], each pope has his own [[papal coats of arms|personal coat of arms]]. Though unique for each pope, the arms have for several centuries been traditionally accompanied by two keys in [[saltire]] (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an ''X'') behind the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] (shield) (one silver key and one gold key, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns and red ''infulae'' ([[lappet]]s—two strips of fabric hanging from the back of the triregnum which fall over the neck and shoulders when worn). This is [[blazon]]ed: "two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). The 21st century has seen departures from this tradition. In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI, while maintaining the crossed keys behind the shield, omitted the papal tiara from his personal coat of arms, replacing it with a [[mitre]] with three horizontal lines. Beneath the shield he added the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan [[archbishop]]s as a sign of communion with the See of Rome. Though the tiara was omitted in the Pope's personal coat of arms, the coat of arms of the Holy See, which includes the tiara, remained unaltered. In 2013, Pope Francis maintained the mitre that replaced the tiara, but omitted the pallium. He also departed from papal tradition by adding beneath the shield his personal pastoral motto: ''Miserando atque eligendo''.

The [[flag]] most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white [[flag of Vatican City]], with the arms of the Holy See (blazoned: "Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right-hand side (the "fly") in the white half of the flag (the left-hand side—the "hoist"—is yellow). The pope's escucheon does not appear on the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, it has been retained on the flag.

===Papal garments===

[[Pius V]], who was pope from 1566 to 1572, is often credited with having originated the custom whereby the Pope wears white, by continuing after his election to wear the white [[Religious habit|habit]] of the [[Dominican order]]. In reality, the basic papal attire was white long before. The earliest document that describes it as such is the ''Ordo XIII'', a book of ceremonies compiled in about 1274. Later books of ceremonies describe the Pope as wearing a red mantle, [[mozzetta]], [[camauro]] and shoes, and a white [[cassock]] and stockings.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bagliani|first1=Agostino Paravicini|title=From red to white|url=http://www.osservatoreromano.va/en/news/from-red-to-white|accessdate=29 June 2014|work=Osservatore Romano|date=21 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Vatican newspaper examines history of red, white papal garb|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/news/headlines/index.cfm?storyid=18897|accessdate=29 June 2014|work=Catholic Culture|date=2 September 2013}}</ref> Many contemporary portraits of 15th and 16th-century predecessors of Pius V show them wearing a white cassock similar to his.<ref>Compare the portrait reproduced in the article on Pius V with those in the articles on his immediate predecessors [[Pope Pius IV]] and [[Pope Paul IV]] and in the articles on [[Pope Julius III]], [[Pope Paul III]], [[Pope Clement VII]], [[Pope Adrian VI]], [[Pope Leo X]], [[Pope Julius II]], [[Pope Pius II]], [[Pope Callixtus III]], [[Pope Nicholas V]], and [[Pope Eugene IV]].</ref>

==Status and authority==
{{Main|Primacy of the Bishop of Rome|Papal infallibility}}
[[File:Kruisheren uden bij paus pius xii Crosiers from Uden Holland with PiusXII.jpg|thumb|To maintain contacts with local clergymen and Catholic communities, the popes grant private audiences as well as public ones. Here the [[Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross|Canons Regular of the Holy Cross]] from [[Uden]] (Netherlands) are received by [[Pope Pius XII]].]]

===First Vatican Council===
The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[Papal infallibility|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] on 18 July 1870. In its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, the Council established the following canons:<ref>The texts of these canons are given in [[Denzinger]], [http://catho.org/9.php?d=byj#dez Latin original;] [http://denzinger.patristica.net/ English translation]</ref>

"If anyone says that the blessed Apostle Peter was not established by the Lord Christ as the chief of all the [[twelve apostles|apostles]], and the visible head of the whole militant Church, or, that the same received great honour but did not receive from the same our Lord Jesus Christ directly and immediately the primacy in true and proper jurisdiction: let him be [[anathema]].<ref>Denzinger 3055 (old numbering, 1823)</ref>

If anyone says that it is not from the institution of Christ the Lord Himself, or by divine right that the blessed Peter has perpetual successors in the primacy over the universal Church, or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in the same primacy, let him be anathema.<ref>Denzinger 3058 (old numbering, 1825)</ref>

If anyone thus speaks, that the Roman Pontiff has only the office of inspection or direction, but not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the universal Church, not only in things which pertain to faith and morals, but also in those which pertain to the discipline and government of the Church spread over the whole world; or, that he possesses only the more important parts, but not the whole plenitude of this supreme power; or that this power of his is not ordinary and immediate, or over the churches altogether and individually, and over the pastors and the faithful altogether and individually: let him be anathema.<ref>Denzinger 3064 (old numbering, 1831)</ref>

We, adhering faithfully to the tradition received from the beginning of the Christian faith, to the glory of God, our Saviour, the elevation of the Catholic religion and the salvation of Christian peoples, with the approbation of the sacred Council, teach and explain that the dogma has been divinely revealed: that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when carrying out the duty of the pastor and teacher of all Christians by his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine of faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, through the divine assistance promised him in blessed Peter, operates with that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer wished that His church be instructed in defining doctrine on faith and morals; and so such definitions of the Roman Pontiff from himself, but not from the consensus of the Church, are unalterable. But if anyone presumes to contradict this definition of Ours, which may God forbid: let him be anathema."<ref>Denzinger 3073–3075 (old numbering, 1839–1840)</ref>

===Second Vatican Council===
[[File:GestatorialChair1.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Pius XII]], wearing the traditional 1877 [[Papal tiara]], is carried through St. Peter's Basilica on a ''[[sedia gestatoria]]'' c. 1955.]]
In its [[Lumen Gentium|Dogmatic Constitution on the Church]] (1964), the [[Second Vatican Council]] declared:

:"Among the principal duties of bishops the preaching of the Gospel occupies an eminent place. For bishops are preachers of the faith, who lead new disciples to Christ, and they are authentic teachers, that is, teachers endowed with the authority of Christ, who preach to the people committed to them the faith they must believe and put into practice, and by the light of the Holy Spirit illustrate that faith. They bring forth from the treasury of Revelation new things and old, making it bear fruit and vigilantly warding off any errors that threaten their flock. Bishops, teaching in communion with the Roman Pontiff, are to be respected by all as witnesses to divine and Catholic truth. In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra; that is, it must be shown so that his supreme magisterium is acknowledged with reverence, the judgments made by him are sincerely adhered to, according to his manifest mind and will. His mind and will in the matter may be known either from the character of the documents, from his frequent repetition of the same doctrine, or from his manner of speaking.

:... this infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer willed His Church to be endowed in defining doctrine of faith and morals, extends as far as the deposit of Revelation extends, which must be religiously guarded and faithfully expounded. And this is the infallibility which the Roman Pontiff, the head of the college of bishops, enjoys in virtue of his office, when, as the supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faithful, who confirms his brethren in their faith, by a definitive act he proclaims a doctrine of faith or morals. And therefore his definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment. For then the Roman Pontiff is not pronouncing judgment as a private person, but as the supreme teacher of the universal Church, in whom the charism of infallibility of the Church itself is individually present, he is expounding or defending a doctrine of Catholic faith. The infallibility promised to the Church resides also in the body of Bishops, when that body exercises the supreme magisterium with the successor of Peter. To these definitions the assent of the Church can never be wanting, on account of the activity of that same Holy Spirit, by which the whole flock of Christ is preserved and progresses in unity of faith."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |title=''Lumen gentium'', 25 |publisher=Vatican.va |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>

On 11 October 2012, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Second Vatican Council 60 prominent theologians, (including [[Hans Küng]]), put out a Declaration, stating that the intention of Vatican II to balance authority in the Church has not been realised. "Many of the key insights of Vatican II have not at all, or only partially, been implemented . . . A principal source of present-day stagnation lies in misunderstanding and abuse affecting the exercise of authority in our Church."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.churchauthority.org/index.asp |title=''the JUBILEE DECLARATION''}}</ref>

==Politics of the Holy See==
{{Politics of the Holy See}}
[[File:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Pius VII]], bishop of Rome, seated, and [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Caprara.]]

===Residence and jurisdiction===
The pope's [[cathedra|official seat]] or [[cathedral]] is the [[Archbasilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Apostolic Palace]]. He also possesses a [[Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo|summer residence]] at [[Castel Gandolfo]], situated on the site of the ancient city of [[Alba Longa]]. Until the time of the [[Avignon Papacy]], the residence of the Pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine the Great]].

The Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the [[Holy See]]) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See that conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the papal court (the [[Roman Curia]]) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.

The names "Holy See" and "Apostolic See" are ecclesiastical terminology for the [[ordinary jurisdiction]] of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the [[Twelve apostles|Apostle]] [[Saint Peter]] (see [[Apostolic succession]]). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The Pope derives his pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ''ubi Papa, ibi Curia'', wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the popes lived in [[Avignon]], France (see [[Avignon Papacy]]), a period often called the [[Babylonian captivity]] in allusion to the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[exile]] of [[Israel]].

Though the Pope is the diocesan Bishop of the [[Diocese of Rome]], he delegates most of the day-to-day work of leading the diocese to the [[Cardinal Vicar]], who assures direct episcopal oversight of the diocese's pastoral needs, not in his own name but in that of the Pope. The current Cardinal Vicar is [[Agostino Vallini]], who was appointed to the office in June 2008.

===Political role===
{{Main|Politics of Vatican City}}
{{Infobox
| above = Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City
| image = [[File:Coat of arms of the Vatican City.svg|120px]]
| caption = Coat of Arms of the Vatican
| label1 = Incumbent | data1 = {{Incumbent pope}}
| label2 = Style | data2 = [[His Holiness]]
| label3 = Residence | data3 = [[Apostolic Palace]]
| label4 = First Sovereign | data4 = [[Pope Pius XI]]
| label5 = Formation | data5 = 11 February 1929
| label6 = Website | data6 = {{URL|http://www.vaticanstate.va/}}
}}
[[File:PapalPolitics2.JPG|left|thumb|upright|''Antichristus'', a woodcut by Lucas Cranach of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a generously contributing ruler]]

Though the progressive [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the 4th century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by [[Pope Leo I]]'s confrontation with [[Attila]] in 452. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the [[Donation of Sutri]], which in turn was substantially increased in 754, when the [[Franks|Frankish]] ruler [[Pippin the Younger]] gave to the pope the land from his conquest of the [[Lombards]]. The pope may have utilized the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] to gain this land, which formed the core of the [[Papal States]]. This document, accepted as genuine until the 15th century, states that [[Constantine the Great]] placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In 800, [[Pope Leo III]] [[coronation|crowned]] the Frankish ruler [[Charlemagne]] as [[Roman Emperor]], a major step toward establishing what later became known as the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; from that date onward the popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor, though the right fell into disuse after the coronation of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in 1530. [[Pope Pius VII]] was present at the [[coronation of Napoleon I]] in 1804 but did not actually perform the crowning. As mentioned above, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy.

Popes like [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]], an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and [[Pope Julius II]], a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and [[Pope Alexander III]]). [[Papal bull]]s, [[interdict]], and [[excommunication]] (or the threat thereof) have been used many times to increase papal power. The Bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' in 1155 authorized [[Henry II of England]] to invade Ireland. In 1207, [[Pope Innocent III|Innocent III]] placed England under interdict until [[John, King of England|King John]] made his kingdom a [[fiefdom]] to the Pope, complete with yearly [[tribute]], saying, "we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins".<ref>Quoted from the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Medieval Sourcebook]</ref> The Bull ''[[Inter caetera]]'' in 1493 led to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in 1494, which divided the world into areas of Spanish and Portuguese rule. The Bull ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'' in 1570 excommunicated [[Elizabeth I of England]] and declared that all her subjects were released from all allegiance to her. The Bull, ''[[Inter gravissimas]]'', in 1582 established the [[Gregorian calendar]].<ref>See [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/getImage.pl?target=/data/www/NASD/4a7f1db4-5792-415c-be79-266f41eef20a/009/499/PTIFF/00000673.tif&rs=2 selection from ''Concordia Cyclopedia'': Roman Catholic Church, History of]</ref>

===International position===
Under international law, a serving [[head of state]] has [[sovereign immunity]] from the jurisdiction of the courts of other countries, though not from that of international tribunals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crimesofwar.org/commentary/the-icc-bashir-and-the-immunity-of-heads-of-state/ |title=Anthony Dworkin and Katherine Iliopoulos, ''The International Criminal Court, Bashir, and the Immunity of Heads of State'' |publisher=Crimesofwar.org |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref><ref>[http://books.google.ie/books?id=fZNZ7r4hYL8C&dq=%22head+of+state%22+%22diplomatic+immunity%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s Yitiha Simbeye, ''Immunity and International Criminal Law''], p. 94</ref> This immunity is sometimes loosely referred to as "[[diplomatic immunity]]", which is, strictly speaking, the immunity enjoyed by the ''diplomatic representatives'' of a head of state.

International law treats the [[Holy See]], essentially the central government of the Roman Catholic Church, as the juridical equal of a state. It is distinct from the state of [[Vatican City]], existing for many centuries before the foundation of the latter. (It is common, however, for publications to use "Holy See", "Vatican/Vatican City", and even "Rome" interchangeably, and incorrectly.) Most countries of the world maintain the same form of diplomatic relations with the Holy See that they entertain with other states. Even countries without those diplomatic relations participate in international organizations of which the Holy See is a full member.

It is as head of the Holy See, not of Vatican City, that the [[U.S. Justice Department]] ruled that the Pope enjoys head-of-state immunity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,169909,00.html |title=U.S. Says Pope Immune From Molestation Lawsuit, 2005 |publisher=Fox News |date=2005-09-20 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> This head-of-state immunity, recognized by the United States, must be distinguished from that envisaged under the United States' [[Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act]] of 1976, which, while recognizing the basic immunity of foreign governments from being sued in American courts, lays down nine exceptions, including commercial activity and actions in the United States by agents or employees of the foreign governments. It was in relation to the latter that, in November 2008, the [[United States Court of Appeals]] in [[Cincinnati]] decided that a case over [[Catholic sex abuse cases|sexual abuse by Catholic priests]] could proceed, provided the plaintiffs could prove that the bishops accused of negligent supervision were acting as employees or agents of the Holy See and were following official Holy See policy.<ref>Allen, John L. [http://ncronline.org/news/autonomy-bishops-and-suing-vatican The autonomy of bishops, and suing the Vatican] [http://www.sexualabuseclaimsblog.com/2008/11/vatican_can_be_sued_for_priest_sexual_abuse_us_court_of_appeals.html Vatican Can Be Sued For Priest Sexual Abuse: U.S. Court of Appeals, November 2008]</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Winfield |first=Nicole |title=Vatican offers 3 reasons it's not liable in U.S. abuse case|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/religion/2010-03-30-catholic-abuse_N.htm|accessdate=15 April 2013|newspaper=USA Today|date=30 March 2010}}</ref>

In April 2010, there was press coverage in Britain concerning a proposed plan by [[atheist]] campaigners and a prominent [[barrister]] to have Pope Benedict XVI arrested and prosecuted in the UK for alleged offences, dating from several decades before, in failing to take appropriate action regarding Catholic sex abuse cases and concerning their disputing his immunity from prosecution in that country.<ref>{{cite web|last=Horne|first=Mark|title=Richard Dawkins calls for arrest of Pope Benedict XVI|url=http://old.richarddawkins.net/articles/5415|work=The Times|accessdate=15 April 2013|date=10 April 2010}}</ref> This was generally dismissed as "unrealistic and spurious".<ref>{{cite news|last=Roberts|first=Ivor|title=Is the Holy See above the law? |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/article2475567.ece|accessdate=15 April 2013|newspaper=The Times|date=13 April 2010}}</ref> Another barrister said that it was a "matter of embarrassment that a senior British lawyer would want to allow himself to be associated with such a silly idea".<ref name=Zenit>[[Zenit News Agency]], 15 April 2010: [http://zenit.org/article-28914?l=english Arrest the Pope?]</ref>

==Objections to the papacy==
[[File:Antichrist1.jpg|thumb|upright|''Antichristus'', by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], from Luther's 1521 ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. The Pope is signing and selling [[indulgence]]s.]]

The Pope's claim to authority is either disputed or not recognised at all by other churches. The reasons for these objections differ from denomination to denomination.

===Orthodox, Anglican and Old Catholic churches===
Other traditional Christian churches ([[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], the [[Independent Catholic churches]], etc.) accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic succession]] and, to varying extents, papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the [[Roman Empire]], a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th [[canon law|canon]] of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of ''universal immediate jurisdiction'', or to claims of [[papal infallibility]]. Several of these churches refer to such claims as ''[[ultramontanism]]''.

===Protestant denominations===
{{Main|Historicism (Christianity)}}
[[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations of Christianity reject the claims of [[Primacy of Simon Peter|Petrine primacy]] of honor, Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, and papal infallibility. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's claim to authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the [[Antichrist]]<ref>"Therefore on the basis of a renewed study of the pertinent Scriptures we reaffirm the statement of the Lutheran Confessions, that 'the Pope is the very Antichrist'" from [http://www.wels.net/about-wels/doctrinal-statements/antichrist Statement on the Antichrist] from the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]], also [http://www.ianpaisley.org/antichrist.asp Ian Paisley, ''The Pope is the Antichrist]</ref> from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18], the [[Man of Sin]] from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thessalonians 2:3-12],<ref>See Kretzmann's [http://www.kretzmannproject.org/EP_MINOR/2TH_2.htm ''Popular Commentary''], 2 Thessalonians chapter two and [http://www.wlsessays.net/files/JeskeThessalonians.pdf An Exegesis of 2 Thessalonians 2:1-10] by Mark Jeske</ref> and the [[The Beast (Revelation)|Beast out of the Earth]] from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2013:11-18;&version=9; Revelation 13:11-18].<ref>See See Kretzmann's [http://www.kretzmannproject.org/REV/REV_13.htm ''Popular Commentary''], Revelation Chapter 13</ref>

This sweeping rejection is held by, among others, some denominations of Lutherans: [[Confessional Lutheran]]s hold that the pope is the Antichrist, stating that this article of faith is part of a ''quia'' rather than ''quatenus'' subscription to the [[Book of Concord]]. In 1932, one of these Confessional churches, the [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]] (LCMS), adopted ''A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod'', which a small number of Lutheran church bodies now hold. The [[Lutheran Churches of the Reformation]][http://www.lcrusa.org/a-brief-statement-of-doctrinal-position.html], the [[Concordia Lutheran Conference]][http://www.concordialutheranconf.com/doctrine/1932-2.cfm], the [[Church of the Lutheran Confession]][http://clclutheran.org/library/BriefStatement.html], and the Illinois Lutheran Conference [http://www.illinoislutheranconference.org/our-solid-foundation/doctrinal-position-of-the-ilc.lwp/odyframe.htm] all hold to the ''Brief Statement'', which the LCMS places on its website.<ref>[http://www.lcms.org/page.aspx?pid=415 Doctrinal Position]</ref>

[[File:ChristWashingFeet.JPG|thumb|upright|''Christus'', by Lucas Cranach. This woodcut of John 13:14–17 is from ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. Cranach shows Jesus kissing Peter's foot during the footwashing. This stands in contrast to the opposing woodcut, where the Pope demands others kiss his foot.]]
[[File:PopeKissing Feet.JPG|thumb|left|upright|''Antichristus'', by the Lutheran [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. This woodcut of the traditional practice of kissing the Pope's foot is from ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''.]]

Historically, Protestants objected to the papacy's claim of temporal power over all secular governments, including territorial claims in Italy,<ref>See the [http://books.google.com/books?id=Zr3lGJei6fkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r#PPA168,M1 Baltimore Catechism] on the temporal power of the pope over governments and Innocent III's [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Letter to the prefect Acerbius and the nobles of Tuscany]. For objection to this, see the [https://archive.org/details/concordiacyclope009499mbp Concordia Cyclopedia], p. 564 and 750.</ref> the papacy's complex relationship with secular states such as the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Empires, and the autocratic character of the papal office.<ref>See Luther, [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Article four]</ref> In [[Western Christianity]] these objections both contributed to and are products of the [[Protestant Reformation]].

==Antipopes==
{{Main|Antipope|Western Schism}}
Groups sometimes form around [[antipope]]s, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.

Traditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church ([[heresy]]) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (see schism). Briefly in the 15th century, three separate lines of popes claimed authenticity (see [[Western Schism|Papal Schism]]). Even Catholics do not all agree whether certain historical figures were popes or antipopes. Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor fringe causes.

==Other uses of the title "pope"==
In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope", meaning "father", had been used by all bishops. Some popes used the term and others didn't. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the Bishop of Rome. In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities.

===In the Roman Catholic Church===
The "Black Pope" is a name that was popularly, but unofficially, given to the [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] due to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits']] importance within the Church. This name, based on the black colour of his cassock, was used to suggest a parallel between him and the "White Pope" (since the time of [[Pope Pius V]] the Popes dress in white) and the Cardinal Prefect of the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] (formerly called the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), whose red cardinal's cassock gave him the name of the "Red Pope" in view of the authority over all territories that were not considered in some way Catholic. In the present time this cardinal has power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia,<ref name = "Magister">[http://www.chiesa.espressonline.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7049&eng=ylink Sandro Magister], Espresso Online.</ref> but in the past his competence extended also to all lands where [[Protestantism|Protestants]] or [[Eastern Christianity]] was dominant. Some remnants of this situation remain, with the result that, for instance, New Zealand is still in the care of this Congregation.

===In the Eastern Churches===
Since the [[Pope Heraclas of Alexandria|papacy of Heraclas]] in the 3rd century, the [[Metropolitan Archbishop|Bishop]] of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]] in both the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] continue to be called "Pope", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or, more properly, "[[Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle]]" and the latter called "[[List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Alexandria|Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa]]".<ref>[http://www.patriarchateofalexandria.com/index.php?lang=en Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa]</ref>

In the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" ("поп" ''pop''). However, this should be differentiated from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian "папа" ''papa'', Russian "папа римский" ''papa rimskiy'').{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}

===In new religious movements===
Some [[new religious movement]]s, especially those that have disassociated themselves from the Catholic Church yet retain a Catholic hierarchical framework, have used the designation "pope" for a movement's founder or current leader. One example in Africa is the [[Legio Maria|Legio Maria Church of Africa]]. Another example is [[Cao Dai]], a Vietnamese faith that duplicates the Catholic hierarchy, which is declared legitimate by religious authorities in Cao Dai due to the fact that, according to them, [[God]] created both Catholicism and Cao Dai.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}

==Lengths of papal reign==

===Longest-reigning popes===
[[File:Popepiusix.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Pius IX]], the longest-reigning pope]]
Although the average reign of the pope from the [[Middle Ages]] was a decade, a number of those whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:
# [[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]] (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days).
# [[Pope John Paul II|St. John Paul II]] (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,665 days).
# [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days).
# [[Pope Pius VI|Pius VI]] (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days).
# [[Pope Adrian I|Adrian I]] (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days).
# [[Pope Pius VII|Pius VII]] (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days).
# [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days).
# [[Pope Sylvester I|St. Sylvester I]] (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days).
# [[Pope Leo I|St. Leo I]] (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days (7,713 days).
# [[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII]] (1623–1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days).

===Shortest-reigning popes===
[[File:Urban VII.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Urban VII]], the shortest-reigning pope]]
There have been a number of popes whose reign lasted about a month or less. In the following list the number of calendar days includes partial days. Thus, for example, if a pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days.
#[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII]] (15–27 September 1590): reigned for 13 calendar days, died before [[papal coronation|coronation]].
#[[Pope Boniface VI|Boniface VI]] (April 896): reigned for 16 calendar days
#[[Pope Celestine IV|Celestine IV]] (25 October – 10 November 1241): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before coronation.
#[[Pope Theodore II|Theodore II]] (December 897): reigned for 20 calendar days
#[[Pope Sisinnius|Sisinnius]] (15 January – 4 February 708): reigned for 21 calendar days
#[[Pope Marcellus II|Marcellus II]] (9 April – 1 May 1555): reigned for 23 calendar days
#[[Pope Damasus II|Damasus II]] (17 July – 9 August 1048): reigned for 24 calendar days
#[[Pope Pius III|Pius III]] (22 September – 18 October 1503): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Leo XI|Leo XI]] (1–27 April 1605): reigned for 28 calendar days
#[[Pope Benedict V|Benedict V]] (22 May – 23 June 964): reigned for 33 calendar days
#[[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]] (26 August – 28 September 1978): reigned for 34 calendar days.

[[Pope-elect Stephen|Stephen]] (23–26 March 752), died of [[stroke]] three days after his election, and before his [[consecration]] as a bishop. He is not recognized as a valid pope, but was added to the lists of popes in the 15th century as ''Stephen II'', causing difficulties in enumerating later popes named Stephen. The [[Holy See]]'s ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'', in its [[list of popes]] and antipopes, attaches a footnote to its mention of [[Pope Stephen II|Stephen II (III)]]:

:"On the death of [[Pope Zachary|Zachary]] the Roman priest Stephen was elected; but, since four days later he died, before his ''[[episcopal consecration|consecratio]]'', which according to the [[canon law (Catholic Church)|canon law]] of the time was the true commencement of his pontificate, his name is not registered in the ''Liber Pontificalis'' nor in other lists of the Popes."<ref>Annuario Pontificio 2012 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2012 ISBN 978-88-209-8722-0), p. 11*</ref>

Published every year by the [[Roman Curia]], the ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' attaches no consecutive numbers to the popes, stating that it is impossible to decide which side represented at various times the legitimate succession, in particular regarding [[Pope Leo VIII]], [[Pope Benedict V]] and some mid-11th-century popes.<ref>''Annuario Pontificio 2012'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2012 ISBN 978-88-209-8722-0), p. 12*</ref>

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
* [[Caesaropapism]]
* [[Index of Vatican City-related articles]]
* [[Legends surrounding the papacy]]
* [[List of canonised popes]]
* [[List of current Christian leaders]]
* [[List of popes]]
{{Col-3}}
* [[Papal inauguration]]
* [[Papal name]]
* [[Papal Slippers]]
* [[Prophecy of the Popes]]
{{Col-3}}
{{Portal|Christianity|Catholicism|Pope}}
{{Col-end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|title=One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief|last=Barry|first=Rev. Msgr. John F.|year=2002|publisher=William H. Sadlier|location=New York|isbn=0-8215-2207-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church|last=Bokenkotter|first=Thomas|year=2004|publisher=Doubleday |location=New York|isbn=0-385-50584-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Chadwick|first=Henry|authorlink=Henry Chadwick (theologian)|editor=John McManners|encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity|title=The Early Christian Community|year=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-822928-3|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes|last=Duffy|first=Eamon|authorlink=Eamon Duffy|year=1997|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-07332-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Durant |first=William James |authorlink=Will Durant |title=[[The Age of Faith|The Story of Civilization]] |volume=IV. The Age of Faith: A History of Medieval Civilization - Christian, Islamic, and Judaic - from Constantine to Dante, A.D. 325-1300 |year=1950 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-671-01200-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Durant |first=William James |authorlink=Will Durant |title=[[The Reformation (Story of Civilization)|The Story of Civilization]] |volume=VI. The Reformation |year=1957 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-671-61050-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Franzen|first=August|coauthors=John Dolan|title=A History of the Church|publisher=Herder and Herder|year=1969|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Granfield |first=Patrick |title=The Limits of the Papacy: Authority and Autonomy in the Church |year=1987 |publisher=Crossroad |location=New York |isbn=0-8245-0839-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Grisar |first=Hartmann |title=History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages |year=1912 |publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner |location=London |oclc=11025456 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_22021996_universi-dominici-gregis_en.html |title=Universi Dominici Gregis |last=John Paul II |first=Pope |authorlink=Pope John Paul II |date=22 February 1996 |publisher=[[Vatican Publishing House]]|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Kelly|first=J. N.|title=Oxford Dictionary of the Popes|year=1986|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=978-0-19-190935-1 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kerr |first=William Shaw |authorlink=William Kerr (bishop) |title=A Handbook on the Papacy |year=1950 |publisher=Marshall, Morgan & Scott |location=London |oclc=51018118 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=The Catholic Church: A Short History|last=Küng|first=Hans|authorlink=Hans Küng|year=2003|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-8129-6762-3|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |author=Loomis, Louise Ropes |title=The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis): To the Pontificate of Gregory I |publisher=Evolution Publishing |location=Merchantville, New Jersey |origyear=1916 |year=2006 |isbn=1-889758-86-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Noble|first=Thomas|coauthors=Strauss, Barry|title=Western Civilization|year=2005|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|isbn=0-618-43277-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=A Short History of the Catholic Church|last=Orlandis|first=José|authorlink=José Orlandis|year=1993|publisher=Scepter Publishers|isbn=1-85182-125-2|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Pastor|first=Ludwig von|title=The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages: Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and Other Original Sources|year=1891–1930|publisher=J. Hodges|location=London|oclc=270566224|authorlink=Ludwig von Pastor|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Walsh |first=James Joseph |authorlink=James Joseph Walsh |title=The Popes and Science: The History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FltHAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover |year=1908 |publisher=Fordham University Press |location=New York |oclc=08015255 |ref=harv}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Brusher|first=Joseph S.|title=Popes Through the Ages|year=1959|publisher=Van Nostrand|location=Princeton, N.J|oclc=742355324}}
* {{cite book|last=Chamberlin|first=E. R.|title=The Bad Popes|year=1969|publisher=Dial Press|location=New York|oclc=647415773}}
* {{cite book|last=Dollison|first=John|title=Pope-pourri|year=1994|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=978-0-671-88615-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Maxwell-Stuart|first=P. G.|title=Chronicle of the Popes: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present |year=1997|publisher=Thames and Hudson|location= London|isbn=0-500-01798-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius |authorlink=John Julius Norwich |title=The Popes: A History |year=2011|publisher=Chatto & Windus|location=London|isbn=978-0-7011-8290-8}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{CE poster|Pope}}
* [http://kolonisera.rymden.nu/pope/popes.php?l=1 Pope Endurance League - Sortable list of Popes]
* [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_Magisterium_Paparum.html Data Base of more than 23,000 documents of the Popes in latin and modern languages]
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father]—website for the past and present Holy Fathers (since [[Pope Leo XIII]])
* [http://www.catholic.com/tracts/origins-of-peter-as-pope Origins of Peter as Pope]
* [http://www.catholic.com/tracts/the-authority-of-the-pope-part-i The Authority of the Pope: Part I]
* [http://www.catholic.com/tracts/the-authority-of-the-pope-part-ii The Authority of the Pope: Part II]

{{Popes}}
{{Papal symbols and ceremonial}}
{{Vatican City topics}}
{{Catholicism}}
{{Papal elections and conclaves from 1061}}
{{Periods of papal history}}
{{InvestitureControversy}}
{{Europe heads of state and government}}
{{Pentarchy}}

[[Category:Popes| ]]
[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:Holy See| ]]
[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]

Benutzer:Shi Annan/Doubting Antiquity School

2014-12-10T06:13:41Z

Textorus: /* Criticism */ add Kongzi Jiayu

The '''Doubting Antiquity School''' or '''Yigupai''' ({{zh|c=疑古派|p=Yígǔpài|w=Ikup'ai}}<ref name="wilkinson">[[Endymion Wilkinson|Wilkinson, Endymion]] (2000). ''Chinese History: A Manual''. Harvard Univ Asia Center. ISBN 0-674-00249-0. Page 345, see: [http://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA345&vq=doubting+antiquity+school&source=gbs_search_s&cad=0]</ref><ref name="loewe">Loewe, Michael and Edward L. Shaughnessy (1999). ''The Cambridge History of Ancient China'' Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47030-7. Page 72, see: [http://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&pg=PA72&vq=doubting+antiquity+school&dq=Doubting+of+Antiquity&source=gbs_search_s&cad=0]</ref>) refers to a group of scholars and writers who show doubts and uncertainty of antiquity in the [[Chinese languages|Chinese]] [[academia]] starting during the [[New Culture Movement]], (mid 1910s and 1920s). Most of their criticism concerns the authenticity of pre-Qin texts and deals with questions put forward by the past dynastic writers, as well as other subjects. [[Hu Shi]] (1891–1962) initiated the critical movement,<ref name="wilkinson"/> with his pupil [[Gu Jiegang]] and his friend [[Qian Xuantong]] continuing this school of thought.<ref name="debary">De Bary, William Theodore (2001). ''Sources of Chinese Tradition: From 1600 Through the Twentieth Century''. Published by Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11271-8. Page 364, see: [http://books.google.com/books?id=YJnmgmsZ3OUC&pg=PA364]</ref> Their writings also had influence on many western [[sinologist]]s including [[Bernhard Karlgren]] and [[Samuel B. Griffith|Samuel Griffith]].

In a more specific way, DA School was represented by ''Gushibian'' 古史辨 (''Debates on Ancient History'') - the scholarly movement led by Gu Jiegang, centered on the magazine of the same name. Seven issues of the magazine, 1926-1941, contain about 350 essays.

Major critics of the Doubting Antiquity School were historians associated with the ''[[Critical Review (Xueheng)|Critical Review]]'' (''Xueheng'' 學衡), a journal founded in 1922. These historians included [[Liu Yizheng]], [[Liang Qichao]] (梁启超), [[Wang Guowei]], [[Chen Yinque]], and [[Miao Fenglin]] (繆鳳林; 1898–1959).

==Criticism==

[[Joseph Needham]] wrote in 1954 that many scholars doubted that classic texts such as [[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' contained accurate information about such distant history, including the thirty kings of the [[Shang dynasty]] (c. 1600–c. 1046 BC) listed by Sima. Many scholars argued that Sima couldn't possibly have had access to written materials which detailed history a millennium before his time. However, the discovery of [[oracle bones]] at an excavation of the Shang capital at [[Anyang]] ([[Yinxu]]) matched twenty-three names of the thirty Shang kings listed by Sima. Needham writes that this remarkable archaeological find proves that Sima Qian "did have fairly reliable materials at his disposal—a fact which underlines once more the deep historical-mindedness of the Chinese."<ref name="needham">Needham, Joseph. (1972). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations''. Richmond: Kingprint Ltd., reprinted by permission of the Cambridge University Press with first publication in 1954. ISBN 0-521-05799-X. Page 88, see: [http://books.google.com/books?id=lNXZGQVdz_gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=science+civilisation+needham&hl=nl&sig=ACfU3U1Qiy2tvp8BVn_pZlCp2iqcoWzSWQ#PPA88,M1 here].</ref>

In 1993, scholar [[Li Xueqin]] made an influential speech in which he called for historians to "leave the 'Doubting Antiquity' period", which became the manifesto of the "Believing Antiquity" movement. Scholars of this viewpoint argue that archaeological discoveries of recent decades have generally substantiated Chinese traditional accounts rather than contradicted them, rendering the doubts of the Doubting Antiquity School largely obsolete. For instance, manuscripts discovered in tombs have proved the authenticity of several texts that had been long thought to be later forgeries, including the ''[[Wenzi]]'', the ''[[Kongzi Jiayu]]'', the ''[[Heguanzi]]'', parts of the ''[[Yi Zhou Shu]]'', and many others.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shaughnessy |first=Edward L. |authorlink=Edward L. Shaughnessy |title=Rewriting Early Chinese Texts |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jWCMTyYjIicC&pg=PA257 |year=2006 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=9780791482353 |pages=257–258}}</ref>

==List of early modern scholars==

===Prominent figures===
* [[Hu Shi]] (胡適)
* [[Gu Jiegang]]
* [[Guo Moruo]]
* [[Kang Youwei]]
* [[Liang Qichao]]
* [[Zhang Xincheng]] (张心澂)

===Others===
{{Div col|cols=3}}
* [[Chen Lisan]] (陈立三)
* [[Chen Wenbo]] (陈文波)
* [[Chen Zhu]] (陈柱)
* [[Cui Shi (historian)|Cui Shi]] (崔适)
* [[Deng Sishan]] (邓思善)
* [[Du Guoxiang]] (杜国庠)
* [[Fan Wenlan]] (范文澜)
* [[Feng Youlan]]
* [[Feng Zhen]] (冯振)
* [[Gao Heng (writer)|Gao Heng]] (高亨)
* [[Gu Shi]] (顾实)
* [[Huang Yunmei]] (黄云眉)
* [[Jin Dejian]] (金德建)
* [[Li Jingchi]] (李镜池)
* [[Liao Ping]] (廖平)
* [[Liu Jie]] (刘节)
* [[Liu Rulin]] (刘汝霖)
* [[Liu Xianxin]] (刘咸炘)
* [[Lü Simian]] (吕思勉)
* [[Luo Genze]] (罗根泽)
* [[Ma Xulun]] (马叙论)
* [[Qian Daxin]] (钱大昕)
* [[Qian Jibo]] (钱基博)
* [[Qian Xuantong]]
* [[Ren Jiyu]] (任继愈)
* [[Rong Zhaozu]] (容肇祖)
* [[Sun Cidan]] (孙次丹)
* [[Tao Fangqi]] (陶方琦)
* [[Tang Lan]] (唐兰)
* [[Wang Zhengyi]] (王正已)
* [[Wei Juxian]] (卫聚贤)
* [[Wu Qichang]] (吴其昌)
* [[Xu Renfu]] (徐仁甫)
* [[Yang Bojun]] (杨伯峻)
* [[Yang Kuan]] (杨宽)
* [[Yang Rongguo]]
* [[Yang Yunru]] (杨筠如)
* [[Ye Guoqing]] (叶国庆)
* [[Yin Tongyang]] (尹桐阳)
* [[Yu Yongliang]] (余永梁)
* [[Zhang Binglin]]
* [[Zhang Jitong]] (张季同)
* [[Zhang Qihuang]] (张其锽)
* [[Zhang Shoulin]] (张寿林)
* [[Zhang Xitang]] (张西堂)
* [[Zhao Shouzheng]] (赵守正)
* [[Zhu Xizhu]] (朱希祖)
{{Div col end}}

==See also==
*[[New Culture Movement]]
*[[Old Texts]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Liu, Jianguo (2004). ''Distinguishing and Correcting the pre-Qin Forged Classics''. Xi'an: Shaanxi People's Press. ISBN 7-224-05725-8.

[[Category:New Confucianism]]
[[Category:Historiography of China]]

14. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten

2014-02-23T04:09:58Z

Textorus: /* Bürgerrechte */ wikilink, jahr

[[Datei:14th Amendment Pg2of2 AC.jpg|thumb|200px|14. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten]]
Der '''14. Zusatzartikel zur [[Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten]]''' wurde infolge des [[Sezessionskrieg|Amerikanischen Bürgerkrieges]] verabschiedet. Er enthält die [[Equal Protection Caluse|Gleichbehandlungsklausel]], das Recht auf ein [[Due Process|ordentliches Gerichtsverfahren]] in den Bundesstaaten und die Grundlagen des [[US-amerikanische Staatsbürgerschaft|Staatsbürgerschaftsrechts]] ([[Ius Soli]]). Er wurde am 13. Juni 1866 zur Verabschiedung vorgeschlagen und am 28. Juli 1868 ratifiziert.

Der Verfassungszusatz liefert eine weitreichende Definition von nationaler Staatsbürgerschaft. Er stellt allen Personen (und nicht nur Staatsbürgern) den gleichen Schutz der Gesetze der [[Vereinigte Staaten|Vereinigten Staaten]], die in den Zuständigkeiten der verschiedenen [[Bundesstaat der Vereinigten Staaten|Bundesstaaten]] liegen, in Aussicht. Das Hauptanliegen der Verfasser war, dass ein gleichwertiger Schutz ungeachtet der Rasse hergestellt wird.

Der recht abstrakt und allgemein formulierte erste Abschnitt des 14. Verfassungszusatzes wurde in der amerikanischen Rechtsprechung des 20. Jahrhunderts wirkmächtig wie kein anderer Teil der Verfassung. Vor allem die sehr weit auslegbaren Begriffe der „privileges and immunities of citizens“, des „[[5. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten#Due process|due process of law]]“ – im Deutschen unten nur annähernd als „[[5. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten|ordentliches Gerichtsverfahren nach Recht und Gesetz]]“ wiedergegeben, so dass "[[Rechtsstaatlichkeit|Ausübung staatlicher Macht nur auf der Grundlage der Verfassung und von formell und materiell verfassungsmäßig erlassenen Gesetzen]]“<ref>Zit. nach [[Klaus Stern (Rechtswissenschaftler)|Klaus Stern]]: ''Das Staatsrecht der Bundesrepublik Deutschland – Band I'', C.H. Beck, 1984, § 20 III.</ref> eine annähernde Übersetzung ist – und der „equal protection of the laws“ wurden immer wieder herangezogen, um rechtlich gegen [[Diskriminierung]]en aller Art vorzugehen oder den rechtlichen Schutz von Grundrechten zu postulieren, die von der Verfassung nicht ausdrücklich genannt werden. Die direkte Verbindlichkeit der meisten der im Urtext der Verfassung und in der [[Bill of Rights (Vereinigte Staaten)|Bill of Rights]] genannten Grundrechte nicht nur in Bezug auf die dort ausdrücklich genannte Gesetzgebungstätigkeit des [[Kongress der Vereinigten Staaten|Kongresses]], sondern auch in Bezug auf Akte der Exekutive und auf die Institutionen der Einzelstaaten wurde mit diesem Artikel begründet.<ref>[http://www.law.duke.edu/news/story?id=1032&u=11 ''Scholar praises 14th Amendment as "real" Constitution''] Garrett Epps in law.duke.edu vom 15. Februar 2008 abgerufen am 18. Dezember 2010 (englisch)</ref><ref>[http://keithcollection.wayne.edu/pdfs/mtjbooklet.pdf ''Marching Toward Justice: The History of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution''] Lawrence C. Mann, M. Chiquita McKenzie auf keithcollection.wayne.edu (Booklet der Damon J. Keith Law Collection of African American Legal History, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan) (PDF; 876 kB) abgerufen am 18. Dezember 2010 (englisch)</ref><ref>[http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/vanlr4&div=32&id=&page= ''A Modern Supreme Court in a Modern World''] Charles P. Curtis in 4. Vanderbilt Law Review, Seite 427 (1950-1951), abgerufen am 18. Dezember 2010 (englisch)</ref>

== Staatsbürgerschaft und Bürgerrechte ==
Der erste Abschnitt des Zusatzes definiert die Staatsbürgerschaft und verlangt von den Bundesstaaten Bürgerrechte zu gewähren.

:'' '''Abschnitt 1'''. Alle Personen, die in den Vereinigten Staaten geboren oder eingebürgert sind und ihrer Gesetzeshoheit unterstehen, sind Bürger der Vereinigten Staaten und des Einzelstaates, in dem sie ihren Wohnsitz haben. Keiner der Einzelstaaten darf Gesetze erlassen oder durchführen, die die Vorrechte oder Freiheiten von Bürgern der Vereinigten Staaten beschränken, und kein Staat darf irgend jemandem ohne ordentliches Gerichtsverfahren nach Recht und Gesetz Leben, Freiheit oder Eigentum nehmen oder irgend jemandem innerhalb seines Hoheitsbereiches den gleichen Schutz durch das Gesetz versagen.''

=== Definition des Begriffs "Bürger" ===
Der erste Abschnitt definiert, wer ein Bürger der Vereinigten Staaten ist, und bestimmt, dass kein Bundesstaat Gesetze verabschieden kann, welche die Rechte eines Bürgers oder einer Person im Zuständigkeitsbereich der USA beschneiden. Dieser Definition lag auch die Rücknahme einer Entscheidung des [[Oberster Gerichtshof der Vereinigten Staaten|Supreme Court]] im Fall [[Dred Scott v. Sandford]] zugrunde. In diesem Fall wurde zuerst entschieden, dass Afro-Amerikaner keine Bürger der Vereinigten Staaten seien und auch niemals welche werden könnten. Weiter wurde entschieden, dass sie nicht in den Genuss von Privilegien oder Immunitäten kommen könnten, die mit der Staatsbürgerschaft einhergehen.

=== Bürgerrechte ===
Der Kongress verabschiedete den 14. Verfassungszusatz auch als Reaktion auf die [[Black codes|Black Codes]], die von einigen [[Südstaaten]] verabschiedet wurden, weil die [[Sklaverei in den Vereinigten Staaten|Sklaverei]] durch den 13. Verfassungszusatz beendet werden sollte. Diese Gesetze versuchten, befreite Sklaven in ihre frühere, annähernd rechtlose Position zu versetzen. Die Gesetze sollten auch ehemalige Sklaven davon abhalten, Klagen bei Gericht einzureichen oder dort auszusagen.

Die Gleichbehandlungsklausel hatte in den Jahrzehnten nach dem Bürgerkrieg tatsächlich diesen Effekt, als der [[Oberster Gerichtshof der Vereinigten Staaten|Supreme Court]] Gesetze kippte, die [[Afroamerikaner]] daran hinderten, als Geschworene arbeiten zu können, oder Amerikaner mit [[China|chinesischen]] Wurzeln diskriminierten, die in Wäschereien arbeiteten. Der Supreme Court begrenzte jedoch die Reichweite des Verfassungszusatzes im Fall der ''Slaughterhouse Cases'', indem er anmerkte, dass die Klausel über die Privilegien und Immunitäten keine neuen Bundesgesetze schaffe.

Im Fall ''Plessy vs. Ferguson'' stellte der Supreme Court klar, dass die Bundesstaaten die Rassentrennung so lange aufrechterhalten könnten, wie sie den Betroffenen gleiche Grundrechte zugestehen. Manche haben argumentiert, dass die Gleichbehandlungsklausel nicht beabsichtigte die Rassentrennung zu verbieten. Sie bezogen sich auf Debatten im Kongress, in denen für den 14. Verfassungszusatz nach Bürgerrechten, politischen Rechten und sozialen Rechten unterschieden wurde.

Soziale Rechte enthielten das Recht zur Mischehe und waren wahrscheinlich der Hauptgrund für die Rassentrennung. Politische Rechte waren beispielsweise das Recht zum Wählen. Was als Bürgerrechte bezeichnet wurde, war stärker eingeschränkt als man es heute annehmen würde. Bürgerrechte enthielten Dinge wie die Gleichbehandlung in Straf- und Zivilgerichten. Letztendlich wurden politische Rechte nicht mit der Ratifizierung des 14. Verfassungszusatzes verabschiedet, sondern mit der Ratifizierung des 15. Verfassungszusatzes, der das Recht zur Teilnahme an Wahlen vorsah. Soziale Rechte wurden erst nach dem Urteil im Fall ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'' (1967) anerkannt. In diesem Gerichtsverfahren erklärte das Gericht Gesetze, die gegen die Mischehe standen, für verfassungswidrig.

== Zuteilung von Repräsentanten ==
Der zweite Abschnitt führt Regeln für die Zuteilung von Repräsentanten im Kongress ein:

:'' '''Abschnitt 2'''. Die Abgeordnetenmandate werden auf die einzelnen Staaten im Verhältnis zu ihrer Einwohnerzahl verteilt, wobei in jedem Staat die Gesamtzahl aller Personen mit Ausnahme der nicht besteuerten Indianer zugrunde gelegt wird. Wenn aber das Wahlrecht bei irgendeiner Wahl zur Bestimmung der Wahlmänner für den Präsidenten und Vizepräsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten, der Abgeordneten im Kongress, der Verwaltungs- und Justizbeamten eines Einzelstaates oder der Mitglieder seiner gesetzgebenden Körperschaft irgendwelchen männlichen Einwohnern dieses Staates, die über einundzwanzig Jahre alt und Bürger der Vereinigten Staaten sind, abgesprochen oder irgendwie beschränkt wird, außer wenn dies wegen Teilnahme an einem Aufstand oder wegen eines sonstigen Verbrechens geschieht, so ist die Grundzahl für die Vertretung daselbst im selben Verhältnis zu vermindern, in dem die Zahl solcher männlichen Bürger zur Gesamtzahl der männlichen Bürger über einundzwanzig Jahre in diesem Staate steht.''

Damit wurde die sogenannte Drei-Fünftel-Klausel der ursprünglichen Verfassung abgeschafft, nach der "alle sonstigen Personen" ohne Wahlrecht, gemeint waren vor allem Sklaven, zu 60% in die für die Sitzzahl im Repräsentantenhaus maßgebliche Einwohnerzahl eines Bundesstaates eingingen. Die Regeln dieses Abschnitts sind im Wesentlichen bis heute maßgebend, wobei es allerdings seit langem keine "nicht besteuerten Indianer" mehr gibt.

Unter den sogenannten [[Jim Crow|Jim-Crow-Gesetzen]] wurde diese Regel in den Südstaaten von etwa 1890 bis etwa 1965 unterwandert, indem das Wahlrecht der Schwarzen, das dieser Artikel, zusammen mit dem [[15. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten]] eigentlich sicherstellen sollte, durch informelle Gewaltandrohung oder durch trickreiche, oberflächlich rassenneutrale Rechtskonstruktionen doch nicht gewährt wurde; etwa indem beim Wählen eine hohe "Wahlsteuer" fällig wurde, die aber erlassen wurde, wenn ein Vorfahr des Wählers bereits in einem bestimmten, vor dem Bürgerkrieg liegenden Jahr das Wahlrecht in dem betreffenden Staat innegehabt hatte, was auf die Schwarzen (und auch auf zugezogene, tendenziell liberalere Weiße aus den Nordstaaten) natürlich nicht zutraf. Solche Bestimmungen wurden erst in den 1960er Jahren durch den [[24. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten]] und verschiedene Bürgerrechtsgesetze abgeschafft.

Die hier genannte Beschränkung auf "männliche Personen" als Wähler wurde später durch den [[19. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten]] abgeschafft; das hier genannte Wahlalter von einundzwanzig Jahren wurde durch den [[26. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten]] auf achtzehn Jahre abgesenkt.

== Umgang mit den Bediensteten der Konföderierten Staaten von Amerika ==
Der dritte Abschnitt verbot denjenigen ehemaligen Amtsträgern der [[Konföderierte Staaten von Amerika|Konföderierten Staaten von Amerika]], die vor dem [[Sezessionskrieg|amerikanischen Bürgerkrieg]] einen Eid auf die Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten geleistet hatten, nach Ende des Krieges jede erneute Amtstätigkeit für die Vereinigten Staaten, da sie als eidbrüchige Verräter angesehen wurden.

:'' '''Abschnitt 3'''. Niemand darf Senator oder Abgeordneter im Kongress oder Wahlmann für die Wahl des Präsidenten oder Vizepräsidenten sein, irgendein ziviles oder militärisches Amt im Dienste der Vereinigten Staaten oder eines Einzelstaates bekleiden, der, nachdem er als Mitglied des Kongresses oder als Beamter der Vereinigten Staaten oder als Mitglied der gesetzgebenden Körperschaft eines der Einzelstaaten oder als Verwaltungs- oder Justizbeamter in einem der Einzelstaaten auf die Einhaltung der Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten vereidigt worden ist, an einem Aufstand oder Aufruhr gegen sie teilgenommen oder ihre Feinde unterstützt oder begünstigt hat. Doch kann der Kongress mit Zweidrittelmehrheit in jedem der beiden Häuser diese Amtsunfähigkeit aufheben.''

== Kriegsbedingte Schulden ==
Der vierte Abschnitt erklärte alle Schulden, die die Konföderierten Staaten während ihres Bestehens aufgenommen hatten, für
nichtig, so dass deren Gläubiger ihre Forderungen nicht mehr eintreiben konnten. Gleichzeitig betont er die Gültigkeit der Kriegsschulden der Nordstaaten.

:'' '''Abschnitt 4'''. Die Rechtsgültigkeit der gesetzlich genehmigten Staatsschulden der Vereinigten Staaten mit Einschluss der Verpflichtungen, die aus der Zahlung von Pensionen und Sonderzuwendungen für Teilnahme an der Unterdrückung von Aufstand und Aufruhr erwachsen sind, darf nicht in Frage gestellt werden. Doch dürfen weder die Vereinigten Staaten noch irgendein Einzelstaat eine Schuld oder Verbindlichkeit übernehmen oder einlösen, die aus der Unterstützung eines Aufstands oder Aufruhrs gegen die Vereinigten Staaten erwachsen ist, oder irgendeinem Ersatzanspruch für den Verlust oder die Freilassung eines Sklaven stattgeben; vielmehr sind alle derartigen Schulden, Verbindlichkeiten und Ansprüche ungesetzlich und nichtig.''

== Vorschlag und Ratifizierung ==
Der Kongress schlug den 14. Verfassungszusatz am 13. Juni 1866 zur Ratifizierung vor. Zu dieser Zeit gab es 37 Bundesstaaten. Die Ratifizierung (gemäß Artikel 5 der amerikanischen Verfassung) durch 28 dieser Bundesstaaten hätte diesen Verfassungszusatz gültig gemacht. Bis zum 9. Juli 1868 hatten 28 Bundesstaaten den Verfassungszusatz ratifiziert:

* [[Connecticut]] (am 25. Juni 1866)
* [[New Hampshire]] (am 6. Juli 1866)
* [[Tennessee]] (am 19. Juli 1866)
* [[New Jersey]] (am 11. September 1866)
* [[Oregon]] (am 19. September 1866)
* [[Vermont]] (am 30. Oktober 1866)
* [[Ohio]] (am 4. Januar 1867)
* [[New York (Bundesstaat)|New York]] (am 10. Januar 1867)
* [[Kansas]] (am 11. Januar 1867)
* [[Illinois]] (am 15. Januar 1867)
* [[West Virginia]] (am 16. Januar 1867)
* [[Michigan]] (am 16. Januar 1867)
* [[Minnesota]] (am 16. Januar 1867)
* [[Maine]] (am 19. Januar 1867)
* [[Nevada]] (am 22. Januar 1867)
* [[Indiana]] (am 23. Januar 1867)
* [[Missouri]] (am 25. Januar 1867)
* [[Rhode Island]] (am 7. Februar 1867)
* [[Wisconsin]] (am 7. Februar 1867)
* [[Pennsylvania]] (am 12. Februar 1867)
* [[Massachusetts]] (am 20. März 1867)
* [[Nebraska]] (am 15. Juni 1867)
* [[Iowa]] (am 16. März 1868)
* [[Arkansas]] (am 6. April 1868)
* [[Florida]] (am 9. Juni 1868)
* [[North Carolina]] (am 4. Juli 1868, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 14. Dezember 1866 zunächst abgelehnt wurde)
* [[Louisiana]] (am 9. Juli 1868, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 6. Februar 1867 zunächst abgelehnt wurde)
* [[South Carolina]] (am 9. Juli 1868, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 20. Dezember 1866 zunächst abgelehnt wurde)

Jedoch verabschiedete [[Ohio]] am 15. Januar 1868 eine Resolution, die eine Rücknahme der Ratifizierung enthielt. Das [[New Jersey Legislature|Parlament von New Jersey]] versuchte am 20. Februar 1868 ebenso, die Ratifizierung aufzuheben. Der [[Republikanische Partei|republikanische]] [[Gouverneur (Vereinigte Staaten)|Gouverneur]] von New Jersey, [[Marcus Lawrence Ward]], legte gegen diese Rücknahme am 5. März 1868 sein Veto ein. Am 24. März 1868 setzte sich das Parlament über dieses Veto hinweg. Dementsprechend bescheinigte [[Außenminister der Vereinigten Staaten|US-Außenminister]] [[William H. Seward]] am 20. Juli 1868, dass der Verfassungszusatz Teil der amerikanischen Verfassung werde, wenn die geplanten Aufhebungen nicht rechtskräftig würden. Der Kongress antwortete am darauffolgenden Tag, dass der Verfassungszusatz Teil der Verfassung sei, und ordnete an, dass Seward den Verfassungszusatz verkünden solle.

Währenddessen ratifizierten zwei weitere Bundesstaaten den Verfassungszusatz:

* [[Alabama]] (am 13. Juli 1868, das Datum der Ratifizierung wurde vom Gouverneur genehmigt)
* [[Georgia]] (am 21. Juli 1868, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 9. November 1866 zunächst abgelehnt wurde)

Deshalb war Seward am 28. Juli 1868 in der Lage, bedingungslos zu bescheinigen, dass der Verfassungszusatz Teil der amerikanischen Verfassung war, ohne auf die Durchsetzung der Rücknahmen durch den Kongress Rücksicht nehmen zu müssen.

Es gab schließlich weitere, rein symbolische Ratifizierungen und Rücknahmen:

* [[Oregon]] (zog den Verfassungszusatz am 15. Oktober 1868 zurück)
* [[Virginia]] (am 8. Oktober 1869, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 9. Januar 1867 zunächst abgelehnt wurde)
* [[Mississippi (Bundesstaat)|Mississippi]] (am 17. Januar 1870)
* [[Texas]] (am 18. Februar 1870, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 27. Oktober 1866 zunächst abgelehnt wurde)
* [[Delaware]] (am 12. Februar 1901, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 7. Februar 1867 zunächst abgelehnt wurde)
* [[Maryland]] (1959)
* [[Kalifornien]] (1959)
* [[Oregon]] (1973, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 15. Oktober 1868 zurückgenommen wurde)
* [[Kentucky]] (1976, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 8. Januar 1867 zunächst abgelehnt wurde)
* [[New Jersey]] (2003, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz 1868 zurückgenommen wurde)
* [[Ohio]] (2003, nachdem der Verfassungszusatz am 15. Januar 1868 zurückgenommen wurde)

== Relevante Gerichtsverfahren ==
* 1857: ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]''
* 1873: ''[[Slaughterhouse Cases]]''
* 1879: ''[[Standing Bear v. Crook]]''
* 1880: ''[[Strauder v. West Virginia]]''
* 1883: ''[[Civil Rights Cases]]''
* 1886: ''[[Yick Wo v. Hopkins]]''
* 1896: ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]''
* 1905: ''[[Lochner v. New York]]''
* 1908: ''[[Berea College v. Kentucky]]''
* 1917: ''[[Buchanan v. Warley]]''
* 1923: ''[[Meyer v. Nebraska]]''
* 1925: ''[[Gitlow v. New York]]''
* 1925: ''[[Pierce v. Society of Sisters]]''
* 1932: ''[[Powell v. Alabama]]''
* 1948: ''[[Shelley v. Kraemer]]''
* 1954: ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]''
* 1962: ''[[Baker v. Carr]]''
* 1965: ''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]''
* 1966: ''[[Sheppard v. Maxwell]]''
* 1967: ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]''
* 1970: ''[[Goldberg v. Kelly]]''
* 1972: ''[[Board of Regents v. Roth]]''
* 1972: ''[[New Orleans v. Dukes]]''
* 1973: ''[[Roe v. Wade]]''
* 1974: ''[[Goss v. Lopez]]''
* 2003: ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]''

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Chronologie der Rassengesetze der Vereinigten Staaten]]

== Quellen ==
{{Wikisource|en:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XIV|Englischer Text des 14. Verfassungszusatzes}}
{{Wikisource|Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika#Zusatzartikel XIV|Deutscher Text des 14. Verfassungszusatzes}}

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references/>

{{Navigationsleiste Zusätze zur Verfassung der USA}}

{{Normdaten|TYP=w|GND=4243024-0|LCCN=n/83/3571|VIAF=181043601}}

[[Kategorie:Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten|14]]
[[Kategorie:Bürgerrechte]]
[[Kategorie:Sezessionskrieg|#::14 Zusatzartikel Zur Verfassung Der Vereinigten Staaten]]

{{Link GA|en}}
{{Link FA|zh}}

Kinescope

2013-10-20T06:31:31Z

Textorus: /* History */ indicate date of royal wedding; remove mistaken note: the 1937 Coronation was filmed, not telerecorded, according to the wikiarticle on it

{{Distinguish|Kinetoscope}}
{{merge|telerecording|date=October 2013}}
[[File:Kinescope at the Canada Museum of Science & Technology -Ottawa-.jpg|thumb|A PA-302 General Precision Laboratories (GPL) kinescope (c.1950–1955). Its [[movie camera|movie film camera]], bolted to the top of the cabinet, used [[Kodak]] optics. (Photo: '''''Peter Lindell''', [[Canada Science and Technology Museum]]'')]]

'''Kinescope''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|n|ɨ|s|k|oʊ|p}}, shortened to '''kine''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|n|iː}}, also known as '''telerecording''' in Britain, is a recording of a television program made by filming the picture from a [[video monitor]].

Typically, the term can refer to the process itself, the equipment used for the procedure (a [[16 mm film|16 mm]] or [[35 mm film|35 mm]] [[movie camera]] mounted in front of a video monitor, and synchronized to the monitor's scanning rate), or a film made using the process. Kinescopes were the only practical way to preserve [[live television]] broadcasts prior to the introduction of [[videotape]] in 1956. A small number of theatrically released feature films have also been produced as kinescopes.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

The term originally referred to the [[cathode ray tube]] used in [[television receiver]]s, as named by inventor [[Vladimir K. Zworykin]] in 1929.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 84. ISBN 0-252-02104-5.</ref> Hence, the recordings were known in full as '''kinescope films'''. RCA was granted a trademark for the term (for its cathode ray tube) in 1932; it voluntarily released the term to the public domain in 1950.<ref>"RCA Surrenders Rights to Four Trade-Marks," Radio Age, October 1950, p. 21.</ref>

== History ==

The [[General Electric]] laboratories in [[Schenectady, New York]] experimented with making still and motion picture records of television images in 1931.<ref>"Schenectady-to-Leipzig Television a Success; Movie Also Made of Images Sent by Radio", ''[[The New York Times]]'', Feb. 13, 1931, p. 15.</ref>

There is some evidence to suggest that the [[BBC]] experimented with filming the output of the television monitor before its television service was placed on hiatus in 1939 due to [[World War II]]. BBC executive Cecil Madden later recalled filming a production of ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]'' in this way, only for film director [[Alexander Korda]] to order the burning of the negative as he owned the film rights to the book, which he felt had been infringed. However, the evidence for this is purely anecdotal, and indeed there is no written record of any BBC Television production of ''The Scarlet Pimpernel'' during the 1936–1939 period. Some of the surviving live transmissions of the Nazi German television station [[Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow]], dating as far back as the 1930s, were recorded by pointing a 35mm camera to a receiver's screen, although most surviving Nazi live television programs such as the [[1936 Summer Olympics]] (not to confuse with the cinematic footage made during the same event by [[Leni Riefenstahl]] for her film ''[[Olympia (1938 film)|Olympia]]''), a number of [[Nuremberg Rally|Nuremberg Rallies]], or official state visits (such as [[Benito Mussolini]]'s) were shot directly on 35mm instead and transmitted over the air as a television signal, with only a two minutes' delay from the original event, by means of the so-called ''Zwischenfilmverfahren'' (see [[intermediate film system]]) from an early [[production truck|outside broadcast van]] on the site.

According to a 1949 film produced by [[RCA]], silent films had been made of early experimental telecasts during the 1930s. The films were shot off television monitors at a speed of eight frames per second, resulting in somewhat jerky reproductions of the images. By the mid-1940s, RCA and [[NBC]] were refining the filming process and including sound; the images were less jerky but still somewhat fuzzy.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uC-g-eB6Rjs</ref> {{Dead link|date=October 2011}}

By early 1946, television cameras were being attached to American guided missiles to aid in their remote steering.<ref>James L. H. Peck, "[http://books.google.com/books?id=2yADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA84 Doom on the Wing]", ''[[Popular Science]]'', February 1946, p. 84, 86.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=hCQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA108 Transatlantic Roller Coaster Designed to Bomb U.S.A.], ''Popular Science'', October 1947, p. 111.</ref> Films were made of the television images they transmitted for further evaluation of the target and the missile's performance.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, 2003, p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7864-1220-4.</ref>

The first known surviving example of the telerecording process in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] is from October 1947, showing the singer [[Adelaide Hall]] performing at the RadiOlympia event.<ref name=Shagawat>{{cite web|last=Shagawat|first=Robert|title=Television recording - The origins and earliest surviving live TV broadcast recordings|url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/tv_recordings_the_origins.html|work=Early Electronic Television|publisher=Early Television Museum|accessdate=20 April 2011}}</ref> From the following month, the [[wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh|wedding of Princess Elizabeth to Prince Philip]] also survives, as do various early 1950s productions such as ''It is Midnight, Dr Schweitzer'' and the opening two episodes of ''[[The Quatermass Experiment]]'', although in varying degrees of quality. A complete 7-hour set of telerecordings of Queen Elizabeth II's 1953 [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] also exists. {{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

=== Worldwide program distribution ===

In the era before satellite communications, kinescopes were used to distribute live events such as a Royal Wedding as quickly as possible to other countries of the Commonwealth that had started a television service. A [[Royal Air Force]] aircraft would fly the telerecording from the UK to Canada, where it would be broadcast over the whole North American network; for Australia, a second kinescope would be made in San Francisco and flown to Sydney for transmission. After being originally televised in 405 lines, telerecorded, scanned in 525 lines, telerecorded again, and then rescanned in 625 lines for local transmission, the quality would be terrible, but it could be broadcast only 18 hours after the event.

Even after the introduction of videotape, the BBC and the [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] companies made black and white kinescopes of selected programs for international sales, and continued to do so until the early 1970s by which time programs were being videotaped in color. Most, if not all, videotapes from the 405-line era, have long since been wiped, as have many from the introduction of 625-line video to the early days of color. Consequently the majority of British shows that still exist before the introduction of color, and a number thereafter, do so in the form of these telerecordings. A handful of shows, including some episodes of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' and most of the first series of ''[[Adam Adamant Lives!]]'', were deliberately telerecorded for ease of editing rather than being videotaped.

=== Eastman Television Recording Camera ===

In September 1947, [[Eastman Kodak]] introduced the Eastman Television Recording Camera, in cooperation with [[Allen B. DuMont|DuMont Laboratories, Inc.]] and [[National Broadcasting Corporation|NBC]], for recording images from a television screen under the trademark "Kinephoto". Prior to the introduction of [[videotape]] in 1956, kinescopes were the only way to record television broadcasts, or to distribute [[network television]] programs that were broadcast live from [[New York City|New York]] or other originating cities, to stations not connected to the network, or to stations that wished to show a program at a different time than the network broadcast. Although the quality was less than desirable, [[television program]]s of all types from prestigious dramas to regular news shows were handled in this manner.

NBC, [[CBS]], and [[DuMont Television Network|DuMont]] set up their main kinescope recording facilities in New York City, while [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] chose [[Chicago]]. By 1951, NBC and CBS were each shipping out some 1,000 16mm kinescope prints each week to their [[affiliate]]s across the United States, and by 1955 that number had increased to 2,500 per week for CBS.<ref>Wesley S. Griswold, "[http://books.google.com/books?id=LiYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA115 Why TV Is Going Movie-Mad]", ''[[Popular Science]]'', February 1955, p. 118.</ref> By 1954 the television industry’s film consumption surpassed that of all of the [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] studios combined.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tvhandbook.com/History/History_recording.htm |title=tvhandbook.com/History (recording) |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040603152849/http://www.tvhandbook.com/History/History_recording.htm |archivedate=2004-06-03}}</ref><ref name="racetovideo">Wolpin, Stewart. "[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1994/2/1994_2_52.shtml The Race to Video]". ''Invention & Technology'', Fall 1994.</ref>

=== "Hot kinescope" ===

After the network of [[coaxial cable]] and [[Microwave radio relay|microwave relay]]s carrying programs to the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] was completed in September 1951,<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889197,00.html Coast to Coast]", ''Time'', August 13, 1951.</ref> CBS and NBC instituted a "hot kinescope" process in 1952, where shows being performed in New York were transmitted west, filmed on two kinescope machines in 35 mm negative and 16 mm [[reversal film]] (the latter for backup protection) in Los Angeles, rushed to film processing, and then transmitted from Los Angeles three hours later for broadcast in the [[Pacific Time Zone]].<ref>Arthur Schneider, ''Jump Cut!: Memoirs of a Pioneer Television Editor'', McFarland, 1997, p. 23–32. ISBN 0-7864-0345-4. To save the time to make a print, the 35 mm negative was broadcast, and electronically converted to a positive image. The soundtrack for the 35 mm film was recorded on a separate 16 mm filmstrip, and synchronized at playback. The soundtrack for the 16 mm reversal film version was recorded on the same filmstrip as the image.</ref><ref>Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, 2003, p. 48. ISBN 0-7864-1220-8.</ref>

In September 1956, NBC began making color "hot kines" of some of its color programs using a [[Kodacolor (motion picture)|lenticular film process]] which, unlike color negative film, could be processed rapidly using standard black-and-white methods.<ref>Showcase Productions, Inc.: ''[[Producers' Showcase]]'', [http://www.showcaseproductions.com/tech.htm Technical Considerations].</ref><ref>Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', p. 67.</ref>

=== Double system method of editing ===

Even after the introduction of [[Quadruplex videotape]] machines in 1956 removed the need for "hot kines", the television networks continued to use kinescopes in the "double system" method of videotape editing. It was impossible to slow or [[freeze frame television|freeze frame]] a videotape at that time, so the unedited tape would be copied to a kinescope, and edited conventionally. The edited kinescope print was then used to conform the videotape master. More than 300 videotaped network series and specials used this method over a 12-year period, including the fast-paced ''[[Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In]]''.<ref>Arthur Schneider, ''Jump Cut!: Memoirs of a Pioneer Television Editor'', McFarland, 1997, p. 105–106, 134–135. ISBN 0-7864-0345-4.</ref>

{{Further|Film recorder}}

== Alternatives to kinescoping ==

With the variable quality of Kinescopes, networks looked towards alternative methods to replace them with a higher degree of quality.

=== Change to 35 mm film broadcasts ===

Filmed programs were also used in television’s early years, although they were generally considered inferior to the big-production "live" programs because of their lower budgets and loss of immediacy. This, however, was about to change.

In 1951, the stars and producers of the Hollywood-based television series ''[[I Love Lucy]]'', [[Desi Arnaz]] and [[Lucille Ball]], decided to shoot their show directly onto 35 mm film using the [[Multicamera setup|three-camera system]], instead of broadcasting it live. Normally, a live program originating from Los Angeles (for example, ''The Frank Sinatra Show'') would be performed live in the late afternoon for the Eastern Time Zone, and seen on a kinescope three hours later in the Pacific Time Zone. But as an article in ''[[American Cinematographer]]'' explained,
:In the beginning there was a very definite reason for the decision of [[Desilu Productions]] to put ''I Love Lucy'' on film instead of doing it live and having kinescope recordings carry it to affiliate outlets of the network. The company was not satisfied with the quality of kinescopes. It saw that film, produced especially for television, was the only means of ensuring top quality pictures on the home receiver as well as ensuring a flawless show.<ref>Leigh Allen, "[http://www.lucyfan.com/filmingthe.html Filming the 'I Love Lucy' Show]", ''American Cinematographer'', January 1952.</ref>

The ''I Love Lucy'' decision introduced [[reruns]] to most of the American television audience, and set a pattern for the [[Television syndication|syndication]] of TV shows after their network runs (and later, for first-run airings via syndication) that still continues to this very day.

=== Electronicam ===
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2011}}

The program director of the [[DuMont Television Network]], James L. Caddigan, devised an alternative — the [[Electronicam]]. In this, all the studio TV cameras had built-in 35 mm film cameras which shared the same optical path. An Electronicam technician threw switches to mark the film footage electronically, identifying the camera "takes" called by the director. The corresponding film segments from the various cameras then were combined by a film editor to duplicate the live program. The "Classic 39" syndicated episodes of ''[[The Honeymooners]]'' were filmed using Electronicam (as well as the daily five-minute syndicated series ''[[Les Paul & Mary Ford| Les Paul & Mary Ford At Home]]'' in 1954–55), but with the introduction of a practical [[videotape]] recorder only one year away, the Electronicam system never saw widespread use. The DuMont network did not survive into the era of videotape, and in order to gain clearances for its programs, was heavily dependent on kinescopes, which it called Teletranscriptions.

===Electronovision===

Attempts were made for many years to take television images, convert them to film via kinescope, then project them in theaters for paying audiences. In the mid-1960s, Producer/entrepreneur H. William "Bill" Sargent, Jr. used conventional analog Image Orthicon video camera tube units, shooting in the B&W 819-line interlaced 25fps French video standard, using modified high-band quadruplex VTRs to record the signal. The promotors of [[Electronovision]] (not to be confused with Electronicam) gave the impression that this was a new system created from scratch, using a high-tech name (and avoiding the word kinescope) to distinguish the process from conventional film photography. Nonetheless, the advances in picture quality were, at the time, a major step ahead. By capturing more than 800 lines of resolution at 25 frame/s, raw tape could be converted to film via kinescope recording with sufficient enhanced resolution to allow big-screen enlargement. The 1960s productions used Marconi image orthicon video cameras, which have a characteristic white "glow" around black objects (and a corresponding black glow around white objects), which was a defect of the pickup. Later vidicon and plumbicon video camera tubes produced much cleaner, more accurate pictures.

=== Videotape ===

In 1951, singer [[Bing Crosby|Bing Crosby’s]] company [[Bing Crosby Enterprises]] made the first experimental magnetic [[video recording]]s; however, the poor picture quality and very high tape speed meant it would be impractical to use. In 1956, [[Ampex]] introduced the first commercial [[Quadruplex videotape|Quadruplex]] [[videotape]] recorder,<ref name="racetovideo"/> followed in 1958 by a color model. Offering high quality and instant playback at a much lower cost, Quadruplex tape quickly replaced kinescope as the primary means of recording television broadcasts.<ref name="racetovideo"/>

== The last years of the kinescopes ==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2011}}

The U.S. networks continued to make kinescopes of their daytime dramas (many of which still aired live into the late 1960s){{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} available as late as 1969 for their smaller network [[affiliates]] that did not yet have videotape capability but wished to time-shift the network programming. Some of these programs aired up to two weeks after their original dates, particularly in [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]]. Many episodes of programs from the 1960s survive only through kinescoped copies. The last 16 mm kinescopes of television programs ended in the late 1970s, as video tape recorders became more affordable.

In Australia, kinescopes were still being made of some evening news programs as late as 1977, if they were recorded at all.

In later years, film and television producers were often reluctant to include kinescope footage in anthologies, because of the "inferior" quality. While it is true that kinescopes did look inferior to live transmissions in the 1950s, it was due to the industry's technical limitations at that time. Even the best live transmission could look contrasty or hazy by the time it reached the home viewer. Advances in broadcast technology soon allowed for a wider gray scale in black-and-white, and a fuller spectrum of colors, making kinescopes a perfectly viable commodity. This was demonstrated in the feature film ''Ten from Your Show of Shows'', a compilation of [[Sid Caesar]] kinescopes released to theaters. Reviewers were astonished at how good the kinescoped image looked on a large screen. Kinescopes have since lost their stigma of inferiority,{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} and are commonly consulted today for archival purposes.

In the UK, telerecordings continued to be made after the advent of commercial broadcast videotape from 1958 as they possessed several distinct advantages, particularly for overseas program sales. Firstly, they were cheaper,{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} easier to transport and more durable than video. Secondly, they could be used in any country regardless of the television broadcasting standard, which was not true of videotape. Thirdly, the system could be used to make black and white copies of color programs for sale to television stations who were not yet broadcasting in color.

The telerecording system could be of a very high quality, easily reproducing the full detail of the television picture. The only slight disadvantage of the system was that it removed the 'fluid' look of interlaced video and '[[filmizing|filmized]]' the picture, but this would generally not have made a great deal of difference to the viewing audiences.

The system was largely used for black and white reproduction. Although some color telerecordings were made, they were generally in the minority as by the time color programs were widely needed for sale, video standards conversion was easier and higher quality and the price of videotape had become much reduced. Before videotape became the exclusive transmission format during the early to mid-1980s, any (color) video recordings used in documentaries or filmed program inserts were usually transferred onto film.

Up until the early 1960s, much of the BBC and British television in general's output was broadcast live, and telerecordings would be used to preserve a program for repeat showings, which had previously required the entire production being performed live for a second time.

In the 1950s a home telerecording kit was introduced in Britain, allowing enthusiasts to make [[16 mm film]] recordings of television programs {{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}. The major drawback, apart from the short duration of a 16 mm film magazine, was that a large opaque frame had to be placed in front of the TV set in order to block out any stray reflections, making it impossible to watch the set normally while filming. It is not known if any recordings made using this equipment still exist.

British broadcasters used telerecordings for domestic purposes well into the 1960s, with [[35 mm film|35 mm]] being the film gauge usually used as it produced a higher quality result. For overseas sales, 16 mm film would be used, as it was cheaper. Although domestic use of telerecording in the UK for repeat broadcasts dropped off sharply after the move to color in the late 1960s, 16 mm [[black and white]] film telerecordings were still being offered for sale by British broadcasters well into the 1970s.

Telerecording was still being used internally at the [[BBC]] in the 1980s too, to preserve copies for posterity of programs which were not necessarily of the highest importance, but which nonetheless their producers wanted to be preserved. If there were no videotape machines available on a given day, then a telerecording would be made. There is evidence to suggest that the children's magazine program ''[[Blue Peter]]'' was occasionally being telerecorded as late as 1985. After this point, however, cheap domestic videotape formats such as [[VHS]] could more easily be used to keep a back-up reference copy of a program.

Another occasional use of telerecording into the late 1980s was by documentary makers working in 16 mm film who wished to include a videotape-sourced excerpt in their work, although such use was again rare.

== Legacy ==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2011}}

Kinescopes were intended to be used for immediate rebroadcast, or for an occasional repeat of a prerecorded program; thus, only a small fraction of kinescope recordings remain today. [[List of lost television broadcasts|Many television shows are represented by only a handful of episodes]], such as with the early television work of comedian [[Ernie Kovacs]], and the original version of ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' hosted by [[Art Fleming]].

Kinescopes were also used for some live television programs, like ''[[Captain Kangaroo]]'', when back-to-back episodes were made in a day for different time zones. As performers never went three times in a day, kinescopes were made for the West Coast at a later date.

== Technology ==

[[NTSC]] television images are [[raster scan|scanned]] at roughly 60 [[Hertz|Hz]], with two [[interlaced]] [[field (video)|fields]] per frame, displayed at 30 [[frames per second]].

A kinescope must be able to:
#Convert the 30 frame/s image to 24 frame/s, the standard sound speed of film cameras,
#Do so in a way so that the image is clear enough to then re-broadcast by means of a [[film chain]] back to 30 frame/s.

In kinescoping an NTSC signal, 525 lines are broadcast in one frame. A 35 mm or 16 mm camera exposes one frame of film for every one frame of television (525 lines), and moving a new frame of film into place during the time equivalent of one field of television (131.25 lines). In the British [[405-line television system]], television ran at 25 frames—or more correctly, 50 fields—per second, so the film camera would also be run at 25 frames per second rather than the cinematic film standard of 24 frames.

Therefore, in order to maintain successful kinescope photography, a camera must expose one frame of film for ''exactly'' 1/30th or 1/25th of a second, the time in which one frame of video is transmitted, and move to another frame of film within the small interval of 1/120 of a second. In some instances, this was accomplished through means of an electronic shutter which cuts off the TV image at the end of every set of visible lines.

Most U.S. kinescope situations, however, utilized a mechanical shutter, revolving at 24 revolutions per second. This shutter had a closed angle of 72° and an open angle of 288°, yielding the necessary closed time of 1/120 of a second and open time 1/30 of a second. Using this shutter, in 1 second of video (60 fields equaling 30 frames), 48 television fields (totaling to 24 frames of video) would be captured on 24 frames of film, and 12 additional fields would be omitted as the shutter closed and the film advanced.

Because television is a field rather than frame-based system, however, not all the information in the picture can be retained on film in the same way as it can on videotape. The time taken physically to move the film on by one frame and stop it so that the gate can be opened to expose a new frame of film to the two [[field (video)|fields]] of television picture is much longer than the [[vertical blanking interval]] between these fields—so the film is still moving when the start of the next field is being displayed on the television screen. It is not possible to accelerate the film fast enough to get it there in time without destroying the [[film perforations|perforations]] in the [[film stock]]—and the larger the [[film gauge]] used, the worse the problem becomes.

The problem of adapting the way the image is either displayed or captured on film, to get around the above, was solved in various different ways as time went on—improving the quality of the image.

=== Shutter bar and banding problems ===

The 72°/288° shutter and the systematic loss of 12 fields per second were not without its side effects. In going from 30 frame/s to 24 frame/s, the camera photographed ''part'' of some fields. The juncture on the film frame where these part-fields met was called a "splice".

