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Russells Teekanne

2014-11-25T16:49:28Z

TechBear: Undid revision 635341543 by 116.24.83.16 (talk) Revert deletion of cited material. Regarding the deletion summary, "strong" atheism is the belief in absence.

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{{Bertrand Russell}}

'''Russell's teapot''', sometimes called the '''celestial teapot''' or '''cosmic teapot''', is an [[analogy]] first coined by the philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970) to illustrate that the [[philosophic burden of proof]] lies upon a person making scientifically [[Falsifiability|unfalsifiable]] claims rather than shifting the burden of proof to others, specifically in the case of religion. Russell wrote that if he claims that a [[teapot]] orbits the Sun somewhere in space between the Earth and Mars, it is nonsensical for him to expect others to believe him on the grounds that they cannot prove him wrong. Russell's teapot is still referred to in discussions concerning the [[existence of God]].

== Origins of the analogy ==
In an article titled "Is There a God?" commissioned, but never published, by ''Illustrated'' magazine in 1952, Russell wrote:

{{quote|Many orthodox people speak as though it were the business of sceptics to disprove received dogmas rather than of dogmatists to prove them. This is, of course, a mistake. If I were to suggest that between the Earth and Mars there is a china teapot revolving about the sun in an elliptical orbit, nobody would be able to disprove my assertion provided I were careful to add that the teapot is too small to be revealed even by our most powerful telescopes. But if I were to go on to say that, since my assertion cannot be disproved, it is intolerable presumption on the part of human reason to doubt it, I should rightly be thought to be talking nonsense. If, however, the existence of such a teapot were affirmed in ancient books, taught as the sacred truth every Sunday, and instilled into the minds of children at school, hesitation to believe in its existence would become a mark of eccentricity and entitle the doubter to the attentions of the psychiatrist in an enlightened age or of the Inquisitor in an earlier time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Russell|first=Bertrand|title=Is There a God? [1952]|url=http://russell.mcmaster.ca/cpbr11p69.pdf|work=The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, Vol. 11: Last Philosophical Testament, 1943–68|publisher=Routledge|accessdate=1 December 2013|pages=547–548|format=PDF}}</ref>
}}

In 1958, Russell elaborated on the analogy as a reason for his own atheism:
{{quote|I ought to call myself an agnostic; but, for all practical purposes, I am an atheist. I do not think the existence of the Christian God any more probable than the existence of the Gods of Olympus or Valhalla. To take another illustration: nobody can prove that there is not between the Earth and Mars a china teapot revolving in an elliptical orbit, but nobody thinks this sufficiently likely to be taken into account in practice. I think the Christian God just as unlikely.<ref name="garvey">{{Cite journal|first=Brian|last=Garvey|title=Absence of evidence, evidence of absence, and the atheist's teapot|journal=[[Ars Disputandi]]|year=2010|volume=10|pages=9–22|url=http://www.arsdisputandi.org/publish/articles/000339/article.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref>
}}

Perhaps Russell developed the analogy from his friend [[Frank P. Ramsey]]'s ''Theories'' (1929):
{{quote|Take, for instance, the problem "Is there a planet of the size and shape of a tea-pot?" This question has meaning so long as we do not know that an experiment could not decide the matter. Once we know this it loses meaning, unless we restore it by new axioms, e.g. an axiom as to the orbits possible to planets.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ramsey|first=Frank|title=Theories|work=The Foundation of Mathematics|publisher=Littlefield Adams|year=1960|pages=235}}</ref>
}}

== The burden of proof argument ==
Other thinkers have posited similar analogies.{{OR|date=November 2013}}{{Synthesis-inline|date=November 2013}} For example, [[J. B. Bury]] notes the following in his 1914 book, ''History of Freedom of Thought''.

<blockquote>Some people speak as if we were not justified in rejecting a theological doctrine unless we can prove it false. But the burden of proof does not lie upon the rejecter.... If you were told that in a certain planet revolving around Sirius there is a race of donkeys who speak the English language and spend their time in discussing eugenics, you could not disprove the statement, but would it, on that account, have any claim to be believed? Some minds would be prepared to accept it, if it were reiterated often enough, through the potent force of suggestion.<ref>{{cite book |title= History of Freedom of Thought|edition= |last= Bury|first= J. B.|year= 1914|publisher= Williams & Norgate |location= London|isbn= |page=20|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10684/10684-h/10684-h.htm}}</ref></blockquote>

== Analysis ==
Chemist [[Peter Atkins]] said that the point of Russell's teapot is that there is no burden on anyone to disprove assertions. [[Occam's razor]] suggests that the simpler theory with fewer assertions (e.g. a universe with no supernatural beings) should be the starting point in the discussion rather than the more complex theory.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Oxford handbook of religion and science|editors=Clayton, Philip and Simpson, Zachary R.|first=Peter|last=Atkins|authorlink=Peter Atkins|contribution=Atheism and science|pages= 129–130|postscript=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-WhGyYy0SIoC}}</ref> Atkins notes that this argument does not appeal to the religious because, unlike [[scientific evidence]], religious evidence is said to be experienced through personal revelation that cannot be conveyed or objectively verified.

In his books ''[[A Devil's Chaplain]]'' (2003) and ''[[The God Delusion]]'' (2006), [[ethology|ethologist]] [[Richard Dawkins]] used the teapot as an analogy of an argument against what he termed "agnostic conciliation", a policy of intellectual appeasement that allows for philosophical domains that concern exclusively religious matters.<ref name="devchap">{{cite book
| title = [[A Devil's Chaplain]]
| authorlink = Richard Dawkins |first=Richard |last=Dawkins
| publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin]]
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0-618-33540-4
}}</ref> Science has no way of establishing the existence or non-existence of a god. Therefore, according to the agnostic conciliator, because it is a matter of individual taste, belief and disbelief in a supreme being are deserving of equal respect and attention. Dawkins presents the teapot as a ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' of this position: if agnosticism demands giving equal respect to the belief and disbelief in a supreme being, then it must also give equal respect to belief in an orbiting teapot, since the existence of an orbiting teapot is just as plausible scientifically as the existence of a supreme being.<ref name = "goddel">{{cite book
| title = [[The God Delusion]]
|first=Richard |last=Dawkins
| publisher = Houghton Mifflin
| year = 2006
| isbn = 0-618-68000-4
}}</ref>

Astronomer [[Carl Sagan]] used Russell's teapot in the chapter "The Dragon in My Garage" in his book ''[[The Demon-Haunted World]]'', and stated "Your inability to invalidate my hypothesis is not at all the same thing as proving it true."<ref>[http://www.users.qwest.net/~jcosta3/article_dragon.htm Carl Sagan: The Dragon In My Garage]</ref>

== Objections ==
Philosopher [[Brian Garvey (philosopher)|Brian Garvey]] argues that the analogy fails with regard to religion because, with the teapot, the believer and non-believer are simply disagreeing about one item in the universe and may hold in common all other beliefs about the universe, which is not true of an atheist and a theist.<ref name="garvey"/> Garvey argues that it is not a matter of the theist propounding existence of a thing and the atheist simply denying it – each is asserting an alternative explanation of why the cosmos exists and is the way it is: "the atheist is not just denying an existence that the theist affirms – the atheist is in addition committed to the view that the universe is not the way it is because of God. It is either the way it is because of something other than God, or there is no reason it is the way it is."<ref name="garvey"/>

The literary critic [[James Wood (critic)|James Wood]], without believing in God, says that belief in God "is a good deal more reasonable than belief in a teapot" because God is a "grand and big idea" which "is not analogically disproved by reference to celestial teapots or vacuum cleaners, which lack the necessary bigness and grandeur" and "because God cannot be [[Reification (fallacy)|reified]], cannot be turned into a mere thing".<ref>{{Cite journal|first=James|last=Wood|authorlink=James Wood (critic)|title=The Celestial Teapot|journal=[[The New Republic]]|date=18 December 2006|issue=27|url=http://www.tnr.com/article/the-celestial-teapot|postscript=}}</ref>

Philosopher [[Paul Chamberlain]] says it is logically erroneous to assert that ''positive'' truth claims bear a burden of proof while ''negative'' truth claims do not.<ref name="chamberlain">{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Chamberlain|title=Why People Don't Believe: Confronting Six Challenges to Christian Faith|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2AdNgqzawLAC&pg=PA82 |year=2011|publisher=Baker Books|isbn=978-1-4412-3209-0|pages=82–82}}</ref> He says that ''all'' truth claims bear a burden of proof, and that like [[Mother Goose]] and the [[tooth fairy]], the teapot bears the greater burden not because of its negativity, but because of its triviality, arguing that "When we substitute normal, serious characters such as Plato, Nero, Winston Churchill, or George Washington in place of these fictional characters, it becomes clear that anyone denying the existence of these figures has a burden of proof equal to, or in some cases greater than, the person claiming they do exist."<ref name="chamberlain"/>

== Parody ==
The concept of Russell's teapot has been extrapolated into more explicitly religion-parodying forms such as the [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]]<ref name = "goddel"/> and the [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]].<ref name="Wolf2006">{{cite news | title=The Church of the Non-Believers | first=Gary | last=Wolf | date=14 November 2006 | publisher=[[Wired News]] | url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.11/atheism.html}}</ref> 1960s musician and psychedelic poet [[Daevid Allen]] created his [[Gong (band)|Planet Gong]] Universe and the [[Flying Teapot (album)|Flying Teapot]] Trilogy around the idea of a Flying Teapot and refers to Russell's Teapot in his book "Gong Dreaming".

== See also ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Russell's_Teapot.ogg|2012-05-02}}
* [[Argument from ignorance]]
* ''[[The Root of All Evil?]]'', a television documentary
*[[Parody religion]]
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{irreligion}}
{{philosophy of religion}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Russell's Teapot}}
[[Category:Bertrand Russell]]
[[Category:Agnosticism]]
[[Category:Atheism]]
[[Category:Criticism of religion]]
[[Category:Philosophical arguments]]
[[Category:Parodies]]
[[Category:Skepticism]]
[[Category:Teapots]]
[[Category:Religious parodies and satires]]

Homosexuelles Verhalten bei Tieren

2013-09-17T18:18:51Z

TechBear: Undid revision 573367546 by 128.138.29.220 (talk) Revert editorializing.

{{For|homosexuality in humans|Homosexuality}}
{{Further|List of animals displaying homosexual behavior}}
[[File:Males Anas platyrhynchos 2 .jpg|thumb|Two male [[Mallard]]s, ''Anas platyrhynchos'']]
'''Homosexual behavior in animals''' is sexual behavior among non-human species that may be interpreted as homosexual or [[Bisexuality|bisexual]]. This may include [[Animal sexual behaviour|sexual activity]], [[courtship]], [[affection]], [[pair bond]]ing, and [[parenting]] among same-sex animal pairs. Research indicates that various forms of this are found throughout the animal kingdom.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090616122106.htm "Same-sex Behavior Seen In Nearly All Animals, Review Finds"], [[Science Daily]]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.physorg.com/news164376975.html |title=Same-sex behavior seen in nearly all animals |publisher=Physorg.com |date=2009-06-16 |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref> Close to 1,500 species, ranging from [[primates]] to [[Acanthocephala|gut worms]], have been observed engaging in such behavior and this is well documented for 500 of them.<ref name="ReferenceA">Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 978-0312253776</ref><ref name="Biological Exuberance: Animal">{{cite web
| last =Harrold
| first =Max
| title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity
| publisher=[[The Advocate]], reprinted in Highbeam Encyclopedia
| date=1999-02-16
| url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-53877996.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

According to [[Bruce Bagemihl]], "the animal kingdom <nowiki>[does]</nowiki> it with much greater sexual diversity – including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex – than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept."<ref>[http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/19990201/26501-gay-lib-for-the-animals-a-new-look-at-homosexuality-in-nature-.html Calvin Reid Gay Lib for the Animals: A New Look At Homosexuality in Nature. Volume 245 Issue 5 02/01/1999, Feb 01, 1999]</ref> Nevertheless, Bagemihl points out, this is "necessarily an account of human interpretations of these phenomena".<ref>Bagemihl, 1999, page 2</ref> [[Simon LeVay|Simon Levay]] introduces the further ''caveat'' that "Although homosexual behavior is very common in the animal world, it seems to be very uncommon that individual animals have a long-lasting predisposition to engage in such behavior to the exclusion of heterosexual activities. Thus, a homosexual orientation, if one can speak of such thing in animals, seems to be a rarity."<ref>{{cite book |title=Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality |last=Levay|first=Simon |authorlink= |year=1996 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |page=207}}</ref> One species in which exclusive homosexual orientation occurs, however, is that of domesticated sheep (''[[Ovis aries]]'').<ref name="books.google.ca">[http://books.google.ca/books?id=EftT_1bsPOAC&pg=PA179 Animal Homosexuality: A Biosocial Perspective By Aldo Poiani, A. F. Dixson], Aldo Poiani, A. F. Dixson, p. 179, 2010, Cambridge University Press</ref><ref name=levay/> "About 10% of rams (males) refuse to mate with ewes (females) but do readily mate with other rams."<ref name=levay>{{cite book |title=Gay, Straight, and The Reason Why The Science of Sexual Orientation|last=Levay|first=Simon |authorlink=|year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=70–71}}</ref>

The sexual behavior of non-human animals takes many different forms, even within the same [[species]], though homosexual behavior is best known from social species. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied.<ref name="‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches">{{cite web
| last =Gordon
| first =Dr Dennis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches one million species
| publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]]
| date=10 April 2007
| url=http://www.niwascience.co.nz/pubs/mr/archive/2007-04-10-3
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

The observation of homosexual behavior in animals can be seen as both an argument for and against the acceptance of homosexuality in humans, and has been used especially against the claim that it is a ''[[peccatum contra naturam]]'' ('sin against nature').<ref name="ReferenceA"/> For instance, homosexuality in animals was cited in the [[United States Supreme Court]]'s decision in ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]'' which struck down the [[sodomy laws]] of 14 states.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/>

==Applying the term ''homosexual'' to animals==
The term ''homosexual'' was coined by [[Karl-Maria Kertbeny]] in 1868 to describe same-sex sexual attraction and sexual behavior in humans.<ref>The first known use of the word ''Homoseksuäl'' is found in Benkert Kertbeny, K.M. (1869): Paragraph 143 des Preussichen Strafgesetzebuches vom 14/4-1851 und seine Aufrechterhaltung als Paragraph 152 im Entwurf eines Strafgesetzbuches fur den Norddeutschen Bundes, Leipzig, 1869. Reprinted in ''Jahrbuch fur sexuelle Zwischenstufen 7'' (1905), pp. 1-66</ref> Its use in animal studies has been controversial for two main reasons: animal sexuality and motivating factors have been and remain poorly understood, and the term has strong cultural implications in western society that are irrelevant for species other than [[human]]s.<ref name="Rethinking Sex">{{cite web
| last =Dorit
| first =Robert
| title= Rethinking Sex
| publisher=[[American Scientist]]
| date=September–October 2004
| url=http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/rethinking-sex
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Thus homosexual behavior has been given a number of terms over the years. When describing animals, the term ''homosexual'' is preferred over ''gay'', ''lesbian'', and other terms currently in use, as these are seen as even more bound to human homosexuality.<ref name=autogenerated1>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 122-166.</ref>

Animal preference and motivation is always inferred from behavior. In wild animals, researchers will as a rule not be able to map the entire life of an individual, and must infer from frequency of single observations of behavior. The correct usage of the term ''homosexual'' is that an animal ''exhibits homosexual behavior'' or even ''same-sex sexual behavior''; however, this article conforms to the usage by modern research,<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004; pp.13-183</ref><ref>Vasey, Paul L. (1995), Homosexual behaviour in primates: A review of evidence and theory, [[International Journal of Primatology]] 16: p 173-204</ref><ref name=autogenerated2>Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-86446-1</ref><ref name="Homosexual selection: The power of same-sex liaisons">{{cite web
| last =Douglas
| first =Kate
| title= Homosexual selection: The power of same-sex liaisons
| publisher=[[New Scientist]]
| date=December 7, 2009
| url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20427370.800-homosexual-selection-the-power-of-samesex-liaisons.html?page=1
| accessdate = 2009-12-21}}</ref>
applying the term ''homosexuality'' to all sexual behavior ([[animal sexual behavior|copulation]], [[genital stimulation]], mating games and sexual [[Display (zoology)|display behavior]]) between animals of the same sex. In most instances, it is presumed that the homosexual behavior is but part of the animal's overall sexual behavioral repertoire, making the animal "bisexual" rather than "homosexual" as the terms are commonly understood in humans,<ref name=autogenerated2 /> but cases of homosexual preference and exclusive homosexual pairs are known.<ref name="Gailey1"/>