If the timing was accurate, the splice was invisible. However, if the camera and television were out of phase, a phenomenon known as "shutter bar" or "banding" took place. If the shutter was slow in closing, overexposure resulted where the part-fields joined and the "shutter bar" took the form of a white line. If the shutter closed too soon, underexposure took place and the line was black. The term "banding" referred to the phenomenon occurring on the screen as two bars.

This obstacle could be overcome by brushing a thin coat of lacquer on the edge of the shutter according to the phasing between the camera shutter and the television impulses.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

=== Suppressed field ===

A simpler system less prone to breakdown was to suppress one of the two fields in displaying the television picture. This left the time in which the second field was displayed for the film camera to advance the film by one frame, which proved enough. This method was also called 'Skip field' recording.

This method had several disadvantages. In missing out every second field of video, half the information of the picture was lost on such recordings. The resulting film consisted of fewer than 200 lines of picture information and as a result the line structure was very apparent; the missing field information also made movement look very 'jerky'.

=== Stored field ===

A development on the suppressed field system was to display the image from one of the fields at a much higher intensity on the television screen during the time when the film gate was closed, and then capture the image as the second field was being displayed. By adjusting the intensity of the first field, it was possible to arrange it so that the luminosity of the phosphor had decayed to exactly match that of the second field, so that the two appeared to be at the same level and the film camera captured both.This method came to be preferred.

Another technique developed by the [[BBC]] known as 'spot wobble' involved the addition of an extremely high frequency but low voltage sine wave to the vertical deflection plate of the television screen, which changed the moving 'spot' through which the television picture was displayed into an elongated oval. While this made the image slightly blurred, it removed the visible line structure and resulted in a better image. It also prevented [[moiré pattern]]s appearing when the resulting film was re-broadcast on television and the lines of the recording did not match the scan lines.

=== Moye-Mechau film recording ===

The first successful procedure was to use the Mechau film projector mechanism in reverse. The Mechau system used a synchronised rotating mirror to display each frame of a film in sequence without the need for a [[Movie projector#Film gate and single image|gate]]. When reversed, a high-quality television monitor was set up in place of the projection screen, and unexposed film stock is run through at the point where the lamp was illuminating the film.

This procedure had the advantage of capturing both fields of the frame on a film, but it was difficult to keep the mirrors running at the right speed and all the equipment adjusted correctly, which often resulted in poor quality output. An additional problem was that the whole procedure took place in an open room and it was known for insects to settle on the screen which were then permanently present on the film recording. The Mechau film magazine only held enough for nine minutes so two recorders were needed to run in sequence in order to record anything longer.

=== Lenses for kinescoping ===

Lenses did not need a great depth of field, but had to be capable both of producing a very sharp image with high resolution of a flat surface and of doing so at high speed. In order to keep from light fall-off on the perimeter of the lens, a coated lens was preferable. 40 mm or 50 mm lenses were usually used with 16mm in calibrated mounts. Focus was checked by examining a print yielded under a microscope.

=== Magazines and film length ===

In order to record half-hour programs without interruption, magazines were designed which accommodated a load of 1,200 feet for 16 mm film. Stations recording on 35 mm utilized 6,000 foot magazines for one hour of continuous recording.

=== Sound recording ===

The camera could be equipped with sound recording to place the soundtrack and picture on the same film for single system sound recording. More commonly, the alternative double system, whereby the soundtrack was recorded on an optical recorder or magnetic dubber in sync with the camera, yielded a better quality sound track and greatly facilitated editing.

=== Kinescope image ===

Kinescope tubes intended for photographic use were coated with phosphors rich in blue and ultra-violet radiations. This permitted the use of positive type emulsions for photographing in spite of their slow film speeds. The brightness range of kinescope tubes were about 1 to 30.

Kinescope images were capable of great flexibility. The operator could make the image brighter or darker, adjust contrast, width and height, turn left, right or upside down, and positive or negative.

Since kinescopes were able to produce a negative picture, direct positive recordings could be made by simply photographing a negative image on the kinescope tube. When making a negative film, in order for final prints to be in the correct emulsion position, the direction of the image was reversed on the television. This applied only when double system sound was used.

=== Film stock used ===

For kinescopes, 16 mm film was the common choice by most studios because of the lower cost of stock and film processing, but in the larger network markets, it was not uncommon to see 35 mm kinescopes, particularly for national rebroadcast. By law, all film supplied to TV stations, both 16 mm and 35 mm had to be on a non-flammable, safety film base.

For U.S. video recording, fine grain positive stock was the most common used because of its low cost and high resolution yield. Of the fine grain stocks, the following were recommended by film manufacturers:
* [[Ansco]]: Fine Grain Positive for Television Purposes, for making direct positive recordings with 16 mm kinescope cameras.
* [[DuPont]]: Fine Grain Master Positive Film Type 628A (16 mm) and 628B (35 mm). Difference in contrast can be controlled in development.
* [[Eastman Kodak]]: Eastman Fine Grain Sound Recording Film, Type 5373 (low-contrast) for negative stock where other prints would be made. Fine Grain Release Positive Film, Type 7302 (high-contrast) for direct positive recordings and single system sound recordings using variable area sound.

=== Common issues with kinescopes ===

Videotape engineer Frederick M. Remley<ref>[http://www.lib.umd.edu/NPBA/papers/remley.html Papers of Frederick M. Remley], University of Maryland Libraries.</ref> wrote of kinescope recordings,
:Because of the many variables in the combined electronic/photographic process, the quality of such recordings often leaves much to be desired. Defects often encountered in photographic recording include relatively poor image resolution; a compressed brightness range often limited by kinescope display technology to a brightness ratio of about 40:1; nonlinearity of recordings, as exemplified by lack of gradation in both the near-white and near-black portions of the reproduced pictures; and excessive image noise due to film grain and video processing artifacts. The final [[signal-to-noise ratio]] is often less than 40 [[decibel|dB]], especially in the case of 16 mm film.<ref>In ''Magnetic Recording: The First Hundred Years'', IEEE Press, 1998, p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7803-4709-0.</ref>

Because each field is sequential in time to the next, a kinescope film frame that captured two interlaced fields at once often showed a ghostly fringe around the edges of moving objects, an artifact not as visible when watching television directly at 50 or 60 fields per second.<ref>[http://neuron2.net/LVG/interlacing.html Illustration of interlace fringing].</ref>

Some kinescopes filmed the television pictures at the same [[frame rate]] of 30 full frames{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} per second, resulting in more faithful picture quality than those that recorded at 24 frames per second. The standard was later changed for color TV to 59.94 fields/s. or 29.97 frame/s. when color TV was invented. {{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}<ref>If electrical interference was present in the old 30 frame/s, 60 fields/s black-and-white format, a shutter bar would appear horizontally across the screen and not move due to U.S. electrical standards having the same Hertz rate as the fields refresh rate in the picture. When color TV was standardized, the frame rate was shifted to 29.97 and the field rate shifted to 59.94 to allow a frequency shift not only to introduce the luminance/chrominance delay needed to share the information on the screen, but also to move the hum bar from a stationary position.</ref>

In the era of early color TV, the [[chrominance|chroma]] information included in the video signal filmed could cause [[chroma dots|visible artifacts]]. It was possible to filter the chroma out, but this was not always done. Consequently, the color information was included (but not in color) in the black & white film image. Using modern computing techniques, the color may now be recovered, a process known as [[Colour recovery|color recovery]].

In recent years, the [[BBC]] has introduced a video process called ''[[VidFIRE]]'', which can restore kinescope recordings to their original frame rate by interpolating video fields between the film frames.

Certain performers or production companies would require that a kinescope be made of every television program. Such is the case with performers [[Jackie Gleason]] and [[Milton Berle]], for whom nearly complete program archives exist. As Jackie Gleason’s program was broadcast live in New York, the show was kinescoped for later rebroadcast for the West Coast. Per his contract, he would receive one copy of each broadcast,which he kept in his vault, and only released them to the public (on home video) shortly before his death in 1987.

Milton Berle sued [[NBC]] late in his life, believing the kinescopes of a major portion of his programs were lost. However, the programs were later found in a warehouse in Los Angeles.

[[Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions]], the producers of such TV game shows as ''[[What's My Line?]]'', had a significant portion of their output recorded on both videotape and kinescopes. These programs are rebroadcast on the American cable TV’s [[Game Show Network]].

All of the [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]] telecasts with [[Arturo Toscanini]], from 1948 to 1952, were preserved on kinescopes and later released on VHS and [[laser disc]] by [[RCA]] and on DVD by [[Testament Records (UK)|Testament]]. The original audio from the kinescopes, however, was replaced with [[high fidelity]] sound that had been recorded simultaneously either on transcription discs or [[magnetic tape]].

In the mid-90s, [[Edie Adams]], wife of Ernie Kovacs, claimed that so little value was given to the kinescope recordings of the [[DuMont Television Network]] that after the network folded in 1956 its entire archive was dumped into upper New York bay. Today however, efforts are made to preserve the few surviving DuMont kinescopes, with the [[UCLA Film and Television Archive]] having collected over 300 for preservation.

Telerecordings form an important part of British television heritage, preserving what would otherwise have been lost. Nearly every pre-1960s British television programme in the archives is in the form of a telerecording, along with the vast majority of existing 1960s output. Videotape was expensive and could be [[Wiping (magnetic tape)|wiped]] and re-used; film was cheaper, smaller, and in practice more durable. Only a very small proportion of British television from the black and white era survives at all; perhaps 5% from the 1953–58 period and 8–10% from the 1960s.

Many recovered programmes, particularly those made by the [[BBC]], have been returned as telerecordings by foreign broadcasters or private film collectors from the 1980s onwards, as the BBC has taken stock of the large gaps in its archive and sought to recover as much of the missing material as possible. Many of these surviving telerecorded programmes, such as episodes of ''[[Doctor Who]]'', ''[[Steptoe and Son]]'' and ''[[Till Death Us Do Part]]'' continue to be transmitted on [[satellite television]] stations such as [[UKTV Gold]], and many such programmes have been released on [[VHS]] and [[DVD]].

In late 2008 the BBC transmitted an episode of ''[[Dad's Army]]'' after the original color had been restored to the only surviving [[Room at the Bottom#Colour restoration of the original television recording|monochrome film recording]] of ''[[Room at the Bottom]]''.

In September 2010, a kinescope of game 7 of the [[1960 World Series]] was found in the wine cellar of Bing Crosby. The game was thought lost forever, but was preserved due to Crosby's superstition about watching the game live. The film was transferred to DVD and is planned to be broadcast on the [[MLB Network]].

Because [[videotape]] records at fifty [[interlaced]] fields per second and telerecordings at twenty-five progressive frames per second, videotaped programmes that exist now only as telerecordings look more "jerky" than the originals. One solution to this problem is [[VidFIRE]], an electronic process to restore video-type motion.

Early Australian television drama series were recorded as kinescopes, such as ''[[Autumn Affair]]'' and ''[[Emergency (1959 TV series)|Emergency]]'', along with variety series like ''[[The Lorrae Desmond Show]]''. Kinescopes continued to be made after video-tape was introduced to Australia; most existing episodes of the 1965-1967 children's series ''[[Magic Circle Club]]'' are kinescopes (per listings for episodes on National Film and Sound Archive website)

== See also ==

* [[Electronovision]]
* [[Intermittent mechanism]]
* [[VidFIRE]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

{{refimprove|date=October 2011}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kinescope/kinescope.htm The kinescope page of the TV museum archives]
* [http://www.tvhistory.tv/KinescopeMachine.JPG RCA Kinephoto equipment (early 1950s)]
* [http://www.google.com/patents?id=cT9mAAAAEBAJ Device for recording television programs], U.S. patent application, 1945.
* [http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=0T5VAAAAEBAJ Synchronization of camera and television receiver tubes], U.S. patent application, 1946.
* [http://www.totalrewind.org/ The 'Total Rewind' museum of Vintage VCRs]
* [http://www.televisiontape.tv/ Kinescope ca. 1964 of a program promoting the use of video for television commercial production]
* [http://bp2.blogger.com/_UfF0-tl2t28/RY0bAsTVnOI/AAAAAAAAAEI/UQVN57TykF0/s1600-h/405telerectvmirror.jpg "Telerecording", article from ''TV Mirror'' (1955)]

{{Video storage formats}}

[[Category:Film and video technology]]
[[Category:Lost television programs]]
[[Category:Television preservation]]
[[Category:Television terminology]]
[[Category:History of television]]

Kinescope

2013-10-20T06:21:46Z

Textorus: /* History */ correction: the Pop Sci article cited does *not* say that wartime missiles were equipped with TV cameras

{{Distinguish|Kinetoscope}}
{{merge|telerecording|date=October 2013}}
[[File:Kinescope at the Canada Museum of Science & Technology -Ottawa-.jpg|thumb|A PA-302 General Precision Laboratories (GPL) kinescope (c.1950–1955). Its [[movie camera|movie film camera]], bolted to the top of the cabinet, used [[Kodak]] optics. (Photo: '''''Peter Lindell''', [[Canada Science and Technology Museum]]'')]]

'''Kinescope''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|n|ɨ|s|k|oʊ|p}}, shortened to '''kine''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|n|iː}}, also known as '''telerecording''' in Britain, is a recording of a television program made by filming the picture from a [[video monitor]].

Typically, the term can refer to the process itself, the equipment used for the procedure (a [[16 mm film|16 mm]] or [[35 mm film|35 mm]] [[movie camera]] mounted in front of a video monitor, and synchronized to the monitor's scanning rate), or a film made using the process. Kinescopes were the only practical way to preserve [[live television]] broadcasts prior to the introduction of [[videotape]] in 1956. A small number of theatrically released feature films have also been produced as kinescopes.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

The term originally referred to the [[cathode ray tube]] used in [[television receiver]]s, as named by inventor [[Vladimir K. Zworykin]] in 1929.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 84. ISBN 0-252-02104-5.</ref> Hence, the recordings were known in full as '''kinescope films'''. RCA was granted a trademark for the term (for its cathode ray tube) in 1932; it voluntarily released the term to the public domain in 1950.<ref>"RCA Surrenders Rights to Four Trade-Marks," Radio Age, October 1950, p. 21.</ref>

== History ==

The [[General Electric]] laboratories in [[Schenectady, New York]] experimented with making still and motion picture records of television images in 1931.<ref>"Schenectady-to-Leipzig Television a Success; Movie Also Made of Images Sent by Radio", ''[[The New York Times]]'', Feb. 13, 1931, p. 15.</ref>

There is some evidence to suggest that the [[BBC]] experimented with filming the output of the television monitor before its television service was placed on hiatus in 1939 due to [[World War II]]. BBC executive Cecil Madden later recalled filming a production of ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]'' in this way, only for film director [[Alexander Korda]] to order the burning of the negative as he owned the film rights to the book, which he felt had been infringed. However, the evidence for this is purely anecdotal, and indeed there is no written record of any BBC Television production of ''The Scarlet Pimpernel'' during the 1936–1939 period. Some of the surviving live transmissions of the Nazi German television station [[Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow]], dating as far back as the 1930s, were recorded by pointing a 35mm camera to a receiver's screen, although most surviving Nazi live television programs such as the [[1936 Summer Olympics]] (not to confuse with the cinematic footage made during the same event by [[Leni Riefenstahl]] for her film ''[[Olympia (1938 film)|Olympia]]''), a number of [[Nuremberg Rally|Nuremberg Rallies]], or official state visits (such as [[Benito Mussolini]]'s) were shot directly on 35mm instead and transmitted over the air as a television signal, with only a two minutes' delay from the original event, by means of the so-called ''Zwischenfilmverfahren'' (see [[intermediate film system]]) from an early [[production truck|outside broadcast van]] on the site.

According to a 1949 film produced by [[RCA]], silent films had been made of early experimental telecasts during the 1930s. The films were shot off television monitors at a speed of eight frames per second, resulting in somewhat jerky reproductions of the images. By the mid-1940s, RCA and [[NBC]] were refining the filming process and including sound; the images were less jerky but still somewhat fuzzy.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uC-g-eB6Rjs</ref> {{Dead link|date=October 2011}}

By early 1946, television cameras were being attached to American guided missiles to aid in their remote steering.<ref>James L. H. Peck, "[http://books.google.com/books?id=2yADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA84 Doom on the Wing]", ''[[Popular Science]]'', February 1946, p. 84, 86.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=hCQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA108 Transatlantic Roller Coaster Designed to Bomb U.S.A.], ''Popular Science'', October 1947, p. 111.</ref> Films were made of the television images they transmitted for further evaluation of the target and the missile's performance.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, 2003, p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7864-1220-4.</ref>

The first known surviving example of the telerecording process in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] is from October 1947, showing the singer [[Adelaide Hall]] performing at the RadiOlympia event.<ref name=Shagawat>{{cite web|last=Shagawat|first=Robert|title=Television recording - The origins and earliest surviving live TV broadcast recordings|url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/tv_recordings_the_origins.html|work=Early Electronic Television|publisher=Early Television Museum|accessdate=20 April 2011}}</ref>  The [[Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh|wedding of Princess Elizabeth to Prince Philip]] also survives, as do various early 1950s productions such as ''It is Midnight, Dr Schweitzer'' and the opening two episodes of ''[[The Quatermass Experiment]]'', although in varying degrees of quality. A complete 7-hour set of telerecordings of Queen Elizabeth II's 1953 [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] also exists. {{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

=== Worldwide program distribution ===

In the era before satellite communications, kinescopes were used to distribute live events such as a Royal Wedding as quickly as possible to other countries of the Commonwealth that had started a television service. A [[Royal Air Force]] aircraft would fly the telerecording from the UK to Canada, where it would be broadcast over the whole North American network; for Australia, a second kinescope would be made in San Francisco and flown to Sydney for transmission. After being originally televised in 405 lines, telerecorded, scanned in 525 lines, telerecorded again, and then rescanned in 625 lines for local transmission, the quality would be terrible, but it could be broadcast only 18 hours after the event.

Even after the introduction of videotape, the BBC and the [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] companies made black and white kinescopes of selected programs for international sales, and continued to do so until the early 1970s by which time programs were being videotaped in color. Most, if not all, videotapes from the 405-line era, have long since been wiped, as have many from the introduction of 625-line video to the early days of color. Consequently the majority of British shows that still exist before the introduction of color, and a number thereafter, do so in the form of these telerecordings. A handful of shows, including some episodes of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' and most of the first series of ''[[Adam Adamant Lives!]]'', were deliberately telerecorded for ease of editing rather than being videotaped.

=== Eastman Television Recording Camera ===

In September 1947, [[Eastman Kodak]] introduced the Eastman Television Recording Camera, in cooperation with [[Allen B. DuMont|DuMont Laboratories, Inc.]] and [[National Broadcasting Corporation|NBC]], for recording images from a television screen under the trademark "Kinephoto". Prior to the introduction of [[videotape]] in 1956, kinescopes were the only way to record television broadcasts, or to distribute [[network television]] programs that were broadcast live from [[New York City|New York]] or other originating cities, to stations not connected to the network, or to stations that wished to show a program at a different time than the network broadcast. Although the quality was less than desirable, [[television program]]s of all types from prestigious dramas to regular news shows were handled in this manner.

NBC, [[CBS]], and [[DuMont Television Network|DuMont]] set up their main kinescope recording facilities in New York City, while [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] chose [[Chicago]]. By 1951, NBC and CBS were each shipping out some 1,000 16mm kinescope prints each week to their [[affiliate]]s across the United States, and by 1955 that number had increased to 2,500 per week for CBS.<ref>Wesley S. Griswold, "[http://books.google.com/books?id=LiYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA115 Why TV Is Going Movie-Mad]", ''[[Popular Science]]'', February 1955, p. 118.</ref> By 1954 the television industry’s film consumption surpassed that of all of the [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] studios combined.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tvhandbook.com/History/History_recording.htm |title=tvhandbook.com/History (recording) |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040603152849/http://www.tvhandbook.com/History/History_recording.htm |archivedate=2004-06-03}}</ref><ref name="racetovideo">Wolpin, Stewart. "[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1994/2/1994_2_52.shtml The Race to Video]". ''Invention & Technology'', Fall 1994.</ref>

=== "Hot kinescope" ===

After the network of [[coaxial cable]] and [[Microwave radio relay|microwave relay]]s carrying programs to the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] was completed in September 1951,<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889197,00.html Coast to Coast]", ''Time'', August 13, 1951.</ref> CBS and NBC instituted a "hot kinescope" process in 1952, where shows being performed in New York were transmitted west, filmed on two kinescope machines in 35 mm negative and 16 mm [[reversal film]] (the latter for backup protection) in Los Angeles, rushed to film processing, and then transmitted from Los Angeles three hours later for broadcast in the [[Pacific Time Zone]].<ref>Arthur Schneider, ''Jump Cut!: Memoirs of a Pioneer Television Editor'', McFarland, 1997, p. 23–32. ISBN 0-7864-0345-4. To save the time to make a print, the 35 mm negative was broadcast, and electronically converted to a positive image. The soundtrack for the 35 mm film was recorded on a separate 16 mm filmstrip, and synchronized at playback. The soundtrack for the 16 mm reversal film version was recorded on the same filmstrip as the image.</ref><ref>Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, 2003, p. 48. ISBN 0-7864-1220-8.</ref>

In September 1956, NBC began making color "hot kines" of some of its color programs using a [[Kodacolor (motion picture)|lenticular film process]] which, unlike color negative film, could be processed rapidly using standard black-and-white methods.<ref>Showcase Productions, Inc.: ''[[Producers' Showcase]]'', [http://www.showcaseproductions.com/tech.htm Technical Considerations].</ref><ref>Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', p. 67.</ref>

=== Double system method of editing ===

Even after the introduction of [[Quadruplex videotape]] machines in 1956 removed the need for "hot kines", the television networks continued to use kinescopes in the "double system" method of videotape editing. It was impossible to slow or [[freeze frame television|freeze frame]] a videotape at that time, so the unedited tape would be copied to a kinescope, and edited conventionally. The edited kinescope print was then used to conform the videotape master. More than 300 videotaped network series and specials used this method over a 12-year period, including the fast-paced ''[[Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In]]''.<ref>Arthur Schneider, ''Jump Cut!: Memoirs of a Pioneer Television Editor'', McFarland, 1997, p. 105–106, 134–135. ISBN 0-7864-0345-4.</ref>

{{Further|Film recorder}}

== Alternatives to kinescoping ==

With the variable quality of Kinescopes, networks looked towards alternative methods to replace them with a higher degree of quality.

=== Change to 35 mm film broadcasts ===

Filmed programs were also used in television’s early years, although they were generally considered inferior to the big-production "live" programs because of their lower budgets and loss of immediacy. This, however, was about to change.

In 1951, the stars and producers of the Hollywood-based television series ''[[I Love Lucy]]'', [[Desi Arnaz]] and [[Lucille Ball]], decided to shoot their show directly onto 35 mm film using the [[Multicamera setup|three-camera system]], instead of broadcasting it live. Normally, a live program originating from Los Angeles (for example, ''The Frank Sinatra Show'') would be performed live in the late afternoon for the Eastern Time Zone, and seen on a kinescope three hours later in the Pacific Time Zone. But as an article in ''[[American Cinematographer]]'' explained,
:In the beginning there was a very definite reason for the decision of [[Desilu Productions]] to put ''I Love Lucy'' on film instead of doing it live and having kinescope recordings carry it to affiliate outlets of the network. The company was not satisfied with the quality of kinescopes. It saw that film, produced especially for television, was the only means of ensuring top quality pictures on the home receiver as well as ensuring a flawless show.<ref>Leigh Allen, "[http://www.lucyfan.com/filmingthe.html Filming the 'I Love Lucy' Show]", ''American Cinematographer'', January 1952.</ref>

The ''I Love Lucy'' decision introduced [[reruns]] to most of the American television audience, and set a pattern for the [[Television syndication|syndication]] of TV shows after their network runs (and later, for first-run airings via syndication) that still continues to this very day.

=== Electronicam ===
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2011}}

The program director of the [[DuMont Television Network]], James L. Caddigan, devised an alternative — the [[Electronicam]]. In this, all the studio TV cameras had built-in 35 mm film cameras which shared the same optical path. An Electronicam technician threw switches to mark the film footage electronically, identifying the camera "takes" called by the director. The corresponding film segments from the various cameras then were combined by a film editor to duplicate the live program. The "Classic 39" syndicated episodes of ''[[The Honeymooners]]'' were filmed using Electronicam (as well as the daily five-minute syndicated series ''[[Les Paul & Mary Ford| Les Paul & Mary Ford At Home]]'' in 1954–55), but with the introduction of a practical [[videotape]] recorder only one year away, the Electronicam system never saw widespread use. The DuMont network did not survive into the era of videotape, and in order to gain clearances for its programs, was heavily dependent on kinescopes, which it called Teletranscriptions.

===Electronovision===

Attempts were made for many years to take television images, convert them to film via kinescope, then project them in theaters for paying audiences. In the mid-1960s, Producer/entrepreneur H. William "Bill" Sargent, Jr. used conventional analog Image Orthicon video camera tube units, shooting in the B&W 819-line interlaced 25fps French video standard, using modified high-band quadruplex VTRs to record the signal. The promotors of [[Electronovision]] (not to be confused with Electronicam) gave the impression that this was a new system created from scratch, using a high-tech name (and avoiding the word kinescope) to distinguish the process from conventional film photography. Nonetheless, the advances in picture quality were, at the time, a major step ahead. By capturing more than 800 lines of resolution at 25 frame/s, raw tape could be converted to film via kinescope recording with sufficient enhanced resolution to allow big-screen enlargement. The 1960s productions used Marconi image orthicon video cameras, which have a characteristic white "glow" around black objects (and a corresponding black glow around white objects), which was a defect of the pickup. Later vidicon and plumbicon video camera tubes produced much cleaner, more accurate pictures.

=== Videotape ===

In 1951, singer [[Bing Crosby|Bing Crosby’s]] company [[Bing Crosby Enterprises]] made the first experimental magnetic [[video recording]]s; however, the poor picture quality and very high tape speed meant it would be impractical to use. In 1956, [[Ampex]] introduced the first commercial [[Quadruplex videotape|Quadruplex]] [[videotape]] recorder,<ref name="racetovideo"/> followed in 1958 by a color model. Offering high quality and instant playback at a much lower cost, Quadruplex tape quickly replaced kinescope as the primary means of recording television broadcasts.<ref name="racetovideo"/>

== The last years of the kinescopes ==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2011}}

The U.S. networks continued to make kinescopes of their daytime dramas (many of which still aired live into the late 1960s){{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} available as late as 1969 for their smaller network [[affiliates]] that did not yet have videotape capability but wished to time-shift the network programming. Some of these programs aired up to two weeks after their original dates, particularly in [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]]. Many episodes of programs from the 1960s survive only through kinescoped copies. The last 16 mm kinescopes of television programs ended in the late 1970s, as video tape recorders became more affordable.

In Australia, kinescopes were still being made of some evening news programs as late as 1977, if they were recorded at all.

In later years, film and television producers were often reluctant to include kinescope footage in anthologies, because of the "inferior" quality. While it is true that kinescopes did look inferior to live transmissions in the 1950s, it was due to the industry's technical limitations at that time. Even the best live transmission could look contrasty or hazy by the time it reached the home viewer. Advances in broadcast technology soon allowed for a wider gray scale in black-and-white, and a fuller spectrum of colors, making kinescopes a perfectly viable commodity. This was demonstrated in the feature film ''Ten from Your Show of Shows'', a compilation of [[Sid Caesar]] kinescopes released to theaters. Reviewers were astonished at how good the kinescoped image looked on a large screen. Kinescopes have since lost their stigma of inferiority,{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} and are commonly consulted today for archival purposes.

In the UK, telerecordings continued to be made after the advent of commercial broadcast videotape from 1958 as they possessed several distinct advantages, particularly for overseas program sales. Firstly, they were cheaper,{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} easier to transport and more durable than video. Secondly, they could be used in any country regardless of the television broadcasting standard, which was not true of videotape. Thirdly, the system could be used to make black and white copies of color programs for sale to television stations who were not yet broadcasting in color.

The telerecording system could be of a very high quality, easily reproducing the full detail of the television picture. The only slight disadvantage of the system was that it removed the 'fluid' look of interlaced video and '[[filmizing|filmized]]' the picture, but this would generally not have made a great deal of difference to the viewing audiences.

The system was largely used for black and white reproduction. Although some color telerecordings were made, they were generally in the minority as by the time color programs were widely needed for sale, video standards conversion was easier and higher quality and the price of videotape had become much reduced. Before videotape became the exclusive transmission format during the early to mid-1980s, any (color) video recordings used in documentaries or filmed program inserts were usually transferred onto film.

Up until the early 1960s, much of the BBC and British television in general's output was broadcast live, and telerecordings would be used to preserve a program for repeat showings, which had previously required the entire production being performed live for a second time.

In the 1950s a home telerecording kit was introduced in Britain, allowing enthusiasts to make [[16 mm film]] recordings of television programs {{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}. The major drawback, apart from the short duration of a 16 mm film magazine, was that a large opaque frame had to be placed in front of the TV set in order to block out any stray reflections, making it impossible to watch the set normally while filming. It is not known if any recordings made using this equipment still exist.

British broadcasters used telerecordings for domestic purposes well into the 1960s, with [[35 mm film|35 mm]] being the film gauge usually used as it produced a higher quality result. For overseas sales, 16 mm film would be used, as it was cheaper. Although domestic use of telerecording in the UK for repeat broadcasts dropped off sharply after the move to color in the late 1960s, 16 mm [[black and white]] film telerecordings were still being offered for sale by British broadcasters well into the 1970s.

Telerecording was still being used internally at the [[BBC]] in the 1980s too, to preserve copies for posterity of programs which were not necessarily of the highest importance, but which nonetheless their producers wanted to be preserved. If there were no videotape machines available on a given day, then a telerecording would be made. There is evidence to suggest that the children's magazine program ''[[Blue Peter]]'' was occasionally being telerecorded as late as 1985. After this point, however, cheap domestic videotape formats such as [[VHS]] could more easily be used to keep a back-up reference copy of a program.

Another occasional use of telerecording into the late 1980s was by documentary makers working in 16 mm film who wished to include a videotape-sourced excerpt in their work, although such use was again rare.

== Legacy ==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2011}}

Kinescopes were intended to be used for immediate rebroadcast, or for an occasional repeat of a prerecorded program; thus, only a small fraction of kinescope recordings remain today. [[List of lost television broadcasts|Many television shows are represented by only a handful of episodes]], such as with the early television work of comedian [[Ernie Kovacs]], and the original version of ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' hosted by [[Art Fleming]].

Kinescopes were also used for some live television programs, like ''[[Captain Kangaroo]]'', when back-to-back episodes were made in a day for different time zones. As performers never went three times in a day, kinescopes were made for the West Coast at a later date.

== Technology ==

[[NTSC]] television images are [[raster scan|scanned]] at roughly 60 [[Hertz|Hz]], with two [[interlaced]] [[field (video)|fields]] per frame, displayed at 30 [[frames per second]].

A kinescope must be able to:
#Convert the 30 frame/s image to 24 frame/s, the standard sound speed of film cameras,
#Do so in a way so that the image is clear enough to then re-broadcast by means of a [[film chain]] back to 30 frame/s.

In kinescoping an NTSC signal, 525 lines are broadcast in one frame. A 35 mm or 16 mm camera exposes one frame of film for every one frame of television (525 lines), and moving a new frame of film into place during the time equivalent of one field of television (131.25 lines). In the British [[405-line television system]], television ran at 25 frames—or more correctly, 50 fields—per second, so the film camera would also be run at 25 frames per second rather than the cinematic film standard of 24 frames.

Therefore, in order to maintain successful kinescope photography, a camera must expose one frame of film for ''exactly'' 1/30th or 1/25th of a second, the time in which one frame of video is transmitted, and move to another frame of film within the small interval of 1/120 of a second. In some instances, this was accomplished through means of an electronic shutter which cuts off the TV image at the end of every set of visible lines.

Most U.S. kinescope situations, however, utilized a mechanical shutter, revolving at 24 revolutions per second. This shutter had a closed angle of 72° and an open angle of 288°, yielding the necessary closed time of 1/120 of a second and open time 1/30 of a second. Using this shutter, in 1 second of video (60 fields equaling 30 frames), 48 television fields (totaling to 24 frames of video) would be captured on 24 frames of film, and 12 additional fields would be omitted as the shutter closed and the film advanced.

Because television is a field rather than frame-based system, however, not all the information in the picture can be retained on film in the same way as it can on videotape. The time taken physically to move the film on by one frame and stop it so that the gate can be opened to expose a new frame of film to the two [[field (video)|fields]] of television picture is much longer than the [[vertical blanking interval]] between these fields—so the film is still moving when the start of the next field is being displayed on the television screen. It is not possible to accelerate the film fast enough to get it there in time without destroying the [[film perforations|perforations]] in the [[film stock]]—and the larger the [[film gauge]] used, the worse the problem becomes.

The problem of adapting the way the image is either displayed or captured on film, to get around the above, was solved in various different ways as time went on—improving the quality of the image.

=== Shutter bar and banding problems ===

The 72°/288° shutter and the systematic loss of 12 fields per second were not without its side effects. In going from 30 frame/s to 24 frame/s, the camera photographed ''part'' of some fields. The juncture on the film frame where these part-fields met was called a "splice".

If the timing was accurate, the splice was invisible. However, if the camera and television were out of phase, a phenomenon known as "shutter bar" or "banding" took place. If the shutter was slow in closing, overexposure resulted where the part-fields joined and the "shutter bar" took the form of a white line. If the shutter closed too soon, underexposure took place and the line was black. The term "banding" referred to the phenomenon occurring on the screen as two bars.

This obstacle could be overcome by brushing a thin coat of lacquer on the edge of the shutter according to the phasing between the camera shutter and the television impulses.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

=== Suppressed field ===

A simpler system less prone to breakdown was to suppress one of the two fields in displaying the television picture. This left the time in which the second field was displayed for the film camera to advance the film by one frame, which proved enough. This method was also called 'Skip field' recording.

This method had several disadvantages. In missing out every second field of video, half the information of the picture was lost on such recordings. The resulting film consisted of fewer than 200 lines of picture information and as a result the line structure was very apparent; the missing field information also made movement look very 'jerky'.

=== Stored field ===

A development on the suppressed field system was to display the image from one of the fields at a much higher intensity on the television screen during the time when the film gate was closed, and then capture the image as the second field was being displayed. By adjusting the intensity of the first field, it was possible to arrange it so that the luminosity of the phosphor had decayed to exactly match that of the second field, so that the two appeared to be at the same level and the film camera captured both.This method came to be preferred.

Another technique developed by the [[BBC]] known as 'spot wobble' involved the addition of an extremely high frequency but low voltage sine wave to the vertical deflection plate of the television screen, which changed the moving 'spot' through which the television picture was displayed into an elongated oval. While this made the image slightly blurred, it removed the visible line structure and resulted in a better image. It also prevented [[moiré pattern]]s appearing when the resulting film was re-broadcast on television and the lines of the recording did not match the scan lines.

=== Moye-Mechau film recording ===

The first successful procedure was to use the Mechau film projector mechanism in reverse. The Mechau system used a synchronised rotating mirror to display each frame of a film in sequence without the need for a [[Movie projector#Film gate and single image|gate]]. When reversed, a high-quality television monitor was set up in place of the projection screen, and unexposed film stock is run through at the point where the lamp was illuminating the film.

This procedure had the advantage of capturing both fields of the frame on a film, but it was difficult to keep the mirrors running at the right speed and all the equipment adjusted correctly, which often resulted in poor quality output. An additional problem was that the whole procedure took place in an open room and it was known for insects to settle on the screen which were then permanently present on the film recording. The Mechau film magazine only held enough for nine minutes so two recorders were needed to run in sequence in order to record anything longer.

=== Lenses for kinescoping ===

Lenses did not need a great depth of field, but had to be capable both of producing a very sharp image with high resolution of a flat surface and of doing so at high speed. In order to keep from light fall-off on the perimeter of the lens, a coated lens was preferable. 40 mm or 50 mm lenses were usually used with 16mm in calibrated mounts. Focus was checked by examining a print yielded under a microscope.

=== Magazines and film length ===

In order to record half-hour programs without interruption, magazines were designed which accommodated a load of 1,200 feet for 16 mm film. Stations recording on 35 mm utilized 6,000 foot magazines for one hour of continuous recording.

=== Sound recording ===

The camera could be equipped with sound recording to place the soundtrack and picture on the same film for single system sound recording. More commonly, the alternative double system, whereby the soundtrack was recorded on an optical recorder or magnetic dubber in sync with the camera, yielded a better quality sound track and greatly facilitated editing.

=== Kinescope image ===

Kinescope tubes intended for photographic use were coated with phosphors rich in blue and ultra-violet radiations. This permitted the use of positive type emulsions for photographing in spite of their slow film speeds. The brightness range of kinescope tubes were about 1 to 30.

Kinescope images were capable of great flexibility. The operator could make the image brighter or darker, adjust contrast, width and height, turn left, right or upside down, and positive or negative.

Since kinescopes were able to produce a negative picture, direct positive recordings could be made by simply photographing a negative image on the kinescope tube. When making a negative film, in order for final prints to be in the correct emulsion position, the direction of the image was reversed on the television. This applied only when double system sound was used.

=== Film stock used ===

For kinescopes, 16 mm film was the common choice by most studios because of the lower cost of stock and film processing, but in the larger network markets, it was not uncommon to see 35 mm kinescopes, particularly for national rebroadcast. By law, all film supplied to TV stations, both 16 mm and 35 mm had to be on a non-flammable, safety film base.

For U.S. video recording, fine grain positive stock was the most common used because of its low cost and high resolution yield. Of the fine grain stocks, the following were recommended by film manufacturers:
* [[Ansco]]: Fine Grain Positive for Television Purposes, for making direct positive recordings with 16 mm kinescope cameras.
* [[DuPont]]: Fine Grain Master Positive Film Type 628A (16 mm) and 628B (35 mm). Difference in contrast can be controlled in development.
* [[Eastman Kodak]]: Eastman Fine Grain Sound Recording Film, Type 5373 (low-contrast) for negative stock where other prints would be made. Fine Grain Release Positive Film, Type 7302 (high-contrast) for direct positive recordings and single system sound recordings using variable area sound.

=== Common issues with kinescopes ===

Videotape engineer Frederick M. Remley<ref>[http://www.lib.umd.edu/NPBA/papers/remley.html Papers of Frederick M. Remley], University of Maryland Libraries.</ref> wrote of kinescope recordings,
:Because of the many variables in the combined electronic/photographic process, the quality of such recordings often leaves much to be desired. Defects often encountered in photographic recording include relatively poor image resolution; a compressed brightness range often limited by kinescope display technology to a brightness ratio of about 40:1; nonlinearity of recordings, as exemplified by lack of gradation in both the near-white and near-black portions of the reproduced pictures; and excessive image noise due to film grain and video processing artifacts. The final [[signal-to-noise ratio]] is often less than 40 [[decibel|dB]], especially in the case of 16 mm film.<ref>In ''Magnetic Recording: The First Hundred Years'', IEEE Press, 1998, p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7803-4709-0.</ref>

Because each field is sequential in time to the next, a kinescope film frame that captured two interlaced fields at once often showed a ghostly fringe around the edges of moving objects, an artifact not as visible when watching television directly at 50 or 60 fields per second.<ref>[http://neuron2.net/LVG/interlacing.html Illustration of interlace fringing].</ref>

Some kinescopes filmed the television pictures at the same [[frame rate]] of 30 full frames{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} per second, resulting in more faithful picture quality than those that recorded at 24 frames per second. The standard was later changed for color TV to 59.94 fields/s. or 29.97 frame/s. when color TV was invented. {{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}<ref>If electrical interference was present in the old 30 frame/s, 60 fields/s black-and-white format, a shutter bar would appear horizontally across the screen and not move due to U.S. electrical standards having the same Hertz rate as the fields refresh rate in the picture. When color TV was standardized, the frame rate was shifted to 29.97 and the field rate shifted to 59.94 to allow a frequency shift not only to introduce the luminance/chrominance delay needed to share the information on the screen, but also to move the hum bar from a stationary position.</ref>

In the era of early color TV, the [[chrominance|chroma]] information included in the video signal filmed could cause [[chroma dots|visible artifacts]]. It was possible to filter the chroma out, but this was not always done. Consequently, the color information was included (but not in color) in the black & white film image. Using modern computing techniques, the color may now be recovered, a process known as [[Colour recovery|color recovery]].

In recent years, the [[BBC]] has introduced a video process called ''[[VidFIRE]]'', which can restore kinescope recordings to their original frame rate by interpolating video fields between the film frames.

Certain performers or production companies would require that a kinescope be made of every television program. Such is the case with performers [[Jackie Gleason]] and [[Milton Berle]], for whom nearly complete program archives exist. As Jackie Gleason’s program was broadcast live in New York, the show was kinescoped for later rebroadcast for the West Coast. Per his contract, he would receive one copy of each broadcast,which he kept in his vault, and only released them to the public (on home video) shortly before his death in 1987.

Milton Berle sued [[NBC]] late in his life, believing the kinescopes of a major portion of his programs were lost. However, the programs were later found in a warehouse in Los Angeles.

[[Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions]], the producers of such TV game shows as ''[[What's My Line?]]'', had a significant portion of their output recorded on both videotape and kinescopes. These programs are rebroadcast on the American cable TV’s [[Game Show Network]].

All of the [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]] telecasts with [[Arturo Toscanini]], from 1948 to 1952, were preserved on kinescopes and later released on VHS and [[laser disc]] by [[RCA]] and on DVD by [[Testament Records (UK)|Testament]]. The original audio from the kinescopes, however, was replaced with [[high fidelity]] sound that had been recorded simultaneously either on transcription discs or [[magnetic tape]].

In the mid-90s, [[Edie Adams]], wife of Ernie Kovacs, claimed that so little value was given to the kinescope recordings of the [[DuMont Television Network]] that after the network folded in 1956 its entire archive was dumped into upper New York bay. Today however, efforts are made to preserve the few surviving DuMont kinescopes, with the [[UCLA Film and Television Archive]] having collected over 300 for preservation.

Telerecordings form an important part of British television heritage, preserving what would otherwise have been lost. Nearly every pre-1960s British television programme in the archives is in the form of a telerecording, along with the vast majority of existing 1960s output. Videotape was expensive and could be [[Wiping (magnetic tape)|wiped]] and re-used; film was cheaper, smaller, and in practice more durable. Only a very small proportion of British television from the black and white era survives at all; perhaps 5% from the 1953–58 period and 8–10% from the 1960s.

Many recovered programmes, particularly those made by the [[BBC]], have been returned as telerecordings by foreign broadcasters or private film collectors from the 1980s onwards, as the BBC has taken stock of the large gaps in its archive and sought to recover as much of the missing material as possible. Many of these surviving telerecorded programmes, such as episodes of ''[[Doctor Who]]'', ''[[Steptoe and Son]]'' and ''[[Till Death Us Do Part]]'' continue to be transmitted on [[satellite television]] stations such as [[UKTV Gold]], and many such programmes have been released on [[VHS]] and [[DVD]].

In late 2008 the BBC transmitted an episode of ''[[Dad's Army]]'' after the original color had been restored to the only surviving [[Room at the Bottom#Colour restoration of the original television recording|monochrome film recording]] of ''[[Room at the Bottom]]''.

In September 2010, a kinescope of game 7 of the [[1960 World Series]] was found in the wine cellar of Bing Crosby. The game was thought lost forever, but was preserved due to Crosby's superstition about watching the game live. The film was transferred to DVD and is planned to be broadcast on the [[MLB Network]].

Because [[videotape]] records at fifty [[interlaced]] fields per second and telerecordings at twenty-five progressive frames per second, videotaped programmes that exist now only as telerecordings look more "jerky" than the originals. One solution to this problem is [[VidFIRE]], an electronic process to restore video-type motion.

Early Australian television drama series were recorded as kinescopes, such as ''[[Autumn Affair]]'' and ''[[Emergency (1959 TV series)|Emergency]]'', along with variety series like ''[[The Lorrae Desmond Show]]''. Kinescopes continued to be made after video-tape was introduced to Australia; most existing episodes of the 1965-1967 children's series ''[[Magic Circle Club]]'' are kinescopes (per listings for episodes on National Film and Sound Archive website)

== See also ==

* [[Electronovision]]
* [[Intermittent mechanism]]
* [[VidFIRE]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

{{refimprove|date=October 2011}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kinescope/kinescope.htm The kinescope page of the TV museum archives]
* [http://www.tvhistory.tv/KinescopeMachine.JPG RCA Kinephoto equipment (early 1950s)]
* [http://www.google.com/patents?id=cT9mAAAAEBAJ Device for recording television programs], U.S. patent application, 1945.
* [http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=0T5VAAAAEBAJ Synchronization of camera and television receiver tubes], U.S. patent application, 1946.
* [http://www.totalrewind.org/ The 'Total Rewind' museum of Vintage VCRs]
* [http://www.televisiontape.tv/ Kinescope ca. 1964 of a program promoting the use of video for television commercial production]
* [http://bp2.blogger.com/_UfF0-tl2t28/RY0bAsTVnOI/AAAAAAAAAEI/UQVN57TykF0/s1600-h/405telerectvmirror.jpg "Telerecording", article from ''TV Mirror'' (1955)]

{{Video storage formats}}

[[Category:Film and video technology]]
[[Category:Lost television programs]]
[[Category:Television preservation]]
[[Category:Television terminology]]
[[Category:History of television]]

Dorothy Canfield Fisher

2013-10-13T22:09:14Z

Textorus: /* Biography */ what kind of citations?

{{refimprove|date=November 2009}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Dorothy Canfield Fisher
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Dorothea Frances Canfield
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1879|02|17}}
| birth_place = [[Lawrence, Kansas]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1958|11|09|1879|02|17}}
| death_place = [[Arlington, Vermont]]
| nationality = American
| other_names = Dorothea Frances Canfield
| known_for = [[Montessori]] method; [[adult education]]; [[Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award]]
| occupation = writer, educator
}}

'''Dorothy Canfield Fisher''' (February 17, 1879 – November 9, 1958) was an educational reformer, social activist, and best-selling American author in the early decades of the twentieth century. She strongly supported women's rights, racial equality, and lifelong education. She was named by [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] as one of the ten most influential women in the [[United States]].<ref name="wright"/> In addition to bringing the [[Montessori education|Montessori method]] of child-rearing to the United States, she presided over the country's first [[adult education]] program, and shaped literary tastes by serving as a member of the [[Book of the Month Club]] selection committee from 1925 to 1951.

==Biography==
[[Image:Fisherquote.JPG|right|thumb|300px|A quote by Dorothy Canfield Fisher in the [[Vermont State House]]'s Hall of Inscriptions discusses her adopted state of [[Vermont]]'s motto, "[[Freedom and Unity]]" – the relationship of individual freedom as balanced with the needs of the community.]]
Dorothea Frances Canfield - named for Dorothea Brooke of the novel ''[[Middlemarch]]''<ref>{{Citation
| last = Ehrhardt
| first = Julia
| title = Writers of Conviction : The Personal Politics of Zona Gale, Dorothy Canfield Fisher, Rose Wilder Lane, and Josephine Herbst
| place = Columbia, MO
| publisher = University of Missouri Press
| year = 2004
| chapter = Tourists accommodated, with reservations}}</ref> - was born in [[Lawrence, Kansas]], on February 17, 1879. Her father was [[James Hulme Canfield]], president of [[Ohio State University]] and a librarian at Columbia University; her mother, [[Flavia Camp Canfield|Flavia Camp]], was an artist and writer.<ref name="collection">{{cite web
| title = Dorothy Canfield Collection
| publisher = University of Vermont Libraries
| year = 1998
| url = http://cdi.uvm.edu/findingaids/collection/fisherdc.ead.xml
| accessdate = 2012-12-05}}</ref> Canfield Fisher is most closely associated with [[Vermont]], where she spent her adult life, and which served as the setting for many of her books.

In 1899 Dorothy Canfield received a B.A. from Ohio State University. She was also a member of [[Kappa Kappa Gamma]]. She went on to study [[Romance languages]] at [[the Sorbonne|University of Paris]] and [[Columbia University]] and in 1904 received a [[Doctorate|doctoral degree]] from Columbia;<ref name="collection"/> ''Corneille and Racine in English'' (1904). With G. R. Carpenter from Columbia she co-wrote ''English Rhetoric and Composition'' (1906). The first woman to receive an [[honorary degree]] from [[Dartmouth College]], she also received honorary degrees from the University of Nebraska, [[Middlebury College|Middlebury]], [[Swarthmore College|Swarthmore]], [[Smith College|Smith]], [[Williams College|Williams]], Ohio State University, and the [[University of Vermont]].<ref name="award"/>

In 1907 she married [[John Redwood Fisher]], and together they had two children, a daughter and a son.<ref name="collection"/>

In 1911 Canfield Fisher visited the "children's houses" in Rome established by [[Maria Montessori]]. Much impressed, she took up the cause of bringing the method back to America by translating Montessori's book into English and writing five of her own: three nonfiction and two novels.<ref name="wright">{{cite journal
| last = Wright
| first = Elizabeth J
| title = Home Economics: Children, Consumption, and Montessori Education in Dorothy Canfield Fisher's Understood Betsy
| journal = Children's Literature Association Quarterly
| volume = 32
| issue = 3
| pages = 217–230
| year = 2007
| accessdate = 2012-12-05}}</ref>

Another concern of Canfield Fisher was her war work. She followed her husband to [[France]] in 1916 during [[World War I]], and while raising her young children in Paris worked to establish a Braille press for blinded veterans.<ref name="wright"/> She also established a [[convalescent home]] for refugee French children from the invaded areas; continuing her relief work after the war, she earned citations of appreciation from [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], [[Madame Chiang Kai-shek]], and the government of [[Denmark]].<ref name="collection"/>

Canfield Fisher died at the age of 79, in [[Arlington, Vermont]], in 1958.<ref name="award">{{cite web |url= http://www.dcfaward.org/Biography/index.htm|title= Biography|author= |date= |work= |publisher= The Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award|accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref>

Biographies of Canfield Fisher include:
* Elizabeth Yates' ''The Lady from Vermont: Dorothy Canfield Fisher's Life and World''. (Brattleboro: Stephen Greene Press, 1971), originally published by E.P. Dutton and Co. in 1958 as ''Pebble in a Pool''.
* ''Dorothy Canfield Fisher - A Biography'', by Professor Ida H. Washington ( The New England Press, INC., Shelburne, Vermont 1982)

== Activism ==
Canfield Fisher engaged in social activism in many aspects of education and politics. She managed the U.S.'s first adult education program. She did war relief work in 1917 in France, establishing the Bidart Home for Children for refugees and organizing an effort to print books in Braille for blinded combat veterans. In 1919, she was appointed to the State Board of Education of Vermont to help improve rural public education. She spent years promoting education and rehabilitation/reform in prisons, especially women's prisons.

After the war, she was the head of the U.S. committee that led to the pardoning of conscientious objectors in 1921, and sponsored financial and emigration assistance to Jewish educators, professionals, and intellectuals.

After her son was killed in World War II, she arranged a fellowship at Harvard Medical School for the two Philippine surgeons who tried to save his life.

== Friendships with other writers ==

Canfield Fisher and Willa Cather's decades-long relationship intensely revolved around their writing. Their letters, from 1899 to 1947, reveal a lasting and complicated friendship.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Madigan
| first = Mark J.
| title = Willa Cather and Dorothy Canfield Fisher: Rift, Reconciliation, and One of Ours
| journal = Cather Studies
| volume = 1
| year = 1990
}}</ref>

Cather wrote a short story that may have satirized Canfield's mother, called "Flavia and Her Artists"—sparking ten years of interrupted friendship between Dorothy and Cather.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Rosowski
| first = Susan J.
| title = Prototypes for Willa Cather's "Flavia and Her Artists": the Canfield Connection
| journal = American Notes & Queries
| volume = 23
| pages = 143–145
| year = 1985
| accessdate = 2012-12-05}}</ref>
Other writers that corresponded with Canfield Fisher included Henry Seidel Canby, [[Richard Wright]]{{disambiguation needed|date=June 2013}}, [[Heywood Broun]], [[Witter Bynner]], [[Isaak Dinesen]], and [[Robert Frost]].

==Books==
Canfield Fisher spoke five languages fluently, and in addition to writing novels, short stories, memoirs, and educational works, she wrote extensively as a [[literary criticism|literary critic]] and [[translation]]. For tax purposes, her novels were written as "Canfield", her non-fiction as "Fisher".<ref name="wright"/>

Her best-known work today is probably ''[[Understood Betsy]]'', a children's book about a little [[orphan]]ed girl who is sent to live with her cousins in [[Vermont]]. Though the book can be read purely for pleasure, it also describes a [[school]]house which is run much in the style of the Montessori method.<ref name="wright" /> In all, she wrote 22 novels and 18 works of non-fiction.<ref name="award"/>

== Novels ==
* ''Gunhild'' (1907) (contrasting Norwegian and American values)
* ''The Squirrel-Cage'' (1912) (the first of her treatments of marriage)
* ''The Bent Twig'' (1915)
* ''The Real Motive'' (1916).
* ''Fellow Captains'' (1916) (with Sarah N. Cleghorn).
* ''[[Understood Betsy]]'' (1917)
* ''Home Fires in France'' (1918)
* ''The Day of Glory'' (1919)
* ''The Brimming Cup'' (1921)
* ''Rough-Hewn'' (1922)
* ''The Home-Maker'' (1924) (reprinted by [[Persephone Books]] in 1999)
* ''Her Son's Wife'' (1926)
* ''The Deepening Stream'' (1930)
* ''Seasoned Timber'' (1939)
* Bonfire (1933)

== Short story collections ==
* ''Hillsboro People'' (1915)
* ''The Real Motive'' (1916)
* ''Raw Material'' (1923)
* ''Made-to-Order Stories'' (1925)
* ''Four Square'' (1949)
* ''The Bedquilt and Other Stories'' (1997)

== Non-fiction ==
* Corneille and Racine in England (1904) (dissertation)
* English Rhetoric and Composition (1906) - with G.R. Carpenter
* ''What Shall We Do Now?'' (with others) (1906)
* ''A Montessori Mother'' (1912)
* ''A Montessori Manual'' (1913)
* ''Mothers and Children'' 1914.
* ''Self-Reliance'' 1916.
* ''Life of Christ'' 1923.
(by Giovanni Papini, freely trans. from the Italian by Dorothy Canfield Fisher)
* ''Why Stop Learning?''1927.
* ''Work: What It Has Meant to Men through the Ages'' 1931.
by Adriano Tilgher, trans. from the Italian by Dorothy Canfield Fisher.
* ''Tourists Accommodated'' 1932.
* ''Nothing Ever Happens and How It Does'' 1940. (with Sarah N. Cleghorn)
* ''Tell Me a Story'' 1940.
* ''Our Young Folks'' 1943.
* ''American Portraits'' 1946.
* ''Paul Revere and the Minute Men'' 1950.
* ''Our Independence and the Constitution'' 1950.
* ''A Fair World for All'' 1952.
* ''Vermont Tradition'' 1953.
* ''Memories of Arlington, Vermont'' 1957.
* ''And Long Remember'' 1959.

[[William Lyon Phelps]] comments, "All her novels are autobiographical, being written exclusively out of her own experience and observation."{{citation needed|date=May 2008}}

==Legacy==
The [[Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award]] is an award for new American children's books whose winner is chosen by the vote of child readers.<ref name="bang-jensen">{{cite journal
| last = Bang-Jensen
| first = Valerie
| title = A Children's Choice Program: Insights into Book Selection, Social Relationships, and Reader Identity
| journal = Language Arts
| volume = 87
| issue = 3
| pages = 169–176
| year = 2010
| accessdate = 2012-12-05 }}</ref>

A dormitory at [[Goddard College]] in [[Plainfield, Vermont]], is named for Fisher.

== Organizations ==
Canfield Fisher worked with the following organizations over the course of her life.

* Adult Education Association
* American Youth Commission of the American Council of Education, 1936-1940
* Book-of-the Month Club Committee of Selection, 1926 until 1951
* Honorary Committee of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, 1935
* The Lighthouse Organization, 1917
* National Institute of Arts and Letters, 1931
* Vermont Board of Education, 1921

== Children ==
[[File:Capt. Fisher.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Dorothy Canfield Fisher's son, Battalion Surgeon Captain James Fisher, with his comrades during [[World War II]], shortly before he was killed in the [[Philippines]].]]

Canfield Fisher's son James became a surgeon and captain in the U.S. Army during World War II. He served with the [[Alamo Scouts]] for three months at the end of 1944, following which he was attached to a [[United States Army Rangers|Ranger]] unit which carried out the raid to free [[prisoner of war|POW]]s imprisoned at [[Raid at Cabanatuan|Cabanatuan]] in the [[Philippines]].

The raid at [[Cabanatuan]] was a great success, with the Rangers suffering only two fatalities. Captain Fisher was one, mortally wounded by a mortar shell. As he lay dying the next day, his last words were "Did we get them all out?"{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooksby=yes|viaf=34577709}}
{{wikisource author|Dorothy Canfield Fisher}}
*{{gutenberg author|name=Dorothy Canfield|id=Dorothy_Canfield}}
*[http://cdi.uvm.edu/findingaids/collection/fisherdc.ead.xml Inventory of the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Collection, Special Collections, University of Vermont Library]

{{Authority control|VIAF=34577709}}


{{Persondata
|NAME= Fisher, Dorothy Canfield
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Canfield, Dorothy Frances (birth name)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Children's writer, novelist, educator, activist
|DATE OF BIRTH= February 17, 1879
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Lawrence, Kansas|Lawrence]], [[Kansas]], [[United States]]
|DATE OF DEATH= November 9, 1958
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Arlington, Vermont|Arlington]], [[Vermont]], [[United States]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fisher, Dorothy Canfield}}
[[Category:American educators]]
[[Category:American short story writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American novelists]]
[[Category:American literary critics]]
[[Category:American translators]]
[[Category:Ohio State University alumni]]
[[Category:1879 births]]
[[Category:1959 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Lawrence, Kansas]]
[[Category:American women writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Vermont]]
[[Category:Writers from Kansas]]

Kinescope

2013-08-16T12:15:27Z

Textorus: /* Worldwide Program Distribution */ hyphen grr

{{Distinguish|Kinetoscope}}
[[File:Kinescope at the Canada Museum of Science & Technology -Ottawa-.jpg|thumb|A PA-302 General Precision Laboratories (GPL) kinescope (c.1950–1955). Its [[movie camera|movie film camera]], bolted to the top of the cabinet, used [[Kodak]] optics. (Photo: '''''Peter Lindell''', [[Canada Science and Technology Museum]]'')]]

'''Kinescope''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|n|ɨ|s|k|oʊ|p}}, shortened to '''kine''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|n|iː}}, also known as '''telerecording''' in Britain, is a recording of a television program made by filming the picture from a [[video monitor]].

Typically, the term can refer to the process itself, the equipment used for the procedure (a [[16 mm film|16 mm]] or [[35 mm film|35 mm]] [[movie camera]] mounted in front of a video monitor, and synchronized to the monitor's scanning rate), or a film made using the process. Kinescopes were the only practical way to preserve [[live television]] broadcasts prior to the introduction of [[videotape]] in 1956. A small number of theatrically released feature films have also been produced as kinescopes.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

The term originally referred to the [[cathode ray tube]] used in [[television receiver]]s, as named by inventor [[Vladimir K. Zworykin]] in 1929.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 84. ISBN 0-252-02104-5.</ref> Hence, the recordings were known in full as '''kinescope films'''. RCA was granted a trademark for the term (for its cathode ray tube) in 1932; it voluntarily released the term to the public domain in 1950.<ref>"RCA Surrenders Rights to Four Trade-Marks," Radio Age, October 1950, p. 21.</ref>

== History ==

The [[General Electric]] laboratories in [[Schenectady, New York]] experimented with making still and motion picture records of television images in 1931.<ref>"Schenectady-to-Leipzig Television a Success; Movie Also Made of Images Sent by Radio", ''[[The New York Times]]'', Feb. 13, 1931, p. 15.</ref>

There is some evidence to suggest that the [[BBC]] experimented with filming the output of the television monitor before its television service was placed on hiatus in 1939 due to [[World War II]]. BBC executive Cecil Madden later recalled filming a production of ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]'' in this way, only for film director [[Alexander Korda]] to order the burning of the negative as he owned the film rights to the book, which he felt had been infringed. However, the evidence for this is purely anecdotal, and indeed there is no written record of any BBC Television production of ''The Scarlet Pimpernel'' during the 1936–1939 period. Some of the surviving live transmissions of the Nazi German television station [[Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow]], dating as far back as the 1930s, were recorded by pointing a 35mm camera to a receiver's screen, although most surviving Nazi live television programs such as the [[1936 Summer Olympics]] (not to confuse with the cinematic footage made during the same event by [[Leni Riefenstahl]] for her film ''[[Olympia (1938 film)|Olympia]]''), a number of [[Nuremberg Rally|Nuremberg Rallies]], or official state visits (such as [[Benito Mussolini]]'s) were shot directly on 35mm instead and transmitted over the air as a television signal, with only a two minutes' delay from the original event, by means of the so-called ''Zwischenfilmverfahren'' (see [[intermediate film system]]) from an early [[production truck|outside broadcast van]] on the site.

According to a 1949 film produced by [[RCA]], silent films had been made of early experimental telecasts during the 1930s. The films were shot off television monitors at a speed of eight frames per second, resulting in somewhat jerky reproductions of the images. By the mid-1940s, RCA and [[NBC]] were refining the filming process and including sound; the images were less jerky but still somewhat fuzzy.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uC-g-eB6Rjs</ref> {{Dead link|date=October 2011}}

During World War II, television cameras were attached to American and German guided missiles to aid in their remote steering.<ref>James L. H. Peck, "[http://books.google.com/books?id=2yADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA84 Doom on the Wing]", ''[[Popular Science]]'', February 1946, p. 84, 86.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=hCQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA108 Transatlantic Roller Coaster Designed to Bomb U.S.A.], ''Popular Science'', October 1947, p. 111.</ref> Films were made of the television images they transmitted for further evaluation of the target and the missile's performance.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, 2003, p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7864-1220-4.</ref>

The first known surviving example of the telerecording process in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] is from October 1947, showing the singer [[Adelaide Hall]] performing at the RadiOlympia event.<ref name=Shagawat>{{cite web|last=Shagawat|first=Robert|title=Television recording - The origins and earliest surviving live TV broadcast recordings|url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/tv_recordings_the_origins.html|work=Early Electronic Television|publisher=Early Television Museum|accessdate=20 April 2011}}</ref>  The [[Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh|wedding of Princess Elizabeth to Prince Philip]] also survives, as do various early 1950s productions such as ''It is Midnight, Dr Schweitzer'' and the opening two episodes of ''[[The Quatermass Experiment]]'', although in varying degrees of quality. A complete 7-hour set of telerecordings of Queen Elizabeth II's 1953 [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] also exists. {{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

=== Worldwide Program Distribution ===

In the era before satellite communications, kinescopes were used to distribute live events such as a Royal Wedding as quickly as possible to other countries of the Commonwealth that had started a television service. A [[Royal Air Force]] aircraft would fly the telerecording from the UK to Canada, where it would be broadcast over the whole North American network; for Australia, a second kinescope would be made in San Francisco and flown to Sydney for transmission. After being originally televised in 405 lines, telerecorded, scanned in 525 lines, telerecorded again, and then rescanned in 625 lines for local transmission, the quality would be terrible, but it could be broadcast only 18 hours after the event.

Even after the introduction of videotape, the BBC and the [[ITV]] companies made black and white kinescopes of selected programs for international sales, and continued to do so until the early 1970s by which time programs were being videotaped in color. Most, if not all, videotapes from the 405-line era, have long since been wiped, as have many from the introduction of 625-line video to the early days of color. Consequently the majority of British shows that still exist before the introduction of color, and a number thereafter, do so in the form of these telerecordings. A handful of shows, including some episodes of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' and most of the first series of ''[[Adam Adamant Lives!]]'', were deliberately telerecorded for ease of editing rather than being videotaped.

=== Eastman Television Recording Camera ===

In September 1947, [[Eastman Kodak]] introduced the Eastman Television Recording Camera, in cooperation with [[Allen B. DuMont|DuMont Laboratories, Inc.]] and [[National Broadcasting Corporation|NBC]], for recording images from a television screen under the trademark "Kinephoto". Prior to the introduction of [[videotape]] in 1956, kinescopes were the only way to record television broadcasts, or to distribute [[network television]] programs that were broadcast live from [[New York City|New York]] or other originating cities, to stations not connected to the network, or to stations that wished to show a program at a different time than the network broadcast. Although the quality was less than desirable, [[television program]]s of all types from prestigious dramas to regular news shows were handled in this manner.

NBC, [[CBS]], and [[DuMont Television Network|DuMont]] set up their main kinescope recording facilities in New York City, while [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] chose [[Chicago]]. By 1951, NBC and CBS were each shipping out some 1,000 16mm kinescope prints each week to their [[affiliate]]s across the United States, and by 1955 that number had increased to 2,500 per week for CBS.<ref>Wesley S. Griswold, "[http://books.google.com/books?id=LiYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA115 Why TV Is Going Movie-Mad]", ''[[Popular Science]]'', February 1955, p. 118.</ref> By 1954 the television industry’s film consumption surpassed that of all of the [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] studios combined.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tvhandbook.com/History/History_recording.htm |title=tvhandbook.com/History (recording) |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040603152849/http://www.tvhandbook.com/History/History_recording.htm |archivedate=2004-06-03}}</ref><ref name="racetovideo">Wolpin, Stewart. "[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1994/2/1994_2_52.shtml The Race to Video]". ''Invention & Technology'', Fall 1994.</ref>

=== "Hot kinescope" ===

After the network of [[coaxial cable]] and [[Microwave radio relay|microwave relay]]s carrying programs to the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] was completed in September 1951,<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889197,00.html Coast to Coast]", ''Time'', August 13, 1951.</ref> CBS and NBC instituted a "hot kinescope" process in 1952, where shows being performed in New York were transmitted west, filmed on two kinescope machines in 35 mm negative and 16 mm [[reversal film]] (the latter for backup protection) in Los Angeles, rushed to film processing, and then transmitted from Los Angeles three hours later for broadcast in the [[Pacific Time Zone]].<ref>Arthur Schneider, ''Jump Cut!: Memoirs of a Pioneer Television Editor'', McFarland, 1997, p. 23–32. ISBN 0-7864-0345-4. To save the time to make a print, the 35 mm negative was broadcast, and electronically converted to a positive image. The soundtrack for the 35 mm film was recorded on a separate 16 mm filmstrip, and synchronized at playback. The soundtrack for the 16 mm reversal film version was recorded on the same filmstrip as the image.</ref><ref>Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, 2003, p. 48. ISBN 0-7864-1220-8.</ref>

In September 1956, NBC began making color "hot kines" of some of its color programs using a [[Kodacolor (motion picture)|lenticular film process]] which, unlike color negative film, could be processed rapidly using standard black-and-white methods.<ref>Showcase Productions, Inc.: ''[[Producers' Showcase]]'', [http://www.showcaseproductions.com/tech.htm Technical Considerations].</ref><ref>Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', p. 67.</ref>

=== Double system method of editing ===

Even after the introduction of [[Quadruplex videotape]] machines in 1956 removed the need for "hot kines", the television networks continued to use kinescopes in the "double system" method of videotape editing. It was impossible to slow or [[freeze frame television|freeze frame]] a videotape at that time, so the unedited tape would be copied to a kinescope, and edited conventionally. The edited kinescope print was then used to conform the videotape master. More than 300 videotaped network series and specials used this method over a 12-year period, including the fast-paced ''[[Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In]]''.<ref>Arthur Schneider, ''Jump Cut!: Memoirs of a Pioneer Television Editor'', McFarland, 1997, p. 105–106, 134–135. ISBN 0-7864-0345-4.</ref>

{{Further|Film recorder}}

== Alternatives to kinescoping ==

With the variable quality of Kinescopes, networks looked towards alternative methods to replace them with a higher degree of quality.

=== Change to 35 mm film broadcasts ===

Filmed programs were also used in television’s early years, although they were generally considered inferior to the big-production "live" programs because of their lower budgets and loss of immediacy. This, however, was about to change.

In 1951, the stars and producers of the Hollywood-based television series ''[[I Love Lucy]]'', [[Desi Arnaz]] and [[Lucille Ball]], decided to shoot their show directly onto 35 mm film using the [[Multicamera setup|three-camera system]], instead of broadcasting it live. Normally, a live program originating from Los Angeles (for example, ''The Frank Sinatra Show'') would be performed live in the late afternoon for the Eastern Time Zone, and seen on a kinescope three hours later in the Pacific Time Zone. But as an article in ''[[American Cinematographer]]'' explained,
:In the beginning there was a very definite reason for the decision of [[Desilu Productions]] to put ''I Love Lucy'' on film instead of doing it live and having kinescope recordings carry it to affiliate outlets of the network. The company was not satisfied with the quality of kinescopes. It saw that film, produced especially for television, was the only means of ensuring top quality pictures on the home receiver as well as ensuring a flawless show.<ref>Leigh Allen, "[http://www.lucyfan.com/filmingthe.html Filming the 'I Love Lucy' Show]", ''American Cinematographer'', January 1952.</ref>

The ''I Love Lucy'' decision introduced [[reruns]] to most of the American television audience, and set a pattern for the [[Television syndication|syndication]] of TV shows after their network runs (and later, for first-run airings via syndication) that still continues to this very day.

=== Electronicam ===
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2011}}

The program director of the [[DuMont Television Network]], James L. Caddigan, devised an alternative — the [[Electronicam]]. In this, all the studio TV cameras had built-in 35 mm film cameras which shared the same optical path. An Electronicam technician threw switches to mark the film footage electronically, identifying the camera "takes" called by the director. The corresponding film segments from the various cameras then were combined by a film editor to duplicate the live program. The "Classic 39" syndicated episodes of ''[[The Honeymooners]]'' were filmed using Electronicam (as well as the daily five-minute syndicated series ''[[Les Paul & Mary Ford| Les Paul & Mary Ford At Home]]'' in 1954–55), but with the introduction of a practical [[videotape]] recorder only one year away, the Electronicam system never saw widespread use. The DuMont network did not survive into the era of videotape, and in order to gain clearances for its programs, was heavily dependent on kinescopes, which it called Teletranscriptions.

===Electronovision===

Attempts were made for many years to take television images, convert them to film via kinescope, then project them in theaters for paying audiences. In the mid-1960s, Producer/entrepreneur H. William "Bill" Sargent, Jr. used conventional analog Image Orthicon video camera tube units, shooting in the B&W 819-line interlaced 25fps French video standard, using modified high-band quadruplex VTRs to record the signal. The promotors of [[Electronovision]] (not to be confused with Electronicam) gave the impression that this was a new system created from scratch, using a high-tech name (and avoiding the word kinescope) to distinguish the process from conventional film photography. Nonetheless, the advances in picture quality were, at the time, a major step ahead. By capturing more than 800 lines of resolution at 25 frame/s, raw tape could be converted to film via kinescope recording with sufficient enhanced resolution to allow big-screen enlargement. The 1960s productions used Marconi image orthicon video cameras, which have a characteristic white "glow" around black objects (and a corresponding black glow around white objects), which was a defect of the pickup. Later vidicon and plumbicon video camera tubes produced much cleaner, more accurate pictures.

=== Videotape ===

In 1951, singer [[Bing Crosby|Bing Crosby’s]] company [[Bing Crosby Enterprises]] made the first experimental magnetic [[video recording]]s; however, the poor picture quality and very high tape speed meant it would be impractical to use. In 1956, [[Ampex]] introduced the first commercial [[Quadruplex videotape|Quadruplex]] [[videotape]] recorder,<ref name="racetovideo"/> followed in 1958 by a color model. Offering high quality and instant playback at a much lower cost, Quadruplex tape quickly replaced kinescope as the primary means of recording television broadcasts.<ref name="racetovideo"/>

== The last years of the kinescopes ==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2011}}

The U.S. networks continued to make kinescopes of their daytime dramas (many of which still aired live into the late 1960s){{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} available as late as 1969 for their smaller network [[affiliates]] that did not yet have videotape capability but wished to time-shift the network programming. Some of these programs aired up to two weeks after their original dates, particularly in [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]]. Many episodes of programs from the 1960s survive only through kinescoped copies. The last 16 mm kinescopes of television programs ended in the late 1970s, as video tape recorders became more affordable.

In Australia, kinescopes were still being made of some evening news programs as late as 1977, if they were recorded at all.

In later years, film and television producers were often reluctant to include kinescope footage in anthologies, because of the "inferior" quality. While it is true that kinescopes did look inferior to live transmissions in the 1950s, it was due to the industry's technical limitations at that time. Even the best live transmission could look contrasty or hazy by the time it reached the home viewer. Advances in broadcast technology soon allowed for a wider gray scale in black-and-white, and a fuller spectrum of colors, making kinescopes a perfectly viable commodity. This was demonstrated in the feature film ''Ten from Your Show of Shows'', a compilation of [[Sid Caesar]] kinescopes released to theaters. Reviewers were astonished at how good the kinescoped image looked on a large screen. Kinescopes have since lost their stigma of inferiority,{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} and are commonly consulted today for archival purposes.

In the UK, telerecordings continued to be made after the advent of commercial broadcast videotape from 1958 as they possessed several distinct advantages, particularly for overseas program sales. Firstly, they were cheaper,{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} easier to transport and more durable than video. Secondly, they could be used in any country regardless of the television broadcasting standard, which was not true of videotape. Thirdly, the system could be used to make black and white copies of color programs for sale to television stations who were not yet broadcasting in color.

The telerecording system could be of a very high quality, easily reproducing the full detail of the television picture. The only slight disadvantage of the system was that it removed the 'fluid' look of interlaced video and '[[filmizing|filmized]]' the picture, but this would generally not have made a great deal of difference to the viewing audiences.

The system was largely used for black and white reproduction. Although some color telerecordings were made, they were generally in the minority as by the time color programs were widely needed for sale, video standards conversion was easier and higher quality and the price of videotape had become much reduced. Before videotape became the exclusive transmission format during the early to mid-1980s, any (color) video recordings used in documentaries or filmed program inserts were usually transferred onto film.

Up until the early 1960s, much of the BBC and British television in general's output was broadcast live, and telerecordings would be used to preserve a program for repeat showings, which had previously required the entire production being performed live for a second time.

In the 1950s a home telerecording kit was introduced in Britain, allowing enthusiasts to make [[16 mm film]] recordings of television programs {{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}. The major drawback, apart from the short duration of a 16 mm film magazine, was that a large opaque frame had to be placed in front of the TV set in order to block out any stray reflections, making it impossible to watch the set normally while filming. It is not known if any recordings made using this equipment still exist.

British broadcasters used telerecordings for domestic purposes well into the 1960s, with [[35 mm film|35 mm]] being the film gauge usually used as it produced a higher quality result. For overseas sales, 16 mm film would be used, as it was cheaper. Although domestic use of telerecording in the UK for repeat broadcasts dropped off sharply after the move to color in the late 1960s, 16 mm [[black and white]] film telerecordings were still being offered for sale by British broadcasters well into the 1970s.

Telerecording was still being used internally at the [[BBC]] in the 1980s too, to preserve copies for posterity of programs which were not necessarily of the highest importance, but which nonetheless their producers wanted to be preserved. If there were no videotape machines available on a given day, then a telerecording would be made. There is evidence to suggest that the children's magazine program ''[[Blue Peter]]'' was occasionally being telerecorded as late as 1985. After this point, however, cheap domestic videotape formats such as [[VHS]] could more easily be used to keep a back-up reference copy of a program.

Another occasional use of telerecording into the late 1980s was by documentary makers working in 16 mm film who wished to include a videotape-sourced excerpt in their work, although such use was again rare.

== Legacy ==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2011}}

Kinescopes were intended to be used for immediate rebroadcast, or for an occasional repeat of a prerecorded program; thus, only a small fraction of kinescope recordings remain today. [[List of lost television broadcasts|Many television shows are represented by only a handful of episodes]], such as with the early television work of comedian [[Ernie Kovacs]], and the original version of ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' hosted by [[Art Fleming]].

Kinescopes were also used for some live television programs, like ''[[Captain Kangaroo]]'', when back-to-back episodes were made in a day for different time zones. As performers never went three times in a day, kinescopes were made for the West Coast at a later date.

== Technology ==

[[NTSC]] television images are [[raster scan|scanned]] at roughly 60 [[Hertz|Hz]], with two [[interlaced]] [[field (video)|fields]] per frame, displayed at 30 [[frames per second]].

A kinescope must be able to:
#Convert the 30 frame/s image to 24 frame/s, the standard sound speed of film cameras,
#Do so in a way so that the image is clear enough to then re-broadcast by means of a [[film chain]] back to 30 frame/s.

In kinescoping an NTSC signal, 525 lines are broadcast in one frame. A 35 mm or 16 mm camera exposes one frame of film for every one frame of television (525 lines), and moving a new frame of film into place during the time equivalent of one field of television (131.25 lines). In the British [[405-line television system]], television ran at 25 frames—or more correctly, 50 fields—per second, so the film camera would also be run at 25 frames per second rather than the cinematic film standard of 24 frames.

Therefore, in order to maintain successful kinescope photography, a camera must expose one frame of film for ''exactly'' 1/30th or 1/25th of a second, the time in which one frame of video is transmitted, and move to another frame of film within the small interval of 1/120 of a second. In some instances, this was accomplished through means of an electronic shutter which cuts off the TV image at the end of every set of visible lines.

Most U.S. kinescope situations, however, utilized a mechanical shutter, revolving at 24 revolutions per second. This shutter had a closed angle of 72° and an open angle of 288°, yielding the necessary closed time of 1/120 of a second and open time 1/30 of a second. Using this shutter, in 1 second of video (60 fields equaling 30 frames), 48 television fields (totaling to 24 frames of video) would be captured on 24 frames of film, and 12 additional fields would be omitted as the shutter closed and the film advanced.

Because television is a field rather than frame-based system, however, not all the information in the picture can be retained on film in the same way as it can on videotape. The time taken physically to move the film on by one frame and stop it so that the gate can be opened to expose a new frame of film to the two [[field (video)|fields]] of television picture is much longer than the [[vertical blanking interval]] between these fields—so the film is still moving when the start of the next field is being displayed on the television screen. It is not possible to accelerate the film fast enough to get it there in time without destroying the [[film perforations|perforations]] in the [[film stock]]—and the larger the [[film gauge]] used, the worse the problem becomes.

The problem of adapting the way the image is either displayed or captured on film, to get around the above, was solved in various different ways as time went on—improving the quality of the image.

=== Shutter bar and banding problems ===

The 72°/288° shutter and the systematic loss of 12 fields per second were not without its side effects. In going from 30 frame/s to 24 frame/s, the camera photographed ''part'' of some fields. The juncture on the film frame where these part-fields met was called a "splice".

If the timing was accurate, the splice was invisible. However, if the camera and television were out of phase, a phenomenon known as "shutter bar" or "banding" took place. If the shutter was slow in closing, overexposure resulted where the part-fields joined and the "shutter bar" took the form of a white line. If the shutter closed too soon, underexposure took place and the line was black. The term "banding" referred to the phenomenon occurring on the screen as two bars.

This obstacle could be overcome by brushing a thin coat of lacquer on the edge of the shutter according to the phasing between the camera shutter and the television impulses.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

=== Suppressed field ===

A simpler system less prone to breakdown was to suppress one of the two fields in displaying the television picture. This left the time in which the second field was displayed for the film camera to advance the film by one frame, which proved enough. This method was also called 'Skip field' recording.

This method had several disadvantages. In missing out every second field of video, half the information of the picture was lost on such recordings. The resulting film consisted of fewer than 200 lines of picture information and as a result the line structure was very apparent; the missing field information also made movement look very 'jerky'.

=== Stored field ===

A development on the suppressed field system was to display the image from one of the fields at a much higher intensity on the television screen during the time when the film gate was closed, and then capture the image as the second field was being displayed. By adjusting the intensity of the first field, it was possible to arrange it so that the luminosity of the phosphor had decayed to exactly match that of the second field, so that the two appeared to be at the same level and the film camera captured both.This method came to be preferred.

Another technique developed by the [[BBC]] known as 'spot wobble' involved the addition of an extremely high frequency but low voltage sine wave to the vertical deflection plate of the television screen, which changed the moving 'spot' through which the television picture was displayed into an elongated oval. While this made the image slightly blurred, it removed the visible line structure and resulted in a better image. It also prevented [[moiré pattern]]s appearing when the resulting film was re-broadcast on television and the lines of the recording did not match the scan lines.

=== Moye-Mechau film recording ===

The first successful procedure was to use the Mechau film projector mechanism in reverse. The Mechau system used a synchronised rotating mirror to display each frame of a film in sequence without the need for a [[Movie projector#Film gate and single image|gate]]. When reversed, a high-quality television monitor was set up in place of the projection screen, and unexposed film stock is run through at the point where the lamp was illuminating the film.

This procedure had the advantage of capturing both fields of the frame on a film, but it was difficult to keep the mirrors running at the right speed and all the equipment adjusted correctly, which often resulted in poor quality output. An additional problem was that the whole procedure took place in an open room and it was known for insects to settle on the screen which were then permanently present on the film recording. The Mechau film magazine only held enough for nine minutes so two recorders were needed to run in sequence in order to record anything longer.

=== Lenses for kinescoping ===

Lenses did not need a great depth of field, but had to be capable both of producing a very sharp image with high resolution of a flat surface and of doing so at high speed. In order to keep from light fall-off on the perimeter of the lens, a coated lens was preferable. 40 mm or 50 mm lenses were usually used with 16mm in calibrated mounts. Focus was checked by examining a print yielded under a microscope.

=== Magazines and film length ===

In order to record half-hour programs without interruption, magazines were designed which accommodated a load of 1,200 feet for 16 mm film. Stations recording on 35 mm utilized 6,000 foot magazines for one hour of continuous recording.

=== Sound recording ===

The camera could be equipped with sound recording to place the soundtrack and picture on the same film for single system sound recording. More commonly, the alternative double system, whereby the soundtrack was recorded on an optical recorder or magnetic dubber in sync with the camera, yielded a better quality sound track and greatly facilitated editing.

=== Kinescope image ===

Kinescope tubes intended for photographic use were coated with phosphors rich in blue and ultra-violet radiations. This permitted the use of positive type emulsions for photographing in spite of their slow film speeds. The brightness range of kinescope tubes were about 1 to 30.

Kinescope images were capable of great flexibility. The operator could make the image brighter or darker, adjust contrast, width and height, turn left, right or upside down, and positive or negative.

Since kinescopes were able to produce a negative picture, direct positive recordings could be made by simply photographing a negative image on the kinescope tube. When making a negative film, in order for final prints to be in the correct emulsion position, the direction of the image was reversed on the television. This applied only when double system sound was used.

=== Film stock used ===

For kinescopes, 16 mm film was the common choice by most studios because of the lower cost of stock and film processing, but in the larger network markets, it was not uncommon to see 35 mm kinescopes, particularly for national rebroadcast. By law, all film supplied to TV stations, both 16 mm and 35 mm had to be on a non-flammable, safety film base.

For U.S. video recording, fine grain positive stock was the most common used because of its low cost and high resolution yield. Of the fine grain stocks, the following were recommended by film manufacturers:
* [[Ansco]]: Fine Grain Positive for Television Purposes, for making direct positive recordings with 16 mm kinescope cameras.
* [[DuPont]]: Fine Grain Master Positive Film Type 628A (16 mm) and 628B (35 mm). Difference in contrast can be controlled in development.
* [[Eastman Kodak]]: Eastman Fine Grain Sound Recording Film, Type 5373 (low-contrast) for negative stock where other prints would be made. Fine Grain Release Positive Film, Type 7302 (high-contrast) for direct positive recordings and single system sound recordings using variable area sound.

=== Common issues with kinescopes ===

Videotape engineer Frederick M. Remley<ref>[http://www.lib.umd.edu/NPBA/papers/remley.html Papers of Frederick M. Remley], University of Maryland Libraries.</ref> wrote of kinescope recordings,
:Because of the many variables in the combined electronic/photographic process, the quality of such recordings often leaves much to be desired. Defects often encountered in photographic recording include relatively poor image resolution; a compressed brightness range often limited by kinescope display technology to a brightness ratio of about 40:1; nonlinearity of recordings, as exemplified by lack of gradation in both the near-white and near-black portions of the reproduced pictures; and excessive image noise due to film grain and video processing artifacts. The final [[signal-to-noise ratio]] is often less than 40 [[decibel|dB]], especially in the case of 16 mm film.<ref>In ''Magnetic Recording: The First Hundred Years'', IEEE Press, 1998, p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7803-4709-0.</ref>

Because each field is sequential in time to the next, a kinescope film frame that captured two interlaced fields at once often showed a ghostly fringe around the edges of moving objects, an artifact not as visible when watching television directly at 50 or 60 fields per second.<ref>[http://neuron2.net/LVG/interlacing.html Illustration of interlace fringing].</ref>

Some kinescopes filmed the television pictures at the same [[frame rate]] of 30 full frames{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} per second, resulting in more faithful picture quality than those that recorded at 24 frames per second. The standard was later changed for color TV to 59.94 fields/s. or 29.97 frame/s. when color TV was invented. {{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}<ref>If electrical interference was present in the old 30 frame/s, 60 fields/s black-and-white format, a shutter bar would appear horizontally across the screen and not move due to U.S. electrical standards having the same Hertz rate as the fields refresh rate in the picture. When color TV was standardized, the frame rate was shifted to 29.97 and the field rate shifted to 59.94 to allow a frequency shift not only to introduce the luminance/chrominance delay needed to share the information on the screen, but also to move the hum bar from a stationary position.</ref>

In the era of early color TV, the [[chrominance|chroma]] information included in the video signal filmed could cause [[chroma dots|visible artifacts]]. It was possible to filter the chroma out, but this was not always done. Consequently, the color information was included (but not in color) in the black & white film image. Using modern computing techniques, the color may now be recovered, a process known as [[Colour recovery|color recovery]].

In recent years, the [[BBC]] has introduced a video process called ''[[VidFIRE]]'', which can restore kinescope recordings to their original frame rate by interpolating video fields between the film frames.

Certain performers or production companies would require that a kinescope be made of every television program. Such is the case with performers [[Jackie Gleason]] and [[Milton Berle]], for whom nearly complete program archives exist. As Jackie Gleason’s program was broadcast live in New York, the show was kinescoped for later rebroadcast for the West Coast. Per his contract, he would receive one copy of each broadcast,which he kept in his vault, and only released them to the public (on home video) shortly before his death in 1987.

Milton Berle sued [[NBC]] late in his life, believing the kinescopes of a major portion of his programs were lost. However, the programs were later found in a warehouse in Los Angeles.

[[Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions]], the producers of such TV game shows as ''[[What's My Line?]]'', had a significant portion of their output recorded on both videotape and kinescopes. These programs are rebroadcast on the American cable TV’s [[Game Show Network]].

All of the [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]] telecasts with [[Arturo Toscanini]], from 1948 to 1952, were preserved on kinescopes and later released on VHS and [[laser disc]] by [[RCA]] and on DVD by [[Testament Records (UK)|Testament]]. The original audio from the kinescopes, however, was replaced with [[high fidelity]] sound that had been recorded simultaneously either on transcription discs or [[magnetic tape]].

In the mid-90s, [[Edie Adams]], wife of Ernie Kovacs, claimed that so little value was given to the kinescope recordings of the [[DuMont Television Network]] that after the network folded in 1956 its entire archive was dumped into upper New York bay. Today however, efforts are made to preserve the few surviving DuMont kinescopes, with the [[UCLA Film and Television Archive]] having collected over 300 for preservation.

Telerecordings form an important part of British television heritage, preserving what would otherwise have been lost. Nearly every pre-1960s British television programme in the archives is in the form of a telerecording, along with the vast majority of existing 1960s output. Videotape was expensive and could be [[Wiping (magnetic tape)|wiped]] and re-used; film was cheaper, smaller, and in practice more durable. Only a very small proportion of British television from the black and white era survives at all; perhaps 5% from the 1953–58 period and 8–10% from the 1960s.

Many recovered programmes, particularly those made by the [[BBC]], have been returned as telerecordings by foreign broadcasters or private film collectors from the 1980s onwards, as the BBC has taken stock of the large gaps in its archive and sought to recover as much of the missing material as possible. Many of these surviving telerecorded programmes, such as episodes of ''[[Doctor Who]]'', ''[[Steptoe and Son]]'' and ''[[Till Death Us Do Part]]'' continue to be transmitted on [[satellite television]] stations such as [[UKTV Gold]], and many such programmes have been released on [[VHS]] and [[DVD]].

In late 2008 the BBC transmitted an episode of ''[[Dad's Army]]'' after the original color had been restored to the only surviving [[Room at the Bottom#Colour restoration of the original television recording|monochrome film recording]] of ''[[Room at the Bottom]]''.

In September 2010, a kinescope of game 7 of the [[1960 World Series]] was found in the wine cellar of Bing Crosby. The game was thought lost forever, but was preserved due to Crosby's superstition about watching the game live. The film was transferred to DVD and is planned to be broadcast on the [[MLB Network]].

Because [[videotape]] records at fifty [[interlaced]] fields per second and telerecordings at twenty-five progressive frames per second, videotaped programmes that exist now only as telerecordings look more "jerky" than the originals. One solution to this problem is [[VidFIRE]], an electronic process to restore video-type motion.

Early Australian television drama series were recorded as kinescopes, such as ''[[Autumn Affair]]'' and ''[[Emergency (1959 TV series)|Emergency]]'', along with variety series like ''[[The Lorrae Desmond Show]]''. Kinescopes continued to be made after video-tape was introduced to Australia; most existing episodes of the 1965-1967 children's series ''[[Magic Circle Club]]'' are kinescopes (per listings for episodes on National Film and Sound Archive website)

== See also ==

* [[Electronovision]]
* [[Intermittent mechanism]]
* [[VidFIRE]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

{{refimprove|date=October 2011}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kinescope/kinescope.htm The kinescope page of the TV museum archives]
* [http://www.tvhistory.tv/KinescopeMachine.JPG RCA Kinephoto equipment (early 1950s)]
* [http://www.google.com/patents?id=cT9mAAAAEBAJ Device for recording television programs], U.S. patent application, 1945.
* [http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=0T5VAAAAEBAJ Synchronization of camera and television receiver tubes], U.S. patent application, 1946.
* [http://www.totalrewind.org/ The 'Total Rewind' museum of Vintage VCRs]
* [http://www.televisiontape.tv/ Kinescope ca. 1964 of a program promoting the use of video for television commercial production]
* [http://bp2.blogger.com/_UfF0-tl2t28/RY0bAsTVnOI/AAAAAAAAAEI/UQVN57TykF0/s1600-h/405telerectvmirror.jpg "Telerecording", article from ''TV Mirror'' (1955)]

{{Video storage formats}}

[[Category:Film and video technology]]
[[Category:Lost television programs]]
[[Category:Television preservation]]
[[Category:Television terminology]]
[[Category:History of television]]

Kronprinzenpalais (Athen)

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|longd= 23 |longm= 44 |longs= 27 | longEW= E
|coordinates_display=title
|architect=[[Ernst Ziller]]
|client=[[George I of Greece]]
|construction_start_date=1891
|completion_date=1897
|floor_area=
}}
[[File:Crown Prince Palace Athens 1909.jpg|thumb|Crown Prince's palace in 1909]]
The '''Presidential Mansion''' in [[Athens]], [[Greece]], is the official residence of the [[President of Greece|President]] of the [[Greece|Hellenic Republic]]. It served previously as the Royal Palace (often known as the New Royal Palace), until the abolition of the [[List of kings of Greece|monarchy]] by [[Greek plebiscite, 1974|referendum]] in 1974.

== History ==
The decision to construct the building which is used as the Presidential Mansion was made in1868. That year, [[George_I_of_Greece|King George I]]'s son, [[Constantine_I_of_Greece|Constantine]], the heir to the throne, was born and the [[Greece|Greek]] state decided to present him with a private dwelling, when he came of age. Twenty-one years later when Constantine married princess [[Sophia of Prussia]], the state assigned the planning of "The Crown Prince's Palace", as the building became known, to [[Ernst Ziller]]. Building began in 1891 and was completed six years later in 1897.

On [[Christmas Eve]], 1909, a fire destroyed a large part of the [[Old Royal Palace|Royal Palace]] (now used by [[Hellenic Parliament|Parliament]]), with the result that the Crown Prince's Palace was used temporarily as the residence of the royal family. After the assassination of George I in 1913 and the accession of Constantine to the throne, the Crown Prince's Palace finally became the main royal residence of the [[King of the Hellenes]].

The use of the building as a Palace was interrupted in 1924 when the monarchy was ended and a Republic was declared. It was then used as the Presidential Mansion until 1935 when the monarchy was restored and the King returned.
Since 1974, when democracy was restored after a seven-year military dictatorship, the building has been used as the Presidential Mansion and the residence of the President.

== Location ==
The land on which the Presidential Mansion was built was, until the final decades of the nineteenth century, outside city limits. The eastern limit of the town was the Royal Palace. Beyond that, there were fields and small farms. The only buildings appearing on the maps of the period were the manor of the [[Duchess of Plaisance]] (known as "Ilissia" and today housing the [[Byzantine and Christian Museum|Byzantine Museum]]) and the [[Petraki Monastery]], both built in country areas far from the centre of town.

The limited significance of the area at the time may be revealed by the fact that a girl's orphanage (which no longer exists) was built there in 1854. Furthermore, the land along [[Kifissias Avenue]] (now named [[Vasilissis Sofias Avenue]]) also remained unbuilt and was reserved by the state for the construction of ministry buildings.

In early 1870 the State allowed the sale of land to private individuals which resulted in the construction of mansions to house the wealthy families of [[Athens]]. About 1890, the architect [[Ernst Ziller]] was entrusted with the construction of the Crown Prince's Palace. This palace later became the residence of the Royal Family and is used now as the Presidential Mansion.

During modern times, with the city of Athens extending over many square miles, the Presidential Mansion is located near the centre of the capital next to the [[National Garden of Athens|National Garden]] and Parliament.
[[Herodou Attikou Street]], where the Mansion is located, is not only one of the most beautiful roads in the city, it is also bound to the political and social life of Greece, as also situated there is the [[Maximos Mansion]] where the [[Prime Minister of Greece]] has his official office.

The Presidential Mansion with its garden occupies a total area of about 27,000 square metres (about 7 acres). The official entrance to the Mansion is on [[Herodou Attikou Street]].

== Design and construction ==
[[File:Ernst Ziller 002.jpg|thumb|The original Ernst Ziller's architectural plan of the ground floor]]
[[File:Ernst Ziller 001.jpg|thumb|Ziller's plan for the extension to the ballroom of the crown prince's palace]]
The design of the palace was entrusted to architect [[Ernst Ziller]]. He became the Official Court Architect of King George I and designed an estimated 700 buildings all over Greece for both official and private use. It is said the King George I ordered Ziller not to make the building too pretentious, so it would blend with the other mansions on the street, and not to model it after any other palaces in Europe. Following these guidelines, Ziller designed a three-story, symmetrical, [[neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] mansion. Construction of the palace took six years.

== Additions ==
Since this was to be the Crown Prince's Palace, no large ballrooms were included in the design since it was believed that most large scale, official entertaining would occur in the much larger Old Royal Palace. The palace's main reception room was the large salon on the second floor. However, when the palace became the main royal residence, a large ballroom became needed. So, in 1909, Ziller was again commissioned to design an extension which was used as a ballroom and is now named the Credentials Lounge. Another extension was needed when [[Queen Sofía of Spain|Princess Sophia of Greece]] (now queen of Spain, and daughter of [[Paul of Greece|King Paul]] and [[Frederika of Hanover|Queen Frederika]]) became engaged to [[His Royal Highness]] [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|The Prince Juan Carlos of Spain]] (now [[His Majesty]] [[King of Spain|The King of Spain]]). In 1962, the King commissioned architect [[Alexander Baltatzis]] to design an addition which became the largest room in the palace and is now named the Reception Hall.

== Gardens ==
The garden of the Presidential Mansion occupies an area of about 25,000 square metres (just more than 6 acres) and constitutes a green haven in the centre of Athens. During the middle of the nineteenth century, this area, because of its especially fertile soil, was in fact the vegetable garden of the Royal Palace (now Parliament building).

After the construction of the mansion in 1897 and the construction of Herodou Attikou Street, the area which surrounded the Crown Prince's Palace was fashioned into a large ornamental garden. The planning of this appears to have been assigned to Ziller's technical office. The selection of suitable plants, though, must have been entrusted to a Greek specialist, since most of the trees are native to Greece.

From the very beginning the garden was divided into two large sections because of the slope of the land. The building is situated in the upper section.

The design of the garden in front of the building was similar to that of other neo-classical structures of the period (the Academy, the University and the National Library). The garden follows a relatively rigid geometric plan of the French type, with symmetrical plots of grass and seasonal flowering plants. The formalism of the composition approaching Herod Atticus Road is alleviated by the perennial plane trees, lindens, palms and cypress trees.

== Functions ==
The Palace has had to serve as the offices and main residence of the Crown Princely couple, Royal Family and President of the Republic, respectively. Since 1913, it is also where all official functions are held in Athens.

Since the mid-1970s, the President holds a reception on 24 July every year to commemorate the restoration of democracy in 1974. The reception is attended by the political, military, and academic leadership of the country, and of all sectors of the economy and various organizations, along with news reporters.

== Timeline ==
'''1868''' Upon the birth of the Heir, the state allocates funds to build a palace for the Crown Prince upon his achieving maturity.

'''1889''' [[Constantine I of Greece|Crown Prince Constantine I]] engaged to Princess [[Sophia of Prussia]].

'''1891-1897''' Construction.

'''1897-1913''' Use as Crown Prince's Palace by Crown Prince Constantine I and Crown Princess Sophia.

'''1913-1924''' Becomes Royal Palace after [[George I of Greece|King George I]] is assassinated.

'''1924-1935''' Presidential Palace (Monarchy abolished).

'''1935-1974''' Royal Palace (Monarchy restored).

'''1974-''' Presidential Mansion (Monarchy abolished).

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book |author=Kardamitsi-Adami, Maro |year=2009 |title=Palaces in Greece |publisher=Melissa Books |isbn=978-960-204-289-2}}

== Sources ==
*[http://www.presidency.gr/ Presidency of the Hellenic Republic] {{el icon}}
*[http://www.presidency.gr/?page_id=341&lang=en Presidency of the Hellenic Republic] {{en icon}}

== External links ==
{{commonscat-inline}}

{{Landmarks in Athens}}

[[Category:Houses completed in 1897]]
[[Category:Landmarks in Athens]]
[[Category:Palaces in Greece]]
[[Category:Royal residences in Greece]]
[[Category:Official residences in Greece]]
[[Category:Presidential palaces]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Athens]]
[[Category:Presidency of the Hellenic Republic]]

Kronprinzenpalais (Athen)

2013-06-30T12:55:37Z

Textorus: /* Gardens */ diction

{{Infobox building
|name=Presidential Mansion of Athens (Προεδρικό Μέγαρο)
|image=Palais présidentiel d'Athènes.jpg
|caption=
|style=[[Neoclassicism]]
|location_town=[[Athens]]
|location_country=Greece
|latd = 37 |latm = 58 |lats = 21.43 | latNS = N
|longd= 23 |longm= 44 |longs= 27 | longEW= E
|coordinates_display=title
|architect=[[Ernst Ziller]]
|client=[[George I of Greece]]
|construction_start_date=1891
|completion_date=1897
|floor_area=
}}
[[File:Crown Prince Palace Athens 1909.jpg|thumb|Crown Prince's palace in 1909]]
The '''Presidential Mansion''' in [[Athens]], [[Greece]], is the official residence of the [[President of Greece|President]] of the [[Greece|Hellenic Republic]]. It served previously as the Royal Palace (often known as the New Royal Palace), until the abolition of the [[List of kings of Greece|monarchy]] by [[Greek plebiscite, 1974|referendum]] in 1974.

== History ==
The decision to construct the building which is used as the Presidential Mansion was made in1868. That year, [[George_I_of_Greece|King George I]]'s son, [[Constantine_I_of_Greece|Constantine]], the heir to the throne, was born and the [[Greece|Greek]] state decided to present him with a private dwelling, when he came of age. Twenty-one years later when Constantine married princess [[Sophia of Prussia]], the state assigned the planning of "The Crown Prince's Palace", as the building became known, to [[Ernst Ziller]]. Building began in 1891 and was completed six years later in 1897.

On [[Christmas Eve]], 1909, a fire destroyed a large part of the [[Old Royal Palace|Royal Palace]] (now used by [[Hellenic Parliament|Parliament]]), with the result that the Crown Prince's Palace was used temporarily as the residence of the royal family. After the assassination of George I in 1913 and the accession of Constantine to the throne, the Crown Prince's Palace finally became the main royal residence of the [[King of the Hellenes]].

The use of the building as a Palace was interrupted in 1924 when the monarchy was ended and a Republic was declared. It was then used as the Presidential Mansion until 1935 when the monarchy was restored and the King returned.
Since 1974, when democracy was restored after a seven-year military dictatorship, the building has been used as the Presidential Mansion and the residence of the President.

== Location ==
The land on which the Presidential Mansion was built was, until the final decades of the nineteenth century, outside city limits. The eastern limit of the town was the Royal Palace. Beyond that, there were fields and small farms. The only buildings appearing on the maps of the period were the manor of the [[Duchess of Plaisance]] (known as "Ilissia" and today housing the [[Byzantine and Christian Museum|Byzantine Museum]]) and the [[Petraki Monastery]], both built in country areas far from the centre of town.

The limited significance of the area at the time may be revealed by the fact that a girl's orphanage (which no longer exists) was built there in 1854. Furthermore, the land along [[Kifissias Avenue]] (now named [[Vasilissis Sofias Avenue]]) also remained unbuilt and was reserved by the state for the construction of ministry buildings.

In early 1870 the State allowed the sale of land to private individuals which resulted in the construction of mansions to house the wealthy families of [[Athens]]. About 1890, the architect [[Ernst Ziller]] was entrusted with the construction of the Crown Prince's Palace. This palace later became the residence of the Royal Family and is used now as the Presidential Mansion.

During modern times, with the city of Athens extending over many square miles, the Presidential Mansion is located near the centre of the capital next to the [[National Garden of Athens|National Garden]] and Parliament.
[[Herodou Attikou Street]], where the Mansion is located, is not only one of the most beautiful roads in the city, it is also bound to the political and social life of Greece, as also situated there is the [[Maximos Mansion]] where the [[Prime Minister of Greece]] has his official office.

The Presidential Mansion with its garden occupies a total area of about 27,000 square metres (about 7 acres). The official entrance to the Mansion is on [[Herodou Attikou Street]].

== Design and construction ==
[[File:Ernst Ziller 002.jpg|thumb|The original Ernst Ziller's architectural plan of the ground floor]]
[[File:Ernst Ziller 001.jpg|thumb|Ziller's plan for the extension to the ballroom of the crown prince's palace]]
The design of the palace was entrusted to architect [[Ernst Ziller]]. He became the Official Court Architect of King George I and designed an estimated 700 buildings all over Greece for both official and private use. It is said the King George I ordered Ziller not to make the building too pretentious, so it would blend with the other mansions on the street, and not to model it after any other palaces in Europe. Following these guidelines, Ziller designed a three-story, symmetrical, [[neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] mansion. Construction of the palace took six years.

== Additions ==
Since this was to be the Crown Prince's Palace, no large ballrooms were included in the design since it was believed that most large scale, official entertaining would occur in the much larger Old Royal Palace. The palace's main reception room was the large salon on the second floor. However, when the palace became the main royal residence, a large ballroom became needed. So, in 1909, Ziller was again commissioned to design an extension which was used as a ballroom and is now named the Credentials Lounge. Another extension was needed when [[Queen Sofía of Spain|Princess Sophia of Greece]] (now queen of Spain, and daughter of [[Paul of Greece|King Paul]] and [[Frederika of Hanover|Queen Frederika]]) became engaged to [[His Royal Highness]] [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|The Prince Juan Carlos of Spain]] (now [[His Majesty]] [[King of Spain|The King of Spain]]). In 1962, the King commissioned architect [[Alexander Baltatzis]] to design an addition which became the largest room in the palace and is now named the Reception Hall.

== Gardens ==
The garden of the Presidential Mansion occupies an area of about 25,000 square metres (just more than 6 acres) and constitutes a green haven in the centre of Athens. During the middle of the nineteenth century, this area, because of its especially fertile soil, was in fact the vegetable garden of the Royal Palace (now Parliament building).

After the construction of the mansion in 1897 and the construction of Herodou Attikou Street, the area which surrounded the Crown Prince's Palace was fashioned into a large ornamental garden. The planning of this appears to have been assigned to Ziller's technical office. The selection of suitable plants, though, must have been entrusted to a Greek specialist, since most of the trees are native to Greece.

From the very beginning the garden was divided into two large sections because of the slope of the land. The building is situated in the upper section.

The design of the garden in front of the building was similar to that of other neo-classical structures of the period (the Academy, the University and the National Library). The garden follows a relatively rigid geometric plan of the French type, with symmetrical plots of grass and seasonal flowering plants. The formalism of the composition approaching Herod Atticus Road is alleviated by the perennial plane trees, lindens, palms and cypress trees.

== Functions ==
The Palace has had to serve as the offices and main residence of the Crown Princely couple, Royal Family and President of the Republic, respectively. Since 1913, it is also where all official functions are held in Athens.

Since the mid-1970s, the President holds a reception on 24 July every year. This is to commemorate the restoration of democracy in 1974 and the political, military and academic leadership of the country, as well as representatives of the Press, of all sectors of the economy and many Bodies and Organizations are invited.

== Timeline ==
'''1868''' Upon the birth of the Heir, the state allocates funds to build a palace for the Crown Prince upon his achieving maturity.

'''1889''' [[Constantine I of Greece|Crown Prince Constantine I]] engaged to Princess [[Sophia of Prussia]].

'''1891-1897''' Construction.

'''1897-1913''' Use as Crown Prince's Palace by Crown Prince Constantine I and Crown Princess Sophia.

'''1913-1924''' Becomes Royal Palace after [[George I of Greece|King George I]] is assassinated.

'''1924-1935''' Presidential Palace (Monarchy abolished).

'''1935-1974''' Royal Palace (Monarchy restored).

'''1974-''' Presidential Mansion (Monarchy abolished).

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book |author=Kardamitsi-Adami, Maro |year=2009 |title=Palaces in Greece |publisher=Melissa Books |isbn=978-960-204-289-2}}

== Sources ==
*[http://www.presidency.gr/ Presidency of the Hellenic Republic] {{el icon}}
*[http://www.presidency.gr/?page_id=341&lang=en Presidency of the Hellenic Republic] {{en icon}}

== External links ==
{{commonscat-inline}}

{{Landmarks in Athens}}

[[Category:Houses completed in 1897]]
[[Category:Landmarks in Athens]]
[[Category:Palaces in Greece]]
[[Category:Royal residences in Greece]]
[[Category:Official residences in Greece]]
[[Category:Presidential palaces]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Athens]]
[[Category:Presidency of the Hellenic Republic]]

CPR-Klasse H1

2013-05-02T10:03:58Z

Textorus: so stupid to refer to the queen by her maiden name

{{Refimprove|date=April 2009}}
[[File:Royal Hudson 2860 in Squamish BC.jpg|thumb|Royal Hudson #2860 in [[Squamish, British Columbia|Squamish]] [[British Columbia]].]]
The term '''Royal Hudson''' refers to a group of semi-[[Streamliner|streamlined]] [[4-6-4]] Hudson [[steam locomotive]]s owned by the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] (CPR) and built by [[Montreal Locomotive Works]] (MLW). The engine was built in 1938. In 1939, [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] allowed the CPR to use the term after Royal Hudson number 2850 transported the [[Royal and viceroyal transport in Canada|royal train]] across [[Canada]] with no need of replacement. These locomotives were in service between 1937 and 1960. Four of them have been preserved, and one was used for [[excursion]] service in [[British Columbia]].

==Royal visit==
In 1939, King George VI and Queen [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Elizabeth]] visited Canada, arriving at [[Anse-au-Foulon|Wolfe's Cove]], [[Quebec]], on 17 May 1939. This was the first time that a [[Royal tours of Canada|reigning monarch had visited Canada]]. The King and Queen took a tour of the country by rail. The CPR and the [[Canadian National Railway]]s (CNR) shared the honours of transporting the royal train across the country, with the CPR undertaking the westbound journey, from [[Quebec City]] to [[Vancouver]]. The steam locomotive that the CPR used to pull the train was numbered 2850, a 4-6-4 built by Montreal Locomotive works. Specially painted in silver and blue, the locomotive ran {{convert|3224|mi|abbr=on|0}} across Canada, through 25 changes of crew, without engine failure. The King, somewhat of a [[railfan|railbuff]], rode in the cab when possible. The King was very impressed with the performance of 2850 and her class, that after the tour, the King gave the CPR permission to use the term "Royal Hudson" for the semi-streamlined locomotives of the class (numbered 2820-2859, 2860-2864 were built one year later as Royal Hudsons) and to display Royal Crowns on the running boards. This was the first, and last time a locomotive outside of the United Kingdom was given royal status by the reigning monarch.<ref name="Churcher - Canada">{{cite web| url=http://www.railways.incanada.net/candate/candate.htm| title=Significant dates in Canadian railway history| work=Colin Churcher's Railway Pages| year=2006-03-17| accessdate=2006-05-17}}</ref>

==Regular service==
The CPR owned a total of 65 class H1 Hudsons built by MLW. Classes H1a and H1b, numbered 2800-2819, were not semi-streamlined and were not "Royal" Hudsons. The Canadian Pacific Railway owned 30 class H1c Royal Hudsons, numbered 2820-2849, built in 1937, 10 class H1d Royal Hudsons, numbered 2850-2859, built in 1938, and five class H1e Royal Hudsons, numbered 2860-2864, built in 1940. The class H1c and class H1d Royal Hudsons were primarily used in passenger service in the [[Eastern Canada|East]] and in the Central Provinces,{{Clarify|Is this the [[Canadian Prairies]] or [[Central Canada]]|date=January 2011}} but also saw some use in freight service as well. The class H1e (Nos. 2860 through 2864) Royal Hudsons were all built as oil-burners and were built for service between Vancouver and [[Revelstoke, British Columbia|Revelstoke]] where they worked until they were displaced by diesels (and then re-assigned) in the 1950s. By 1960, all of the 20 Hudsons and 45 Royal Hudsons had been retired due to having been completely replaced by [[diesel locomotive]]s.

==Excursions==
One Royal Hudson, No. 2860, was later used in excursion service. A class H1e Royal Hudson, it was built for the CPR by MLW in June 1940. It was the first locomotive of five to be built new as Royal Hudson and delivered with painted cast brass crowns affixed to their skirts. Between 1940 and 1956 it hauled [[Transcontinental railroad|transcontinental]] passenger trains between Revelstoke and Vancouver. It was damaged in a [[derailment]] outside of Vancouver in 1956, but by 1957 it had been refurbished and was transferred to [[Winnipeg]] for [[Canadian Prairies|prairie]] service. It was withdrawn from service in May 1959 and sat on the scrap line for five years. It was sold to the Vancouver Railway Museum Association in 1964. However, the association was unable to find a place to display the locomotive and it remained in storage at the Drake Street shops in Vancouver. Once again the locomotive faced the risk of being scrapped, but she was sold to Joe W. Hussey in 1970.

In 1973 Hussey sold No. 2860 to the British Columbia government. The locomotive was restored by Robert E. Swanson's Railway Appliance Research Ltd. team and the staff of the CPR Drake Street [[roundhouse]] shops beginning on 25 November 1973 and then operated by the British Columbia Department of Travel Industry with the cooperation of the [[BC Rail|British Columbia Railway]]. The BCR commenced a Royal Hudson excursion service between [[North Vancouver, British Columbia (city)|North Vancouver]] and [[Squamish, British Columbia|Squamish]] on 20 June 1974. By the end of the 1974 tourist season, 47,295 passengers had been carried and the excursion was deemed successful. It was the only regularly scheduled steam excursion over mainline trackage in [[North America]]. The excursion operated between May and October, from Wednesday through Saturday. It also traveled North America in the late 1970s as a promotion for BC tourism. It quickly became one of British Columbia's main tourist attractions and an icon of Canadian steam power.
[[File:Vancouver Hudson No.2860 09.06.96R.jpg|thumb|Royal Hudson 4-6-4 No. 2860 at North Vancouver station before departure to Squamish BC in 1996]]
While the engine was being prepared for Christmas trains at the end of the 1999 tourist season, No. 2860 was found to have serious leaks from the [[superheater]] elements. The superheaters and the arch tubes were known to be life expired and some other fairly major boiler work was required. A variety of factors prevented BC Rail from carrying out the repairs immediately, including the fact that CPR Hudson #2816 was in the BCR shop being rebuilt under contract, and that all BC Rail passenger services were under threat in the lead up to the eventual privatization of BC Rail. After the election of the [[British Columbia Liberal Party|BC Liberal]] Government in 2001 all passenger services were gradually phased out starting with the Royal Hudson excursion. The Royal Hudson excursion used other locomotives during the 2000 and 2001 seasons such as back up locomotive 3716 (an ex-Canadian Pacific [[2-8-0]] which is also Provincially owned and currently operates on the [[Kettle Valley Steam Railway]] in [[Summerland, British Columbia|Summerland]]).

Currently No. 2860 is still owned by the British Columbia government, but is on permanent loan to the [[West Coast Railway Association]] (WCRA) and is housed at the West Coast Railway Heritage Park in Squamish, but has been seen on the CNR line from Squamish to North Vancouver since late April 2009.

==2860's Return to steam==
On 28 September 2006, the Royal Hudson steamed into the WCRA Squamish station under her own power for the first time since October 1999. The restoration took just over one year with a cost of over $250,000. Money for the restoration was provided wholly by donations. The WCRA also had difficulty locating missing parts. Some of the major components, such as the [[Trailing wheel|trailing truck]], were borrowed from sister engine 2850. The borrowed parts had to be returned when 2850 was put on public display. WCRA replaced the borrowed tailing truck with one that was being used at a mine, which had salvaged the truck from a Royal Hudson due for scrap. The truck turned out to have been taken off of 2860 when she was sitting on the scrap line in the 1960s. The association plans to operate 2860 on excursion runs and at special events. Due to the strict "no steam" policy that CP and CN have, the excursions are restricted to special occasions only. 2860 is steamed up regularly for publicity and to salute passing passenger trains.

On 9 December 2010, the ex-CP 2860 and the Royal Hudson trainset were scheduled to depart North Vancouver for Squamish at 12:30 pm on the last of its scheduled excursion trips in 2010. The ex-CP 2860's certification expired in January 2011 and the cost of the necessary work is estimated at over $1 million CAD. The December 9 trip is likely to be her last for a long time.

==Southern 2839==
Royal Hudson 2839, once destined for a museum in eastern Canada, wound up being sold to a group of owners in Pennsylvania. After a restoration to full working order to full CPR livery (with Southern lettering), the engine was leased to the [[Southern Railway (U.S.)|Southern Railway]] for their steam excursion program in 1979–1980, but was found that the locomotive was not powerful enough for their excursions. During her brief career with the Southern, 2839 earned the nickname "beer can" due to the Royal Hudson's cylindrical streamlined design. After being returned from the Southern, the engine was stored on the [[Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad|Blue Mountain and Reading Railroad]] before being stored near [[Allentown, Pennsylvania|Allentown, PA]]. The Blue Mountain and Reading Railroad attempted to restore and run her on excursions, but ultimately 2839 was sold. After a series of owners, the engine was shipped on a flat car from [[Pennsylvania]] to the [[Nethercutt Collection in Sylmar, California]], where it has been cosmetically restored and put on display outside the museum with a [[Pullman (car or coach)|Pullman car]].

==Preservation==
Four Royal Hudsons have been preserved (Hudson #2816 is not streamlined and thus is not "Royal" but is often mistakenly referred as a Royal Hudson, some call her "Royal" due to her name, "Empress").
*2839 Operated in the 1970s and 1980s. Now at the Nethercutt Collection and Museum, [[Sylmar, Los Angeles|Sylmar, California]]. Good cosmetic shape, displayed outside.
*2850 The locomotive that hauled the Royal Train and known as "The" Royal Hudson, served a long career until 1960 when she was retired and is now preserved at the [[Canadian Railway Museum]] at [[Delson, Quebec|Delson]]/[[Saint-Constant, Quebec]]. Very good cosmetic and mechanical shape, displayed indoors.
*2858 Preserved at the [[Canada Science and Technology Museum|National Museum of Science and Technology]] at [[Ottawa]]. Good cosmetic shape, displayed inside.
*2860 Squamish, BC. First CPR Hudson built as a Royal Hudson, one of the last five built. Operable.

==See also==
* [[Canadian Pacific Railway#Royal trains|Canadian Pacific Railway: Royal trains]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [http://www.rrsites.com/royalhudson/ Unofficial Royal Hudson website]
* [http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/steamtown/shs3g.htm History of the Royal Hudsons]
* {{cite book
| author = James Groundwater
| title = The Pictorial History of Railroading in British Columbia
| year = 1981
| publisher = Whitecap Books, Vancouver, British Columbia
| isbn = 2-00-601001-4 {{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (4) does not correspond to calculated figure.}}
| unused_data = |National Archives of Canada|Duration: (120:00)|Status: REF|Format: videotape|Vault code: VIDREF
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Horton, Timothy J.
| title = The British Columbia Railway (Volume One)
| publisher = B.R.M.N.A., Calgary, Alberta
| year = 1988
| isbn = 0-919487-28-9
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Garrett, Colin and Max Wade
| title = Locomotives: A complete history of the world's great locomotives and fabulous train journeys
| location= London | publisher=Arness Publishing Limited
| year = 2003
| isbn = 1-84309-264-6
| pages = 260–263
}}

[[Category:Canadian Pacific Railway locomotives]]
[[Category:Steam locomotives of Canada]]
[[Category:Preserved steam locomotives of Canada]]
[[Category:MLW locomotives]]
[[Category:4-6-4 locomotives]]
[[Category:Streamlined steam locomotives]]
[[Category:Individual locomotives]]

Benutzer:Lokiseinchef/Constitutional Convention (Ireland)

2013-04-14T23:20:33Z

Textorus: /* Agenda */ fix wikilink

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2013}}
{{other uses|List of Irish constitutional conventions}}

The Irish '''Constitutional Convention''' ({{lang-ga|Coinbhinsiún Bunreachta}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/irish/Foilseach%C3%A1in/Cartlann_Foilseach%C3%A1n/Foilseach%C3%A1in_2011_/Cl%C3%A1r%20an%20Rialtais%202011.pdf#page=23|title=Athchóiriú Bunreachta|quote=Bunóimid Coinbhinsiún Bunreachta chun breithniú a dhéanamh ar athchóiriú cuimsitheach bunreachta|date=28 February 2012|work=Clár an Rialtas (Irish translation of Programme for Government)|publisher=Government of Ireland|page=23|language=Irish|accessdate=13 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.president.ie/featured-posts-without-news/failte-go-dti-president-ie-2/|title=Fáilte chuig President.ie|quote=Beidh Bunreacht na hÉireann ann le 75 bliana an bhliain seo chugainn agus tá sé beartaithe ag an Rialtas go mbeidh Coinbhinsiún Bunreachta ann.|date=23 May 2012|publisher=Office of the President|language=Irish|accessdate=13 July 2012}}</ref>) was established in 2012. It will sit for 1 year. It met for the first time 1 December 2012 to discuss proposed [[amendments to the Constitution of Ireland]].<ref name="merrionstreet20120328">{{cite web|url=http://www.merrionstreet.ie/index.php/2012/02/constitutional-convention-government-proposals-28-february-2012/|title=Constitutional Convention|date=28 February 2012|work=Government Proposals|publisher=Irish Government News Service|accessdate=26 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2012/1105/breaking46.html |title=Reform body to meet next month |work=The Irish Times |date=5 November 2012 |accessdate=16 November 2012}}</ref> It has 100 members: a chairman; 29 members of the [[Oireachtas]] (parliament); 4 representatives of [[List of political parties in Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland political parties]]; and 66 randomly selected [[Irish nationality|citizens of Ireland]].

The Convention is mandated to consider eight specified issues, and may initiate more proposals if time permits. [[Government of the 31st Dáil|The government]] is not obliged to proceed with any amendment proposal, but has committed to respond formally to each recommendation and debate it in the Oireachtas.

==Operation==
The Convention was established pursuant to [[resolution (law)|resolution]]s in each house of the [[Oireachtas]] in June 2012.<ref name="dail20120710"/><ref name="seanad20120712"/><ref name="it1224319966747"/> It will meet on at least eight Saturdays over the course of a year.<ref name="rte20121009"/><ref name="d20121009"/><ref name="thejournal20120921"/><ref name="it1224326240778">{{cite news |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/1107/1224326240778.html |title=President welcome at reform discussion |date=7 November 2012 |first=Déaglán |last=de Bréadún |accessdate=16 November 2012 }}</ref> The inaugural meeting was on 1 December 2012 at [[Dublin Castle]],<ref name="thejournal20120921" /> and working sessions begin in late January 2013,<ref name="it1224326240778"/> with later sessions elsewhere in the state and in Northern Ireland.<ref name="rte20121009">{{cite news|url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2012/1009/constitutional-convention.html|title=Constitutional Convention to meet on Saturdays|date=9 October 2012|work=[[RTÉ.ie]]|accessdate=24 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="d20121009">[http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/Debates%20Authoring/DebatesWebPack.nsf/takes/dail2012100900018?opendocument#Constitutional%20Convention Dáil debates 9 October 2012 Vol.773 No.12 pp.18–23]</ref>

The [[plenary session]]s are open to the public, and [[live streaming|streamed live]]. The Convention's secretariat is called the Constitutional Convention Office, led by [[civil servant]]s from the [[Department of the Taoiseach]].<ref name="dail20120710"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/eng/Work_Of_The_Department/Organisation%20Chart/|title=Organisation Chart|publisher=Department of Taoiseach|accessdate=19 November 2012}}</ref> The Secretary is Art O’Leary, previously Director of Committees, Information and Communications of the Oireachtas, who is on secondment to the Department of the Taoiseach.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.ie/egovernment-events/october-2012/|title=Conference on Social Media and Public Services|date=3 October 2012|publisher=Department of Justice and Equality|quote=Mr Art O’Leary, Secretary to the Constitutional Convention|accessdate=25 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/documents/committees29thdail/secretariat.htm|title=Committee Secretariat (Joint and Select Committees), Information and Communications|work=Houses of the Oireachtas Service|publisher=Oireachtas|date=15 August 2011|accessdate=25 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/michelle/Organisation-Structure-25-October-2012.pdf|title=Organisation Structure October 2012|date=October 2012|work=Houses of the Oireachtas Service|quote=Art O’Leary and Elaine Gunn, Principal Officers, are on secondment to the Department of the Taoiseach|accessdate=25 November 2012 |format=PDF}}</ref>

===Agenda===
The establishing resolution set the following agenda items:<ref name="dail20120710"/>

# reducing the [[President of Ireland|presidential]] [[term of office]] to five years and aligning it with the [[Local elections in the Republic of Ireland|local]] and [[European Parliament elections|European]] elections;
# reducing the [[voting age]] to 17;
# review of [[Elections in the Republic of Ireland|the Dáil electoral system]];
# giving [[Irish diaspora|citizens resident outside the State]] the right to vote in [[Irish presidential election|presidential elections]] at Irish embassies, or otherwise;
# provision for [[Same-sex marriage in the Republic of Ireland|same-sex marriage]];
# amending the clause on the role of [[Constitution_of_Ireland#Status_of_women|women in the home]] and encouraging greater participation of women in public life;
# increasing the participation of [[women in politics]];
# [[Blasphemy law in the Republic of Ireland|removal of the offence of blasphemy from the Constitution]]; and
# following completion of the above reports, such other relevant constitutional amendments that may be recommended by it

The first two items will be considered first, with recommendations due for report to the Oireachtas within two months of the Convention's first meeting.<ref name="dail20120710"/>

==Members==

===Chair===
The chairman was appointed by the Government.<ref name="dail20120710"/> Finding a suitable willing candidate took longer than expected.<ref name="rte20121009"/> On 24 October 2012, it was announced that the chairman would be [[Tom Arnold (economist)|Tom Arnold]], an economist who is chief executive of the charity [[Concern (charity)|Concern]] and chair of the trust which runs ''[[The Irish Times]]'' newspaper.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2012/1024/breaking34.html|title=Arnold named chair of reform body|last=O'Halloran|first=Marie|coauthors=Michael O'Regan|date=24 October 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=24 October 2012}}</ref> Arnold will be paid for his work, and will step down from his role at Concern in 2013 as the Convention's workload increases.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.merrionstreet.ie/index.php/2012/10/tom-arnold-of-concern-appointed-chairperson-of-the-consitutional-convention/?cat=12 |publisher=Government of Ireland |date=24 October 2012 |accessdate=24 October 2012 |title=Tom Arnold of Concern Appointed Chairperson of the Constitutional Convention}}</ref>

===Citizens===
The 66 random citizens were chosen by a [[opinion poll|polling]] company to reflect the age, regional, and gender balance of the electorate.<ref name="thejournal20120921"/> For each of the 66, a similar-profile alternate was also selected.<ref name="thejournal20120921">{{cite news|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/constitutional-convention-to-begin-in-october-604453-Sep2012/|title=Constitutional Convention aims to begin discussions next month|last=Reilly|first=Gavan|date=21 September 2012|work=thejournal.ie|accessdate=24 October 2012}}</ref>

Citizen-members are entitled to general [[anonymity]]. Only their names and general geographic location have been published. This was agreed after the polling company, Behaviour and Attitudes, reported that some of those selected were worried about being "bombarded" by [[lobbyist]]s and [[pressure group]]s.<ref name=test>{{|https://www.constitution.ie/AttachmentDownload.ashx?mid=d0c3ed87-5f3e-e211-a5a0-005056a32ee4 |title=Members of the Convention |accessdate=3 January 2013 2012}}</ref>

===Legislators===
Thirty-three places were reserved for members of the [[legislature]]s of the [[Republic of Ireland]] (Oireachtas) and [[Northern Ireland]] ([[Northern Ireland Assembly]]). Six parties in the Northern Ireland Assembly were each invited to send to one representative.<ref name="cwauqlojojcw"/> Four accepted, while the [[Democratic Unionist Party]] and [[Ulster Unionist Party]] declined, regarding the Convention as internal to the Republic.<ref name="it1224327341662">{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/1201/1224327341662.html|title=Unionist parties decline invitation|last=Minihan|first=Mary|date=1 December 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=2 December 2012}}</ref> The remaining places, 29 in the event, were divided between the Oireachtas groups so as to be "impartially representative of the Houses".<ref name="dail20120710"/> Each Oireachtas group is represented, roughly proportional to their total numbers in both houses ([[Dáil Éireann|Dáil]] and [[Seanad Éireann|Seanad]]), including the Dáil [[technical group]] and the Seanad [[independent (politician)|independent]] group. [[Sinn Féin]] has a joint delegation from both legislatures.<ref name="presssf"/>

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Assembly
!Party / group
!Number
!class="unsortable"|Members
!class="unsortable"|Alternates
!class="unsortable"|Ref
|-
| Oireachtas || [[Fine Gael]] || {{nts|12}}
| [[Charles Flanagan]] [[Teachta Dála|TD]] (head) [[James Bannon]] TD [[Jerry Buttimer]] TD [[Regina Doherty]] TD [[Frances Fitzgerald (Irish politician)|Frances Fitzgerald]] TD [[Terence Flanagan]] TD [[Tom Hayes (politician)|Tom Hayes]] TD [[Derek Keating]] TD [[Tony McLoughlin]] TD [[Michelle Mulherin]] TD [[Seanad Éireann|Senator]] [[Catherine Noone]] [[Mary Mitchell O'Connor]] TD
| Senator [[Colm Burke]] Senator [[Paul Bradford]] Senator [[Jim D'Arcy]] [[Pat Deering]] TD [[Alan Farrell]] TD Senator [[Fidelma Healy Eames]] [[Seán Kyne]] TD [[Joe O'Reilly]] TD
| <ref name="cwauqlojojcw">{{cite news |url=http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/cwauqlojojcw/rss2/|title=McGuinness to represent SF on convention panel |first=Juno|last=McEnroe|date=14 September 2012|accessdate=16 November 2012|work=[[Irish Examiner]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ionainstitute.ie/index.php?id=2520|title=Fine Gael picks members for Constitutional Convention|date=23 November 2012|publisher=[[Iona Institute]]|accessdate=24 November 2012}}</ref>

|-
| Oireachtas || [[Labour Party (Ireland)|Labour Party]] || {{nts|7}} || Senator [[Ivana Bacik]] (head) [[Ciara Conway (politician)|Ciara Conway]] TD [[Robert Dowds]] TD [[Anne Ferris]] TD Senator [[Aideen Hayden]] [[John Lyons (Dublin politician)|John Lyons]] TD [[Michael McCarthy (politician)|Michael McCarthy]] TD
||
| <ref name="labour13426322956221427">{{cite press release |url=http://www.labour.ie/press/listing/13426322956221427.html|title=Parliamentary Labour Party elects delegates to Constitutional Convention|date=18 July 2012|publisher=Labour Party|accessdate=19 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{|https://www.constitution.ie/AttachmentDownload.ashx?mid=d0c3ed87-5f3e-e211-a5a0-005056a32ee4 |title=Members of the Convention |accessdate=3 January 2013 2012}}</ref>

|-
| Oireachtas || [[Fianna Fáil]] || {{nts|4}} || [[Seán Ó Fearghaíl]] TD [[Séamus Kirk]] TD Senator [[Averil Power]] Senator [[Thomas Byrne (Meath politician)|Thomas Byrne]] || || <ref name="cwauqlojojcw"/>
|-
| Oireachtas || [[Technical group|Technical]] || {{nts|2}} || [[Catherine Murphy (politician)|Catherine Murphy]] TD [[Maureen O'Sullivan (politician)|Maureen O'Sullivan]] TD || || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maureenosullivan.ie/2/post/2012/09/cuban5-community-meetings-teaching-council-inou-constitutional-council-dil-returns.html |quote=the other speaker was fellow Independent Catherine Murphy TD ... Both Catherine and I are on the Constitutional Convention |title=Cuban5 Community Meetings Teaching Council INOU Constitutional Council Dáil Returns |first=Maureen |last=O'Sullivan |accessdate=16 November 2012 |date=17 September 2012 }}</ref>
|-
| Oireachtas || Independents || {{nts|2}} || Senator [[Jillian van Turnhout]] Senator [[Rónán Mullen]] || || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/constitutional-convention-dublin-696238-Dec2012/|title=Constitutional Convention meets for first time this afternoon|work=TheJournal.ie|date=1 December 2012|accessdate=2 December 2012}}</ref>
|-
| Oireachtas + Northern Ireland Assembly || [[Sinn Féin]] || {{nts|3}} (2 + 1)
| [[Gerry Adams]] TD [[Mary Lou McDonald]] TD [[Martin McGuinness]] [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (Northern Ireland)|MLA]]
| [[Aengus Ó Snodaigh]] TD Senator [[David Cullinane]] [[Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin]] TD Senator [[Kathryn Reilly]] [[Barry McElduff]] MLA [[Caitríona Ruane]] MLA.
| <ref name="cwauqlojojcw"/><ref name="it1224327341662"/><ref name="presssf">{{cite press release|title=McGuinness to raise Price and Corey with new secretary of state: Adams|url=http://www.sinnfein.ie/contents/24436|author=Sinn Féin|date=15 September 2012|accessdate=25 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://unitingireland.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/UI_8Page_August2012_web.pdf#page=7|format=PDF|title=The Constitutional Convention|date=Autumn 2012|work=Uniting Ireland|publisher=Sinn Féin|accessdate=24 November 2012}}</ref>
|-
| Northern Ireland Assembly || [[Social Democratic and Labour Party|SDLP]] || {{nts|1}} || [[Alban Maginness]] MLA || || <ref name="it1224327341662"/>
|-
| Northern Ireland Assembly || [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland|Alliance Party]] || {{nts|1}} || [[Stewart Dickson]] MLA || || <ref name="it1224327341662"/>
|-
| Northern Ireland Assembly || [[Green Party in Northern Ireland]] || {{nts|1}} || [[Steven Agnew]] MLA || || <ref name="it1224327341662"/><ref>{{cite press release |url=http://greenparty.ie/newsarchive.html?n=117 |publisher=Green Party of Ireland |date=5 September 2012 |title=Greens commit to Constitutional Convention |accessdate=31 October 2012}}</ref>
|}

==Background==

===Manifestos and Programme for Government===
Proposals for constitutional reform were in the main parties' [[Election manifesto|manifesto]]s for the [[Irish general election, 2011|February 2011 general election]].<ref name="it1224312372419"/> [[Fine Gael]] proposed a "Constitution Day" series of referendums and a [[citizens' assembly]] on electoral reform.<ref name="fgman">{{cite web|url=http://www.finegael2011.com/pdf/Fine%20Gael%20Manifesto%20low-res.pdf#page=8|title=Fine Gael Manifesto|year=2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=7|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> [[Fianna Fáil]] also proposed a citizen's assembly.<ref name="ffman">{{cite web|url=http://fail.3cdn.net/9bab6b928c527f3728_60am6gzlc.pdf#page=31|title=Real Plan Better Future; Fianna Fáil manifesto 2011|year=2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=31|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> The [[Labour Party (Ireland)|Labour Party]], [[Sinn Féin]], and the [[Green Party (Ireland)|Green Party]] each proposed the drafting of new constitution, respectively by a 90-member "constitutional convention",<ref name="labman">{{cite web|url=http://www.labour.ie/download/pdf/labour_election_manifesto_2011.pdf#page=48|format=PDF|title=Labour's Manifesto 2011|year=2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=46|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> an "all-Ireland Constitutional Forum",<ref name="sfman">{{cite web|url=http://www.sinnfein.ie/files/SF_GeneralElectionManifesto2011.pdf#page=34|title=Sinn Féin General Election Manifesto 2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=33|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> and a "Citizens Assembly".<ref name="gpman">{{cite web|url=http://vote.greenparty.ie/downloads/manifesto.pdf#page=13|title=Playing to Our Strengths: Green Party Manifesto 2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=13|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> Fine Gael and Labour produced a Programme for Government in March and [[Government of the 31st Dáil|formed a coalition government]].<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" /> The coalition's Programme said:<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/eng/Publications/Publications_2011/Programme_for_Government_2011.pdf|title=Programme for Government 2011|publisher=Department of the Taoiseach|accessdate=26 March 2012}}</ref>
{{quote|We will establish a Constitutional Convention to consider comprehensive constitutional reform, with a brief to consider, as a whole or in sub-groups, and report within 12 months on the following:
* Review of our Dáil electoral system.
* Reducing the presidential term to five years and aligning it with the local and European elections
* Provision for same-sex marriage.
* Amending the clause on women in the home and encourage greater participation of women in public life.
* Removing blasphemy from the Constitution
* Possible reduction of the voting age.
* Other relevant constitutional amendments that may be recommended by the Convention.
}} Fianna Fáil leader [[Micheál Martin]] commented "The Constitutional Convention appears to be Fine Gael's Citizen's Assembly but with Labour's preferred title".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fiannafail.ie/news/entry/6641/|title=Dáil statement by Party Leader Micheál Martin TD on the Programme for Government |date=15 March 2011|publisher=Fianna Fáil|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> Noel Whelan wrote in ''[[The Irish Times]]'' in 2012, "The programme for government did not define what it meant by a constitutional convention, did not detail its likely composition and was silent on what would happen to any recommendations."<ref name="it1224312372419" />

===Establishment===
In February 2012, the government proposed that the convention would have 100 members, as follows:<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" />
* a chairperson "of exceptional ability with a high degree of public acceptability"
* 66 ordinary citizens selected at random from the [[electoral register]] (on the model of a [[citizens assembly]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://per.gov.ie/2011/12/14/address-by-mr-brendan-howlin-t-d-minister-for-public-expenditure-and-reform-2011-macgill-forum/|title=Address to 2011 MacGill Forum|last=Howlin|first=Brendan|date=14 December 2011|publisher=Department of Public Expenditure and Reform|accessdate=9 April 2012|location=Dublin}}</ref>)
* one member nominated by each [[List of political parties in Northern Ireland|political party in Northern Ireland]]. The precise number would depend on which parties accepted the offer: some [[Irish republican]] parties have practised [[abstentionism]], while [[Ulster unionist]] parties did not accept invitatations to previous Dublin fora — the [[New Ireland Forum]] (1983–84) and the [[Forum for Peace and Reconciliation]] (1994–2002).
* the balance from members of the [[Oireachtas]] proportion to party strength.

The plan did not envisage direct participation by [[social partner]]s or other [[interest group]]s,<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" /> but they would be able to make written submissions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/03/06/00052.asp|page=Vol.758 No.1 p.52|title=Written Answers - Constitutional Convention|last=Kenny|first=Enda|date=6 March 2012|work=Dáil debates|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> The government also proposed that the first two items for consideration would be lowering the voting age from 18 to 17, and reducing the President's term of office.<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" />

Issues upon which the government had already committed to holding a referendum would not be within the Convention's remit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/03/13/00062.asp#N9|title=Private Members' Business - Constitutional Convention|last=Kenny|first=Enda|date=13 March 2012|work=Dáil debates|publisher=Oireachtas|page=Vol.758 No.4 p.62|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> The convention will have a budget of €300,000 for 2012, which was included in the April estimates for the [[Department of the Taoiseach]].<ref name="govtresp20120607"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/FI3/2012/04/19/00003.asp#N34|title=Department of the Taoiseach group of Revised Estimates|date=19 April 2012|work=Select Sub-Committee on the Department of the Taoiseach|page=3|accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref>

[[Fianna Fáil]], [[Sinn Féin]] and the Dáil [[technical group]] discussed the proposals in March.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/0229/1224312524363.html|title=Major role for voters in Constitution review|last=de Bréadún|first=Deaglán|date=29 February 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=26 March 2012}}</ref> They reported back to the government in April,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/04/24/00053.asp|title=Written Answers - Constitutional Convention|date=24 April 2012|work=Dáil debates|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> and the government responded in June.<ref name="govtresp20120607">{{cite web|url=http://www.merrionstreet.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Constitutional-Convention.docx |format=[[MS Word]] |title=Government Response to Opposition Views on the Proposal to Establish a Constitutional Convention |author=[[Government of the 31st Dáil]] |date=7 June 2012 |accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="merrionstreet20120607">{{cite web |url=http://www.merrionstreet.ie/index.php/2012/06/government-response-to-opposition-views-on-the-proposal-to-establish-a-constitutional-convention/ |title=Government Response to Opposition Views on the Proposal to Establish a Constitutional Convention |date=7 June 2012|work=MerrionStreet.ie |publisher=Government of Ireland |accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref> In regard to acting on the Convention's recommendations, the response stated:<ref name="govtresp20120607"/>
:The Government will commit to giving a public response, through the Oireachtas, to each recommendation from the Convention within four months. It will arrange for a debate in the Oireachtas on that response in each case. In the event the Government accepts a recommendation that the Constitution be amended, the Government's public response will include a timeframe for the holding of a referendum.

On 19 June 2012, the Seanad passed a Fianna Fáil motion that the government's proposal to abolish the Seanad should be referred to the Convention.<ref name="seanad20120620">{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/06/20/00010.asp|title=Seanad Reform: Motion|date=20 June 2012|work=Seanad debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.216 No.2 p.10|accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref> Three Labour senators ([[John Kelly (Roscommon politician)|John Kelly]], [[James Heffernan (Irish politician)|James Heffernan]], and [[Denis Landy]]) defied the party whip to support the motion.<ref name="seanad20120620"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.ie/national-news/labour-senators-break-ranks-on-debate-3145666.html|title=Labour senators break ranks on debate|last=Sheahan|first=Fionnan|date=21 June 2012|work=[[Irish Independent]]|accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref>

A [[resolution (law)|resolution]] establishing the Convention in the names of the Taoiseach and Tánaiste was passed in the Dáil on 10 July 2012:<ref name="dail20120710">{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/07/10/00025.asp|title=Constitutional Convention: Motion|date=10 July 2012|work=Dáil Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.772 No.1 p.25|accessdate=16 November 2012}}</ref> A similar resolution was passed by the Seanad on 12 July.<ref name="seanad20120712">{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/07/12/00008.asp|title=Constitutional Convention: Motion|date=12 July 2012|work=Seanad Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.216 No.12 p.8|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="it1224319966747">{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/0713/1224319966747.html|title=Establishment of convention motion passed without debate|last=Walsh|first=Jimmy|date=13 July 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=13 July 2012}}</ref> Originally one hour was allocated for its debate; senators spent 90 minutes debating procedural motions about whether to extend the time to two hours,<ref name="it1224319966747"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/07/12/00004.asp|title=Order of Business|date=12 July 2012|work=Seanad Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.216 No.12 p.4|accessdate=13 July 2012}}</ref> after which the resolution was passed without debate.<ref name="it1224319966747"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/07/12/00007.asp|title=Business of Seanad|date=12 July 2012|work=Seanad Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.216 No.12 p.7|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref>

The Electoral (Amendment) Act 2012<ref name="12act27">[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2012/en/act/pub/0027/print.html Electoral (Amendment) Act 2012] [[Irish Statute Book]]</ref> was introduced to allow the electoral register to be used to provide the names of the citizen members of the Convention.<ref name="elam2bill">{{cite web|url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/viewdoc.asp?DocID=21493&&CatID=59|title=Electoral (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill 2012 (Number 61 of 2012)|work=Bills 1992–2012|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> While existing law allows the register to be used for any "statutory purpose", the Convention will not be established by [[statute]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/07/11/00026.asp|title=Electoral (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill 2012: Second Stage|date=11 July 2012|work=Dáil Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> The bill passed all stages in the Dáil on 11 July<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/07/11/|title=Table of Contents|date=11 July 2012|work=Dáil Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> and in the Seanad on 12 July,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/07/12/|title=Table of Contents|publisher=Oireachtas|date=12 July 2012|work=Seanad Éireann debates|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> and signed by the President on 18 July.<ref name="12act27"/><ref name="elam2bill"/>

Although in June the Taoiseach envisaged the Convention beginning work in September,<ref name="it1224319791935">{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0711/1224319791935.html|title=Convention will be vehicle for profound social reform|last=Kenny|first=Enda|coauthors=Eamon Gilmore|date=11 July 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=11 July 2012}}</ref> he said in October there was a delay because of the difficulty of finding a chairperson.<ref name="rte20121009"/>

==Voting Results of Plenary Sessions==

===Plenary Session #1===
The first plenary session took place over the weekend of the 26th and 27th January 2013. The topics of deliberation of this first session included, among other things, lowering the voting age, reducing the length of the presidential term of office, and aligning presidential elections with those for local authorities and the European Parliament. The following are some of the more important results from the first plenary session.<ref>[https://www.constitution.ie/ConventionVideos.aspx?cid=10 Video of the Concluding Remarks of the Chairman.]</ref> Of the delegates who were present and voted, 52% voted in favour of reducing the voting age, while 47% voted against any such reduction.<ref>The number of voting delegates is not noted orally or in the slides during the chairman’s concluding remarks.</ref> 38% of delegates voted that, if the voting age were to be reduced, it should be reduced to 17; 48% voted in favour of it being reduced to 16. As for the issue of making changes related to the [[President of Ireland|office of the president]], 57% voted against and 43% voted in favour of a reduction in the presidential term. 80% of delegates cast their vote against aligning presidential with local and European elections. 94% of delegates voted in favour of giving citizens a greater say in the nomination of presidential candidates.

===Plenary Session #2===
The second plenary session took place over the weekend of the 16th and 17th February 2013. The topics of deliberation of this second session included, among other things, amending the [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] to place a duty on the Irish State to enhance women’s participation in politics and public life, and altering Article 41.2.1 of the [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] related to women in the home.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2013/0218/1224330165062.html |title=Convention favours gender equality and change to ‘women in home’ clause |last=Minihan|first=Mary|date=18 February 2013|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=18 February 2013}}</ref> 50% of delegates voted against and 49% in favour of placing a positive duty on the State to take action to increase women’s participation in politics and public life. 97% of delegates voted in favour of the following statement: “Leaving aside the Constitution, would you like to see more government action to encourage greater participation of women in politics and public life?” 89% of delegates agreed that the [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] should be amended to include “gender-inclusive” language. 62% of delegates supported and 37% were against the [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] being amended to include an “explicit provision on gender equality”. 88% of delegates disagreed that Article 41.2.1 should be left unchanged. 98% of delegates voted that were Article 41.2.1 to be changed, it should be made “gender-neutral” to include other carers in the home.

==Criticisms==

Noel Whelan described the February 2012 proposal as "something that is one part [[Oireachtas committee]] and two parts [[focus group]], with an advisory role only and which will, at least initially, deal with what are essentially insignificant constitutional provisions".<ref name="it1224312372419" >{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0225/1224312372419.html|title=Constitutional convention will have its remit severely pruned|last=Whelan|first=Noel|date=25 February 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=26 March 2012}}</ref>

[[Fintan O'Toole]] in June 2012 compared the Convention to the [[Citizens Union]], a reformist political organisation which [[Tammany Hall]] did not bother suppressing so long as did not threaten its hegemony.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0626/1224318725805.html|title=Tammany Hall lives on in feeble reforms|last=O'Toole|first=Fintan|date=26 June 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=5 July 2012}}</ref> Twenty NGOs produced an open letter calling for the Convention to examine [[human rights]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2012/0627/breaking38.html|title=Appeal over constitutional convention|author=Press Association|date=27 June 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.amnesty.ie/news/rights-groups-call-constitutional-convention-examine-human-rights|title=Rights groups call for Constitutional Convention to examine human rights|date=27 June 2012|publisher=Amnesty International|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref>

In the debate on the July Dáil resolution, opposition politicians criticised the composition, agenda, and limited power of the proposed Convention.<ref name="dail20120710"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/0711/1224319793208.html|title=Taoiseach stresses role of citizens in new body|last=O'Halloran|first=Marie|date=11 July 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=11 July 2012}}</ref> Later in July, the [[Patrick MacGill]] [[summer school]] in [[Glenties]] had a seminar with academics and politicians discussing the Convention.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.donegalcoco.public-i.tv/core/portal/webcast_interactive/84132 |title=A Broad Agenda of Reform for the Constitutional Convention |date=24 July 2012 |work=2012 Patrick MacGill summer school |publisher=[[Donegal County Council]] |accessdate=24 November 2012}}</ref>

An ''Irish Times'' editorial called the Convention "all form and little substance".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0712/1224319859657.html|title=The way politics is done|date=12 July 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=12 July 2012}}</ref> An editorial in the ''[[Irish Independent]]'' described it as "unelected and powerless".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.ie/opinion/editorial/fine-words-dont-do-collins-justice-3203790.html|title=Fine words don't do Collins justice|date=20 August 2012|work=[[Irish Independent]]|accessdate=24 October 2012}}</ref> [[Stephen Collins (journalist)|Stephen Collins]] wrote that [[Irish children's rights referendum, 2012|the November 2012 referendum on children's rights]], with low turnout and unexpectedly high No-vote, suggested "putting such relatively minor issues [as those of the Convention] to the people in a referendum could easily rebound".

An Irish Times editorial criticised the anonymity of the Convention's citizen-members as counter to "robust democracy", and suggested that members unwilling to appear in public should be replaced with others.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/1116/1224326666052.html |title=The faceless sixty-six |date=16 November 2012 |work=The Irish Times |accessdate=16 November 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.constitution.ie/ www.constitution.ie] Official website
* [http://www.merrionstreet.ie/index.php/tag/constitutional-convention/ Posts Tagged 'Constitutional Convention'], merrionstreet.ie, Government of Ireland
;News media indexes:
* [http://www.rte.ie/news/search_results.html?query=%22constitutional%20convention%22 tag "constitutional convention"] [[RTÉ.ie]]

{{Amendments of the Constitution of Ireland}}

[[Category:2012 in Irish politics]]
[[Category:Amendments of the Constitution of Ireland]]
[[Category:Constitutional conventions|Ireland]]

Benutzer:Lokiseinchef/Constitutional Convention (Ireland)

2013-04-14T23:18:12Z

Textorus: /* Agenda */ redirect wikilink to more relevant article

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2013}}
{{other uses|List of Irish constitutional conventions}}

The Irish '''Constitutional Convention''' ({{lang-ga|Coinbhinsiún Bunreachta}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/irish/Foilseach%C3%A1in/Cartlann_Foilseach%C3%A1n/Foilseach%C3%A1in_2011_/Cl%C3%A1r%20an%20Rialtais%202011.pdf#page=23|title=Athchóiriú Bunreachta|quote=Bunóimid Coinbhinsiún Bunreachta chun breithniú a dhéanamh ar athchóiriú cuimsitheach bunreachta|date=28 February 2012|work=Clár an Rialtas (Irish translation of Programme for Government)|publisher=Government of Ireland|page=23|language=Irish|accessdate=13 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.president.ie/featured-posts-without-news/failte-go-dti-president-ie-2/|title=Fáilte chuig President.ie|quote=Beidh Bunreacht na hÉireann ann le 75 bliana an bhliain seo chugainn agus tá sé beartaithe ag an Rialtas go mbeidh Coinbhinsiún Bunreachta ann.|date=23 May 2012|publisher=Office of the President|language=Irish|accessdate=13 July 2012}}</ref>) was established in 2012. It will sit for 1 year. It met for the first time 1 December 2012 to discuss proposed [[amendments to the Constitution of Ireland]].<ref name="merrionstreet20120328">{{cite web|url=http://www.merrionstreet.ie/index.php/2012/02/constitutional-convention-government-proposals-28-february-2012/|title=Constitutional Convention|date=28 February 2012|work=Government Proposals|publisher=Irish Government News Service|accessdate=26 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2012/1105/breaking46.html |title=Reform body to meet next month |work=The Irish Times |date=5 November 2012 |accessdate=16 November 2012}}</ref> It has 100 members: a chairman; 29 members of the [[Oireachtas]] (parliament); 4 representatives of [[List of political parties in Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland political parties]]; and 66 randomly selected [[Irish nationality|citizens of Ireland]].

The Convention is mandated to consider eight specified issues, and may initiate more proposals if time permits. [[Government of the 31st Dáil|The government]] is not obliged to proceed with any amendment proposal, but has committed to respond formally to each recommendation and debate it in the Oireachtas.

==Operation==
The Convention was established pursuant to [[resolution (law)|resolution]]s in each house of the [[Oireachtas]] in June 2012.<ref name="dail20120710"/><ref name="seanad20120712"/><ref name="it1224319966747"/> It will meet on at least eight Saturdays over the course of a year.<ref name="rte20121009"/><ref name="d20121009"/><ref name="thejournal20120921"/><ref name="it1224326240778">{{cite news |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/1107/1224326240778.html |title=President welcome at reform discussion |date=7 November 2012 |first=Déaglán |last=de Bréadún |accessdate=16 November 2012 }}</ref> The inaugural meeting was on 1 December 2012 at [[Dublin Castle]],<ref name="thejournal20120921" /> and working sessions begin in late January 2013,<ref name="it1224326240778"/> with later sessions elsewhere in the state and in Northern Ireland.<ref name="rte20121009">{{cite news|url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2012/1009/constitutional-convention.html|title=Constitutional Convention to meet on Saturdays|date=9 October 2012|work=[[RTÉ.ie]]|accessdate=24 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="d20121009">[http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/Debates%20Authoring/DebatesWebPack.nsf/takes/dail2012100900018?opendocument#Constitutional%20Convention Dáil debates 9 October 2012 Vol.773 No.12 pp.18–23]</ref>

The [[plenary session]]s are open to the public, and [[live streaming|streamed live]]. The Convention's secretariat is called the Constitutional Convention Office, led by [[civil servant]]s from the [[Department of the Taoiseach]].<ref name="dail20120710"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/eng/Work_Of_The_Department/Organisation%20Chart/|title=Organisation Chart|publisher=Department of Taoiseach|accessdate=19 November 2012}}</ref> The Secretary is Art O’Leary, previously Director of Committees, Information and Communications of the Oireachtas, who is on secondment to the Department of the Taoiseach.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.ie/egovernment-events/october-2012/|title=Conference on Social Media and Public Services|date=3 October 2012|publisher=Department of Justice and Equality|quote=Mr Art O’Leary, Secretary to the Constitutional Convention|accessdate=25 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/documents/committees29thdail/secretariat.htm|title=Committee Secretariat (Joint and Select Committees), Information and Communications|work=Houses of the Oireachtas Service|publisher=Oireachtas|date=15 August 2011|accessdate=25 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/michelle/Organisation-Structure-25-October-2012.pdf|title=Organisation Structure October 2012|date=October 2012|work=Houses of the Oireachtas Service|quote=Art O’Leary and Elaine Gunn, Principal Officers, are on secondment to the Department of the Taoiseach|accessdate=25 November 2012 |format=PDF}}</ref>

===Agenda===
The establishing resolution set the following agenda items:<ref name="dail20120710"/>

# reducing the [[President of Ireland|presidential]] [[term of office]] to five years and aligning it with the [[Local elections in the Republic of Ireland|local]] and [[European Parliament elections|European]] elections;
# reducing the [[voting age]] to 17;
# review of [[Elections in the Republic of Ireland|the Dáil electoral system]];
# giving [[Irish diaspora|citizens resident outside the State]] the right to vote in [[Irish presidential election|presidential elections]] at Irish embassies, or otherwise;
# provision for [[Same-sex marriage in the Republic of Ireland|same-sex marriage]];
# amending the clause on the role of [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland#Status_of_women|women in the home]] and encouraging greater participation of women in public life;
# increasing the participation of [[women in politics]];
# [[Blasphemy law in the Republic of Ireland|removal of the offence of blasphemy from the Constitution]]; and
# following completion of the above reports, such other relevant constitutional amendments that may be recommended by it

The first two items will be considered first, with recommendations due for report to the Oireachtas within two months of the Convention's first meeting.<ref name="dail20120710"/>

==Members==

===Chair===
The chairman was appointed by the Government.<ref name="dail20120710"/> Finding a suitable willing candidate took longer than expected.<ref name="rte20121009"/> On 24 October 2012, it was announced that the chairman would be [[Tom Arnold (economist)|Tom Arnold]], an economist who is chief executive of the charity [[Concern (charity)|Concern]] and chair of the trust which runs ''[[The Irish Times]]'' newspaper.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2012/1024/breaking34.html|title=Arnold named chair of reform body|last=O'Halloran|first=Marie|coauthors=Michael O'Regan|date=24 October 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=24 October 2012}}</ref> Arnold will be paid for his work, and will step down from his role at Concern in 2013 as the Convention's workload increases.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.merrionstreet.ie/index.php/2012/10/tom-arnold-of-concern-appointed-chairperson-of-the-consitutional-convention/?cat=12 |publisher=Government of Ireland |date=24 October 2012 |accessdate=24 October 2012 |title=Tom Arnold of Concern Appointed Chairperson of the Constitutional Convention}}</ref>

===Citizens===
The 66 random citizens were chosen by a [[opinion poll|polling]] company to reflect the age, regional, and gender balance of the electorate.<ref name="thejournal20120921"/> For each of the 66, a similar-profile alternate was also selected.<ref name="thejournal20120921">{{cite news|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/constitutional-convention-to-begin-in-october-604453-Sep2012/|title=Constitutional Convention aims to begin discussions next month|last=Reilly|first=Gavan|date=21 September 2012|work=thejournal.ie|accessdate=24 October 2012}}</ref>

Citizen-members are entitled to general [[anonymity]]. Only their names and general geographic location have been published. This was agreed after the polling company, Behaviour and Attitudes, reported that some of those selected were worried about being "bombarded" by [[lobbyist]]s and [[pressure group]]s.<ref name=test>{{|https://www.constitution.ie/AttachmentDownload.ashx?mid=d0c3ed87-5f3e-e211-a5a0-005056a32ee4 |title=Members of the Convention |accessdate=3 January 2013 2012}}</ref>

===Legislators===
Thirty-three places were reserved for members of the [[legislature]]s of the [[Republic of Ireland]] (Oireachtas) and [[Northern Ireland]] ([[Northern Ireland Assembly]]). Six parties in the Northern Ireland Assembly were each invited to send to one representative.<ref name="cwauqlojojcw"/> Four accepted, while the [[Democratic Unionist Party]] and [[Ulster Unionist Party]] declined, regarding the Convention as internal to the Republic.<ref name="it1224327341662">{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/1201/1224327341662.html|title=Unionist parties decline invitation|last=Minihan|first=Mary|date=1 December 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=2 December 2012}}</ref> The remaining places, 29 in the event, were divided between the Oireachtas groups so as to be "impartially representative of the Houses".<ref name="dail20120710"/> Each Oireachtas group is represented, roughly proportional to their total numbers in both houses ([[Dáil Éireann|Dáil]] and [[Seanad Éireann|Seanad]]), including the Dáil [[technical group]] and the Seanad [[independent (politician)|independent]] group. [[Sinn Féin]] has a joint delegation from both legislatures.<ref name="presssf"/>

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Assembly
!Party / group
!Number
!class="unsortable"|Members
!class="unsortable"|Alternates
!class="unsortable"|Ref
|-
| Oireachtas || [[Fine Gael]] || {{nts|12}}
| [[Charles Flanagan]] [[Teachta Dála|TD]] (head) [[James Bannon]] TD [[Jerry Buttimer]] TD [[Regina Doherty]] TD [[Frances Fitzgerald (Irish politician)|Frances Fitzgerald]] TD [[Terence Flanagan]] TD [[Tom Hayes (politician)|Tom Hayes]] TD [[Derek Keating]] TD [[Tony McLoughlin]] TD [[Michelle Mulherin]] TD [[Seanad Éireann|Senator]] [[Catherine Noone]] [[Mary Mitchell O'Connor]] TD
| Senator [[Colm Burke]] Senator [[Paul Bradford]] Senator [[Jim D'Arcy]] [[Pat Deering]] TD [[Alan Farrell]] TD Senator [[Fidelma Healy Eames]] [[Seán Kyne]] TD [[Joe O'Reilly]] TD
| <ref name="cwauqlojojcw">{{cite news |url=http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/cwauqlojojcw/rss2/|title=McGuinness to represent SF on convention panel |first=Juno|last=McEnroe|date=14 September 2012|accessdate=16 November 2012|work=[[Irish Examiner]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ionainstitute.ie/index.php?id=2520|title=Fine Gael picks members for Constitutional Convention|date=23 November 2012|publisher=[[Iona Institute]]|accessdate=24 November 2012}}</ref>

|-
| Oireachtas || [[Labour Party (Ireland)|Labour Party]] || {{nts|7}} || Senator [[Ivana Bacik]] (head) [[Ciara Conway (politician)|Ciara Conway]] TD [[Robert Dowds]] TD [[Anne Ferris]] TD Senator [[Aideen Hayden]] [[John Lyons (Dublin politician)|John Lyons]] TD [[Michael McCarthy (politician)|Michael McCarthy]] TD
||
| <ref name="labour13426322956221427">{{cite press release |url=http://www.labour.ie/press/listing/13426322956221427.html|title=Parliamentary Labour Party elects delegates to Constitutional Convention|date=18 July 2012|publisher=Labour Party|accessdate=19 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{|https://www.constitution.ie/AttachmentDownload.ashx?mid=d0c3ed87-5f3e-e211-a5a0-005056a32ee4 |title=Members of the Convention |accessdate=3 January 2013 2012}}</ref>

|-
| Oireachtas || [[Fianna Fáil]] || {{nts|4}} || [[Seán Ó Fearghaíl]] TD [[Séamus Kirk]] TD Senator [[Averil Power]] Senator [[Thomas Byrne (Meath politician)|Thomas Byrne]] || || <ref name="cwauqlojojcw"/>
|-
| Oireachtas || [[Technical group|Technical]] || {{nts|2}} || [[Catherine Murphy (politician)|Catherine Murphy]] TD [[Maureen O'Sullivan (politician)|Maureen O'Sullivan]] TD || || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maureenosullivan.ie/2/post/2012/09/cuban5-community-meetings-teaching-council-inou-constitutional-council-dil-returns.html |quote=the other speaker was fellow Independent Catherine Murphy TD ... Both Catherine and I are on the Constitutional Convention |title=Cuban5 Community Meetings Teaching Council INOU Constitutional Council Dáil Returns |first=Maureen |last=O'Sullivan |accessdate=16 November 2012 |date=17 September 2012 }}</ref>
|-
| Oireachtas || Independents || {{nts|2}} || Senator [[Jillian van Turnhout]] Senator [[Rónán Mullen]] || || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/constitutional-convention-dublin-696238-Dec2012/|title=Constitutional Convention meets for first time this afternoon|work=TheJournal.ie|date=1 December 2012|accessdate=2 December 2012}}</ref>
|-
| Oireachtas + Northern Ireland Assembly || [[Sinn Féin]] || {{nts|3}} (2 + 1)
| [[Gerry Adams]] TD [[Mary Lou McDonald]] TD [[Martin McGuinness]] [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (Northern Ireland)|MLA]]
| [[Aengus Ó Snodaigh]] TD Senator [[David Cullinane]] [[Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin]] TD Senator [[Kathryn Reilly]] [[Barry McElduff]] MLA [[Caitríona Ruane]] MLA.
| <ref name="cwauqlojojcw"/><ref name="it1224327341662"/><ref name="presssf">{{cite press release|title=McGuinness to raise Price and Corey with new secretary of state: Adams|url=http://www.sinnfein.ie/contents/24436|author=Sinn Féin|date=15 September 2012|accessdate=25 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://unitingireland.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/UI_8Page_August2012_web.pdf#page=7|format=PDF|title=The Constitutional Convention|date=Autumn 2012|work=Uniting Ireland|publisher=Sinn Féin|accessdate=24 November 2012}}</ref>
|-
| Northern Ireland Assembly || [[Social Democratic and Labour Party|SDLP]] || {{nts|1}} || [[Alban Maginness]] MLA || || <ref name="it1224327341662"/>
|-
| Northern Ireland Assembly || [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland|Alliance Party]] || {{nts|1}} || [[Stewart Dickson]] MLA || || <ref name="it1224327341662"/>
|-
| Northern Ireland Assembly || [[Green Party in Northern Ireland]] || {{nts|1}} || [[Steven Agnew]] MLA || || <ref name="it1224327341662"/><ref>{{cite press release |url=http://greenparty.ie/newsarchive.html?n=117 |publisher=Green Party of Ireland |date=5 September 2012 |title=Greens commit to Constitutional Convention |accessdate=31 October 2012}}</ref>
|}

==Background==

===Manifestos and Programme for Government===
Proposals for constitutional reform were in the main parties' [[Election manifesto|manifesto]]s for the [[Irish general election, 2011|February 2011 general election]].<ref name="it1224312372419"/> [[Fine Gael]] proposed a "Constitution Day" series of referendums and a [[citizens' assembly]] on electoral reform.<ref name="fgman">{{cite web|url=http://www.finegael2011.com/pdf/Fine%20Gael%20Manifesto%20low-res.pdf#page=8|title=Fine Gael Manifesto|year=2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=7|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> [[Fianna Fáil]] also proposed a citizen's assembly.<ref name="ffman">{{cite web|url=http://fail.3cdn.net/9bab6b928c527f3728_60am6gzlc.pdf#page=31|title=Real Plan Better Future; Fianna Fáil manifesto 2011|year=2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=31|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> The [[Labour Party (Ireland)|Labour Party]], [[Sinn Féin]], and the [[Green Party (Ireland)|Green Party]] each proposed the drafting of new constitution, respectively by a 90-member "constitutional convention",<ref name="labman">{{cite web|url=http://www.labour.ie/download/pdf/labour_election_manifesto_2011.pdf#page=48|format=PDF|title=Labour's Manifesto 2011|year=2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=46|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> an "all-Ireland Constitutional Forum",<ref name="sfman">{{cite web|url=http://www.sinnfein.ie/files/SF_GeneralElectionManifesto2011.pdf#page=34|title=Sinn Féin General Election Manifesto 2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=33|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> and a "Citizens Assembly".<ref name="gpman">{{cite web|url=http://vote.greenparty.ie/downloads/manifesto.pdf#page=13|title=Playing to Our Strengths: Green Party Manifesto 2011|publisher=RTÉ|page=13|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> Fine Gael and Labour produced a Programme for Government in March and [[Government of the 31st Dáil|formed a coalition government]].<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" /> The coalition's Programme said:<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/eng/Publications/Publications_2011/Programme_for_Government_2011.pdf|title=Programme for Government 2011|publisher=Department of the Taoiseach|accessdate=26 March 2012}}</ref>
{{quote|We will establish a Constitutional Convention to consider comprehensive constitutional reform, with a brief to consider, as a whole or in sub-groups, and report within 12 months on the following:
* Review of our Dáil electoral system.
* Reducing the presidential term to five years and aligning it with the local and European elections
* Provision for same-sex marriage.
* Amending the clause on women in the home and encourage greater participation of women in public life.
* Removing blasphemy from the Constitution
* Possible reduction of the voting age.
* Other relevant constitutional amendments that may be recommended by the Convention.
}} Fianna Fáil leader [[Micheál Martin]] commented "The Constitutional Convention appears to be Fine Gael's Citizen's Assembly but with Labour's preferred title".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fiannafail.ie/news/entry/6641/|title=Dáil statement by Party Leader Micheál Martin TD on the Programme for Government |date=15 March 2011|publisher=Fianna Fáil|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> Noel Whelan wrote in ''[[The Irish Times]]'' in 2012, "The programme for government did not define what it meant by a constitutional convention, did not detail its likely composition and was silent on what would happen to any recommendations."<ref name="it1224312372419" />

===Establishment===
In February 2012, the government proposed that the convention would have 100 members, as follows:<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" />
* a chairperson "of exceptional ability with a high degree of public acceptability"
* 66 ordinary citizens selected at random from the [[electoral register]] (on the model of a [[citizens assembly]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://per.gov.ie/2011/12/14/address-by-mr-brendan-howlin-t-d-minister-for-public-expenditure-and-reform-2011-macgill-forum/|title=Address to 2011 MacGill Forum|last=Howlin|first=Brendan|date=14 December 2011|publisher=Department of Public Expenditure and Reform|accessdate=9 April 2012|location=Dublin}}</ref>)
* one member nominated by each [[List of political parties in Northern Ireland|political party in Northern Ireland]]. The precise number would depend on which parties accepted the offer: some [[Irish republican]] parties have practised [[abstentionism]], while [[Ulster unionist]] parties did not accept invitatations to previous Dublin fora — the [[New Ireland Forum]] (1983–84) and the [[Forum for Peace and Reconciliation]] (1994–2002).
* the balance from members of the [[Oireachtas]] proportion to party strength.