==Research==
A majority of the research available concerning homosexual behavior in animals lacks specification between animals that exclusively exhibit same-sex tendencies and those that participate in heterosexual and homosexual mating activities interchangeably. This lack of distinction has led to differing opinions and conflicting interpretations of collected data amongst scientists and researchers. For instance, Dr. [[Bruce Bagemihl]], author of the book ''Biological Exuberence: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity'', emphasizes that there is no anatomical or endocrinological differences between exclusively homosexual and exclusively heterosexual animal pairs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bagemihl|first=Bruce|title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity|year=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York, New York}}</ref> However, if the definition of "homosexual behavior" is made to include animals that participate in both same-sex and opposite-sex mating activities, hormonal differences have been documented among key [[sex hormones]], such as [[testosterone]] and [[estradiol]], when compared to those who participate solely in heterosexual mating.<ref name="Bagemihl 1999 164">{{cite book|last=Bagemihl|first=Bruce|title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity|pages=164|year=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York, New York}}</ref>

Many of the animals used in laboratory-based studies of homosexuality do not appear to spontaneously exhibit these tendencies often in the wild. Such behavior is often elicited and exaggerated by the researcher during experimentation through the destruction of a portion of brain tissue, or by exposing the animal to high levels of steroid hormones prenatally.<ref name="Cambridge Press">{{cite book|title=Homosexual Behavior In Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge Press|location=Cambridge|editor=Somer, Volker and Vasey, Paul L.|accessdate=9/31/2012}}</ref> Information gathered from these studies is limited when applied to spontaneously occurring same-sex behavior in animals outside of the laboratory.<ref name="Cambridge Press"/>

The presence of same-sex sexual behavior was not 'officially' observed on a large scale until recent times, possibly due to [[Observer-expectancy effect|observer bias]] caused by social attitudes to same-sex sexual behavior,<ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004</ref> innocent confusion, or even from a fear of "being ridiculed by their colleagues."<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/> Georgetown University [[biologist]] Janet Mann states "Scientists who study the topic are often accused of trying to forward an agenda, and their work can come under greater scrutiny than that of their colleagues who study other topics."<ref name="Homosexuality Commo">{{cite news | last = Moskowitz | first =Clara | title=Homosexuality Common in the Wild, Scientists Say| publisher=Fox News | date=19 May 2008 | url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,356639,00.html| accessdate = 2008-07-02}}</ref> They also noted "Not every sexual act has a reproductive function ... that's true of humans and non-humans."<ref name="Homosexuality Commo"/> It appears to be widespread amongst social [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, particularly the sea mammals and the [[primates]]. The true extent of homosexuality in animals is not known. While studies have demonstrated homosexual behavior in a number of species, Petter Bøckman, the scientific advisor of the exhibition [[Against Nature?]] in 2007, speculated that the true extent of the phenomenon may be much larger than was then recognized:

<blockquote>No species has been found in which homosexual behaviour has ''not'' been shown to exist, with the exception of species that never have sex at all, such as [[sea urchin]]s and [[aphis]]. Moreover, a part of the animal kingdom is [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]], truly bisexual. For them, homosexuality is not an issue.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice">{{cite web| url = http://www.news-medical.net/?id=20718| title = 1,500 Animal Species Practice Homosexuality
| date = 2006-10-23| publisher = News-medical.net| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Two Giraffes.PNG|thumb|Two male [[giraffes]] in [[Kenya]].]]
An example of overlooking homosexual behavior is noted by [[Bruce Bagemihl]] describing mating giraffes where nine out of ten pairings occur between males.

<blockquote>Every male that sniffed a female was reported as sex, while anal intercourse with orgasm between males was only "revolving around" [[dominance and submission|dominance]], competition or [[greeting]]s.<ref>[[Bruce Bagemihl]], citing a study by Leuthold, W. (1977): African Ungulates: A Comparative Review of Their Ethology and Behavioural Ecology. ''[[Springer Verlag]]'', Berlin, cited in ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity'', 1999;</ref>
</blockquote>
Some researchers believe this behavior to have its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits shown in [[prison sexuality]]. Others, particularly [[Joan Roughgarden]], [[Bruce Bagemihl]], [[Thierry Lodé]]<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacb, Paris, 2006, ISBN 2-7381-1901-8</ref> and Paul Vasey suggest the social function of sex (both homosexual and heterosexual) is not necessarily connected to dominance, but serves to strengthen alliances and social ties within a flock. Others have argued that social organization theory is inadequate because it cannot account for some homosexual behaviors, for example, [[penguin]] species where same-sex individuals mate for life and refuse to pair with females when given the chance.<ref name="DW">{{cite web|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1484083,00.html |title=Cold Shoulder for Swedish Seductresses | Germany | Deutsche Welle | 10.02.2005 |publisher=Dw-world.de |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref><ref name="CBC">{{cite news| url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/06/05/gay-penguins-adopt005.html | work=CBC News | title=Gay penguin couple adopts abandoned egg in German zoo | date=2009-06-05}}</ref> While reports on many such mating scenarios are still only anecdotal, a growing body of scientific work confirms that permanent homosexuality occurs not only in species with permanent pair bonds,<ref name="Homosexual selection: The power of same-sex liaisons"/> but also in non-monogamous species like sheep.

One report on sheep cited below states:

<blockquote>Approximately 8% of rams exhibit sexual preferences [that is, even when given a choice] for male partners (male-oriented rams) in contrast to most rams, which prefer female partners (female-oriented rams). We identified a cell group within the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus of age-matched adult sheep that was significantly larger in adult rams than in ewes...<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite journal
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| journal=Journal of [[Endocrinology]], Endocrine Society, Bethesda, MD
| date=2004, | volume = 145| issue = 2 |pages = 478–483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/reprint/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref></blockquote>

In fact, apparent homosexual individuals are known from all of the traditional domestic species, from sheep, cattle and horses to cats, dogs and [[budgerigars]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==Physiological basis==
A definite [[physiological]] explanation or reason for homosexual activity in animal species has not been agreed upon by researchers in the field. Numerous scholars are of the opinion that varying levels (either higher or lower) of the [[sex hormones]] in the animal,<ref name="Adler 1997 8–9">{{cite journal|last=Adler|first=Tina|title=Animal's Fancies|journal=Society For Science And The Public|date=4|year=1997|month=Jan|volume=151|issue=1|pages=8–9|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3980720|accessdate=10/1/2012}}</ref> in addition to the size of the animal's gonads,<ref name="Bagemihl 1999 164"/> play a direct role in the sexual behavior and preference exhibited by that animal. Others firmly argue no evidence to support these claims exists when comparing animals of a specific species exhibiting homosexual behavior exclusively and those that don't. Ultimately, empirical support from comprehensive [[endocrinological]] studies exist for both interpretations.<ref name="Adler 1997 8–9"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Homosexual Behavior In Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge Press|location=Cambridge|editor=Somer, Volker and Vasey, Paul L.|pages=5–6|accessdate=9/31/2012}}</ref> Researchers found no evidence of differences in the measurements of the gonads, or the levels of the [[sex hormones]] of exclusively homosexual [[western gulls]] and [[ring-billed gulls]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bagemihl|first=Bruce|title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity|year=1999|pages=164|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York, New York}}</ref> However, when analyzing these differences in [[bisexual]] rams, males were found to have lower levels of [[testosterone]] and [[estradiol]] in their blood, as well as smaller gonads than their [[heterosexual]] counterpart.

Additional studies pertaining to hormone involvement in homosexual behavior indicate that when administering treatments of [[testosterone]] and [[estradiol]] to female heterosexual animals, the elevated hormone levels increase the likelihood of homosexual behavior. Additionally, boosting the levels of [[sex hormones]] during an animal's pregnancy appears to increase the likelihood of it birthing a homosexual offspring.<ref name="Adler 1997 8–9"/>

==Genetic basis==
Researchers found that disabling the [http://www.wikigenes.org/e/gene/e/945842.html fucose mutarotase] (FucM) gene in laboratory mice – which influences the levels of [[estrogen]] to which the brain is exposed – caused the female mice to behave as if they were male as they grew up. "The [[Knockout mouse|mutant female mouse]] underwent a slightly altered developmental programme in the brain to resemble the male brain in terms of sexual preference" said Professor Chankyu Park of the [[Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology]] in Daejon, South Korea, who led the research. His most recent findings have been published in the [[BioMed Central|BMC Genetics journal]] on July 7, 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/7877774/Female-mice-can-be-turned-lesbian-by-deleting-gene.html |title=Female mice 'can be turned lesbian by deleting gene' |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=2010-07-08 |accessdate=2010-11-17 |location=London |first=Matthew |last=Moore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/11/62 |title=Full text | Male-like sexual behavior of female mouse lacking fucose mutarotase |publisher=BioMed Central |date=2010-07-07 |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref> Another study found that by manipulating a gene in fruit flies (''[[Drosophila]]''), homosexual behavior appeared to have been induced. However, in addition to homosexual behavior, several abnormal behaviors were also exhibited apparently due to this mutation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Terry|first=J.|title='Unnatural Acts' in Nature: The Scientific Fascination With |journal=GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies|year=200|month=April|volume=6|issue=2|pages=151, 43|url=http://ezproxy.roosevelt.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9362273&login.asp&site=ehost-live}}</ref>

==Neurobiological basis==
In March 2011, research shows that [[serotonin]] is involved in the mechanism of sexual orientation of mice.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-12825688 |title=Sexual preference chemical found in mice |publisher=BBC News |date=2011-03-23 |accessdate=2011-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature09822.html |title=Molecular regulation of sexual preference revealed by genetic studies of 5-HT in the brains of male mice |publisher=Nature |date=2011-03-23 |accessdate=2011-03-24}}</ref> A study conducted on fruit flies found that inhibiting the dopamine neurotransmitter inhibited lab-induced homosexual behavior.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zuk|first=Marlene|title=Same-sex insects: what do bees-or at least flies-have to tell us about homosexuality?|journal=Natural History|date=22|year=2011|month=November|volume=119|issue=10|pages=22|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA275489098&v=2.1&u=scha51546&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w}}</ref>

==Some selected species and groups==
{{See also|List of animals displaying homosexual behavior|l1=Seabird same-sex pairing|Seabird breeding behavior#Same-sex_pairing|l2=Seabird breeding behavior: Same-sex pairing}}

===Birds===
{{see also|List of birds displaying homosexual behavior|Animal sexual behavior#Birds}}
====Black swans====
[[File:Black Swans.jpg|left|thumb|[[Swan]]s, ''Cygnus atratus'']]
An estimated one-quarter of all [[black swans]] pairings are of homosexual males. They steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.<ref>Braithwaite, L. W., 'Ecological studies of the Black Swan III – Behaviour and social organization', ''Australian Wildlife Research'' 8, 1981: 134-146</ref><ref>Braithwaite, L. W., 'The Black Swan', ''Australian Natural History'' 16, 1970: 375-379</ref> More of their [[swan|cygnet]]s survive to adulthood than those of different-sex pairs, possibly due to their superior ability to defend large portions of land. The same reasoning has been applied to male [[flamingo]] pairs raising chicks.<ref>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 487-491.</ref><ref name="Oslo gay animal show draws crowds">{{cite news
| title=Oslo gay animal show draws crowds
| publisher=BBC
| date=19 October 2006
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6066606.stm
| accessdate = 2009-06-15}}</ref>

====Gulls====
Studies have shown that 10 to 15 percent of female [[western gull]]s in some populations in the wild exhibit homosexual behavior.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins">{{cite news
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate
| publisher=San Francisco Chronicle, reprinted from New York Times
| date=February 7, 2004
| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

====Ibises====
Research has shown that the environmental pollutant [[methylmercury]] can increase the prevalence of homosexual behavior in male [[American White Ibis]]. The study involved exposing chicks in varying dosages to the chemical and measuring the degree of homosexual behavior in adulthood. The results discovered was that as the dosage was increased the likelihood of homosexual behavior also increased. The endocrine blocking feature of mercury has been suggested as a possible cause of sexual disruption in other bird species.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Nature|title=Mercury causes homosexuality in male ibises|last1=Milton|first1=Joseph|doi=10.1038/news.2010.641|date=1 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|last1=Frederick|first1=Peter|last2=Jayasena|first2=Nilmini|title=Altered pairing behaviour and reproductive success in white ibises exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of methylmercury|doi=10.1098/rspb.2010.2189|date=1 December 2010}}</ref>

====Mallards====
[[File:Couple of two male mallard ducks - homosexual Anas platyrhynchos - Moenchbruch - Mönchbruch - May 3rd 2013 - 01.jpg|thumb|Two male [[Mallard]]s, ''Anas platyrhynchos'']]
[[Mallard]]s form male-female pairs only until the female lays eggs, at which time the male leaves the female. Mallards have rates of male-male sexual activity that are unusually high for birds, in some cases, as high as 19% of all pairs in a population.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

====Penguins====
{{further2|[[Penguin#Behaviour]]|[[Animal sexual behaviour#Penguins]]}}
Penguins have been observed to engage in homosexual behaviour since at least as early as 1911. [[George Murray Levick]], who documented this behaviour in [[Adélie Penguin]]s at [[Cape Adare]], described it as "depraved". The report was considered too shocking for public release at the time, and was suppressed. The only copies that were made available privately to researchers were translated into Greek, to prevent this knowledge becoming more widely known. The report was unearthed only a century later, and published in ''[[Polar Record]]'' in June 2012.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-06-10/explorer27s-study-of-sexually-depraved-penguins-unearthed/4062488 ABC News, 10 June 2012]</ref>

In early February 2004 the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported that [[Roy and Silo]], a male pair of [[chinstrap penguin]]s in the [[Central Park Zoo]] in [[New York City]] had successfully hatched and fostered a female chick from a fertile egg they had been given to incubate.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak">{{cite news
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Love That Dare Not Squeak Its Name
| publisher=New York Times
| date=February 7, 2004
| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0C1EF83A5F0C748CDDAB0894DC404482
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> Other [[penguin]]s in New York zoos have also been reported to have formed same-sex pairs.<ref name="They're in love. They're gay">{{cite web
| title=They're in love. They're gay. They're penguins... And they're not alone.
| publisher=[[Columbia University]], Columbia News Service
| date=June 10, 2002
| url=http://www.timelessspirit.com/SEPT04/cristina.shtml}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL "Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate"], ''San Francisco Chronicle'', hosted at SFGate.com</ref>

Zoos in [[Japan]] and [[Germany]] have also documented homosexual male penguin couples.<ref name="DW"/><ref name="CBC"/> The couples have been shown to build nests together and use a stone as a substitute for an egg. Researchers at [[Rikkyo University]] in [[Tokyo]] found 20 homosexual pairs at 16 major aquariums and zoos in Japan.