The plan did not envisage direct participation by [[social partner]]s or other [[interest group]]s,<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" /> but they would be able to make written submissions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/03/06/00052.asp|page=Vol.758 No.1 p.52|title=Written Answers - Constitutional Convention|last=Kenny|first=Enda|date=6 March 2012|work=Dáil debates|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> The government also proposed that the first two items for consideration would be lowering the voting age from 18 to 17, and reducing the President's term of office.<ref name="merrionstreet20120328" />

Issues upon which the government had already committed to holding a referendum would not be within the Convention's remit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/03/13/00062.asp#N9|title=Private Members' Business - Constitutional Convention|last=Kenny|first=Enda|date=13 March 2012|work=Dáil debates|publisher=Oireachtas|page=Vol.758 No.4 p.62|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> The convention will have a budget of €300,000 for 2012, which was included in the April estimates for the [[Department of the Taoiseach]].<ref name="govtresp20120607"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/FI3/2012/04/19/00003.asp#N34|title=Department of the Taoiseach group of Revised Estimates|date=19 April 2012|work=Select Sub-Committee on the Department of the Taoiseach|page=3|accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref>

[[Fianna Fáil]], [[Sinn Féin]] and the Dáil [[technical group]] discussed the proposals in March.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/0229/1224312524363.html|title=Major role for voters in Constitution review|last=de Bréadún|first=Deaglán|date=29 February 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=26 March 2012}}</ref> They reported back to the government in April,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/04/24/00053.asp|title=Written Answers - Constitutional Convention|date=24 April 2012|work=Dáil debates|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> and the government responded in June.<ref name="govtresp20120607">{{cite web|url=http://www.merrionstreet.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Constitutional-Convention.docx |format=[[MS Word]] |title=Government Response to Opposition Views on the Proposal to Establish a Constitutional Convention |author=[[Government of the 31st Dáil]] |date=7 June 2012 |accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="merrionstreet20120607">{{cite web |url=http://www.merrionstreet.ie/index.php/2012/06/government-response-to-opposition-views-on-the-proposal-to-establish-a-constitutional-convention/ |title=Government Response to Opposition Views on the Proposal to Establish a Constitutional Convention |date=7 June 2012|work=MerrionStreet.ie |publisher=Government of Ireland |accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref> In regard to acting on the Convention's recommendations, the response stated:<ref name="govtresp20120607"/>
:The Government will commit to giving a public response, through the Oireachtas, to each recommendation from the Convention within four months. It will arrange for a debate in the Oireachtas on that response in each case. In the event the Government accepts a recommendation that the Constitution be amended, the Government's public response will include a timeframe for the holding of a referendum.

On 19 June 2012, the Seanad passed a Fianna Fáil motion that the government's proposal to abolish the Seanad should be referred to the Convention.<ref name="seanad20120620">{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/06/20/00010.asp|title=Seanad Reform: Motion|date=20 June 2012|work=Seanad debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.216 No.2 p.10|accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref> Three Labour senators ([[John Kelly (Roscommon politician)|John Kelly]], [[James Heffernan (Irish politician)|James Heffernan]], and [[Denis Landy]]) defied the party whip to support the motion.<ref name="seanad20120620"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.ie/national-news/labour-senators-break-ranks-on-debate-3145666.html|title=Labour senators break ranks on debate|last=Sheahan|first=Fionnan|date=21 June 2012|work=[[Irish Independent]]|accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref>

A [[resolution (law)|resolution]] establishing the Convention in the names of the Taoiseach and Tánaiste was passed in the Dáil on 10 July 2012:<ref name="dail20120710">{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/07/10/00025.asp|title=Constitutional Convention: Motion|date=10 July 2012|work=Dáil Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.772 No.1 p.25|accessdate=16 November 2012}}</ref> A similar resolution was passed by the Seanad on 12 July.<ref name="seanad20120712">{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/07/12/00008.asp|title=Constitutional Convention: Motion|date=12 July 2012|work=Seanad Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.216 No.12 p.8|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="it1224319966747">{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/0713/1224319966747.html|title=Establishment of convention motion passed without debate|last=Walsh|first=Jimmy|date=13 July 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=13 July 2012}}</ref> Originally one hour was allocated for its debate; senators spent 90 minutes debating procedural motions about whether to extend the time to two hours,<ref name="it1224319966747"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/07/12/00004.asp|title=Order of Business|date=12 July 2012|work=Seanad Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.216 No.12 p.4|accessdate=13 July 2012}}</ref> after which the resolution was passed without debate.<ref name="it1224319966747"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/07/12/00007.asp|title=Business of Seanad|date=12 July 2012|work=Seanad Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol.216 No.12 p.7|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref>

The Electoral (Amendment) Act 2012<ref name="12act27">[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2012/en/act/pub/0027/print.html Electoral (Amendment) Act 2012] [[Irish Statute Book]]</ref> was introduced to allow the electoral register to be used to provide the names of the citizen members of the Convention.<ref name="elam2bill">{{cite web|url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/viewdoc.asp?DocID=21493&&CatID=59|title=Electoral (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill 2012 (Number 61 of 2012)|work=Bills 1992–2012|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> While existing law allows the register to be used for any "statutory purpose", the Convention will not be established by [[statute]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/07/11/00026.asp|title=Electoral (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill 2012: Second Stage|date=11 July 2012|work=Dáil Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> The bill passed all stages in the Dáil on 11 July<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2012/07/11/|title=Table of Contents|date=11 July 2012|work=Dáil Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> and in the Seanad on 12 July,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2012/07/12/|title=Table of Contents|publisher=Oireachtas|date=12 July 2012|work=Seanad Éireann debates|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> and signed by the President on 18 July.<ref name="12act27"/><ref name="elam2bill"/>

Although in June the Taoiseach envisaged the Convention beginning work in September,<ref name="it1224319791935">{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0711/1224319791935.html|title=Convention will be vehicle for profound social reform|last=Kenny|first=Enda|coauthors=Eamon Gilmore|date=11 July 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=11 July 2012}}</ref> he said in October there was a delay because of the difficulty of finding a chairperson.<ref name="rte20121009"/>

==Voting Results of Plenary Sessions==

===Plenary Session #1===
The first plenary session took place over the weekend of the 26th and 27th January 2013. The topics of deliberation of this first session included, among other things, lowering the voting age, reducing the length of the presidential term of office, and aligning presidential elections with those for local authorities and the European Parliament. The following are some of the more important results from the first plenary session.<ref>[https://www.constitution.ie/ConventionVideos.aspx?cid=10 Video of the Concluding Remarks of the Chairman.]</ref> Of the delegates who were present and voted, 52% voted in favour of reducing the voting age, while 47% voted against any such reduction.<ref>The number of voting delegates is not noted orally or in the slides during the chairman’s concluding remarks.</ref> 38% of delegates voted that, if the voting age were to be reduced, it should be reduced to 17; 48% voted in favour of it being reduced to 16. As for the issue of making changes related to the [[President of Ireland|office of the president]], 57% voted against and 43% voted in favour of a reduction in the presidential term. 80% of delegates cast their vote against aligning presidential with local and European elections. 94% of delegates voted in favour of giving citizens a greater say in the nomination of presidential candidates.

===Plenary Session #2===
The second plenary session took place over the weekend of the 16th and 17th February 2013. The topics of deliberation of this second session included, among other things, amending the [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] to place a duty on the Irish State to enhance women’s participation in politics and public life, and altering Article 41.2.1 of the [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] related to women in the home.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2013/0218/1224330165062.html |title=Convention favours gender equality and change to ‘women in home’ clause |last=Minihan|first=Mary|date=18 February 2013|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=18 February 2013}}</ref> 50% of delegates voted against and 49% in favour of placing a positive duty on the State to take action to increase women’s participation in politics and public life. 97% of delegates voted in favour of the following statement: “Leaving aside the Constitution, would you like to see more government action to encourage greater participation of women in politics and public life?” 89% of delegates agreed that the [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] should be amended to include “gender-inclusive” language. 62% of delegates supported and 37% were against the [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] being amended to include an “explicit provision on gender equality”. 88% of delegates disagreed that Article 41.2.1 should be left unchanged. 98% of delegates voted that were Article 41.2.1 to be changed, it should be made “gender-neutral” to include other carers in the home.

==Criticisms==

Noel Whelan described the February 2012 proposal as "something that is one part [[Oireachtas committee]] and two parts [[focus group]], with an advisory role only and which will, at least initially, deal with what are essentially insignificant constitutional provisions".<ref name="it1224312372419" >{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0225/1224312372419.html|title=Constitutional convention will have its remit severely pruned|last=Whelan|first=Noel|date=25 February 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=26 March 2012}}</ref>

[[Fintan O'Toole]] in June 2012 compared the Convention to the [[Citizens Union]], a reformist political organisation which [[Tammany Hall]] did not bother suppressing so long as did not threaten its hegemony.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0626/1224318725805.html|title=Tammany Hall lives on in feeble reforms|last=O'Toole|first=Fintan|date=26 June 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=5 July 2012}}</ref> Twenty NGOs produced an open letter calling for the Convention to examine [[human rights]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2012/0627/breaking38.html|title=Appeal over constitutional convention|author=Press Association|date=27 June 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.amnesty.ie/news/rights-groups-call-constitutional-convention-examine-human-rights|title=Rights groups call for Constitutional Convention to examine human rights|date=27 June 2012|publisher=Amnesty International|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref>

In the debate on the July Dáil resolution, opposition politicians criticised the composition, agenda, and limited power of the proposed Convention.<ref name="dail20120710"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2012/0711/1224319793208.html|title=Taoiseach stresses role of citizens in new body|last=O'Halloran|first=Marie|date=11 July 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=11 July 2012}}</ref> Later in July, the [[Patrick MacGill]] [[summer school]] in [[Glenties]] had a seminar with academics and politicians discussing the Convention.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.donegalcoco.public-i.tv/core/portal/webcast_interactive/84132 |title=A Broad Agenda of Reform for the Constitutional Convention |date=24 July 2012 |work=2012 Patrick MacGill summer school |publisher=[[Donegal County Council]] |accessdate=24 November 2012}}</ref>

An ''Irish Times'' editorial called the Convention "all form and little substance".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0712/1224319859657.html|title=The way politics is done|date=12 July 2012|work=[[The Irish Times]]|accessdate=12 July 2012}}</ref> An editorial in the ''[[Irish Independent]]'' described it as "unelected and powerless".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.ie/opinion/editorial/fine-words-dont-do-collins-justice-3203790.html|title=Fine words don't do Collins justice|date=20 August 2012|work=[[Irish Independent]]|accessdate=24 October 2012}}</ref> [[Stephen Collins (journalist)|Stephen Collins]] wrote that [[Irish children's rights referendum, 2012|the November 2012 referendum on children's rights]], with low turnout and unexpectedly high No-vote, suggested "putting such relatively minor issues [as those of the Convention] to the people in a referendum could easily rebound".

An Irish Times editorial criticised the anonymity of the Convention's citizen-members as counter to "robust democracy", and suggested that members unwilling to appear in public should be replaced with others.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/1116/1224326666052.html |title=The faceless sixty-six |date=16 November 2012 |work=The Irish Times |accessdate=16 November 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.constitution.ie/ www.constitution.ie] Official website
* [http://www.merrionstreet.ie/index.php/tag/constitutional-convention/ Posts Tagged 'Constitutional Convention'], merrionstreet.ie, Government of Ireland
;News media indexes:
* [http://www.rte.ie/news/search_results.html?query=%22constitutional%20convention%22 tag "constitutional convention"] [[RTÉ.ie]]

{{Amendments of the Constitution of Ireland}}

[[Category:2012 in Irish politics]]
[[Category:Amendments of the Constitution of Ireland]]
[[Category:Constitutional conventions|Ireland]]

Berkeley Castle

2013-02-14T19:28:23Z

Textorus: /* Construction */ clarify

{{for|the castle of the same name in West Virginia in the United States|Samuel Taylor Suit Cottage}}
[[File:Berkeley Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1440403.jpg|thumb|300px|Berkeley Castle in 2009, viewed from the southwest]]
'''Berkeley Castle''' (historically sometimes spelt ''Berkley Castle'') is a [[castle]] in the town of [[Berkeley, Gloucestershire|Berkeley]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] ({{gbmapping|ST685989}}). The castle's origins date back to the 11th century and it has been designated by [[English Heritage]] as a grade I [[listed building]].<ref name="IECastle"/>

The castle has remained within the [[Berkeley family]] since they reconstructed it in the 12th century, except for a period of royal ownership by the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudors]]. It is traditionally believed to be the scene of the murder of King [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] in 1327.<ref name="Kingsley51_54"/><ref name="GuardianSumption"/>

==Construction==
[[Image:Berkeley Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1440412.jpg|thumb|Shell keep and inner gatehouse, viewed from the outer bailey]]
The first castle at Berkeley was a [[motte-and-bailey]], built around 1067 by [[William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford|William FitzOsbern]] shortly after the [[Norman conquest of England|Conquest]].<ref name="Verey176_178"/> This was subsequently held by three generations of the first Berkeley family, all called Roger de Berkeley, and rebuilt by them in the first half of the 12th century.<ref name="Pine25_26"/> The last Roger de Berkeley was dispossessed in 1152 for withholding his allegiance from the [[House of Plantagenet]] during the conflict of [[The Anarchy]], and the [[Baron Berkeley|feudal barony]] of Berkeley was then granted to [[Robert Fitzharding]], a wealthy [[burgess (title)|burgess]] of [[Bristol]] and supporter of the Plantagenets. He was the founder of the Berkeley family which still holds the castle.<ref name="Verey176_178"/><ref name="Sivier75_76"/><ref name="Bettey15_19"/><ref name="Burke254"/>

In 1153–54, Fitzharding received a royal [[charter]] from [[Henry II of England|King Henry II]] giving him permission to rebuild the castle,<ref name="Burke254"/> with the aim of defending the Bristol - [[Gloucester]] Road, the [[River Severn|Severn]] estuary, and the [[Wales|Welsh]] border.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} Fitzharding built the circular [[shell keep]] during 1153–56, probably on the site of the former motte. The building of the [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] followed, probably during 1160–90 by Robert and then by his son Maurice.<ref name="Verey176_178"/><ref name="Burke254"/>

Much of the rest of the castle is 14th century and was built for [[Thomas de Berkeley, 3rd Baron Berkeley]]: Thorpe's Tower, to the north of the keep, the inner [[gatehouse]] to its southwest, and other buildings of the inner [[Ward (fortification)|bailey]].<ref name="Verey176_178"/>

==Murder of Edward II==
[[Image:Edward II's cell - geograph.org.uk - 585477.jpg|thumb|Covered walkway leading to Edward II's supposed cell within the castle]]
The castle was ransacked in 1326 by the forces of [[Hugh Despenser the Younger|Hugh Despenser]], the favourite of King Edward II. In 1327, Edward was deposed by the [[Isabella of France|Queen]] and her ally [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]], and they made Thomas de Berkeley and his brother-in-law John Maltravers his joint custodians. They brought Edward to Berkeley Castle, and held him there for 5 months from April to September. During that time a band of Edward's supporters attacked, entered the castle and rescued him, only for him to be recaptured soon afterwards. It is possible that his captors then moved him around between several castles to make further rescue more difficult, before returning him to Berkeley Castle in September.<ref name="Doherty115_126"/> Some commentators have claimed that Edwards' escape was actually successful, and that someone else was later murdered in his place.<ref name="GuardianSumption"/><ref name="Doherty224_225"/>

Edward was reputedly murdered there on September 21, 1327 by unknown means, although popular stories of a red hot poker or suffocation persist.<ref name="GuardianSumption"/> The cell where he is supposed to have been imprisoned and murdered can still be seen, along with the adjacent 11 m (36 ft) deep dungeon,<ref name="IECastle"/> which supposedly echoes the events of the murder every year on September 21.<ref name="GuardianBrandon"/>

The account given to [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] at the time was simply that Edward had met with a fatal accident. The body was embalmed and remained lying in state at Berkeley for a month, in the Chapel of St John within the castle keep, before Thomas de Berkeley escorted it to [[Gloucester Abbey]] for burial.<ref name="Verey176_178"/><ref name="Doherty133_138"/> Thomas was later charged with being an accessory to the murder, but his defence was that it was carried out by the agents of Roger Mortimer while he was away from the castle, and in 1337 he was cleared of all charges.<ref name="Doherty164_166"/>

==Later history==
{{refimprove section|date=August 2010}}
[[Image:Berkley Castle by Jan Kip 1712.jpg|thumb|Berkeley Castle in 1712]]
In the 14th century, the Great Hall was given a new roof and it is here the last [[Jester|court jester]] in England, Dickie Pearce, died after falling from the [[Minstrels' gallery]]. His tomb is in St Mary's churchyard which stands besides the castle. Adjoining the Great Hall is one of two of the original chapels, that includes painted wooden [[Vault (architecture)|vaulted]] ceilings and a [[biblical]] passage (from the [[Book of Revelation]]), written in [[Norman French]]. This room also contains an illustrated [[vellum]] book of [[plainsong]] that was used in [[Catholic]] rites, before the family converted to [[Protestantism]] in the 16th century.

During the [[English Civil War]], the castle still held sufficient significance for it to be captured in 1645 by Colonel [[Thomas Rainsborough]], for the [[Roundheads|Parliamentarian]] side and after a siege which saw cannon being fired at point blank range from the adjacent church roof of Saint Mary the Virgin, the Royal garrison surrendered. As was usual, the walls were left breached after this siege but the Berkeley family were allowed to retain ownership on condition that they never repaired the damage to the Keep and Outer Bailey, still enforced today by the original [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]] drawn up at the time; according to the [[Pevsner Architectural Guides]],<ref>''Gloucestershire 2: The Vale & Forest of Dean'' (1970; 2002) (David Verey, rev. Alan Brooks) ISBN 978-0-300-09733-7</ref>{{Full|date=November 2012}} the breach is partially filled by a subsequent 'modern' rebuild, but this only amounts to a low garden wall, to stop people falling 28' from the Keep Garden, the original Castle's "motte".

In the 20th century, the [[8th Earl Randall]] repaired and remodelled parts of the castle and added a new porch in the same [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style as the rest of the building. One change included an [[Art Nouveau]] take on a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] bedroom.

The castle is surrounded by terraced [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan]] gardens, including [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]'s [[bowling green]] and a [[pine]] that is reputed to have been grown from a cutting taken from a tree at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746.

==Modern times==
[[Image:Berkeley Castle lithotint.jpg|thumb|The courtyard in the 1840s]]
The castle is the oldest continuously-occupied castle in [[England]] after the royal fortresses of the [[Tower of London]] and [[Windsor Castle]], and the oldest to be continuously owned and occupied by the same family. The Berkeley family divide their time between the Castle and their other home, [[Spetchley park gardens|Spetchley Park]], just outside [[Worcester]], which has been in the family's ownership since 1606.{{cn|date=October 2012}}

With most areas open to the public since 1997, the private apartments occupy about 15% of the building and the rest is managed by the Berkeley Castle Charitable Trust.{{cn|date=October 2012}} A restoration appeal was launched in 2006 to raise £5.5 million needed to renovate and restore the Norman building.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.berkeley-castle.com/donate.html
|title=Donate
|work=berkeley-castle.com
|publisher=
|accessdate=20 October 2012
}}</ref>

Two ships of the [[Royal Navy]] have been named [[HMS Berkeley Castle|''Berkeley Castle'']] after the castle,<ref>{{Colledge}}</ref> as has a [[List of GWR 4073 Class locomotives|Great Western locomotive]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greatwestern.org.uk/m_in_cas.htm |title=4073 'Castle' class |work=The Great Western Archive |accessdate=27 December 2008|last=Daniel |first=John}}</ref>

The castle was used for many scenes for the hit BBC children's television series [[The Ghost Hunter (TV series)|The Ghost Hunter]]{{cn|date=October 2012}} and the first televised version of [[The Other Boleyn Girl (2003 film)|The Other Boleyn Girl]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scope.nottingham.ac.uk/filmreview.php?issue=16&id=1206 |title=Scope | Issue 16| Film Reviews |publisher=Scope.nottingham.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
* [[List of castles in England]]

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="IECastle">{{cite web | title=Berkeley Castle | work=Images of England | url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=132188 | accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="Kingsley51_54">{{Cite book | last=Kingsley | first=Nicholas | title=The Country Houses of Gloucestershire, Vol.1 1500-1660 | publisher=Phillimore | location=Chichester | year=2001 | pages=51–54 | isbn=1-86077-124-6 }}</ref>
<ref name="GuardianSumption">{{cite news|last=Sumption|first=Jonathan|coauthors= |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2003/apr/05/featuresreviews.guardianreview8 |title=Plotting the past |publisher=The Guardian |accessdate=25 August 2010 | location=London | date=5 April 2003}}</ref>
<ref name="Verey176_178">{{Cite book | last=Verey | first=David |coauthors=Brooks, Alan | title=Pevsner Architectural Guide, Gloucestershire 2: The Vale and The Forest of Dean | publisher=Yale University Press | location=New Haven | year=2002 | pages=176–178 | isbn=0-300-09733-6 }}</ref>
<ref name="Pine25_26">{{Cite book | last=Pine | first=L.G. | title=The New Extinct Peerage 1884-1971 | publisher=Heraldry Today | location=London | year=1972 | pages=25–26 | isbn=0-900455-23-3}}</ref>
<ref name="Sivier75_76">{{Cite book | last=Sivier | first=David | title=Anglo-Saxon and Norman Bristol | publisher=Tempus | location=Stroud, Gloucestershire | year=2002 | pages=75–76 | isbn=0-7524-2533-1 }}</ref>
<ref name="Bettey15_19">{{Cite book | last=Bettey | first=Joseph | editor1-last=Rogan | editor1-first=John | title=Bristol Cathedral: History and Architecture | publisher=Tempus | location=Charleston | year=2000 | pages=15–19 | isbn=0-7524-1482-8}}</ref>
<ref name="Burke254">{{Cite book | last=Burke | first= | title=Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, Vol.1 | publisher=Burke's Peerage | location=Switzerland | year=1999 | page=254 | isbn=2-940085-02-1}}</ref>
<ref name="GuardianBrandon">{{cite news|last=Brandon|first=David|coauthors= Brooke, Alan|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2009/oct/31/most-haunted-places-britain |title=The most haunted places in Britain |publisher=The Guardian |accessdate=25 August 2010 | location=London | date=31 October 2009}}</ref>
<ref name="Doherty115_126">{{Cite book | last=Doherty | first=Paul | title=Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II | publisher=Robinson | location=London | year=2003 | pages=115–126 | isbn=1_84119-843-9 }}</ref>
<ref name="Doherty224_225">{{Cite book | last=Doherty | first=Paul | title=Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II | publisher=Robinson | location=London | year=2003 | pages=224–225 | isbn=1_84119-843-9 }}</ref>
<ref name="Doherty133_138">{{Cite book | last=Doherty | first=Paul | title=Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II | publisher=Robinson | location=London | year=2003 | pages=133–138 | isbn=1_84119-843-9 }}</ref>
<ref name="Doherty164_166">{{Cite book | last=Doherty | first=Paul | title=Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II | publisher=Robinson | location=London | year=2003 | pages=164–166 | isbn=1_84119-843-9 }}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.berkeley-castle.com/ Official Berkeley Castle website]
*[http://www.berkeley-castle.com/history.html Berkeley Castle history 1]
*[http://www.britannia.com/history/castles/berkeley.html Berkeley Castle history 2]
*[http://www.flickr.com/search/?q=Berkeley%20Castle&w=all Flickr images tagged Berkeley Castle]
*[http://www.soglos.com/art-culture/attraction/26160/Berkeley-Castle-review Berkeley Castle review and photo gallery] on [[SoGlos.com]]
*[http://www.stmarys-berkeley.co.uk/ Saint Mary the Virgin website]

{{coord|51.68797|N|2.45707|W|region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(ST685989)|display=title}}

[[Category:Houses in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Castles in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Gardens in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Butterfly farms]]
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Butler

2013-02-14T07:00:46Z

Textorus: /* In fiction */ wikify

{{about|the domestic occupation|other uses|Butler (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Butlers|the former settlement in California|Butlers, California}}

[[File:White House Butlers Pantry.jpg|thumb|right|A butler in the [[White House]] Butler's Pantry.]]
A '''butler''' is a [[domestic worker]] in a large [[household]]. In [[great house]]s, the household is sometimes divided into departments with the butler in charge of the [[dining room]], [[wine cellar]], and [[pantries|pantry]]. Some also have charge of the entire parlour floor, and [[Housekeeper (servant)|housekeepers]] caring for the entire house and its appearance.<ref name="emilypost">{{cite book | title=Emily Post's Etiquette| last=Post| first=Emily| year=2007| publisher=Echo Library| isbn=1-4068-1215-3}}</ref> A butler is usually male,<ref>http://www.butlersguild.com/index.php?subject=5</ref> and in charge of male servants, while a housekeeper is usually a woman, and in charge of female servants. Traditionally, male servants (such as footmen) were rarer and therefore better paid and of higher status than female servants. The butler, as the senior male servant, has the highest servant status.

In modern houses where the butler is the most senior worker, titles such as ''[[majordomo]]'', ''butler administrator'', ''house manager'', ''manservant'', ''staff manager'', ''chief of staff'', ''staff captain'', ''estate manager'' and ''head of household staff'' are sometimes given. The precise duties of the employee will vary to some extent in line with the title given, but perhaps more importantly in line with the requirements of the individual employer. In the grandest homes or when the employer owns more than one residence, there is sometimes an estate manager of higher rank than the butler.

==Background==
The word "butler" comes from the [[Old French]] ''bouteleur'' (cup bearer), from ''bouteille'' (bottle), and ultimately from Latin. The role of the butler, for centuries, has been that of the chief steward of a household, the attendant entrusted with the care and serving of wine and other bottled beverages which in ancient times might have represented a considerable portion of the household's assets.

In Britain, the butler was originally a middle-ranking member of the staff of a grand household. In the 17th and 18th centuries,  the butler gradually became the senior, usually male, member of a household's staff in the very grandest households. However, there was sometimes a steward who ran the outside estate and financial affairs, rather than just the household, and who was senior to the butler in social status into the 19th century. Butlers used to always be attired in a special uniform, distinct from the [[livery]] of junior servants, but today a butler is more likely to wear a [[Business attire|business suit]] or business casual clothing and appear in uniform only on special occasions.

A Silverman or Silver Butler has expertise and professional knowledge of the management, secure storage, use and cleaning of all silverware, associated tableware and other paraphernalia for use at military and other special functions. See also [[Silver (household)]].

==Origin and history==
[[Image:Pincerna-roman.jpg|left|thumb|95px|A slave in charge of wine in ancient Rome. The garb indicates he was probably of [[Phrygia]]n origin.]]
The modern role of the butler has evolved from earlier roles that were generally concerned with the care and serving of alcoholic beverages.

===Ancient through medieval eras===
From ancient through medieval times, alcoholic beverages were chiefly stored first in earthenware vessels, then later in wooden barrels, rather than in glass bottles; these containers would have been an important part of a household's possessions. The care of these assets was therefore generally reserved for trusted slaves, although the job could also go to free persons because of heredity-based class lines or the inheritance of trades.

The biblical book of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] contains a reference to a role precursive to modern butlers. The early Hebrew [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] interpreted a dream of Pharaoh's שקה (shaqah) (literally "to give to drink"), which is most often translated into English as "chief butler" or "chief cup-bearer".<ref>Genesis 39-40.</ref>

In ancient Greece and Rome, it was nearly always slaves who were charged with the care and service of wine, while during the [[Medieval Era]] the ''pincerna'', usually a [[serf]], filled the role within the noble court.
The English word "butler" itself derives from the [[Middle English]] word ''boteler'' (and several other forms), from [[Old French]] ''bouteillier'' ("bottle bearer"), and before that from [[Medieval Latin]] ''butticula''. "Butticula", in turn, came down to English as "butt" from the [[Latin]] ''buttis'', meaning a large cask. The modern [[English language|English]] "butler" thus relates both to bottles and casks.
[[Image:Pincera-schenker.jpg|left|thumb|95px|A ''pincerna'' depicted in service to a noble court during the Medieval Era.]]
Eventually the European butler emerged as a middle-ranking member of the servants of a great house, in charge of the ''buttery'' (originally a storeroom for "butts" of liquor, although the term later came to mean a general storeroom or pantry).<ref>This was most likely from a loss of the original Latin meaning and the mistaken belief that ''buttery'' related to "butter".</ref> While this is so for household butlers, those with the same title but in service to the Crown enjoyed a position of administrative power and were only minimally involved with various stores.
[[Image:Amesservants.jpg|right|thumb|250px|In a large house, the butler (centre-left) is traditionally head over a full array of household servants. This is the servant staff at the Stonehouse Hill of [[Massachusetts]], the estate of F. Lothrop Ames, 1914.]]

===Elizabethan through Victorian eras===
The ''Steward'' of the Elizabethan era was more akin to the butler that later emerged.<ref>Lord Montague's Book of Rules and Orders, 1595.</ref> Gradually, throughout the 19th century and particularly the Victorian era, as the number of butlers and other domestic servants greatly increased in various countries (including America), the butler became a senior male servant of a household's staff. By this time he was in charge of the more modern ''wine cellar'', the "buttery" or ''pantry'' (from French ''pan'' from Latin ''panis'', bread) as it came to be called, which supplied bread, butter, cheese, and other basic provisions, and the ''ewery'', which contained napkins and basins for washing and shaving.<ref name="scanlon">{{cite journal | author=Nancy Scanlon| title=The Development of the Kitchen in the English Country House 1315–1864| journal=Journal of Culinary Science and Technology| year=2006| volume=4| issue=2/3| pages=79–92}}</ref> In the very grandest households there was sometimes an Estate Steward or other senior steward who oversaw the butler and his duties.<ref name="mrsbeeton">{{cite book | title=Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management| url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89404824| last=Beeton| first=Isabella| date=1861) (2000| pages=393| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=0-19-283345-6}}</ref> ''[[Mrs Beeton]]'s Book of Household Management'', a manual published in Britain in 1861, reported:
<blockquote>
''The number of the male domestics in a family varies according to the wealth and position of the master, from the owner of the ducal mansion, with a retinue of attendants, at the head of which is the chamberlain and house-steward, to the occupier of the humbler house, where a single footman, or even the odd man-of-all-work, is the only male retainer. The majority of gentlemen's establishments probably comprise a servant out of livery, or butler, a footman, and coachman, or coachman and groom, where the horses exceed two or three.''<ref>Beeton (1861), 393.</ref>
</blockquote>
[[Image:Glanusk park.gif|right|thumb|250px|Glanusk Park in Powys County, U.K., in 1891. The residence had 17 servants in residence. The largest stately houses could have 40 or more.]]
Butlers were head of a strict service hierarchy and therein held a position of power and respect. They were more managerial than "hands on"—more so than serving, they officiated in service. For example, although the butler was at the door to greet and announce the arrival of a formal guest, the door was actually ''opened'' by a footman, who would receive the guest's hat and coat. Even though the butler helped his employer into his coat, this had been handed to him by a footman. However, even the highest-ranking butler would "pitch in" when necessary, such as during a staff shortage, to ensure that the household ran smoothly, although some evidence suggests this was so even during normal times.<ref>Carrolyn Steedman, "The servant’s labour: the business of life, England, 1760–1820", ''Social History'', Vol. 29 No. 1, (Feb., 2004).</ref>

The household itself was generally divided into areas of responsibility. The butler was in charge of the dining room, the [[wine cellar]], pantry, and sometimes the entire main floor. Directly under the butler was the ''first footman'' (or ''head footman''), who was also ''deputy butler'' or ''under-butler'' that would fill in as butler during the butler's illness or absence. The ''[[footman]]''—there were frequently numerous young men in the role within a household—performed a range of duties including serving meals, attending doors, carrying or moving heavy items, and they often doubled as ''[[valets]]''. Valets themselves performed a variety of personal duties for their employer. Butlers engaged and directed all these junior staff and each reported directly to him. The ''[[Housekeeper (servant)|housekeeper]]'' was in charge of the house as a whole and its appearance. In a household without an official head housekeeper, female servants and kitchen staff were also directly under the butler's management, while in smaller households, the butler usually doubled as valet. Employers and their children and guests addressed the butler by last name alone; fellow servants, retainers, and tradespersons as "Mr. [Surname]".

Butlers were typically hired by the master of the house but usually reported to its lady. Beeton in her manual suggested a GBP 25 - 50 (USD 2,675 - 5,350) per-year salary for butlers; room and board and livery clothing were additional benefits, and tipping known as ''vails'', were common.<ref>D. Marshall, "The Domestic Servants of the Eighteenth Century", ''Economica'', No. 25, (Apr., 1929), pp. 15–40. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548516 Available online with subscription.]</ref> The few butlers who were married had to make separate housing arrangements for their families, as did all other servants within the hierarchy.

===Butlers in early America===
[[Image:Robert Roberts The House Servant's Directory 1827 Book Cover.jpg|right|thumb|120px|Robert Roberts's ''The House Servant's Directory'', 1827.]]
From the beginning of [[slavery]] in [[United States|America]], in the early 17th century, [[African Americans]] were put to task as domestic servants. Some eventually became butlers. Gary Puckrein, a social historian, argues that those used in particularly affluent homes authentically internalised the sorts of "refined" norms and personal attributes that would reflect highly upon the social stature of their masters or mistresses. One of the first books written and published through a commercial U.S. publisher by an African American was by a butler named [[Robert Roberts (butler)|Robert Roberts]]. The book, ''The House Servant's Directory'',<ref>http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_05.cfm</ref> first published in 1827, is essentially a manual for butlers and waiters, and is called by Puckrein "the most remarkable book by an African American in [[South: Ante Bellum|antebellum America]]". The book generated such interest that a second edition was published in 1828, and a third in 1843.<ref name="puckrein">{{cite journal | author=Gary Puckrein| title=The Science of Service| journal=American Visions| year=Oct/Nov 98| volume=13| issue=5}}</ref>

European [[indentured servants]] formed a corps of domestic workers from which butlers were eventually drawn. Although not the victims of institutionalised slavery, many of them had not volunteered for domestic service, but were forced into it by indebtedness or coercion. As with African American slaves, they could rise in domestic service, and their happiness or misery depended greatly on the disposition of their masters.

===The modern butler===
Beginning around the early 1920s (following World War I), employment in domestic service occupations began a sharp overall decline in western European countries, and even more markedly in the [[United States]]. Even so, there were still around 30,000 butlers employed in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] by [[World War II]]. As few as one hundred were estimated to remain by the mid-1980s.<ref name="steadyjeevesyouvegotcompany">{{cite journal | author=J. Lee| title=Steady, Jeeves—you've got company!| journal=U.S. News & World Report| year=1988| volume=104| issue=17}}</ref> [[Social history|Social historian]] Barry Higman argues that a high number of domestic workers within a society correlates with a high level of socio-economic inequality. Conversely, as a society undergoes levelling among its [[social class]]es, the number employed in domestic service declines.<ref name="domesticserviceinaustralia">{{cite book | title=Domestic Service in Australia| last=Higman| first=Barry| year=2002| publisher=Melbourne University Publishing| isbn=0-522-85011-1}}</ref>

Following varied shifts and changes accompanying accelerated [[globalisation]] beginning in the late 1980s, overall global demand for butlers since the turn of the millennium has risen dramatically. According to Charles MacPherson, vice chairman of the International Guild of Professional Butlers, the proximate cause is that the number of millionaires and billionaires has increased in recent years, and such people are finding that they desire assistance in managing their households. MacPherson emphasises that the number of wealthy people in [[China]] have increased particularly, creating in that country a high demand for professional butlers who have been trained in the European butlering tradition.<ref name="NPRradio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7338550|title=By Jeeves, We're Having a Butler Shortage—Interview with Charles MacPherson|accessdate=2007-08-13|publisher=NPR News|year=10 Feb 2007|author=Scott Simon|work=Weekend Edition Saturday|format=Streaming Audio}} Also see Sheelah Kolhatka, [http://static.pinnaclecare.com/reprints/atlantic-monthly-09-06.pdf "Inside the Billionaire Service Industry"]. The Atlantic, Sept 2006, 97-101. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUei8uRE Archived by WebCite.]</ref> There is also increasing demand for such butlers in other [[Asia]]n countries, [[India]], and the [[petroleum]]-rich [[Middle East]].<ref>See for example Chadha, Monica. "Royal tips for Indian butlers", ''BBC News'', 17 Feb 2003. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2761689.stm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YERDpaXC Archived by WebCite.]</ref><ref name="Available online">"Butlers: A Jeeves of my very own", ''The Daily Telegraph'', 15 Nov 2007. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?xml=/portal/2007/11/15/ftbutler115.xml Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YF9YBJuE Archived by WebCite.]</ref>

Higman additionally argues that the inequality/equality levels of societies are a major determinant of the nature of the domestic servant/employer relationship.<ref>Higman (2002).</ref> As the 21st century approached, many butlers began carrying out an increasing number of duties formerly reserved for more junior household servants. Butlers today may be called upon to do whatever household and personal duties their employers deem fitting, in the goal of freeing their employers to carry out their own personal and professional affairs. Professional butler and author Steven M. Ferry states that the image of tray-wielding butlers who specialise in serving tables and decanting wine is now anachronistic, and that employers may well be more interested in a butler who is capable of managing a full array of household affairs—from providing the traditional dinner service, to acting as valet, to managing high-tech systems and multiple homes with complexes of staff. While in truly grand houses the modern butler may still function exclusively as a top-ranked household affairs manager,<ref name="butlersandhouseholdmanagers">{{cite book | title=Butlers & Household Managers: 21st Century Professionals| last=Ferry| first=Steven M| pages=14| publisher=BookSurge Publishing| isbn=1-59109-306-6}}</ref> in lesser homes, such as those of dual-income middle-class professionals,<ref name="Available online"/> they perform a full array of household and [[personal assistant]] duties,<ref name="thebutlerdoesit">{{cite journal | author=William Loeffler| title=The butler does it| journal=The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, Lifestyle| date=15 April 2007}}</ref> including mundane [[housekeeping]].<ref name="moveoverjeeves">{{cite news | author=James Woodford| title=Move over, Jeeves, a new breed of butler is working her way up| newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald| date=October 5, 2002| url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/10/04/1033538773717.html |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5R4MfrgUq|archivedate=2007-08-13 }} Elizabeth Camille, a butler in Sydney, states, "I still make beds, clean toilets and peg out washing.... It's not all as glamorous as people perceive it to be." Additionally see "Desperately seeking Jeeves", The Globe and Mail (Canada), 20 July 2007. Lynda Reeves, president of the Toronto-based House & Home Media, says that the term "butler" today is just "a pretentious name for a housekeeper".</ref> Butlers today may also be situated within corporate settings, embassies, cruise ships, yachts, or within their own small "Rent-a-Butler" business or similar agency.<ref>Jones, Harvey. "More money than time? Rent a butler". ''The Independent'' (UK), 15 Dec 2001. Available [http://money.independent.co.uk/personal_finance/invest_save/article149002.ece online]. [http://www.webcitation.org/5TvdZjrhC Archived by WebCite.] Also see http://www.rentabutler.de and http://www.rentabutler.nl/.</ref>

Along with these changes of scope and context, butlering [[attire]] has changed. Whereas butlers have traditionally worn a special uniform that separated them from junior servants, and although this is still often the case, butlers today may wear more casual clothing geared for climate, while exchanging it for formal business attire only upon special service occasions. There are cultural distinctions, as well. In the United States, butlers may frequently don a polo shirt and slacks, while in Bali they typically wear [[sarong]]s.<ref>Patrao, Michael. "The alter ago of Jeeves". ''The Deccan Herald'', 27 July 2007. Available [http://www.deccanherald.com/Content/Jul272007/metro2007072615305.asp online]. [http://www.webcitation.org/5Tvf9PxTe Archived by WebCite.]</ref>

In 2007, the number of butlers in Britain had risen to an estimated 5,000.<ref>Sapstead, David. "Shortage of Butlers Has World's Wealthy Facing a Crisis", ''New York Sun'', 30 May 2007. [http://www.nysun.com/foreign/shortage-of-butlers-has-worlds-wealthy-facing/55511/ Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDkDOzGn Archived by WebCite.]</ref>

==Training==
Butlers traditionally learned their position while progressing their way up the service ladder. For example, in the documentary ''The Authenticity of Gosford Park'', retired butler Arthur Inch (born 1915) describes starting as a [[hall boy]].<ref>''The Authenticity of Gosford Park'', Documentary featurette in ''Gosford Park'' Collector's Edition DVD, Universal Studios, 2002.</ref> While this is still often the case, numerous private butlering schools exist today, such as The British Butler Institute, the International Institute of Modern Butlers, the Guild of Professional English Butlers, and The International Guild of Butlers & Household Managers; top graduates can start at US$50,000-60,000 (£25,350-30,400).<ref>Simon (10 Feb 2007).</ref> Additionally, major up-market hotels such as the [[Ritz-Carlton]] offer traditional butler training, while some hotels have trained a sort of pseudo-butler for service in defined areas such as "technology butlers", who fix guests' computers and other electronic devices, and "bath butlers" who draw custom baths.<ref name="thebutlersaredoingit">{{cite journal | author=Witchel| title=At Hotels, the Butlers Are Doing It| journal=New York Times| year=2000| volume=149| issue=51486| page=2}} Ferry, as quoted in "Desperately seeking Jeeves", The Globe and Mail (Canada), 20 July 2007, was quoted as saying that hotel butlers are not rooted in the European tradition of butlering. He states that some hotels essentially rename their pool attendants as "pool butlers" and this is not a real butler so much as a marketing gimmick.</ref><ref>Rouvalis, Cristina. "Butler provides the perfect pampering", ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', 6 May 2007. [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07126/783166-37.stm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDQvRyvh Archived by WebCite.]</ref><ref>Hotels are rated by the International Institute of Modern Butlers according to their butler service offerings, which can range from the one-on-one personalized butler (a 5-Butler rating) to the "pool butler (a 0-Butler rating). See http://www.modernbutlers.com/html/butler-rating-system.html</ref>

[[Starkey International Institute for Household Management|Starkey International]] distinguishes between the "British butler" prototype and its American counterpart, often dubbed the "household manager". Starkey states that they train and promote the latter, believing that Americans do not have the "servant mentality" that is part of the British Butler tradition {{citation needed|date=November 2012}}. They stress that their American-style butlers and valets are educated and certified, Starkey does lay claim to understanding the British butler tradition; however, her general approach seems to be that American domestic staff are better suited to American families {{citation needed|date=November 2012}} although some students, numerous former Starkey employees, and several wealthy clients have criticised the programme and its owner.<ref name="starkeycontroversy">{{cite journal | author=Joel Warner| title=At Your Disservice| journal=Denver Westword News| year=9 Aug 2007| url=http://www.westword.com/2007-08-09/news/at-your-disservice}} [http://www.webcitation.org/5R5vB2Vfu Archived by WebCite.]</ref> Magnums Butlers, a school based in Australia, conducts training after the British model at sites in Asia and the Pacific, Australia, the United Kingdom and the Middle East.<ref>See [http://www.magnumsbutlers.com Magnums Butlers], accessed 12/31/2007. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUgjKPZP Archived by WebCite.]</ref> The International Institute of Modern Butlers provides on-site training in various places around the world as well as via correspondence. In 2007, [[City & Guilds]], the U.K.'s largest awarder of vocational credentials, introduced a diploma programme for butlers.<ref>See http://www.cityandguilds.com/cps/rde/xchg/SID-7D78108B-8F23F7DA/cgonline/hs.xsl/12341.html</ref>

In addition to formal training, a few books have been published recently to assist butlers in their duties, including [[Arthur Inch]]'s and Arlene Hirst's 2003 ''Dinner is Served''. Moreover, websites, as well as a news publication, ''Modern Butlers' Journal'', help butlers to network and keep abreast of developments within their field.

Ferry argues that what he calls a "butler mindset" is beneficial to all people within all professions. He states that an attitude of devoted service to others, deference, and the keeping of confidences can help all people succeed.

==Gender and butlering==
Butlers have traditionally been male, and this remains the norm. Probably the first mention of a female butler is in the 1892 book ''Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses'' by Horace Smith. In it Smith quotes a certain Sydney Smith who had apparently run into lean times:
<blockquote>
A man servant was too expensive, so I caught up a little garden girl, made like a milestone, christened her Bunch, put a napkin in her hand, and made her my butler. The girls taught her to read, Mrs. Sydney to wait, and I undertook her morals. Bunch became the best butler in the country.<ref>Smith, Horace; Joel Lehtonen (translator) (1892). ''Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses''. MacMillan & Co. ISBN 1-4069-1965-9. Available [http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/7/0/6/17065/17065.htm online] (full text). [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUf9ithw Archived by WebCite.]</ref>
</blockquote>
Today, female butlers are sometimes preferred,<ref name="moveoverjeeves2">{{cite news | author=James Woodford| title=Move over, Jeeves, a new breed of butler is working her way up| newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald| date=October 5, 2002| url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/10/04/1033538773717.html |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5R4MfrgUq|archivedate=2007-08-13 }}</ref> especially for work within Middle and Far Eastern families where it may be religiously problematic for males to work closely with females in a household.<ref>See "Unique Rosewood Ladies Floor could start trend in Saudi, Middle East Hotels", 12 Oct 2007. [http://www.automobilsport.com/hotels-resorts-rosewood-saudi-middle-east-corniche-jeddah-saudiarabia-hans-peter-leitzke-photos---30962.html Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDRTYNMo Archived by WebCite.] Also, for interesting background see Elizabeth Warnock Fernea, ''Guests of the Sheik: An Ethnography of an Iraqi Village''. Anchor, 1995. ISBN 0-385-01485-6.</ref> Western female celebrities may also prefer a female butler,<ref>See [http://www.butlersguild.com The International Guild of Professional Butlers], accessed 12/31/2007. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUgSKDTO Archived by WebCite.]</ref> as may households where the wife is driving the decision to hire a butler.<ref name="Available online"/> In 2004, [[Buckingham Palace]] announced it was actively recruiting females for the position.<ref>Milne, Meg. "The Royal butlerettes", ''The Financial Mail'', 31 Oct 2004. [http://www.fmwf.com/newsarticle.php?id=338&cat=6 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDPEIPvR Archived by WebCite.]</ref> Despite these trends, the Ivor Spencer School asserts that female butlers are not easily placed, on the whole.

In ancient times, the roles precursive to butlering were reserved for chattel or those confined within heredity-based class structures. With the advent of the medieval era, butlering became an opportunity for social advancement—even more so during Victorian times. Although still based upon various antecedent roles as manifested during different eras, butlering today has frequently taken over many of the roles formerly reserved for lower-ranking domestic servants. At the same time it has become a potentially lucrative career option.<ref>In Loeffler (15 April 2007), Nathalie Laitmon of The Calendar Group in Stamford, Connecticut, states that skilled butlers within the grandest households can make USD 200,000 (GBP 101,500). She states, "The bigger the lifestyle of the family, the more they can earn".</ref>

==Historically important butlers==
*[[Paul Burrell]], butler to [[Diana, Princess of Wales]]
*[[Ivor Spencer]], [[toastmaster]] and [[etiquette]] specialist, head of the Ivor Spencer International School for Butler Administrators/Personal Assistants and Estate Managers
*[[Leslie Bartlett]], butler, [[toastmaster]] and founder of [[The London School of British Butlers]].

===Alonzo Fields===
[[File:Alonzo Fields - White House Butler.jpg|thumb|left|Alonzo Fields]]
[[File:Alonzo Fields - Truman Notes.jpg|thumb|right|Page from Alonzo Fields's personal papers. This one describes his conduction of a service-event that resulted in Truman's decision to enter the Korean War.]]
By nature of their position and its requisite staunch discretion, it is exceptional when a butler achieves historical importance. One butler who did is Alonzo Fields (1899–1993), who served as a [[White House]] butler for twenty-one years, all but his first year as chief butler, under presidents Hoover, Roosevelt, Truman, and Eisenhower. After his retirement in 1960, Fields published ''My 21 Years in the White House,'' in which he wove together his private papers and cryptic journals, written while serving, with his recollections. Although restrained, his memoir nonetheless provides a uniquely intimate [[primary source]] account of the U.S. presidents he served, several who came to trust Fields as a close personal friend. Fields reports, for example, that he was present when Roosevelt was first informed of the Japanese bombing of [[Pearl Harbor]] and that Roosevelt "broke down completely" during that moment, and also emoted racial slurs against the Japanese before gaining control. Truman was especially close with Fields and even related with him as an emotional confidant at times, and the two at one point sat together for a portrait.

When Fields began his tenure at the White House, senators from the [[U.S. South]] frequently addressed him with the racially condescending term "boy", and an obvious racial hierarchy existed between white and black White House house staff, with whites dominating. While the attitudes of most southern U.S. senators would not begin to change until the advent of [[U.S. Civil Rights Movement]], Roosevelt took it upon himself to remove racial tensions among the house staff by making it all black.<ref>Fields, Alonzo. ''My 21 years in the White House'', New York: Coward-McCann, 1960.</ref><ref>Sam Stiegler, "When Speaking About Me, 'Don’t Talk too Long and Don’t Tell the Truth': A Biography of Mr. Alonzo Fields (1900–1994), West Medford Afro-American Remembrance Project, 2005. [http://www.medfordhistorical.org/pdfs/alonzofieldsbio.pdf Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5Y7YHouki Archived by WebCite.]</ref><ref>''U.S. News & World Report'', "Alonzo Fields diary, Truman's butler", 16 July 2007. [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/060716/16alonzofields_eye.htm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YD3pH8kF Archived by WebCite.]</ref>

More than a decade after Fields's death in 1994, his story was cast into a one-man theatrical performance, ''Looking Over the President's Shoulder.''<ref>Burlingham Ellis, Caroline. "Review of 'Looking Over the President's Shoulder'", ''Theatre Mania'', 8 Dec 2003. [http://www.theatermania.com/content/news.cfm/story/4174 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDM3a6ao Archived by WebCite.]</ref><ref>Bales-Sherrod, Lesli. "Serving up a slice of history", ''The American Observer'', Vol. 9, No. 3, 24 Feb 2004. [http://observer.american.edu/2004/feb2504/review.html Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDMcdYov Archived by WebCite.]</ref> Historians, such as [[David McCullough]] in his 2003 biography ''Truman'', continue to consult Fields's memoirs when constructing accounts of the presidents he served.<ref>McCullough, David. ''Truman'', Simon & Schuster, pp 472, 473, 502, 623, 931. ISBN 0-7432-6029-5.</ref>

==Surname==
As a surname, “Butler” was originated in the 12th century by [[Theobald Walter, 1st Baron Butler|Theobald le Botiller FitzWalter]] (Lord of Preston). Lord FitzWalter accompanied [[John of England|King John]] to Ireland to help secure [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman areas]]. When men whom Walter led killed Dermot MacCarthy, prince of [[Kingdom of Desmond|Desmond]], Walter was granted land holdings of Baggotrath, [[County Dublin]], and the [[Stein River]] lands around what is now Trinity College Dublin. He was also given an important [[fief]], on which Walter both founded an [[abbey]] and established his Irish seat. Upon returning to England, King John endowed Walter with the hereditary office "Butler to the Lord of Ireland" in 1177; some evidence indicates that he was also dubbed "Butler of Ireland". As such, he had the right to pour the King's wine. This title can be defined as Governor by today's standards. His son, Theobalde Butler, was the first to hold the name and pass it to his descendants. Walter's grandson was [[James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde]].<ref>"Butler", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1911 edition. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Butler Available online.] Also see The Carey Estate BCM/H [n.d.], Berkeley Castle Muniments, U.K. National Archives, [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=2189-bcm_4&cid=4&kw=butlers#4 available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YFtztuwb Archived by WebCite.]; [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=109-mss_1-1_4&cid=6-27&kw=Theobald%20Walter#6-27 National Archive Record MS 613, f. 21]; [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=109-mss_1-1_4&cid=6-35&kw=Theobald%20Walter#6-35 National Archive Record MS 613, f. 30].</ref> [[Kilkenny Castle]] was the main seat of the Butler family.

==In visual art==
[[Image:William Hogarth 010.jpg|right|thumb|190px|''[[Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants]]'']]
Butlers have been occasionally depicted in visual art. A famous [[painting]], ''[[Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants]]'' (c. 1758), is unique among such works. In it, the 18th-century English artist [[William Hogarth]] depicted his household servants, each surrounding the butler. In showing the group in a close-knit assemblage rather than in the performance of their routine household duties, Hogarth sought to humanise and dignify them in a manner akin to wealthy-class members, who were the normal subjects of such [[portrait]]s. While this was a subversive act that certainly raised many eyebrows in his day—Hogarth conspicuously displayed the work in his estate home in full view of guests—at the same time he had painted his servants' facial expressions to convey the sincerity and deference expected of servant-class members.<ref name="fourhundredyears">{{cite book | title=Below stairs, 400 years of servants' portraits| last=Waterfield G., A. French and M. Craske, Eds.| year=2003| publisher=National Portrait Gallery| location=London| isbn=1-85514-512-X}}</ref>

In [[contemporary art]], "The Butler's in Love" series by U.S. artist [[Mark Stock]] is especially poignant. In the series, Stock portrays the butler as sick with love, but the possibility of fulfillment is hopeless: the love is a forbidden love, perhaps felt for the lady of the house, and so it must be suffered alone in silent hiddenness. In addition to the ongoing mannerisms and facial expressions of the butler, a seated lady once-appearing in a curtained room and a recurring lipstick-stained [[absinthe]] glass over which the butler obsesses provide the interpretive clues. In selecting a butler as his subject, Stock sought to provide a "universal character", a pathos-laden figuration that could be widely related to and that could depict the universality of loneliness felt by someone who can only look in from the outside. Stock began the series in 1985 to express his difficult feelings during a personal experience of unrequited love. One of the paintings was inspiration for a [[3-D film|3-D]] short film, "The Butler's in Love" by actor/director [[David Arquette]], shot in 2008 at [[San Francisco]]'s historic [[Westerfield Mansion]].<ref>Croft, Karen. "Butlers in Love", ''Salon'', 24 May 2001. Available online: [http://dir.salon.com/story/sex/feature/2001/05/24/stock/ Page 1], [http://dir.salon.com/story/sex/feature/2001/05/24/stock/index1.html Page 2], [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDF2PTVk Archive 1], [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDF3heL9 Archive 2].</ref><ref>Stock, Mark. Correspondence with Stephen Ewen, stephenewen.org. Also see http://www.theworldofmarkstock.com.</ref><ref>Garchik, Leah. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 14 May 2008. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/05/14/DDOF10KL7M.DTL& Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDbUZBtX Archived by WebCite.] Also see http://www.wayfaring.com/waypts/show/32050 for a brief history of the mansion.</ref>

==In fiction==
The real-life modern butler attempts to be discreet and unobtrusive, friendly but not familiar, keenly anticipative of the needs of his or her employer, and graceful and precise in execution of duty. The butler of fiction, by contrast, often tends to be larger-than-life and has become a [[plot device]] in [[literature]] and a traditional [[role]] in the [[performing arts]]. Butlers may provide comic relief with wry comments, clues as to the perpetrators of various crimes and are represented as at least as intelligent and moral, or even more so, than their “betters”. They are often portrayed as being serious and expressionless and in the case that the wealthy hero be an orphan—such as [[Batman]], [[Chrono Crusade]]'s Satella Harvenheit, or [[Tomb Raider]]'s [[Lara Croft]]—be a father figure to said hero. Regardless of the genre in which they are cast, butlers in fiction almost invariably follow the "British butler" model and are given an appropriate-sounding surname. The fictional butler tends to be given a typical Anglo-Celtic surname and have an English accent. The Asian, African American, or Caribbean houseboy is a variant, but even these major-domos are based on the British icon.

Today, butlers are usually portrayed as being refined and well-spoken. However, in 19th century fiction such as ''[[Dracula]]'', butlers generally spoke with a strong [[Cockney]] or other regional accent.

"The butler" is integral to the plot of countless [[potboiler]]s and [[melodrama]]s, whether or not the character has been given a name. Butlers figure so prominently in [[period piece]]s and [[whodunit]]s that they can be considered [[stock character]]s in [[film]] and [[theatre]] where a [[catchphrase]] is "[[Mary Roberts Rinehart|the butler did it]]!"

The best-known fictional manservant, and the prototype of the quintessential British butler, is himself not a butler at all. [[Jeeves|Reginald Jeeves]], the iconic creation of author [[P. G. Wodehouse]] is a "[[valet|gentleman's gentleman]]" and general [[Domestic worker|factotum]]. Probably the best-known fictional butlers are [[Alfred Pennyworth|Alfred]] from the ''[[Batman]]'' comic and films; Hudson of [[Upstairs, Downstairs]] television fame; and, Crichton from [[J. M. Barrie]]'s ''[[The Admirable Crichton]]''. Lesser-knowns include Mr. Belvedere from the novel ''Belvedere'', which was adapted into a feature film with sequels and later a [[Mr. Belvedere|television series]]; Lurch, from the television series ''[[The Addams Family]]'', based on Charles Addams' ''[[The New Yorker]]'' cartoons; Beach, from the Wodehouse series about [[Blandings Castle]]; [[Niles (The Nanny)|Niles]], the butler at the Sheffield house in American sitcom ''[[The Nanny (TV series)|The Nanny]]'', and Benson from the two series ''[[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]'' and ''[[Benson (TV series)|Benson]]''.

Not all fictional butlers portray the "butler stereotype", however. [[Alan Bates]], who played the butler Jennings in the film ''[[Gosford Park]]'', was coached in brooding detail by Arthur Inch, a longtime real-life butler.<ref>"The man who got it right for Gosford Park and told Richard E Grant what was wrong", ''Mid Sussex Times'', 2002. [http://www.midsussextimes.co.uk/CustomPages/CustomPage.aspx?PageID=35023 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YF2KEI9A Archived by WebCite.] Also see ''The Authenticity of Gosford Park''.</ref> Mr. Stevens, the butler played by [[Anthony Hopkins]] in the film ''[[Remains of the Day]]'', was also acted with remarkable realism. A female butler, Sarah Stevens, is the principal character in [[Linda Howard]]'s 2002 ''Dying to Please'', a murder/romance novel. Howard gives detailed and generally accurate descriptions of butlering in the work.<ref>For a synopsis of Howard's book, see http://www1.epinions.com/content_64617352836.</ref>

===Examples===
{{See also|List of fictional butlers}}

* In the 1998 film, "The Parent Trap", there are 2 butlers. Martin is a male butler of the James family in London, England. Chessy is a female butler of the Parker family in Napa Valley, California, USA.
*Mr. Stevens, the protagonist of [[Kazuo Ishiguro]]'s [[Booker Prize]] winning novel, ''[[The Remains of the Day]]'' and movie of the same name.
*[[Angus Hudson]], from the television show [[Upstairs, Downstairs]].
*[[Mr. E. Blackadder|Edmund Blackadder]], butler to Prince [[George (Blackadder character)|George]] the [[Prince Regent]], in the TV Series ''[[List_of_Blackadder_episodes#Series_3:_Blackadder_the_Third_.281987.29|Blackadder the Third]]''.
*[[Alfred Pennyworth]], [[Batman|Bruce Wayne]]'s butler from [[Batman franchise media|Batman]] is a well known fictional butler.
*[[Benson DuBois]], the Tate butler in the hit 1970's sitcom, ''[[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]''
*[[List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air characters#Geoffrey_Barbara_Butler|Geoffrey Butler]], the butler for the [[List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air characters#The Bel Air family|Banks Family]] on ''[[The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air]]''.
*[[James La Croix]], the butler of Montgomery Mason appearing in the sitcom [[Home, James]].
*[[Nestor (Tintin character)|Nestor]], the butler of [[Marlinspike Hall]] appearing in [[The Adventures of Tintin]].
*[[Niles (The Nanny)|Niles]] the butler in the TV Series ''[[The Nanny (TV series)|The Nanny]]''.
*Wadsworth, the protagonist in the movie [[Clue (film)|Clue]].
*[[Sebastian Michaelis]], a demon disguised as an extremely handsome man bound by contract to his young British master, Ciel Phantomhive, in the ''[[Black Butler]]'' Manga and Anime series.
**Also from the same series is Claude Faustus. Like Sebastian, he is a demon bound by contract to his master, Alois Trancy.
*[[Sebastian Beach]], from the Blandings Castle stories by [[P. G. Wodehouse]], of intimidating majesty but nonetheless a good soul who frequently co-conspires with the clever Gally Threepwood.
*Butler, the butler for Prince Salde Canarl Shellbrick III off of the puzzle game [[Puyo Puyo Fever 2]].
*[[Smithers]], [[Veronica Lodge]]'s fictional butler.
*Spencer, butler in [[Power Rangers Operation Overdrive]]
*Pickering, a bullying, slave-driving butler who was the regular villain of the piece in [[No Tears for Molly]] from ''[[Tammy (comics)|Tammy]]'', a British comic which ran from 1971 to 1984.
*[[Hugh Edgar]], butler, ''[[The Edwardian Country House]]'', 2002 British historical recreation TV series
*Cadbury, butler to [[Richie Rich (comics)|Richie Rich]]
*Higgins, from the sitcom ''[[Our Man Higgins]]'' and the radio comedy on which it was based, ''It's Higgins, Sir'', which revolve around his character
*Underling, the butler in the 2006 Broadway Musical ''[[The Drowsy Chaperone]]''
*The titular protagonist of ''[[Hayate the Combat Butler]]''
*''[[Butler Seo / Johann Seo]]'', butler-turned-lover to Lady Kang Hae Na of ''[[My Fair Lady]]''
*Mr Carson, butler to the Crawley family in [[Downton Abbey]]

==See also==
*[[Housekeeper (servant)|Housekeeper]]
*[[Valet]]
*[[Domestic worker]]
*[[Silverman]]
*[[Household]]

==References==
<references/>
*{{citizendium}}
*''This article incorporates material from "[http://stephenewen.org/articles/History_of_Butlers_and_Butlering.html A Brief History of Butlers and Butlering]" by Stephen Ewen, which is licensed under the [[WP:Text of Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License|Creative Common Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License]].''

==Further reading==
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=AHcEAAAAQAAJ [[Cyrus Redding]] ''Every Man His Own Butler.''] London: Whittaker & Co., 1839 [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25057151?referer=br&ht=edition OCLC 25057151]

[[Category:Domestic work]]

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Butler

2013-02-14T06:56:15Z

Textorus: /* The modern butler */ diction grr

{{about|the domestic occupation|other uses|Butler (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Butlers|the former settlement in California|Butlers, California}}

[[File:White House Butlers Pantry.jpg|thumb|right|A butler in the [[White House]] Butler's Pantry.]]
A '''butler''' is a [[domestic worker]] in a large [[household]]. In [[great house]]s, the household is sometimes divided into departments with the butler in charge of the [[dining room]], [[wine cellar]], and [[pantries|pantry]]. Some also have charge of the entire parlour floor, and [[Housekeeper (servant)|housekeepers]] caring for the entire house and its appearance.<ref name="emilypost">{{cite book | title=Emily Post's Etiquette| last=Post| first=Emily| year=2007| publisher=Echo Library| isbn=1-4068-1215-3}}</ref> A butler is usually male,<ref>http://www.butlersguild.com/index.php?subject=5</ref> and in charge of male servants, while a housekeeper is usually a woman, and in charge of female servants. Traditionally, male servants (such as footmen) were rarer and therefore better paid and of higher status than female servants. The butler, as the senior male servant, has the highest servant status.

In modern houses where the butler is the most senior worker, titles such as ''[[majordomo]]'', ''butler administrator'', ''house manager'', ''manservant'', ''staff manager'', ''chief of staff'', ''staff captain'', ''estate manager'' and ''head of household staff'' are sometimes given. The precise duties of the employee will vary to some extent in line with the title given, but perhaps more importantly in line with the requirements of the individual employer. In the grandest homes or when the employer owns more than one residence, there is sometimes an estate manager of higher rank than the butler.

==Background==
The word "butler" comes from the [[Old French]] ''bouteleur'' (cup bearer), from ''bouteille'' (bottle), and ultimately from Latin. The role of the butler, for centuries, has been that of the chief steward of a household, the attendant entrusted with the care and serving of wine and other bottled beverages which in ancient times might have represented a considerable portion of the household's assets.

In Britain, the butler was originally a middle-ranking member of the staff of a grand household. In the 17th and 18th centuries,  the butler gradually became the senior, usually male, member of a household's staff in the very grandest households. However, there was sometimes a steward who ran the outside estate and financial affairs, rather than just the household, and who was senior to the butler in social status into the 19th century. Butlers used to always be attired in a special uniform, distinct from the [[livery]] of junior servants, but today a butler is more likely to wear a [[Business attire|business suit]] or business casual clothing and appear in uniform only on special occasions.

A Silverman or Silver Butler has expertise and professional knowledge of the management, secure storage, use and cleaning of all silverware, associated tableware and other paraphernalia for use at military and other special functions. See also [[Silver (household)]].

==Origin and history==
[[Image:Pincerna-roman.jpg|left|thumb|95px|A slave in charge of wine in ancient Rome. The garb indicates he was probably of [[Phrygia]]n origin.]]
The modern role of the butler has evolved from earlier roles that were generally concerned with the care and serving of alcoholic beverages.

===Ancient through medieval eras===
From ancient through medieval times, alcoholic beverages were chiefly stored first in earthenware vessels, then later in wooden barrels, rather than in glass bottles; these containers would have been an important part of a household's possessions. The care of these assets was therefore generally reserved for trusted slaves, although the job could also go to free persons because of heredity-based class lines or the inheritance of trades.

The biblical book of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] contains a reference to a role precursive to modern butlers. The early Hebrew [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] interpreted a dream of Pharaoh's שקה (shaqah) (literally "to give to drink"), which is most often translated into English as "chief butler" or "chief cup-bearer".<ref>Genesis 39-40.</ref>

In ancient Greece and Rome, it was nearly always slaves who were charged with the care and service of wine, while during the [[Medieval Era]] the ''pincerna'', usually a [[serf]], filled the role within the noble court.
The English word "butler" itself derives from the [[Middle English]] word ''boteler'' (and several other forms), from [[Old French]] ''bouteillier'' ("bottle bearer"), and before that from [[Medieval Latin]] ''butticula''. "Butticula", in turn, came down to English as "butt" from the [[Latin]] ''buttis'', meaning a large cask. The modern [[English language|English]] "butler" thus relates both to bottles and casks.
[[Image:Pincera-schenker.jpg|left|thumb|95px|A ''pincerna'' depicted in service to a noble court during the Medieval Era.]]
Eventually the European butler emerged as a middle-ranking member of the servants of a great house, in charge of the ''buttery'' (originally a storeroom for "butts" of liquor, although the term later came to mean a general storeroom or pantry).<ref>This was most likely from a loss of the original Latin meaning and the mistaken belief that ''buttery'' related to "butter".</ref> While this is so for household butlers, those with the same title but in service to the Crown enjoyed a position of administrative power and were only minimally involved with various stores.
[[Image:Amesservants.jpg|right|thumb|250px|In a large house, the butler (centre-left) is traditionally head over a full array of household servants. This is the servant staff at the Stonehouse Hill of [[Massachusetts]], the estate of F. Lothrop Ames, 1914.]]

===Elizabethan through Victorian eras===
The ''Steward'' of the Elizabethan era was more akin to the butler that later emerged.<ref>Lord Montague's Book of Rules and Orders, 1595.</ref> Gradually, throughout the 19th century and particularly the Victorian era, as the number of butlers and other domestic servants greatly increased in various countries (including America), the butler became a senior male servant of a household's staff. By this time he was in charge of the more modern ''wine cellar'', the "buttery" or ''pantry'' (from French ''pan'' from Latin ''panis'', bread) as it came to be called, which supplied bread, butter, cheese, and other basic provisions, and the ''ewery'', which contained napkins and basins for washing and shaving.<ref name="scanlon">{{cite journal | author=Nancy Scanlon| title=The Development of the Kitchen in the English Country House 1315–1864| journal=Journal of Culinary Science and Technology| year=2006| volume=4| issue=2/3| pages=79–92}}</ref> In the very grandest households there was sometimes an Estate Steward or other senior steward who oversaw the butler and his duties.<ref name="mrsbeeton">{{cite book | title=Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management| url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89404824| last=Beeton| first=Isabella| date=1861) (2000| pages=393| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=0-19-283345-6}}</ref> ''[[Mrs Beeton]]'s Book of Household Management'', a manual published in Britain in 1861, reported:
<blockquote>
''The number of the male domestics in a family varies according to the wealth and position of the master, from the owner of the ducal mansion, with a retinue of attendants, at the head of which is the chamberlain and house-steward, to the occupier of the humbler house, where a single footman, or even the odd man-of-all-work, is the only male retainer. The majority of gentlemen's establishments probably comprise a servant out of livery, or butler, a footman, and coachman, or coachman and groom, where the horses exceed two or three.''<ref>Beeton (1861), 393.</ref>
</blockquote>
[[Image:Glanusk park.gif|right|thumb|250px|Glanusk Park in Powys County, U.K., in 1891. The residence had 17 servants in residence. The largest stately houses could have 40 or more.]]
Butlers were head of a strict service hierarchy and therein held a position of power and respect. They were more managerial than "hands on"—more so than serving, they officiated in service. For example, although the butler was at the door to greet and announce the arrival of a formal guest, the door was actually ''opened'' by a footman, who would receive the guest's hat and coat. Even though the butler helped his employer into his coat, this had been handed to him by a footman. However, even the highest-ranking butler would "pitch in" when necessary, such as during a staff shortage, to ensure that the household ran smoothly, although some evidence suggests this was so even during normal times.<ref>Carrolyn Steedman, "The servant’s labour: the business of life, England, 1760–1820", ''Social History'', Vol. 29 No. 1, (Feb., 2004).</ref>

The household itself was generally divided into areas of responsibility. The butler was in charge of the dining room, the [[wine cellar]], pantry, and sometimes the entire main floor. Directly under the butler was the ''first footman'' (or ''head footman''), who was also ''deputy butler'' or ''under-butler'' that would fill in as butler during the butler's illness or absence. The ''[[footman]]''—there were frequently numerous young men in the role within a household—performed a range of duties including serving meals, attending doors, carrying or moving heavy items, and they often doubled as ''[[valets]]''. Valets themselves performed a variety of personal duties for their employer. Butlers engaged and directed all these junior staff and each reported directly to him. The ''[[Housekeeper (servant)|housekeeper]]'' was in charge of the house as a whole and its appearance. In a household without an official head housekeeper, female servants and kitchen staff were also directly under the butler's management, while in smaller households, the butler usually doubled as valet. Employers and their children and guests addressed the butler by last name alone; fellow servants, retainers, and tradespersons as "Mr. [Surname]".

Butlers were typically hired by the master of the house but usually reported to its lady. Beeton in her manual suggested a GBP 25 - 50 (USD 2,675 - 5,350) per-year salary for butlers; room and board and livery clothing were additional benefits, and tipping known as ''vails'', were common.<ref>D. Marshall, "The Domestic Servants of the Eighteenth Century", ''Economica'', No. 25, (Apr., 1929), pp. 15–40. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548516 Available online with subscription.]</ref> The few butlers who were married had to make separate housing arrangements for their families, as did all other servants within the hierarchy.

===Butlers in early America===
[[Image:Robert Roberts The House Servant's Directory 1827 Book Cover.jpg|right|thumb|120px|Robert Roberts's ''The House Servant's Directory'', 1827.]]
From the beginning of [[slavery]] in [[United States|America]], in the early 17th century, [[African Americans]] were put to task as domestic servants. Some eventually became butlers. Gary Puckrein, a social historian, argues that those used in particularly affluent homes authentically internalised the sorts of "refined" norms and personal attributes that would reflect highly upon the social stature of their masters or mistresses. One of the first books written and published through a commercial U.S. publisher by an African American was by a butler named [[Robert Roberts (butler)|Robert Roberts]]. The book, ''The House Servant's Directory'',<ref>http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_05.cfm</ref> first published in 1827, is essentially a manual for butlers and waiters, and is called by Puckrein "the most remarkable book by an African American in [[South: Ante Bellum|antebellum America]]". The book generated such interest that a second edition was published in 1828, and a third in 1843.<ref name="puckrein">{{cite journal | author=Gary Puckrein| title=The Science of Service| journal=American Visions| year=Oct/Nov 98| volume=13| issue=5}}</ref>

European [[indentured servants]] formed a corps of domestic workers from which butlers were eventually drawn. Although not the victims of institutionalised slavery, many of them had not volunteered for domestic service, but were forced into it by indebtedness or coercion. As with African American slaves, they could rise in domestic service, and their happiness or misery depended greatly on the disposition of their masters.

===The modern butler===
Beginning around the early 1920s (following World War I), employment in domestic service occupations began a sharp overall decline in western European countries, and even more markedly in the [[United States]]. Even so, there were still around 30,000 butlers employed in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] by [[World War II]]. As few as one hundred were estimated to remain by the mid-1980s.<ref name="steadyjeevesyouvegotcompany">{{cite journal | author=J. Lee| title=Steady, Jeeves—you've got company!| journal=U.S. News & World Report| year=1988| volume=104| issue=17}}</ref> [[Social history|Social historian]] Barry Higman argues that a high number of domestic workers within a society correlates with a high level of socio-economic inequality. Conversely, as a society undergoes levelling among its [[social class]]es, the number employed in domestic service declines.<ref name="domesticserviceinaustralia">{{cite book | title=Domestic Service in Australia| last=Higman| first=Barry| year=2002| publisher=Melbourne University Publishing| isbn=0-522-85011-1}}</ref>

Following varied shifts and changes accompanying accelerated [[globalisation]] beginning in the late 1980s, overall global demand for butlers since the turn of the millennium has risen dramatically. According to Charles MacPherson, vice chairman of the International Guild of Professional Butlers, the proximate cause is that the number of millionaires and billionaires has increased in recent years, and such people are finding that they desire assistance in managing their households. MacPherson emphasises that the number of wealthy people in [[China]] have increased particularly, creating in that country a high demand for professional butlers who have been trained in the European butlering tradition.<ref name="NPRradio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7338550|title=By Jeeves, We're Having a Butler Shortage—Interview with Charles MacPherson|accessdate=2007-08-13|publisher=NPR News|year=10 Feb 2007|author=Scott Simon|work=Weekend Edition Saturday|format=Streaming Audio}} Also see Sheelah Kolhatka, [http://static.pinnaclecare.com/reprints/atlantic-monthly-09-06.pdf "Inside the Billionaire Service Industry"]. The Atlantic, Sept 2006, 97-101. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUei8uRE Archived by WebCite.]</ref> There is also increasing demand for such butlers in other [[Asia]]n countries, [[India]], and the [[petroleum]]-rich [[Middle East]].<ref>See for example Chadha, Monica. "Royal tips for Indian butlers", ''BBC News'', 17 Feb 2003. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2761689.stm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YERDpaXC Archived by WebCite.]</ref><ref name="Available online">"Butlers: A Jeeves of my very own", ''The Daily Telegraph'', 15 Nov 2007. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?xml=/portal/2007/11/15/ftbutler115.xml Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YF9YBJuE Archived by WebCite.]</ref>

Higman additionally argues that the inequality/equality levels of societies are a major determinant of the nature of the domestic servant/employer relationship.<ref>Higman (2002).</ref> As the 21st century approached, many butlers began carrying out an increasing number of duties formerly reserved for more junior household servants. Butlers today may be called upon to do whatever household and personal duties their employers deem fitting, in the goal of freeing their employers to carry out their own personal and professional affairs. Professional butler and author Steven M. Ferry states that the image of tray-wielding butlers who specialise in serving tables and decanting wine is now anachronistic, and that employers may well be more interested in a butler who is capable of managing a full array of household affairs—from providing the traditional dinner service, to acting as valet, to managing high-tech systems and multiple homes with complexes of staff. While in truly grand houses the modern butler may still function exclusively as a top-ranked household affairs manager,<ref name="butlersandhouseholdmanagers">{{cite book | title=Butlers & Household Managers: 21st Century Professionals| last=Ferry| first=Steven M| pages=14| publisher=BookSurge Publishing| isbn=1-59109-306-6}}</ref> in lesser homes, such as those of dual-income middle-class professionals,<ref name="Available online"/> they perform a full array of household and [[personal assistant]] duties,<ref name="thebutlerdoesit">{{cite journal | author=William Loeffler| title=The butler does it| journal=The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, Lifestyle| date=15 April 2007}}</ref> including mundane [[housekeeping]].<ref name="moveoverjeeves">{{cite news | author=James Woodford| title=Move over, Jeeves, a new breed of butler is working her way up| newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald| date=October 5, 2002| url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/10/04/1033538773717.html |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5R4MfrgUq|archivedate=2007-08-13 }} Elizabeth Camille, a butler in Sydney, states, "I still make beds, clean toilets and peg out washing.... It's not all as glamorous as people perceive it to be." Additionally see "Desperately seeking Jeeves", The Globe and Mail (Canada), 20 July 2007. Lynda Reeves, president of the Toronto-based House & Home Media, says that the term "butler" today is just "a pretentious name for a housekeeper".</ref> Butlers today may also be situated within corporate settings, embassies, cruise ships, yachts, or within their own small "Rent-a-Butler" business or similar agency.<ref>Jones, Harvey. "More money than time? Rent a butler". ''The Independent'' (UK), 15 Dec 2001. Available [http://money.independent.co.uk/personal_finance/invest_save/article149002.ece online]. [http://www.webcitation.org/5TvdZjrhC Archived by WebCite.] Also see http://www.rentabutler.de and http://www.rentabutler.nl/.</ref>

Along with these changes of scope and context, butlering [[attire]] has changed. Whereas butlers have traditionally worn a special uniform that separated them from junior servants, and although this is still often the case, butlers today may wear more casual clothing geared for climate, while exchanging it for formal business attire only upon special service occasions. There are cultural distinctions, as well. In the United States, butlers may frequently don a polo shirt and slacks, while in Bali they typically wear [[sarong]]s.<ref>Patrao, Michael. "The alter ago of Jeeves". ''The Deccan Herald'', 27 July 2007. Available [http://www.deccanherald.com/Content/Jul272007/metro2007072615305.asp online]. [http://www.webcitation.org/5Tvf9PxTe Archived by WebCite.]</ref>

In 2007, the number of butlers in Britain had risen to an estimated 5,000.<ref>Sapstead, David. "Shortage of Butlers Has World's Wealthy Facing a Crisis", ''New York Sun'', 30 May 2007. [http://www.nysun.com/foreign/shortage-of-butlers-has-worlds-wealthy-facing/55511/ Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDkDOzGn Archived by WebCite.]</ref>

==Training==
Butlers traditionally learned their position while progressing their way up the service ladder. For example, in the documentary ''The Authenticity of Gosford Park'', retired butler Arthur Inch (born 1915) describes starting as a [[hall boy]].<ref>''The Authenticity of Gosford Park'', Documentary featurette in ''Gosford Park'' Collector's Edition DVD, Universal Studios, 2002.</ref> While this is still often the case, numerous private butlering schools exist today, such as The British Butler Institute, the International Institute of Modern Butlers, the Guild of Professional English Butlers, and The International Guild of Butlers & Household Managers; top graduates can start at US$50,000-60,000 (£25,350-30,400).<ref>Simon (10 Feb 2007).</ref> Additionally, major up-market hotels such as the [[Ritz-Carlton]] offer traditional butler training, while some hotels have trained a sort of pseudo-butler for service in defined areas such as "technology butlers", who fix guests' computers and other electronic devices, and "bath butlers" who draw custom baths.<ref name="thebutlersaredoingit">{{cite journal | author=Witchel| title=At Hotels, the Butlers Are Doing It| journal=New York Times| year=2000| volume=149| issue=51486| page=2}} Ferry, as quoted in "Desperately seeking Jeeves", The Globe and Mail (Canada), 20 July 2007, was quoted as saying that hotel butlers are not rooted in the European tradition of butlering. He states that some hotels essentially rename their pool attendants as "pool butlers" and this is not a real butler so much as a marketing gimmick.</ref><ref>Rouvalis, Cristina. "Butler provides the perfect pampering", ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', 6 May 2007. [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07126/783166-37.stm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDQvRyvh Archived by WebCite.]</ref><ref>Hotels are rated by the International Institute of Modern Butlers according to their butler service offerings, which can range from the one-on-one personalized butler (a 5-Butler rating) to the "pool butler (a 0-Butler rating). See http://www.modernbutlers.com/html/butler-rating-system.html</ref>

[[Starkey International Institute for Household Management|Starkey International]] distinguishes between the "British butler" prototype and its American counterpart, often dubbed the "household manager". Starkey states that they train and promote the latter, believing that Americans do not have the "servant mentality" that is part of the British Butler tradition {{citation needed|date=November 2012}}. They stress that their American-style butlers and valets are educated and certified, Starkey does lay claim to understanding the British butler tradition; however, her general approach seems to be that American domestic staff are better suited to American families {{citation needed|date=November 2012}} although some students, numerous former Starkey employees, and several wealthy clients have criticised the programme and its owner.<ref name="starkeycontroversy">{{cite journal | author=Joel Warner| title=At Your Disservice| journal=Denver Westword News| year=9 Aug 2007| url=http://www.westword.com/2007-08-09/news/at-your-disservice}} [http://www.webcitation.org/5R5vB2Vfu Archived by WebCite.]</ref> Magnums Butlers, a school based in Australia, conducts training after the British model at sites in Asia and the Pacific, Australia, the United Kingdom and the Middle East.<ref>See [http://www.magnumsbutlers.com Magnums Butlers], accessed 12/31/2007. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUgjKPZP Archived by WebCite.]</ref> The International Institute of Modern Butlers provides on-site training in various places around the world as well as via correspondence. In 2007, [[City & Guilds]], the U.K.'s largest awarder of vocational credentials, introduced a diploma programme for butlers.<ref>See http://www.cityandguilds.com/cps/rde/xchg/SID-7D78108B-8F23F7DA/cgonline/hs.xsl/12341.html</ref>

In addition to formal training, a few books have been published recently to assist butlers in their duties, including [[Arthur Inch]]'s and Arlene Hirst's 2003 ''Dinner is Served''. Moreover, websites, as well as a news publication, ''Modern Butlers' Journal'', help butlers to network and keep abreast of developments within their field.

Ferry argues that what he calls a "butler mindset" is beneficial to all people within all professions. He states that an attitude of devoted service to others, deference, and the keeping of confidences can help all people succeed.

==Gender and butlering==
Butlers have traditionally been male, and this remains the norm. Probably the first mention of a female butler is in the 1892 book ''Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses'' by Horace Smith. In it Smith quotes a certain Sydney Smith who had apparently run into lean times:
<blockquote>
A man servant was too expensive, so I caught up a little garden girl, made like a milestone, christened her Bunch, put a napkin in her hand, and made her my butler. The girls taught her to read, Mrs. Sydney to wait, and I undertook her morals. Bunch became the best butler in the country.<ref>Smith, Horace; Joel Lehtonen (translator) (1892). ''Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses''. MacMillan & Co. ISBN 1-4069-1965-9. Available [http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/7/0/6/17065/17065.htm online] (full text). [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUf9ithw Archived by WebCite.]</ref>
</blockquote>
Today, female butlers are sometimes preferred,<ref name="moveoverjeeves2">{{cite news | author=James Woodford| title=Move over, Jeeves, a new breed of butler is working her way up| newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald| date=October 5, 2002| url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/10/04/1033538773717.html |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5R4MfrgUq|archivedate=2007-08-13 }}</ref> especially for work within Middle and Far Eastern families where it may be religiously problematic for males to work closely with females in a household.<ref>See "Unique Rosewood Ladies Floor could start trend in Saudi, Middle East Hotels", 12 Oct 2007. [http://www.automobilsport.com/hotels-resorts-rosewood-saudi-middle-east-corniche-jeddah-saudiarabia-hans-peter-leitzke-photos---30962.html Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDRTYNMo Archived by WebCite.] Also, for interesting background see Elizabeth Warnock Fernea, ''Guests of the Sheik: An Ethnography of an Iraqi Village''. Anchor, 1995. ISBN 0-385-01485-6.</ref> Western female celebrities may also prefer a female butler,<ref>See [http://www.butlersguild.com The International Guild of Professional Butlers], accessed 12/31/2007. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUgSKDTO Archived by WebCite.]</ref> as may households where the wife is driving the decision to hire a butler.<ref name="Available online"/> In 2004, [[Buckingham Palace]] announced it was actively recruiting females for the position.<ref>Milne, Meg. "The Royal butlerettes", ''The Financial Mail'', 31 Oct 2004. [http://www.fmwf.com/newsarticle.php?id=338&cat=6 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDPEIPvR Archived by WebCite.]</ref> Despite these trends, the Ivor Spencer School asserts that female butlers are not easily placed, on the whole.

In ancient times, the roles precursive to butlering were reserved for chattel or those confined within heredity-based class structures. With the advent of the medieval era, butlering became an opportunity for social advancement—even more so during Victorian times. Although still based upon various antecedent roles as manifested during different eras, butlering today has frequently taken over many of the roles formerly reserved for lower-ranking domestic servants. At the same time it has become a potentially lucrative career option.<ref>In Loeffler (15 April 2007), Nathalie Laitmon of The Calendar Group in Stamford, Connecticut, states that skilled butlers within the grandest households can make USD 200,000 (GBP 101,500). She states, "The bigger the lifestyle of the family, the more they can earn".</ref>

==Historically important butlers==
*[[Paul Burrell]], butler to [[Diana, Princess of Wales]]
*[[Ivor Spencer]], [[toastmaster]] and [[etiquette]] specialist, head of the Ivor Spencer International School for Butler Administrators/Personal Assistants and Estate Managers
*[[Leslie Bartlett]], butler, [[toastmaster]] and founder of [[The London School of British Butlers]].

===Alonzo Fields===
[[File:Alonzo Fields - White House Butler.jpg|thumb|left|Alonzo Fields]]
[[File:Alonzo Fields - Truman Notes.jpg|thumb|right|Page from Alonzo Fields's personal papers. This one describes his conduction of a service-event that resulted in Truman's decision to enter the Korean War.]]
By nature of their position and its requisite staunch discretion, it is exceptional when a butler achieves historical importance. One butler who did is Alonzo Fields (1899–1993), who served as a [[White House]] butler for twenty-one years, all but his first year as chief butler, under presidents Hoover, Roosevelt, Truman, and Eisenhower. After his retirement in 1960, Fields published ''My 21 Years in the White House,'' in which he wove together his private papers and cryptic journals, written while serving, with his recollections. Although restrained, his memoir nonetheless provides a uniquely intimate [[primary source]] account of the U.S. presidents he served, several who came to trust Fields as a close personal friend. Fields reports, for example, that he was present when Roosevelt was first informed of the Japanese bombing of [[Pearl Harbor]] and that Roosevelt "broke down completely" during that moment, and also emoted racial slurs against the Japanese before gaining control. Truman was especially close with Fields and even related with him as an emotional confidant at times, and the two at one point sat together for a portrait.

When Fields began his tenure at the White House, senators from the [[U.S. South]] frequently addressed him with the racially condescending term "boy", and an obvious racial hierarchy existed between white and black White House house staff, with whites dominating. While the attitudes of most southern U.S. senators would not begin to change until the advent of [[U.S. Civil Rights Movement]], Roosevelt took it upon himself to remove racial tensions among the house staff by making it all black.<ref>Fields, Alonzo. ''My 21 years in the White House'', New York: Coward-McCann, 1960.</ref><ref>Sam Stiegler, "When Speaking About Me, 'Don’t Talk too Long and Don’t Tell the Truth': A Biography of Mr. Alonzo Fields (1900–1994), West Medford Afro-American Remembrance Project, 2005. [http://www.medfordhistorical.org/pdfs/alonzofieldsbio.pdf Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5Y7YHouki Archived by WebCite.]</ref><ref>''U.S. News & World Report'', "Alonzo Fields diary, Truman's butler", 16 July 2007. [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/060716/16alonzofields_eye.htm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YD3pH8kF Archived by WebCite.]</ref>

More than a decade after Fields's death in 1994, his story was cast into a one-man theatrical performance, ''Looking Over the President's Shoulder.''<ref>Burlingham Ellis, Caroline. "Review of 'Looking Over the President's Shoulder'", ''Theatre Mania'', 8 Dec 2003. [http://www.theatermania.com/content/news.cfm/story/4174 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDM3a6ao Archived by WebCite.]</ref><ref>Bales-Sherrod, Lesli. "Serving up a slice of history", ''The American Observer'', Vol. 9, No. 3, 24 Feb 2004. [http://observer.american.edu/2004/feb2504/review.html Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDMcdYov Archived by WebCite.]</ref> Historians, such as [[David McCullough]] in his 2003 biography ''Truman'', continue to consult Fields's memoirs when constructing accounts of the presidents he served.<ref>McCullough, David. ''Truman'', Simon & Schuster, pp 472, 473, 502, 623, 931. ISBN 0-7432-6029-5.</ref>

==Surname==
As a surname, “Butler” was originated in the 12th century by [[Theobald Walter, 1st Baron Butler|Theobald le Botiller FitzWalter]] (Lord of Preston). Lord FitzWalter accompanied [[John of England|King John]] to Ireland to help secure [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman areas]]. When men whom Walter led killed Dermot MacCarthy, prince of [[Kingdom of Desmond|Desmond]], Walter was granted land holdings of Baggotrath, [[County Dublin]], and the [[Stein River]] lands around what is now Trinity College Dublin. He was also given an important [[fief]], on which Walter both founded an [[abbey]] and established his Irish seat. Upon returning to England, King John endowed Walter with the hereditary office "Butler to the Lord of Ireland" in 1177; some evidence indicates that he was also dubbed "Butler of Ireland". As such, he had the right to pour the King's wine. This title can be defined as Governor by today's standards. His son, Theobalde Butler, was the first to hold the name and pass it to his descendants. Walter's grandson was [[James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde]].<ref>"Butler", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1911 edition. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Butler Available online.] Also see The Carey Estate BCM/H [n.d.], Berkeley Castle Muniments, U.K. National Archives, [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=2189-bcm_4&cid=4&kw=butlers#4 available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YFtztuwb Archived by WebCite.]; [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=109-mss_1-1_4&cid=6-27&kw=Theobald%20Walter#6-27 National Archive Record MS 613, f. 21]; [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=109-mss_1-1_4&cid=6-35&kw=Theobald%20Walter#6-35 National Archive Record MS 613, f. 30].</ref> [[Kilkenny Castle]] was the main seat of the Butler family.

==In visual art==
[[Image:William Hogarth 010.jpg|right|thumb|190px|''[[Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants]]'']]
Butlers have been occasionally depicted in visual art. A famous [[painting]], ''[[Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants]]'' (c. 1758), is unique among such works. In it, the 18th-century English artist [[William Hogarth]] depicted his household servants, each surrounding the butler. In showing the group in a close-knit assemblage rather than in the performance of their routine household duties, Hogarth sought to humanise and dignify them in a manner akin to wealthy-class members, who were the normal subjects of such [[portrait]]s. While this was a subversive act that certainly raised many eyebrows in his day—Hogarth conspicuously displayed the work in his estate home in full view of guests—at the same time he had painted his servants' facial expressions to convey the sincerity and deference expected of servant-class members.<ref name="fourhundredyears">{{cite book | title=Below stairs, 400 years of servants' portraits| last=Waterfield G., A. French and M. Craske, Eds.| year=2003| publisher=National Portrait Gallery| location=London| isbn=1-85514-512-X}}</ref>

In [[contemporary art]], "The Butler's in Love" series by U.S. artist [[Mark Stock]] is especially poignant. In the series, Stock portrays the butler as sick with love, but the possibility of fulfillment is hopeless: the love is a forbidden love, perhaps felt for the lady of the house, and so it must be suffered alone in silent hiddenness. In addition to the ongoing mannerisms and facial expressions of the butler, a seated lady once-appearing in a curtained room and a recurring lipstick-stained [[absinthe]] glass over which the butler obsesses provide the interpretive clues. In selecting a butler as his subject, Stock sought to provide a "universal character", a pathos-laden figuration that could be widely related to and that could depict the universality of loneliness felt by someone who can only look in from the outside. Stock began the series in 1985 to express his difficult feelings during a personal experience of unrequited love. One of the paintings was inspiration for a [[3-D film|3-D]] short film, "The Butler's in Love" by actor/director [[David Arquette]], shot in 2008 at [[San Francisco]]'s historic [[Westerfield Mansion]].<ref>Croft, Karen. "Butlers in Love", ''Salon'', 24 May 2001. Available online: [http://dir.salon.com/story/sex/feature/2001/05/24/stock/ Page 1], [http://dir.salon.com/story/sex/feature/2001/05/24/stock/index1.html Page 2], [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDF2PTVk Archive 1], [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDF3heL9 Archive 2].</ref><ref>Stock, Mark. Correspondence with Stephen Ewen, stephenewen.org. Also see http://www.theworldofmarkstock.com.</ref><ref>Garchik, Leah. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 14 May 2008. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/05/14/DDOF10KL7M.DTL& Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDbUZBtX Archived by WebCite.] Also see http://www.wayfaring.com/waypts/show/32050 for a brief history of the mansion.</ref>

==In fiction==
The real-life modern butler attempts to be discreet and unobtrusive, friendly but not familiar, keenly anticipative of the needs of his or her employer, and graceful and precise in execution of duty. The butler of fiction, by contrast, often tends to be larger-than-life and has become a [[plot device]] in [[literature]] and a traditional [[role]] in the [[performing arts]]. Butlers may provide comic relief with wry comments, clues as to the perpetrators of various crimes and are represented as at least as intelligent and moral, or even more so, than their “betters”. They are often portrayed as being serious and expressionless and in the case that the wealthy hero be an orphan—such as [[Batman]], [[Chrono Crusade]]'s Satella Harvenheit, or [[Tomb Raider]]'s [[Lara Croft]]—be a father figure to said hero. Regardless of the genre in which they are cast, butlers in fiction almost invariably follow the "British butler" model and are given an appropriate-sounding surname. The fictional butler tends to be given a typical Anglo-Celtic surname and have an English accent. The Asian, African American, or Caribbean houseboy is a variant, but even these major-domos are based on the British icon.

Today, butlers are usually portrayed as being refined and well-spoken. However, in 19th century fiction such as ''[[Dracula]]'', butlers generally spoke with a strong [[Cockney]] or other regional accent.

"The butler" is integral to the plot of countless [[potboiler]]s and [[melodrama]]s, whether or not the character has been given a name. Butlers figure so prominently in [[period piece]]s and [[whodunit]]s that they can be considered [[stock character]]s in [[film]] and [[theatre]] where a [[catchphrase]] is "[[Mary Roberts Rinehart|the butler did it]]!"

The best-known fictional manservant, and the prototype of the quintessential British butler, is himself not a butler at all. [[Jeeves|Reginald Jeeves]], the iconic creation of author [[P. G. Wodehouse]] is a "gentleman's gentleman" and general [[Domestic worker|factotum]]. Probably the best-known fictional butlers are [[Alfred Pennyworth|Alfred]] from the ''[[Batman]]'' comic and films; Hudson of [[Upstairs, Downstairs]] television fame; and, Crichton from [[J. M. Barrie]]'s ''[[The Admirable Crichton]]''. Lesser-knowns include Mr. Belvedere from the novel ''Belvedere'', which was adapted into a feature film with sequels and later a [[Mr. Belvedere|television series]]; Lurch, from the television series ''[[The Addams Family]]'', based on Charles Addams' ''[[The New Yorker]]'' cartoons; Beach, from the Wodehouse series about [[Blandings Castle]]; [[Niles (The Nanny)|Niles]], the butler at the Sheffield house in American sitcom ''[[The Nanny (TV series)|The Nanny]]'', and Benson from the two series ''[[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]'' and ''[[Benson (TV series)|Benson]]''.

Not all fictional butlers portray the "butler stereotype", however. [[Alan Bates]], who played the butler Jennings in the film ''[[Gosford Park]]'', was coached in brooding detail by Arthur Inch, a longtime real-life butler.<ref>"The man who got it right for Gosford Park and told Richard E Grant what was wrong", ''Mid Sussex Times'', 2002. [http://www.midsussextimes.co.uk/CustomPages/CustomPage.aspx?PageID=35023 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YF2KEI9A Archived by WebCite.] Also see ''The Authenticity of Gosford Park''.</ref> Mr. Stevens, the butler played by [[Anthony Hopkins]] in the film ''[[Remains of the Day]]'', was also acted with remarkable realism. A female butler, Sarah Stevens, is the principal character in [[Linda Howard]]'s 2002 ''Dying to Please'', a murder/romance novel. Howard gives detailed and generally accurate descriptions of butlering in the work.<ref>For a synopsis of Howard's book, see http://www1.epinions.com/content_64617352836.</ref>

===Examples===
{{See also|List of fictional butlers}}

* In the 1998 film, "The Parent Trap", there are 2 butlers. Martin is a male butler of the James family in London, England. Chessy is a female butler of the Parker family in Napa Valley, California, USA.
*Mr. Stevens, the protagonist of [[Kazuo Ishiguro]]'s [[Booker Prize]] winning novel, ''[[The Remains of the Day]]'' and movie of the same name.
*[[Angus Hudson]], from the television show [[Upstairs, Downstairs]].
*[[Mr. E. Blackadder|Edmund Blackadder]], butler to Prince [[George (Blackadder character)|George]] the [[Prince Regent]], in the TV Series ''[[List_of_Blackadder_episodes#Series_3:_Blackadder_the_Third_.281987.29|Blackadder the Third]]''.
*[[Alfred Pennyworth]], [[Batman|Bruce Wayne]]'s butler from [[Batman franchise media|Batman]] is a well known fictional butler.
*[[Benson DuBois]], the Tate butler in the hit 1970's sitcom, ''[[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]''
*[[List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air characters#Geoffrey_Barbara_Butler|Geoffrey Butler]], the butler for the [[List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air characters#The Bel Air family|Banks Family]] on ''[[The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air]]''.
*[[James La Croix]], the butler of Montgomery Mason appearing in the sitcom [[Home, James]].
*[[Nestor (Tintin character)|Nestor]], the butler of [[Marlinspike Hall]] appearing in [[The Adventures of Tintin]].
*[[Niles (The Nanny)|Niles]] the butler in the TV Series ''[[The Nanny (TV series)|The Nanny]]''.
*Wadsworth, the protagonist in the movie [[Clue (film)|Clue]].
*[[Sebastian Michaelis]], a demon disguised as an extremely handsome man bound by contract to his young British master, Ciel Phantomhive, in the ''[[Black Butler]]'' Manga and Anime series.
**Also from the same series is Claude Faustus. Like Sebastian, he is a demon bound by contract to his master, Alois Trancy.
*[[Sebastian Beach]], from the Blandings Castle stories by [[P. G. Wodehouse]], of intimidating majesty but nonetheless a good soul who frequently co-conspires with the clever Gally Threepwood.
*Butler, the butler for Prince Salde Canarl Shellbrick III off of the puzzle game [[Puyo Puyo Fever 2]].
*[[Smithers]], [[Veronica Lodge]]'s fictional butler.
*Spencer, butler in [[Power Rangers Operation Overdrive]]
*Pickering, a bullying, slave-driving butler who was the regular villain of the piece in [[No Tears for Molly]] from ''[[Tammy (comics)|Tammy]]'', a British comic which ran from 1971 to 1984.
*[[Hugh Edgar]], butler, ''[[The Edwardian Country House]]'', 2002 British historical recreation TV series
*Cadbury, butler to [[Richie Rich (comics)|Richie Rich]]
*Higgins, from the sitcom ''[[Our Man Higgins]]'' and the radio comedy on which it was based, ''It's Higgins, Sir'', which revolve around his character
*Underling, the butler in the 2006 Broadway Musical ''[[The Drowsy Chaperone]]''
*The titular protagonist of ''[[Hayate the Combat Butler]]''
*''[[Butler Seo / Johann Seo]]'', butler-turned-lover to Lady Kang Hae Na of ''[[My Fair Lady]]''
*Mr Carson, butler to the Crawley family in [[Downton Abbey]]

==See also==
*[[Housekeeper (servant)|Housekeeper]]
*[[Valet]]
*[[Domestic worker]]
*[[Silverman]]
*[[Household]]

==References==
<references/>
*{{citizendium}}
*''This article incorporates material from "[http://stephenewen.org/articles/History_of_Butlers_and_Butlering.html A Brief History of Butlers and Butlering]" by Stephen Ewen, which is licensed under the [[WP:Text of Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License|Creative Common Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License]].''

==Further reading==
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=AHcEAAAAQAAJ [[Cyrus Redding]] ''Every Man His Own Butler.''] London: Whittaker & Co., 1839 [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25057151?referer=br&ht=edition OCLC 25057151]

[[Category:Domestic work]]

[[fa:ساقی]]
[[fr:Bouteiller]]
[[id:Butler]]
[[it:Maggiordomo]]
[[mk:Батлер]]
[[nl:Butler]]
[[ja:バトラー]]
[[pt:Mordomo]]
[[ru:Дворецкий (старший лакей)]]
[[scn:Maggiurdomu]]
[[sv:Butler]]
[[zh:管家]]

Lyme Park

2013-01-29T10:10:54Z

Textorus: /* Lyme Caxton Missal */ sp grr

{{Good article}}
{{Infobox Historic Site | name = Lyme Park| native_name = | image = Lyme Hall 01.jpg| image_size = 220| caption = The south front of the mansion house, showing the south lawn and the pond| locmapin = Cheshire| map_width = 220| map_caption = Location in Cheshire| latitude = 53.3381| longitude = -2.0548| coordinates = | coord_parameters = scale:2000| coord_display = title | gbgridref = SJ 964 823| coord_format = | location = [[Disley]], [[Cheshire]], England| area = | elevation = | formed = | founded = | built = 16th century, 1720s| built_for = | demolished = | rebuilt = | restored = | restored_by = | architect = [[Giacomo Leoni]]| architecture = [[Elizabethan architecture|Elizabethan]], [[Palladian architecture|Palladian]], [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]]| visitation_num = | visitation_year = | governing_body = | designation1 = Grade I| designation1_offname = | designation1_type = | designation1_criteria = | designation1_date = 17 November 1983| delisted1_date = | designation1_parent = | designation1_number = 406869| designation1_free1name = | designation1_free1value = | designation1_free2name = | designation1_free2value = | designation1_free3name = | designation1_free3value = | designation2 = | designation2_offname = | designation2_type = | designation2_criteria = | designation2_date = | delisted2_date = | designation2_parent = | designation2_number = | designation2_free1name = | designation2_free1value = | designation2_free2name = | designation2_free2value = | designation2_free3name = | designation2_free3value = }}

'''Lyme Park''' is a large [[Estate (house)|estate]] located south of [[Disley]], [[Cheshire]]. The estate is managed by the National Trust and consists of a mansion house surrounded by formal gardens, in a [[Medieval deer park|deer park]] in the [[Peak District National Park]].<ref>''The Peak District: Dark Peak area. Outdoor Leisure map 1'', [[Ordnance Survey]]</ref> The house is the largest in Cheshire,{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}} and has been designated by [[English Heritage]] as a Grade I [[listed building]].<ref name="images">{{NHLE |num= 1231685|desc= Lyme Park, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref>

The estate was granted to Sir Thomas Danyers in 1346 and passed to the [[Leghs of Lyme]] by marriage in 1388. It remained in the possession of the Legh family until 1946 when it was given to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]. The house dates from the latter part of the 16th century. Modifications were made to it in the 1720s by [[Giacomo Leoni]], who retained some of the [[Elizabethan architecture|Elizabethan]] features and added others, particularly the courtyard and the south range. It is difficult to classify Leoni's work at Lyme, as it contains elements of both [[Palladian architecture|Palladian]] and [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] styles.{{efn|The house is frequently described as being Palladian in style, but not all experts agree that it is truly Palladian. Referring to the south front, the author of ''Heritage Gateway'' says "For a garden front it is magnificent but more Baroque than Palladian" and makes no other reference to Palladian style. [[Nikolaus Pevsner]] said "But his [Leoni's] great south front is not a Palladian front" {{sfn|Pevsner|Hubbard|2003|p=260}} and "Leoni was more original at Lyme Park than one might have at first sight have realized". Merlin Waterson, the author of the official guide to the property, says "The dramatic use of giant pilasters on the South Front was far too close to the English Baroque tradition..." and "...he [Leoni] never subscribed to [[Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington|Lord Burlington's]] highly selective and academic Palladianism".{{sfn|Waterson|1973|p=9}} }} Further modifications were made by [[Lewis Wyatt]] in the 19th century, especially to the interior. Formal gardens were created and developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The house, gardens and park have been used as locations for filming and they are open to the public. The [[Lyme Caxton Missal]] is on display in the Library.

== History ==
[[Image:Lyme Park from Jones' Views (1819) - north front.JPG|thumb|left|The north front of Lyme from Jones' ''Views of the Seats of Noblemen and Gentlemen'' (1819)]]

The land now occupied by Lyme Park was granted to Sir Thomas Danyers in 1346 by [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], for his service to the [[Edward, the Black Prince|Black Prince]] in the [[Battle of Crécy]]. On Sir Thomas's death the estate passed to his daughter, Margaret, who in 1388 married the first Piers Legh (Piers Legh I). [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] [[favourite|favoured]] Piers and granted his family a [[coat of arms]] in 1397. However, Piers was executed two years later by Richard's rival for the throne, [[Henry IV of England|Henry Bolingbroke]].{{sfn|Waterson|1973|p=5}}

When in 1415 [[Piers_Legh_II|Sir Piers Legh II]] was wounded in the Battle of Agincourt, his mastiff stood over and protected him for many hours through the battle. The mastiff was later returned to Legh's home and was the foundation of the [[English Mastiff|Lyme Hall Mastiffs]]. They were bred at the hall and kept separate from other strains, figuring prominently in founding the modern breed. The strain died out around the beginning of the 20th century.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.mastiffassociation.com/cms/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=59&Itemid=73| title = A brief history of the Mastiff| accessdate = 5 August 2012| publisher = Mastiff Association}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.rockportmastiffs.com/history.htm| title = Mastiff History| accessdate = 5 August 2012| publisher = Rockport Mastiffs}}</ref>

The first record of a house on the site is in a [[manuscript]] folio dated 1465, but that house was demolished when construction of the present building began during the life of Piers Legh VII, in the middle of the 16th century.{{sfn|Waterson|1973|p=9}} This house, by an unknown designer, was L-shaped in plan with east and north ranges; piecemeal additions were made to it during the 17th century. In the 1720s [[Giacomo Leoni]], an architect from [[Venice]], added a south range to the house creating a [[courtyard]] plan, and made other changes.<ref name=images/> While he retained some of its [[Elizabethan architecture|Elizabethan]] features, many of his changes were in a mixture of [[Palladian architecture|Palladian]] and [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] styles.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}} During the latter part of the 18th century Piers Legh XIII bought most of the furniture which is in the house today. However, the family fortunes declined and the house began to deteriorate. In the early 19th century the estate was owned by Thomas Legh, who commissioned [[Lewis Wyatt]] to restore the house between 1816 and 1822. Wyatt's alterations were mainly to the interior, where he remodelled every room.<ref name=trail>{{citation |url= http://www.theheritagetrail.co.uk/stately%20homes/lyme%20park.htm |title= Lyme Park |accessdate=30 October 2008 |publisher= The Heritage Trail}}</ref> Leoni had intended to add a [[cupola]] to the south range but this never materialised.{{sfn|Waterson|1973|p=11}} Instead, Wyatt added a tower-like structure (a hamper) to provide bedrooms for the servants. He also added a one-storey block to the east range, containing a dining-room.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}} Later in the century [[William Legh, 1st Baron Newton]], added stables and other buildings to the estate, and created the Dutch Garden.<ref name=trail/> Further alterations were made to the gardens by [[Thomas Legh, 2nd Baron Newton]] and his wife during the early 20th century.{{sfn|Groves|2004|pp=50–57}} In 1946 Richard Legh, 3rd Baron Newton, gave Lyme Park to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].{{sfn|Bilsborough|1983|pp=123–124}}

== House ==
===Exterior===
[[Image:Lyme Hall 04.jpg|thumb|Courtyard showing the main entrance]]
The house is the largest in Cheshire, measuring overall {{convert|190|ft|m|0}} by {{convert|130|ft|m|0}} round a courtyard plan. The older part is built in coursed, squared buff [[sandstone]] [[rubble]] with sandstone dressings; the later work is in [[ashlar]] sandstone. The whole house has a roof of Welsh [[slate]]s. The symmetrical north face is of 15 bays in three storeys; its central bay consists of a slightly protruding gateway. The arched doorway in this bay has [[Doric order|Doric]] columns with a [[niche (architecture)|niche]] on each side. Above the doorway are three more Doric columns with a [[pediment]], and above this are three further columns. Over all this are four further columns with an open pediment bearing an image of [[Minerva]]. The architectural historian [[Nikolaus Pevsner]] referred to this gateway as "the craziest Elizabethan frontispiece".{{sfn|Pevsner|Hubbard|2003|p=259}} The endmost three bays on each side project slightly forwards. The ground floors of the three outer bays on each side are [[Rustication (architecture)|rusticated]], and their upper storeys are divided by large [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] [[pilaster]]s.<ref name=images/> The west front is also in three storeys, with nine bays, the outer two bays on each side projecting forward. The ground floor is rusticated and the upper floors are smooth.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}}

The symmetrical 15-bay three-storey south front overlooking the pond is the work of Leoni.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}} Although Leoni had been influenced by the works and principles of [[Andrea Palladio|Palladio]],<ref>{{Citation | last = Connor| first = T. P.| chapter = Leoni, Giacomo (c.1686–1746)| work = [[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]] | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | origyear = | year = 2004| url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/16474| accessdate = 5 August 2012. }} ({{ODNBsub}})</ref> both Pevsner and the authors of the citaiton in the ''National Heritage List for England'' agree that the design of this front is more [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] than [[Palladian architecture|Palladian]].{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}}<ref name=images/> The bottom storey is [[Rustication (architecture)|rusticated]] with arched windows, and the other storeys are smooth with rectangular windows. The middle three bays consist of a [[portico]] of which the lowest storey has three arches. Above this arise four giant fluted [[Ionic order|Ionic]] columns supporting a triangular pediment.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}}<ref name=images/> Standing on the pediment are three lead statues, of [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]], [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]].{{sfn|Waterson|1973|p=10}} The pediment partly hides Wyatt's blind balustraded ashlar attic block. The other bays are separated by plain Ionic [[pilaster]]s and the end three bays on each side protrude slightly.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}}<ref name=images/> The nine-bay three-storey east front is mostly [[Elizabethan architecture|Elizabethan]] in style and has Wyatt's single-storey extension protruding from its centre.<ref name=images/> The courtyard was remodelled by Leoni, who gave it a rusticated [[cloister]] on all sides. Above the cloister the architecture differs on the four sides although all the windows on the first ([[piano nobile]]) floor have pediments. On the west side is a one-bay centrepiece with a window between two [[Doric order|Doric]] pilasters; on the south and north are three windows with four similar pilasters; and on the east front is the grand entrance with a portal in a [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]] [[aedicule]].{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}} This entrance is between the first and second storeys and is approached by symmetrical pairs of stairs with iron [[baluster]]s,<ref name=images/> which were made in 1734 by John Gardom of Baslow, [[Derbyshire]].{{sfn|Beard|1966|p=40}}{{efn|Gardom worked under the Huguenot ironsmith [[Jean Tijou]] at [[Chatsworth House]] and provided garden gates at [[Castle Howard]].{{sfn|Beard|1966|p=46}} }} In the centre of the courtyard is an Italian [[Renaissance]] [[Puteal|well-head]], surrounded by chequered pink and white stone, simulating [[marble]].{{sfn|Waterson|1973|p=11}}

===Interior===

The Entrance Hall, which is in the east range, was remodelled by Leoni. It is asymmetrical and contains giant pilasters and a screen of three fluted Ionic columns. The doorway to the courtyard has an open pediment. A hinged picture can be swung out from the wall to reveal a [[Hagioscope|squint]] looking into the Entrance Hall.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}} Also in the Entrance Hall are [[Tapestry|tapestries]] which were woven at [[Mortlake]] between 1623 and 1636. They were originally in the Leghs' London home in [[Belgrave Square]] and were moved to Lyme in 1903. In order to accommodate them, the interior decorator, Amadée Joubert, had to make alterations, including the removal of a [[Church tabernacle|tabernacle]] and cutting out four of the pilasters.{{sfn|Waterson|1973|pp=12–13}} To the south of the Entrance Hall is the Library, and to the east is Wyatt's Dining Room, which has a [[stucco]] ceiling and a carved [[Overdoor|overmantel]] both in a late 17th-century style, as well as a [[frieze]]. The decoration of this room is considered to be a rare early example of the [[Edwardian Baroque architecture|Wrenaissance]] style.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}}

To the north of the Entrance Hall are the two principal Elizabethan rooms, the Drawing Room and the Stag Parlour. The Drawing Room is panelled with intersecting arches above which is a [[marquetry]] frieze. The ceiling has studded bands, [[strapwork]] [[cartouche]]s and a broad frieze. Over the fireplace is a large stone overmantel, which is decorated with pairs of [[Atlas (architecture)|atlantes]] and [[caryatid]]s framing the [[Coat of arms of England|arms]] of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]].{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}} The stained glass in this room includes medieval glass that was moved from the original Lyme Hall to [[St Mary's Church, Disley|Disley Church]] and returned to Lyme in 1835.<ref name=images/> The Stag Parlour has a chimneypiece depicting an Elizabethan house and hunting scenes, and it includes the arms of [[James I of England|James I]]. The other Elizabethan rooms in the house are the Stone Parlour on the ground floor, and the Long Gallery, which is on the top floor of the east range. The Long Gallery also has a chimneypiece with the arms of Elizabeth I. The Grand Staircase dates from the remodelling by Leoni and it has a Baroque ceiling.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}} The Saloon is on the first floor of the south range, behind the portico.{{sfn|Waterson|1973|p=4}} Its ceiling is decorated in [[Rococo]] style,{{sfn|Waterson|1973|p=17}} and the room contains wooden carvings that have been attributed to [[Grinling Gibbons]].<ref name=images/>{{efn|The family tradition that the carvings are by Gibbons, the evidence for this, and their possible rearrangement are discussed by Waterson.{{sfn|Waterson|1973|p=17}} }} The Chapel, in the northeast corner of the ground floor, also contains detailed carvings.{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}}

===Lyme Caxton Missal===
{{main|Lyme Caxton Missal}}

This [[missal]] had been owned by the Legh family since at least 1508. It is the only known nearly complete copy of the earliest edition of a missal according to the [[Sarum Rite]] still in existence. When the family moved from the house in 1946, the missal went with them, and was held for safe-keeping in the [[John Rylands Library]] in [[Manchester]]. In the late 2000s the National Trust acquired it, and it was decided to return it to Lyme Park. To celebrate this the décor of the library was restored to the way it had been during the 19th century. This included re-graining of its ceiling, reproducing velvet for the upholstery and curtains, and re-papering the room with replica wallpaper, based on its original design.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.hlf.org.uk/news/Pages/LymeCaxtonMissal.aspx| title = Turning the pages of history | accessdate = 23 January 2010| publisher = [[Heritage Lottery Fund]]| publication-date = 24 July 2009 }}</ref>

== Grounds ==

The house is surrounded by formal gardens of {{convert|6|ha|acre|0}} in a deer park of about {{convert|550|ha|acre|0}} which are listed at Grade II* in the [[National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens]].<ref name=ukb>{{cite web |url=http://www.parksandgardens.ac.uk/component/option,com_parksandgardens/task,site/id,2175/tab,description/Itemid,292/ |title=U.K. Database of Historic Parks and Gardens: Lyme Park |accessdate=27 January 2010 |publisher=Parks & Gardens Data Services}}</ref><ref>{{NHLE |num= 1000642|desc= Lyme Park|accessdate= 5 August 2012}}</ref> In the gardens and deer park are a number of structures.

===Gardens===
[[Image:Lyme Park garden.jpg|thumb|right|Dutch Garden]]
To the west of the house is the former [[mill pond]]. From the south side a lawn slopes down to another pond beyond which is a small [[ravine]] with a stone bridge, this area being known as ''Killtime''. To the west of the lawn is the sunken Dutch Garden, which was created by William Legh. It consists of formal flower beds with a central fountain. To the west, south and east of the orangery are further formal flower gardens, including rose gardens.{{sfn|Groves|2004|pp=50–57}}

===Deer park===

The park was enclosed in the 14th century by Piers Legh I. In the 17th century Richard Legh planted avenues of [[Acer pseudoplatanus|sycamore]] and [[Tilia|lime]] trees. Richard's son, Peter Legh XII carried out more extensive tree-planting in the park, giving it its current appearance.{{sfn|Groves|2004|pp=50–57}} [[Red deer]] descended from the original deer present when the park was enclosed graze in the grounds, as do [[Highland cattle]]. Formerly an unusual breed of wild white cattle with red ears grazed in the park but they became extinct in 1884.<ref name=micro>{{citation |url= http://www.ukheritage.net/houses/lyme.htm |title= Lyme Park - Disley, Cheshire (NT) |accessdate=30 October 2008 |publisher= MicroArts }}</ref> [[Fallow deer]] and sheep also graze in the park.{{sfn|Bilsborough|1983|pp=123–124}}

===Structures===
[[Image:TheCageLymePark.JPG|thumb|Part of the deer park showing the Cage]]
The most obvious structure in the park, other than the house, is a tower called the Cage which stands on a hill to the east of the approach road to the house ({{coord|53.34453|-2.05189}}). It was originally a hunting lodge and was later used as a park-keeper's cottage and as a lock-up for prisoners. The first structure on the site was built about 1580; this was taken down and rebuilt in 1737, possibly to a design by Leoni for Peter Legh X. The tower is built in buff sandstone [[rubble]] with [[ashlar]] sandstone dressings. It is square in plan, in three storeys, with attached small square towers surmounted by [[cupola]]s at the corners. The Cage is a Grade II* listed building.<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1277283|desc= The Cage, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> Also in the park is the Paddock Cottage which was erected by Peter Legh IX and restored in the early 21st century. To the east of this are the remains of the Stag House ({{coord|53.32211|-2.05374}}).{{sfn|Groves|2004|pp=50–57}} To the left of the house in Lantern Wood is a [[Belvedere (structure)|belvedere]] known as the Lantern ({{coord|53.33842|-2.04333}}). It is built in sandstone and has three storeys and a spire; the lowest storey is square in plan while the other storeys and the spire are octagonal. The top storey and spire date from about 1580 and originally formed a [[bellcote]] on the north gatehouse. This was removed during the restoration of the house by Wyatt and rebuilt on the present site. It is a Grade II* listed building.<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1277282|desc= The Lantern, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref>
[[Image:Lyme Hall 02.jpg|thumb|left|North front of the house seen through the gateway]]
Immediately to the northeast of the house is the [[Orangery]] which was designed in 1862 by [[Alfred Darbyshire]].{{sfn|Hartwell|Hyde|Hubbard|Pevsner|2011|pp=440–446}} The Orangery is joined to the house by a covered passage known as the Dark Passage. This was designed by Wyatt for Sir Thomas Legh in 1815 and is a Grade II listed building.<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1277338|desc= The Dark Passage, joining the Orangery to Lyme Park, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> Further from the house, to the northeast of the orangery, are the stables ({{coord|53.33912|-2.05283}}). These are dated 1863 and were also designed by Darbyshire. They are built in sandstone on a courtyard plan and are listed at Grade II.<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1232013|desc= The Stables at Lyme Park, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> Other structures in the grounds listed at Grade II are the Pheasant House dating from about 1870,<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1277275|desc= The Pheasant House at Lyme Park, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> an Italian white [[marble]] [[Puteal|wellhead]] in the centre of the courtyard of the house dating from the 18th century and probably brought to the house from Venice in about 1900,<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1231916|desc= Wellhead at centre of Lyme Park's courtyard, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> sandstone kennels in an H-plan dating from around 1870,<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1277269|desc= The Kennels in Lyme Park, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> a pair of gardener's cottages dated 1871,<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1231931|desc= Pair of Gardener's Cottages at Lyme Park, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> terrace [[revetment]] walls to the west of the house containing some 17th-century masonry with later repairs,<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1277276|desc= Terrace revetment walls, up to 50 metres to the west of Lyme Park, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> the lodge, gate piers and gates on Lyme Park Drive,<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1231350|desc= Lodge and gatepiers and gates on Lyme Park Drive, Disley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> the forward gatepiers to Lyme Park Drive, dating from the late 17th century and moved to their present position about 1860,<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1231348|desc= Forward gate piers to Lyme Park Drive, Disley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> the gate piers in Red Lane,<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1277454|desc= Gate piers to Lyme Park, Disley |accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref> and the gate piers, gates and railings to the north of the north front of the house.<ref>{{NHLE |num= 1277459|desc= Gate piers, gates and railings, 48 metres north of north front Of Lyme Park, Lyme Handley|accessdate= 4 August 2012}}</ref>
{{-}}

==Present day==

Lyme Park is owned and administered by the National Trust. The house, garden and park are open to the public at advertised hours.<ref name=nt>{{citation |url= http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/lyme-park/ |title= Lyme Park |accessdate=5 August 2012 |publisher= [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]}}</ref> An entrance fee to the house and garden is payable by non-members of the National Trust, and additional fee is charged for parking.<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/lyme-park/prices/|title= Prices |accessdate=5 August 2012 |publisher= [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]}}</ref> In the grounds are shops, a refreshment kiosk, a coffee shop and a restaurant.<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/lyme-park/eating-and-shopping/|title= Eating and Shopping|accessdate=5 August 2012 |publisher= [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]}}</ref> Events are held in the park.<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/lyme-park/things-to-see-and-do/|title= Things to see and do|accessdate=5 August 2012 |publisher= [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]}}</ref> The [[Lyme Caxton Missal]] is on display in the library. Associated with it is an interactive audio-visual display with a touch-screen facility to enable pages of the book to be "turned", and chants from the missal to be sung as they would have been 500 years ago.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.artfund.org/news/archive/877/lyme-caxton-missal-goes-on-public-display-thanks-to-art-fund-help| title = Lyme Caxton Missal goes on public display thanks to Art Fund help| accessdate = 5 August 2012| publisher = [[The Art Fund|Art Fund]]}}</ref>

Lyme Park and its hall have been used in several films and television programmes. The exterior of the hall was used as [[Pemberley]], the seat of [[Fitzwilliam Darcy|Mr. Darcy]], in the 1995 [[BBC]] adaptation of [[Jane Austen]]'s novel ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1995 TV serial)|Pride and Prejudice]]'',{{sfn|Groves|2004|pp=50–57}} and as a location for the ''[[Red Dwarf]]'' episode "[[Timeslides]]".<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0684185/| title = Timeslides| accessdate = 5 August 2012| publisher = [[Internet Movie Database]]}}</ref> The Bowmen of Lyme use the park for [[archery]].<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.bowmenoflyme.com/About/Default.aspx |title= Who are we? |accessdate=4 November 2008 |publisher= The Bowmen of Lyme }}</ref> It was also used for filming in the 2011 film ''The Awakening''.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/visit/days-out-and-itineraries/page-1/| title = Film locations| accessdate = 5 August 2012 |publisher= [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[Grade I listed buildings in Cheshire]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
'''Bibliography'''
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Citation | last = Beard| first = Geoffrey| author-link = | publication-date = | date = | year = 1966| title = Georgian Craftsmen and Their Work| edition = | volume = | series = | publication-place = | place = | publisher = Country Life| pages = | page = | format = | id = | isbn = | doi = | oclc = | url = | accessdate =}}
*{{Citation | last = Bilsborough | first = Norman | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Treasures of Cheshire |edition= | publisher = North West Civic Trust| year = 1983 | location = Manchester | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-901347-35-3}}
* {{Citation | last = Groves | first = Linden | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Historic Parks & Gardens of Cheshire |edition= | publisher = Landmark | year = 2004| location = Ashbourne | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 1-84306-124-4}}
*{{Citation | last = Hartwell | first = Claire |last2 = Hyde | first2 = Matthew |last3 = Hubbard | first3 = Edward | author3-link=Edward Hubbard | last4 =Pevsner | first4 =Nikolaus | author4-link =Nikolaus Pevsner | series= The Buildings of England| title = Cheshire |edition= | publisher =[[Yale University Press]]| year =2011| origyear=1971| location =New Haven and London| pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn =978-0-300-17043-6 }}
*{{Citation | last =Pevsner | first =Nikolaus | authorlink = | last2 = Hubbard | first2 = Edward | author2-link= | series= The Buildings of England| title = Cheshire |edition= | publisher =[[Yale University Press]]| year =2003| origyear=1971| location =New Haven and London| pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn =0-300-09588-0 }}
*{{citation | last = Waterson | first = Merlin | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Lyme Park |edition= | publisher = [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] | year = 1975 | location = | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==

*{{citation| last = Newton | first = Lady | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The House of Lyme: From Its Foundation to the End of the Eighteenth Century |edition= | publisher = [[G. P. Putnam's Sons]] | year = 1917 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}
*{{Citation | last = Newton | first = Lady | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Lyme Letters 1660-1760 |edition= | publisher = [[Heinemann (book publisher)|William Heinemann]] | year = 1925 | location = London | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}
* Rothwell, James (1998), ''Lyme Park''. National Trust.

== External links ==
{{commons category|Lyme Park}}
* [http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/lyme-park/ Lyme Park] – official site at National Trust
* [http://www.perioddramas.com/articles/lyme-park-as-pemberley-in-pride-and-prejudice.php Lyme Park as Pemberley in Pride and Prejudice]
* [http://www.gardenvisit.com/g/lym.htm Lyme Park] – a Gardens Guide review
* [http://www.360spin.co.uk/portfolio/lymepark.htm 360° view of the south front of the hall]
* [http://www.discovercheshire.co.uk/country-parks.aspx?refnum=CPK022&region=1&mapCategory=PRK&mapBackLayers=PRK1P&mapBackE=363000&mapBackN=363000&mapBackMpp=160&mapBackSearchTxt= Lyme Park (Discovercheshire website)]
* [http://www.cvma.ac.uk/jsp/location.do?locationKey=571&mode=COUNTY Information about the stained glass from the Corpus Vitrearum Medii Aevi (CVMA) of Great Britain]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/suaveairphotos/7448876508/in/photostream/ Aerial view of the house]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/suaveairphotos/7448883150/in/photostream/ Aerial view of the gardens]

[[Category:Gardens in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Country houses in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Country parks in Cheshire]]
[[Category:National Trust properties in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Palladian architecture]]

[[es:Lyme Park]]
[[fr:Lyme Park]]
[[pt:Lyme Hall]]

National Recording Registry

2013-01-27T06:12:40Z

Textorus: /* 2007 */ sp grr

{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2011}}
[[File:Martin Luther King - March on Washington.jpg|thumb|right|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]]'s "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech was one of the 50 recordings added on the first year of existence of the United States National Recording Registry.]]
The '''National Recording Registry''' is a list of sound recordings that "are culturally, historically, or aesthetically important, and/or inform or reflect life in the United States." The registry was established by the National Recording Preservation Act of 2000,<ref name="NRPB">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-home.html |publisher=[[The Library of Congress]] |title= Current Registry |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref> which created the [[National Recording Preservation Board]], whose members are appointed by the [[Librarian of Congress]]. The recordings preserved in the United States National Recording Registry form a registry of [[recording]]s selected yearly by the [[National Recording Preservation Board]] for preservation in the [[Library of Congress]].<ref name="CR">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-home.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= Current Registry |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=February 26, 2007}}</ref>

The legislative intent of the National Recording Preservation Act of 2000 was to develop a national program to guard America's [[sound recording]] heritage. The Act resulted in the formations of the National Recording Registry, The National Recording Preservation Board and a fund-raising foundation to aid their efforts.<ref name="O">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-about.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= Overview |date=November 16, 2006 |accessdate=February 26, 2007}}</ref> The act established the Registry specifically for the purpose of maintaining and preserving sound recordings and collections of sound recordings that are culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.<ref name="NRPB">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-home.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= Current Registry |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref> Beginning in 2002, the National Recording Preservation Board began selecting nominated recordings each year to be preserved.

The first four yearly lists included 50 selections. However, since 2006, 25 recordings have been selected annually. Thus, a total of 350 recordings have been preserved in the Registry {{as of|2012|lc=on}}. Each year, open nominations are accepted until July 1 for inclusion in that year's list of selections to be announced the following spring. Nominations are made in the following categories:

{{Div col|2}}
* Blues
* Broadway/Musical Theatre/Soundtrack
* Cajun/Zydeco/"Swamp"
* Children's recordings
* Choral
* Classical
* Comedy/Novelty
* Country/Bluegrass
* Documentary/Broadcast/Spoken Word
* Environmental
* Field
* Folk/Ethnic
* Gospel/Spiritual
* Heavy Metal
* Jazz
* Latin
* Pop (pre-1955)
* Pop (post-1955)
* R&B
* Radio
* Rap/Hip-hop
* Rock
* Technology
{{Div col end}}

Each yearly list has often included a few recordings that have also been selected for inclusion in the holdings of the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]' audiovisual collection. Those recordings on the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry that are of a political nature will tend to overlap with the audiovisual collection of the National Archives. The list shows overlapping items and whether the National Archives has an original or a copy of the recording.

<onlyinclude>

==Selection criteria==
The criteria for selection are as follows:<ref name="NRRC">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-nrr.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= National Recording Registry Criteria |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>

* Recordings selected for the National Recording Registry are those that are culturally, historically or aesthetically important, and/or inform or reflect life in the United States.
* For the purposes of recording selection, "sound recordings" are defined as works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds, but not including the sound component of a moving image work, unless it is available as an autonomous sound recording or is the only extant component of the work.
* Recordings may be a single item or group of related items; published or unpublished; and may contain music, non-music, spoken word, or broadcast sound.
* Recordings will not be considered for inclusion into the National Recording Registry if no copy of the recording exists.
* No recording should be denied inclusion into the National Recording Registry because that recording has already been preserved.
* No recording is eligible for inclusion into the National Recording Registry until ten years after the recording's creation.

==2002==
On January 27, 2003, the following 50 selections were announced by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR2">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-2002reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2002 |date=December 6, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Edison and phonograph edit1.jpg|thumb|100px|Selected exhibition recordings for the [[phonograph]] were added in 2002.]]</onlyinclude>
[[File:Louis Armstrong restored.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Louis Armstrong]] was one of American music's most important and influential figures. The sessions preserved in the registry, and his solos in particular, set a standard musicians still strive to equal in their beauty and innovation.<ref name="NRR2"/>]]
[[File:ODJBcard.JPG|100px|thumb|The [[Original Dixieland Jazz Band]]'s "Tiger Rag" launched [[jazz]] as a music genre, and is preserved in the registry.]]
[[File:Bessiesmith.jpg|100px|thumb|"[[Downhearted Blues]]" was the first release by "Empress of the Blues" [[Bessie Smith]].]]
[[File:BookerTWashington-Cheynes.LOC.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Booker T. Washington]] recreated his controversial 1895 Atlanta Exposition Speech in 1906.]]
[[File:FDRfiresidechat2.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s "Fireside Chats" "redefined the relationship between the president and the American people."<ref name="NRR2"/>]]
[[File:Orson Welles 1937.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Orson Welles]]' 1938 "War of the Worlds" radio drama created alarm and panic across the United States.]]<onlyinclude>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
|[[Thomas Edison|Edison]] exhibition recordings (Group of three [[Phonograph cylinder|cylinders]]):<ref>{{cite web|title=Edison cylinders chosen for National Recording Registry| date=December 22, 2004| work=Edison National Historic Site| publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/edis/pr_loc_rec_020103.htm|accessdate=March 7, 2007}} {{dead link|date=April 2011}}</ref>
* "Around the World on the Phonograph"
* "The Pattison Waltz"
* "Fifth Regiment March"
|[[Thomas Edison]]
|1888–1889
|
|-
|[[Passamaquoddy Indians]] [[field recording]]s
|Recorded by [[J. Walter Fewkes|Jesse Walter Fewkes]]
|1890
|
|-
|"[[Stars and Stripes Forever]]" ([[Berliner Gramophone]] disc recording)
|Military Band
|1897
|
|-
|[[Metropolitan Opera]] cylinder recordings (the [[Mapleson Cylinders]])
|Lionel Mapleson and the [[Metropolitan Opera]]
|1900–1903
|
|-
|[[Ragtime]] compositions [[piano roll]]s
|[[Scott Joplin]]
|1900s
|
|-
|[[Atlanta Compromise|1895 Atlanta Exposition speech]]
|[[Booker T. Washington]]
|1906 recreation
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
|"[[Casey at the Bat]]"
|[[DeWolf Hopper]]
|1906
|
|-
|"[[Vesti la giubba]]" from ''[[Pagliacci]]''
|[[Enrico Caruso]]
|1907
|
|-
|"[[Swing Low, Sweet Chariot]]"
|[[Fisk Jubilee Singers]]
|1909
|
|-
| [[Lovey's String Band|Lovey's Trinidad String Band]]
| Lovey's Trinidad String Band
|1912
|
|-
|"[[Tiger Rag]]"
|[[Original Dixieland Jass Band|Original Dixieland Jazz Band]]
|1918
|
|-
|"[[The Arkansas Traveler (song)|Arkansas Traveler]]" and "Sallie Gooden"
|[[Eck Robertson]]
|1922
|
|-
|"[[Downhearted Blues]]"
|[[Bessie Smith]]
|1923
|
|-
|''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]''
|[[George Gershwin]], piano; [[Paul Whiteman]] Orchestra
|1924
|
|-
|[[Louis Armstrong]]'s [[Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five|Hot Five]] and [[Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven|Hot Seven]] [[Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions|recordings]]
|Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven
|1925–1928
|
|-
|[[Victor Talking Machine Company]] sessions in [[Bristol, Tennessee|Bristol]], Tennessee
|[[Carter Family]], [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]], [[Ernest Stoneman]], and others
|1927
|
|-
|[[Highlander Research and Education Center|Highlander Center]] Field Recordings Collection
|[[Rosa Parks]], [[Esau Jenkins]] and others
|1930s–1980s
|
|-
|[[Bell Labs|Bell Laboratories]] experimental stereo recordings
|[[Philadelphia Orchestra]]; [[Leopold Stokowski]], conductor
|1931–1932
|
|-
| "[[Fireside Chats]]" [[radio programming|radio broadcasts]]{{ref label|fireside|A|A}}
|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
|1933–1944
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| Harvard Vocarium record series
|[[T. S. Eliot]], [[W. H. Auden]] and others
|1933–1956
|
|-
| "New Music Quarterly" recordings series
|[[Henry Cowell]], producer
|1934–1949
|
|-
| Description of the crash of the ''[[Hindenburg (airship)|Hindenburg]]''
|[[Herbert Morrison (announcer)|Herbert Morrison]]
|May 6, 1937
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| ''[[The Cradle Will Rock]]'' ([[Marc Blitzstein]])
|Original cast
|1938
|
|-
| "[[Who's on First?]]" Earliest existing [[radio programming|radio broadcast]] version
|[[Abbott and Costello]]
|October 6, 1938
|
|-
| ''[[The War of the Worlds (radio drama)|The War of the Worlds]]''
| [[Orson Welles]] and ''[[The Mercury Theatre on the Air]]''
|October 30, 1938
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "[[God Bless America]]" Radio broadcast premiere
|[[Kate Smith]]
|November 11, 1938
|
|-
| The [[John Lomax|John]] and [[Ruby Terrill Lomax|Ruby Lomax]] Southern States Recording Trip
|John and Ruby Lomax
|1939
|
|-
| "[[Strange Fruit]]"
|[[Billie Holiday]]
|1939
|
|-
| ''[[Grand Ole Opry]]'' First network radio broadcast
|[[Uncle Dave Macon]], [[Roy Acuff]], and others
|October 14, 1939
|
|-
|[[Béla Bartók]] and [[Joseph Szigeti]] in Concert at the [[Library of Congress]]
|[[Béla Bartók]], piano; [[Joseph Szigeti]], violin
|1940
|
|-
| ''[[The Rite of Spring]]''
|[[Igor Stravinsky]] conducting the [[New York Philharmonic]]
|1940
|
|-
| Blanton-Webster era recordings
| [[Duke Ellington]] Orchestra
|1940–1942
|
|-
| "[[White Christmas (song)|White Christmas]]"
|[[Bing Crosby]]
|1942
|
|-
| "[[This Land is Your Land]]"
|[[Woody Guthrie]]
|1944
|
|-
| [[D-Day]] radio address to the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Nations]]
|[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
|June 6, 1944
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| "[[Ko-Ko|Ko Ko]]"
|[[Charlie Parker]], [[Miles Davis]], [[Dizzy Gillespie]], and others
|1945
|
|-
| "[[Blue Moon of Kentucky]]"
|[[Bill Monroe]] and the Blue Grass Boys
|1947
|
|-
| "[[How High the Moon]]"
|[[Les Paul]] and [[Mary Ford]]
|1951
|
|-
| ''[[Songs for Young Lovers]]''
|[[Frank Sinatra]]
|1954
|
|-
| [[Elvis Presley's Sun recordings|Sun Records sessions]]
|[[Elvis Presley]]
|1954–1955
|
|-
|''[[Dance Mania (album)|Dance Mania]]''
|[[Tito Puente]]
|1958
|
|-
| ''[[Kind of Blue]]''
|[[Miles Davis]], [[John Coltrane]], [[Cannonball Adderley]], [[Bill Evans]], and others
|1959
|
|-
| "[[What'd I Say (song)|What'd I Say]]", Parts 1 and 2
|[[Ray Charles]]
|1959
|
|-
| ''[[The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan]]''
|[[Bob Dylan]]
|1963
|
|-
| "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech
|Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
|August 28, 1963
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "[[Respect (song)|Respect]]"
|[[Aretha Franklin]]
|1967
|
|-
| ''[[Philomel (Babbitt)|Philomel]]: For [[Soprano]]''
| Bethany Beardslee, recorded soprano, and [[Synthesizer|synthesized]] sound
|1971
|
|-
| ''[[Precious Lord: New Recordings of the Great Songs of Thomas A. Dorsey|Precious Lord: New Recordings of the Great Gospel Songs of Thomas A. Dorsey]]''
| [[Thomas A. Dorsey]], [[Marion Williams]], and others
|1973
|
|-
| Crescent City Living Legends Collection ([[New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival|New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Foundation]] Archive/[[WWOZ]] New Orleans)
|
|1973–1990
|
|-
| "[[The Message (Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five song)|The Message]]"
|[[Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five]]
|1982
|
|}

==2003==
[[File:Marian Anderson.jpg|100px|thumb|"He's Got the Whole World in His Hands" was one of [[Marian Anderson]]'s favorite [[spiritual (music)|spirituals]], and she often performed it at the conclusion of her recitals.<ref name="NRR3"/>]]
[[File:Steam Locomotive.jpg|100px|thumb|[[O. Winston Link]]'s recordings of the sounds produced by a variety of locomotive models capture "the unique and now-lost sounds of the engines which united the United States."<ref name="NRR3"/>]]
[[File:EllaFitzgerald.jpg|100px|thumb|The Cole Porter ''Songbook'' was the first of [[Ella Fitzgerald]]'s many anthologies.]]
[[File:Chuck Berry51.JPG|100px|thumb|[[Chuck Berry]]- widely considered to have "laid the groundwork for not only a rock and roll sound but a rock and roll stance".]]
[[File:The Beatles in America.JPG|100px|thumb|[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]] is arguably one of the most important albums in popular music.]]

In March 2004, the following 50 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR3">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2003reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2003 |date=October 25, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "[[Lord's Prayer|The Lord's Prayer]]" and "[[Twinkle Twinkle Little Star]]"
| [[Emile Berliner]]
| c. 1890
|
|-
| "Honolulu Cake Walk"
| [[Vess Ossman]]
| 1898
|
|-
| [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor Releases]]
| [[Bert Williams]] and George Walker
| 1901
|
|-
| "You're a Grand Old Rag [Flag]"
| [[Billy Murray (singer)|Billy Murray]]
| 1906
|
|-
| [[Ojibwa|Chippewa/Ojibwe]] [[Phonograph cylinder|Cylinder]] Collection
| [[Frances Densmore]]
| 1907–1910
|
|-
| The Bubble Book (the first Bubble Book)
|
| 1917
|
|-
| [[Phonograph cylinder|Cylinder recordings]] of [[African-American music]]
| [[Guy Benton Johnson|Guy B. Johnson]]
| 1920s
|
|-
| [[Cross of Gold speech|"Cross of Gold" speech]] Speech re-enactment
| [[William Jennings Bryan]]
| 1921
|
|-
| "OKeh Laughing Record"
| Lucie Bernardo and Otto Rathke
| 1922
|
|-
| "[[Adeste Fideles]]"
| Associated Glee Clubs of America
| 1925
|
|-
| [[Cajun]]-[[Louisiana Creole people|Creole]] [[Columbia Records|Columbia]] releases
| [[Amédé Ardoin]] and Dennis McGee
| 1929
|
|-
| "[[Goodnight, Irene]]"
| [[Lead Belly]]
| 1933
|
|-
| "Every Man a King" speech
| [[Huey Long|Huey P. Long]]
| February 23, 1935
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "He's Got the Whole World in His Hands"
| [[Marian Anderson]]
| 1936
|
|-
| ''[[The Complete Recordings (Robert Johnson album)|The Complete Recordings]]''
| [[Robert Johnson (musician)|Robert Johnson]]
| 1936–1937
|
|-
| Interviews conducted by [[Alan Lomax]]
| [[Jelly Roll Morton]], [[Alan Lomax]]
| 1938
|
|-
| ''[[The Famous 1938 Carnegie Hall Jazz Concert|Carnegie Hall Jazz Concert]]''
| [[Benny Goodman]]
| 1938
|
|-
| Complete day of radio broadcasting, [[WJSV]] (Washington, D.C.)
| [[WJSV]], Washington, D.C.
| September 21, 1939
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| "[[New San Antonio Rose]]"
| [[Bob Wills]] and His Texas Playboys
| 1940
|
|-
| ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' ([[George Gershwin]])
| Original cast
| 1940, 1942
|
|-
| [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] [[String Quartet]]s
| [[Budapest Quartet]]
| 1940–1950
|
|-
| [[1941 World Series|World Series]]-Game Four
| [[New York Yankees]] vs. [[Brooklyn Dodgers]]
| October 5, 1941
|
|-
| ''[[Oklahoma!]]'' ([[Rodgers and Hammerstein]])
| Original cast
| 1943
|
|-
| ''[[Othello]]''
| [[Paul Robeson]], [[Uta Hagen]], [[José Ferrer]], and others
| 1943
|
|-
| [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] [[Mass in B Minor (Bach)|B-Minor Mass]]
| [[Robert Shaw (conductor)|Robert Shaw]] Chorale
| 1947
|
|-
| ''[[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|The Four Seasons]]'' ([[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]])
| Louis Kaufman and the Concert Hall String Orchestra
| 1947
|
|-
| [[Piano Sonata No. 2 (Ives)|Piano Sonata No. 2]], "[[Piano Sonata No. 2 (Ives)|Concord]]"
([[Charles Ives|Ives]])
| John Kirkpatrick
| 1948
|
|-
| ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]'' ([[Modest Mussorgsky]]) 
| [[Rafael Kubelík]] conducting the [[Chicago Symphony Orchestra]]
| 1951
|
|-
| "Problems of the American Home"
| [[Billy Graham]]
| 1954
|
|-
| [[Goldberg Variations]] ([[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]])
| [[Glenn Gould]]
| 1955
|
|-
| ''[[Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Songbook]]''
| [[Ella Fitzgerald]]
| 1956
|
|-
| "[[Roll Over Beethoven]]"
| [[Chuck Berry]]
| 1956
|
|-
| ''[[Brilliant Corners]]''
| [[Thelonious Monk]]
| 1956
|
|-
| [[Steam locomotive]] recordings, 6 vol.
| [[O. Winston Link]]
| 1957–1977
|
|-
| ''[[Der Ring des Nibelungen|Complete Ring Cycle]]'' ([[Richard Wagner]]) 
| [[Georg Solti]] and the [[Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra]]
| 1958–1965
|
|-
| ''Winds in Hi-Fi''
| [[Eastman Wind Ensemble]] with [[Frederick Fennell]]
| 1958
|
|-
| ''[[Mingus Ah Um]]''
| [[Charles Mingus]]
| 1959
|
|-
| ''New York Taxi Driver''
| [[Tony Schwartz (American sound archivist)|Tony Schwartz]]
| 1959
|
|-
| [[Ali Akbar College of Music]], Archive Selections
|
| 1960s–1970s
|
|-
| "[[Crazy (Willie Nelson song)|Crazy]]"
| [[Patsy Cline]]
| 1961
|
|-
| Kennedy [[Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States|Inauguration Ceremony]]
| [[John Fitzgerald Kennedy]], [[Robert Frost]], and others
| January 20, 1961
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| ''[[Judy at Carnegie Hall]]''
| [[Judy Garland]]
| 1961
|
|-
| "[[I've Been Loving You Too Long]] (To Stop Now)"
| [[Otis Redding]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''
| [[The Beatles]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[At Folsom Prison]]''
| [[Johnny Cash]]
| 1968
|
|-
| ''[[What's Going On]]''
| [[Marvin Gaye]]
| 1971
|
|-
| ''[[Tapestry (Carole King album)|Tapestry]]''
| [[Carole King]]
| 1971
|
|-
| ''[[A Prairie Home Companion]]'' First broadcast
| [[Garrison Keillor]]
| July 6, 1974
|
|-
| ''[[Born to Run]]''
| [[Bruce Springsteen]]
| 1975
|
|-
| ''Live at Yankee Stadium''
| [[Fania All-Stars]]
| 1975
|
|}

==2004==
In April 2005, the following 50 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR4">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2004reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2004 |date=October 25, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:AdeleFred1921.jpg|100px|thumb|The [[traditional pop music]] song "Fascinating Rhythm," sung by Fred and Adele Astaire in ''Lady, Be Good'', was preserved in 2004.]]
[[File:LindberghStLouis.jpg|100px|thumb|The NBC's coverage of [[Charles Lindbergh|Colonel Lindbergh]] in Washington was an important achievement for the network, and involved reporters in three locations in the city.]]