The [[Bremerhaven Zoo]] in Germany attempted to encourage reproduction of endangered [[Humbolt penguin]]s by importing females from Sweden and separating three male pairs, but this was unsuccessful. The zoo's director said that the relationships were "too strong" between the homosexual pairs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1275591.html |title=Ananova Article on "Tempting Gay Penguins Straight" |publisher=Ananova.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref> German gay groups protested at this attempt to break up the male-male pairs<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1284769.html |title=Followup Ananova Article on German authorities stopping trying to change the penguins' sexual orientation, after GLBTQI organizations protest |publisher=Ananova.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref> but the zoo's director was reported as saying "We don't know whether the three male pairs are really homosexual or whether they have just bonded because of a shortage of females... nobody here wants to forcibly separate homosexual couples."<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4264913.stm | work=BBC News | title=Gay outrage over penguin sex test | date=2005-02-14 | accessdate=2010-05-04}}</ref>

A pair of male [[Magellanic penguin]]s who had shared a burrow for six years at the [[San Francisco Zoo]] and raised a surrogate chick, split when the male of a pair in the next burrow died and the female sought a new mate.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/07/14/BAUS18NTE7.DTL |title=Widow a wedge between zoo's male penguin pair |publisher=Sfgate.com |date=2009-07-14 |accessdate=2010-11-17 |first=Meredith |last=May}}</ref>

Buddy and Pedro, a pair of male [[African Penguin]]s, were separated by the [[Toronto Zoo]] to mate with female penguins.<ref>{{Citation |last= McCormack|first= Simon|date=14 November 2011 |title=Gay Penguins Reunion: Buddy And Pedro Will Be Back Together By Spring |work=Gay Voices |publisher=[[Huffington Post]] |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/11/14/gay-penguin-reunion_n_1093298.html |accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref><ref name="GPBT">{{cite news| url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/story/2011/12/12/gay-penguins-breeding-toronto.html | work=CBC News | title=Same-sex penguin pair pursue female partners | date=2011-12-12}}</ref> Buddy has since paired off with a female.<ref name="GPBT"/>

====Vultures====
In 1998 two male [[Griffon vulture]]s named Dashik and Yehuda, at the [[Jerusalem Biblical Zoo]], engaged in "open and energetic sex" and built a nest. The keepers provided the couple with an artificial egg, which the two parents took turns incubating; and 45 days later, the zoo replaced the egg with a baby vulture. The two male vultures raised the chick together.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/gay-vulture-couple-raise-surrogate-chicks-1110120.html
|title=Gay vulture couple raise surrogate chicks
|author=Eric Silver
|publisher=The Independent News
|date=2 August 1999
|accessdate=2009-09-21
| location=London
}}</ref> A few years later, however, Yehuda became interested in a female vulture that was brought into the aviary. Dashik became depressed, and was eventually moved to the zoological research garden at [[Tel Aviv University]] where he too set up a nest with a female vulture.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1115739.html|title='Gay' vulture couple split up at Jerusalem zoo, then become fathers|author=Jonathan Lis|publisher=[[Haaretz]]|date=21 September 2009|accessdate=2009-09-21}}</ref>

Two homosexual male vultures at the [[Allwetter Zoo]] in [[Münster|Muenster]] built a nest together, although they were picked on and often had their nest materials stolen by other vultures. They were eventually separated to try to promote breeding by placing one of them with female vultures, despite the protests of German homosexual groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://entertainment.stv.tv/showbiz/209259-gay-vultures-split-up-to-go-straight/ |title=Gay vultures split up to go straight | Showbiz: Latest News | STV Entertainment |publisher=Entertainment.stv.tv |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref>

====Pigeons====
Both male and female [[pigeon]]s sometimes exhibit homosexual behavior. In addition to sexual behavior, same-sex pigeon pairs will build nests, and hens will lay (infertile) eggs and attempt to incubate them.

===Mammals===
[[File:LesbianBitches.JPG|thumb|left|Two female [[Labrador Retriever|Labrador]] dogs engaging in sex play]]
{{see also|List of mammals displaying homosexual behavior|Animal sexual behaviour#Mammals}}

====Amazon Dolphin====
The [[Amazon river dolphin]] or [[boto]] has been reported to form up in bands of 3–5 individuals enjoying group sex. The groups usually comprise young males and sometimes one or two females. Sex is often performed in non-reproductive ways, using snout, flippers and genital rubbing, without regard to gender.<ref name="BEDolphin">Bagemihl 1999, pp. 339-348.</ref> In captivity, they have been observed to sometimes perform homosexual and heterosexual penetration of the [[Blowhole (biology)|blowhole]], a hole homologous with the [[nostril]] of other mammals, making this the only known example of nasal sex in the animal kingdom.<ref name="BEDolphin"/><ref>Sylvestre, J.-P. (Some Observations on Behavior of Two Orinoco Dolphins (Inia geoffrensis humboldtiaba <nowiki>[</nowiki>Pilleri and Gihr 1977<nowiki>]</nowiki>), in Captivity, at Duisburg Zoo. ''Aquatic mammals'' no 11, pp 58-65 [http://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/share/AquaticMammalsIssueArchives/1985/Aquatic_Mammals_11_2/Sylvestre.pdf article]</ref> The males will sometimes also perform sex with males from the [[tucuxi]] species, a type of small [[porpoise]].<ref name="BEDolphin"/>

====American Bison====
{{further2|[[American bison#Behavior and ecology]]}}
[[File:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|The American Bison is a [[bovine]] [[mammal]] which displays homosexual behavior.]]
Courtship, mounting, and full [[anal sex|anal penetration]] between bulls has been noted to occur among [[American Bison]]. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season."<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous">{{cite news
| last =Bagemihl
| first =Bruce
| title= Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous Cassowaries: Homosexual/transgendered animals and indigenous knowledge
| publisher=[[Whole Earth Magazine]]
| month=May | year=2000
| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0GER/is_2000_Spring/ai_61426233/pg_5?tag=artBody;col1
| accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref>{{dead link|date=April 2013}} Also, mounting of one female by another (known as "bulling") is extremely common among [[cattle]]. The behaviour is hormone driven and synchronizes with the emergence of estrus (heat), particularly in the presence of a bull.

====Bonobo and other apes====
{{duplication|dupe = Animal sexual behavior#Bonobos|date=April 2013}}
{{see also|Bonobo#Sexual social behavior}}
[[File:Bonobo 011.jpg|thumb|left|Bonobo]]

[[Bonobo]]s, which have a [[Matriarchy|matriarchal]] society, unusual among [[ape]]s, are a fully [[Bisexuality|bisexual]] species—both males and females engage in heterosexual and homosexual behavior, being noted for female-female homosexuality in particular. Roughly 60% of all bonobo sexual activity occurs between two or more females. While the homosexual bonding system in Bonobos represents the highest frequency of homosexuality known in any species, homosexuality has been reported for all [[great apes]] (a group which includes [[human]]s), as well as a number of other [[primate]] species.<ref name=penisfencing>{{cite book | author= Frans B. M. de Waal |authorlink= Frans de Waal| title=The ape and the sushi master : cultural reflections by a primatologist | publisher=Basic Books | chapter=Bonobos and Fig Leaves | year= 2001 | isbn= 84-493-1325-2}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/aforest/bonobo.html Bonobos at the Columbus Zoo]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref><ref name=ancestor>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |chapter=Chimpanzees |isbn=1-155-16265-X}}</ref><ref name=songweaver>{{cite web|url= http://songweaver.com/info/bonobos.html|title= Bonobo Sex and Society|accessdate= 2006-07-17|author= Frans B. M. de Waal|authorlink= Frans de Waal |year= 1995|month= March|work= Scientific American|pages= 82–88}}</ref><ref>Frans de Waal, "Bonobo Sex and Society" in ''Scientific American'' (March 1995), p. 82ff</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.primates.com/bonobos/bonobosexsoc.html |title=The behavior of a close relative challenges assumptions about male supremacy in human evolution |publisher=Primates.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm |title=Courtney Laird, "Social Organization" |publisher=Bio.davidson.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref><ref>Stanford, C. B. (1998). The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos. Current Anthropology 39: 399–407.</ref><ref>Kano, Takayoshi (1992). The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.</ref> Dutch [[primatologist]] [[Frans de Waal]] on observing and filming bonobos noted that there were two reasons to believe sexual activity is the bonobo's answer to avoiding conflict.

Anything that arouses the interest of more than one bonobo at a time, not just food, tends to result in sexual contact. If two bonobos approach a cardboard box thrown into their enclosure, they will briefly mount each other before playing with the box. Such situations lead to squabbles in most other species. But bonobos are quite tolerant, perhaps because they use sex to divert attention and to defuse tension.

Bonobo sex often occurs in aggressive contexts totally unrelated to food. A jealous male might chase another away from a female, after which the two males reunite and engage in [[scrotum|scrotal]] rubbing. Or after a female hits a juvenile, the latter's mother may lunge at the aggressor, an action that is immediately followed by genital rubbing between the two adults.<ref>Frans B. M. de Waal, <u>"Bonobo Sex and Society"<u> Scientific American, Mar. 1995, pp. 82-88</ref>

====Bottlenose dolphins====
{{duplication|dupe = Animal sexual behavior#Bottlenose dolphins|date=April 2013}}
{{see also|Animal sexual behavior#Bottlenose dolphins|Bottlenose dolphin#Life history}}
Dolphins of several species engage in homosexual acts, though it is best studied in the [[bottlenose dolphin]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Sexual encounters between females take the shape of "beak-genital propulsion", where one female inserts her beak in the genital opening of the other while swimming gently forward.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Norris|first=K.S.|coauthors=Dohl, T.P.|title=Behaviour of the Hawaiian spinner dolphin, ''Stenella longirostris''|journal=Fishery Bulletin|year=1980|volume=77|pages=821–849}}</ref> Between males, homosexual behaviour includes rubbing of genitals against each other, which sometimes leads to the males swimming belly to belly, inserting [[dolphin penis|the penis]] in the others [[genital slit]] and sometimes anus.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wells|first=R.S.|title=Community structure of Bottlenose Dolphins near Sarasota, Florida|year=1995|series=Paper presented at the 24th International Ethological Conference, Honoluly, Hawaii}}</ref>

Janet Mann, [[Georgetown University]] professor of biology and psychology, argues that the strong personal behavior among male dolphin calves is about bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context.<ref>http://www.livescience.com/2534-sex-couples-common-wild.html</ref> She cites studies showing that these dolphins later in life as adults are in a sense bisexual, and the male bonds forged earlier in life work together for protection as well as locating females to reproduce with. Confrontations between flocks of bottlenose dolphins and the related species [[Atlantic spotted dolphin]] will sometimes lead to cross-species homosexual behaviour between the males rather than combat.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Herzing|first=D.L.|coauthors=Johnson, C.M.|title=Interspecific Interaction between Spotted Dolphins (''Stenella frontalis'') and Bottlenose Dolphins (''Tursiops truncatus'') in the Bahamas, 1985-1995|journal=Aquatic Mammals|year=1997|volume=23|pages=85–99}}</ref>

====Elephants====
{{further2|[[Elephant#Mating]]}}
[[African Elephant|African]] and [[Asian Elephant|Asian]] males will engage in same-sex bonding and mounting. Such encounters are often associated with affectionate interactions, such as kissing, trunk intertwining, and placing trunks in each other's mouths. Male elephants, who often live apart from the general herd, often form "companionships", consisting of an older individual and one or sometimes two younger, attendant males with sexual behavior being an important part of the social dynamic. Unlike [[heterosexual]] relations, which are always of a fleeting nature, the relationships between males may last for years. The encounters are analogous to heterosexual bouts, one male often extending his trunk along the other's back and pushing forward with his tusks to signify his intention to mount. Same-sex relations are common and frequent in both sexes, with Asiatic elephants in captivity devoting roughly 45% of sexual encounters to same-sex activity.<ref>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 427-430.</ref>

====Giraffes====
{{further2|[[Giraffe#Social life and breeding habits]]}}
Male [[giraffe]]s have been observed to engage in remarkably high frequencies of homosexual behavior. After aggressive "necking", it is common for two male giraffes to caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Coe M.J. | year = 1967 | title = "Necking" behavior in the giraffe | url = | journal = Journal of Zoology |location= London | volume = 151 | issue =3 | pages = 313–321 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1967.tb02117.x }}</ref> In one study, up to 94% of observed mounting incidents took place between two males. The proportion of same sex activities varied between 30 and 75%, and at any given time one in twenty males were engaged in non-combative necking behavior with another male. Only 1% of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.<ref>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 391-393.</ref>

====Monkeys====
Among monkeys{{clarify|date=June 2012}}, [[Lionel Tiger]] and [[Robin Fox]] conducted a study on how [[Depo-Provera]] [[contraceptive]]s lead to decreased male attraction to females.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LiyrEhQPmRsC&lpg=PA66&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false|author=Lionel Tiger|pages=66ff|year=1992|title=The Pursuit of Pleasure|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0-7658-0696-7}}</ref>

====Japanese macaque====
{{further2|[[Japanese macaque#Social behavior]]}}
With the [[Japanese macaque]], also known as the "snow [[monkey]]", [[Homosexuality|same-sex relations]] are frequent, though rates vary between troops. Females will form "[[wikt:consort|consort]]ships" characterized by affectionate social and sexual activities. In some troops up to one quarter of the females form such bonds, which vary in duration from a few days to a few weeks. Often, strong and lasting friendships result from such pairings. Males also have same-sex relations, typically with multiple partners of the same age. Affectionate and playful activities are associated with such relations.<ref>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 302-305.</ref>

====Lions====
{{main|Animal sexual behaviour#Lions}}
Both male and female [[lions]] have been seen to interact [[animal sexuality|homosexually]].<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305. In his discussion of lion same-sex relations, Bagemihl is making use of published work by: J.B. Cooper, "An Exploratory Study on African Lions" in ''Comparative Psychology Monographs'' 17:1-48; R.L. Eaton, "The Biology and Social Behavior of Reproduction in the Lion" in Eaton, ed. ''The World's Cats,'' vol. II; pp.3-58; Seattle, 1974; G.B. Schaller, ''The Serengeti Lion''; University of Chicago Press, 1972</ref><ref>
{{cite web | last =Srivastav | first =Suvira | title =Lion, Without Lioness | work =TerraGreen: News to Save the Earth | publisher = Terragreen | date = 15–31 December 2001 | url = http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/terragreen/issue3/feature.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-02}}</ref> Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and [[pelvic thrusting|thrusting]]. About 8% of mountings have been observed to occur with other males. Pairings between females are held to be fairly common in captivity but have not been observed in the wild.

====Polecat====
[[European polecat]]s ''Mustela putorius'' were found to engage homosexually with non-sibling animals. Exclusive homosexuality with mounting and anal penetration in this solitary species serves no apparent adaptive function.<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacob, Paris, 2006.ISBN 2-7381-1901-8</ref>

====Sheep====
{{duplication|dupe = Animal sexual behavior#Sheep|date=April 2013}}
{{further2|[[Sheep#Behavior and intelligence]]|[[Animal sexual behaviour#Sheep]]}}
''[[Ovis aries]]'' has attracted much attention due to the fact that some rams seem to have an exclusive homosexual orientation.<ref name="books.google.ca"/>

An October 2003 study by Dr. Charles E. Roselli et al. ([[Oregon Health and Science University]]) states that homosexuality in male sheep (found in 8% of rams) is associated with a region in the rams' brains which the authors call the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) which is half the size of the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep.<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite journal
| doi =10.1210/en.2003-1098
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=[[Endocrinology]], Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health & Science University (C.E.R., K.L., J.A.R.), [[Portland, Oregon]]; Department of Animal Sciences, Oregon State University (F.S.), Corvallis, Oregon; and Agricultural Research Service, United States Sheep Experiment Station (J.N.S.), Dubois, [[Idaho]].
| date=2004,
| pages =478–83 | volume = 145| issue = 2 478–483
| journal =Endocrinology
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10
| pmid =14525915}}</ref>

Scientists found that, "The oSDN in rams that preferred females was significantly larger and contained more [[neurons]] than in male-oriented rams and ewes. In addition, the oSDN of the female-oriented rams expressed higher levels of [[aromatase]], a substance that converts [[testosterone]] to [[estradiol]], a form of [[estrogen]] which is believed to facilitate typical male sexual behaviors. Aromatase expression was no different between male-oriented rams and ewes."

"The dense cluster of neurons that comprise the oSDN express [[cytochrome]] P450 aromatase. Aromatase [[mRNA]] levels in the oSDN were significantly greater in female-oriented rams than in ewes, whereas male-oriented rams exhibited intermediate levels of expression." These results suggest that "...naturally occurring variations in sexual partner preferences may be related to differences in brain anatomy and its capacity for estrogen synthesis."<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic"/> As noted before, given the potential unagressiveness of the male population in question, the differing aromatase levels may also have been evidence of aggression levels, not sexuality. It should also be noted that the results of this study have not been confirmed by other studies.