[[File:MacArthur Manila.jpg|100px|thumb|In spite of the controversy surrounding [[Douglas MacArthur|MacArthur]] at the time, his farewell speech to congress is noted for its eloquence and effectiveness.<ref name="NRR4"/>]]
[[File:Tom Lehrer - Southern Campus 1960.jpg|100px|thumb|Among those to have claimed musical satirist [[Tom Lehrer]] as an influence are [[Lenny Bruce]] and [[Weird Al Yankovic]].]]
[[File:Neil Armstrong pose.jpg|100px|thumb| "Houston. Tranquility base here. The Eagle has landed.... I’m going to step off the LEM now. That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." [[Neil Armstrong]]'s words upon landing on the moon "have become some of the most recognizable and memorable sentences spoken in United States history."<ref name="NRR4"/>]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "Gypsy Love Song"
| Eugene Cowles
| 1898
|
|-
| "Some of These Days"
| [[Sophie Tucker]]
| 1911
|
|-
| "The Castles in Europe One-Step (Castle House Rag)"
| [[James Reese Europe|Europe's Society Orchestra]]
| 1914
|
|-
| "[[Swanee (song)|Swanee]]"
| [[Al Jolson]]
| 1920
|
|-
| [[Armistice Day]] radio broadcast
| [[Woodrow Wilson]]
| November 10, 1923
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| "[[See See Rider Blues|See See Rider]]"
| [[Ma Rainey|Gertrude "Ma" Rainey]]
| 1923
|
|-
| "Charleston"
| Golden Gate Orchestra
| 1925
|
|-
| "[[Fascinating Rhythm]]" 
| [[Fred Astaire|Fred]] and [[Adele Astaire]]; [[George Gershwin]], piano
| 1926
|
|-
| [[NBC]] radio coverage of [[Charles Lindbergh|Charles A. Lindbergh]]'s arrival and reception in Washington, D.C.
|
|June 11, 1927
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "[[Stardust (song)|Stardust]]"
| [[Hoagy Carmichael]]
| 1927
|
|-
| "[[Blue Yodel (songs by Jimmie Rodgers)|Blue Yodel (T for Texas)]]"
| [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]]
| 1927
|
|-
| "[[Ain't Misbehavin' (song)|Ain't Misbehavin']]"
| [[Fats Waller|Thomas "Fats" Waller]]
| 1929
|
|-
| "[[Gregorio Cortez]]"
| Trovadores Regionales
| 1929
|
|-
| [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Rachmaninoff)|Piano Concerto No. 2 in C minor]]
| [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], piano; Leopold Stokowski, conductor; [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]
| 1929
|
|-
| "The Suncook Town Tragedy"
| Mabel Wilson Tatro 
| July 1930
|
|-
| Oral [[narrative]] from the Lorenzo D. Turner Collection
| Rosina Cohen
| 1932
|
|-
| "[[Stormy Weather (1933 song)|Stormy Weather]]"
| [[Ethel Waters]]
| 1933
|
|-
| "[[Body and Soul (song)|Body and Soul]]"
| [[Coleman Hawkins]]
| 1939
|
|-
| ''[[Peter and the Wolf]]'' ([[Sergei Prokofiev|Sergey Prokofiev]])
| [[Serge Koussevitzky]], conductor; Richard Hale, narrator; [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]]
| 1939
|
|-
| "[[In the Mood]]"
| [[Glenn Miller]] and His Orchestra
| 1939
|
|-
| Broadcasts from London
| [[Edward R. Murrow]]
| 1940
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| ''[[We Hold These Truths]]'' ([[Norman Corwin]])
|
| December 15, 1941
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Tchaikovsky)|Piano Concerto No. 1, op. 23, Bb minor]] ([[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]])
| [[Vladimir Horowitz]], piano; [[Arturo Toscanini]], conductor; [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]]
| 1943
|
|-
| "[[Down by the Riverside]]"
| [[Sister Rosetta Tharpe]]
| 1944
|
|-
| ''U.S. Highball (A Musical Account of a Transcontinental Hobo Trip)''
| [[Harry Partch]], Gate 5 Ensemble
| 1946
|
|-
| ''[[Four Saints in Three Acts]]'' ([[Virgil Thomson]])
| Original cast
| 1947
|
|-
| "Manteca"
| [[Dizzy Gillespie]] [[Big Band]] with [[Chano Pozo]]
| 1947
|
|-
| ''[[The Jack Benny Program]]''
| [[Jack Benny]]
| March 28, 1948
|
|-
| "[[Foggy Mountain Breakdown]]"
| [[Flatt and Scruggs|Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs]]
| 1949
|
|-
| "[[Lovesick Blues]]"
| [[Hank Williams]]
| 1949
|
|-
| ''[[Guys and Dolls (musical)|Guys & Dolls]]''
| Original cast
| 1950
|
|-
| "Old Soldiers Never Die" ([[farewell speech|Farewell Address]] to the [[United States Congress]])
| General [[Douglas MacArthur]]
| April 19, 1951
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| ''Songs by [[Tom Lehrer]]''
| [[Tom Lehrer]]
| 1953
|-
| "[[Hoochie Coochie Man]]"
| [[Muddy Waters]]
| 1954
|
|-
| "[[Earth Angel|Earth Angel (Will You Be Mine)]]"
| [[The Penguins]]
| 1954
|
|-
| ''Tuskegee Institute Choir Sings Spirituals''
| Tuskegee Institute Choir, directed by [[William Levi Dawson (composer)|William L. Dawson]]
| 1955
|
|-
| ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]''
| [[Eugene Ormandy]], conductor; [[Richard P. Condie]], choir director; [[Mormon Tabernacle Choir]]; [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]
| 1958
|
|-
| ''[[Giant Steps]]''
| [[John Coltrane]]
| 1959
|
|-
| ''[[Drums of Passion]]''
| [[Michael Babatunde Olatunji]]
| 1960
|
|-
| ''[[Peace Be Still (James Cleveland album)|Peace Be Still]]''
| [[James Cleveland]]
| 1962
|
|-
| "[[The Girl from Ipanema]]" (Garota de Ipanema)
| [[Stan Getz]], [[João Gilberto]], [[Antonio Carlos Jobim]], [[Astrud Gilberto]]
| 1963
|
|-
| ''[[Live at the Apollo (1963 album)|Live at the Apollo]]''
| [[James Brown]]
| 1963
|-
| ''[[Pet Sounds]]''
| [[The Beach Boys]]
| 1966
|
|-
| [[King James version of the Bible]]
| [[Alexander Scourby]]
| 1966
|
|-
| Remarks broadcast from the moon
| [[Apollo 11]] [[astronaut]] [[Neil Armstrong]]
| July 21, 1969
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| ''[[At Fillmore East]]''
| [[The Allman Brothers Band]]
| 1971
|
|-
| [[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope (soundtrack)|''Star Wars'' (Soundtrack)]]
| [[John Williams]]
| 1977
|
|-
| Recordings of Asian elephants
| [[Katharine B. Payne]]
| 1984
|
|-
| ''[[Fear of a Black Planet]]''
| [[Public Enemy (band)|Public Enemy]]
| 1990
|
|-
| ''[[Nevermind]]''
| [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]
| 1991
|
|}

==2005==
In April 2006, the following 50 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR5">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2005reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2005 |date=October 25, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Paul Robeson 1942.jpg|100px|thumb|An athlete, a gentleman and a scholar, [[Paul Robeson|Robeson]] used his diverse talents to pave a successful career as a performer and become active in sociopolitical affairs.]]
[[File:Count Basie in Rhythm and Blues Revue.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Count Basie]], prominent band leader during the [[big band]] era, influenced many musicians of his day.]]
[[File:Archibaldmacleish.jpeg|100px|thumb|[[Archibald MacLeish]], [[Librarian of Congress]] and [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning poet.]]
[[File:Joe Louis - Max Schmeling - 1936.jpg|100px|thumb|Former champion [[Max Schmeling]] handed Joe Louis his first loss.]]
[[File:B. B. King.jpg|100px|thumb|B. B. King and his guitar [[Lucille (guitar)|Lucille]].]]
[[File:Proctor and Bergman 1976.JPG|100px|thumb|[[Don't Crush That Dwarf, Hand Me the Pliers|Don't Crush That Dwarf...]] was the first comedy album to utilize such production techniques including 16-track recording and Dolby noise reduction.]]
[[File:Stevie Wonder.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Stevie Wonder]] has been awarded over 20 [[Grammy Awards]]. His 1976 album ''[[Songs in the Key of Life]]'' won the Grammy that year for Album of the Year.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "Canzone del Porter" from ''[[Martha (opera)|Martha]]'' ([[Friedrich von Flotow|von Flotow]])
| Edouard de Reszke
| 1903
|
|-
| "Listen to the Lambs"
| Hampton Quartette; recorded by [[Natalie Curtis]] Burlin
| 1917
|
|-
| "[[Over There]]"
| [[Nora Bayes]]
| 1917
|
|-
| "Crazy Blues"
| [[Mamie Smith]]
| 1920
|
|-
| "My Man" and "Second Hand Rose"
| [[Fanny Brice]]
| 1921
|
|-
| "[[Ory's Creole Trombone]]"
| [[Kid Ory]]
| June 1922
|
|-
| [[Second inauguration of Calvin Coolidge]]
| [[Calvin Coolidge]]
| March 4, 1925
|
|-
| "Tanec Pid Werbamy/ Dance Under the Willows"
| [[Pawlo Humeniuk]]
| 1926
|
|-
| "Singin' the Blues"
| [[Frankie Trumbauer]] and His Orchestra with [[Bix Beiderbecke]]
| 1927
|
|-
| First official transatlantic telephone conversation
|W.S. Gifford and Sir Evelyn P. Murray
| January 7, 1927
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| "[[El Manisero]]" ("[[The Peanut Vendor]]") (Two versions)
| Rita Montaner, vocal with orchestra; Don Azpiazu and His Havana Casino orchestra
| 1927; 1930
|
|-
| ''Light's Golden Jubilee Celebration''
|
| October 21, 1929
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| Beethoven's [[Egmont (Beethoven)|Egmont Overture]], Op. 84
| Modesto High School Band
| 1930
|
|-
| ''[[Show Boat]]''
| [[Helen Morgan]], [[Paul Robeson]], James Melton and others; [[Victor Young]], conductor; [[Louis Alter]], piano
| 1932
|
|-
| "[[Wabash Cannonball]]"
| [[Roy Acuff]]
| 1936
|
|-
| "[[One O'Clock Jump]]"
| [[Count Basie]] and His Orchestra
| 1937
|
|-
| ''[[The Fall of the City]]'' (''[[Columbia Workshop]]'')
| Orson Welles, narrator; [[Burgess Meredith]], [[Paul Stewart (actor)|Paul Stewart]]
| April 11, 1937
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| ''[[The Adventures of Robin Hood (film)|The Adventures of Robin Hood]]'' ([[Erich Wolfgang Korngold]])
|
| May 11, 1938
|
|-
| [[Joe Louis]]-[[Max Schmeling]] [[boxing|fight]]
| [[Clem McCarthy]], announcer
| June 22, 1938
|
|-
| ''[[John the Revelator (song)|John the Revelator]]''
| [[Golden Gate Quartet]]
| 1938
|
|-
| "[[Adagio for Strings]]"
| [[Arturo Toscanini]], conductor; [[NBC Symphony]]
| November 5, 1938
|
|-
| ''Command Performance,'' show No. 21
| [[Bob Hope]], [[master of ceremonies]]
| July 7, 1942
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "Straighten Up and Fly Right"
| [[Nat King Cole|Nat “King” Cole]]
| 1943
|
|-
| ''The [[Fred Allen]] Show''
| Fred Allen
| October 7, 1945
|
|-
| "Jole Blon (Jolie Blonde)"
| [[Harry Choates]]
| 1946
|
|-
| ''Tubby the Tuba''
| Victor Jory
| 1946
|
|-
| "[[Move On Up A Little Higher (song)|Move On Up a Little Higher]]"
| [[Mahalia Jackson]]
| 1948
|
|-
| ''[[Anthology of American Folk Music]]''
| Edited by [[Harry Everett Smith|Harry Smith]]
| 1952
|
|-
| "Schooner Bradley"
| Pat Bonner
| 1952–60
|
|-
| ''Damnation of Faust
| [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]] with the [[Harvard Glee Club]] and [[Radcliffe Choral Society]]
| 1954
|
|-
| "[[Blueberry Hill (song)|Blueberry Hill]]"
| [[Fats Domino]]
| 1956
|
|-
| ''Variations for Orchestra'' Representative of the Louisville Orchestra First Edition Recordings series
| [[Louisville Orchestra]]
| 1956
|
|-
| "[[Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin On]]"
| [[Jerry Lee Lewis]]
| 1957
|
|-
| "[[That'll Be the Day]]"
| [[The Crickets]]
| 1957
|
|-
| ''[[Poeme Electronique]]''
| [[Edgard Varèse]]
| 1958
|
|-
| ''[[Time Out (album)|Time Out]]''
| [[The Dave Brubeck Quartet]]
| 1959
|
|-
| [[Studs Terkel]] interview with James Baldwin Representative of the Studs Terkel Collection at the [[Chicago History Museum]] (formerly the [[Chicago Historical Society]]) 
| [[Studs Terkel]], [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]]
| September 29, 1962
|
|-
| [[United States Military Academy]] address
| [[William Faulkner]]
| April 19–20, 1962
|
|-
| "[[Dancing in the Street]]"
| [[Martha and the Vandellas]]
| 1964
|
|-
| ''[[Live at the Regal]]''
| [[B.B. King]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[Are You Experienced]]''
| [[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[We're Only in It for the Money]]''
| [[Frank Zappa]] and [[the Mothers of Invention]]
| 1968
|
|-
| ''[[Switched-On Bach|Switched-On]] [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]''
| [[Wendy Carlos]]
| 1968
|
|-
| "[[Oh Happy Day]]"
| [[Edwin Hawkins]] Singers
| 1969
|
|-
| ''[[Don't Crush That Dwarf, Hand Me the Pliers]]''
| [[Firesign Theatre]]
| 1970
|
|-
| "[[The Revolution Will Not Be Televised]]"
| [[Gil Scott-Heron]]
| 1970
|
|-
| ''[[Will the Circle Be Unbroken]]''
| [[Nitty Gritty Dirt Band]]
| 1972
|
|-
| The old foghorn, [[Kewaunee, Wisconsin|Kewaunee]], Wisconsin
| Recorded by James A. Lipsky
| 1972
|
|-
| ''[[Songs in the Key of Life]]''
| [[Stevie Wonder]]
| 1976
|
|-
| ''[[Daydream Nation]]''
| [[Sonic Youth]]
| 1988
|
|}

==2006==
On March 6, 2007, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR6">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2006reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2006 |date=March 6, 2007 |accessdate =March 7, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Cal Stewart with paper.jpg|thumb|100px|Cal Stewart was among the most prolific and popular recording artists of the first 20 years of commercial recording.]]
[[File:Franklin Roosevelt signing declaration of war against Japan.jpg|thumb|100px|President Roosevelt signs the declaration of war against Japan after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], the "date which will live in infamy".]]
[[File:Pete Seeger NYWTS.jpg|thumb|100px|Folk singer Pete Seeger adapted a gospel song, "I Shall Overcome", by changing "I" to "We", and it became a standard for the civil rights movement.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "Uncle Josh and the Insurance Agent"
| [[Cal Stewart]]
| 1904
|
|-
|"Il Mio Tesoro"
| [[John McCormack (tenor)|John McCormack]]; orchestra conducted by Walter Rogers
| 1916
|
|-
| National Defense Test
| General [[John J. Pershing]]
| September 12, 1924
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
|"[[Black Bottom (dance)|Black Bottom Stomp]]"
| [[Jelly Roll Morton]]'s Red Hot Peppers
| 1926
|
|-
| "[[Wildwood Flower]]"
| [[Carter Family]]
| 1928
|
|-
| "[[Pony Blues]]"
| [[Charley Patton]]
| 1929
|
|-
|"[[You're the Top]]"
| [[Cole Porter]]
| 1934
|
|-
| ''[[The Lone Ranger]]'' Episode: "The Osage Bank Robbery"
| [[Earle Graser]], John Todd
| December 17, 1937
|
|-
| "Day of Infamy" speech to [[United States Congress|Congress]]
| [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
| December 8, 1941
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| Native Brazilian music recorded under the supervision of [[Leopold Stokowski]]
| [[Pixinguinha]], Donga, [[Cartola]], Jararaca, Ratinho and José Espinguela
|1942
|
|-
| "[[Peace in the Valley]]"
| [[Red Foley]] and the Sunshine Boys
| 1951
|
|-
| "[[Polonaises Op. 40 (Chopin)|Polonaise in A Major]]" ("Polonaise militaire"), Op. 40, No. 1, by [[Frédéric Chopin]]
| [[Artur Rubinstein]]
| 1952
|
|-
|"[[Blue Suede Shoes]]"
| [[Carl Perkins]]
| 1955
|
|-
| Interviews with William "Billy" Bell (Canadian-Irish northwoods work songs)
| Recorded by Edward D. "Sandy" Ives
| 1956
|
|-
| ''[[Howl]]''
| [[Allen Ginsberg]]
| 1959
|
|-

| ''[[The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart]]''
| [[Bob Newhart]]
| 1960
|
|-
| "[[Be My Baby]]"
| [[The Ronettes]]
| 1963
|
|-
| "[[We Shall Overcome]]"
| [[Pete Seeger]]
| 1963
|
|-
| "[[(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction]]"
| [[The Rolling Stones]]
| 1965
|
|-
| "[[A Change Is Gonna Come (song)|A Change Is Gonna Come]]"
| [[Sam Cooke]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[The Velvet Underground & Nico]]''
| [[The Velvet Underground]] and [[Nico]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[The Eighty-Six Years of Eubie Blake]]''
| [[Eubie Blake]]
| 1969
|
|-
| ''[[Burnin' (Bob Marley & The Wailers album)|Burnin']]
| [[The Wailers (1963-1974 band)|The Wailers]]
| 1973
|
|-
| ''[[Live in Japan (Sarah Vaughan album)|Live in Japan]]''
| [[Sarah Vaughan]]
| 1973
|
|-
| ''[[Graceland (album)|Graceland]]''
| [[Paul Simon]]
| 1986
|
|}

==2007==
[[File:Joefalconmusician.jpg|thumb|100px|"Allons à Lafayette" was the best-known recording by Cajun accordionist Joe Falcon.]]
[[File:Fiorello LaGuardia.jpg|thumb|100px|Fiorello La Guardia read the comics on WNYC radio during the 1945 newspaper delivery strike.]]
[[File:The Sounds of Earth - GPN-2000-001976.jpg|thumb|100px|''Murmurs of Earth'' is an eclectic 90-minute record of life and culture, sent into space by [[NASA]].]]
On May 14, 2008, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref>{{cite news | first=Susan | last=Logue | title=Jackson, Reagan Added to National Recording Registry | date=May 15, 2008 | publisher=Voice of America | url =http://voanews.com/english/archive/2008-05/2008-05-15-voa24.cfm | work=VOA News | accessdate =January 3, 2009 }} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref name="NRR7">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2007reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2007 |date=May 14, 2008 |accessdate =August 9, 2008}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| The first transatlantic broadcast
|
| March 14, 1925
|
|-
| "Allons a Lafayette"
| [[Joe Falcon]]
| 1928
|
|-
| "Casta Diva" from [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]]'s ''[[Norma (opera)|Norma]]''
| [[Rosa Ponselle]] and the [[Metropolitan Opera]] Orchestra and Chorus, conducted by Giulio Setti
| December 31, 1928 and January 30, 1929
|
|-
|"[[If I Could Hear My Mother Pray Again]]"
|[[Thomas A. Dorsey]]
| 1934
|
|-
| "[[Sweet Lorraine]]"
| [[Art Tatum]]
| 1940
|
|-
|''[[Fibber McGee and Molly]]'' Fibber's closet opens for the first time
| Jim Jordan, Marian Jordan
| March 4, 1940
|
|-
| ''Wings Over Jordan''
|
| May 10, 1942
|
|-
| [[Fiorello H. La Guardia]] reading the comics
| Fiorello H. La Guardia
| 1945
|
|-
| "[[Call It Stormy Monday (But Tuesday Is Just as Bad)]]"
| [[T-Bone Walker]]
| 1947
|
|-
| Speech at the [[1948 Democratic National Convention]]
| [[Harry S. Truman]]
| July 15, 1948
|
|-
| ''The Jazz Scene''
| Various artists, produced by [[Norman Granz]]
| 1949
|
|-
| "[[It Wasn't God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels]]"
| [[Kitty Wells]]
| 1952
|
|-
| ''[[My Fair Lady]]''
| Original cast
| 1956
|
|-
| Navajo Shootingway Ceremony Field Recordings
| Recorded by [[David McAllester (ethnomusicologist)|David McAllester]]
| 1957–1958
|
|-
| ''<nowiki>"</nowiki>Freight Train" and Other North Carolina Folk Songs and Tunes''
| [[Elizabeth Cotten]]
| 1959
|
|-
| [[United States Marine Band]] Recordings for the [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts|National Cultural Center]]
|
| 1963
|
|-
| "[[Oh, Pretty Woman]]"
| [[Roy Orbison]]
| 1964
|
|-
| "[[The Tracks of My Tears]]"
| [[Smokey Robinson]] and [[the Miracles]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[You’ll Sing a Song and I’ll Sing a Song]]''
| [[Ella Jenkins]]
| 1966
|
|-
| ''Music from the Morning of the World''
| Various artists, recorded by [[David Lewiston]]
| 1966
|
|-
| ''[[For the Roses]]''
| [[Joni Mitchell]]
| 1972
|
|-
| ''[[Head Hunters]]''
| [[Herbie Hancock]]
| 1973
|
|-
| [[Ronald Reagan]] radio broadcasts
| [[Ronald Reagan]]
| 1976–79
|
|-
| ''[[Voyager Golden Record|Murmurs of Earth]]'' Disc prepared for the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] spacecraft
|
| 1977
|
|-
| ''[[Thriller (album)|Thriller]]''
| [[Michael Jackson]]
| 1982
|
|}

==2008==
[[File:Heifetz LOC 38890u.jpg|thumb|100px|Shortly after his Carnegie Hall debut on November 7, 1917, violinist [[Jascha Heifetz]] made his first recordings for [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor]].]]
[[File:MarianAndersonLincolnMemorial.png|thumb|100px|Marian Anderson performed for more than 75,000 people at the Lincoln Memorial, opening with "[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]."]]
[[File:Sir Winston S Churchill.jpg|thumb|100px|Winston Churchill's "[[:s:Sinews of Peace|Sinews of Peace]]" address originated the term "Iron Curtain."]]
On June 10, 2009, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref>{{cite news | first=Natasha | last=Metzler | title=New National Recording Registry entries announced | date=June 9, 2009 | publisher=Associated Press, San Fransciso Chronicle | url =http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2009/06/09/national/w124722D20.DTL&type=business | accessdate =June 10, 2009 }} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
|"No News, or What Killed the Dog"
| [[Nat M. Wills]]
| 1908
|
|-
| Acoustic recordings for [[Victor Talking Machine Company]]

| [[Jascha Heifetz]]
| 1917–1924
|
|-
| "Night Life"
| [[Mary Lou Williams]]
| 1930
|
|-
|[[Ivory-billed woodpecker|Sounds of the ivory-billed woodpecker]]
|
| 1935
|
|-
| ''[[Gang Busters]]''
|
| 1935–1957
|
|-
| "[[Bei Mir Bistu Shein]]"
| [[The Andrews Sisters]]
| 1938
|
|-
| "O Que é que a Bahiana tem"
| [[Carmen Miranda]]
| 1939
|
|-
| [[NBC|NBC Radio]] coverage of Marian Anderson's [[Marian Anderson#European fame and the 1939 Lincoln Memorial concert|recital at the Lincoln Memorial]]
| [[Marian Anderson]]
| April 9, 1939
|
|-
| "[[Tom Dooley (song)|Tom Dooley]]"
| [[Frank Proffitt]]
| 1940
|
|-
| ''Mary Margaret McBride''
| [[Mary Margaret McBride]] and [[Zora Neale Hurston]]
| January 25, 1943
|
|-
| "Uncle Sam Blues" ([[V-Disc]])
| [[Oran Page|Oran "Hot Lips" Page]], accompanied by [[Eddie Condon|Eddie Condon's Jazz Band]]
| 1944
|
|-
| [[Iron Curtain#Iron Curtain speech|"Sinews of Peace" (Iron Curtain) Speech]] at [[Westminster College (Missouri)|Westminster College]], [[Fulton, Missouri|Fulton]], Missouri
| [[Winston Churchill]]
| March 5, 1946
|
|-
| "The Churkendoose"
| [[Ray Bolger]]
| 1947
|
|-
| "[[Boogie Chillen']]"
| [[John Lee Hooker]]
| 1948
|
|-
| ''[[A Child's Christmas in Wales]]''
| [[Dylan Thomas]]
| 1952
|
|-
| ''A Festival of Lessons and Carols as Sung on Christmas Eve in King's College Chapel, Cambridge''
| [[Choir of King's College, Cambridge|King's College Choir]]; [[Boris Ord]], director
| 1954
|
|-
| ''[[West Side Story (Original Broadway Cast)|West Side Story]]''
| Original cast
| 1957
|
|-
| "[[Tom Dooley (song)|Tom Dooley]]"
| [[The Kingston Trio]]
| 1958
|
|-
| "[[Rumble (instrumental)|Rumble]]"
| [[Link Wray]]
| 1958
|
|-
| ''[[Play of Daniel|The Play of Daniel: A Twelfth-Century Drama]]''
| [[New York Pro Musica]] under the direction of Noah Greenberg
| 1958
|
|-
| "Rank Stranger"
| [[The Stanley Brothers]]
| 1960
|
|-
| "[[At Last]]"
| [[Etta James]]
| 1961
|
|-
| ''[[2000 Year Old Man|2000 Years with Carl Reiner and Mel Brooks]]''
| [[Carl Reiner]] and [[Mel Brooks]]
| 1961
|
|-
| ''[[My Generation (album)|The Who Sings My Generation]]''
| [[The Who]]
| 1966
|
|-
| "[[He Stopped Loving Her Today]]"
| [[George Jones]]
| 1980
|
|}

==2009==
On June 23, 2010, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="loc.gov">[http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-2009reg.html Registry Choices 2009: The National Recording Preservation Board (Library of Congress)]. Loc.gov. Retrieved on October 27, 2010.</ref>
[[File:Bill Cosby (2010).jpg|thumb|100px|Bill Cosby]]
[[File:Little Richard in 2007.jpg|thumb|100px|Little Richard]]
[[File:M John Hurt.jpg|thumb|100px|Mississippi John Hurt]]
[[File:Willie Nelson at Farm Aid 2009 - Cropped.jpg|thumb|100px|Willie Nelson]]
[[File:Padova REM concert July 22 2003 blue.jpg|thumb|100px|R.E.M.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "Fon der Choope (From the Wedding)"
| [[Abe Elenkrig]]'s Yidishe Orchestra
| April 4, 1913
|
|-
| "Canal Street Blues"
| [[King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band]]
| April 5, 1923
|
|-
| ''[[Tristan und Isolde]]'', NBC broadcast
| [[Metropolitan Opera]], featuring [[Kirsten Flagstad]] and [[Lauritz Melchior]]
| March 9, 1935
|
|-
| "[[When You Wish Upon a Star]]"
| [[Cliff Edwards]]
| 1938 (recorded) / 1940 (released)
|
|-
| ''[[America's Town Meeting of the Air]]'': "Should Our Ships Convoy Materials to England?"
| George V. Denny (host); [[Reinhold Niebuhr]], [[John Flynn]]{{disambiguation needed|date=May 2012}} (guests)
| May 8, 1941
|
|-
| The Library of Congress Marine Corps Combat Field Recording Collection, [[Battle of Guam (1944)|Second Battle of Guam]].
|
| 1944
|
|-
| "Evangeline Special" and "Love Bridge Waltz"
| [[Iry LeJeune]]
| 1948
|
|-
| ''[[The Little Engine that Could]]''
| [[Paul Wing]], narrator
| 1949
|
|-
| Leon Metcalf Collection of recordings of the First People of western Washington State
| Leon Metcalf
| 1950–1954
|
|-
| "[[Tutti Frutti (song)|Tutti Frutti]]"
| [[Little Richard]]
| 1955
|
|-
| "[[Smokestack Lightning]]"
| [[Howlin' Wolf]]
| 1956
|
|-
| ''[[Gypsy (musical)|Gypsy]]''
| Original cast recording
| 1959
|
|-
| ''[[The Complete Village Vanguard Recordings, 1961|The Complete Village Vanguard Recordings]]''
| [[Bill Evans Trio]]
| June 25, 1961
|
|-
| "[[Daisy Bell|Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)]]"
| [[Max Mathews]]
| 1961
|
|-
| ''[[I Started Out as a Child]]''
| [[Bill Cosby]]
| 1964
|
|-
| ''[[Azucar Pa' Ti]]''
| [[Eddie Palmieri]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[Today! (Mississippi John Hurt album)|Today!]]''
| [[Mississippi John Hurt]]
| 1966
|
|-
| "[[Silver Apples of the Moon]]"
| [[Morton Subotnick]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[Soul Folk in Action]]''
| [[The Staple Singers]]
| 1968
|
|-
| ''[[The Band (album)|The Band]]''
| [[The Band]]
| 1969
|
|-
| "[[Coal Miner's Daughter (song)|Coal Miner's Daughter]]"
| [[Loretta Lynn]]
| 1970
|
|-
| ''[[Red Headed Stranger]]''
| [[Willie Nelson]]
| 1975
|
|-
| ''[[Horses (album)|Horses]]''
| [[Patti Smith]]
| 1975
|
|-
| "[[Radio Free Europe (song)|Radio Free Europe]]" original [[Hib-Tone]] single 
| [[R.E.M.]]
| 1981
|
|-
| "[[Dear Mama]]"
| [[2Pac]]
| 1995
|
|}

==2010==
[[File:Ishi portrait.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Ishi]], last surviving member of the Yahi tribe]]
[[File:Willis Conover 1969.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Willis Conover]], broadcaster with the Voice of America]]
[[File:Captain Beefheart in Toronto.jpg|thumb|100px|Don Van Vliet, better known by the stage name [[Captain Beefheart]]]]
[[File:Humpback stellwagen edit.jpg|thumb|100px|A [[humpback whale]], known for producing [[Whale sound|whale songs]]]]
On April 6, 2011, the following 25 selections were announced.<ref>[http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-2010reg.html Loc.gov]</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| Phonautograms
| [[Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville]]
| ca. 1853–1861
|
|-
| "[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]]"
| [[Edward Meeker]], accompanied by the [[Edison Orchestra]]
| 1908
|
|-
| [[Yahi language]] cylinder recordings
| [[Ishi]], last surviving member of the Yahi tribe
| 1911–1914
|
|-
| "[[Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground]]"
| [[Blind Willie Johnson]]
| 1927
|
|-
| "[[It's the Girl]]"
| The [[Boswell Sisters]] with the [[Dorsey Brothers Orchestra]]
| 1931
|
|-
| "[[Mal Hombre]]"
| [[Lydia Mendoza]]
| 1934
|
|-
| "[[Tumbling Tumbleweeds]]"
| [[The Sons of the Pioneers]]
| 1934
|
|-
| ''[[Talking Union]]''
| [[The Almanac Singers]]
| 1941
|
|-
| ''[[Jazz at the Philharmonic]]''
| [[Nat "King" Cole]], [[Les Paul]], [[Buddy Rich]], others
| July 2, 1944
|
|-
| [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]'s "[[Pope Marcellus Mass]]"
| [[Roger Wagner Chorale]]
| 1951
|
|-
| "[[The Eagle Stirreth Her Nest]]"
| Reverend [[C. L. Franklin]]
| 1953
|
|-
| "[[Tipitina]]"
| [[Professor Longhair]]
| 1953
|
|-
| "[[At Sunset]]"
| [[Mort Sahl]]
| 1955
|
|-
| Interviews with jazz musicians for the [[Voice of America]]
| [[Willis Conover]]
| 1956
|
|-
| ''[[The Music from Peter Gunn]]''
| [[Henry Mancini]]
| 1958
|
|-
| United [[Sacred Harp]] Musical Convention in [[Fyffe, Alabama|Fyffe]], Alabama
| field recordings by [[Alan Lomax]] and [[Shirley Collins]]
| 1959
|
|-
| ''[[Blind Joe Death]]''
| [[John Fahey (musician)|John Fahey]]
| 1959, 1964, 1967
|
|-
| "[[Stand by Your Man]]"
| [[Tammy Wynette]]
| 1968
|
|-
| ''[[Trout Mask Replica]]''
| [[Captain Beefheart and His Magic Band]]
| 1969
|
|-
| ''[[Songs of the Humpback Whale (album)|Songs of the Humpback Whale]]''
| [[Frank Watlington]], [[Roger Payne]], and others
| 1970
|
|-
| "[[Let's Stay Together (song)|Let's Stay Together]]"
| [[Al Green]]
| 1971
|
|-
| "[[Black Angels (Thirteen Images from the Dark Land)]]"
| [[New York Strings Quartet]]
| 1972
|
|-
| ''[[Aja (album)|Aja]]''
| [[Steely Dan]]
| 1977
|
|-
| [[GOPAC]] Strategy and Instructional Tapes
| [[Newt Gingrich]], others
| 1986–1994
|
|-
| ''[[3 Feet High and Rising]]''
| [[De La Soul]]
| 1989
|
|}

==2011==
On May 23, 2012, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="loc.gov"/>
[[File:Lillian Russell, 1897.png|thumb|100px|Lillian Russell]]
[[File:Bernstein, Leonard (1918-1990) - 1944 - foto van Vechten2.jpg|thumb|100px|Leonard Bernstein]]
[[File:Bo Diddley Prag 2005 02.jpg|thumb|100px|Bo Diddley]]
[[File:Dolly Parton 2.jpg|thumb|100px|Dolly Parton]]
[[File:Billbongo.jpg|thumb|100px|Grateful Dead]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| [[Edison Talking Doll cylinder]]
|
| November 1888
|
|-
| "[[Come Down Ma Evenin' Star]]"
| [[Lillian Russell]]
| 1912
|
|-
| "[[Ten Cents A Dance]]"
| [[Ruth Etting]]
| 1930
|
|-
| ''[[Voices from the Days of Slavery]]''
| Various
| 1932–1975
|
|-
| "[[I Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart]]"
| [[Patsy Montana]]
| 1935
|
|-
| "[[Fascinating Rhythm]]"
| [[Sol Hoopii]]
| 1938
|
|-
| "[[Artistry In Rhythm]]"
| [[Stan Kenton]]
| 1943
|
|-
| New York Philharmonic debut of Leonard Bernstein
| [[Leonard Bernstein]]
| November 14, 1943
|
|-
| ''[[Hottest Women's Band of the 1940s]]''
| [[International Sweethearts of Rhythm]]
| 1944-1946 (released 1984)
|
|-
| "[[Hula Medley]]"
| [[Gabby Pahinui]]
| 1947
|
|-
| ''[[Indians for Indians (Hour)]]''
| [[Don Whistler]]
| March 25, 1947
|
|-
| ''[[I Can Hear It Now: 1933-1945]]''
| [[Edward R. Murrow]] and [[Fred W. Friendly]]
| 1948
|
|-
| "[[Let's Go Out to the Programs]]"
| [[The Dixie Hummingbirds]]
| 1953
|
|-
| ''[[Also Sprach Zarathustra]]''
| [[Fritz Reiner]] and the [[Chicago Symphony Orchestra]]
| 1954, 1958
|
|-
| "[[Bo Diddley (song)|Bo Diddley]]" with "[[I'm a Man (Bo Diddley song)|I'm a Man]]"
| [[Bo Diddley]]
| 1955
|
|-
| "[[Green Onions (song)|Green Onions]]"
| [[Booker T. & The M.G.'s]]
| 1962
|-
| ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas (album)|A Charlie Brown Christmas]]''
| [[Vince Guaraldi Trio]]
| 1965
|-
| ''[[Forever Changes]]''
| [[Love (band)|Love]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[The Continental Harmony: The Gregg Smith Singers Perform Music of William Billings]]''
| [[The Gregg Smith Singers]]
| 1969
|-
| "[[Coat of Many Colors (song)|Coat of Many Colors]]"
| [[Dolly Parton]]
| 1971
|
|-
| ''[[Mothership Connection]]''
| [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]]
| 1975
|
|-
| ''[[Barton Hall Concert at Cornell University]]''
| [[Grateful Dead]]
| 1977
|
|-
| "[[I Feel Love]]"
| [[Donna Summer]]
| 1977
|
|-
| "[[Rapper's Delight]]"
| [[Sugarhill Gang]]
| 1979
|
|-
| ''[[Purple Rain (album)|Purple Rain]]''
| [[Prince (musician)|Prince]] and [[The Revolution (band)|The Revolution]]
| 1984
|
|}

==Trivia==

{{trivia|date=January 2013}}

* {{As of|2011}}, the oldest recording on the list is [[Edouard-Leon Scott de Martinville]]'s [[Phonautograms]] which date back to 1853. The most recent is the song "[[Dear Mama]]" by [[Tupac Shakur|2Pac]] which came out in 1995 on his album ''[[Me Against the World]]''.<ref name="NRPB2">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-masterlist.html |publisher=[[The Library of Congress]] |title= Full Registry |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=December 16, 2009}}</ref>

* Selections vary widely in duration. Both the early Edison recordings and the instrumental "[[Rumble (instrumental)|Rumble]]" by [[Link Wray]] clock in at under three minutes; the [[Edison Talking Doll cylinder]] is only 17 seconds long. Meanwhile [[Georg Solti]]'s recording of [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s complete ''[[Ring Cycle]]'' is approximately 15 hours in duration and [[Alexander Scourby]]'s recitation of the [[King James Bible]] is over 80 hours in length.<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* {{As of|2011}}, there are nine cast show recordings on the Registry, including ''[[Oklahoma!]],'' ''[[Show Boat]],'' ''[[Gypsy (musical)|Gypsy]]'' and ''[[The Cradle Will Rock]].''<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* {{As of|2011}}, rap songs on the Registry include "[[Rapper's Delight]]" by the [[Sugarhill Gang]], "[[The Message (Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five song)|The Message]]" by [[Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five]], and "[[Dear Mama]]" by [[Tupac]]. The rap album ''[[3 Feet High and Rising]]'' by [[De La Soul]] was also added in 2010.

* {{As of|2011}}, some of the film and TV soundtracks included on the Registry are ''[[Star Wars]],'' and ''[[Purple Rain (album)|Purple Rain]].''

* {{As of|2011}}, there is one TV theme on the list, [[Henry Mancini]]'s music for ''[[Peter Gunn]].''

* {{As of|2011}}, excluding radio series, there are 10 comedy recordings on the Registry, including ''[[The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart]]'' by [[Bob Newhart]], ''2000 Years with [[Carl Reiner]] and [[Mel Brooks]],'' ''[[I Started Out as a Child]]'' by [[Bill Cosby]], ''[[At Sunset]]'' by [[Mort Sahl]] and “No News, or What Killed the Dog” by [[Nat M. Wills]].<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* {{As of|2011}}, there are 37 solo female musical artists represented on the list, including [[Sophie Tucker]], [[Carole King]], [[Dolly Parton]], [[Donna Summer]], [[Ruth Etting]], [[Tammy Wynette]], [[Lydia Mendoza]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Joni Mitchell]], [[Fanny Brice]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]], [[Patti Smith]], [[Loretta Lynn]] and [[Patsy Cline]]. (Women are also represented as members of groups, for example: the [[Velvet Underground and Nico]] with [[Maureen Tucker]] and [[Nico]]; the [[Carter Family]] with “Mother” [[Maybelle Carter]] and [[Sara Carter]], and [[Sonic Youth]] featuring [[Kim Gordon]]).<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* Some of the country music titles on the list include: “[[Crazy (Willie Nelson song)|Crazy]]” by [[Patsy Cline]], “[[He Stopped Loving Her Today]]” by [[George Jones]], “[[Wildwood Flower]]” by the [[Carter Family]], "[[Coal Miner's Daughter]]" by [[Loretta Lynn]], "[[Tumbling Tumbleweeds]]" by [[The Sons of the Pioneers]], "[[Coat of Many Colors]]" by [[Dolly Parton]], "[[I Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart]]" by [[Patsy Montana]] and “[[Blue Moon of Kentucky]]” by [[Bill Monroe]].<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* Some of the radio series or broadcasts so far included on the list include: ''[[Gang Busters]]''; [[Orson Welles]]’ ''[[The War of the Worlds (radio drama)|War of the Worlds]]'' broadcast; ''[[A Prairie Home Companion]]''; ''[[America's Town Meeting of the Air]]''; ''[[Fred Allen|The Fred Allen Show]]''; and [[Norman Corwin]]'s ''[[We Hold These Truths]].''<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* {{As of|2011}}, the spoken words of seven U.S. Presidents are represented on the Registry, including [[Woodrow Wilson]], [[Harry S. Truman]], and [[John F. Kennedy]]. [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] is featured twice—for his ''[[Fireside Chats]]'' and his December 8, 1941 address to Congress. Registry items by some Presidents—[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and [[Ronald Reagan]]—either precede or follow their Presidential terms.<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* Two of the 2010 selections have close connections, [[De La Soul]]'s track "[[Eye Know]]" from the album ''[[3 Feet High and Rising]]'' samples a portion of [[Steely Dan]]'s "[[Peg (song)|Peg]]", from the album ''[[Aja (album)|Aja]]'', also a selection that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.discogs.com/De-La-Soul-Eye-Know/release/2789952|title=De La Soul – Eye Know |accessdate=2012-06-10|publisher=Discogs.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=8385|title=Eye Know by De La Soul|accessdate=2012-06-10|publisher=Songfacts.com}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[National Film Registry]]

==Notes==
* {{note label|fireside||A}}The original 25 recordings from July 24, 1933 and July 28, 1934 are preserved at the Roosevelt Library in [[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], New York.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-97082009.html |publisher=U.S. Newswire |title= National Archives Sound Recordings Named to National Recording Registry |date=January 23, 2003 |accessdate=February 24, 2007}} {{dead link|date=April 2011}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-home.html National Recording Preservation Board]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-masterlist.html Full National Recording Registry]
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6392808 NPR ''All Things Considered''] – series spotlighting selections from the Registry

{{Featured list}}

[[Category:United States history-related lists]]
[[Category:Library of Congress]]
[[Category:Music-related lists]]
[[Category:Reference material lists]]
[[Category:United States National Recording Registry recordings| ]]

[[et:United States National Recording Registry]]
[[fa:فهرست ملی ضبط اصوات]]
[[fr:Registre national des enregistrements]]
[[lb:Nationalen Toundokument Regëster (USA)]]

National Recording Registry

2013-01-27T05:52:18Z

Textorus: /* 2002 */ sp grr

{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2011}}
[[File:Martin Luther King - March on Washington.jpg|thumb|right|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]]'s "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech was one of the 50 recordings added on the first year of existence of the United States National Recording Registry.]]
The '''National Recording Registry''' is a list of sound recordings that "are culturally, historically, or aesthetically important, and/or inform or reflect life in the United States." The registry was established by the National Recording Preservation Act of 2000,<ref name="NRPB">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-home.html |publisher=[[The Library of Congress]] |title= Current Registry |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref> which created the [[National Recording Preservation Board]], whose members are appointed by the [[Librarian of Congress]]. The recordings preserved in the United States National Recording Registry form a registry of [[recording]]s selected yearly by the [[National Recording Preservation Board]] for preservation in the [[Library of Congress]].<ref name="CR">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-home.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= Current Registry |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=February 26, 2007}}</ref>

The legislative intent of the National Recording Preservation Act of 2000 was to develop a national program to guard America's [[sound recording]] heritage. The Act resulted in the formations of the National Recording Registry, The National Recording Preservation Board and a fund-raising foundation to aid their efforts.<ref name="O">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-about.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= Overview |date=November 16, 2006 |accessdate=February 26, 2007}}</ref> The act established the Registry specifically for the purpose of maintaining and preserving sound recordings and collections of sound recordings that are culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.<ref name="NRPB">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-home.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= Current Registry |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref> Beginning in 2002, the National Recording Preservation Board began selecting nominated recordings each year to be preserved.

The first four yearly lists included 50 selections. However, since 2006, 25 recordings have been selected annually. Thus, a total of 350 recordings have been preserved in the Registry {{as of|2012|lc=on}}. Each year, open nominations are accepted until July 1 for inclusion in that year's list of selections to be announced the following spring. Nominations are made in the following categories:

{{Div col|2}}
* Blues
* Broadway/Musical Theatre/Soundtrack
* Cajun/Zydeco/"Swamp"
* Children's recordings
* Choral
* Classical
* Comedy/Novelty
* Country/Bluegrass
* Documentary/Broadcast/Spoken Word
* Environmental
* Field
* Folk/Ethnic
* Gospel/Spiritual
* Heavy Metal
* Jazz
* Latin
* Pop (pre-1955)
* Pop (post-1955)
* R&B
* Radio
* Rap/Hip-hop
* Rock
* Technology
{{Div col end}}

Each yearly list has often included a few recordings that have also been selected for inclusion in the holdings of the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]' audiovisual collection. Those recordings on the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry that are of a political nature will tend to overlap with the audiovisual collection of the National Archives. The list shows overlapping items and whether the National Archives has an original or a copy of the recording.

<onlyinclude>

==Selection criteria==
The criteria for selection are as follows:<ref name="NRRC">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-nrr.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= National Recording Registry Criteria |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>

* Recordings selected for the National Recording Registry are those that are culturally, historically or aesthetically important, and/or inform or reflect life in the United States.
* For the purposes of recording selection, "sound recordings" are defined as works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds, but not including the sound component of a moving image work, unless it is available as an autonomous sound recording or is the only extant component of the work.
* Recordings may be a single item or group of related items; published or unpublished; and may contain music, non-music, spoken word, or broadcast sound.
* Recordings will not be considered for inclusion into the National Recording Registry if no copy of the recording exists.
* No recording should be denied inclusion into the National Recording Registry because that recording has already been preserved.
* No recording is eligible for inclusion into the National Recording Registry until ten years after the recording's creation.

==2002==
On January 27, 2003, the following 50 selections were announced by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR2">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-2002reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2002 |date=December 6, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Edison and phonograph edit1.jpg|thumb|100px|Selected exhibition recordings for the [[phonograph]] were added in 2002.]]</onlyinclude>
[[File:Louis Armstrong restored.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Louis Armstrong]] was one of American music's most important and influential figures. The sessions preserved in the registry, and his solos in particular, set a standard musicians still strive to equal in their beauty and innovation.<ref name="NRR2"/>]]
[[File:ODJBcard.JPG|100px|thumb|The [[Original Dixieland Jazz Band]]'s "Tiger Rag" launched [[jazz]] as a music genre, and is preserved in the registry.]]
[[File:Bessiesmith.jpg|100px|thumb|"[[Downhearted Blues]]" was the first release by "Empress of the Blues" [[Bessie Smith]].]]
[[File:BookerTWashington-Cheynes.LOC.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Booker T. Washington]] recreated his controversial 1895 Atlanta Exposition Speech in 1906.]]
[[File:FDRfiresidechat2.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s "Fireside Chats" "redefined the relationship between the president and the American people."<ref name="NRR2"/>]]
[[File:Orson Welles 1937.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Orson Welles]]' 1938 "War of the Worlds" radio drama created alarm and panic across the United States.]]<onlyinclude>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
|[[Thomas Edison|Edison]] exhibition recordings (Group of three [[Phonograph cylinder|cylinders]]):<ref>{{cite web|title=Edison cylinders chosen for National Recording Registry| date=December 22, 2004| work=Edison National Historic Site| publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/edis/pr_loc_rec_020103.htm|accessdate=March 7, 2007}} {{dead link|date=April 2011}}</ref>
* "Around the World on the Phonograph"
* "The Pattison Waltz"
* "Fifth Regiment March"
|[[Thomas Edison]]
|1888–1889
|
|-
|[[Passamaquoddy Indians]] [[field recording]]s
|Recorded by [[J. Walter Fewkes|Jesse Walter Fewkes]]
|1890
|
|-
|"[[Stars and Stripes Forever]]" ([[Berliner Gramophone]] disc recording)
|Military Band
|1897
|
|-
|[[Metropolitan Opera]] cylinder recordings (the [[Mapleson Cylinders]])
|Lionel Mapleson and the [[Metropolitan Opera]]
|1900–1903
|
|-
|[[Ragtime]] compositions [[piano roll]]s
|[[Scott Joplin]]
|1900s
|
|-
|[[Atlanta Compromise|1895 Atlanta Exposition speech]]
|[[Booker T. Washington]]
|1906 recreation
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
|"[[Casey at the Bat]]"
|[[DeWolf Hopper]]
|1906
|
|-
|"[[Vesti la giubba]]" from ''[[Pagliacci]]''
|[[Enrico Caruso]]
|1907
|
|-
|"[[Swing Low, Sweet Chariot]]"
|[[Fisk Jubilee Singers]]
|1909
|
|-
| [[Lovey's String Band|Lovey's Trinidad String Band]]
| Lovey's Trinidad String Band
|1912
|
|-
|"[[Tiger Rag]]"
|[[Original Dixieland Jass Band|Original Dixieland Jazz Band]]
|1918
|
|-
|"[[The Arkansas Traveler (song)|Arkansas Traveler]]" and "Sallie Gooden"
|[[Eck Robertson]]
|1922
|
|-
|"[[Downhearted Blues]]"
|[[Bessie Smith]]
|1923
|
|-
|''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]''
|[[George Gershwin]], piano; [[Paul Whiteman]] Orchestra
|1924
|
|-
|[[Louis Armstrong]]'s [[Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five|Hot Five]] and [[Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven|Hot Seven]] [[Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions|recordings]]
|Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven
|1925–1928
|
|-
|[[Victor Talking Machine Company]] sessions in [[Bristol, Tennessee|Bristol]], Tennessee
|[[Carter Family]], [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]], [[Ernest Stoneman]], and others
|1927
|
|-
|[[Highlander Research and Education Center|Highlander Center]] Field Recordings Collection
|[[Rosa Parks]], [[Esau Jenkins]] and others
|1930s–1980s
|
|-
|[[Bell Labs|Bell Laboratories]] experimental stereo recordings
|[[Philadelphia Orchestra]]; [[Leopold Stokowski]], conductor
|1931–1932
|
|-
| "[[Fireside Chats]]" [[radio programming|radio broadcasts]]{{ref label|fireside|A|A}}
|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
|1933–1944
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| Harvard Vocarium record series
|[[T. S. Eliot]], [[W. H. Auden]] and others
|1933–1956
|
|-
| "New Music Quarterly" recordings series
|[[Henry Cowell]], producer
|1934–1949
|
|-
| Description of the crash of the ''[[Hindenburg (airship)|Hindenburg]]''
|[[Herbert Morrison (announcer)|Herbert Morrison]]
|May 6, 1937
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| ''[[The Cradle Will Rock]]'' ([[Marc Blitzstein]])
|Original cast
|1938
|
|-
| "[[Who's on First?]]" Earliest existing [[radio programming|radio broadcast]] version
|[[Abbott and Costello]]
|October 6, 1938
|
|-
| ''[[The War of the Worlds (radio drama)|The War of the Worlds]]''
| [[Orson Welles]] and ''[[The Mercury Theatre on the Air]]''
|October 30, 1938
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "[[God Bless America]]" Radio broadcast premiere
|[[Kate Smith]]
|November 11, 1938
|
|-
| The [[John Lomax|John]] and [[Ruby Terrill Lomax|Ruby Lomax]] Southern States Recording Trip
|John and Ruby Lomax
|1939
|
|-
| "[[Strange Fruit]]"
|[[Billie Holiday]]
|1939
|
|-
| ''[[Grand Ole Opry]]'' First network radio broadcast
|[[Uncle Dave Macon]], [[Roy Acuff]], and others
|October 14, 1939
|
|-
|[[Béla Bartók]] and [[Joseph Szigeti]] in Concert at the [[Library of Congress]]
|[[Béla Bartók]], piano; [[Joseph Szigeti]], violin
|1940
|
|-
| ''[[The Rite of Spring]]''
|[[Igor Stravinsky]] conducting the [[New York Philharmonic]]
|1940
|
|-
| Blanton-Webster era recordings
| [[Duke Ellington]] Orchestra
|1940–1942
|
|-
| "[[White Christmas (song)|White Christmas]]"
|[[Bing Crosby]]
|1942
|
|-
| "[[This Land is Your Land]]"
|[[Woody Guthrie]]
|1944
|
|-
| [[D-Day]] radio address to the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Nations]]
|[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
|June 6, 1944
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| "[[Ko-Ko|Ko Ko]]"
|[[Charlie Parker]], [[Miles Davis]], [[Dizzy Gillespie]], and others
|1945
|
|-
| "[[Blue Moon of Kentucky]]"
|[[Bill Monroe]] and the Blue Grass Boys
|1947
|
|-
| "[[How High the Moon]]"
|[[Les Paul]] and [[Mary Ford]]
|1951
|
|-
| ''[[Songs for Young Lovers]]''
|[[Frank Sinatra]]
|1954
|
|-
| [[Elvis Presley's Sun recordings|Sun Records sessions]]
|[[Elvis Presley]]
|1954–1955
|
|-
|''[[Dance Mania (album)|Dance Mania]]''
|[[Tito Puente]]
|1958
|
|-
| ''[[Kind of Blue]]''
|[[Miles Davis]], [[John Coltrane]], [[Cannonball Adderley]], [[Bill Evans]], and others
|1959
|
|-
| "[[What'd I Say (song)|What'd I Say]]", Parts 1 and 2
|[[Ray Charles]]
|1959
|
|-
| ''[[The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan]]''
|[[Bob Dylan]]
|1963
|
|-
| "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech
|Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
|August 28, 1963
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "[[Respect (song)|Respect]]"
|[[Aretha Franklin]]
|1967
|
|-
| ''[[Philomel (Babbitt)|Philomel]]: For [[Soprano]]''
| Bethany Beardslee, recorded soprano, and [[Synthesizer|synthesized]] sound
|1971
|
|-
| ''[[Precious Lord: New Recordings of the Great Songs of Thomas A. Dorsey|Precious Lord: New Recordings of the Great Gospel Songs of Thomas A. Dorsey]]''
| [[Thomas A. Dorsey]], [[Marion Williams]], and others
|1973
|
|-
| Crescent City Living Legends Collection ([[New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival|New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Foundation]] Archive/[[WWOZ]] New Orleans)
|
|1973–1990
|
|-
| "[[The Message (Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five song)|The Message]]"
|[[Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five]]
|1982
|
|}

==2003==
[[File:Marian Anderson.jpg|100px|thumb|"He's Got the Whole World in His Hands" was one of [[Marian Anderson]]'s favorite [[spiritual (music)|spirituals]], and she often performed it at the conclusion of her recitals.<ref name="NRR3"/>]]
[[File:Steam Locomotive.jpg|100px|thumb|[[O. Winston Link]]'s recordings of the sounds produced by a variety of locomotive models capture "the unique and now-lost sounds of the engines which united the United States."<ref name="NRR3"/>]]
[[File:EllaFitzgerald.jpg|100px|thumb|The Cole Porter ''Songbook'' was the first of [[Ella Fitzgerald]]'s many anthologies.]]
[[File:Chuck Berry51.JPG|100px|thumb|[[Chuck Berry]]- widely considered to have "laid the groundwork for not only a rock and roll sound but a rock and roll stance".]]
[[File:The Beatles in America.JPG|100px|thumb|[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]] is arguably one of the most important albums in popular music.]]

In March 2004, the following 50 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR3">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2003reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2003 |date=October 25, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "[[Lord's Prayer|The Lord's Prayer]]" and "[[Twinkle Twinkle Little Star]]"
| [[Emile Berliner]]
| c. 1890
|
|-
| "Honolulu Cake Walk"
| [[Vess Ossman]]
| 1898
|
|-
| [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor Releases]]
| [[Bert Williams]] and George Walker
| 1901
|
|-
| "You're a Grand Old Rag [Flag]"
| [[Billy Murray (singer)|Billy Murray]]
| 1906
|
|-
| [[Ojibwa|Chippewa/Ojibwe]] [[Phonograph cylinder|Cylinder]] Collection
| [[Frances Densmore]]
| 1907–1910
|
|-
| The Bubble Book (the first Bubble Book)
|
| 1917
|
|-
| [[Phonograph cylinder|Cylinder recordings]] of [[African-American music]]
| [[Guy Benton Johnson|Guy B. Johnson]]
| 1920s
|
|-
| [[Cross of Gold speech|"Cross of Gold" speech]] Speech re-enactment
| [[William Jennings Bryan]]
| 1921
|
|-
| "OKeh Laughing Record"
| Lucie Bernardo and Otto Rathke
| 1922
|
|-
| "[[Adeste Fideles]]"
| Associated Glee Clubs of America
| 1925
|
|-
| [[Cajun]]-[[Louisiana Creole people|Creole]] [[Columbia Records|Columbia]] releases
| [[Amédé Ardoin]] and Dennis McGee
| 1929
|
|-
| "[[Goodnight, Irene]]"
| [[Lead Belly]]
| 1933
|
|-
| "Every Man a King" speech
| [[Huey Long|Huey P. Long]]
| February 23, 1935
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "He's Got the Whole World in His Hands"
| [[Marian Anderson]]
| 1936
|
|-
| ''[[The Complete Recordings (Robert Johnson album)|The Complete Recordings]]''
| [[Robert Johnson (musician)|Robert Johnson]]
| 1936–1937
|
|-
| Interviews conducted by [[Alan Lomax]]
| [[Jelly Roll Morton]], [[Alan Lomax]]
| 1938
|
|-
| ''[[The Famous 1938 Carnegie Hall Jazz Concert|Carnegie Hall Jazz Concert]]''
| [[Benny Goodman]]
| 1938
|
|-
| Complete day of radio broadcasting, [[WJSV]] (Washington, D.C.)
| [[WJSV]], Washington, D.C.
| September 21, 1939
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| "[[New San Antonio Rose]]"
| [[Bob Wills]] and His Texas Playboys
| 1940
|
|-
| ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' ([[George Gershwin]])
| Original cast
| 1940, 1942
|
|-
| [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] [[String Quartet]]s
| [[Budapest Quartet]]
| 1940–1950
|
|-
| [[1941 World Series|World Series]]-Game Four
| [[New York Yankees]] vs. [[Brooklyn Dodgers]]
| October 5, 1941
|
|-
| ''[[Oklahoma!]]'' ([[Rodgers and Hammerstein]])
| Original cast
| 1943
|
|-
| ''[[Othello]]''
| [[Paul Robeson]], [[Uta Hagen]], [[José Ferrer]], and others
| 1943
|
|-
| [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] [[Mass in B Minor (Bach)|B-Minor Mass]]
| [[Robert Shaw (conductor)|Robert Shaw]] Chorale
| 1947
|
|-
| ''[[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|The Four Seasons]]'' ([[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]])
| Louis Kaufman and the Concert Hall String Orchestra
| 1947
|
|-
| [[Piano Sonata No. 2 (Ives)|Piano Sonata No. 2]], "[[Piano Sonata No. 2 (Ives)|Concord]]"
([[Charles Ives|Ives]])
| John Kirkpatrick
| 1948
|
|-
| ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]'' ([[Modest Mussorgsky]]) 
| [[Rafael Kubelík]] conducting the [[Chicago Symphony Orchestra]]
| 1951
|
|-
| "Problems of the American Home"
| [[Billy Graham]]
| 1954
|
|-
| [[Goldberg Variations]] ([[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]])
| [[Glenn Gould]]
| 1955
|
|-
| ''[[Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Songbook]]''
| [[Ella Fitzgerald]]
| 1956
|
|-
| "[[Roll Over Beethoven]]"
| [[Chuck Berry]]
| 1956
|
|-
| ''[[Brilliant Corners]]''
| [[Thelonious Monk]]
| 1956
|
|-
| [[Steam locomotive]] recordings, 6 vol.
| [[O. Winston Link]]
| 1957–1977
|
|-
| ''[[Der Ring des Nibelungen|Complete Ring Cycle]]'' ([[Richard Wagner]]) 
| [[Georg Solti]] and the [[Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra]]
| 1958–1965
|
|-
| ''Winds in Hi-Fi''
| [[Eastman Wind Ensemble]] with [[Frederick Fennell]]
| 1958
|
|-
| ''[[Mingus Ah Um]]''
| [[Charles Mingus]]
| 1959
|
|-
| ''New York Taxi Driver''
| [[Tony Schwartz (American sound archivist)|Tony Schwartz]]
| 1959
|
|-
| [[Ali Akbar College of Music]], Archive Selections
|
| 1960s–1970s
|
|-
| "[[Crazy (Willie Nelson song)|Crazy]]"
| [[Patsy Cline]]
| 1961
|
|-
| Kennedy [[Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States|Inauguration Ceremony]]
| [[John Fitzgerald Kennedy]], [[Robert Frost]], and others
| January 20, 1961
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| ''[[Judy at Carnegie Hall]]''
| [[Judy Garland]]
| 1961
|
|-
| "[[I've Been Loving You Too Long]] (To Stop Now)"
| [[Otis Redding]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''
| [[The Beatles]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[At Folsom Prison]]''
| [[Johnny Cash]]
| 1968
|
|-
| ''[[What's Going On]]''
| [[Marvin Gaye]]
| 1971
|
|-
| ''[[Tapestry (Carole King album)|Tapestry]]''
| [[Carole King]]
| 1971
|
|-
| ''[[A Prairie Home Companion]]'' First broadcast
| [[Garrison Keillor]]
| July 6, 1974
|
|-
| ''[[Born to Run]]''
| [[Bruce Springsteen]]
| 1975
|
|-
| ''Live at Yankee Stadium''
| [[Fania All-Stars]]
| 1975
|
|}

==2004==
In April 2005, the following 50 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR4">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2004reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2004 |date=October 25, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:AdeleFred1921.jpg|100px|thumb|The [[traditional pop music]] song "Fascinating Rhythm," sung by Fred and Adele Astaire in ''Lady, Be Good'', was preserved in 2004.]]
[[File:LindberghStLouis.jpg|100px|thumb|The NBC's coverage of [[Charles Lindbergh|Colonel Lindbergh]] in Washington was an important achievement for the network, and involved reporters in three locations in the city.]]

[[File:MacArthur Manila.jpg|100px|thumb|In spite of the controversy surrounding [[Douglas MacArthur|MacArthur]] at the time, his farewell speech to congress is noted for its eloquence and effectiveness.<ref name="NRR4"/>]]
[[File:Tom Lehrer - Southern Campus 1960.jpg|100px|thumb|Among those to have claimed musical satirist [[Tom Lehrer]] as an influence are [[Lenny Bruce]] and [[Weird Al Yankovic]].]]
[[File:Neil Armstrong pose.jpg|100px|thumb| "Houston. Tranquility base here. The Eagle has landed.... I’m going to step off the LEM now. That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." [[Neil Armstrong]]'s words upon landing on the moon "have become some of the most recognizable and memorable sentences spoken in United States history."<ref name="NRR4"/>]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "Gypsy Love Song"
| Eugene Cowles
| 1898
|
|-
| "Some of These Days"
| [[Sophie Tucker]]
| 1911
|
|-
| "The Castles in Europe One-Step (Castle House Rag)"
| [[James Reese Europe|Europe's Society Orchestra]]
| 1914
|
|-
| "[[Swanee (song)|Swanee]]"
| [[Al Jolson]]
| 1920
|
|-
| [[Armistice Day]] radio broadcast
| [[Woodrow Wilson]]
| November 10, 1923
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| "[[See See Rider Blues|See See Rider]]"
| [[Ma Rainey|Gertrude "Ma" Rainey]]
| 1923
|
|-
| "Charleston"
| Golden Gate Orchestra
| 1925
|
|-
| "[[Fascinating Rhythm]]" 
| [[Fred Astaire|Fred]] and [[Adele Astaire]]; [[George Gershwin]], piano
| 1926
|
|-
| [[NBC]] radio coverage of [[Charles Lindbergh|Charles A. Lindbergh]]'s arrival and reception in Washington, D.C.
|
|June 11, 1927
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "[[Stardust (song)|Stardust]]"
| [[Hoagy Carmichael]]
| 1927
|
|-
| "[[Blue Yodel (songs by Jimmie Rodgers)|Blue Yodel (T for Texas)]]"
| [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]]
| 1927
|
|-
| "[[Ain't Misbehavin' (song)|Ain't Misbehavin']]"
| [[Fats Waller|Thomas "Fats" Waller]]
| 1929
|
|-
| "[[Gregorio Cortez]]"
| Trovadores Regionales
| 1929
|
|-
| [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Rachmaninoff)|Piano Concerto No. 2 in C minor]]
| [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], piano; Leopold Stokowski, conductor; [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]
| 1929
|
|-
| "The Suncook Town Tragedy"
| Mabel Wilson Tatro 
| July 1930
|
|-
| Oral [[narrative]] from the Lorenzo D. Turner Collection
| Rosina Cohen
| 1932
|
|-
| "[[Stormy Weather (1933 song)|Stormy Weather]]"
| [[Ethel Waters]]
| 1933
|
|-
| "[[Body and Soul (song)|Body and Soul]]"
| [[Coleman Hawkins]]
| 1939
|
|-
| ''[[Peter and the Wolf]]'' ([[Sergei Prokofiev|Sergey Prokofiev]])
| [[Serge Koussevitzky]], conductor; Richard Hale, narrator; [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]]
| 1939
|
|-
| "[[In the Mood]]"
| [[Glenn Miller]] and His Orchestra
| 1939
|
|-
| Broadcasts from London
| [[Edward R. Murrow]]
| 1940
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| ''[[We Hold These Truths]]'' ([[Norman Corwin]])
|
| December 15, 1941
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Tchaikovsky)|Piano Concerto No. 1, op. 23, Bb minor]] ([[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]])
| [[Vladimir Horowitz]], piano; [[Arturo Toscanini]], conductor; [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]]
| 1943
|
|-
| "[[Down by the Riverside]]"
| [[Sister Rosetta Tharpe]]
| 1944
|
|-
| ''U.S. Highball (A Musical Account of a Transcontinental Hobo Trip)''
| [[Harry Partch]], Gate 5 Ensemble
| 1946
|
|-
| ''[[Four Saints in Three Acts]]'' ([[Virgil Thomson]])
| Original cast
| 1947
|
|-
| "Manteca"
| [[Dizzy Gillespie]] [[Big Band]] with [[Chano Pozo]]
| 1947
|
|-
| ''[[The Jack Benny Program]]''
| [[Jack Benny]]
| March 28, 1948
|
|-
| "[[Foggy Mountain Breakdown]]"
| [[Flatt and Scruggs|Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs]]
| 1949
|
|-
| "[[Lovesick Blues]]"
| [[Hank Williams]]
| 1949
|
|-
| ''[[Guys and Dolls (musical)|Guys & Dolls]]''
| Original cast
| 1950
|
|-
| "Old Soldiers Never Die" ([[farewell speech|Farewell Address]] to the [[United States Congress]])
| General [[Douglas MacArthur]]
| April 19, 1951
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| ''Songs by [[Tom Lehrer]]''
| [[Tom Lehrer]]
| 1953
|-
| "[[Hoochie Coochie Man]]"
| [[Muddy Waters]]
| 1954
|
|-
| "[[Earth Angel|Earth Angel (Will You Be Mine)]]"
| [[The Penguins]]
| 1954
|
|-
| ''Tuskegee Institute Choir Sings Spirituals''
| Tuskegee Institute Choir, directed by [[William Levi Dawson (composer)|William L. Dawson]]
| 1955
|
|-
| ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]''
| [[Eugene Ormandy]], conductor; [[Richard P. Condie]], choir director; [[Mormon Tabernacle Choir]]; [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]
| 1958
|
|-
| ''[[Giant Steps]]''
| [[John Coltrane]]
| 1959
|
|-
| ''[[Drums of Passion]]''
| [[Michael Babatunde Olatunji]]
| 1960
|
|-
| ''[[Peace Be Still (James Cleveland album)|Peace Be Still]]''
| [[James Cleveland]]
| 1962
|
|-
| "[[The Girl from Ipanema]]" (Garota de Ipanema)
| [[Stan Getz]], [[João Gilberto]], [[Antonio Carlos Jobim]], [[Astrud Gilberto]]
| 1963
|
|-
| ''[[Live at the Apollo (1963 album)|Live at the Apollo]]''
| [[James Brown]]
| 1963
|-
| ''[[Pet Sounds]]''
| [[The Beach Boys]]
| 1966
|
|-
| [[King James version of the Bible]]
| [[Alexander Scourby]]
| 1966
|
|-
| Remarks broadcast from the moon
| [[Apollo 11]] [[astronaut]] [[Neil Armstrong]]
| July 21, 1969
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| ''[[At Fillmore East]]''
| [[The Allman Brothers Band]]
| 1971
|
|-
| [[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope (soundtrack)|''Star Wars'' (Soundtrack)]]
| [[John Williams]]
| 1977
|
|-
| Recordings of Asian elephants
| [[Katharine B. Payne]]
| 1984
|
|-
| ''[[Fear of a Black Planet]]''
| [[Public Enemy (band)|Public Enemy]]
| 1990
|
|-
| ''[[Nevermind]]''
| [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]
| 1991
|
|}

==2005==
In April 2006, the following 50 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR5">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2005reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2005 |date=October 25, 2006 |accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Paul Robeson 1942.jpg|100px|thumb|An athlete, a gentleman and a scholar, [[Paul Robeson|Robeson]] used his diverse talents to pave a successful career as a performer and become active in sociopolitical affairs.]]
[[File:Count Basie in Rhythm and Blues Revue.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Count Basie]], prominent band leader during the [[big band]] era, influenced many musicians of his day.]]
[[File:Archibaldmacleish.jpeg|100px|thumb|[[Archibald MacLeish]], [[Librarian of Congress]] and [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning poet.]]
[[File:Joe Louis - Max Schmeling - 1936.jpg|100px|thumb|Former champion [[Max Schmeling]] handed Joe Louis his first loss.]]
[[File:B. B. King.jpg|100px|thumb|B. B. King and his guitar [[Lucille (guitar)|Lucille]].]]
[[File:Proctor and Bergman 1976.JPG|100px|thumb|[[Don't Crush That Dwarf, Hand Me the Pliers|Don't Crush That Dwarf...]] was the first comedy album to utilize such production techniques including 16-track recording and Dolby noise reduction.]]
[[File:Stevie Wonder.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Stevie Wonder]] has been awarded over 20 [[Grammy Awards]]. His 1976 album ''[[Songs in the Key of Life]]'' won the Grammy that year for Album of the Year.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "Canzone del Porter" from ''[[Martha (opera)|Martha]]'' ([[Friedrich von Flotow|von Flotow]])
| Edouard de Reszke
| 1903
|
|-
| "Listen to the Lambs"
| Hampton Quartette; recorded by [[Natalie Curtis]] Burlin
| 1917
|
|-
| "[[Over There]]"
| [[Nora Bayes]]
| 1917
|
|-
| "Crazy Blues"
| [[Mamie Smith]]
| 1920
|
|-
| "My Man" and "Second Hand Rose"
| [[Fanny Brice]]
| 1921
|
|-
| "[[Ory's Creole Trombone]]"
| [[Kid Ory]]
| June 1922
|
|-
| [[Second inauguration of Calvin Coolidge]]
| [[Calvin Coolidge]]
| March 4, 1925
|
|-
| "Tanec Pid Werbamy/ Dance Under the Willows"
| [[Pawlo Humeniuk]]
| 1926
|
|-
| "Singin' the Blues"
| [[Frankie Trumbauer]] and His Orchestra with [[Bix Beiderbecke]]
| 1927
|
|-
| First official transatlantic telephone conversation
|W.S. Gifford and Sir Evelyn P. Murray
| January 7, 1927
|{{bg-green}}|original
|-
| "[[El Manisero]]" ("[[The Peanut Vendor]]") (Two versions)
| Rita Montaner, vocal with orchestra; Don Azpiazu and His Havana Casino orchestra
| 1927; 1930
|
|-
| ''Light's Golden Jubilee Celebration''
|
| October 21, 1929
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| Beethoven's [[Egmont (Beethoven)|Egmont Overture]], Op. 84
| Modesto High School Band
| 1930
|
|-
| ''[[Show Boat]]''
| [[Helen Morgan]], [[Paul Robeson]], James Melton and others; [[Victor Young]], conductor; [[Louis Alter]], piano
| 1932
|
|-
| "[[Wabash Cannonball]]"
| [[Roy Acuff]]
| 1936
|
|-
| "[[One O'Clock Jump]]"
| [[Count Basie]] and His Orchestra
| 1937
|
|-
| ''[[The Fall of the City]]'' (''[[Columbia Workshop]]'')
| Orson Welles, narrator; [[Burgess Meredith]], [[Paul Stewart (actor)|Paul Stewart]]
| April 11, 1937
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| ''[[The Adventures of Robin Hood (film)|The Adventures of Robin Hood]]'' ([[Erich Wolfgang Korngold]])
|
| May 11, 1938
|
|-
| [[Joe Louis]]-[[Max Schmeling]] [[boxing|fight]]
| [[Clem McCarthy]], announcer
| June 22, 1938
|
|-
| ''[[John the Revelator (song)|John the Revelator]]''
| [[Golden Gate Quartet]]
| 1938
|
|-
| "[[Adagio for Strings]]"
| [[Arturo Toscanini]], conductor; [[NBC Symphony]]
| November 5, 1938
|
|-
| ''Command Performance,'' show No. 21
| [[Bob Hope]], [[master of ceremonies]]
| July 7, 1942
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| "Straighten Up and Fly Right"
| [[Nat King Cole|Nat “King” Cole]]
| 1943
|
|-
| ''The [[Fred Allen]] Show''
| Fred Allen
| October 7, 1945
|
|-
| "Jole Blon (Jolie Blonde)"
| [[Harry Choates]]
| 1946
|
|-
| ''Tubby the Tuba''
| Victor Jory
| 1946
|
|-
| "[[Move On Up A Little Higher (song)|Move On Up a Little Higher]]"
| [[Mahalia Jackson]]
| 1948
|
|-
| ''[[Anthology of American Folk Music]]''
| Edited by [[Harry Everett Smith|Harry Smith]]
| 1952
|
|-
| "Schooner Bradley"
| Pat Bonner
| 1952–60
|
|-
| ''Damnation of Faust
| [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]] with the [[Harvard Glee Club]] and [[Radcliffe Choral Society]]
| 1954
|
|-
| "[[Blueberry Hill (song)|Blueberry Hill]]"
| [[Fats Domino]]
| 1956
|
|-
| ''Variations for Orchestra'' Representative of the Louisville Orchestra First Edition Recordings series
| [[Louisville Orchestra]]
| 1956
|
|-
| "[[Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin On]]"
| [[Jerry Lee Lewis]]
| 1957
|
|-
| "[[That'll Be the Day]]"
| [[The Crickets]]
| 1957
|
|-
| ''[[Poeme Electronique]]''
| [[Edgard Varèse]]
| 1958
|
|-
| ''[[Time Out (album)|Time Out]]''
| [[The Dave Brubeck Quartet]]
| 1959
|
|-
| [[Studs Terkel]] interview with James Baldwin Representative of the Studs Terkel Collection at the [[Chicago History Museum]] (formerly the [[Chicago Historical Society]]) 
| [[Studs Terkel]], [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]]
| September 29, 1962
|
|-
| [[United States Military Academy]] address
| [[William Faulkner]]
| April 19–20, 1962
|
|-
| "[[Dancing in the Street]]"
| [[Martha and the Vandellas]]
| 1964
|
|-
| ''[[Live at the Regal]]''
| [[B.B. King]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[Are You Experienced]]''
| [[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[We're Only in It for the Money]]''
| [[Frank Zappa]] and [[the Mothers of Invention]]
| 1968
|
|-
| ''[[Switched-On Bach|Switched-On]] [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]''
| [[Wendy Carlos]]
| 1968
|
|-
| "[[Oh Happy Day]]"
| [[Edwin Hawkins]] Singers
| 1969
|
|-
| ''[[Don't Crush That Dwarf, Hand Me the Pliers]]''
| [[Firesign Theatre]]
| 1970
|
|-
| "[[The Revolution Will Not Be Televised]]"
| [[Gil Scott-Heron]]
| 1970
|
|-
| ''[[Will the Circle Be Unbroken]]''
| [[Nitty Gritty Dirt Band]]
| 1972
|
|-
| The old foghorn, [[Kewaunee, Wisconsin|Kewaunee]], Wisconsin
| Recorded by James A. Lipsky
| 1972
|
|-
| ''[[Songs in the Key of Life]]''
| [[Stevie Wonder]]
| 1976
|
|-
| ''[[Daydream Nation]]''
| [[Sonic Youth]]
| 1988
|
|}

==2006==
On March 6, 2007, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="NRR6">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2006reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2006 |date=March 6, 2007 |accessdate =March 7, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Cal Stewart with paper.jpg|thumb|100px|Cal Stewart was among the most prolific and popular recording artists of the first 20 years of commercial recording.]]
[[File:Franklin Roosevelt signing declaration of war against Japan.jpg|thumb|100px|President Roosevelt signs the declaration of war against Japan after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], the "date which will live in infamy".]]
[[File:Pete Seeger NYWTS.jpg|thumb|100px|Folk singer Pete Seeger adapted a gospel song, "I Shall Overcome", by changing "I" to "We", and it became a standard for the civil rights movement.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "Uncle Josh and the Insurance Agent"
| [[Cal Stewart]]
| 1904
|
|-
|"Il Mio Tesoro"
| [[John McCormack (tenor)|John McCormack]]; orchestra conducted by Walter Rogers
| 1916
|
|-
| National Defense Test
| General [[John J. Pershing]]
| September 12, 1924
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
|"[[Black Bottom (dance)|Black Bottom Stomp]]"
| [[Jelly Roll Morton]]'s Red Hot Peppers
| 1926
|
|-
| "[[Wildwood Flower]]"
| [[Carter Family]]
| 1928
|
|-
| "[[Pony Blues]]"
| [[Charley Patton]]
| 1929
|
|-
|"[[You're the Top]]"
| [[Cole Porter]]
| 1934
|
|-
| ''[[The Lone Ranger]]'' Episode: "The Osage Bank Robbery"
| [[Earle Graser]], John Todd
| December 17, 1937
|
|-
| "Day of Infamy" speech to [[United States Congress|Congress]]
| [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
| December 8, 1941
|{{bg-green}}|copy
|-
| Native Brazilian music recorded under the supervision of [[Leopold Stokowski]]
| [[Pixinguinha]], Donga, [[Cartola]], Jararaca, Ratinho and José Espinguela
|1942
|
|-
| "[[Peace in the Valley]]"
| [[Red Foley]] and the Sunshine Boys
| 1951
|
|-
| "[[Polonaises Op. 40 (Chopin)|Polonaise in A Major]]" ("Polonaise militaire"), Op. 40, No. 1, by [[Frédéric Chopin]]
| [[Artur Rubinstein]]
| 1952
|
|-
|"[[Blue Suede Shoes]]"
| [[Carl Perkins]]
| 1955
|
|-
| Interviews with William "Billy" Bell (Canadian-Irish northwoods work songs)
| Recorded by Edward D. "Sandy" Ives
| 1956
|
|-
| ''[[Howl]]''
| [[Allen Ginsberg]]
| 1959
|
|-

| ''[[The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart]]''
| [[Bob Newhart]]
| 1960
|
|-
| "[[Be My Baby]]"
| [[The Ronettes]]
| 1963
|
|-
| "[[We Shall Overcome]]"
| [[Pete Seeger]]
| 1963
|
|-
| "[[(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction]]"
| [[The Rolling Stones]]
| 1965
|
|-
| "[[A Change Is Gonna Come (song)|A Change Is Gonna Come]]"
| [[Sam Cooke]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[The Velvet Underground & Nico]]''
| [[The Velvet Underground]] and [[Nico]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[The Eighty-Six Years of Eubie Blake]]''
| [[Eubie Blake]]
| 1969
|
|-
| ''[[Burnin' (Bob Marley & The Wailers album)|Burnin']]
| [[The Wailers (1963-1974 band)|The Wailers]]
| 1973
|
|-
| ''[[Live in Japan (Sarah Vaughan album)|Live in Japan]]''
| [[Sarah Vaughan]]
| 1973
|
|-
| ''[[Graceland (album)|Graceland]]''
| [[Paul Simon]]
| 1986
|
|}

==2007==
[[File:Joefalconmusician.jpg|thumb|100px|"Allons à Lafayette" was the best-known recording by Cajun accordionist Joe Falcon.]]
[[File:Fiorello LaGuardia.jpg|thumb|100px|Fiorella LaGuardia read the comics on WNYC radio during the 1945 newspaper delivery strike.]]
[[File:The Sounds of Earth - GPN-2000-001976.jpg|thumb|100px|''Murmurs of Earth'' is an eclectic 90-minute record of life and culture, sent into space by [[NASA]].]]
On May 14, 2008, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref>{{cite news | first=Susan | last=Logue | title=Jackson, Reagan Added to National Recording Registry | date=May 15, 2008 | publisher=Voice of America | url =http://voanews.com/english/archive/2008-05/2008-05-15-voa24.cfm | work=VOA News | accessdate =January 3, 2009 }} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref name="NRR7">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-2007reg.html |publisher=The Library of Congress |title= The National Recording Registry 2007 |date=May 14, 2008 |accessdate =August 9, 2008}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| The first transatlantic broadcast
|
| March 14, 1925
|
|-
| "Allons a Lafayette"
| [[Joe Falcon]]
| 1928
|
|-
| "Casta Diva" from [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]]'s ''[[Norma (opera)|Norma]]''
| [[Rosa Ponselle]] and the [[Metropolitan Opera]] Orchestra and Chorus, conducted by Giulio Setti
| December 31, 1928 and January 30, 1929
|
|-
|"[[If I Could Hear My Mother Pray Again]]"
|[[Thomas A. Dorsey]]
| 1934
|
|-
| "[[Sweet Lorraine]]"
| [[Art Tatum]]
| 1940
|
|-
|''[[Fibber McGee and Molly]]'' Fibber's closet opens for the first time
| Jim Jordan, Marian Jordan
| March 4, 1940
|
|-
| ''Wings Over Jordan''
|
| May 10, 1942
|
|-
| [[Fiorello H. La Guardia]] reading the comics
| Fiorello H. La Guardia
| 1945
|
|-
| "[[Call It Stormy Monday (But Tuesday Is Just as Bad)]]"
| [[T-Bone Walker]]
| 1947
|
|-
| Speech at the [[1948 Democratic National Convention]]
| [[Harry S. Truman]]
| July 15, 1948
|
|-
| ''The Jazz Scene''
| Various artists, produced by [[Norman Granz]]
| 1949
|
|-
| "[[It Wasn't God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels]]"
| [[Kitty Wells]]
| 1952
|
|-
| ''[[My Fair Lady]]''
| Original cast
| 1956
|
|-
| Navajo Shootingway Ceremony Field Recordings
| Recorded by [[David McAllester (ethnomusicologist)|David McAllester]]
| 1957–1958
|
|-
| ''<nowiki>"</nowiki>Freight Train" and Other North Carolina Folk Songs and Tunes''
| [[Elizabeth Cotten]]
| 1959
|
|-
| [[United States Marine Band]] Recordings for the [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts|National Cultural Center]]
|
| 1963
|
|-
| "[[Oh, Pretty Woman]]"
| [[Roy Orbison]]
| 1964
|
|-
| "[[The Tracks of My Tears]]"
| [[Smokey Robinson]] and [[the Miracles]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[You’ll Sing a Song and I’ll Sing a Song]]''
| [[Ella Jenkins]]
| 1966
|
|-
| ''Music from the Morning of the World''
| Various artists, recorded by [[David Lewiston]]
| 1966
|
|-
| ''[[For the Roses]]''
| [[Joni Mitchell]]
| 1972
|
|-
| ''[[Head Hunters]]''
| [[Herbie Hancock]]
| 1973
|
|-
| [[Ronald Reagan]] radio broadcasts
| [[Ronald Reagan]]
| 1976–79
|
|-
| ''[[Voyager Golden Record|Murmurs of Earth]]'' Disc prepared for the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] spacecraft
|
| 1977
|
|-
| ''[[Thriller (album)|Thriller]]''
| [[Michael Jackson]]
| 1982
|
|}

==2008==
[[File:Heifetz LOC 38890u.jpg|thumb|100px|Shortly after his Carnegie Hall debut on November 7, 1917, violinist [[Jascha Heifetz]] made his first recordings for [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor]].]]
[[File:MarianAndersonLincolnMemorial.png|thumb|100px|Marian Anderson performed for more than 75,000 people at the Lincoln Memorial, opening with "[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]."]]
[[File:Sir Winston S Churchill.jpg|thumb|100px|Winston Churchill's "[[:s:Sinews of Peace|Sinews of Peace]]" address originated the term "Iron Curtain."]]
On June 10, 2009, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref>{{cite news | first=Natasha | last=Metzler | title=New National Recording Registry entries announced | date=June 9, 2009 | publisher=Associated Press, San Fransciso Chronicle | url =http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2009/06/09/national/w124722D20.DTL&type=business | accessdate =June 10, 2009 }} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
|"No News, or What Killed the Dog"
| [[Nat M. Wills]]
| 1908
|
|-
| Acoustic recordings for [[Victor Talking Machine Company]]

| [[Jascha Heifetz]]
| 1917–1924
|
|-
| "Night Life"
| [[Mary Lou Williams]]
| 1930
|
|-
|[[Ivory-billed woodpecker|Sounds of the ivory-billed woodpecker]]
|
| 1935
|
|-
| ''[[Gang Busters]]''
|
| 1935–1957
|
|-
| "[[Bei Mir Bistu Shein]]"
| [[The Andrews Sisters]]
| 1938
|
|-
| "O Que é que a Bahiana tem"
| [[Carmen Miranda]]
| 1939
|
|-
| [[NBC|NBC Radio]] coverage of Marian Anderson's [[Marian Anderson#European fame and the 1939 Lincoln Memorial concert|recital at the Lincoln Memorial]]
| [[Marian Anderson]]
| April 9, 1939
|
|-
| "[[Tom Dooley (song)|Tom Dooley]]"
| [[Frank Proffitt]]
| 1940
|
|-
| ''Mary Margaret McBride''
| [[Mary Margaret McBride]] and [[Zora Neale Hurston]]
| January 25, 1943
|
|-
| "Uncle Sam Blues" ([[V-Disc]])
| [[Oran Page|Oran "Hot Lips" Page]], accompanied by [[Eddie Condon|Eddie Condon's Jazz Band]]
| 1944
|
|-
| [[Iron Curtain#Iron Curtain speech|"Sinews of Peace" (Iron Curtain) Speech]] at [[Westminster College (Missouri)|Westminster College]], [[Fulton, Missouri|Fulton]], Missouri
| [[Winston Churchill]]
| March 5, 1946
|
|-
| "The Churkendoose"
| [[Ray Bolger]]
| 1947
|
|-
| "[[Boogie Chillen']]"
| [[John Lee Hooker]]
| 1948
|
|-
| ''[[A Child's Christmas in Wales]]''
| [[Dylan Thomas]]
| 1952
|
|-
| ''A Festival of Lessons and Carols as Sung on Christmas Eve in King's College Chapel, Cambridge''
| [[Choir of King's College, Cambridge|King's College Choir]]; [[Boris Ord]], director
| 1954
|
|-
| ''[[West Side Story (Original Broadway Cast)|West Side Story]]''
| Original cast
| 1957
|
|-
| "[[Tom Dooley (song)|Tom Dooley]]"
| [[The Kingston Trio]]
| 1958
|
|-
| "[[Rumble (instrumental)|Rumble]]"
| [[Link Wray]]
| 1958
|
|-
| ''[[Play of Daniel|The Play of Daniel: A Twelfth-Century Drama]]''
| [[New York Pro Musica]] under the direction of Noah Greenberg
| 1958
|
|-
| "Rank Stranger"
| [[The Stanley Brothers]]
| 1960
|
|-
| "[[At Last]]"
| [[Etta James]]
| 1961
|
|-
| ''[[2000 Year Old Man|2000 Years with Carl Reiner and Mel Brooks]]''
| [[Carl Reiner]] and [[Mel Brooks]]
| 1961
|
|-
| ''[[My Generation (album)|The Who Sings My Generation]]''
| [[The Who]]
| 1966
|
|-
| "[[He Stopped Loving Her Today]]"
| [[George Jones]]
| 1980
|
|}