The [[Merck Veterinary Manual|Merck Manual of Veterinary Medicine]] appears to consider homosexuality among sheep as a routine occurrence and an issue to be dealt with as a problem of animal husbandry.<ref>Scrivener, C.J (2008): [http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/140208.htm Behavioural problems], Merck Manual of Veterinary Medicine.</ref>

====Spotted Hyena====
{{see also|Animal sexual behaviour#Spotted hyena|Spotted hyena#Reproduction and development}}
[[File:Spotted hyena2.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Spotted Hyena]] is a moderately large, terrestrial carnivore native to [[Africa]].]]
The family structure of the Spotted Hyena is [[matriarchal]], and dominance relationships with strong sexual elements are routinely observed between related females. Due largely to the female [[spotted hyena#Reproduction|spotted hyena]]'s unique [[urogenital system]], which looks more like a penis rather than a vagina, early naturalists thought hyenas were [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] males who commonly practiced [[homosexuality]].<ref name="Like mother, like cubs">{{cite web
| title= Like mother, like cubs: Hyena alpha moms jumpstart cubs with hormonal jolt
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]]
| year=2006
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070629155747/http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html  |archivedate = 2007-06-29}}</ref> Early writings such as [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' and the ''[[Physiologus]]'' suggested that the hyena continually changed its sex and nature from male to female and back again. In ''[[Paedagogus]]'', Clement of Alexandria noted that the [[hyena]] (along with the [[hare]]) was "quite obsessed with sexual intercourse." Many Europeans associated the hyena with sexual deformity, prostitution, deviant sexual behavior, and even witchcraft.

The reality behind the confusing reports is the sexually aggressive behavior between the females, including mounting between females. Research has shown that "in contrast to most other female mammals, female ''[[Crocuta]]'' are male-like in appearance, larger than males, and substantially more aggressive,"<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction">{{cite web
| last =Holekamp
| first =Kay E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction and Overview
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]], Department of [[Zoology]]
| year=2003
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070629155747/http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html  |archivedate = 2007-06-29}}</ref> and they have "been [[masculine|masculinized]] without being [[Femininity|defeminized]].”<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/>

Study of this unique [[genitalia]] and aggressive behavior in the female hyena has led to the understanding that more aggressive females are better able to compete for resources, including food and mating partners.<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/><ref name="Top Dogs: Steroid hormones">{{cite web
| last =Selim
| first =Jocelyn
| title=Top Dogs: Steroid hormones give hyenas a head start.
| publisher=[[Discover Magazine]]
| date=2006-04-28
| url=http://discovermagazine.com/2006/apr/hormone-hyenas
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Research has shown that "elevated levels of [[testosterone]] [[in utero]]"<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal"/> contribute to extra aggressiveness; both males and females mount members of both the same and opposite sex,<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal">{{cite journal
| doi =10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19961111)375:2<333::AID-CNE11>3.0.CO;2-W
| last =Forger
| first =Nancy G.
| coauthors =Laurence G. Frank, S. Marc Breedlove, Stephen E. Glickman
| title=Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal Muscles and Motoneurons in Spotted Hyenas
| journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology
| date=6 December 1998, | volume = 375
| page =333| issue = 2 , Pages 333 – 343
| url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19961111)375:2%3C333::AID-CNE11%3E3.0.CO;2-W
| accessdate = 2007-09-11
| pmid=8915834}}</ref><ref name="Wilson, Sexing the Hyena">{{cite journal
| title=Wilson, Sexing the Hyena - "The males mount each other"
| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
| date=
| url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?SIGNS032803
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> who in turn are possibly acting more [[submissive]] because of lower levels of testosterone in utero.<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction"/>

===Others===
====Lizards====
{{further2|[[Animal sexual behaviour#Lizards]]}}
Whiptail lizard ([[Teiidae]] genus) females have the ability to reproduce through [[parthenogenesis]] and as such males are rare and sexual breeding non-standard.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cole|first=Charles J.|coauthors=Townsend, Carol R.|date=9 May 2005|title=Parthenogenetic lizards as vertebrate systems |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology|publisher=Wiley Interscience|volume=256 |issue=S4|pages=174–176|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/110491269/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|accessdate=2008-12-14|doi=10.1002/jez.1402560436}}</ref> Females engage in sexual behavior to stimulate [[ovulation]], with their behavior following their hormonal cycles; during low levels of estrogen, these (female) lizards engage in "masculine" sexual roles. Those animals with currently high estrogen levels assume "feminine" sexual roles.

Lizards that perform the courtship ritual have greater fertility than those kept in isolation due to an increase in hormones triggered by the sexual behaviors. So, even though [[asexual reproduction|asexual]] whiptail lizards populations lack males, [[sexual stimuli]] still increase reproductive success.

From an [[evolutionary]] standpoint, these females are passing their full genetic code to all of their offspring (rather than the 50% of genes that would be passed in sexual reproduction). Certain species of [[gecko]] also reproduce by parthenogenesis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/06/050608053415.htm|title=Geckos: It's Not Always About Sex|last=Anon|date=9 June 2005|work=Science Daily|publisher=Lewis & Clark College |accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref>

====Insects====
=====Dragonflies=====
[[File:Head of dragonfly 2.jpg|thumb|The head of [[Darner Dragonfly]] (''Basiaeschna janata'')]]

Male homosexuality has been inferred in several species of [[dragonflies]] (the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Odonata]]). The [[cloacal]] pinchers of male [[damselflies]] and dragonflies inflict characteristic head damage to females during sex. A survey of 11 species of damsel and dragonflies<ref>{{cite journal | author = Dunkle S.W. | year = 1991 | title = Head damage from mating attempts in dragonflies (Odonata:Anisoptera) | url =http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16252041 | journal = Entomological News | volume = 102 | issue =1 | pages = 37–41 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Utzeri C., Belfiore C. | year = 1990 | title = Anomalous tandems in Odonata | url = | journal = Fragmenta Entomologica | volume = 22 | issue = 2| pages = 271–288 }}</ref> has revealed such mating damages in 20 to 80% of the males too, indicating a fairly high occurrence of sexual coupling between males.

=====Fruit flies=====
Male ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' flies bearing two copies of a mutant allele in the [[Fruitless (gene)|fruitless]] gene court and attempt to mate exclusively with other males.<ref name="Gailey1">{{cite journal|last=Gailey |first=D. A.|coauthors=Hall |date=J.C.|title=Behavior and Cytogenetics of fruitless in Drosophila melanogaster: Different Courtship Defects Caused by Separate, Closely Linked Lesions|journal=Genetics |publisher=The Genetics Society of America|volume= 121 |pages=773–785|url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/4/773|accessdate=2008-12-14|pmid=2542123|issue=4|pmc=1203660}}</ref> The genetic basis of animal homosexuality has been studied in the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''.<ref name="yamamoto3">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Nakano Y |title=Sexual behavior mutants revisited: molecular and cellular basis of Drosophila mating |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=56 |issue=7–8 |pages=634–46 |year=1999 |pmid=11212311 |doi=10.1007/s000180050458}}</ref> Here, multiple genes have been identified that can cause homosexual courtship and mating.<ref name=Yamamoto>{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Ito H, Fujitani K |title=Genetic dissection of sexual orientation: behavioral, cellular, and molecular approaches in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Neurosci. Res. |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=95–107 |year=1996 |pmid=8953572 |doi=10.1016/S0168-0102(96)01087-5}}</ref> These genes are thought to control behavior through [[pheromone]]s as well as altering the structure of the animal's brains.<ref name="ferveur">{{cite journal |author=Ferveur JF, Savarit F, O'Kane CJ, Sureau G, Greenspan RJ, Jallon JM |title=Genetic feminization of pheromones and its behavioral consequences in Drosophila males |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5318 |pages=1555–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9171057 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5318.1555}}</ref><ref name="yamamoto2">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Fujitani K, Usui K, Ito H, Nakano Y |title=From behavior to development: genes for sexual behavior define the neuronal sexual switch in Drosophila |journal=Mech. Dev. |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=135–46 |year=1998 |pmid=9622612 |doi=10.1016/S0925-4773(98)00042-2}}</ref> These studies have also investigated the influence of environment on the likelihood of flies displaying homosexual behavior.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal |author=Zhang SD, Odenwald WF |title=Misexpression of the white (w) gene triggers male-male courtship in Drosophila |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=92 |issue=12 |pages=5525–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7777542 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.12.5525 |pmc=41728}}</ref><ref name="svetec">{{cite journal |author=Svetec N, Ferveur JF |title=Social experience and pheromonal perception can change male-male interactions in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=208 |issue=Pt 5 |pages=891–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15755887 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/5/891 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01454}}</ref>

=====Bed bugs=====
{{Main|Bed bug#Reproduction}}
Male [[bed bug]]s (Cimex lectularius) are sexually attracted to any newly fed individual and this results in homosexual mounting. This occurs in heterosexual mounting by the [[traumatic insemination]] in which the male pierces the female abdomen with his needle-like penis. In homosexual mating this risks abdominal injuries as males lack the female counteradaptive [[spermalege]] structure. Males produce alarm [[pheromone]]s to reduce such homosexual matings.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ryne C | year = 2009 | title = Homosexual interactions in bed bugs: alarm pheromones as male recognition signals | url = | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 78 | issue = 6| pages = 1471–1475 | doi = 10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.09.033 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Animals|LGBT}}
{{columns-list|2|
*[[Against Nature?]]
*[[Biology and sexual orientation]]
*[[Animal sexual behaviour#Cross species sex|Cross species sex]]
*[[Freemartin]]
*[[Hermaphrodite#Zoology|Hermaphroditism in animals]]
*[[Homosexuality and psychology]]
*[[Innate bisexuality]]
*[[List of animals displaying homosexual behavior]]
*[[Non-human primate experiments]]
*[[Norms of reaction]]
*[[Plant sexuality]]
*[[Sexual orientation]]
*[[Sexual orientation and medicine (disambiguation)]]
*[[Xq28]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0722_040722_gayanimal.html National Geographic]
*[http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Bartos_Holeckova_2006.pdf Homosexual Behaviour in Animals An Evolutionary Perspective]
*[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=bisexual-species Driscoll, E.V. (2008), Bisexual Species, Scientific American Mind, 19(3), p. 68-73.]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Homosexual Behavior In Animals}}
[[Category:Sexual orientation and science]]
[[Category:Ethology]]
[[Category:Animal sexuality]]

Homosexuelles Verhalten bei Tieren

2013-02-27T15:28:51Z

TechBear: Revert vandalism

{{For|homosexuality in humans|Homosexuality}}
{{Further|List of animals displaying homosexual behavior}}
[[File:LesbianBitches.JPG|thumb|right|Two female domestic dogs engaging in sex play.]]
'''Homosexual behavior in animals''' refers to the documented evidence of homosexual and [[Bisexuality|bisexual]] behavior in various (non-human) species. Such behaviors include [[Sexual intercourse|sex]], [[courtship]], [[affection]], [[pair bond]]ing, and [[parenting]] among same-sex animal pairings. A 1999 review by researcher [[Bruce Bagemihl]] shows that [[homosexual behavior]] has been observed in close to 1,500 species, ranging from [[primates]] to [[Acanthocephala|gut worms]], and is well documented for 500 of them.<ref name="ReferenceA">Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0-312-19239-8</ref><ref name="Biological Exuberance: Animal">{{cite web
| last =Harrold
| first =Max
| title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity
| publisher=[[The Advocate]], reprinted in Highbeam Encyclopedia
| date=1999-02-16
| url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-53877996.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> [[Animal sexual behaviour]] takes many different forms, even within the same [[species]]. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied.<ref name="‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches">{{cite web
| last =Gordon
| first =Dr Dennis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches one million species
| publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]]
| date=10 April 2007
| url=http://www.niwascience.co.nz/pubs/mr/archive/2007-04-10-3
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>
According to Bagemihl, "the animal kingdom <nowiki>[does]</nowiki> it with much greater sexual diversity – including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex – than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept."<ref>[http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/19990201/26501-gay-lib-for-the-animals-a-new-look-at-homosexuality-in-nature-.html Calvin Reid Gay Lib for the Animals: A New Look At Homosexuality in Nature. Volume 245 Issue 5 02/01/1999, Feb 01, 1999]</ref> Current research indicates that various forms of same-sex sexual behavior are found throughout the animal kingdom.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090616122106.htm "Same-sex Behavior Seen In Nearly All Animals, Review Finds"], [[Science Daily]]</ref> A new review made in 2009 of existing research showed that same-sex behavior is a nearly universal phenomenon in the animal kingdom, common across species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.physorg.com/news164376975.html |title=Same-sex behavior seen in nearly all animals |publisher=Physorg.com |date=2009-06-16 |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref> Homosexual behavior is best known from social species. According to geneticist [[Simon LeVay|Simon Levay]] in 1996, "Although homosexual behavior is very common in the animal world, it seems to be very uncommon that individual animals have a long-lasting predisposition to engage in such behavior to the exclusion of heterosexual activities. Thus, a homosexual orientation, if one can speak of such thing in animals, seems to be a rarity.<ref>{{cite book |title=Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality |last=Levay|first=Simon |authorlink= |year=1996 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |page=207}}</ref> One species in which exclusive homosexual orientation occurs, however, is that of domesticated sheep (''[[Ovis aries]]'').<ref name="books.google.ca">[http://books.google.ca/books?id=EftT_1bsPOAC&pg=PA179 Animal Homosexuality: A Biosocial Perspective By Aldo Poiani, A. F. Dixson], Aldo Poiani, A. F. Dixson, p. 179, 2010, Cambridge University Press</ref><ref name=levay/> "About 10% of rams (males) refuse to mate with ewes (females) but do readily mate with other rams."<ref name=levay>{{cite book |title=Gay, Straight, and The Reason Why The Science of Sexual Orientation|last=Levay|first=Simon |authorlink= |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=70–71}}</ref>

The observation of homosexual behavior in animals can be seen as both an argument for and against the acceptance of [[human sexuality|homosexuality in humans]], and has been used especially against the claim that it is a ''[[peccatum contra naturam]]'' ('sin against nature').<ref name="ReferenceA"/> For instance, homosexuality in animals was cited in the [[United States Supreme Court]]'s decision in ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]'' which struck down the [[sodomy laws]] of 14 states.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/>

==Applying the term ''homosexual'' to animals==
The term ''homosexual'' was coined by [[Karl-Maria Kertbeny]] in 1868 to describe same-sex sexual attraction and sexual behavior in humans.<ref>The first known use of the word ''Homoseksuäl'' is found in Benkert Kertbeny, K.M. (1869): Paragraph 143 des Preussichen Strafgesetzebuches vom 14/4-1851 und seine Aufrechterhaltung als Paragraph 152 im Entwurf eines Strafgesetzbuches fur den Norddeutschen Bundes, Leipzig, 1869. Reprinted in ''Jahrbuch fur sexuelle Zwischenstufen 7'' (1905), pp. 1-66</ref> Its use in animal studies has been controversial for two main reasons: animal sexuality and motivating factors have been and remain poorly understood, and the term has strong cultural implications in western society that are irrelevant for species other than [[human]]s.<ref name="Rethinking Sex">{{cite web
| last =Dorit
| first =Robert
| title= Rethinking Sex
| publisher=[[American Scientist]]
| date=September–October 2004
| url=http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/rethinking-sex
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Thus homosexual behavior has been given a number of terms over the years. When describing animals, the term ''homosexual'' is preferred over ''gay'', ''lesbian'', and other terms currently in use, as these are seen as even more bound to human homosexuality.<ref name=autogenerated1>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 122-166.</ref>

Animal preference and motivation is always inferred from behavior. In wild animals, researchers will as a rule not be able to map the entire life of an individual, and must infer from frequency of single observations of behavior. The correct usage of the term ''homosexual'' is that an animal ''exhibits homosexual behavior'' or even ''same-sex sexual behavior''; however, this article conforms to the usage by modern research<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004; pp.13-183</ref><ref>Vasey, Paul L. (1995), Homosexual behaviour in primates: A review of evidence and theory, [[International Journal of Primatology]] 16: p 173-204</ref><ref name=autogenerated2>Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-86446-1</ref><ref name="Homosexual selection: The power of same-sex liaisons">{{cite web
| last =Douglas
| first =Kate
| title= Homosexual selection: The power of same-sex liaisons
| publisher=[[New Scientist]]
| date=December 7, 2009
| url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20427370.800-homosexual-selection-the-power-of-samesex-liaisons.html?page=1
| accessdate = 2009-12-21}}</ref>
applying the term ''homosexuality'' to all sexual behavior ([[animal sexual behavior|copulation]], [[genital stimulation]], mating games and sexual [[Display (zoology)|display behavior]]) between animals of the same sex. In most instances, it is presumed that the homosexual behavior is but part of the animal's overall sexual behavioral repertoire, making the animal "bisexual" rather than "homosexual" as the terms are commonly understood in humans,<ref name=autogenerated2 /> but cases of homosexual preference and exclusive homosexual pairs are known.<ref name="Gailey1"/>

==Research==
A majority of the research available concerning homosexual behavior in animals, lacks specification between animals that exclusively exhibit same-sex tendencies and those that participate in heterosexual and homosexual mating activities interchangeably. This lack of distinction has led to differing opinions and conflicting interpretations of collected data amongst scientists and researchers. For instance, Dr. [[Bruce Bagemihl]], author of the book ''Biological Exuberence: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity'', emphasizes that there is no anatomical or endocrinological differences between exclusively homosexual and exclusively heterosexual animal pairs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bagemihl|first=Bruce|title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity|year=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York, New York}}</ref> However, if the definition of "homosexual behavior" is made to include animals that participate in both same-sex and opposite-sex mating activities, hormonal differences have been documented among key [[sex hormones]], such as [[testosterone]] and [[estradiol]], when compared to those who participate solely in heterosexual mating.<ref name="Bagemihl 1999 164">{{cite book|last=Bagemihl|first=Bruce|title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity|pages=164|year=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York, New York}}</ref>

Many of the animals used in studies of homosexuality do not appear to spontaneously exhibit these tendencies often in the wild. Such behavior is often elicited and exaggerated by the researcher during experimentation through the destruction of a portion of brain tissue, or by exposing the animal to high levels of steroid hormones prenatally.<ref name="Cambridge Press">{{cite book|title=Homosexual Behavior In Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge Press|location=Cambridge|editor=Somer, Volker and Vasey, Paul L.|accessdate=9/31/2012}}</ref> Information gathered from these studies is limited when applied to spontaneously occurring same-sex behavior in animals outside of the laboratory.<ref name="Cambridge Press"/>

The presence of same-sex sexual behavior was not 'officially' observed on a large scale until recent times, possibly due to [[Observer-expectancy effect|observer bias]] caused by social attitudes to same-sex sexual behavior,<ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004</ref> innocent confusion, or even from a fear of "being ridiculed by their colleagues."<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/> Georgetown University [[biologist]] Janet Mann states "Scientists who study the topic are often accused of trying to forward an agenda, and their work can come under greater scrutiny than that of their colleagues who study other topics."<ref name="Homosexuality Commo">{{cite news | last = Moskowitz | first =Clara | title=Homosexuality Common in the Wild, Scientists Say| publisher=Fox News | date=19 May 2008 | url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,356639,00.html| accessdate = 2008-07-02}}</ref> They also noted "Not every sexual act has a reproductive function ... that's true of humans and non-humans."<ref name="Homosexuality Commo"/> It appears to be widespread amongst social [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, particularly the sea mammals and the [[primates]]. The true extent of homosexuality in animals is not known. While studies have demonstrated homosexual behavior in a number of species, Petter Bøckman, the scientific advisor of the exhibition [[Against Nature?]] in 2007, speculated that the true extent of the phenomenon may be much larger than was then recognized:

<blockquote>No species has been found in which homosexual behaviour has ''not'' been shown to exist, with the exception of species that never have sex at all, such as [[sea urchin]]s and [[aphis]]. Moreover, a part of the animal kingdom is [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]], truly bisexual. For them, homosexuality is not an issue.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice">{{cite web| url = http://www.news-medical.net/?id=20718| title = 1,500 Animal Species Practice Homosexuality
| date = 2006-10-23| publisher = News-medical.net| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Two Giraffes.PNG|thumb|Two male [[giraffes]] in [[Kenya]].]]
An example of overlooking homosexual behavior is noted by [[Bruce Bagemihl]] describing mating giraffes where nine out of ten pairings occur between males.

<blockquote>Every male that sniffed a female was reported as sex, while anal intercourse with orgasm between males was only "revolving around" [[dominance and submission|dominance]], competition or [[greeting]]s.<ref>[[Bruce Bagemihl]], citing a study by Leuthold, W. (1977): African Ungulates: A Comparative Review of Their Ethology and Behavioural Ecology. ''[[Springer Verlag]]'', Berlin, cited in ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity'', 1999;</ref>
</blockquote>
Some researchers believe this behavior to have its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits shown in [[prison sexuality]]. Others, particularly [[Joan Roughgarden]], [[Bruce Bagemihl]], [[Thierry Lodé]]<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacb, Paris, 2006, ISBN 2-7381-1901-8</ref> and Paul Vasey suggest the social function of sex (both homosexual and heterosexual) is not necessarily connected to dominance, but serves to strengthen alliances and social ties within a flock. Others have argued that social organization theory is inadequate because it cannot account for some homosexual behaviors, for example, [[penguin]] species where same-sex individuals mate for life and refuse to pair with females when given the chance.<ref name="DW">{{cite web|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1484083,00.html |title=Cold Shoulder for Swedish Seductresses | Germany | Deutsche Welle | 10.02.2005 |publisher=Dw-world.de |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref><ref name="CBC">{{cite news| url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/06/05/gay-penguins-adopt005.html | work=CBC News | title=Gay penguin couple adopts abandoned egg in German zoo | date=2009-06-05}}</ref> While reports on many such mating scenarios are still only anecdotal, a growing body of scientific work confirms that permanent homosexuality occurs not only in species with permanent pair bonds,<ref name="Homosexual selection: The power of same-sex liaisons"/> but also in non-monogamous species like sheep.

One report on sheep cited below states:

<blockquote>Approximately 8% of rams exhibit sexual preferences [that is, even when given a choice] for male partners (male-oriented rams) in contrast to most rams, which prefer female partners (female-oriented rams). We identified a cell group within the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus of age-matched adult sheep that was significantly larger in adult rams than in ewes...<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite journal
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| journal=Journal of [[Endocrinology]], Endocrine Society, Bethesda, MD
| date=2004, | volume = 145| issue = 2 |pages = 478–483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/reprint/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref></blockquote>

In fact, apparent homosexual individuals are known from all of the traditional domestic species, from sheep, cattle and horses to cats, dogs and budgerigars.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==Physiological basis==
A definite [[physiological]] explanation or reason for homosexual activity in animal species has not been agreed upon by researchers in the field. Numerous scholars are of the opinion that varying levels (either higher or lower) of the [[sex hormones]] in the animal,<ref name="Adler 1997 8–9">{{cite journal|last=Adler|first=Tina|title=Animal's Fancies|journal=Society For Science And The Public|date=4|year=1997|month=Jan|volume=151|issue=1|pages=8–9|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3980720|accessdate=10/1/2012}}</ref> in addition to the size of the animals gonads,<ref name="Bagemihl 1999 164"/> play a direct role in the sexual behavior and preference exhibited by that animal. Others firmly argue no evidence to support these claims exists when comparing animals of a specific species exhibiting homosexual behavior exclusively and those that don't. Ultimately, empirical support from comprehensive [[endocrinological]] studies exist for both interpretations.<ref name="Adler 1997 8–9"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Homosexual Behavior In Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge Press|location=Cambridge|editor=Somer, Volker and Vasey, Paul L.|pages=5–6|accessdate=9/31/2012}}</ref> Researchers found no evidence of differences in the measurements of the gonads, or the levels of the [[sex hormones]] of exclusively homosexual [[western gulls]] and [[ring-billed gulls]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bagemihl|first=Bruce|title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity|year=1999|pages=164|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York, New York}}</ref> However, when analyzing these differences in [[bisexual]] rams, males were found to have lower levels of [[testosterone]] and [[estradiol]] in their blood, as well as smaller gonads than their [[heterosexual]] counterpart.

Additional studies pertaining to hormone involvement in homosexual behavior indicate that when administering treatments of [[testosterone]] and [[estradiol]] to female heterosexual animals, the elevated hormone levels increase the likelihood of homosexual behavior. Additionally, boosting the levels of [[sex hormones]] during an animal's pregnancy appears to increase the likelihood of it birthing a homosexual offspring.<ref name="Adler 1997 8–9"/>

==Genetic basis==
Researchers found that disabling the [http://www.wikigenes.org/e/gene/e/945842.html fucose mutarotase] (FucM) gene in laboratory mice – which influences the levels of [[estrogen]] to which the brain is exposed – caused the female mice to behave as if they were male as they grew up. "The [[Knockout mouse|mutant female mouse]] underwent a slightly altered developmental programme in the brain to resemble the male brain in terms of sexual preference" said Professor Chankyu Park of the [[Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology]] in Daejon, South Korea, who led the research. His most recent findings have been published in the [[BioMed Central|BMC Genetics journal]] on July 7, 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/7877774/Female-mice-can-be-turned-lesbian-by-deleting-gene.html |title=Female mice 'can be turned lesbian by deleting gene' |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=2010-07-08 |accessdate=2010-11-17 |location=London |first=Matthew |last=Moore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/11/62 |title=Full text | Male-like sexual behavior of female mouse lacking fucose mutarotase |publisher=BioMed Central |date=2010-07-07 |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref> Another study found that by manipulating a gene in fruit flies (''[[Drosophila]]''), homosexual behavior appeared to have been induced. However, in addition to homosexual behavior, several abnormal behaviors were also exhibited apparently due to this mutation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Terry|first=J.|title='Unnatural Acts' in Nature: The Scientific Fascination With |journal=GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies|year=200|month=April|volume=6|issue=2|pages=151, 43|url=http://ezproxy.roosevelt.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9362273&login.asp&site=ehost-live}}</ref>

==Neurobiological basis==
In March 2011, research shows that [[serotonin]] is involved in the mechanism of sexual orientation of mice.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-12825688 |title=Sexual preference chemical found in mice |publisher=BBC News |date=2011-03-23 |accessdate=2011-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature09822.html |title=Molecular regulation of sexual preference revealed by genetic studies of 5-HT in the brains of male mice |publisher=Nature |date=2011-03-23 |accessdate=2011-03-24}}</ref> A study conducted on fruit flies found that inhibiting the dopamine neurotransmitter inhibited lab-induced homosexual behavior.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zuk|first=Marlene|title=Same-sex insects: what do bees-or at least flies-have to tell us about homosexuality?|journal=Natural History|date=22|year=2011|month=November|volume=119|issue=10|pages=22|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA275489098&v=2.1&u=scha51546&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w}}</ref>

==Some selected species and groups==
{{See also|List of animals displaying homosexual behavior|l1=Seabird same-sex pairing|Seabird breeding behavior#Same-sex_pairing|l2=Seabird breeding behavior: Same-sex pairing}}

===Birds===
{{see also|List of birds displaying homosexual behavior|Animal sexual behavior#Birds}}

====Black swans====
[[File:Black Swans.jpg|left|thumb|[[Swan]]s, ''Cygnus atratus'']]
An estimated one-quarter of all [[black swans]] pairings are of homosexual males. They steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.<ref>Braithwaite, L. W., 'Ecological studies of the Black Swan III – Behaviour and social organization', ''Australian Wildlife Research'' 8, 1981: 134-146</ref><ref>Braithwaite, L. W., 'The Black Swan', ''Australian Natural History'' 16, 1970: 375-379</ref> More of their [[swan|cygnet]]s survive to adulthood than those of different-sex pairs, possibly due to their superior ability to defend large portions of land. The same reasoning has been applied to male [[flamingo]] pairs raising chicks.<ref>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 487-491.</ref><ref name="Oslo gay animal show draws crowds">{{cite news
| title=Oslo gay animal show draws crowds
| publisher=BBC
| date=19 October 2006
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6066606.stm
| accessdate = 2009-06-15}}</ref>

====Gulls====
Studies have shown that 10 to 15 percent of female [[western gull]]s in some populations in the wild exhibit homosexual behavior.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins">{{cite news
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate
| publisher=San Francisco Chronicle, reprinted from New York Times
| date=February 7, 2004
| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

====Ibises====
Research has shown that the environmental pollutant [[methylmercury]] can increase the prevalence of homosexual behavior in male [[American White Ibis]]. The study involved exposing chicks in varying dosages to the chemical and measuring the degree of homosexual behavior in adulthood. The results discovered was that as the dosage was increased the likelihood of homosexual behavior also increased. The endocrine blocking feature of mercury has been suggested as a possible cause of sexual disruption in other bird species.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Nature|title=Mercury causes homosexuality in male ibises|last1=Milton|first1=Joseph|doi=10.1038/news.2010.641|date=1 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|last1=Frederick|first1=Peter|last2=Jayasena|first2=Nilmini|title=Altered pairing behaviour and reproductive success in white ibises exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of methylmercury|doi=10.1098/rspb.2010.2189|date=1 December 2010}}</ref>

====Mallards====
[[File:Males Anas platyrhynchos 2 .jpg|thumb|Two male [[Mallard]]s, ''Anas platyrhynchos'']]
[[Mallard]]s form male-female pairs only until the female lays eggs, at which time the male leaves the female. Mallards have rates of male-male sexual activity that are unusually high for birds, in some cases, as high as 19% of all pairs in a population.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

====Penguins====
{{further2|[[Penguin#Behaviour]]|[[Animal sexual behaviour#Penguins]]}}
Penguins have been observed to engage in homosexual behaviour since at least as early as 1911. [[George Murray Levick]], who documented this behaviour in [[Adélie Penguin]]s at [[Cape Adare]], described it as "depraved". The report was considered too shocking for public release at the time, and was suppressed. The only copies that were made available privately to researchers were translated into Greek, to prevent this knowledge becoming more widely known. The report was unearthed only a century later, and published in ''[[Polar Record]]'' in June 2012.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-06-10/explorer27s-study-of-sexually-depraved-penguins-unearthed/4062488 ABC News, 10 June 2012]</ref>

In early February 2004 the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported that [[Roy and Silo]], a male pair of [[chinstrap penguin]]s in the [[Central Park Zoo]] in [[New York City]] had successfully hatched and fostered a female chick from a fertile egg they had been given to incubate.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak">{{cite news
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Love That Dare Not Squeak Its Name
| publisher=New York Times
| date=February 7, 2004
| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0C1EF83A5F0C748CDDAB0894DC404482
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> Other [[penguin]]s in New York zoos have also been reported to have formed same-sex pairs.<ref name="They're in love. They're gay">{{cite web
| title=They're in love. They're gay. They're penguins... And they're not alone.
| publisher=[[Columbia University]], Columbia News Service
| date=June 10, 2002
| url=http://www.timelessspirit.com/SEPT04/cristina.shtml}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL "Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate"], ''San Francisco Chronicle'', hosted at SFGate.com</ref>

Zoos in [[Japan]] and [[Germany]] have also documented homosexual male penguin couples.<ref name="DW"/><ref name="CBC"/> The couples have been shown to build nests together and use a stone as a substitute for an egg. Researchers at [[Rikkyo University]] in [[Tokyo]] found 20 homosexual pairs at 16 major aquariums and zoos in Japan.