==2009==
On June 23, 2010, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="loc.gov">[http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-2009reg.html Registry Choices 2009: The National Recording Preservation Board (Library of Congress)]. Loc.gov. Retrieved on October 27, 2010.</ref>
[[File:Bill Cosby (2010).jpg|thumb|100px|Bill Cosby]]
[[File:Little Richard in 2007.jpg|thumb|100px|Little Richard]]
[[File:M John Hurt.jpg|thumb|100px|Mississippi John Hurt]]
[[File:Willie Nelson at Farm Aid 2009 - Cropped.jpg|thumb|100px|Willie Nelson]]
[[File:Padova REM concert July 22 2003 blue.jpg|thumb|100px|R.E.M.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| "Fon der Choope (From the Wedding)"
| [[Abe Elenkrig]]'s Yidishe Orchestra
| April 4, 1913
|
|-
| "Canal Street Blues"
| [[King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band]]
| April 5, 1923
|
|-
| ''[[Tristan und Isolde]]'', NBC broadcast
| [[Metropolitan Opera]], featuring [[Kirsten Flagstad]] and [[Lauritz Melchior]]
| March 9, 1935
|
|-
| "[[When You Wish Upon a Star]]"
| [[Cliff Edwards]]
| 1938 (recorded) / 1940 (released)
|
|-
| ''[[America's Town Meeting of the Air]]'': "Should Our Ships Convoy Materials to England?"
| George V. Denny (host); [[Reinhold Niebuhr]], [[John Flynn]]{{disambiguation needed|date=May 2012}} (guests)
| May 8, 1941
|
|-
| The Library of Congress Marine Corps Combat Field Recording Collection, [[Battle of Guam (1944)|Second Battle of Guam]].
|
| 1944
|
|-
| "Evangeline Special" and "Love Bridge Waltz"
| [[Iry LeJeune]]
| 1948
|
|-
| ''[[The Little Engine that Could]]''
| [[Paul Wing]], narrator
| 1949
|
|-
| Leon Metcalf Collection of recordings of the First People of western Washington State
| Leon Metcalf
| 1950–1954
|
|-
| "[[Tutti Frutti (song)|Tutti Frutti]]"
| [[Little Richard]]
| 1955
|
|-
| "[[Smokestack Lightning]]"
| [[Howlin' Wolf]]
| 1956
|
|-
| ''[[Gypsy (musical)|Gypsy]]''
| Original cast recording
| 1959
|
|-
| ''[[The Complete Village Vanguard Recordings, 1961|The Complete Village Vanguard Recordings]]''
| [[Bill Evans Trio]]
| June 25, 1961
|
|-
| "[[Daisy Bell|Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)]]"
| [[Max Mathews]]
| 1961
|
|-
| ''[[I Started Out as a Child]]''
| [[Bill Cosby]]
| 1964
|
|-
| ''[[Azucar Pa' Ti]]''
| [[Eddie Palmieri]]
| 1965
|
|-
| ''[[Today! (Mississippi John Hurt album)|Today!]]''
| [[Mississippi John Hurt]]
| 1966
|
|-
| "[[Silver Apples of the Moon]]"
| [[Morton Subotnick]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[Soul Folk in Action]]''
| [[The Staple Singers]]
| 1968
|
|-
| ''[[The Band (album)|The Band]]''
| [[The Band]]
| 1969
|
|-
| "[[Coal Miner's Daughter (song)|Coal Miner's Daughter]]"
| [[Loretta Lynn]]
| 1970
|
|-
| ''[[Red Headed Stranger]]''
| [[Willie Nelson]]
| 1975
|
|-
| ''[[Horses (album)|Horses]]''
| [[Patti Smith]]
| 1975
|
|-
| "[[Radio Free Europe (song)|Radio Free Europe]]" original [[Hib-Tone]] single 
| [[R.E.M.]]
| 1981
|
|-
| "[[Dear Mama]]"
| [[2Pac]]
| 1995
|
|}

==2010==
[[File:Ishi portrait.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Ishi]], last surviving member of the Yahi tribe]]
[[File:Willis Conover 1969.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Willis Conover]], broadcaster with the Voice of America]]
[[File:Captain Beefheart in Toronto.jpg|thumb|100px|Don Van Vliet, better known by the stage name [[Captain Beefheart]]]]
[[File:Humpback stellwagen edit.jpg|thumb|100px|A [[humpback whale]], known for producing [[Whale sound|whale songs]]]]
On April 6, 2011, the following 25 selections were announced.<ref>[http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-2010reg.html Loc.gov]</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| Phonautograms
| [[Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville]]
| ca. 1853–1861
|
|-
| "[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]]"
| [[Edward Meeker]], accompanied by the [[Edison Orchestra]]
| 1908
|
|-
| [[Yahi language]] cylinder recordings
| [[Ishi]], last surviving member of the Yahi tribe
| 1911–1914
|
|-
| "[[Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground]]"
| [[Blind Willie Johnson]]
| 1927
|
|-
| "[[It's the Girl]]"
| The [[Boswell Sisters]] with the [[Dorsey Brothers Orchestra]]
| 1931
|
|-
| "[[Mal Hombre]]"
| [[Lydia Mendoza]]
| 1934
|
|-
| "[[Tumbling Tumbleweeds]]"
| [[The Sons of the Pioneers]]
| 1934
|
|-
| ''[[Talking Union]]''
| [[The Almanac Singers]]
| 1941
|
|-
| ''[[Jazz at the Philharmonic]]''
| [[Nat "King" Cole]], [[Les Paul]], [[Buddy Rich]], others
| July 2, 1944
|
|-
| [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]'s "[[Pope Marcellus Mass]]"
| [[Roger Wagner Chorale]]
| 1951
|
|-
| "[[The Eagle Stirreth Her Nest]]"
| Reverend [[C. L. Franklin]]
| 1953
|
|-
| "[[Tipitina]]"
| [[Professor Longhair]]
| 1953
|
|-
| "[[At Sunset]]"
| [[Mort Sahl]]
| 1955
|
|-
| Interviews with jazz musicians for the [[Voice of America]]
| [[Willis Conover]]
| 1956
|
|-
| ''[[The Music from Peter Gunn]]''
| [[Henry Mancini]]
| 1958
|
|-
| United [[Sacred Harp]] Musical Convention in [[Fyffe, Alabama|Fyffe]], Alabama
| field recordings by [[Alan Lomax]] and [[Shirley Collins]]
| 1959
|
|-
| ''[[Blind Joe Death]]''
| [[John Fahey (musician)|John Fahey]]
| 1959, 1964, 1967
|
|-
| "[[Stand by Your Man]]"
| [[Tammy Wynette]]
| 1968
|
|-
| ''[[Trout Mask Replica]]''
| [[Captain Beefheart and His Magic Band]]
| 1969
|
|-
| ''[[Songs of the Humpback Whale (album)|Songs of the Humpback Whale]]''
| [[Frank Watlington]], [[Roger Payne]], and others
| 1970
|
|-
| "[[Let's Stay Together (song)|Let's Stay Together]]"
| [[Al Green]]
| 1971
|
|-
| "[[Black Angels (Thirteen Images from the Dark Land)]]"
| [[New York Strings Quartet]]
| 1972
|
|-
| ''[[Aja (album)|Aja]]''
| [[Steely Dan]]
| 1977
|
|-
| [[GOPAC]] Strategy and Instructional Tapes
| [[Newt Gingrich]], others
| 1986–1994
|
|-
| ''[[3 Feet High and Rising]]''
| [[De La Soul]]
| 1989
|
|}

==2011==
On May 23, 2012, the following 25 selections were made by the National Recording Preservation Board.<ref name="loc.gov"/>
[[File:Lillian Russell, 1897.png|thumb|100px|Lillian Russell]]
[[File:Bernstein, Leonard (1918-1990) - 1944 - foto van Vechten2.jpg|thumb|100px|Leonard Bernstein]]
[[File:Bo Diddley Prag 2005 02.jpg|thumb|100px|Bo Diddley]]
[[File:Dolly Parton 2.jpg|thumb|100px|Dolly Parton]]
[[File:Billbongo.jpg|thumb|100px|Grateful Dead]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:275px;"| Recording or collection
! style="width:275px;"| Performer or agent
! style="width:100px;"| Year
!width="50"|National Archives
|-
| [[Edison Talking Doll cylinder]]
|
| November 1888
|
|-
| "[[Come Down Ma Evenin' Star]]"
| [[Lillian Russell]]
| 1912
|
|-
| "[[Ten Cents A Dance]]"
| [[Ruth Etting]]
| 1930
|
|-
| ''[[Voices from the Days of Slavery]]''
| Various
| 1932–1975
|
|-
| "[[I Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart]]"
| [[Patsy Montana]]
| 1935
|
|-
| "[[Fascinating Rhythm]]"
| [[Sol Hoopii]]
| 1938
|
|-
| "[[Artistry In Rhythm]]"
| [[Stan Kenton]]
| 1943
|
|-
| New York Philharmonic debut of Leonard Bernstein
| [[Leonard Bernstein]]
| November 14, 1943
|
|-
| ''[[Hottest Women's Band of the 1940s]]''
| [[International Sweethearts of Rhythm]]
| 1944-1946 (released 1984)
|
|-
| "[[Hula Medley]]"
| [[Gabby Pahinui]]
| 1947
|
|-
| ''[[Indians for Indians (Hour)]]''
| [[Don Whistler]]
| March 25, 1947
|
|-
| ''[[I Can Hear It Now: 1933-1945]]''
| [[Edward R. Murrow]] and [[Fred W. Friendly]]
| 1948
|
|-
| "[[Let's Go Out to the Programs]]"
| [[The Dixie Hummingbirds]]
| 1953
|
|-
| ''[[Also Sprach Zarathustra]]''
| [[Fritz Reiner]] and the [[Chicago Symphony Orchestra]]
| 1954, 1958
|
|-
| "[[Bo Diddley (song)|Bo Diddley]]" with "[[I'm a Man (Bo Diddley song)|I'm a Man]]"
| [[Bo Diddley]]
| 1955
|
|-
| "[[Green Onions (song)|Green Onions]]"
| [[Booker T. & The M.G.'s]]
| 1962
|-
| ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas (album)|A Charlie Brown Christmas]]''
| [[Vince Guaraldi Trio]]
| 1965
|-
| ''[[Forever Changes]]''
| [[Love (band)|Love]]
| 1967
|
|-
| ''[[The Continental Harmony: The Gregg Smith Singers Perform Music of William Billings]]''
| [[The Gregg Smith Singers]]
| 1969
|-
| "[[Coat of Many Colors (song)|Coat of Many Colors]]"
| [[Dolly Parton]]
| 1971
|
|-
| ''[[Mothership Connection]]''
| [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]]
| 1975
|
|-
| ''[[Barton Hall Concert at Cornell University]]''
| [[Grateful Dead]]
| 1977
|
|-
| "[[I Feel Love]]"
| [[Donna Summer]]
| 1977
|
|-
| "[[Rapper's Delight]]"
| [[Sugarhill Gang]]
| 1979
|
|-
| ''[[Purple Rain (album)|Purple Rain]]''
| [[Prince (musician)|Prince]] and [[The Revolution (band)|The Revolution]]
| 1984
|
|}

==Trivia==

{{trivia|date=January 2013}}

* {{As of|2011}}, the oldest recording on the list is [[Edouard-Leon Scott de Martinville]]'s [[Phonautograms]] which date back to 1853. The most recent is the song "[[Dear Mama]]" by [[Tupac Shakur|2Pac]] which came out in 1995 on his album ''[[Me Against the World]]''.<ref name="NRPB2">{{cite web |url= http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-masterlist.html |publisher=[[The Library of Congress]] |title= Full Registry |date=November 3, 2006 |accessdate=December 16, 2009}}</ref>

* Selections vary widely in duration. Both the early Edison recordings and the instrumental "[[Rumble (instrumental)|Rumble]]" by [[Link Wray]] clock in at under three minutes; the [[Edison Talking Doll cylinder]] is only 17 seconds long. Meanwhile [[Georg Solti]]'s recording of [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s complete ''[[Ring Cycle]]'' is approximately 15 hours in duration and [[Alexander Scourby]]'s recitation of the [[King James Bible]] is over 80 hours in length.<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* {{As of|2011}}, there are nine cast show recordings on the Registry, including ''[[Oklahoma!]],'' ''[[Show Boat]],'' ''[[Gypsy (musical)|Gypsy]]'' and ''[[The Cradle Will Rock]].''<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* {{As of|2011}}, rap songs on the Registry include "[[Rapper's Delight]]" by the [[Sugarhill Gang]], "[[The Message (Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five song)|The Message]]" by [[Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five]], and "[[Dear Mama]]" by [[Tupac]]. The rap album ''[[3 Feet High and Rising]]'' by [[De La Soul]] was also added in 2010.

* {{As of|2011}}, some of the film and TV soundtracks included on the Registry are ''[[Star Wars]],'' and ''[[Purple Rain (album)|Purple Rain]].''

* {{As of|2011}}, there is one TV theme on the list, [[Henry Mancini]]'s music for ''[[Peter Gunn]].''

* {{As of|2011}}, excluding radio series, there are 10 comedy recordings on the Registry, including ''[[The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart]]'' by [[Bob Newhart]], ''2000 Years with [[Carl Reiner]] and [[Mel Brooks]],'' ''[[I Started Out as a Child]]'' by [[Bill Cosby]], ''[[At Sunset]]'' by [[Mort Sahl]] and “No News, or What Killed the Dog” by [[Nat M. Wills]].<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* {{As of|2011}}, there are 37 solo female musical artists represented on the list, including [[Sophie Tucker]], [[Carole King]], [[Dolly Parton]], [[Donna Summer]], [[Ruth Etting]], [[Tammy Wynette]], [[Lydia Mendoza]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Joni Mitchell]], [[Fanny Brice]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]], [[Patti Smith]], [[Loretta Lynn]] and [[Patsy Cline]]. (Women are also represented as members of groups, for example: the [[Velvet Underground and Nico]] with [[Maureen Tucker]] and [[Nico]]; the [[Carter Family]] with “Mother” [[Maybelle Carter]] and [[Sara Carter]], and [[Sonic Youth]] featuring [[Kim Gordon]]).<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* Some of the country music titles on the list include: “[[Crazy (Willie Nelson song)|Crazy]]” by [[Patsy Cline]], “[[He Stopped Loving Her Today]]” by [[George Jones]], “[[Wildwood Flower]]” by the [[Carter Family]], "[[Coal Miner's Daughter]]" by [[Loretta Lynn]], "[[Tumbling Tumbleweeds]]" by [[The Sons of the Pioneers]], "[[Coat of Many Colors]]" by [[Dolly Parton]], "[[I Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart]]" by [[Patsy Montana]] and “[[Blue Moon of Kentucky]]” by [[Bill Monroe]].<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* Some of the radio series or broadcasts so far included on the list include: ''[[Gang Busters]]''; [[Orson Welles]]’ ''[[The War of the Worlds (radio drama)|War of the Worlds]]'' broadcast; ''[[A Prairie Home Companion]]''; ''[[America's Town Meeting of the Air]]''; ''[[Fred Allen|The Fred Allen Show]]''; and [[Norman Corwin]]'s ''[[We Hold These Truths]].''<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* {{As of|2011}}, the spoken words of seven U.S. Presidents are represented on the Registry, including [[Woodrow Wilson]], [[Harry S. Truman]], and [[John F. Kennedy]]. [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] is featured twice—for his ''[[Fireside Chats]]'' and his December 8, 1941 address to Congress. Registry items by some Presidents—[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and [[Ronald Reagan]]—either precede or follow their Presidential terms.<ref name="NRPB2"/>

* Two of the 2010 selections have close connections, [[De La Soul]]'s track "[[Eye Know]]" from the album ''[[3 Feet High and Rising]]'' samples a portion of [[Steely Dan]]'s "[[Peg (song)|Peg]]", from the album ''[[Aja (album)|Aja]]'', also a selection that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.discogs.com/De-La-Soul-Eye-Know/release/2789952|title=De La Soul – Eye Know |accessdate=2012-06-10|publisher=Discogs.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=8385|title=Eye Know by De La Soul|accessdate=2012-06-10|publisher=Songfacts.com}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[National Film Registry]]

==Notes==
* {{note label|fireside||A}}The original 25 recordings from July 24, 1933 and July 28, 1934 are preserved at the Roosevelt Library in [[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], New York.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-97082009.html |publisher=U.S. Newswire |title= National Archives Sound Recordings Named to National Recording Registry |date=January 23, 2003 |accessdate=February 24, 2007}} {{dead link|date=April 2011}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/nrpb-home.html National Recording Preservation Board]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-masterlist.html Full National Recording Registry]
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6392808 NPR ''All Things Considered''] – series spotlighting selections from the Registry

{{Featured list}}

[[Category:United States history-related lists]]
[[Category:Library of Congress]]
[[Category:Music-related lists]]
[[Category:Reference material lists]]
[[Category:United States National Recording Registry recordings| ]]

[[et:United States National Recording Registry]]
[[fa:فهرست ملی ضبط اصوات]]
[[fr:Registre national des enregistrements]]
[[lb:Nationalen Toundokument Regëster (USA)]]

Civil Rights Act von 1957

2012-11-13T10:36:30Z

Textorus: /* Subsequent legislation */ most concurrent? bizarre phrase

'''The Civil Rights Act of 1957''', {{USStatute|85|315|71|634|1957|09|09}}, primarily a [[Voting rights in the United States|voting rights]] bill, was the first [[civil rights]] legislation enacted by Congress in the [[United States]] since [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]].

Following the historic US Supreme Court ruling in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' (1954), which eventually led to the integration of public schools, Southern whites in Virginia began a "[[Massive Resistance]]". Violence against blacks rose there and in other states, as in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]], where that year President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] had ordered in federal troops to protect nine children integrating a public school, the first time the federal government had sent troops to the South since Reconstruction.<ref name="Miller">[http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29228077_1_civil-rights-nichols-truman-s-executive-order James A. Miller, "An inside look at Eisenhower's civil rights record"], ''Boston Globe'' at boston.com, 21 November 2007, accessed 28 October 2011</ref>
There had been continued physical assaults against suspected activists and bombings of schools and churches in the South. The administration of Eisenhower proposed legislation to protect the right to vote by African Americans.

Senator [[Strom Thurmond]] of [[South Carolina]], an ardent [[Racial segregation|segregationist]], sustained the longest one-person [[filibuster]] in history in an attempt to keep the bill from becoming law. His one-man filibuster lasted 24 hours and 18 minutes; he began with readings of every [[U.S. state|state's]] [[election law]]s in alphabetical order. Thurmond later read from the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], and [[George Washington's Farewell Address]]. His speech set the record for a Senate filibuster.<ref>[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Filibuster_Cloture.htm Senate.gov web site]</ref> The bill passed the House with a vote of 270 to 97 and the Senate 60 to 15. President Eisenhower signed it on September 9, 1957.

==Content and passage==
The goal of the 1957 Civil Rights Act was to ensure that all Americans could exercise their right to vote. By 1957, only about 20% of African Americans were registered to vote. Despite comprising the majority population in numerous counties and Congressional districts in the South, discriminatory voter registration rules and laws had effectively disfranchised most blacks in those states since the late nineteenth and early 20th centuries. Civil rights organizations had collected evidence of discriminatory practices, such as administration of literacy and comprehension tests, poll taxes and other means. While the states had the right to establish rules for voter registration and elections, the federal government found an oversight role in ensuring that citizens could exercise the constitutional right to vote for federal officers, such as the president, vice-president, and Congress.

The Democratic [[Senate Majority Leader]], [[Lyndon Baines Johnson]] from Texas, realized that the bill and its journey through Congress could tear apart his party, whose southern bloc was anti-civil rights and northern members were more pro-civil rights. Southern senators occupied chairs of numerous important committees due to their long seniority. Johnson sent the bill to the judiciary committee, led by Senator [[James Eastland]] from Mississippi, who proceeded to change and alter the bill almost beyond recognition. Senator [[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]] from Georgia had claimed the bill was an example of the Federal government wanting to impose its laws on states. Johnson sought recognition from civil rights advocates for passing the bill, while also receiving recognition from the mostly southern anti-civil rights Democrats for reducing it so much as to kill it.{{fact|date=October 2012}}

===Provisions===
Public Law 85-315 September 9, 1957. 71 Stat 634-638. The law is focused exclusively on voting rights. Sec. 101 sets up a six-member Civil Rights Commission in the Executive Branch to gather information on deprivation of citizens' voting rights based on color, race, religion or national origin, the legal background, and laws and policies of the Federal Government. It was set up to take testimony or written complaints from individuals about difficulties in registering and voting. Not later than 2 years from date of enactment of this law the Commission will submit a final report to the President and the Congress, and will cease to exist.

Part IV, Section 131 is the most important action section of the law. It sets forth prohibitions against intimidating, coercing or otherwise interfering with the rights of persons to vote for the President and members of Congress. The Attorney General of the United States may institute actions, including injunctions and charges of contempt of court, with fines not to exceed $1000 and six months imprisonment. There are also extensive safeguards for the rights of accused under this statute. Federal judges were permitted to hear cases related to the act with or without juries. Not being able to vote in most of the South, blacks were also excluded from juries at the time.

The final version of the act established both the [[United States Commission on Civil Rights|Commission on Civil Rights]] and the office of Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights. Subsequently, on December 9, 1957, the [[United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division|Civil Rights Division]] was established within the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] by order of [[U.S. Attorney General]] [[William P. Rogers]], giving the Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights a distinct division to command. Previously, civil rights lawyers enforced Reconstruction-era civil rights laws from within the [[United States Department of Justice Criminal Division|Criminal Division]].

==Aftermath==
Although passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 seemed to indicate a growing federal commitment to the cause of civil rights, the legislation was limited. Because of the ways in which it had been changed, the government had difficulty enforcing it. By 1960, black voting had increased 3%.<ref name="Miller"/> Passage of the bill showed the willingness of national leaders to support, to varying degrees, the cause of civil rights.

At the time, Reverend [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was 28 and a developing leader in the civil rights movement; he spoke out against white supremacists. Segregationists had burned African-American churches, centers of education and organizing related to voter registration, and physically attacked African Americans, including women, who were activists. King sent a telegram to President Eisenhower to make a speech to the South, asking him to use “the weight of your great office to point out to the people of the South the moral nature of the problem.” Eisenhower responded, "I don’t know what another speech would do about the thing right now.”

Disappointed, King sent another telegram to the President, stating that Eisenhower's comments were “a profound disappointment to the millions of Americans of goodwill, north and south, who earnestly are looking to you for leadership and guidance in this period of inevitable social change.” He tried to set up a meeting with President Eisenhower, but was given a meeting with Vice President Richard Nixon, which lasted two hours. Nixon was reported to have been impressed with King and told the president that he might enjoy meeting with him in the future.<ref name="autogenerated2007">Nichols, David (2007). ''A Matter of Justice Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution'', New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-1-4165-4150-9</ref>

==Filibuster==
[[Strom Thurmond]], then a Democrat, was a pro-segregation Senator from South Carolina. He vehemently opposed passage of the Act with the longest (although ultimately unsuccessful) [[Filibuster (legislative tactic)|filibuster]] ever conducted by a single Senator, speaking for 24 hours and 18 minutes. Cots were brought in from a nearby hotel for the legislators to sleep on while Thurmond discussed increasingly irrelevant and obscure topics, including his grandmother's biscuit recipe.{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}} Other southern senators, who had agreed as part of a compromise not to filibuster this bill, were upset with Thurmond. They believed his defiance made them look incompetent to their constituents. Other constituents were upset with their senators because they were seen as not helping Thurmond. <ref>Caro, Robert (2002). ''Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson'', New York: Knopf, ISBN 0-394-52836-0</ref>

==Subsequent legislation==
The [[Civil Rights Act of 1960]] addressed some of the shortcomings of the 1957 act. It expanded the authority of federal judges to protect voting rights. It required local authorities to maintain comprehensive voting records for review, so that the government could determine if there were patterns of discrimination against certain populations.<ref>[http://www.civilrights.org/publications/monitor/august1988/art3p1.html Civil Rights Act of 1960]</ref>

The Civil Rights Movement continued to expand, with protesters leading non-violent demonstrations to mark their cause. President [[John F. Kennedy]] called for a new bill in his civil rights speech of June 11, 1963,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03CivilRights06111963.htm |title=Transcript from the JFK library |publisher=the JFK library. |date=1963-06-11 |accessdate=2011-10-28}}</ref> in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public—hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments," as well as "greater protection for the right to vote." Kennedy delivered this speech following a series of [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|protests from the African-American community]], most notably the [[Birmingham campaign]], which concluded in May 1963.

In the summer of 1963, various parts of the civil rights movement collaborated to run voter education and voter registration drives in Mississippi. During [[Freedom Summer]] in 1964, hundreds of students from the North went there to participate in voter drives and community organizing. The media coverage and violent backlash, with the murders of three civil rights workers near Philadelphia, Mississippi, contributed to national support for civil rights legislation.

After Kennedy's assassination, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] helped secure passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], making racial discrimination and segregation illegal<ref>[http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 Civil Rights Act of 1964]</ref>, and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]], which abolished the [[poll tax]] and other means of keeping blacks and poor people from registering to vote and voting, established record-keeping and oversight, and provided for federal enforcement in areas with documented patterns of discrimination.

==Sources==
*Finley, Keith M. (2008). ''Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938-1965'', Baton Rouge, LSU Press.
*Nichols, David. A. (2007). ''A Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution'', New York: Simon & Schuster.

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.historycentral.com/Documents/CivilRigths57.html Civil Rights Act of 1957 Text]
*[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Filibuster_Cloture.htm Senate filibuster history]
*[http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/civil_rights_act.html Documents regarding the Civil Rights Act of 1957, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Civil Rights Act Of 1957}}
[[Category:1957 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal civil rights legislation]]
[[Category:85th United States Congress]]

[[it:Civil Rights Act (1957)]]
[[pt:Ato Civil Americano de 1957]]

Civil Rights Act von 1957

2012-11-13T10:33:39Z

Textorus: /* Provisions */ there is no need for using sic here; may is a common helping verb in legal texts with a specific meaning

'''The Civil Rights Act of 1957''', {{USStatute|85|315|71|634|1957|09|09}}, primarily a [[Voting rights in the United States|voting rights]] bill, was the first [[civil rights]] legislation enacted by Congress in the [[United States]] since [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]].

Following the historic US Supreme Court ruling in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' (1954), which eventually led to the integration of public schools, Southern whites in Virginia began a "[[Massive Resistance]]". Violence against blacks rose there and in other states, as in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]], where that year President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] had ordered in federal troops to protect nine children integrating a public school, the first time the federal government had sent troops to the South since Reconstruction.<ref name="Miller">[http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29228077_1_civil-rights-nichols-truman-s-executive-order James A. Miller, "An inside look at Eisenhower's civil rights record"], ''Boston Globe'' at boston.com, 21 November 2007, accessed 28 October 2011</ref>
There had been continued physical assaults against suspected activists and bombings of schools and churches in the South. The administration of Eisenhower proposed legislation to protect the right to vote by African Americans.

Senator [[Strom Thurmond]] of [[South Carolina]], an ardent [[Racial segregation|segregationist]], sustained the longest one-person [[filibuster]] in history in an attempt to keep the bill from becoming law. His one-man filibuster lasted 24 hours and 18 minutes; he began with readings of every [[U.S. state|state's]] [[election law]]s in alphabetical order. Thurmond later read from the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], and [[George Washington's Farewell Address]]. His speech set the record for a Senate filibuster.<ref>[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Filibuster_Cloture.htm Senate.gov web site]</ref> The bill passed the House with a vote of 270 to 97 and the Senate 60 to 15. President Eisenhower signed it on September 9, 1957.

==Content and passage==
The goal of the 1957 Civil Rights Act was to ensure that all Americans could exercise their right to vote. By 1957, only about 20% of African Americans were registered to vote. Despite comprising the majority population in numerous counties and Congressional districts in the South, discriminatory voter registration rules and laws had effectively disfranchised most blacks in those states since the late nineteenth and early 20th centuries. Civil rights organizations had collected evidence of discriminatory practices, such as administration of literacy and comprehension tests, poll taxes and other means. While the states had the right to establish rules for voter registration and elections, the federal government found an oversight role in ensuring that citizens could exercise the constitutional right to vote for federal officers, such as the president, vice-president, and Congress.

The Democratic [[Senate Majority Leader]], [[Lyndon Baines Johnson]] from Texas, realized that the bill and its journey through Congress could tear apart his party, whose southern bloc was anti-civil rights and northern members were more pro-civil rights. Southern senators occupied chairs of numerous important committees due to their long seniority. Johnson sent the bill to the judiciary committee, led by Senator [[James Eastland]] from Mississippi, who proceeded to change and alter the bill almost beyond recognition. Senator [[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]] from Georgia had claimed the bill was an example of the Federal government wanting to impose its laws on states. Johnson sought recognition from civil rights advocates for passing the bill, while also receiving recognition from the mostly southern anti-civil rights Democrats for reducing it so much as to kill it.{{fact|date=October 2012}}

===Provisions===
Public Law 85-315 September 9, 1957. 71 Stat 634-638. The law is focused exclusively on voting rights. Sec. 101 sets up a six-member Civil Rights Commission in the Executive Branch to gather information on deprivation of citizens' voting rights based on color, race, religion or national origin, the legal background, and laws and policies of the Federal Government. It was set up to take testimony or written complaints from individuals about difficulties in registering and voting. Not later than 2 years from date of enactment of this law the Commission will submit a final report to the President and the Congress, and will cease to exist.

Part IV, Section 131 is the most important action section of the law. It sets forth prohibitions against intimidating, coercing or otherwise interfering with the rights of persons to vote for the President and members of Congress. The Attorney General of the United States may institute actions, including injunctions and charges of contempt of court, with fines not to exceed $1000 and six months imprisonment. There are also extensive safeguards for the rights of accused under this statute. Federal judges were permitted to hear cases related to the act with or without juries. Not being able to vote in most of the South, blacks were also excluded from juries at the time.

The final version of the act established both the [[United States Commission on Civil Rights|Commission on Civil Rights]] and the office of Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights. Subsequently, on December 9, 1957, the [[United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division|Civil Rights Division]] was established within the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] by order of [[U.S. Attorney General]] [[William P. Rogers]], giving the Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights a distinct division to command. Previously, civil rights lawyers enforced Reconstruction-era civil rights laws from within the [[United States Department of Justice Criminal Division|Criminal Division]].

==Aftermath==
Although passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 seemed to indicate a growing federal commitment to the cause of civil rights, the legislation was limited. Because of the ways in which it had been changed, the government had difficulty enforcing it. By 1960, black voting had increased 3%.<ref name="Miller"/> Passage of the bill showed the willingness of national leaders to support, to varying degrees, the cause of civil rights.

At the time, Reverend [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was 28 and a developing leader in the civil rights movement; he spoke out against white supremacists. Segregationists had burned African-American churches, centers of education and organizing related to voter registration, and physically attacked African Americans, including women, who were activists. King sent a telegram to President Eisenhower to make a speech to the South, asking him to use “the weight of your great office to point out to the people of the South the moral nature of the problem.” Eisenhower responded, "I don’t know what another speech would do about the thing right now.”

Disappointed, King sent another telegram to the President, stating that Eisenhower's comments were “a profound disappointment to the millions of Americans of goodwill, north and south, who earnestly are looking to you for leadership and guidance in this period of inevitable social change.” He tried to set up a meeting with President Eisenhower, but was given a meeting with Vice President Richard Nixon, which lasted two hours. Nixon was reported to have been impressed with King and told the president that he might enjoy meeting with him in the future.<ref name="autogenerated2007">Nichols, David (2007). ''A Matter of Justice Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution'', New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-1-4165-4150-9</ref>

==Filibuster==
[[Strom Thurmond]], then a Democrat, was a pro-segregation Senator from South Carolina. He vehemently opposed passage of the Act with the longest (although ultimately unsuccessful) [[Filibuster (legislative tactic)|filibuster]] ever conducted by a single Senator, speaking for 24 hours and 18 minutes. Cots were brought in from a nearby hotel for the legislators to sleep on while Thurmond discussed increasingly irrelevant and obscure topics, including his grandmother's biscuit recipe.{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}} Other southern senators, who had agreed as part of a compromise not to filibuster this bill, were upset with Thurmond. They believed his defiance made them look incompetent to their constituents. Other constituents were upset with their senators because they were seen as not helping Thurmond. <ref>Caro, Robert (2002). ''Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson'', New York: Knopf, ISBN 0-394-52836-0</ref>

==Subsequent legislation==
The [[Civil Rights Act of 1960]] addressed some of the shortcomings of the 1957 act. It expanded the authority of federal judges to protect voting rights. It required local authorities to maintain comprehensive voting records for review, so that the government could determine if there were patterns of discrimination against certain populations.<ref>[http://www.civilrights.org/publications/monitor/august1988/art3p1.html Civil Rights Act of 1960]</ref>

The Civil Rights Movement continued to expand, with protesters leading non-violent demonstrations to mark their cause. President [[John F. Kennedy]] called for a new bill in his civil rights speech of June 11, 1963,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03CivilRights06111963.htm |title=Transcript from the JFK library |publisher=the JFK library. |date=1963-06-11 |accessdate=2011-10-28}}</ref> in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public—hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments," as well as "greater protection for the right to vote." Kennedy delivered this speech following a series of [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|protests from the African-American community]], the most concurrent being the [[Birmingham campaign]], which concluded in May 1963.

In the summer of 1963, various parts of the civil rights movement collaborated to run voter education and voter registration drives in Mississippi. During [[Freedom Summer]] in 1964, hundreds of students from the North went there to participate in voter drives and community organizing. The media coverage and violent backlash, with the murders of three civil rights workers near Philadelphia, Mississippi, contributed to national support for civil rights legislation.

After Kennedy's assassination, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] helped secure passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], making racial discrimination and segregation illegal<ref>[http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 Civil Rights Act of 1964]</ref>, and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]], which abolished the [[poll tax]] and other means of keeping blacks and poor people from registering to vote and voting, established record-keeping and oversight, and provided for federal enforcement in areas with documented patterns of discrimination.

==Sources==
*Finley, Keith M. (2008). ''Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938-1965'', Baton Rouge, LSU Press.
*Nichols, David. A. (2007). ''A Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution'', New York: Simon & Schuster.

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.historycentral.com/Documents/CivilRigths57.html Civil Rights Act of 1957 Text]
*[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Filibuster_Cloture.htm Senate filibuster history]
*[http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/civil_rights_act.html Documents regarding the Civil Rights Act of 1957, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Civil Rights Act Of 1957}}
[[Category:1957 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal civil rights legislation]]
[[Category:85th United States Congress]]

[[it:Civil Rights Act (1957)]]
[[pt:Ato Civil Americano de 1957]]

Worksop Manor

2012-10-11T02:14:01Z

Textorus: anachronistic phrasing grr

{{coord|53|17|46|N|01|08|49|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}
[[Image:Worksop Manor.jpg|thumb|right|250px| The Smythson Worksop Manor]]
'''Worksop Manor''' is a stately home in [[the Dukeries]] area of [[Nottinghamshire]]. Traditionally, the [[List of people involved in coronations of the British monarch#Lords of the Manor of Worksop|Lord of the Manor of Worksop]] may assist a [[British monarch]] at his or her [[coronation]] by providing a [[glove]] and putting it on the monarch's right hand and supporting his or her right arm.

Worksop Manor was the seat of the ancient [[Lords of Worksop]].

A house was built in the late 16th century for the [[George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury]], and probably designed by [[Robert Smythson]]. It was for some time the prison of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]]. The building was burnt down in 1761. At the same time Smythson also designed the associated Worksop Manor Lodge which survived in substantially original form until 2007 when it was burnt down (probably by local kids) and it is currently being restored.

[[James Paine (architect)|James Paine]] was commissioned to build a replacement for the Elizabethan mansion. He planned a roughly square mansion with a vast hall in the central courtyard which would have been one of the largest houses ever built in England, had it been completed. Only one wing had been finished when work stopped on the house in 1767, but even this was on a palatial scale.

[[Image:Worksop Manor in the early 19th century.JPG|thumb|right|250px| The James Paine Worksop Manor]]

It descended by marriage to the [[Duke of Norfolk]], in whose family it remained until 1840.

Following a fire the estate was sold to the [[Duke of Newcastle]] of nearby [[Clumber Park]] for £375,000, who ruthlessly stripped the house. He demolished the main wing of the house with gunpowder, having sold off the roof lead and some fittings, as he was only interested in adding the land to his own estate. In spite of the money received from salvage and timber he made a huge loss on the purchase which seems to have been animated by anti-Catholic sentiment, the Duke of Norfolk having been a leading Catholic aristocrat. After a number of years the surviving parts of the house, that is the stable, the service wing and part of the eastern end of the main range, were reformed into a new mansion ([http://www.flickr.com/photos/steveostler/3025033967/sizes/o/ pictured here]), which was occupied for a number of years by [[Lord Foley]]. This still survives.

Since at least the first decade of the 20th century the estate has been home to the Worksop Manor Stud, which breeds [[thoroughbred horses]]. [http://www.tbheritage.com/Portraits/Teddy.html].

==External links==
{{Commons category|Worksop Manor}}
*[http://www.worksopheritagetrail.org.uk/resources/worksop_manor_history.pdf History of Worksop Manor at Worksop Heritage Trail]
* [http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/Jacks1881/worksop.htm Worsop Manor in ''The Great Houses of Nottinghamshire and the County Families'', by L Jacks (1881)]
* [http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/white1875/worksop_manor1.htm Worsop Manor in ''Worksop, The Dukery and Sherwood Forest'', by Robert White (1875)]

[[Category:Country houses in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:History of Nottinghamshire]]
[[Category:Bassetlaw]]

United-Air-Lines-Flug 23

2012-10-10T06:30:13Z

Textorus: This phrase has long been incorporated into English and does not require italics

__NOTOC__
{{Infobox Airliner accident
|name=United Air Lines, NC13304
|occurrence_type=
|image=
|caption=Restored Boeing 247 in United Air Lines livery, similar to the crashed aircraft
|date=October 10, 1933
|type=Sabotage via probable [[nitroglycerin]] bomb
|site=[[Jackson Township, Porter County, Indiana|Jackson Township]], [[Porter County, Indiana|Porter County]], near [[Chesterton, Indiana]]
|aircraft_type=[[Boeing 247|Boeing 247D]]
|operator=United Air Lines
|tail_number={{airreg|N|C13304|disaster}}
|origin=Newark, New Jersey
|stopover0=Cleveland, Ohio
|last_stopover=Chicago, Illinois
|destination=Oakland, California
|passengers=4
|crew=3
|injuries=0
|fatalities=7
|survivors = 0
}}

On October 10, 1933, a [[Boeing 247]] [[propliner]] operated by [[United Air Lines]] and [[aircraft registration|registered]] as NC13304, crashed near [[Chesterton, Indiana]]. The transcontinental flight, carrying three crew and four passengers, had originated in [[Newark, New Jersey]], with its final destination in [[Oakland, California]]. It had already landed in [[Cleveland]] and was headed to its next stop in [[Chicago]], but exploded en route. All aboard died in the crash, which was proven to have been deliberately caused by an on-board explosive device.

Eyewitnesses on the ground reported hearing an explosion shortly after 9 p.m., and told of seeing the plane in flames at an altitude of about {{convert|1000|ft}}. A second explosion followed after the plane crashed. The crash scene was adjacent to a gravel road about {{convert|5|mi|0}} outside of Chesterton, centered in a wooded area on the [[Jackson Township, Porter County, Indiana|Jackson Township]] farm of James Smiley.<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://fultonhistory.com/newspaper%202/Auburn%20NY%20Citizen%20Advertiser/Auburn%20NY%20Citizen%20Advertiser%201933.pdf/Newspaper%20Auburn%20NY%20Citizen%20Advertiser%201933%20-%200105.PDF
| title = Seven Killed in Crash of Giant Transport Plane
| newspaper = The Citizen-Advisor
| location = Auburn, NY
| agency = [[Associated Press|AP]]
| page = 12
| format = PDF
| date = October 11, 1933
}}</ref>

Investigators who combed through the debris were confronted with unusual evidence: The toilet and baggage compartment had been smashed into fragments. Shards of metal riddled the inside of the toilet door while the other side was free of the metal fragments. The [[empennage|tail section]] had been severed just aft of the toilet and was found mostly intact almost a mile away from the main wreckage.<ref name="time"/>

[[Melvin Purvis]], head of the Chicago office of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|United States Bureau of Investigation]] described the damage: "Our investigation convinced me that the tragedy resulted from an explosion somewhere in the region of the baggage compartment in the rear of the plane. Everything in front of the compartment was blown forward, everything behind blown backward, and things at the side outward." He also noted: "The gasoline tanks, instead of being blown out, were crushed in, showing there was no explosion in them."<ref>{{cite news
|newspaper = The New York Times
|title = Plane wreck laid to nitroglycerine
|date = October 15, 1933
|page = 31
}}</ref>

An investigator from the [[Porter County, Indiana|Porter County]] coroner's office, Dr. Carl Davis,<ref name="prescott">{{cite news
| url = http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=D_EKAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0E8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=5344%2C6739444
| title = Suspects Bomb Wrecked Plane
| newspaper = Prescott Evening Courier
| agency = [[Associated Press|AP]]
| page = 3
| format = PDF
| date = October 12, 1933
}}</ref> and experts from the Crime Detection Laboratory at [[Northwestern University]]<ref name="time"/><ref>
{{cite news
| newspaper = The New York Times
| title = Wreck of air liner laid to a bomb
| date = October 14, 1944
| page = 5
}} </ref>
examined evidence from the crash, and concluded that the crash had been due to a bomb, with [[nitroglycerin]] as the probable explosive agent. One of the passengers was seen carrying a brown package onto the plane in Newark, but investigators who found the package amidst the wreckage ruled it out as being the cause of the explosion.<ref name="time">{{cite news
| url = http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,753980,00.html
| title = Aeronautics: Death on No. 23
| magazine = [[TIME]]
| date = October 23, 1933
}}</ref> A rifle was found in the wreckage but it was determined to have been carried aboard as baggage for a passenger who was en route to attend a shoot at Chicago's North Shore Gun Club.<ref name="time"/><ref name="prescott"/>

Despite the efforts of the investigators, no suspect has ever been identified or charged in this incident, and it remains unsolved.

This is thought to be the first proven act of air [[sabotage]] in the history of [[commercial aviation]].<ref name="crashinfo">{{cite web
| url = http://www.planecrashinfo.com/1933/1933-17.htm
| title = Accident details
| work = planecrashinfo.com
}}</ref> One of the air crew killed was the [[flight attendant]], Alice Scribner, 26, of Chicago. Scribner, a trained nurse, was in her first month on the job.<ref name="pcgazette">{{cite news
| url = http://www.pcgazette.com/news/nov99/flying11-5.htm
| title = Aviation had rough start locally
| first = George
| last = Rogers
| newspaper = The Portage County Gazette
| location = Stevens Point, WI
| date = November, 1999
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061102221345/http://www.pcgazette.com/news/nov99/flying11-5.htm |archivedate = 2006-11-02}}</ref> She was the first United flight attendant to be killed in a plane crash.<ref name="linden83">{{cite book
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=2zTueJhXW0QC&pg=PA83&lpg=PA83&dq=%22Alice+Scribner%22+stewardess&source=bl&ots=y440l3l9OA&sig=d45FYHxF82yR6LOhgyyz2s2NVsY&hl=en&ei=auIVS9OeC5O8sgO0jfyLBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CBUQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22Alice%20Scribner%22%20stewardess&f=false
| title = The Boeing 247: the first modern airliner
| last1 = van der Linden
| first1 = F. Robert
| publisher = [[University of Washington Press]]
| location = Seattle, WA
| page = 83
| format = [[Google Books]] preview
| date = November 1991
| isbn = 0-295-97094-4
}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[1933 in aviation]]
* [[1933 in the United States]]
* [[Aviation accidents and incidents]]
* [[Lists of accidents and incidents on commercial airliners]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30A13F83E541A7A93C3A8178BD95F478385F9&scp=1&sq=Seven%20die%20as%20plane%20crashes%20in%20flames&st=cse Seven die as plane crashes in flames]". (October 11, 1933) ''New York Times'' p. 1 (pay site)
* "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00E17F63D5516738DDDAB0994D8415B838FF1D3&scp=1&sq=Plane%20crash%20laid%20to%20blast%20in%20air&st=cse Plane crash laid to blast in air]". (October 12, 1933) ''New York Times'' p. 3 (pay site)
* "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10A12F93E541A7A93C4A8178BD95F478385F9&scp=1&sq=Seek%20'bomber'%20of%20plane&st=cse Seek 'bomber' of plane]". (October 16, 1933) ''New York Times'' p. 7 (pay site)

==External links==
* {{cite web
| url = http://www3.gendisasters.com/indiana/961/jackson-center,-airplane-crash,-oct-1933
| title = Jackson Center, IN Airplane Crash, Oct 1933
| work = gendisasters.com
}} - includes names and addresses of the deceased


{{coord missing|Indiana}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in 1933}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:United Airlines Boeing 247 mid-air explosion}}
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1933]]
[[Category:1933 in Indiana]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents in Indiana]]
[[Category:Porter County, Indiana]]
[[Category:Unsolved airliner bombings]]
[[Category:United Airlines accidents and incidents|Chesterton Crash]]
[[Category:Disasters in Indiana]]

[[ar:حادث طائرة خطوط طيران يونايتد في جسترتون]]
[[ja:ユナイテッド航空機チェスタートン爆破事件]]
[[ru:Авиакатастрофа у Честертона 1933 года]]

Chipping Norton Castle

2012-08-16T19:09:55Z

Textorus: clarifying lede

{{About|the town in Oxfordshire, UK|the suburb of Sydney, Australia|Chipping Norton, New South Wales}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2011}}

{{Infobox UK place
|official_name= Chipping Norton
|latitude= 51.94
|longitude= -1.55
|static_image_name = Alms houses, Chipping Norton.JPG
|static_image_caption= [[Almshouse]]s in Chipping Norton
|local_name= Chippy
|country= England
|region= South East England
|population= 5,972
|population_ref= ([[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001 census]])<ref>{{cite web |url= http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=7&b=6096480&c=chipping+norton&d=14&e=16&g=481610&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1234221284148&enc=1&dsFamilyId=77 |title= Sex (UV03), Chipping Norton (Ward) |accessdate=9 February 2009 |date= 18 November 2004 |work=2001 Census: Census Area Statistics |publisher=Office for National Statistics |location= United Kingdom |quote= All People (Persons) Count: 5,972; Males (Persons) Count: 2,879; Females (Persons) Count: 3,093}}</ref>
|os_grid_reference= SP309269
|london_distance= {{convert|74.5|mi|km}}
|post_town= Chipping Norton
|postcode_area= OX
|postcode_district= OX7
|dial_code= 01608
|constituency_westminster= [[Witney (UK Parliament constituency)|Witney]]
|civil_parish= Chipping Norton
|shire_district= [[West Oxfordshire]]
|shire_county= [[Oxfordshire]]
|website= [http://www.wospweb.com/site/chipping-norton-town-council/ Chipping Norton Town Council]
}}

'''Chipping Norton''' is a [[market town]] in the [[Cotswold Hills]] in the [[West Oxfordshire]] district of [[Oxfordshire]], [[England]], about {{convert|12|mi|km}} southwest of [[Banbury]] and {{convert|20|mi|km}} northwest of [[Oxford]].

==History until the 17th century==
The [[Rollright Stones]], a [[stone circle]] {{convert|2.5|mi|km}} north of Chipping Norton, is evidence of prehistoric habitation in the area.

The town's name means 'market north town', with "Chipping" (from [[Old English]] ''cēping'') meaning 'market'. It is not clear what the original [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] settlement was north of, but John Blair, Professor of Medieval History and Archaeology at the University of Oxford, suggested in 2000 at a lecture in Chipping Norton [[Town Hall]] that [[Charlbury]] to the south, now a smaller town, was in [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] times a more important [[Minster (church)|minster]] town and that Chipping Norton's "nor-" prefix refers to this geographical and pastoral relationship with Charlbury.

Chipping Norton began as a small settlement at the foot of a hill on which stand the [[motte-and-bailey]] [[Chipping Norton Castle]]. Only the earthworks of the [[castle]] remain.

The [[parish church]] of [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|St. Mary the Virgin]] was built on the hill next to the castle. Parts of the present building may date from the 12th century.<ref name="Sherwood, 1974, p. 536">Sherwood & Pevsner, 1974, page 536</ref> It certainly retains features from the 13th and 14th centuries.<ref>Sherwood & Pevsner, 1974, pages 536–538</ref> The [[nave]] was largely rebuilt in about 1485 with a [[clerestorey]] in the [[English gothic architecture#Perpendicular Gothic|Perpendicular]] style.<ref name="Sherwood, 1974, p. 537">Sherwood & Pevsner, 1974, page 537</ref> This rebuilding is believed to have been funded by John Ashfield, a wool merchant, making St. Mary's an example of a "[[wool church]]".<ref name="Sherwood, 1974, p. 537"/> The [[bell tower]] was rebuilt in 1825<ref name="Sherwood, 1974, p. 536"/><ref>[http://www.st-marys-cnorton.com/httpdocs/ Parish Church of St. Mary the Virgin]{{dead link|date=August 2011}}</ref> and has a [[Change ringing|peal]] of eight bells.<ref>[http://www.chippy-bells.org.uk/towers.htm Oxford Diocesan Guild of Church Bell ringers, Chipping Norton Branch]</ref>

In the [[Middle Ages]] wool production made the Cotswolds one of the wealthiest parts of England. Many of the [[Middle Ages|mediaeval]] buildings built in the town as a result of that trade still survive. It became the new centre of the town and remains so today. There is still a weekly market every Wednesday and the "[[Mop Fair]]" in September. In 1205 a new market place was laid out higher up the hill.

Later, sheep farming was largely displaced by [[agronomy|arable]], but agriculture remained important in this part of the Oxfordshire Cotswolds. Many of the original houses around the market place were rebuilt in the 18th century with fashionable [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] frontages.

An inscription on the [[almshouse]]s records that they were built in 1640 as ''"The work and gift of Henry Cornish, gent"''.<ref>Sherwood & Pevsner, 1974, page 540</ref>

==History from the 18th century onwards==
In 1796 James and William Hitchman founded Hitchman's Brewery in West Street. In 1849 the business built a larger brewery in Albion Street that included a [[malt]]house and its own [[water well]]s. Three generations of Hitchmans ran the brewery, but in 1890 Alfred Hitchman sold the business as a [[limited company]]. The new company grew by buying other breweries in 1891 and 1917. In 1924 it merged with [[Hunt Edmunds]] of Banbury, and in 1931 Hunt Edmunds Hitchmans closed the brewery in Chipping Norton.<ref>[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/mamachic1/brewery.html&date=2009-10-26+02:09:50 Hitchman's Brewery history]. Webcitation.org. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref>

Other industries in the town included a wool mill (see below), a glove-making factory, a [[tanning|tannery]] and an iron [[foundry]].

Chipping Norton had a [[workhouse]] by the 1770s. In 1836 the architect [[George Wilkinson (architect)|George Wilkinson]] built a new, larger workhouse. It had four wings radiating from an octagonal central building, similar to [[Witney]] workhouse, which also was built by Wilkinson. The architect [[George Edmund Street|G. E. Street]] added a chapel to Chipping Norton workhouse in 1856–57. It ceased to be a workhouse in 1929 and became a hospital in the Second World War. The [[National Health Service]] took it over in 1948, making it Cotshill Hospital which later served as a [[psychiatric hospital]]. The hospital was closed in 1983.<ref>[http://www.oxfordshirehealtharchives.nhs.uk/hospitals/cotshill.htm Cotshill Hospital history]. Oxfordshirehealtharchives.nhs.uk. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref> and has since been redeveloped as private residences.

[[File:Chipping-Norton-Town-Hall.jpg|thumb|right|Chipping Norton Town Hall]]
Chipping Norton was one of the [[borough]]s reformed by the [[Municipal Corporations Act 1835]]. The borough built its [[Neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] [[town hall]] in 1842.

Holy [[Trinity]] Roman Catholic church is also neoclassical. It was built in 1836 by the architect John Adey Repton, a grandson of the [[English garden]] designer [[Humphry Repton]].

The [[Chipping Norton Railway]] opened in 1855, linking the town with [[Kingham railway station|Kingham]] on the [[Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway]].<ref>[http://archive.theoxfordtimes.net/2005/3/14/4601.html ''The Oxford Times'', 14 March 2005]{{dead link|date=August 2011}}</ref> In 1887 a second railway opened, linking Chipping Norton to the Oxford and Rugby Railway at [[King's Sutton railway station|King's Sutton]], and the CNR became part of the resulting [[Banbury and Cheltenham Direct Railway]]. Extending the railway from Chipping Norton involved digging a tunnel {{convert|685|yd|m}} long<ref>[http://deaves47.zxq.net/Tunnels/Tunnels1.htm Railway Tunnel Lengths website, page 1]. deaves47.zxq.net. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref> under Elmsfield Farm to the west of the town.

In May 1873, rioting took place following the conviction and sentencing of the [[Ascott Martyrs]], sixteen local women accused of trying to interfere with [[strikebreaker]]s at a farm.

In 1951, [[British Rail]]ways withdrew passenger services between Chipping Norton and [[Banbury railway station|Banbury]]. In 1962 BR closed [[Chipping Norton railway station]] and withdrew passenger services between Chipping Norton and [[Kingham railway station|Kingham]]. In 1964 BR closed the B&CDR to [[freight]] traffic, and thereafter dismantled the line. The disused railway tunnel is now bricked up at both ends to prevent access, both for people's safety and to protect any [[bat]]s that may roost inside. (''See [[Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981]]'')

Bliss Mill, on the western side of the town, was built as a [[Tweed (cloth)|tweed]] mill in 1872. In 1913 to 1914 the millworkers [[Strike action|struck]] for eight months. The mill closed in 1980 and has since been converted into flats. It remains a local landmark, clearly visible from Worcester Road.

The town lost its status as a [[municipal borough]] in 1974, when the [[Local Government Act 1972]] made it a [[successor parish]] within the district of [[West Oxfordshire]].

==Government==
Chipping Norton lies in the constituency of [[Witney (UK Parliament constituency)|Witney]]. [[David Cameron]], the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]], and the leader of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], is the [[Member of Parliament]] for Witney. The town is part of the [[South East England (European Parliament constituency)|South East England constituency]] for the [[European Parliament]]. The town is represented by one Conservative councillor and two Labour councillor in the district council, making it the least Conservative part of David Cameron's constituency. <ref>[http://www.westoxon.gov.uk/council/councillor.cfm?ward=11 Councillor information: West Oxfordshire District Council]. Westoxon.gov.uk. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref>

==Notable residents==

This list includes notable persons  who were born or have lived in Chipping Norton.
*[[Ronnie Barker]], resident after retirement from show business in 1987.
*[[Rebekah Brooks]], former editor of ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' newspaper and former chief executive of [[News International]].
*[[Geoffrey Burbidge]], astronomy professor.
*[[Jeremy Clarkson]], ''[[Top Gear (2002 TV series)|Top Gear]]'' presenter, journalist and writer.
*[[James Hind]], [[highwayman]] born 1616 and executed for [[high treason]] in 1652.
*[[Conroy Maddox]], [[Surrealism|surrealist painter]] resident 1929–33.
*[[Janice Meek]], [[World record]] holding [[Ocean rowing|ocean rower]].
*[[Wentworth Miller]], American actor who was born there.
*[[Keith Moon]], [[The Who]] drummer once owned the Crown and Cushion Hotel in High Street.
*[[Dominic Sandbrook]], historian.
*[[Charles Stewart Parnell]], leader of the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] attended school in the 1850s.{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}
*[[Edward Stone (discoverer of the active ingredient of Aspirin)|Reverend Edward Stone, discoverer of aspirin]], was a curate in the town.
*[[Rachel Ward]], actress.
*[[Elizabeth Jane Weston]], Neo-Latin poet also known as Westonia born 1581.

Some current famous residents of the town and its local area, including [[David Cameron]] whose constituency home is in nearby [[Dean, Oxfordshire|Dean]], are commonly referred to as the "[[Chipping Norton set]]" by the British media.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/interactive-graphics/9124278/Whos-who-in-the-Chipping-Norton-set.html|title=Who's who in the Chipping Norton set?|date=5 March 2012|accessdate=25 April 2012|publisher=''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''</ref>

==Chipping Norton Recording Studios==
[[File:Former_Chipping_Norton_Recording_Studios.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The British Schools building at 28/30 New Street, formerly home to Chipping Norton Recording Studios.]]
Between 1972 and 1999, [[Chipping Norton Recording Studios]] existed in the old British Schools building on New Street. [[Baker Street (song)|"Baker Street"]] by [[Gerry Rafferty]], "[[In The Army Now (song)|In The Army Now]]" by [[Status Quo (band)|Status Quo]], "Too Shy" by Kagagoogoo, "I Should Have Known Better" by [[Jim Diamond (singer)|Jim Diamond]], "Perfect" by [[Fairground Attraction]], "I Just Died In Your Arms Tonight" by [[Cutting Crew]] and "Bye Bye Baby" by the [[Bay City Rollers]] were all recorded in this internationally acclaimed studio. [[Duran Duran]], [[Marianne Faithfull]], [[Wet Wet Wet]], [[Jeff Beck]], [[Barbara Dickson]], [[Alison Moyet]], [[The Supernaturals]], [[Radiohead]], [[Nektar]] and [[XTC]] were also clients.

==Amenities==

The town is a retail and leisure centre for its area, with a supermarket and numerous shops including branches of a number of national [[chain store]]s. It has a number of [[public house]]s and a theatre.<ref>[http://www.chippingnortontheatre.co.uk/ The Theatre, Chipping Norton]. Chippingnortontheatre.co.uk. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref>

The town has three schools. Holy Trinity Roman Catholic School<ref>[http://www.holy-trinity.oxon.sch.uk/ Holy Trinity RC School]. Holy-trinity.oxon.sch.uk. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref>
and St Mary's [[Church of England]] School<ref>[http://www.st-marys-chipping.oxon.sch.uk/ St Mary's C of E School]. St-marys-chipping.oxon.sch.uk. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref> are primary schools. [[Chipping Norton School]]<ref>[http://www.chipping-norton.oxon.sch.uk/ Chipping Norton School]. Chipping-norton.oxon.sch.uk. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref> is the town's secondary school and has a [[sixth form]].

Chipping Norton Golf Club is the oldest in Oxfordshire. The course was started in 1890 on Chipping Norton Common.<ref>[http://www.chippingnortongolfclub.com/History/archive.html Chipping Norton Golf Club: History]{{dead link|date=August 2011}}</ref>

Chipping Norton [[Rugby Union]] Football Club<ref>[http://www.cnrufc.co.uk/ Chipping Norton RUFC]. Cnrufc.co.uk (2011-08-10). Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref> first XV plays in the Southern Counties North League and was the league champion for the 2007–2008 season. Chipping Norton Town [[association football|Football]] Club<ref>[http://www.chippingnorton.net/SPORT/chippyFC2005.htm Chipping Norton Town FC]. Chippingnorton.net. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref> used to play in the [[Hellenic Football League]] premier division. Chipping Norton Town Cricket Club plays in Oxfordshire Cricket Association Division 6. The town also has a [[bowls]] club.<ref>[http://www.wospweb.com/site/chippy-bowls/index.htm Chipping Norton Bowls Club]. Wospweb.com. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref>

Chipping Norton has a [[Women's Institute]],<ref>[http://www.oxfordshirefwi.freeuk.com/ Oxfordshire Federation of Women's Institutes]. Oxfordshirefwi.freeuk.com. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref> and a [[Rotary Club]].<ref>[http://www.rotary-ribi.org/clubs/homepage.asp?ClubID=530 Chipping Norton Rotary Club]. Rotary-ribi.org. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.</ref>

==Transport==
Until 1963 Chipping Norton was served by [[Chipping Norton railway station]], the current nearest stations are [[Kingham Station]], Charlbury Station and [[Banbury railway station]].

==See also==
*[[RAF Chipping Norton]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book |author=Sherwood, Jennifer |coauthors=[[Nikolaus Pevsner|Pevsner, Nikolaus]] |title=[[The Buildings of England]]: Oxfordshire |year=1974 |publisher=Books Penguin |location=Harmondsworth |isbn=0-14-071045-0 |pages=536–541}}
* {{Cite book |author=Volkin, Michael (Ed.), |title=Nuffield Advanced Chemistry Students Book |year=2000 |publisher=Longman |location=London |isbn=0-582-32835-7 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire}}
*[http://www.experiencechippingnorton.com Official Town Website]
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CH/CHIPPING_NORTON.htm Chipping Norton] – [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article.
*[http://www.chiplitfest.com Chipping Norton Literary Festival]
*{{dmoz|/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Oxfordshire/Chipping_Norton/|Chipping Norton}}

{{West Oxfordshire}}
{{Oxfordshire}}

[[Category:Market towns in Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Civil parishes in Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:West Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Towns in Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Cotswolds]]

[[bg:Чипинг Нортън]]
[[cy:Chipping Norton]]
[[es:Chipping Norton]]
[[eo:Chipping Norton]]
[[fr:Chipping Norton]]
[[it:Chipping Norton (Regno Unito)]]
[[nl:Chipping Norton]]
[[no:Chipping Norton]]
[[nn:Chipping Norton]]
[[pl:Chipping Norton]]
[[pt:Chipping Norton]]
[[ro:Chipping Norton]]
[[ru:Чиппинг-Нортон]]
[[vo:Chipping Norton]]

Cliveden

2012-07-27T11:06:31Z

Textorus: /* Astor era */ per WP:BURDEN: "billionaire" in the 19th century? I don't think so.

{{about|the British mansion|Benjamin Chew's mansion in Germantown, Pennsylvania|Cliveden (Benjamin Chew House)}}
[[File:Cliveden-2382.jpg|thumb|400px|View looking north from the Ring in the Parterre showing Terrace Pavilion and Clock Tower to the left with Lower Terrace and Borghese Balustrade below]]

'''Cliveden''' is an Italianate [[mansion]] and estate at [[Taplow]], [[Buckinghamshire]], [[England]]. Set on banks {{convert|40|m|ft}} above the [[River Thames]], its grounds slope down to the river. The site has been home to an Earl, two Dukes, a Prince of Wales and the Viscounts Astor.

As home of [[Nancy Astor]], the house was the meeting place of the [[Cliveden set]] of the 1920s and 1930s - a group of political intellectuals. Later, during the 1960s, it became the setting for key events of the notorious [[Profumo Affair]]. During the 1970s, it was occupied by [[Stanford University]] of California who used it as an overseas campus. Today owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]], the house is leased as a [[hotel rating|five-star hotel]] run by [[London & Regional Properties]].

"Cliveden" (pronounced CLIV-d'n) means "valley among cliffs"<ref name='Brewer'>{{cite book | last = Room | first = Adrian | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Brewer's Dictionary of Names: People Places and Things | publisher = Brewer | year = 1992 | location = | page = 118 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-1-85986-232-2 }}</ref> and refers to the dean or valley which cuts through the estate to the east of the house. "Cliveden" has been spelled differently over the centuries, some of the variations being Cliffden, Clifden, Cliefden and Clyveden.<ref name='Crathorne10'>{{Harvnb|Crathorne|1995|p=10}}</ref> The {{convert|375|acre|ha}} gardens and woodlands are open to the public, together with parts of the house on certain days. There have been three houses on this site: the first, built in 1666, burned down in 1795 and the second house (1824) was also destroyed by fire, in 1849. The present Grade 1 listed house was built in 1851 by the architect [[Charles Barry]] for [[George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 2nd Duke of Sutherland]].

==Present house==
[[File:Cliveden 02.jpg|thumb|The north front]]
Designed by Sir [[Charles Barry]] in 1851 to replace a house previously destroyed by fire, the present house is a blend of the English [[Palladian architecture|Palladian]] style and the Roman [[Cinquecento]].<ref>Crathorne, 1995, p.29.</ref> The Victorian three-story mansion sits on a {{convert|400|ft|m|adj=on}} long, {{convert|20|ft|m|adj=on}} high brick terrace or viewing platform (visible only from the south side) which dates from the mid-seventeenth century. The exterior of the house is rendered in [[Roman cement]], with [[terracotta]] additions such as [[baluster]]s, capitals, [[Keystone (architecture)|keystone]]s and [[finial]]s. The roof of the mansion is meant for walking on, and there is a circular view, above the tree-line, of parts of [[Buckinghamshire]] and [[Berkshire]], including [[Windsor Castle]] to the south.<ref name='Crathorne206'>{{Harvnb|Crathorne|1995|p=206}}</ref>

Below the balustraded roofline is a [[Latin]] inscription which continues around the four sides of the house and recalls its history; it was composed by the then prime minister Gladstone. On the west front it reads: "POSITA INGENIO OPERA CONSILIO CAROLI BARRY ARCHIT A MDCCCLI," which translated reads: "The work accomplished by the brilliant plan of architect Charles Barry in 1851."<ref name='NT66'>{{Harvnb|National Trust|1994|p=66}}</ref> The main contractor for the work was [[Lucas Brothers, Builders|Lucas Brothers]].<ref>N.T. Guide, 1994, p.30.</ref> The clock tower next to the house is in fact a disguised [[water tower]].

In 1984-86 the exterior of the mansion was overhauled and a new lead roof installed by the National Trust, while interior repairs were carried out by Cliveden Hotel.<ref>N.T. Guide, 1994, p.46.</ref>

== Early history ==
[[File:2ndDukeOfBuckingham.jpg|upright|thumb|George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham]]

Cliveden stands on the site of a house built in 1666 designed by architect [[William Winde]] as the home of [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham]]. But before Buckingham's purchase the land was owned by the Mansfield family and before that to the de Clyveden family.<ref>Crathorne, 1995, p.10.</ref>

The details are recorded in a document compiled by William Waldorf Astor in 1894 called "The Historical Descent of Cliveden". It shows that in 1237 the land was owned by Geoffrey de Clyveden and by 1300 it had passed to his son, William, who owned fisheries and mills along the Cliveden Reach stretch of the Thames and at nearby Hedsor.
[[File:CliveGardenFrontVitruviusBritannicus edited.jpg|thumb|left|The 1666 house. Only the arcaded terrace remains today.]]

The document also shows that in 1569 a lodge existed on the site along with {{convert|50|acre|m2}} of land and was owned by Sir Henry Manfield and later his son, Sir Edward. In 1573 there were two lodges on {{convert|160|acre|m2}} of treeless [[chalk]] escarpement above the Thames. It was on this impressively high but exposed site that Buckingham chose to build the first Cliveden house.

Buckingham pulled down the earlier buildings and chose William Winde as his architect. Winde designed a four-storey house above an arcaded terrace. Today, the terrace is the only feature of Buckingham's house to survive the 1795 fire. Although the Duke's intention was to use Cliveden as a "hunting box" he later housed his mistress Anna, Countess of Shrewsbury there. A contemporary account of Buckingham's antics with Anna is recounted by [[Samuel Pepys]] in his diary of the period.
 

==18th-Century==
===1st Earl of Orkney===
After Buckingham's death in 1687 the house remained empty until the estate was purchased by [[George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney]] in 1696. Orkney became a general in the [[Battle of Blenheim]] (1704) and later governor of [[Virginia]], then an English colony, without ever setting foot on American soil. The Earl employed the architect [[Thomas Archer]] to add two new "wings" to the house, connected by curved corridors. Although an almost identical arrangement exists today, these are later reconstructions, the originals having been destroyed in the fire of 1795. All that remains of Archer's work inside the house today is a staircase in the West wing.
Orkney's contributions to the gardens can still be seen today, most notably the Octagon Temple and the Blenheim Pavilion, both designed by the Venetian architect [[Giacomo Leoni]]. The landscape designer [[Charles Bridgeman]] was also commissioned to devise woodland walks and carve a rustic turf [[amphitheatre]] out of the cliff-side.

[[File:Frederick, Prince of Wales, and his sisters by Philip Mercier.jpg|thumb|Frederick, Prince of Wales with his sisters at Kew, c.1733. A copy of the painting hangs at Cliveden.]]

===Frederick, Prince of Wales===
Between 1737 and 1751 the estate was leased to [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]] by Orkney's heirs after his death. Frederick was the son of [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] and the father of [[George III]]. After falling out with his father, Frederick used Cliveden to enable him to withdraw from life at the royal court. At Cliveden he established a family home for his wife Augusta and their children.

It was during the Prince's tenure of the house that ''[[Rule, Britannia!]]'' (an aria by the English composer [[Thomas Arne]]) was first performed in public in the cliff-side amphitheatre at Cliveden on 1 August 1740. It was played as part of a [[masque]] to celebrate the third birthday of his daughter, [[Princess Augusta of Great Britain|Augusta]].

It is believed that it was at Cliveden in 1751 that the Prince received a blow to the chest from a cricket ball while playing in the grounds; the resulting infection proved fatal.<ref name="Ref-1">N.T. Guide, 1994, p.19</ref>

After his death, Frederick's family left Cliveden and the estate was once again used by Orkney's heirs until the night of 20 May 1795 when the house caught fire and burned down. The cause of the fire was thought to have been a servant knocking over a candle.<ref name="Ref-1"/>

==19th-Century==
===Sir George Warrender===
After the fire of 1795 the house remained a ruin for the first quarter of the 19th century until, in 1824 the estate was purchased by [[Sir George Warrender, 4th Baronet]]. To rebuild Cliveden, Warrender selected [[William Burn]], a Scottish architect, and decided on a design for a two-storey mansion designed with entertaining on a grand scale in mind.

===George, 2nd Duke of Sutherland===
[[File:Clivedenmorris edited.jpg|thumb|right|A nineteenth-century engraving of the 1851 house from the parterre]]
Warrender died in 1849 and the house was sold to the Sutherland family, headed by the second Duke. Sutherland had been in possession of the estate for only a few months when the house burned down for the second time in its history. The cause this time appears to have been negligence on the part of the decorators.<ref>N.T. Guide, 1994, p.28.</ref>

The Duke was prompt in commissioning the architect [[Charles Barry]] to rebuild Cliveden in the style of an [[Italianate architecture|Italianate]] villa. Barry, whose most famous project is arguably the [[Houses of Parliament]], [[Westminster]], was inspired by the outline of the two earlier houses for his design. The third (and present) house on the site was completed in 1851-52, and its exterior appearance has little changed since then. The {{convert|100|ft|m|adj=on}}-tall clock tower, which is actually a water tower (still working to this day) was added in 1861 by the architect [[Henry Clutton]]. Also around this time another architect, [[George Devey]], was commissioned to build half-timbered cottages on the estate along with a dairy and boathouse.

After the duke's death in 1861, his widow Harriet continued to live at the house for part of the year until her death in 1868, after which it was sold to her son-in-law [[Hugh Grosvenor, 1st Duke of Westminster|Hugh Lupus, Earl Grosvenor]], later 1st Duke of Westminster.

===1st Duke of Westminster===
{{Quote|When one lives in Paradise, how hard it must be to ascend in heart and mind to Heaven.|Lady Frederick Cavendish on Cliveden, June 1863.<ref>Quoted in Crathorne, 1995, frontispiece.</ref>}}
Westminster was one of the wealthiest Englishmen of the period<ref>N.T. Guide, 1994, p.36.</ref> so it is understandable that he would want to contribute to Cliveden's architecture. Among his additions to the house and gardens are the ''[[porte cochere]]'' on the north front of the mansion, a new stable block and the [[dovecote]], all designed by Henry Clutton.

==Astor era==
[[File:Ladyastor.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor|Nancy, Lady Astor]] by [[John Singer Sargent]]. The painting hangs at Cliveden.]]
In 1893 the estate was purchased by a very wealthy American, [[William Waldorf Astor]] (later 1st Lord Astor), who made sweeping alterations to the gardens and the interior of the house, but lived at Cliveden as a recluse after the early death of his wife. He gave Cliveden to his son [[Waldorf Astor|Waldorf]] on the occasion of his marriage to [[Nancy Astor|Nancy Langhorne]] in 1906 and moved to [[Hever Castle]].

The young Astors used Cliveden for entertaining on a lavish scale.<ref>N.T. Guide, 1994, p.42.</ref> The combination of the house, its setting and leisure facilities offered on the estate - boating on the Thames, horse riding, tennis, swimming, [[croquet]] and fishing - made Cliveden a destination for film stars, politicians, world-leaders, writers and artists. The heyday of entertaining at Cliveden was between the two World Wars when the Astors held regular weekend house parties. Guests at the time included: [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Winston Churchill]], [[Joseph Kennedy]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Amy Johnson]], [[F.D. Roosevelt]], [[H.H. Asquith]], [[T.E. Lawrence]] (Lawrence of Arabia), [[Arthur Balfour|A.J. Balfour]] and the writers [[Henry James]], [[Rudyard Kipling]], and [[Edith Wharton]]. The tradition of high-profile guests visiting the house continues to this day, largely due to the house's conversion into a hotel.<ref>Crathorne, 1995, p.213.</ref>

{{Quote|There is a ghastly unreality about it all ... I enjoy seeing it. But to own it, to live here, would be like living on the stage of the Scala theatre in Milan.|[[Harold Nicolson]] after a visit to Cliveden in 1936.<ref>Quoted in N.T. Guide, 1994, p.45.</ref>}}
Also at this time the entertainer [[Joyce Grenfell]], who was Nancy Astor's niece, lived in a cottage on the estate.<ref>N.T. Guide, 1994, p.26</ref> She also entertained injured troops in the hospital on the estate during World War II.

[[File:Cliveden War Cemetery, panorama.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Cliveden War Cemetery in the Cliveden grounds]]
At the outbreak of [[World War I]], Waldorf Astor offered the use of some of the grounds to the [[Canadian Red Cross]] for the building of a hospital – the HRH Duchess of Connaught Hospital – which was dismantled at the end of the hostilities. In September 1939 with the outbreak of [[World War II]] Waldorf Astor again offered the use of the land at a rent of one [[shilling]] per year to the Canadian Red Cross and the [[Canadian Red Cross Memorial Hospital]] was built to the designs of [[Robert Atkinson (architect)|Robert Atkinson]]. After the war the hospital's main focus was as a nursing school, a maternity unit and a rheumatology unit until the hospital closed in the early 1980s.

In 1942, the Astors gave Cliveden to the National Trust with the proviso that the family could continue to live in the house for as long as they wished. Should this cease, they expressed the wish that the house be used "for promoting friendship and understanding between the peoples of the United States and Canada and the other dominions".<ref name='Crathorne'>{{Harvnb|Crathorne|1995|p=}}</ref> With the gift of Cliveden, the National Trust also received from the Astors one of their largest endowments<ref name='NT10'>{{Harvnb|National Trust|1971|p=10}}</ref> (£250,000 in 1942 which is equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|250000|1942}}}}<ref>UK CPI inflation numbers based on data available from [http://www.measureworth.org/ukearncpi/ Measure Worth: UK CPI]</ref> today). The Astors ceased to live at Cliveden in 1968, shortly after the [[Profumo Affair]] and Bill Astor's death.

==Interior==
[[File:Cliveden Hall 2.jpg|thumb|The Hall showing the fireplace]]

The interior of the house today is very different from its original appearance in 1851–52. This is mainly due to the 1st Lord Astor who radically altered the interior layout and decoration c. 1894–95. Whereas Barry's original interior for the Sutherlands had included a square entrance-hall, a morning room and a separate stair-well, Lord Astor wanted a more impressive entrance to Cliveden so he had all three rooms knocked into one large one (the '''Great Hall'''). His aim was to make the interior as much like an Italian [[palazzo]] as possible, which would complement the exterior. The ceiling and walls were panelled in English [[oak]], with Corinthian columns and swags of carved flowers for decoration, all by architect Frank Pearson. The staircase newel posts are ornamented with carved figures representing previous owners (e.g. Buckingham and Orkney) by W.S. Frith. Astor installed a large sixteenth-century fireplace, bought from a Burgundian chateaux which was being pulled down. To the left of the fireplace is a portrait of Nancy, Lady Astor by the American portraitist [[John Singer Sargent]]. The room was and still is furnished with eighteenth-century tapestries and suits of [[armour]]. Originally the floor was covered with [[Mintons Ltd|Minton]] encaustic tiles (given to the Sutherlands by the factory) but Nancy Astor had them removed in 1906 and the present flagstones laid.<ref name='NT42'>{{Harvnb|National Trust|1994|p=42}}</ref> Above the staircase is a painted ceiling by French artist Auguste Hervieu which depicts the Sutherland's children painted as the four seasons. This is the only surviving element of Barry's 1851–2 interior and it is believed that Lord Astor considered it too beautiful to remove.

[[File:Cliveden Hall 1.jpg|thumb|left|The Hall looking towards the staircase]]
The French Dining Room is so called because the eighteenth-century [[Rococo]] panelling (or boiseries) came from the [[Chateau d'Asnieres]] near Paris, a chateau which was leased to [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] and his mistress [[Madame de Pompadour]] as a hunting lodge. When the panelling came up for sale in Paris in 1897, the 1st Lord Astor recognised that it would exactly fit this room at Cliveden. The gilded panelling on a turquoise ground contains carvings of [[hare]]s, [[pheasant]]s, hunting dogs and [[rifle]]s. The console tables and buffet were made in 1900 to match the room. The main dining room of the house until the 1980s, today it is a private dining room with views over the Parterre and Thames.

The second largest room on the ground floor, after the Great Hall, was the drawing room which today is used as the hotel's main dining room. This room, which has views over the Parterre and Thames, was redecorated in 1995 by Eve Stewart, with terracotta-coloured walls, gilded columns and [[trompe l'oeil]] shelves of books. The ceiling is painted to resemble clouds and three Bohemian glass chandeliers hang from it. The portraits in the room include the 2nd Duke of Sutherland, the 1st Lord Astor, and Miss Mary Hornack by Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]].

Also on the ground floor is the library, panelled in cedar wood, which the Astors used to call the "cigar box",<ref>Crathorne, 1995, p.181.</ref> and, next door, Nancy Astor's [[boudoir]]. Upstairs are five bedrooms and on the second floor another five. The East wing was and still is guest accommodation, whereas the West wing was domestic offices but in 1994 these were converted into more bedrooms. The National Trust tour only includes the Great Hall and French Dining Room.