The [[Bremerhaven Zoo]] in Germany attempted to encourage reproduction of endangered [[Humbolt penguin]]s by importing females from Sweden and separating three male pairs, but this was unsuccessful. The zoo's director said that the relationships were "too strong" between the homosexual pairs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1275591.html |title=Ananova Article on "Tempting Gay Penguins Straight" |publisher=Ananova.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref> German gay groups protested at this attempt to break up the male-male pairs<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1284769.html |title=Followup Ananova Article on German authorities stopping trying to change the penguins' sexual orientation, after GLBTQI organizations protest |publisher=Ananova.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref> but the zoo's director was reported as saying "We don't know whether the three male pairs are really homosexual or whether they have just bonded because of a shortage of females... nobody here wants to forcibly separate homosexual couples."<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4264913.stm | work=BBC News | title=Gay outrage over penguin sex test | date=2005-02-14 | accessdate=2010-05-04}}</ref>

A pair of male [[Magellanic penguin]]s who had shared a burrow for six years at the [[San Francisco Zoo]] and raised a surrogate chick, split when the male of a pair in the next burrow died and the female sought a new mate.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/07/14/BAUS18NTE7.DTL |title=Widow a wedge between zoo's male penguin pair |publisher=Sfgate.com |date=2009-07-14 |accessdate=2010-11-17 |first=Meredith |last=May}}</ref>

Buddy and Pedro, a pair of male [[African Penguin]]s, were separated by the [[Toronto Zoo]] to mate with female penguins.<ref>{{Citation |last= McCormack|first= Simon|date=14 November 2011 |title=Gay Penguins Reunion: Buddy And Pedro Will Be Back Together By Spring |work=Gay Voices |publisher=[[Huffington Post]] |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/11/14/gay-penguin-reunion_n_1093298.html |accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref><ref name="GPBT">{{cite news| url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/story/2011/12/12/gay-penguins-breeding-toronto.html | work=CBC News | title=Same-sex penguin pair pursue female partners | date=2011-12-12}}</ref> Buddy has since paired off with a female.<ref name="GPBT"/>

====Vultures====
In 1998 two male [[Griffon vulture]]s named Dashik and Yehuda, at the [[Jerusalem Biblical Zoo]], engaged in "open and energetic sex" and built a nest. The keepers provided the couple with an artificial egg, which the two parents took turns incubating; and 45 days later, the zoo replaced the egg with a baby vulture. The two male vultures raised the chick together.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/gay-vulture-couple-raise-surrogate-chicks-1110120.html
|title=Gay vulture couple raise surrogate chicks
|author=Eric Silver
|publisher=The Independent News
|date=2 August 1999
|accessdate=2009-09-21
| location=London
}}</ref> A few years later, however, Yehuda became interested in a female vulture that was brought into the aviary. Dashik became depressed, and was eventually moved to the zoological research garden at [[Tel Aviv University]] where he too set up a nest with a female vulture.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1115739.html|title='Gay' vulture couple split up at Jerusalem zoo, then become fathers|author=Jonathan Lis|publisher=[[Haaretz]]|date=21 September 2009|accessdate=2009-09-21}}</ref>

Two homosexual male vultures at the [[Allwetter Zoo]] in [[Münster|Muenster]] built a nest together, although they were picked on and often had their nest materials stolen by other vultures. They were eventually separated to try to promote breeding by placing one of them with female vultures, despite the protests of German homosexual groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://entertainment.stv.tv/showbiz/209259-gay-vultures-split-up-to-go-straight/ |title=Gay vultures split up to go straight | Showbiz: Latest News | STV Entertainment |publisher=Entertainment.stv.tv |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref>

====Pigeons====
Both male and female [[pigeon]]s sometimes exhibit homosexual behavior. As well as sexual behavior same-sex pigeon pairs will build nests, and hens will lay (infertile) eggs and attempt to incubate them.

===Mammals===
{{see also|List of mammals displaying homosexual behavior|Animal sexual behaviour#Mammals}}

====Amazon Dolphin====
The [[Boto|Amazon River dolphin]] or boto has been reported to form up in bands of 3–5 individuals enjoying group sex. The groups usually comprise young males and sometimes one or two females. Sex is often performed in non-reproductive ways, using snout, flippers and genital rubbing, without regards to gender.<ref name="BEDolphin">Bagemihl 1999, pp. 339-348.</ref> In captivity, they have been observed to sometimes perform homosexual and heterosexual penetration of the [[Blowhole (biology)|blowhole]], a hole homologous with the [[nostril]] of other mammals, making this the only known example of nasal sex in the animal kingdom.<ref name="BEDolphin"/><ref>Sylvestre, J.-P. (Some Observations on Behavior of Two Orinoco Dolphins (Inia geoffrensis humboldtiaba <nowiki>[</nowiki>Pilleri and Gihr 1977<nowiki>]</nowiki>), in Captivity, at Duisburg Zoo. ''Aquatic mammals'' no 11, pp 58-65 [http://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/share/AquaticMammalsIssueArchives/1985/Aquatic_Mammals_11_2/Sylvestre.pdf article]</ref> The males will sometimes also perform sex with males from the [[tucuxi]] species, a type of small [[porpoise]].<ref name="BEDolphin"/>

====American Bison====
{{further2|[[American bison#Behavior and ecology]]}}
[[File:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|The American Bison is a [[bovine]] [[mammal]] which displays homosexual behavior.]]
Courtship, mounting, and full [[anal sex|anal penetration]] between bulls has been noted to occur among [[American Bison]]. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season."<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous">{{cite news
| last =Bagemihl
| first =Bruce
| title= Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous Cassowaries: Homosexual/transgendered animals and indigenous knowledge
| publisher=[[Whole Earth Magazine]]
| month=May | year=2000
| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0GER/is_2000_Spring/ai_61426233/pg_5?tag=artBody;col1
| accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref> Also, mounting of one female by another is common among [[cattle]].

====Bonobo and other apes====
{{duplication|dupe = Animal sexual behavior#Bonobos}}
{{see also|Bonobo#Social sexual behavior}}
[[File:Bonobo 011.jpg|thumb|left|Bonobo]]

The [[Bonobo]], which has a [[matriarchy|matriarchal]] society, unusual amongst [[ape]]s, is a fully [[bisexual]] species—both males and females engage in heterosexual and homosexual behavior, being noted for female-female homosexuality in particular. Roughly 60% of all bonobo sexual activity occurs between two or more females. While the homosexual bonding system in Bonobos represents the highest frequency of homosexuality known in any species, homosexuality has been reported for all [[great apes]] (a group which includes [[human]]s), as well as a number of other [[primate]] species.<ref name=penisfencing>{{cite book | author= Frans B. M. de Waal |authorlink= Frans de Waal| title=The ape and the sushi master : cultural reflections by a primatologist | publisher=Basic Books | chapter=Bonobos and Fig Leaves | year= 2001 | isbn= 84-493-1325-2}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/aforest/bonobo.html Bonobos at the Columbus Zoo]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref><ref name=ancestor>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |chapter=Chimpanzees |isbn=1-155-16265-X}}</ref><ref name=songweaver>{{cite web|url= http://songweaver.com/info/bonobos.html|title= Bonobo Sex and Society|accessdate= 2006-07-17|author= Frans B. M. de Waal|authorlink= Frans de Waal |year= 1995|month= March|work= Scientific American|pages= 82–88}}</ref><ref>Frans de Waal, "Bonobo Sex and Society" in ''Scientific American'' (March 1995), p. 82ff</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.primates.com/bonobos/bonobosexsoc.html |title=The behavior of a close relative challenges assumptions about male supremacy in human evolution |publisher=Primates.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm |title=Courtney Laird, "Social Organization" |publisher=Bio.davidson.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref><ref>Stanford, C. B. (1998). The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos. Current Anthropology 39: 399–407.</ref><ref>Kano, Takayoshi (1992). The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.</ref> Dutch [[primatologist]] [[Frans de Waal]] on observing and filming bonobos noted that there were two reasons to believe sexual activity is the bonobo's answer to avoiding conflict.

Anything that arouses the interest of more than one bonobo at a time, not just food, tends to result in sexual contact. If two bonobos approach a cardboard box thrown into their enclosure, they will briefly mount each other before playing with the box. Such situations lead to squabbles in most other species. But bonobos are quite tolerant, perhaps because they use sex to divert attention and to defuse tension.

Bonobo sex often occurs in aggressive contexts totally unrelated to food. A jealous male might chase another away from a female, after which the two males reunite and engage in [[scrotum|scrotal]] rubbing. Or after a female hits a juvenile, the latter's mother may lunge at the aggressor, an action that is immediately followed by genital rubbing between the two adults.<ref>Frans B. M. de Waal, <u>"Bonobo Sex and Society"<u> Scientific American, Mar. 1995, pp. 82-88</ref>

====Bottlenose dolphins====
{{duplication|dupe = Animal sexual behavior#Bottlenose dolphins}}
{{see also|Animal sexual behavior#Bottlenose dolphins|Bottlenose dolphin#Life history}}
Dolphins of several species engage in homosexual acts, though it is best studied in the [[bottlenose dolphin]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Sexual encounters between females take the shape of "beak-genital propulsion", where one female inserts her beak in the genital opening of the other while swimming gently forward.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Norris|first=K.S.|coauthors=Dohl, T.P.|title=Behaviour of the Hawaiian spinner dolphin, ''Stenella longirostris''|journal=Fishery Bulletin|year=1980|volume=77|pages=821–849}}</ref> Between males, homosexual behaviour includes rubbing of genitals against each other, which sometimes leads to the males swimming belly to belly, inserting [[dolphin penis|the penis]] in the others [[genital slit]] and sometimes anus.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wells|first=R.S.|title=Community structure of Bottlenose Dolphins near Sarasota, Florida|year=1995|series=Paper presented at the 24th International Ethological Conference, Honoluly, Hawaii}}</ref>

Janet Mann, [[Georgetown University]] professor of biology and psychology, argues that the strong personal behavior among male dolphin calves is about bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins"/> She cites studies showing that these dolphins later in life as adults are in a sense bisexual, and the male bonds forged earlier in life work together for protection as well as locating females to reproduce with. Confrontations between flocks of bottlenose dolphins and the related species [[Atlantic spotted dolphin]] will sometimes lead to cross-species homosexual behaviour between the males rather than combat.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Herzing|first=D.L.|coauthors=Johnson, C.M.|title=Interspecific Interaction between Spotted Dolphins (''Stenella frontalis'') and Bottlenose Dolphins (''Tursiops truncatus'') in the Bahamas, 1985-1995|journal=Aquatic Mammals|year=1997|volume=23|pages=85–99}}</ref>

====Elephants====
{{further2|[[Elephant#Mating]]}}
[[African Elephant|African]] and [[Asian Elephant|Asian]] males will engage in same-sex bonding and mounting. Such encounters are often associated with affectionate interactions, such as kissing, trunk intertwining, and placing trunks in each other's mouths. Male elephants, who often live apart from the general herd, often form "companionships", consisting of an older individual and one or sometimes two younger, attendant males with sexual behavior being an important part of the social dynamic. Unlike [[heterosexual]] relations, which are always of a fleeting nature, the relationships between males may last for years. The encounters are analogous to heterosexual bouts, one male often extending his trunk along the other's back and pushing forward with his tusks to signify his intention to mount. Same-sex relations are common and frequent in both sexes, with Asiatic elephants in captivity devoting roughly 45% of sexual encounters to same-sex activity.<ref>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 427-430.</ref>

====Giraffes====
{{further2|[[Giraffe#Social life and breeding habits]]}}
Male [[giraffe]]s have been observed to engage in remarkably high frequencies of homosexual behavior. After aggressive "necking", it is common for two male giraffes to caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Coe M.J. | year = 1967 | title = "Necking" behavior in the giraffe | url = | journal = Journal of Zoology |location= London | volume = 151 | issue =3 | pages = 313–321 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1967.tb02117.x }}</ref> In one study, up to 94% of observed mounting incidents took place between two males. The proportion of same sex activities varied between 30 and 75%, and at any given time one in twenty males were engaged in non-combative necking behavior with another male. Only 1% of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.<ref>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 391-393.</ref>

====Monkeys====
Among monkeys{{clarify|date=June 2012}}, [[Lionel Tiger]] and [[Robin Fox]] conducted a study on how [[Depo-Provera]] [[contraceptive]]s lead to decreased male attraction to females.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LiyrEhQPmRsC&lpg=PA66&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false|author=Lionel Tiger|pages=66ff|year=1992|title=The Pursuit of Pleasure|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0-7658-0696-7}}</ref>

====Japanese macaque====
{{further2|[[Japanese macaque#Social behavior]]}}
With the [[Japanese macaque]], also known as the "snow [[monkey]]", [[Homosexuality|same-sex relations]] are frequent, though rates vary between troops. Females will form "[[wikt:consort|consort]]ships" characterized by affectionate social and sexual activities. In some troops up to one quarter of the females form such bonds, which vary in duration from a few days to a few weeks. Often, strong and lasting friendships result from such pairings. Males also have same-sex relations, typically with multiple partners of the same age. Affectionate and playful activities are associated with such relations.<ref>Bagemihl 1999, pp. 302-305.</ref>

====Lions====
{{further2|[[Lion#Group organization]]|[[Animal sexual behaviour#Lions]]}}
Both male and female [[lions]] have been seen to interact [[animal sexuality|homosexually]].<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305. In his discussion of lion same-sex relations, Bagemihl is making use of published work by: J.B. Cooper, "An Exploratory Study on African Lions" in ''Comparative Psychology Monographs'' 17:1-48; R.L. Eaton, "The Biology and Social Behavior of Reproduction in the Lion" in Eaton, ed. ''The World's Cats,'' vol. II; pp.3-58; Seattle, 1974; G.B. Schaller, ''The Serengeti Lion''; University of Chicago Press, 1972</ref><ref>
{{cite web | last =Srivastav | first =Suvira | title =Lion, Without Lioness | work =TerraGreen: News to Save the Earth | publisher = Terragreen | date = 15–31 December 2001 | url = http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/terragreen/issue3/feature.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-02}}</ref> Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and [[pelvic thrusting|thrusting]]. About 8% of mountings have been observed to occur with other males. Pairings between females are held to be fairly common in captivity but have not been observed in the wild.

====Polecat====
[[European polecat]]s ''Mustela putorius'' were found to engage homosexually with non-sibling animals. Exclusive homosexuality with mounting and anal penetration in this solitary species serves no apparent adaptive function.<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacob, Paris, 2006.ISBN 2-7381-1901-8</ref>

====Sheep====
{{duplication|dupe = Animal sexual behavior#Sheep}}
{{further2|[[Sheep#Behavior and intelligence]]|[[Animal sexual behaviour#Sheep]]}}
''[[Ovis aries]]'' has attracted much attention due to the fact that some rams seem to have an exclusive homosexual orientation.<ref name="books.google.ca"/>

An October 2003 study by Dr. Charles E. Roselli et al. ([[Oregon Health and Science University]]) states that homosexuality in male sheep (found in 8% of rams) is associated with a region in the rams' brains which the authors call the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) which is half the size of the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep.<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite journal
| doi =10.1210/en.2003-1098
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=[[Endocrinology]], Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health & Science University (C.E.R., K.L., J.A.R.), [[Portland, Oregon]]; Department of Animal Sciences, Oregon State University (F.S.), Corvallis, Oregon; and Agricultural Research Service, United States Sheep Experiment Station (J.N.S.), Dubois, [[Idaho]].
| date=2004,
| pages =478–83 | volume = 145| issue = 2 478–483
| journal =Endocrinology
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10
| pmid =14525915}}</ref>

Scientists found that, "The oSDN in rams that preferred females was significantly larger and contained more [[neurons]] than in male-oriented rams and ewes. In addition, the oSDN of the female-oriented rams expressed higher levels of [[aromatase]], a substance that converts [[testosterone]] to [[estradiol]], a form of [[estrogen]] which is believed to facilitate typical male sexual behaviors. Aromatase expression was no different between male-oriented rams and ewes."

"The dense cluster of neurons that comprise the oSDN express [[cytochrome]] P450 aromatase. Aromatase [[mRNA]] levels in the oSDN were significantly greater in female-oriented rams than in ewes, whereas male-oriented rams exhibited intermediate levels of expression." These results suggest that "...naturally occurring variations in sexual partner preferences may be related to differences in brain anatomy and its capacity for estrogen synthesis."<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic"/> As noted before, given the potential unagressiveness of the male population in question, the differing aromatase levels may also have been evidence of aggression levels, not sexuality. It should also be noted that the results of this study have not been confirmed by other studies.

The [[Merck Veterinary Manual|Merck Manual of Veterinary Medicine]] appears to consider homosexuality among sheep as a routine occurrence and an issue to be dealt with as a problem of animal husbandry.<ref>Scrivener, C.J (2008): [http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/140208.htm Behavioural problems], Merck Manual of Veterinary Medicine.</ref>

====Spotted Hyena====
{{see also|Animal sexual behaviour#Spotted hyena|Spotted hyena#Reproduction and development}}
[[File:Spotted hyena2.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Spotted Hyena]] is a moderately large, terrestrial carnivore native to [[Africa]].]]
The family structure of the Spotted Hyena is [[matriarchal]], and dominance relationships with strong sexual elements are routinely observed between related females. Due largely to the female [[spotted hyena#Reproduction|spotted hyena]]'s unique [[urogenital system]], which looks more like a penis rather than a vagina, early naturalists thought hyenas were [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] males who commonly practiced [[homosexuality]].<ref name="Like mother, like cubs">{{cite web
| title= Like mother, like cubs: Hyena alpha moms jumpstart cubs with hormonal jolt
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]]
| year=2006
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070629155747/http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html  |archivedate = 2007-06-29}}</ref> Early writings such as [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' and the ''[[Physiologus]]'' suggested that the hyena continually changed its sex and nature from male to female and back again. In ''[[Paedagogus]]'', Clement of Alexandria noted that the [[hyena]] (along with the [[hare]]) was "quite obsessed with sexual intercourse." Many Europeans associated the hyena with sexual deformity, prostitution, deviant sexual behavior, and even witchcraft.

The reality behind the confusing reports is the sexually aggressive behavior between the females, including mounting between females. Research has shown that "in contrast to most other female mammals, female ''[[Crocuta]]'' are male-like in appearance, larger than males, and substantially more aggressive,"<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction">{{cite web
| last =Holekamp
| first =Kay E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction and Overview
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]], Department of [[Zoology]]
| year=2003
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070629155747/http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html  |archivedate = 2007-06-29}}</ref> and they have "been [[masculine|masculinized]] without being [[Femininity|defeminized]].”<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/>

Study of this unique [[genitalia]] and aggressive behavior in the female hyena has led to the understanding that more aggressive females are better able to compete for resources, including food and mating partners.<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/><ref name="Top Dogs: Steroid hormones">{{cite web
| last =Selim
| first =Jocelyn
| title=Top Dogs: Steroid hormones give hyenas a head start.
| publisher=[[Discover Magazine]]
| date=2006-04-28
| url=http://discovermagazine.com/2006/apr/hormone-hyenas
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Research has shown that "elevated levels of [[testosterone]] [[in utero]]"<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal"/> contribute to extra aggressiveness; both males and females mount members of both the same and opposite sex,<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal">{{cite journal
| doi =10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19961111)375:2<333::AID-CNE11>3.0.CO;2-W
| last =Forger
| first =Nancy G.
| coauthors =Laurence G. Frank, S. Marc Breedlove, Stephen E. Glickman
| title=Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal Muscles and Motoneurons in Spotted Hyenas
| journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology
| date=6 December 1998, | volume = 375
| page =333| issue = 2 , Pages 333 – 343
| url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19961111)375:2%3C333::AID-CNE11%3E3.0.CO;2-W
| accessdate = 2007-09-11
| pmid=8915834}}</ref><ref name="Wilson, Sexing the Hyena">{{cite journal
| title=Wilson, Sexing the Hyena - "The males mount each other"
| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
| date=
| url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?SIGNS032803
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> who in turn are possibly acting more [[submissive]] because of lower levels of testosterone in utero.<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction"/>

===Others===

====Lizards====
{{further2|[[Animal sexual behaviour#Lizards]]}}
Whiptail lizard ([[Teiidae]] genus) females have the ability to reproduce through [[parthenogenesis]] and as such males are rare and sexual breeding non-standard.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cole|first=Charles J.|coauthors=Townsend, Carol R.|date=9 May 2005|title=Parthenogenetic lizards as vertebrate systems |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology|publisher=Wiley Interscience|volume=256 |issue=S4|pages=174–176|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/110491269/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|accessdate=2008-12-14|doi=10.1002/jez.1402560436}}</ref> Females engage in sexual behavior to stimulate [[ovulation]], with their behavior following their hormonal cycles; during low levels of estrogen, these (female) lizards engage in "masculine" sexual roles. Those animals with currently high estrogen levels assume "feminine" sexual roles.

Lizards that perform the courtship ritual have greater fertility than those kept in isolation due to an increase in hormones triggered by the sexual behaviors. So, even though [[asexual]] whiptail lizards populations lack males, [[sexual stimuli]] still increase reproductive success.

From an [[evolutionary]] standpoint, these females are passing their full genetic code to all of their offspring (rather than the 50% of genes that would be passed in sexual reproduction). Certain species of [[gecko]] also reproduce by parthenogenesis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/06/050608053415.htm|title=Geckos: It's Not Always About Sex|last=Anon|date=9 June 2005|work=Science Daily|publisher=Lewis & Clark College |accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref>

====Insects====

=====Dragonflies=====
[[File:Head of dragonfly 2.jpg|thumb|The head of [[Darner Dragonfly]] (''Basiaeschna janata'')]]

Male homosexuality has been inferred in several species of [[dragonflies]] (the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Odonata]]). The [[cloacal]] pinchers of male [[damselflies]] and dragonflies inflict characteristic head damage to females during sex. A survey of 11 species of damsel and dragonflies<ref>{{cite journal | author = Dunkle S.W. | year = 1991 | title = Head damage from mating attempts in dragonflies (Odonata:Anisoptera) | url =http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16252041 | journal = Entomological News | volume = 102 | issue =1 | pages = 37–41 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Utzeri C., Belfiore C. | year = 1990 | title = Anomalous tandems in Odonata | url = | journal = Fragmenta Entomologica | volume = 22 | issue = 2| pages = 271–288 }}</ref> has revealed such mating damages in 20 to 80% of the males too, indicating a fairly high occurrence of sexual coupling between males.

=====Fruit flies=====
Male ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' flies bearing two copies of a mutant allele in the [[Fruitless (gene)|fruitless]] gene court and attempt to mate exclusively with other males.<ref name="Gailey1">{{cite journal|last=Gailey |first=D. A.|coauthors=Hall |date=J.C.|title=Behavior and Cytogenetics of fruitless in Drosophila melanogaster: Different Courtship Defects Caused by Separate, Closely Linked Lesions|journal=Genetics |publisher=The Genetics Society of America|volume= 121 |pages=773–785|url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/4/773|accessdate=2008-12-14|pmid=2542123|issue=4|pmc=1203660}}</ref> The genetic basis of animal homosexuality has been studied in the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''.<ref name="yamamoto3">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Nakano Y |title=Sexual behavior mutants revisited: molecular and cellular basis of Drosophila mating |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=56 |issue=7–8 |pages=634–46 |year=1999 |pmid=11212311 |doi=10.1007/s000180050458}}</ref> Here, multiple genes have been identified that can cause homosexual courtship and mating.<ref name=Yamamoto>{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Ito H, Fujitani K |title=Genetic dissection of sexual orientation: behavioral, cellular, and molecular approaches in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Neurosci. Res. |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=95–107 |year=1996 |pmid=8953572 |doi=10.1016/S0168-0102(96)01087-5}}</ref> These genes are thought to control behavior through [[pheromone]]s as well as altering the structure of the animal's brains.<ref name="ferveur">{{cite journal |author=Ferveur JF, Savarit F, O'Kane CJ, Sureau G, Greenspan RJ, Jallon JM |title=Genetic feminization of pheromones and its behavioral consequences in Drosophila males |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5318 |pages=1555–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9171057 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5318.1555}}</ref><ref name="yamamoto2">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Fujitani K, Usui K, Ito H, Nakano Y |title=From behavior to development: genes for sexual behavior define the neuronal sexual switch in Drosophila |journal=Mech. Dev. |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=135–46 |year=1998 |pmid=9622612 |doi=10.1016/S0925-4773(98)00042-2}}</ref> These studies have also investigated the influence of environment on the likelihood of flies displaying homosexual behavior.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal |author=Zhang SD, Odenwald WF |title=Misexpression of the white (w) gene triggers male-male courtship in Drosophila |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=92 |issue=12 |pages=5525–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7777542 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.12.5525 |pmc=41728}}</ref><ref name="svetec">{{cite journal |author=Svetec N, Ferveur JF |title=Social experience and pheromonal perception can change male-male interactions in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=208 |issue=Pt 5 |pages=891–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15755887 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/5/891 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01454}}</ref>

=====Bed bugs=====
{{Main|Bed bug#Reproduction}}
Male [[bed bug]]s (Cimex lectularius) are sexually attracted to any newly fed individual and this results in homosexual mounting. This occurs in heterosexual mounting by the [[traumatic insemination]] in which the male pierces the female abdomen with his needle-like penis. In homosexual mating this risks abdominal injuries as males lack the female counteradaptive [[spermalege]] structure. Males produce alarm [[pheromone]]s to reduce such homosexual matings.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ryne C | year = 2009 | title = Homosexual interactions in bed bugs: alarm pheromones as male recognition signals | url = | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 78 | issue = 6| pages = 1471–1475 | doi = 10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.09.033 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Animals|LGBT}}
{{columns-list|2|
* [[Xq28]]
* [[Against Nature?]]
* [[Biology and sexual orientation]]
* [[Freemartin]]
* [[Homosexuality and psychology]]
* [[Hermaphrodite#Zoology|Hermaphroditism in animals]]
* [[Innate bisexuality]]
* [[Non-human primate experiments]]
* [[Norms of reaction]]
* [[Plant sexuality]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
* [[Sexual orientation and medicine (disambiguation)]]
* [[Animal sexual behaviour#Cross species sex|Cross species sex]]
* [[List of animals displaying homosexual behavior]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0722_040722_gayanimal.html National Geographic]
* [http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Bartos_Holeckova_2006.pdf Homosexual Behaviour in Animals An Evolutionary Perspective]
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=bisexual-species Driscoll, E.V. (2008), Bisexual Species, Scientific American Mind, 19(3), p. 68-73.]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Homosexual Behavior In Animals}}
[[Category:Sexual orientation and science]]
[[Category:Ethology]]
[[Category:Animal sexuality]]

Family Research Institute

2012-08-18T21:10:32Z

TechBear: Undid revision 508019123 by Belchfire (talk) FRI is a designated hate group, and is on the list in question.

Family Research Institute

2012-08-18T05:29:54Z

TechBear: Undid revision 507936573 by 97.95.129.245 (talk) Revert unexplained deletion.

The '''Family Research Institute''' ('''FRI'''), originally known as the '''Institute for the Scientific Investigation of Sexuality''' ('''ISIS'''), is an [[United States|American]] [[non-profit organization]] based in [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]] which states that it has "...one overriding mission: to generate empirical research on issues that threaten the [[traditional family]], particularly [[homosexuality]], [[AIDS]], sexual social policy, and [[drug abuse]]".<ref name="FRI">[http://www.familyresearchinst.org/index.html Official website], Retrieved 20-June–2008</ref> The FRI is part of a movement of small, often faith-based organizations (sometimes called the ''[[Christian right]]'') which seek to influence the political debate in the United States. They seek "...to restore a world where [[marriage]] is upheld and honored, where children are nurtured and protected, and where homosexuality is not taught and accepted, but instead is discouraged and rejected at every level."<ref name="FRI"/> The ''Boston Globe'' reported that the FRI's 2005 budget was less than [[United States dollar|$]]200,000.<ref name="BG"/>

The FRI is run by [[Paul Cameron]], who earned a doctorate in [[psychology]] at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] in 1966. Cameron founded the ''Institute for the Scientific Investigation of Sexuality'' in 1982, and this institute later became the FRI.<ref name="BG">Boston Globe. "Beliefs drive research agenda of new think tanks", 31-July–2005</ref>

The [[American Psychological Association]] (APA) dropped Cameron from its membership on December 2, 1983 for a violation of the Preamble to the Ethical Principles of Psychologists.<ref name="Paul Cameron Bio and Fact Sheet">Herek, Gregory, [http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/facts_cameron_sheet.html Paul Cameron Bio and Fact Sheet], [[University of California, Davis]] Psychology Department. Retrieved 05-04-2007.</ref> However, Cameron maintains he had already resigned from the APA before they dropped him from membership.<ref>Burroway, Jim, [http://www.boxturtlebulletin.com/Articles/000,010.htm Paul Cameron vs. Professional Ethics], March 21, 2006. Retrieved 05-04-2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.familyresearchinst.org/FRI_APA-rebuttal.html Revisiting New Republic's Attack on Cameron], Family Research Report, November–December 1994. Retrieved 05-04-2007.</ref> In 1984, the Nebraska Psychological Association adopted a resolution stating that it "formally disassociates itself from the representations and interpretations of scientific literature offered by Dr. Paul Cameron in his writings and public statements on sexuality."<ref name=kranish>{{Cite news| url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2005/07/31/beliefs_drive_research_agenda_of_new_think_tanks/?page=full | title=Beliefs drive research agenda of new think tanks | author=Michael Kranish | work=Boston Globe | date=July 31, 2005 | accessdate=2006-08-31}}</ref> In 1986 the [[American Sociological Association]] passed a resolution condemning Cameron for "consistent misrepresentation of sociological research".<ref>{{Cite journal|author=American Sociological Association |year=1987 |month=February |title=Official Reports and Proceedings |journal=Footnotes |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=13–16, [http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/1987/ASA.02.1987.pdf#page=14 p. 14] |url=http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/1987/ASA.02.1987.pdf#page=13 |format=PDF |accessdate=2009-01-31 }}</ref> This was based on a report from the ASA's Committee on the Status of Homosexuals in Sociology, which summarised Cameron's inflammatory statements and commented, "It does not take great analytical abilities to suspect from even a cursory review of Cameron's writings that his claims have almost nothing to do with social science and that social science is used only to cover over another agenda. Very little of his work could find support from even a bad misreading of genuine social science investigation on the subject and some sociologists, such as Alan Bell, have been 'appalled' at the abuse of their work."<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Committee on the Status of Homosexuals in Sociology |year=1987 |month=January |title=The Cameron Case |journal=Footnotes |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=4, 6 |url=http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/1987/ASA.01.1987.pdf#page=4 |format=PDF |accessdate=2009-01-31 }}</ref> In 1996, the Board of Directors of the [[Canadian Psychological Association]] approved a position statement disassociating the organisation from Cameron's work on sexuality, stating that he had "consistently misinterpreted and misrepresented research on sexuality, homosexuality, and lesbianism".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cpa.ca/aboutcpa/policystatements/ |title=Policy Statements |accessdate=2007-02-20 |author=Canadian Psychological Association }}</ref>

Cameron's credibility was also questioned outside of academia. In his written opinion in Baker v. Wade (1985), Judge Buchmeyer of the U.S. District Court of Dallas referred to "Cameron's sworn statement that 'homosexuals abuse children at a proportionately greater incident than do heterosexuals,'" and concluded that "Dr. Paul Cameron...has himself made misrepresentations to this Court" and that "There has been no fraud or misrepresentations except by Dr. Cameron".<ref name="Paul Cameron Bio and Fact Sheet"/>

According to [[Gregory M. Herek]], a critical review of the Cameron group's sampling techniques, survey methodology, and interpretation of results reveals at least six serious errors in their study. Herek concludes,
<blockquote>an empirical study manifesting even one of these six weaknesses would be considered seriously flawed. In combination, the multiple methodological problems evident in the Cameron group's surveys mean that their results cannot even be considered a valid description of the specific group of individuals who returned the survey questionnaire. Because the data are essentially meaningless, it is not surprising that they have been virtually ignored by the scientific community."<ref>{{Cite web|author=Gregory M. Herek |year=1997-2007 |title= Critique of Surveys by the Paul Cameron Group|url=http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/facts_cameron_survey.html|accessdate=2007-09-06 }}</ref> </blockquote>

Herek and others have also said that the FRI's research has been published in ''[[Psychological Reports]]''. The ''Boston Globe'' says that the small journal charges authors to publish their studies, and that it has a non-standard peer-reviewing policy. Herek says that it has a "low rejection rate" and that Cameron's research "would have been rejected by more prestigious scientific journals"<ref>Gregory M. Herek: [http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/facts_cameron_journals.html Publication Outlets Used By The Cameron Group]</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.familyresearchinst.org/ Official website]

[[Category:Political organizations in the United States]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1982]]
[[Category:1982 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Colorado Springs, Colorado]]

[[sv:Family Research Institute]]

John Henry (Volksheld)

2012-03-12T15:21:46Z

TechBear: /* Film */ Removed seemingly incorrect template.