==Cliveden Hotel==
In 1984 a hotel company – Blakeney Hotels (later Cliveden Hotel Ltd) – acquired the lease to the house. Led by chairman John Lewis and managing director John Tham (husband of ''[[Railway Children]]'' actress [[Jenny Agutter]]) they restored and refurbished the interior.<ref name='Crathorne202'>{{Harvnb|Crathorne|1995|p=202}}</ref> Rooms are furnished with Edwardian antiques and the house is run in a similar style as it would have been when Nancy Astor was chatelaine.
[[File:Cliveden, June 2005.JPG|thumb|left|Cliveden Hotel from the parterre]]
In 1990 they added the indoor swimming pool and spa treatment rooms in the walled garden, complementing the existing outdoor pool. Also in 1990 a new 100-year lease was granted to run from 1984.<ref name='NT46'>{{Harvnb|National Trust|1994|p=26}}</ref> In 1994 the conversion of the West wing from domestic offices to provide more bedrooms and two boardrooms (Churchill and Macmillan) was completed.<ref name='Crathorne204'>{{Harvnb|Crathorne|1995|pp=204–5}}</ref> There are 37 bedrooms in total, two dining rooms (the Terrace Dining Room and Waldo's ), and four private dining rooms. Bedrooms are named after previous owners and guests (e.g., Buckingham, Westminster).<ref name=Cliveden>{{cite web|url=http://www.clivedenhouse.co.uk/ |title=Cliveden Hotel website |publisher=Clivedenhouse.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-03-02}}</ref> Three rooms are licensed for civil ceremonies and each year many couples are married at Cliveden.<ref name=Cliveden/> The hotel also lease Spring Cottage by the Thames, one of the key places in the [[Profumo Affair]], and offer it as self-contained accommodation.<ref name=Cliveden/>

The hotel was listed on the [[London Stock Exchange]] for a period of time in the 1990s (as Cliveden Plc).<ref name='Crathorne202'/> This company was bought in 1998 by Destination Europe, a consortium led by billionaire Microsoft CEO [[Bill Gates]].<ref name='BBC1998'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=The Company File Gates' group seals Cliveden deal | date=1998-07-27 | publisher=[[BBC]] | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/139907.stm | work =BBC News | pages = | accessdate = 2010-03-02 | language = }}</ref> In the early years of the 21st century the lease was acquired by [[von Essen Hotels]].
In 2007 Cliveden Hotel claimed to offer the "world's most expensive sandwich" at [[Pound sterling|£]]100. The von Essen Platinum Club Sandwich was confirmed by [[Guinness World Records]] in 2007 to be the most expensive sandwich commercially available.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/berkshire/6669095.stm BBC News website.] Last accessed 11/03/10.</ref> Cliveden was the "jewel in the crown" of Von Essen Hotels when the company collapsed in 2011.<ref name=Neate>{{cite news|last=Neate|first=Rupert|title=Property magnates poised to buy Profumo mansion Cliveden|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2011/sep/02/cliveden-mansion-sale-property-magnates|accessdate=6 September 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2 September 2011|location=London}}</ref>

Cliveden was then purchased in February 2012 by Richard and Ian Livingstone, owners of [[London & Regional Properties]], (also the new owners of the next door 220 acre estate called dropmore park) who placed it under the management of Andrew Stembridge from [[Chewton Glen]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Harmer|first=Janet|title=Cliveden sale to complete tomorrow as new owners promise to return property's sparkle|url=http://www.caterersearch.com/Articles/30/01/2012/342098/Cliveden-sale-to-complete-tomorrow-as-new-owners-promise-to-return-property39s.htm|accessdate=4 February 2012|newspaper=Caterer & Hotelkeeper|date=30 January 2012|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/65Czy0vJb|archivedate=4 February 2012}}</ref>

The hotel's insignia is that of the Sutherland family and consists of a [[coronet]] with interlaced "S"s and [[Acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves. It can be found on radiator grills in parts of the house.<ref name='NT85'>{{Harvnb|National Trust|1994|p=85}}</ref> The hotel's motto is "Nothing ordinary ever happened here, nor could it."<ref name=Cliveden/>

==Gardens and grounds==
[[File:Cliveden parterre, central, from terrace.jpg|300px|thumb|The parterre from the terrace]]
The estate extends to {{convert|375|acre|km2}} of which about {{convert|180|acre|km2}} comprise the gardens, the rest being [[woodland]] and paddocks.

The formal [[parterre]] to the south of the house is one of the largest in Europe at {{convert|4|acre|m2}}.<ref name='Llewellyn123'>{{Harvnb|Llewellyn|1989|p=123}}</ref> It consists of clipped [[Taxus baccata|yew]] pyramids and 16 wedge-shaped beds edged with box hedging and filled with colourful seasonal displays of bulbs, annuals and azaleas in a return to the original nineteenth-century planting schemes devised by the Sutherland's gardener John Fleming.<ref>[http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/cliveden/ ''NT website]</ref> The Long Garden consists of [[topiary]] in the form of corkscrew-spirals, peacocks and box hedges and was designed by [[Norah Lindsay]] in c.1900. The Water Garden was laid out by the [[John Jacob Astor, 1st Baron Astor of Hever|1st Lord Astor]] in c.1900 and features a [[pagoda]], on an island, bought from the [[Chateau de Bagatelle|Bagatelle]] estate in [[Paris]]. The planting there is mostly spring-flowering: [[cherry tree]]s, bush [[wisteria]]s and giant [[gunnera]]s. The original Rose Garden, designed by Sir [[Geoffrey Jellicoe]] for the Astor family in the early 1960s has since suffered from rose disease and has been replanted as a "secret" garden of herbaceous plants. The planting in the [[herbaceous border]]s in the forecourt was designed in the 1970s by the National Trust advisor [[Graham Stuart Thomas]]. The west-facing border features "hot"-coloured flowers (red, yellow, orange) and the east-facing border is planted with "cooler" colours (blue, pink and white).

In 2011 the Trust began an ambitious project to restore the 19th-century Round Garden near the eastern edge of the estate. Originally this is where fruit was grown for the house but since the 1950s it has laid overgrown. The circular garden has a diameter of 250 ft and restoration will include reinstating the paths and wrought iron arches as well as original fruit varieties where possible.<ref>[http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/our-work/view-page/item701812/238951/''NT work in progress page'']</ref>

There is a lime tree avenue either side of the main drive to the house. Cliveden holds part of the [[NCCPG National Plant Collection|National Plant Collection]] of [[Catalpa]].<ref name='NT76'>{{Harvnb|National Trust|1994|p=76}}</ref> In 1897 the 1st Lord Astor imported a section of a [[Californian redwood]] and had it installed in the woods. At {{convert|16|ft|6|in|m|abbr=on}} across it is the largest section of a [[Sequoia gigantea]] in Britain.<ref name='NT77'>{{Harvnb|National Trust|1994|p=77}}</ref> The woodlands were first laid out by Lord Orkney in the eighteenth century on what had been barren cliff-top; they were later much restocked by Bill Astor but suffered badly in the [[Great Storm of 1987]]. The National Trust continues the re-planting of the beechwoods.

===Maze===
The original Cliveden [[maze]], commissioned by Lord Astor in 1894, has undergone major restoration after having lain overgrown and inaccessible since the 1950s. It was replanted with 1,100 six-foot-tall [[Taxus baccata|yew]] trees covering an area of one third of an acre (1.2 hectares) and opened to the public in 2011.<ref>[http://www.rhs.org.uk/Gardens/News/Maze-at-Cliveden ''RHS website.''] Last accessed 16/03/12]</ref>

[[File:Cliveden-2365.jpg|thumb|left|Giacomo Leoni's 1735 "Temple"]]

===Temples, pavilions and follies===
The earliest known garden buildings at Cliveden were both designed by Giacomo Leoni for Lord Orkney; the Blenheim Pavilion (c.1727) was built to commemorate Orkney's victory as a general at the [[Battle of Blenheim]]. The Octagon Temple, situated two-hundred feet above the Thames, was originally designed as a [[gazebo]] and [[grotto]] but was later converted by the 1st Lord Astor to become the family [[chapel]]. Its interior and dome are decorated with colourful [[mosaics]] by Clayton and Bell representing religious scenes. The [[pagoda]] in the water garden was made for the [[Exposition Universelle (1867)|Paris Exposition Universelle of 1867]] and was purchased by the 1st Lord Astor from the [[Chateau de Bagatelle|Bagatelle]] estate in Paris in 1900. In the woods there is a small [[flint]] [[folly]] thought to date from the mid-nineteenth century.

===Sculpture collection===
[[File:Cliveden-2410.jpg|thumb|[[Thomas Waldo Story]]'s Fountain of Love inscribed "Waldo Story, Roma 1897"]]
One of the features of the gardens is the large collection of sculpture, most of it acquired by the 1st Lord Astor from 1893 to 1906.<ref name='NT'>{{Harvnb|National Trust|1994|p=}}</ref> The shell fountain, known as the Fountain of Love, greets visitors at the end of the lime tree [[Avenue (landscape)|avenue]] up to the house. It was sculpted by [[Thomas Waldo Story]], (American, 1855–1915) in Rome in 1897 and was commissioned by Lord Astor for this site. It features a large [[Carrara]] marble shell supporting three life-size female figures attended by [[cupid]]. The "Tortoise" fountain near the parterre was also made by T.W. Story at around the same time.

In the forecourt there is a collection of eight marble Roman [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]], some of which date from c.AD 100 and were bought by Lord Astor from Rome.
[[File:Cliveden-proserpina.jpg|upright|thumb|left|[[Proserpina]], after the original c.1565]]

The Queen Anne Vase at the end of the Long Walk is said to have been given to Lord Orkney by [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] in the eighteenth century and consists of a tall [[urn]] on a plinth decorated with the [[Greek key pattern]].

At the far-end of the parterre is a 20th-century copy of a bronze group entitled ''[[The Rape of Proserpina]]'' (Italian, c.1565), bought by W.W. Astor from Italy. The original is now housed in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].<ref>N.T. Guide, 1994, p.47.</ref>

The well-heads and oil-jars found throughout the gardens came from Venice and Rome respectively.<ref name='NT60'>{{Harvnb|National Trust|1994|p=60}}</ref>

===Borghese balustrade===
The largest sculpture in the grounds, technically in two parts, is the 17th-century Borghese Balustrade on the parterre. Purchased by Lord Astor in the late 19th century from the [[Villa Borghese gardens]] in Rome, it is crafted from [[Travertine]] stone and brick tiles by [[Giuseppe Di Giacomo]] and [[Paolo Massini]] in c.1618-19. It features seats and balustrading with fountain basins and carved eagles.

==="Cliveden snail"===
In 2004, a colony of small Mediterranean land snails of the species ''[[Papillifera bidens]]'' was discovered living on the Borghese Balustrade. Presumably this species, new to the English fauna, was accidentally imported along with the balustrade in the late 19th century, and managed to survive the intervening winters to the present day.<ref>name="Sharpe">Janet Rideout Sharpe.March 2005.[http://home.earthlink.net/%7Eaydinslibrary/MalacGp07.pdf ''Papillifera papillaris (Gastropoda:Clausiliidae): a new record for Britain''] The Archeo+Malacology Group Newsletter, (7):page 6–7.</ref>
 

==Film and television==
*In the 2004 film ''[[Thunderbirds (film)|Thunderbirds]]'', Cliveden is used as the location for [[Lady Penelope Creighton-Ward|Lady Penelope]]'s house, 'Creighton-Ward Mansion'.
*The house is featured in the 2005 film ''[[Mrs. Henderson Presents]]''.
*The house and grounds are featured in the 2001 ''[[Bollywood]] film ''[[Yaadein (2001 film)|Yaadein]]''
*In the second Beatles film, ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]'' (1965), the scenes that were supposed to be in Buckingham Palace were filmed at Cliveden.
*The house appears in the film ''[[Don't Lose Your Head]]'', from the ''Carry-On'' genre of 1960s films.
*Horse and carriage sequences in ''[[The Card]]'' (aka ''[[The Promoter]]'') (1952), starring Alec Guinness, were filmed on the drive.
*The Thames at Cliveden appears in both ''[[Chaplin (film)|Chaplin]]'' (1992) and ''[[Carrington (film)|Carrington]]'' (1995).
*Cliveden's panelled library stands in for a priest's New York study in the 2008 film ''[[Made of Honor]]''.
*A [[National Lottery (United Kingdom)|UK lottery]] advertisement portrays a man running around on the grounds at Cliveden.
*Cliveden was featured as part of a reward on the UK television show ''[[The Apprentice (UK TV series)|The Apprentice]]''.
*In 2000 the BBC ''[[Antiques Roadshow]]'' used the grounds as a venue for a valuation day.
*Cliveden was also feaured in the film ''[[The Yellow Rolls Royce]]'' with [[Rex Harrison]], [[George C. Scott]], and [[Shirley MacLaine]].
*''[[Scandal (1989 film)|Scandal]]'' (1989), story of the Profumo affair.
*The main gates appear in the 1978 film ''[[Death on the Nile]]''.
*The interior and exterior of Spring Cottage appears in ITV's ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' (2005).
*The French Dining room stands in for a hotel bedroom in ''[[Sherlock Holmes (2009 film)|Sherlock Holmes]]'' (2009).
*The house appears as itself in the 1982 BBC TV series ''Nancy Astor''.
*The garden and interior of Spring Cottage and surrounding riverside location are used in the film ''[[Dead Man's Folly (film)|Dead Man's Folly]]'' (1986).
*Steven Gerrard (footballer) got maried at Clivden in High Wycombe.

==Literature==
[[File:Bavin's Gulls on the River Thames at Cliveden Deep (Nancy).JPG|thumb|right|Cliveden from the River Thames]]
*In Chapter 12 of ''Three Men in a Boat'' (1889), [[Jerome K. Jerome]] describes Cliveden Reach as "unbroken loveliness this is, perhaps, the sweetest stretch of all the river ..."
*In ''Boogie Up the River'' (1989) Mark Wallington retraces Jerome's journey to mark its centenary, with the Thames at Cliveden described in Chapter 5.
*The poet [[Alexander Pope]] wrote (c. 1730) of the Duke of Buckingham's affair with Anna, Countess of Shrewsbury: "Gallant and gay in Cliveden's proud alcove/The bower of wanton Shrewsbury and love."<ref>Moral Essays</ref>
*[[Daniel Defoe]] describes the first house in ''A Tour Through England and Wales'' (1726).
*[[Gore Vidal]] in his 1948 novel ''The City and the Pillar'': "The Cliveden-Churchill Set are too well entrenched and I shouldn't be in the least surprised if they created some sort of dictatorship that could never be thrown off without a revolution."

==Other Clivedens==

There is a late colonial-era mansion named after Cliveden in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], better known as the [[Cliveden (Benjamin Chew House)|Chew Mansion]] of note in the 1777 [[Battle of Germantown]].

==Gallery==
{{Commons category}}
<gallery>
File:Cliveden - Tortoise Fountain.jpg|The Tortoise Fountain and view over the River Thames
File:Cliveden-2375.jpg|Overlooking 42 inscribed stones to the dead of The Great War Sir Bertram MacKennal's figure represents Canada with the head reputedly modelled by Lady Astor
File:Cliveden-8444.jpg|Elephant carving in the grounds
File:Grotto,_Cliveden_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1209629.jpg|The 19th-century flint folly in the woods
</gallery>

==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation|last=Crathorne|first=James|title=Cliveden: The Place and the People|publisher=|location=London|year=1995|isbn=}}
*{{citation|last=Llewellyn|first=R|title=Elegance and Eccentricity|publisher=|location=|year=1989|isbn=}}
*{{citation|last=National Trust|first=The|title=Guide to Cliveden|publisher=[[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty]]|location=London|year=1971|isbn=}}
*{{citation|last=National Trust|first=The|title=Guide to Cliveden|publisher=[[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty]]|location=London|year=1994|isbn=}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*Astor, Michael, ''Tribal Feeling'', London,1963.
*Coates, Tim, ''The Scandal of Christine Keeler and John Profumo: Lord Dennings Report 1967'', London,2003.
*Fox, James, ''The Langhorne Sisters'', London, 1998.
*Hayward, Allyson, ''Norah Lindsay: The Life and Art of a Garden Designer'', London,2007.
*Jackson-Stopps, Gervase, ''An English Arcadia'', London, 1992.
*Keeler, Christine, ''The Truth at Last: My Story'', London, 2002.
*Lacey, Steven, ''Gardens of the National Trust'', London, 1994.
*Rose, Norman, ''The Cliveden Set: Portrait of an Exclusive Fraternity'', London, 2000.
*Sinclair, David, ''Dynasty: The Astors and their Times'', London, 1983.
*Stanford, Peter, ''Bronwen Astor: Her Life and Times'', London, 2001.

==External links==
*[http://nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-vh/w-visits/w-findaplace/w-cliveden/ nationaltrust.org.uk] Cliveden information at the National Trust
*[http://www.clivedenhouse.co.uk/ Cliveden House Hotel]
*[http://www.alexanderhamiltoninstitute.org/lp/Hancock/CD-ROMS/GlobalFederation%5CWorld%20Trade%20Federation%20-%20136%20-%20The%20Anglo-American%20Establishment.html The Anglo-American Establishment: From Rhodes to Cliveden] by [[Carroll Quigley]]

{{Coord|51.55850|-0.68823|type:landmark_region:GB-BKM|display=title}}

[[Category:Astor family]]
[[Category:Gardens in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:Country houses in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Hotels in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Italianate architecture in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:National Trust properties in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures on the River Thames]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Mazes]]
[[Category:Leveson-Gower family]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Buckinghamshire]]

[[es:Cliveden]]
[[fr:Cliveden]]
[[my:ကလစ်ဗ်ဒန်]]
[[nl:Cliveden]]
[[pt:Cliveden]]
[[ru:Клайвден]]
[[simple:Cliveden]]
[[th:คฤหาสน์คลิฟเดิน]]

Henry Herbert, 7. Earl of Carnarvon

2012-06-01T07:20:21Z

Textorus: /* External links */ add EL

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox person
| name = The Earl of Carnarvon
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth-date|19 January 1924}}
| birth_place = [[Lancaster Gate]], [[London]], England<ref name="Hammond" />
| death_date = {{death-date|10 September 2001}}
| death_place =
| occupation =
| spouse = Jean Margaret Wallop
| parents = [[Henry Herbert, 6th Earl of Carnarvon]] Anne Wendell
| children = [[George Herbert, 8th Earl of Carnarvon]] Hon. Harry Herbert Lady Carolyn Warren}}

'''Henry George Reginald Molyneux Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon''' [[Royal Victorian Order|KCVO]] (19 January 1924<ref name="Hammond">Peter W. Hammond, editor, The Complete Peerage or a History of the House of Lords and All its Members From the Earliest Times, Volume XIV: Addenda & Corrigenda (Stroud, Gloucestershire, U.K.: Sutton Publishing, 1998), p. 150</ref> – 10 September 2001<ref name="Mosley">Charles Mosley, Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, 107th edition, volume 1, p. 699</ref>) was Racing Manager to [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] from 1969.<ref name="Mosley1">Charles Mosley, editor, Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage, 107th edition, 3 volumes (Wilmington, Delaware, U.S.A.: Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 2003), volume 1, p. 698</ref>

The Earl of Carnarvon was the only son of the [[Henry Herbert, 6th Earl of Carnarvon|6th Earl of Carnarvon]] by his first (American-born) wife Anne Wendell.

==Marriage and children==
Like his father, Carnarvon (then known as Lord Porchester) also fell in love with an Anglo-American, Jean Margaret Wallop. The two were married on 7 January 1956.<ref name="Mosley" />

The Earl and Countess of Carnarvon had three children;<ref name="Mosley4">Charles Mosley, Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, 107th edition.</ref>
* George, who became the [[George Reginald Oliver Molyneux Herbert, 8th Earl of Carnarvon|8th Earl of Carnarvon]],
* the Hon. Harry Herbert,
* Lady Carolyn Herbert, who married bloodstock agent John Warren.

==Career==
He served as a Lieutenant in the [[Royal Horse Guards]], later becoming Honorary Colonel of the 116th (Hampshire Fortress) Engineer Regiment (Territorial Army).

Lord Carnavon was best known as manager of [[Queen Elizabeth II]]'s racing stables.

Carnarvon was an independent member of the [[Hampshire County Council]] (though he later took the Tory whip) and became its Chairman. He was also the Chairman of the South East Economic Planning Council.

He was invested as a Knight Commander of the [[Royal Victorian Order]] (KCVO) in 1982.<ref name="Mosley" /> He died aged 77 in 2001.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Hansard-contribs | mr-henry-herbert-6 | the Earl of Carnarvon }}
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/the_queens_diamond_jubilee/9302771/Perfect-10-the-men-and-women-who-have-shaped-the-Queen.html Grice, Elizabeth. "Perfect 10: The Men and Women Who Have Shaped the Queen,"] ''The Daily Telegraph'' online, telegraph.co.uk, 1 June 2012, accessed 1 June 2012.

{{s-start}}
{{s-reg|gb}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Henry Herbert, 6th Earl of Carnarvon|Henry Herbert]]}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Earl of Carnarvon]]
| years = 1987–2001}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[George Herbert, 8th Earl of Carnarvon|George Herbert]]}}
{{end}}


{{Persondata
|NAME= Herbert, Henry, 7th Earl of Carnarvon
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Herbert, Henry George Reginald Molyneux
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=
|DATE OF BIRTH= 19 January 1924
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Lancaster Gate]], [[London]], England
|DATE OF DEATH= 11 September 2001
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Carnarvon, Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of}}
[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Herbert family]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Great Britain]]
[[Category:British racehorse owners and breeders]]
[[Category:Members of Hampshire County Council]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order]]
[[Category:People from London]]

{{GB-earl-stub}}

Holland House (London)

2012-05-08T09:27:32Z

Textorus: /* 20th century and wartime destruction */ correcting title; she was not Queen Mother at that time

{{coord|51|30|9|N|0|12|9|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}
[[File:Holland House John Buckler 1812.jpg|thumb|Holland House in 1812.]]
'''Holland House''', originally known as '''Cope Castle''', was one of the first [[great house]]s built in [[Kensington]] in [[London]], and is situated in [[Holland Park]].

== Origins, in the Civil War, and beyond ==
Holland House was built in 1605 for [[Walter Cope|Sir Walter Cope]]. It presided over a {{convert|500|acre|ha sqmi|}} estate that stretched from [[Holland Park Avenue]] to the current site of [[Earl's Court tube station]], and contained exotic trees imported by [[John Tradescant the Younger]].<ref name="ODNB" /> Following its completion, Cope entertained the king and queen at it numerous times; in 1608, [[John Chamberlain (letter writer)|John Chamberlain]], the noted author of letters, complained that he was "not allowed to touch even a cherry because the queen was expected".

Following the death of [[James I of England|King James I]]'s son [[Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales]] in November 1612, he spent the night at Cope Castle, being joined the following day by his son [[Charles I of England|Prince Charles]] and granddaughter [[Elizabeth of England (1635–1650)|Princess Elizabeth]], and [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]].

Cope's son-in-law, [[Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland]] eventually inherited the house. He was later beheaded for his Royalist activities during the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] and the house was then used as an army headquarters, being regularly visited by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. After the war, it was owned by various members of the family and renamed Holland House. In 1719, [[Joseph Addison]], the English essayist, poet and politician, died in the building.

Holland House passed to the Edwardes family in 1721. [[Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland]] died at Holland House in 1774 and thereafter it was inherited by his descendants until the title became extinct with the death of [[Henry Edward Fox, 4th Baron Holland]] in 1859; however, his widow continued to live there for many years, gradually selling off outlying parts of the park for development. In 1874, the estate passed to a distant Fox cousin, [[Henry Fox-Strangways, 5th Earl of Ilchester]].

== As 19th century social centre ==
[[File:Holland House from The Queen's London (1896).jpg|thumb|Holland House c. 1896.]]

Under the [[Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland|3rd Lord Holland]] and his wife, [[Elizabeth Fox, Baroness Holland|Lady Holland]], the house became noted as a glittering social, literary and political centre with many celebrated visitors such as [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]], [[Thomas Macaulay]], the poets [[Thomas Campbell (poet)|Thomas Campbell]] and [[Samuel Rogers]], [[Richard Sharp (politician)|'Conversation' Sharp]], [[Benjamin Disraeli]], [[Charles Dickens]] and [[Sir Walter Scott]].The figure of the political and historical writer [[John Allen (historian)|John Allen]] was so associated with the house that he was known as ''Holland House Allen'' and there is a room in the house named after him.<ref name="harrison" />

[[File:Holland House Gilt Chamber 1877.png|thumb|The Gilt Chamber.]]
''[[Harper's New Monthly Magazine]]'' described Holland House as having had a "Gilt Chamber", where "the figures over the fireplace were painted in flesh colour wherever bare; the rest was in shaded gold. The lower marbles of the fireplace were black, and the upper ones were Sienna; the capitals and bases of the columns and pilasters were gilt, and the groundwork from which all the glittering decoration rose was white."<ref name="harpers" />

The house's [[dower house]], known as [[Little Holland House]], became the centre of a Victorian artistic [[salon (gathering)|salon]] presided over by the [[Prinsep]]s and the painter [[George Frederic Watts]].

== 20th century and wartime destruction ==
[[File:Holland House October 2002.jpg|thumb|The remains of Holland House in 2002.]]

[[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] and [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Queen Elizabeth]] attended the last great ball held at the house a few weeks before the outbreak of [[World War II]]. In September 1940, the building was badly hit during a ten hour bombing raid and largely destroyed. It passed into the ownership, with its grounds, of the local authority. Today the remains form a backdrop for the open air Holland Park Theatre, home of [[Opera Holland Park]]. The [[YHA (England and Wales)]] "London Holland Park" [[youth hostel]] is now located in the house. The [[Orangery]] is now an exhibition and function space, with the adjoining former Summer Ballroom, The Belvedere, now a restaurant. The former [[Ice house (building)|Icehouse]] is now a gallery space. The grounds provide sporting facilities, including a cricket pitch/football oval and 6 tennis courts.

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=<ref name="ODNB">{{cite web
|author=Elizabeth Allen
|title=Cope, Sir Walter (1553?–1614)
|work=[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]
|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]
|date=2004-09
|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6257
|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/6257
|accessdate=2009-06-01
}}</ref>
<ref name="harrison">Brian Harrison (ed), (2004), ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', page 309, (Oxford University Press)</ref>
<ref name="harpers">{{cite journal|title=Elizabethan and later English furniture|journal=[[Harper's New Monthly Magazine]]|date=1877-12|volume=56|issue=331|pages=23–24}}</ref>
}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Holland House}}
*[http://www.rbkc.gov.uk/leisureandlibraries/parksandgardens/yourlocalpark/hollandpark.aspx The Royal Borough of Kensington & Chelsea (RBKC) - Holland Park official website]
*[http://www.yha.org.uk/find-accommodation/london/hostels/london-holland-park/index.aspx London Holland Park Youth Hostel]
*[http://www.belvedererestaurant.co.uk The Belvedere Restaurant, in Holland Park]
*[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=45229 British History Online - Holland House]

[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in London]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:Youth hostels]]
[[Category:Former castles]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in the United Kingdom destroyed during World War II]]
[[Category:Houses completed in 1605]]
[[Category:Former houses of Kensington and Chelsea]]
[[Category:Fox family (English aristocracy)]]

[[es:Holland House]]
[[it:Holland House]]
[[he:בית הולנד]]
[[ja:ホランド・ハウス]]

Französische Kronjuwelen

2012-04-28T13:12:43Z

Textorus: /* Most recent royal ceremony in France: The funeral of Louis XVII in 2004 */ {unsourced section}

{{refimprove|date=August 2007}}
[[Image:French-crown-jewels.jpg|right|400px|thumb|Crown Jewels of France, on display at the Louvre with the crown and diadem of Empress Eugenie to the left, the set of Queen Marie Amélie in the centre and the crown of Louis XV to the right with the diadem of the Duchess of Angoulème.]]
[[File:FrenchCrownJewelsLouvre-1.jpg|right|400px|thumb|The ''Côte-de-Bretagne'' red spinel with the set of Queen Marie Amélie to the left, the bracelets and diadem of the Duchess of Angoulème in the centre and upper right and, between them, the set of Empress Josephine.]]
[[File:FrenchCrownJewelsLouvre-2.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Sapphire set of Queen Marie Amélie.]]

The '''French Crown Jewels''' were the [[crown (headgear)|crown]]s, [[Globus cruciger|orb]], sceptres, diadems and jewels that were the symbol of royalty and which were worn by many [[King of France|Kings and Queens of France]]. The set was finally broken up, with most of it sold off in 1885 by the [[Third French Republic]]. The surviving French Crown Jewels, principally a set of historic crowns, diadems and parures, are mainly on display in the ''Galerie d'Apollon'' of the [[Louvre]], France's premier [[museum]] and former royal [[palace]], together with the [[Regent Diamond]], the [[Sancy]] Diamond and the {{convert|105|carat|g|adj=on}} ''Côte-de-Bretagne'' red [[spinel]], carved into the form of a [[dragon]]. In addition, some gemstones and jewels (including the Emerald of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]], the 'Ruspoli' sapphire and the diamond pins of Queen [[Marie Antoinette]]) are on display in the Treasury vault of the Mineralogy gallery in the [[Muséum national d'histoire naturelle]].

==Use of the French crown jewels==

[[File:Crown of Napoleon I.png|thumb|right|250px|The Crown of Napoleon created in 1804. [[Louvre]].]]
[[File:Crown of Dauphin Louis Antoine (1824).png|thumb|right|Crown of Dauphin Louis Antoine worn at the coronation of Charles X in 1825]]
The Crown jewels comprise the instruments of the [[coronation]] called [[Regalia]] and the jewels of the ruling family.

Since [[Pepin the Short]] in 752, the accession of the [[List of French monarchs|King]] of [[Kingdom of France|France]] was legitimized by a '''[[coronation]] ceremony''' later performed with the [[Crown of Charlemagne]] at [[Notre-Dame de Reims]] called ''sacre'', since the emphasis was on the [[anointing|unction]] with the [[chrism]] of the [[Holy Ampulla]]. All monarchs were crowned until the [[French revolution]], in the [[Notre-Dame de Reims]] cathedral (apart for two of them, who were crowned elsewhere). After the revolution, only Emperor [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]], [[Josephine de Beauharnais|Empress Josephine]] and King [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] were crowned. Though not always used, a set of expensive crown jewels did exist and was augmented by various monarchs.

The Crown jewels or ''Diamants de la Couronne de France'' consisting of gemstones and jewellery<ref>[http://souverainsdefrance.free.fr/les_joyaux_de_la_couronne_113.htm] List of the surviving main Crown jewels</ref> became unalienable by decision of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] on June 15, 1530. the ''Côte-de-Bretagne'' red spinel was then among the 8 main jewels. They suffered important loss by the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] in 1590 but were reconstitued by [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] and greatly enhanced by [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] notably with the gift of the 18 [[Mazarin]] diamonds and the buy of the [[Hope diamond|'Royal French Blue']] and 'Ruspoli' sapphire later followed in 1717 with the [[Regent Diamond]]. Under [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]], they were kept in the ''Garde Meuble de la Couronne'' (Royal Treasury) in one of the pavilions of the [[Place de la Concorde]] where they suffered a theft in 1792 and a sale in 1795 after their partial recovery. In 1814, [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]] had restored the Crown jewels to 65 072 stones and pearls, not including the personal jewels of both empress Josephine and Marie-Louise. Enhanced again during the [[Bourbon Restoration|Restoration]] and more again during the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]], they counted 77 662 stones and pearls comprising 51 403 brilliant cut diamonds, 21 119 rose cut diamonds, 2 962 pearls, 507 rubies, 136 sapphires, 250 emeralds, 528 turquoises, 22 opales, 235 amethysts and 500 other stones, when they were sold in 1885 by the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]]. Nevetheless, as in 1793, an important set of stones and pearls was sent to the [[Muséum national d'histoire naturelle]] and some of the most important jewels were bought back since 1953, what makes the collection still number more than 11 000 stones and pearls.<ref>[http://souverainsdefrance.free.fr/historique_des_joyaux_120.htm] History of the ''Diamants de la Couronne''</ref>

The [[Regalia]],<ref>[http://souverainsdefrance.free.fr/regalia_in_english_105.htm] List of the surviving Regalia</ref> much lightly hit in 1590, were originally kept in the [[Basilica of Saint Denis]]<ref>[http://www.medart.pitt.edu/image/France/St-denis/felebien/Treasuremain.html] Plates of the treasure from Dom [[Michel Félibien]], ''Histoire de L'Abbaye Royale de Saint-Denys en France'', 1706</ref> from where they were removed in 1793 during the [[French Revolution]]. Some few pieces, considered to present an artistic value, were preserved and sent to the [[Louvre]] and other parisians museums. The others, like the [[Crown of Charlemagne]] and the one of the Queens, were melted down or dismanteled, with the rest of the basilica treasure including the cross of [[Saint Eligius]], the screen of [[Charlemagne]] or the gilded altar of [[Charles the Bald]]. The litugical instruments kept in [[Reims]] suffered the same policy. The Regalia were restored and recreated for the coronation of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]], which at their turn suffered again partial destruction in 1819, and finally completed for the coronation of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] in 1825.

==Regalia and jewels at the Louvre==
===Crown of Louis XV===
Of the about 20 documented royal crowns of the [[Ancien Régime in France|Ancien Régime]],<ref>[http://www.medart.pitt.edu/image/France/St-denis/felebien/Comparative/Regalia.html] The royal crowns in the treasure of [[Basilica of St Denis|Saint Denis]] in 1706, from Dom [[Michel Félibien]], ''Histoire de L'Abbaye Royale de Saint-Denys en France''</ref> the only surviving one from the destructions of 1590 and 1793 is the [[Crown of Louis XV of France|crown of Louis XV]].<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/crown-louis-xv?selection=44853] [[Crown of Louis XV]], 1722, [[Louvre]]</ref> The king had the Regent Diamond set in the lower part of the [[fleur-de-lis]] in the front of his crown, while eight of the famous [[Mazarin]] diamonds that the cardinal had bequeath to the French Crown are set in the other seven fleur-de-lis and in the circlet of the crown. Diamonds and colored gemstones are set between two rows of pearls on the circlet and are also set into the four arches that rise behind the fleur-de-lis and the eight ornamental points between the fleur-de-lis. At the junction of these four arches is a small pedestal surrounded by two rows of small diamonds on either side of a row of small pearls. Eight larger diamonds set between this pedestal and the arches give the effect of a sunburst when the crown is viewed from above. On the pedestal rises a double fleur-de-lis formed of nine large diamonds, including the Sancy Diamond which forms the central upper petal of this double fleur-de-lis. The gold brocade cap which lines the crown is also ornamented with large diamonds.

Since the Middle Ages, and previous to the making of this crown, the crowns of French kings were adorned with gemstones like the [[Crown of Charlemagne]] or the crown of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]] sometimes called ''[[Sainte Couronne]]''.<ref>[http://www.crpg.cnrs-nancy.fr/Science/Emeraudes/Gallery_couronne.html] Crown of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]].</ref> But some of the most valuable precious stones could be removed of them, since it was traditional for a French king to bequeath his crown to the treasury of the Abbey, now [[Basilica of St Denis]] on their deaths. This crown was also bequeath to Saint Denis on the death of Louis XV, but not before the diamonds had been replaced with crystals and it is on display presently in the Louvre similarly set with crystals.

===Crown of Napoleon I===
The [[Crown of Napoleon]] was made by the jeweller [[Martin-Guillaume Biennais]] with antique [[cameo (carving)|cameo]]s for the coronation of the Emperor in 1804. His gilded crown of laurels<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=obj_view_obj&objet=cartel_16474_29695_p0001244.001.jpg_obj.html&flag=true] [[Napoleon I]] in coronation costume, [[François Gérard]], 1805, [[Louvre]]</ref> was destroyed in 1819 by [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] with the one of [[Empress Josephine]], the [[Globus cruciger|orb]] and the eagle sceptre. His coronation throne is at the [[Louvre]]<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=24284&langue=fr] Throne of [[Napoleon I]], 1804, [[Louvre]]</ref> and the coronation ring of [[Empress Josephine]] at the [[Château de Malmaison]].

===Crown of Empress Eugenie===
The [[Crown of Empress Eugenie]] was created in 1855 by [[Gabriel Lemonnier]] for the World's fair, like the one of the Emperor which was destroyed in 1887.<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/empress-eugenies-crown] [[Crown of Empress Eugenie]], 1855, [[Louvre]]</ref> But [[Napoleon III]] finally chose not to be crowned.<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=obj_view_obj&objet=cartel_21851_45677_7091.001.jpg_obj.html&flag=true] Portrait of [[Napoleon III]] with his crown, ca 1855, [[Louvre]]</ref> Her diadem and large corsage diamond knot by the same jeweller are as well presented in the [[Louvre]] with a large diamond brooch by [[Alfred Bapst]] bearing two big [[Mazarin]] stones.

===Coronation sword===
[[File:Main Justice Louvre.jpg|thumb|The recreated "Hand of Justice". [[Louvre]].]]
[[File:Sceptre de Charles V.jpg|thumb|Statuette of [[Charlemagne]] on the sceptre of [[Charles V of France|Charles V]]. [[Louvre]].]]
[[File:Throne of Dagobert bronze Cabinet des Medailles.jpg|thumb|left|"Throne of Dagobert", traditionally attributed to [[Dagobert I]], while the arms and the back of the chair were added under [[Charles the Bald]]. [[Cabinet des Medailles]].]]
[[Image:Coupe des Ptolémées 02.JPG|thumb|left|[[Cup of the Ptolemies]], 1st century B.C or A.D. [[Cabinet des Medailles]].]]
The sword used during the coronation of the kings of France is displayed at the Louvre museum with its 13th century [[scabbard|sheath]],<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=5461&langue=fr] King's sword sheath, 13th c., [[Louvre]]</ref> apart from the crown jewels. In the first part of the celebration, the king received the insignia of knighthood, consisting of spurs and the sword. Throughout the rest of the ceremony, the sword was entrusted to the "Connétable", who held it with the blade pointing upwards. The treasury of Saint-Denis possessed several medieval swords including the one of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]]. According to legend the coronation sword is "[[Joyeuse]]", [http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_image.jsp;jsessionid=KWCxmhB23hhsBcfxW2PFJ1VxLCc2R8FDyzPjhmQpVr8PscX37P2w!1736489905?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673477491&CURRENT_LLV_ILLUSTRATION%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673477491&CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226044&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500857&bmLocale=en&&newWidth==680&&newHeight==1011] Charlemagne's sword.<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/coronation-sword-and-scabbard-kings-france?selection=44853] Coronation sword, 10-13th c., [[Louvre]]</ref> Its unusual build and ornamentation make it difficult to date, but the parts probably date to the 10th to 13th century. Some believe it might be much older, even manufactured before [[Charlemagne]]'s reign.

The coronation swords of [[Napoleon I]] and [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] also were preserved in the Louvre museum, although the first was transferred to the [[Palace of Fontainebleau]] with most of the preserved litugical instruments and robes of the imperial ceremony and the latter stolen in 1976.

===Coronation spurs===
Some elements of the 12-16th centuries spurs were partially replaced for the coronation of [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon I]].<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=5463&langue=fr] Coronation spurs, 12-16th c. and 1804, [[Louvre]]</ref>

===Sceptre of Charles V===
One of the few surviving pieces of the medieval French crown jewels is the Sceptre [[Charles V of France|Charles V]] had made for the future coronation of his son, [[Charles VI of France|Charles VI]], currently on display in the [[Louvre]].<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=4850&langue=fr] Sceptre of [[Charles V of France|Charles V]], 14th c., [[Louvre]]</ref> It is over five feet long and at the top is a lily supporting a small statuette of Charlemagne.<ref>[http://www.uoregon.edu/~dluebke/608Monarchs/608MonarchsHomepageS2009.htm] Sceptre of [[Charles V of France|Charles V]]</ref> This evocation of Charlemagne may also explain why this sceptre was included in the imperial regalia of Napoleon I.<ref>[[:File:Ingres, Napoleon on his Imperial throne.jpg]]</ref>

The sceptre of [[Dagobert I]] was stolen in 1795 during the Revolution.

===''Main de Justice''===
A uniquely French type of sceptre is the ''Main de Justice'' (Hand of Justice), which has as its [[finial]] an ivory [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]] in a blessing gesture.<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=4745&langue=fr] Hand of Justice, 1804 and medieval, [[Louvre]]</ref> Only the ivory finial itself appears to be medieval and probably comes from one of the three former Hands of Justice in the treasure of Saint Denis, perhaps the one of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]]. The present golden rod which it terminates was probably made for either the coronation of Napoleon I [/media/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Ingres%2C_Napoleon_on_his_Imperial_throne.jpg] or that of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]].[/media/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Charles_X_In_1829.jpg] The addition of cameos and other medieval gemstones like the XIIth century ring of [[Denis|Saint Denis]] which surround the junction of the finial and the replaced rod represent a deliberate nineteenth century anachronism.<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=4902&langue=fr] Ring of [[Saint Denis]], 12th c., [[Louvre]]</ref>

Another sceptre, the Baton of Guillaume de Roquemont,<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=4730&langue=fr] Baton of Guillaume de Roquemont, 14th c., [[Louvre]]</ref> and the ring of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]]<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=4888&langue=fr] Ring of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]], 14th c., [[Louvre]]</ref> are at the [[Louvre]].

===Brooch of Saint Louis===
The collection keeps as well the 14th century brooch or ''fermail'' said of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]], a large diamond shaped [[fibula (brooch)|fibula]] bearing a fleur-de-lis in precious stones, which was used to hold the coronation's robe.<ref>[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=4865&langue=fr] Brooch (''fermail'') of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]], 14th c., [[Louvre]]</ref>

===Serpentine paten===
The serpentine [[paten]] said of [[Abbot Suger]] of 1st century B.C. or A.D. associated with the [[Cup of the Ptolemies]] was used at the coronation of queens and keeps its gem-studded gold Carolingian mountings of [[Charles the Bald]].<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/oeuvre-notices/patene-de-serpentine] Serpentine paten, 1st century B.C. or A.D and 9th c., [[Louvre]]</ref>

===Famous diamonds===
Among the most famous diamonds<ref>[http://www.intellego.fr/index.php?PageID=print-document&document=44651] The ''Diamants de la Couronne''</ref> preserved in the collection and now kept in the Apollo Gallery of the [[Louvre]] are the [[Sancy]] Diamond, which once had been part of the pre-Commonwealth Crown Jewels of England, the Hortensia pink diamond cutted in 1678 for [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] and above all the [[Regent Diamond]].<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/diamond-known-regent] Regent Diamond, [[Louvre]]</ref> The treatment of the Regent Diamond epitomised the attitude of the French Royal Family to the Crown Jewels. While the Regent Diamond was the centrepiece of the King [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] crown, and worn by him at his coronation in February 1723, [[Marie Antoinette]], wife of [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]], wore it in a black velvet hat. The Royal [[French Blue]] was transformed into the [[Hope Diamond]] now in the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in Washington, D.C..

With two remaining jewels of the [[Renaissance]], the ''Côte-de-Bretagne'' red spinel and the ''Dragon perle'', a pin shaped into the form of a delphin, The crown jewels collection contains as well among others, the emerald set and pearl earings of [[Empress Josephine]], the micromosaic<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/oeuvre-notices/parure-de-limperatrice-marie-louise] Micromosaic set of [[Empress Marie Louise]], [[Louvre]]</ref> and emerald and diamond<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/necklace-and-earrings-empress-marie-louise] Emerald necklace and earrings of [[Empress Marie Louise]], [[Louvre]]</ref> sets of [[Empress Marie Louise]], the pair of [[bracelets]] of rubies<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/bracelets-duchess-angouleme] Bracelets of the [[Marie Thérèse of France|Duchess of Angoulème]], [[Louvre]]</ref> and the emerald diadem<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/oeuvre-notices/diademe-de-la-duchesse-dangouleme] Emerald diadem of the [[Marie Thérèse of France|Duchess of Angoulème]], [[Louvre]]</ref> of the [[Marie Thérèse of France|Duchess of Angoulème]], the sapphire set of [[Queen Marie Amélie]],<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/set-jewellery?selection=44853] Sapphire set of [[Queen Marie Amélie]], [[Louvre]]</ref> a diamond cross of the [[Order of the Holy Spirit]] or a diamond portrait box of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]].<ref>[http://souverainsdefrance.free.fr/les_joyaux_de_la_couronne_113.htm] List of the surviving main Crown jewels</ref><ref>[http://www.luxe-magazine.com/default.php?FCT=A&A=476] The jewels in the Apollo gallery, [[Louvre]]</ref>

==Gemstones in the Natural History Museum and École des Mines==
Some gemstones and jewels are on display in the Treasury vault of the Mineralogy gallery in the [[Muséum national d'histoire naturelle]]. They include the {{convert|51.60|carat|g|adj=on}} Emerald of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]],<ref>[http://www.crpg.cnrs-nancy.fr/Science/Emeraudes/Gallery_st_louis_sertie.html] Emerald of [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]], [[Museum national d'histoire naturelle]]</ref> the {{convert|135.80|carat|g|adj=on}} 'Ruspoli' sapphire,<ref>[http://www.museum-mineral.com/specimens/saphir-mnhn-n-a-67,478.html#http://www.museum-mineral.com/specimens/specimen.php?id=478] 'Ruspoli' sapphire, [[Museum national d'histoire naturelle]]</ref> the Topaze (28.10 carats) and great Emerald (17 carats) of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], the diamond pins of Queen [[Marie Antoinette]], the Diamond-portrait (9.10 carats) and the Amethyst of [[Empress Marie Louise]], the great Opale of [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]], the bicolore Sapphire (19.67 carats), the ''Jonquille'' diamond (9.75 carats) and more than 800 pearls and stones. Furthermore a set of 1 044 stones and pearls is kept at the [[École des Mines]] in Paris.

==Regalia in the National Library of France==
The Throne of [[Dagobert I]] coming from [[Saint Denis]] can now be seen on the [[Rue de Richelieu|Richelieu]] site of the [[National Library of France]].
The [[Cup of the Ptolemies]] was used by the queens to take ablution after holy communion. This masterpieces among [[hardstone carving]]s or [[engraved gem]]s of [[Classical Antiquity|Antiquity]],<ref>[[Cup of the Ptolemies]], "the most precious vase that is in the treasure of Saint-Denis, and perhaps in any European cabinet." ([[Michel Félibien]], ''Histoire de... Saint-Denys'', Paris, 1706, pl. vi, at full scale); "one of the greatest treasures in the Cabinet des Médailles" (Sir W. Martin Conway, 1915, pp 119f ([http://vrcoll.fa.pitt.edu/medart/texts/Saint-Denis/Conway2.html on-line]); etc.</ref> was carved with [[Dionysus|Dionysiac]] vignettes and emblems, probably in [[Alexandria]] during the first century BC or the first century after. It was stolen in 1804, and recovered without its Carolingian gem-studded gold mountings. Its serpentine [[paten]] is at the [[Louvre]].

==Charles X Regalia in Saint Denis==
Some of the sovereign's robes of the coronation of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] and regalia specially made for this event including the [[Crown of Charles X]] and the [[Crown of Queen Marie Thérèse of Savoy]] are displayed in one of the chapels of the nave of the [[Basilica of Saint Denis]].<ref>[http://fr.topic-topos.com/les-regalia-saint-denis] The regalia of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] and Queen [[Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy|Marie Thérèse of Savoy]] in the [[Basilica of St Denis]]</ref> The [[Crown of the Dauphin Louis Antoine]] [[Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême|Duke of Angoulême]] which subsists as well counts too among the six only surviving French crowns.

==Liturgical instruments and robes in Reims==
The [[Holy Ampulla]] reconstituted with some recovered fragments of the original [[balm]] for the coronation of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]]<ref>[http://leblogdumesnil.unblog.fr/files/2008/11/steampoulereliquairedecharlesx.jpg] Reliquary of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] for the [[Holy Ampulla]]</ref><ref>[http://leblogdumesnil.unblog.fr/files/2008/11/steampouleampouleetaiguillette.jpg] Ampulla and needle of the reliquary of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]]</ref> in 1825, which was originally kept in the [[Abbey of Saint-Remi]], is now presented in the [[Palace of Tau]] next to the cathedral [[Notre-Dame de Reims]] with the coronation [[Chalice]] as well as several preserved sovereign's robes and gowns of kings of the [[Ancien Regime]] and the liturgical instruments made for the coronation of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]]. They are displayed with the few remaining pieces of the medieval treasure of the cathedral and the [[Talisman]] of [[Charlemagne]], a large sapphire said to have been given by the [[Caliph]] [[Harun al-Rashid]] which was found in the Emperor's grave in 1804 and later offered by [[Empress Eugenie]]. Since 1906, the content of the [[Holy Ampulla]] is kept in Reims archbishopric.<ref>[http://i30.servimg.com/u/f30/15/40/86/69/photo_10.jpg] Content of the [[Holy Ampulla]] kept in Reims archbishopric.</ref>

==Theft of the crown jewels during the revolution==
[[Image:HopeDiamond1.JPG|thumb|left|''The [[Hope Diamond]]'', which was cut from the ''Royal French Blue'', part of the French Crown Jewels.]]
The Crown Jewels were stolen in 1792 when the ''Garde Meuble'' (Royal Treasury) was stormed by rioters. Most, though not all, of the Crown Jewels were recovered eventually. Neither the [[Sancy]] Diamond nor the French Blue Diamond were found in the years after, however. The Royal French Blue is believed to have been recut, and it is now known as the [[Hope Diamond]].

The Hope is famously alleged to have been surrounded by bad luck. Marie Antoinette who supposedly wore it was beheaded (in fact, it was actually worn by her husband, Louis XVI, although he too was beheaded). Other owners and their families experienced suicides, marriage break-ups, bankruptcy, deaths in car crashes, falls off cliffs, revolutions, mental breakdowns, and deaths through drug overdoses. It was even tangentially associated with the case of the murdered [[Lindbergh kidnapping|Lindbergh baby]], when its then owner, silver heiress [[Evalyn Walsh McLean]], [[pawn]]ed it to raise money that she ended up paying to a con-man unconnected with the actual kidnapping. Most modern historians view the tales of a curse on the Hope to be spurious; the first mention of such tales is documented to 1908. Pierre Cartier, the Parisian jeweler, is widely credited with publicizing the stories of a curse on the diamond in hopes of increasing its saleability. Since 1958, it has been in the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in Washington, D.C., where it is the single most-viewed object in the Smithsonian's collection.

The Crown Jewels were augmented by jewels added by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]] and [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] along with their empresses.

==Last coronation==
[[File:ProcessionOfLouisXIVAfterHisCoronatin.jpg|thumb|Procession of [[Louis XV of France]] after his coronation in [[Notre-Dame de Reims]], traditional location of the coronations of Kings of France]]
[[File:Calice du sacre Tau.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The Chalice of [[Saint Remigius|Saint Remi]] at the [[Palace of Tau]], Reims]]
The last French coronation occurred in 1825 when King [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] was crowned at [[Reims]]. The scale of the coronation was seen by critics to indicate a return to the [[Political absolutism|absolutism]] of the ''[[ancien regime]]'' that had been ended by the Revolution of 1789.Some historians suggest that the very grandeur of the ceremony marked the beginning of the end for the Bourbon monarchy, with Charles's image as an old style monarch falling out of favour with the French public, who had much preferred the low-key monarchy of his brother, [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]]. [[Louis Phillipe|Louis Phillipe of France]], the last [[French king]], was not crowned, and neither was [[Napoleon III]], the last Emperor. Napoleon III's consort, [[Eugénie de Montijo]], did have a [[Crown of Empress Eugenie|crown]] made for her, though it was never used in an official coronation.

==Break-up and sale of the French crown jewels==
Throughout the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the jewels survived the [[First French Republic]], the [[French Directory|Directorate]], the [[First French Empire|First Empire]], the Restoration, the [[July Monarchy]], the [[Second French Republic]] and the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]]. However, the decision of [[Henri, Comte de Chambord]] not to accept the French Crown in the early 1870s ended not just the prospect of a royal restoration. It also led to the break-up and partial sale of the Crown Jewels.
The Brazilian beauty symbol Aimée de Heeren,<ref>[http://www.aimeedeheeren.com Aimee de Heeren, later owner of the private jewelry of Empress Eugenie]</ref> mistress of President [[Getúlio Vargas]] is known for being the largest private owner of the French Crown jewels, along with the Brazilian crown jewels and other important jewelry.

In 1875 the [[Third French Republic]] came into being with the passage of a series of Organic Laws (collectively forming a constitution). The interim presidency was replaced by a full "President of the Republic".

While few expected a royal restoration, certainly after the failure of the ''[[Seize Mai]]'' attempted royalist [[coup]] by President [[Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta]], the continuing agitation of extreme right wing royalists, and the fear of a royalist ''coup d'état'', led radical deputies to propose the sale of the Crown Jewels, in the hope that their dispersal would undermine the royalist cause: "''Without a crown, no need for a king''" in the words of one member of the National Assembly. This controversial decision was implemented. All the jewels from the Crown Jewels were removed and sold in 1887, as were many of the crowns, diadems, rings and other items. Only a few of the crowns were kept for historic reasons, but with their original diamonds and gems replaced by colored glass. Some historic or unusual gems went to French museums, including the corsage brooch containing some of the 'Mazarin diamonds'[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=11327], which is now in the Louvre, and the 'Ruspoli' sapphire, which is now in the French Natural History Museum (curators took advantage of its unusual rhombohedral faceted shape and asked for it to be exempted from the sale, falsely claiming that it was a natural, uncut crystal).

==Most recent royal ceremony in France: The funeral of Louis XVII in 2004==
{{unsourced section|date=April 2012}}



One of the mysteries of the French Revolution was the question of what had happened to the [[Dauphin of France|Dauphin]], the [[heir apparent]] of King [[Louis XVI]], after the execution of the King and Queen. Though it was generally believed that he had died in prison, popular legend had spoken of the young prince being spirited away from his prison and living in exile.

In 2004, however it was finally confirmed that the legend was fictitious. In reality Louis XVI's son, Louis Charles, called the young prince by some, and King [[Louis XVII of France]] by royalist supporters following his father's death, had died of [[tuberculosis]] in prison. The fact of his death was established using [[DNA]] evidence. The [[heart]] of the young man claimed by the royalists to be the young Louis XVII had been secretly removed by a doctor just after his death. By comparing the DNA from the heart with DNA taken from strands of hair of [[Marie Antoinette]] that had been kept as a memento by royalists, it was possible to establish that the boy who died in prison was indeed the son of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette; the above mentioned heir to the crown of Louis XVI.

{{Commons category|Crown jewels of France}}

The formal funeral for Louis XVII finally took place, albeit with his heart, not his body, in 2004. For the first time in over a century a royal ceremony took place in France, complete with the [[fleur-de-lis]] standard and a royal crown.

==References==
<references/>

{{Crowns}}
{{Crown jewels by country}}

[[Category:House of Bonaparte|!]]
[[Category:Crown jewels]]
[[Category:Crowns]]
[[Category:French monarchy]]
[[Category:History of Paris]]

[[cs:Francouzské korunovační klenoty]]
[[fr:Joyaux de la Couronne de France]]
[[it:Gioielli della Corona francese]]
[[no:Frankrikes kronregalier]]
[[sk:Francúzske korunovačné klenoty]]
[[zh:法国王冠珠宝]]

Raby Castle

2012-04-12T02:13:40Z

Textorus: "vista" is not the right word here

[[File:Raby Castle (spring).jpg|thumb|right|300px|A view of Raby Castle in 2009]]
'''Raby Castle''' ({{gbmapping|NZ12912177}}) is near [[Staindrop]] in [[County Durham]], England. The castle sits in a {{convert|200|acre|m2}} deer park.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rabycastle.com/Deer_Park |title=Deer Park |publisher=Raby Castle |accessdate=19 December 2011}}</ref> The castle was built by [[John Neville, 3rd Baron Neville de Raby]] in approximately 1367 to 1390. [[Cecily Neville]], who was the mother of the Kings [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] and [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] was born here. After [[Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland]], led the failed [[Rising of the North]] in favour of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], in 1569 Raby Castle was taken into royal custody.

Sir [[Henry Vane the Elder]] purchased the castle in 1626 and neighbouring [[Barnard Castle (castle)|Barnard Castle]] from the Crown, and as the Earls of Darlington and Dukes of Cleveland, a Gothic-style entrance hall and octagon-shaped drawing room were added.<ref name="Harvey">{{cite book |title=English Medieval Architects; J.F. Hodgson, 'Raby in Three Chapters' |last=Hodgson |first=J. F. |year=1880 to 1895 |publisher=Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland |location=Durham, UK |pages=Vols II and IV 1 et seq.}}</ref> From 1833 to 1891 they were the [[Duke of Cleveland|Dukes of Cleveland]], and they retain the title of [[Baron Barnard|Lord Barnard]]. Extensive alterations were carried out in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is the home and seat of [[John Vane, 11th Baron Barnard]], who is the present lord of the castle.<ref name="Comp.Peer">{{cite book |title=The Complete Peerage or a History of the House of Lords and All Its Members from the Earliest Times, Vol. XIV |last=Hammond |first=Peter W. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |publisher=Sutton Publishing |location=Shroud, UK |isbn=978-0750901543 |page= |pages=30–32}}</ref> The castle is famed for both the size and the artworks contained within it, including works by old masters and examples of portraiture.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> Raby Castle is a Grade I [[listed building]] and open to the public on a seasonal basis.

==History==
[[File:Raby Castle - geograph.org.uk - 29645.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The south face of Raby Castle]]
The [[house of Neville]] held the [[manorialism|manor]] of Raby since the 13th century,<ref name=Emery123>{{cite book |last=Emery |first=Anthony |year=1996 |title=Greater Medieval Houses of England and Wales, 1300–1500, Volume I: Northern England |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=123 |isbn=9780521497237}}</ref> and although the family did not have a formal title from 1295 they were called to parliament as barons of Raby;<ref name=Tuck>{{citation |last=Tuck |first=Anthony |contribution=Neville, Ralph, first earl of Westmorland (c.1364–1425) |year=2004 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19951 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}</ref> [[Ralph Neville, 1st Baron Neville de Raby]], was the first to be called to parliament. His heir, John Neville (1299/1300–1335) became a member of [[Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster]]'s household, beginning the family's link with the Earls of Lancaster.<ref name=Family>{{citation |last=McNiven |first=Peter |contribution=Neville family (per. c.1267–1426) |year=2004 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/54532 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}</ref> Raby was the family's [[caput]], their seat of power, and there may have been a fortified house on the site of the present building from around 1300.<ref name=Emery123/> In the second half of the 14th century, the Nevilles began rebuilding several of their properties in northern England, including Raby Castle between roughly 1367 and 1390.<ref>{{cite book |last=Emery |first=Anthony |year=1996 |title=Greater Medieval Houses of England and Wales, 1300–1500, Volume I: Northern England |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=32 |isbn=9780521497237}}</ref> In the closing years of the century, the Nevilles were becoming one of the most powerful families in northern England, comparable to the [[House of Percy]] who had been made [[Earls of Northumberland]] in 1377.<ref name=Tuck/>

In 1378 [[Thomas Hatfield]] [[Bishop of Durham]], granted [[John Neville, 3rd Baron Neville de Raby|John de Neville]] a licence to fortify his proprty at Raby.<ref>{{citation |url=http://homepage.mac.com/philipdavis/LOC/13780510.html |title=Raby Castle licence to crenellate |publisher=The Gatehouse |accessdate=2011-12-18}}</ref> John died in 1388 and was succeeded by his son, [[Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland|Ralph]].<ref name=Tuck/> Almost nothing of the family's papers survive from this period, so there is little documentary evidence of Raby Castle's construction. The dating is based mostly on architectural details. In the words of historian Anthony Emery, the work "converted it from a defendable house into a palace-fortress".<ref name=Emery123/>

Ralph was created [[Earl of Westmorland]] on 29 September 1397 by [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] as a reward for his loyalty in the face of political unrest.<ref name=Tuck/> However, his family's traditional association with the earls of Lancaster meant that when [[Henry IV of England|Henry Bollinbroke]] of the [[House of Lancaster]] invaded in July 1399 Neville sided with Bollingbroke. Neville helped convince Richard II to abdicate and Henry was crowned as Henry IV. Neville was made [[Earl Marshal]] of England on the day of Henry's coronation and a knight of the [[Order of the Garter]] in 1403.<ref name=Tuck/>

[[Henry Neville, 5th Earl of Westmorland]], died in 1564 and was succeeded to the family estates by his son, [[Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland|Charles]]. The Nevilles were Catholics and Charles was one of the leaders of the failed [[Rising of the North]] in 1569 against England's Protestant Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. Due to the severity of the threat to the Crown, over 800 rebels were executed, and Charles Neville and [[Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland|Thomas Percy]] ([[Earl of Westmorland]] and another leader of the rebellion) fled into exile. In 1571 Neville an [[attainder]] was issued against Neville and his lands forfeited to the Crown.<ref>{{citation |last=McDermott |first=Roger |contribution=Neville, Charles, sixth earl of Westmorland (1542/3–1601) |year=2004 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19924 |format={{ODNBsub}}}}</ref>

[[File:Joseph Mallord William Turner 071.jpg|thumb|300px|A painting by [[J. M. W. Turner]] of Raby Castle in its landscape in the early 19th century]]
After the Rising of the North the castle became the property of the Crown for over forty three years, before being bought by [[Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington]] who previously resided at [[Barnard Castle]] in County Durham.<ref name="Surtees">{{cite book |title=The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham: volume 2 – Describes the 21 parishes and chapelries of Chester ward in the north of the county, including Gateshead, Jarrow and other parts of present-day urban Tyneside |last=Surtees |first=Robert |year=1820 |publisher=Institute of Historical Research |location=London |pages=220}}</ref> He was impressed by the size and lands, opposed to that at Barnard which was hemmed in by the surrounding town. The House of Vane were responsible for much of the modernising of the castle, especially the interior. These include renovation of the medieval chapel and [[drawing room]]. The family also were responsible for driving a carriage-way though the castle, causing much damage to the castle's medieval fabric.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> Architect [[William Burn]] carried out alterations to Raby Castle between 1843 and 1848; the work included adding new roofs to the [[great hall]] and the chapel and adding a drawing room to one of the towers in [[Jacobean architecture|Jacobean style]].<ref name="HG"/> The present family are responsible for the great collection of artworks in the castle.<ref name="Comp.Peer"/>

In 1890 the former [[Harry Powlett, 4th Duke of Cleveland|4th Duke of Cleveland]] died, leaving the line of succession to the castle, and its vast estates, unclear.<ref name="Comp.Peer"/> The case was decided in 1891 when the [[Committee of Privileges]] of the [[House of Lords]] held his relative, Henry de Vere Vane to be the 9th Baron Barnard and inheritor of the vast estates of Raby. He did not, however, inherit the title of [[Duke of Cleveland]] which became extinct.<ref name="DurhamMasonGaz">{{cite book |title=The Official Gazette of the Provincial Grand Lodge of Durham 1908 to 1919 |last= |first= |year=1919 |publisher=Durham Freemasons |page=172}}</ref>

[[Christopher Vane, 10th Baron Barnard]] divested himself of all but {{convert|1713|acres|ha}} of the {{convert|53000|acres|ha|adj=on}} Raby estate.<ref name="TheTimes">{{cite news |title=Lord Barnard |author=The Correspondent for Obituaries |newspaper=The Times of London |date=Tuesday 20 October 1964 |url= |accessdate=6 November 2010}}</ref> Raby Castle is open to the public every year between May and September and at Easter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rabycastle.com/Visiting_Raby_Castle |title=Visiting Raby Castle |publisher=Raby Castle |accessdate=19 December 2011}}</ref> In 2007/08 about 26,000 people visited the castle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.teesdalemarketing.co.uk/downloads/project_report.pdf |format=PDF |title=SP606 Project Report: Enterprising Market Towns 2006–2008 |publisher=Teesdale Marketing |year=2008 |page=33 |accessdate=19 December 2011}}</ref>

==Layout==
{{wideimage|Raby Castle, County Durham.jpg|640px|A panorama of the castle showing the towers and defences from the north east}}

Raby Castle has an irregular plan, with nine towers along it perimeter. The main entrance was in the west through the four-storey Neville Gateway.<ref name="HG">{{cite web |url=http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=1338625&resourceID=5 |title=Raby Castle |author=English Heritage |work=The Listed Building Register |publisher=English Heritage |accessdate=20 December 2011}}</ref> The gatehouse used to be accessed by a [[drawbridge]], but it has since been replaced by a flagged causeway.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> The gatehouse originally contained three [[portcullis]], evidenced by the groves still visible used to work them.<ref name="Surtees"/>

The two smaller towers beside the gatehouse have no defensive function and were added during the renovations of [[Henry Vane, 2nd Earl of Darlington]].<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

Access to the gatehouse is gained by a door through the enclosing wall of enceinte,<ref name="Harvey"/> which rose to a height of thirty feet from the waters of the moat.<ref name="HG"/> This is strengthened periodically by [[buttress]] towers<ref name="HG"/> and formed the second line of defense, the moat being the first.<ref name="RofN">{{cite book |title=The Rising in the North: The Rising of the Northern Earls |last=Thornton |first=George |year=2010 |publisher=Ergo Press |location=Unknown |isbn=978-0955751080 |pages=24–26}}</ref> The passage along the [[parapet]] was the ancient ''[[chemin de ronde]]'' (''allure'') on which guards were posted.<ref name="Harvey"/> Similar passages can be found at [[York Castle]] and around the city of [[Oxford]].<ref name="HG"/>

The castles buildings surround a central courtyard. Forming its east side is the great hall, also known as the "Baron's Hall". The medieval kitchen and keep are mostly intact on the inside.<ref name="HG"/>

==Artworks==
The castle is famous for its works of art, mostly collected by the House of Vane, including [[old masters]] and family portraiture. Some noted artists who's work is in the castle's collection include Titian, Canaletto and Sir Joshua Reynolds.

;Private apartments<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

There are several works of note in the private apartments of the family, including two depictions Venetian scenes painted by Canaletto and Marieschi as well as several family portraits executed by notable artists of the day. The apartments also contain a selection of fine Chinese [[porcelain]], including [[vases]] and plates.<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|-
! scope="col" width="400" | Artist or medium
! scope="col" width="500" | Title or description of subject
|-
| [[Jacopo Marieschi]]
| ''On the [[Grand Canal (Venice)|Grand Canal]], Venice''
|-
| [[David Teniers the Elder]] and [[Jacques d'Arthois]]
| ''Landscape with Figures''
|-
| Giovanni Antonio Canal (known as [[Canaletto]])
| ''On the [[Grand Canal (Venice)|Grand Canal]], Venice''
|-
| [[Carlo Dolci]]<ref>Attributed to Dolci, but unsigned.</ref>
| ''The [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Madonna]] in Prayer''
|-
| David Teniers the Elder
| ''The [[Romani people|Gipsy]] Encampment''
|-
| [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]]
| ''An Architectural Composition''
|-
| Spanish School
| ''Portrait of a Man''
|-
| [[David Teniers the Younger]]
| ''Habour Scene''
|-
| Jacopo Marieschi
| ''A Public Square in Venice''
|-
| The School of [[Nicolas Poussin]]
| ''Landscape with Figures''
|}

;Library<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

The pictures in the library, with the exception of two architectural pieces executed by Panini above the fireplace, are all portraits of the family or figures associated with them. Of note are depictions of the younger and older Sir Henry Vanes wearing the [[Order of the Garter]]. The room also contains a [[pastel]] drawing of the former Lady Barnard by Ellis Roberts<ref name="RabyCastle"/> which she considered to be her best work.<ref name="SRL">{{cite book |title=The Art of Somerset Maugham (Saturday Review of Literature)|last=Whitehead |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= Curtis, Anthony |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York (USA) |isbn= |page= |pages=245–256|url= |accessdate=18 November 2010}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|-
! scope="col" width="400" | Artist or medium
! scope="col" width="500" | Title or description of subject
|-
| [[Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt]]
| ''[[Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington]]''
|-
| The Hon. [[John Collier (artist)|John Collier]]
| ''Sir H. M. Vane''
|-
| [[Robert Walker (painter)|Robert Walker]]
| ''Sir Henry Vane the Younger''
|-
| [[Pompeo Batoni]]
| ''[[Sir William Meredith, 3rd Baronet]]''
|-
| [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]
| ''Lady with Feather Fan''
|-
| [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]]
| ''An Architectural Composition''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''[[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton]], KG''
|-
| [[Peter Lely]]
| ''Lady Mary Sackville'', daughter of [[Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset]]
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''A boy'', supposed to be [[William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath]]
|-
| Ellis Roberts<ref name="SRL"/>
| ''Sylvia Mary Straker'', the wife of [[Christopher Vane, 10th Baron Barnard]]
|-
| Unknown Artist
| ''[[Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Grafton]]'', depicted in this portrait as a boy
|-
| [[Peter Lely]]
| ''[[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth|Louise Renée de Penancoët de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth]]''
|-
| In the style of [[John Hoppner]]<ref>A photograph.</ref>
| ''Henrietta Elizabeth Frederica'', the daughter of the Hon. Charles Vane and wife of [[Langham Baronets|Sir William Langham, Bart.]]
|-
| Autotype<ref>Reproduced from the portrait in the possession of [[Sidney Sussex College]], Cambridge.</ref>
| ''[[Oliver Cromwell]]''
|-
| Maria Chalon
| ''Lord Harry Vane''
|}

;Ante-Library<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

The pictures in the Ante-Library are chiefly of the Dutch school of painting with some notable examples by Lorrain and Titan.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> The room also contains portraits, mostly members of the family.

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|-
! scope="col" width="400" | Artist or medium
! scope="col" width="500" | Title or description of subject
|-
| [[Thomas Gainsborough]]
| ''Elizabeth Wood'', wife of the Hon. Charles Vane
|-
| [[Claude Lorrain]]
| ''The Embarcation of the [[Queen of Sheba]]''
|-
| [[George Romney (painter)|George Romney]]
| ''The Hon. Charles Vane''
|-
| Tiziano Vecelli or Tiziano Vecellio (known as [[Titian]])
| ''The [[Holy Family]]'', on the frame are the arms of the Torriano family
|-
| [[Willem Schubart von Ehrenberg|Wilhelm Schubert van Ehrenberg]]
| ''Interior of an Italian Church''
|-
| [[Pieter de Hooch]]
| ''In interior''
|-
| [[Jan Steen]]
| ''Dutch interior''
|-
| [[Willem van Mieris]]
| ''A woman huxtering fish''
|-
| [[David Teniers the Younger]]
| ''In an artist’s studio''
|-
| [[Jan Steen]]
| ''Inside a Tavern''
|-
| [[Adriaen van Ostade]]
| ''Dutch Interior''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''Sophia'', daughter of the 2nd Duke of Cleveland
|-
| [[Sir George Hayter]]
| ''Henry Vane''
|-
| After R. Crossway RA
| ''Henry Vane''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''The Hon. Anne Vane''
|-
| [[David Teniers the Younger]]
| ''A Country Tavern''
|}

;Dining Room<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

The dining room contains some of the castle’s most impressive paintings, such as Joshua Reynolds, Anthony van Dyck and Rembrandt. The subjects of the paintings in this room are mostly of portraiture of members of the family or associates and still lives.<ref name="RabyCastle">{{cite book |title=Raby: Its Castle and Its Lords |last=Scott |first=Owen Stanley |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1906 |publisher=A & E Ward, Printers, &c. |location=Barnard Castle (UK) |isbn= |page=1, et seq. |pages=}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|-
! scope="col" width="400" | Artist or medium
! scope="col" width="500" | Title or description of subject
|-
| [[Sir Godfrey Kneller]]
| ''Alexander Pope in his 28th year'', engraved by John Smith
|-
| The School of [[Bartolomé Esteban Murillo]]
| ''Joseph Interpreting the Dream of Pharaoh’s Chief Baker''
|-
| [[William Hoare]]
| ''The Hon. Charles Vane''
|-
| [[Sir Godfrey Kneller]]
| ''[[William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield]]''
|-
| [[Wilhelm Schubert van Ehrenberg]]
| ''[[William Talbot (bishop)|William Talbot]]''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''An unknown gentlemen'', possibly one of the sons of Gilbert Vane, 2nd Baron Barnard
|-
| [[Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt]]
| ''Sir Henry Vane the Elder''
|-
| [[Jan van Huysum]]
| ''A Composition of Fruit and Lobsters''
|-
| Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (known as [[Rembrandt]])
| ''Head of an Old Man'', signed and dated 1635
|-
| [[Ludolf Bakhuizen]]
| ''Storm Coming On: A Sea Piece''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''Sir Henry Vane the Younger''
|-
| Jacopo da Ponte (known as [[Jacopo Bassano]]
| ''A Vegetable and Fruit Market''
|-
| [[Robert Walker (painter)|Robert Walker]])
| ''[[Oliver Cromwell]]''
|-
| [[Gerard Dou]]
| ''A [[Burgomaster]]''
|-
| [[Aert van der Neer]]
| ''River Scene at Midnight''
|-
| Either Sir [[Anthony van Dyck]] or Sir [[Peter Paul Rubens]]
| ''A Group'', believed to be either (i) Jakob Jordans and his wife or; (ii) Syders and his wife
|-
| Sir [[Anthony van Dyck]]
| ''[[James Hamilton, 1st Lord Hamilton]]''
|-
| Sir [[Anthony van Dyck]]
| ''[[John Finch, 1st Baron Finch]]''
|-
| [[Sir Joshua Reynolds]] P.R.A.<ref>Engraved by J. R. Smith</ref>
| ''Lady Margaret Powlett''
|-
| Allan Ramsay
| ''[[William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath]]''
|-
| [[Luca Giordano]]
| ''[[Manius Curius Dentatus]] Jumping into the Gulf''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''Joseph Addison''
|-
| Thomas Barker
| ''The Woodman Returning''
|-
| The School of Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (known as [[Raphael]])
| ''The [[Holy Family]]''
|}

==See also==
*''[[The Greek Slave]]''

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.rabycastle.com/ Raby Castle] - Official site
*[http://homepage.mac.com/philipdavis/English%20sites/1013.html Bibliography of sources relating to Raby Castle]
* [http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=111447&resourceID=5 English Heritage: Images of England, listing and architectural details]
* [http://www.sine.newcastle.ac.uk/view_structure_information.asp?struct_id=216 Structures of the North East]

{{coord|54|35|27|N|1|48|7|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

{{CastlesCDT&W}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

[[Category:Castles in County Durham]]
[[Category:Country houses in County Durham]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in County Durham]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in County Durham]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in County Durham]]
[[Category:Gardens in County Durham]]

[[no:Raby Castle]]

Slave Trade Act 1807

2012-03-25T18:32:26Z

Textorus: /* Other nations */ add wikilink; fix parallelism

{{Main|Atlantic slave trade|Abolitionism}}
[[Image:Slave ship tower bridge 2007.jpg|thumb|A replica of the slave ship ''[[Zong Massacre|Zong]]'', moored by [[Tower Bridge]] in April 2007 to mark 200 years since the Slave Trade Act 1807.]]
[[Image:HMS Northumberland.jpg|thumb|[[HMS Northumberland (F238)|HMS Northumberland]] moored by [[HMS Belfast]] during the same commemoration, marking modern anti-slaving operations.]]
The '''Slave Trade Act''' (citation ''47 Geo III Sess. 1 c. 36'') was an [[Act of Parliament]] of the United Kingdom passed on 25 March 1807, with the long title "An Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade". The original act is in the [[Parliamentary Archives]]. The act abolished the [[slave trade]] in the [[British Empire]], but not [[slavery]] itself; slavery on English soil was unsupported in English law and that position was confirmed in [[Somersett's Case]] in 1772, but it remained legal in most of the British Empire until the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]].

==Background==
The [[Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade]] formed in 1787 was formed by a group of [[Evangelism|Evangelical]] [[English people|English]] [[Protestant]]s allied with [[Society of Friends|Quakers]] to unite in their shared opposition to slavery and the slave trade. The Quakers had long viewed slavery as immoral, a blight upon humanity. By 1807 the [[abolitionist]] groups had a very sizable faction of like-minded members in the [[United Kingdom Parliament|British Parliament]]. At their height they controlled 35–40 seats. Known as the "Saints", the alliance was led by the best known of the anti-slave trade campaigners, [[William Wilberforce]], who had taken on the cause of abolition in 1787 after having read the evidence that [[Thomas Clarkson]] had amassed against the trade.<ref>[http://www.brycchancarey.com/abolition/wilberforce.htm William Wilberforce (1759–1833)]</ref> These dedicated Parliamentarians had access to the legal draughtsmanship of [[James Stephen (politician)|James Stephen]], Wilberforce's brother-in-law. They often saw their personal battle against slavery as a divinely ordained crusade. On Sunday 28 October 1787, Wilberforce wrote in his diary: "God Almighty has set before me two great objects, the suppression of the slave trade and the reformation of manners."<ref>{{cite book |last=Cox |first=Jeffrey |year=2008 |title=The British missionary enterprise since 1700 |page=90 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=9780415090049 }}</ref>

Their numbers were magnified by the precarious position of the government under [[William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville|Lord Grenville]], whose short term as Prime Minister was known as [[Ministry of All the Talents]]. Grenville himself led the fight to pass the Bill in the [[House of Lords]], while in the Commons the Bill was led by the [[Foreign Secretary]], [[Charles James Fox]], who died before it was finally signed into law. On 22 February 1807, twenty years after he first began his crusade, Wilberforce and his team were rewarded with victory. By an overwhelming 283 votes for to 16 against, the motion to abolish the Atlantic slave trade was carried in the House of Commons.<ref>[http://www.brycchancarey.com/abolition/wilberforce.htm William Wilberforce (1759–1833)]</ref>

==Other nations==
Britain used its international strength to put pressure on other nations to end their own slave trade. The United States [[Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves|acted to abolish its Atlantic slave trade]] the same year (but not its [[Slavery in the United States#Internal slave trade|internal slave trade]]). In 1805 a British [[Order-in-Council]] had restricted the importation of slaves into colonies that had been captured from France and the Netherlands.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |year=2000 |title=Transformations in slavery: a history of slavery in Africa |page=290 |location=New York |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0521780128 }}</ref> Britain continued to press other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties: the 1810 Anglo-Portuguese treaty whereby Portugal agreed to restrict its trade into its colonies; the 1813 Anglo-Swedish treaty whereby Sweden outlawed its slave trade; the 1814 [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris 1814]] whereby France agreed with Britain that the slave trade was "repugnant to the principles of natural justice" and agreed to abolish the slave trade in five years; the 1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty whereby the Netherlands outlawed its slave trade; and the 1817 Anglo-Spanish treaty whereby Spain agreed to suppress its trade by 1820.<ref name="Lovejoy"/>

==Enforcement==
The [[Royal Navy]], which then controlled the world's seas, established the [[West Africa Squadron]] in 1808 to patrol the coast of West Africa, and between 1808 and 1860 they seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] BBC</ref> The Royal Navy declared that ships transporting slaves were the same as [[piracy|pirates]]. Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of [[Lagos]]", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.<ref>[http://www.pdavis.nl/Background.htm#WAS The West African Squadron and slave trade]</ref>

In the 1860s, [[David Livingstone]]'s reports of atrocities within the [[Arab slave trade]] in Africa stirred up the interest of the British public, reviving the flagging abolitionist movement. [[History of the Royal Navy|The Royal Navy throughout the 1870s]] attempted to suppress "this abominable Eastern trade", at [[Zanzibar]] in particular. In 1890 Britain handed control of the strategically important island of [[Heligoland]] in the North Sea to Germany in return for control of Zanzibar, in part to help enforce the ban on slave trading.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History]</ref><ref>[http://www.pilotguides.com/destination_guide/africa/tanzania_and_zanzibar/slave_trade.php The Blood of a Nation of Slaves in Stone Town]</ref>

==See also==
*''[[Amazing Grace (2006 film)|Amazing Grace]]'' (2006), a film that portrays the campaign to pass the act
*[[Act Against Slavery]], equivalent Act of the [[Parliament of Upper Canada]]
*[[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves]], an equivalent [[act of Congress]] in the [[United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.pdavis.nl/Legis_06.htm Text of Act]
*[http://slavetrade.parliament.uk/slavetrade/index.html Parliament and the British Slave Trade 1600 to 1807]
*[http://www.blackhistory4schools.com/slavetrade/ Teaching Resources about Slavery and Abolition]
*[http://www.hidden-histories.org.uk/projects/road-freedom-documentary Road to Freedom documentary – Eastside Community Heritage]
*[http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice]

{{UK legislation}}
{{Protestant missions to Africa}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

[[Category:1807 in law]]
[[Category:United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1807]]
[[Category:Slave trade legislation]]
[[Category:Abolitionism in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of sugar]]
[[Category:Repealed United Kingdom Acts of Parliament]]

[[pt:Ato contra o Comércio de Escravos de 1807]]