{{Other uses|John Henry (disambiguation)}}
[[Image:John Henry-27527.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Statue of John Henry outside the town of Talcott in [[Summers County, West Virginia]]]]

'''John Henry''' is an American [[folk hero]] and [[tall tale]]. Henry worked as a "steel-driver"—a man tasked with hammering and chiseling rock in the construction of [[tunnel]]s for [[railroad]] tracks. In the legend, John Henry's prowess as a steel-driver was measured in a race against a [[Power hammer|steam powered hammer]], which he won only to die in victory with his hammer in his hand. The story of John Henry has been the subject of numerous songs, stories, plays, and novels.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=Tracy/>

== Legend ==
The legend of John Henry has been compared to that of other American "Big Men", such as [[Paul Bunyan]]<ref name="Botkin"/> and [[Pecos Bill]].<ref name=Grimes>Grimes, William. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/18/books/18grim.html?ex=1168750800&en=2c72dddaeac54265&ei=5070 "Taking Swings at a Myth, With John Henry the Man"], ''[[New York Times]]'', Books section, October 18, 2006.</ref> John Henry's heroism is associated with several elements: his strength and grit as a [[Working class|working-class]] [[common man]], his status as a hero to [[African American]] laborers, and his [[allegory|allegorical]] depiction of "the tragedy of man versus machine" and other aspects of modernization.<ref name=Botkin>Botkin, B.A., ''Treasury of American folklore: Stories, ballads, and traditions of the people'', Crown Publishers, 1944, [http://library.du.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1/7004/Ch03-Part1%20Heroes%20and%20boasters%20%283%29.pdf?sequence=7 pp. 230-240]</ref><ref name=Grimes/>

There are many versions of John Henry's story. In almost all versions of the story, John Henry is a black man of exceptional physical gifts, a former [[slavery in the United States|slave]],<ref name=NPR>[http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/johnhenry/ "John Henry, Present at the Creation"], Stephen Wade, ''[[NPR]]'', September 2, 2002</ref> possibly born in [[Tennessee]].<ref name=Botkin/> Henry becomes the greatest "steel-driver" in the mid-nineteenth-century push to expand [[railroad]]s from the [[east coast of the United States]], across and through the mountains, to the frontier West. However, the owner of the railroad buys a [[Steam hammer|steam-powered hammer]] to do the work of his mostly black steel-driving crew. To save his job and the jobs of his men, John Henry challenges the owner to a contest: Henry will race the steam-powered hammer. John Henry beats the machine, but exhausted, collapses and dies.

==Historicity==
[[File:Big Bend Tunnel John Henry.jpg|thumb|240px|A sign by the C&O railway line near [[Talcott, West Virginia]].]]
The historicity of many aspects of the John Henry legend is subject to wide debate.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=Tracy/> It is commonly stated that Henry's rail work, including his race against the steam hammer, occurred while working along the [[Chesapeake and Ohio Railway]].<ref name=Botkin/> In particular, Henry is claimed to have raced the steam hammer during the construction of Big Bend tunnel near [[Talcott, West Virginia]] between 1869 and 1871.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=Plummer/><ref>[http://www.threeriverswv.com/legend-of-john-henry.php John Henry - The Steel Drivin' Man], Three Rivers Travel Council, [[Summers County]], West Virginia</ref> Talcott holds a yearly festival named for Henry and a statue and memorial plaque have been placed along a highway south of Talcott as it crosses over the Big Bend tunnel.<ref name=Plummer>[http://www.register-herald.com/local/x1617565480/Talcott-prepares-for-John-Henry-Days "Talcott prepares for John Henry Days"], Sarah Plummer, ''[[The Register-Herald]]'', June 28, 2010</ref>

In ''Steel Drivin' Man: John Henry, the Untold Story of an American Legend'', [[Scott Reynolds Nelson]], an associate professor of history at the [[College of William and Mary]], argues that John William Henry (prisoner #497 in the [[Virginia]] penitentiary, released by the warden to work on the C&O Railway in the 1870s) is the basis for the legendary John Henry.<ref name=Nelson>{{cite book |author=Nelson, Scott Reynolds |title=Steel drivin' man: John Henry, the untold story of an American legend |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=0-19-530010-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>{{rp|39}} Nelson asserts that a steam drill race at the Big Bend Tunnel would have been impossible because railroad records do not indicate a steam drill being used there.<ref name=Grimes/> Instead, he believes the contest took place at the Lewis Tunnel, between Talcott and [[Millboro, Virginia]], where [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|prison slaves]] worked beside steam drills.<ref name=Downes>Downes, Lawrence. [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/books/review/Downes-t.html "John Henry Days"], ''[[New York Times]]'', Books section, April 18, 2008.</ref> Nelson also believes that an early version of the ballad that refers to John Henry's grave as being at "the white house", "in sand", and somewhere that locomotives roar, indicates that Henry was buried at the Virginia penitentiary, where unmarked graves have been found.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/john_henry/nelson.html |title=John Henry - The Story - Lewis Tunnel |publisher=Ibiblio.org |date=2006-07-13 |accessdate=2010-07-20}}</ref>

According to Nelson:<blockquote>...workers managed their labor by setting a "stint," or pace, for it. Men who violated the stint were shunned...Here was a song that told you what happened to men who worked too fast: they died ugly deaths; their entrails fell on the ground. You sang the song slowly, you worked slowly, you guarded your life, or you died.<ref name="Nelson" />{{rp|32}}</blockquote>

[[Image:Coosa Tunnel IMG 3760.JPG|thumb|240px|Coosa Tunnel and tracks between Coosa Tunnel and neighboring Oak Mountain Tunnel, possible Alabama sites of John Henry legend.]]

Other research has placed Henry's famous race near [[Leeds, Alabama]]. Retired chemistry professor and folklorist John Garst, of the [[University of Georgia]], has argued that the contest instead happened at the Coosa Mountain Tunnel or the Oak Mountain Tunnel of the Columbus & Western Railway (now part of [[Norfolk Southern Railway]]) near Leeds on September 20, 1887. Based on documentation that corresponds with the account of C. C. Spencer, who claimed in the 1920s to have witnessed the contest, Garst speculates that John Henry may have been a man named Henry who was born a [[slave]] to P.A.L. Dabney, the father of the chief engineer of that railroad, in 1850.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Garst | first = John | title = Chasing John Henry in Alabama and Mississippi: A Personal Memoir of Work in Progress | journal = Tributaries: Journal of the Alabama Folklife Association | volume = 5 | year = 2002 | pages = 92–129| url=http://www.ibiblio.org/john_henry/alabama.html}}</ref> Since 2007, the city of Leeds has honored John Henry's legend during an annual September festival, held third weekend in September, called the Leeds Downtown Folk Festival & John Henry Celebration.<ref>[http://blog.al.com/bargain-mom/2011/09/free_leeds_downtown_folk_festi.html "Free Leeds Downtown Folk Festival is Saturday & Sunday"], Christie Dedman -- The Birmingham News The Birmingham News, September 15, 2011<p>[http://leedsfolkfestival.com/john-henry.php "John Henry in Leeds"], Leeds Folk Festival</ref>

Garst and Nelson have debated the merits of their divergent research conclusions.<ref>Garst, John (November 27, 2006) "[http://hnn.us/articles/31137.html On the Trail of the Real John Henry]". ''History News Network'', [[George Mason University]], includes rebuttal by Scott Nelson</ref> Other claims have been made over the years that places Henry and his contest in [[Kentucky]] or [[Jamaica]].<ref name=Cohen/>
{{clear}}

==Cultural references and influence==
The tale of John Henry has been used as a symbol in many cultural movements, including [[labor movement]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author=Singer A |title=Using Songs to Teach Labor History |journal=OAH Magazine of History |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=13–16 |year=1997 |month=Winter |doi= |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163131}}</ref> and the [[Civil Rights Movement]].<ref name=Nikola-Lisa/>

{{cquote|John Henry is a symbol of physical strength and endurance, of exploited labor, of the dignity of a human being against the degradations of the machine age, and of racial pride and solidarity. During World War II his image was used in U.S. government propaganda as a symbol of social tolerance and diversity.<ref name=Bicknell/>}}

===Music===
The story of John Henry is traditionally told through two types of songs: [[ballad]]s, commonly referred to as "The Ballad of John Henry", and work songs known as hammer songs, each with wide-ranging and varying lyrics.<ref name=Tracy/><ref name=Cohen/> Some songs, and some early folk historian research, conflate the songs about John Henry with those of [[John Hardy (song)|John Hardy]], a West Virginian outlaw.<ref name=Cohen/> Ballads about John Henry's life typically contain four major components: a [[premonition]] by John Henry as a child that steel-driving would lead to his death, the lead-up to and the results of the race against the steam hammer, Henry's death and burial, and the reaction of John Henry's wife.<ref name=Cohen/>

It is unclear when, where, and by whom the ballad of John Henry was first recorded for others to hear.

Songs featuring the story of John Henry have been recorded by many blues, folk, and rock musicians of different ethnic backgrounds. Many notable musicians have recorded John Henry ballads, including: [[Harry Belafonte]], [[Furry Lewis]],<ref name=Tracy/> [[Big Bill Broonzy]],<ref name=Tracy/> [[Pink Anderson]],<ref name=Cohen>{{cite book |author=Cohen, Norm |title=Long steel rail: the railroad in American folksong |publisher=University of Illinois Press |location=Urbana |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-252-06881-5 |oclc= |doi= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=AY7St4-8x10C&pg=PA61&dq=%22John+Henry%22+%22Pink+Anderson%22#v=onepage&q=%22John%20Henry%22&f=false}}</ref> [[Fiddlin' John Carson]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Uncle Dave Macon]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[J. E. Mainer]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Leon Bibb (musician)|Leon Bibb]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Lead Belly]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Johnny Cash]], [[Joe Bonamassa]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Woody Guthrie]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Paul Robeson]],<ref name=Bicknell>{{cite journal |author=Bicknell J |title=Reflections on "John Henry": Ethical Issues in Singing Performance |journal=The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism |volume=67|issue=2 |pages=173–180 |year=2009 |month=Spring |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6245.2009.01346.x |url=}}</ref> [[Pete Seeger]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Van Morrison]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Bruce Springsteen]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Gillian Welch]],<ref name=Bicknell/> the [[Drive-By Truckers]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Ramblin' Jack Elliott]],<ref name=Cohen/> and [[Jerry Lee Lewis]].<ref name=Cohen/>


===Literature===
Henry is the subject of the [[1931 in literature|1931]] [[Roark Bradford]] novel ''[[John Henry (novel)|John Henry]]'', illustrated by noted woodcut artist [[J. J. Lankes]]. The novel was adapted into a [[Musical theatre|stage musical]] in 1940, starring [[Paul Robeson]] in the title role.<ref name=Tracy/> According to [[Steven Carl Tracy]], Bradford's works were influential in broadly popularizing the John Henry legend beyond railroad and mining communities and outside of African American oral histories.<ref name=Tracy>{{cite book |author=Tracy, Steven C.; Bradford, Roark |title=John Henry: Roark Bradford's Novel and Play |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |location= |year=2011 |pages= |isbn=0-19-976650-9 |oclc= |doi= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=7hbFnHc_wcgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bradford&cd=5#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> In a 1933 article published in ''[[The Journal of Negro Education]]'', Bradford's John Henry was criticized for "making over a folk-hero into a clown."<ref>Sterling A. Brown. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2292236 "Negro Character as Seen by White Authors"], ''[[The Journal of Negro Education]]'', Vol. 2, No. 2 (Apr., 1933), pp. 179-203</ref> A 1948 obituary for Bradford described ''John Henry'' as "a better piece of native folklore than Paul Bunyan."<ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=6gBQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jlUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6151,4066920&dq=roark-bradford+john-henry&hl=en "Bradford was one of Immortals"], Robert C. Ruark, ''[[The Evening Independent]]'', November 22, 1948</ref>

[[Ezra Jack Keats]]'s ''John Henry: An American Legend'', published in 1965, is a notable [[picture book]] chronicling the history of John Henry and portraying him as the "personification of the [[medieval]] [[Everyman]] who struggles against insurmountable odds and wins."<ref name=Nikola-Lisa>{{cite journal |author=Nikola-Lisa W |title=John Henry: Then and Now |journal=African American Review |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=51–56 |year=1998 |month=Spring |doi= |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3042267}}</ref>

[[Colson Whitehead]]'s 2001 novel ''[[John Henry Days]]'' uses the John Henry myth as story background. Whitehead fictionalized the Talcott, West Virginia, John Henry Days festival and the release of the John Henry postage stamp in 1996.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/05/13/reviews/010513.13franzt.html "Freeloading Man"], Jonathan Franzen, ''[[New York Times]]'', May 13, 2001</ref>

The legend of John Henry was the inspiration for the third version of the [[DC Comics]] superhero [[John Henry Irons|Steel]] — also known as [[Steel (John Henry Irons)|John Henry Irons]], created by writer [[Louise Simonson]] and artist [[Jon Bogdanove]]. He is depicted fighting the [[Ku Klux Klan]] in the [[Southern United States]] in the 2003 limited series ''[[DC: The New Frontier]]'', set in the 1950s.

===Film===
Stop-motion animator [[George Pal]]'s 7-minute short film ''[[John Henry and the Inky-Poo]]'' was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] in [[19th Academy Awards|1947]] for [[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]].

In 1973, [[Nick Bosustow]] and [[David Adams (producer)|David Adams]] co-produced an 11-minute animated short, ''[[The Legend of John Henry]]''<ref>{{cite book |author=Lenburg, Jeff |title=Who's Who in Animated Cartoons: An International Guide to Film and Television's Award-Winning and Legendary Animators |publisher=Applause Books |location=New York |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=1-55783-671-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> for [[Paramount Pictures]]. The film featured narration by [[Roberta Flack]], who also sings a song detailing the legend of John Henry, and was nominated for an Academy Award in [[46th Academy Awards|1974]] for Best Animated Short Film.

John Henry was played by [[Roger Aaron Brown]] in the 1995 live-action [[Disney]] movie ''[[Tall Tale (film)|Tall Tale]]''; in this film, Henry is depicted as losing the battle with the steam powered hammer.

In 2000, [[Walt Disney Animation Studios]] released ''John Henry'', a short subject film directed by [[Mark Henn]], with music from [[Sounds of Blackness]] and voice acting from [[Alfre Woodard]], [[Geoffrey Jones]] and [[Tim Hodge]]. The film won a 2000 [[Giffoni Film Festival]] award and was nominated at the 2000 [[Annie Awards]]. An edited version was released as part of a video compilation entitled ''[[Disney's American Legends]]'' in 2002.

===Social Sciences===
The "John Henry effect" describes a possible behavioral response by people who are in a social science experiment. Typically, researchers worry that subjects in a control group, upon learning that they are in the control group, put in additional effort. For example, in an experiment to test the effect of class size on student performance, teachers of large classes might increase effort to show that teachers matter more than class size. Typically a John Henry effect will make detecting a true treatment effect more difficult.

===Other===

In 1996, the [[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States|U.S. Post Office]] issued a John Henry 32-cent [[postage stamp]]. It was part of a set honoring American folk heroes that included Paul Bunyan, Pecos Bill and [[Casey at the Bat]].<ref>[http://www.deseretnews.com/article/503453/NEW-STAMPS-TELL-TALL-TALES-OF-FOLK-HEROES.html NEW STAMPS TELL TALL TALES OF FOLK HEROES], ''[[Deseret News]]'', July 24, 1996</ref>

The American race horse [[John Henry (horse)|John Henry]] was named after the legendary figure.

The band [[They Might Be Giants]] named their 1994 album [[John_Henry_(album)|John Henry]] as a reference to the fable's "man versus machine" theme. (The album marked the band's switch from using an electronic drum machine to a human drummer)

In the Superman comics and novel, 'The Death and Return of Superman', one of the characters is named John Henry, and carries a large
steel driving sledge hammer.

John Henry was a fictional character on the TV series [[Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles]]. It was a humanoid machine equipped with the first artificial intelligence programming.

On the [[The Simpsons|''Simpsons'']] episode [[Homer's Odyssey (The Simpsons)|''Homer's Odyssey'']], [[Bart Simpson]] is made to sing the song "John Henry Was a Steel Drivin' Man" as punishment.

John Henry's ballad was referenced by Charles Kroger ([[Stanley Kamel]]) in a season five episode of ''[[Monk (TV series)|Monk]]''.

==See also==
* [[John Henryism]]
* [[Alexey Stakhanov]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Johnson, Guy B. (1929) ''John Henry: Tracking Down a Negro Legend''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press
* Chappell, Louis W. (1933) ''John Henry; A Folk-Lore Study''. Reprinted 1968. Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press
* [[Ezra Jack Keats|Keats, Ezra Jack]] (1965) ''John Henry, An American Legend''. New York: Pantheon Books.
* Williams, Brett (1983) ''John Henry: A Bio-Bibliography by Brett Williams.'' Westport, CT.: Greenwood Press
* Nelson, Scott. "Who Was John Henry? Railroad Construction, Southern Folklore, and the Birth of Rock and Roll", ''Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas Summer'' 2005 2(2): 53-80; {{doi|10.1215/15476715-2-2-53}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|John Henry (folk hero)|John Henry}}
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/john_henry/ John Henry - The Steel Driving Man] Includes a page with the updated abstract of Garst (2002) above.
*[http://www.heritagepreservation.org/PROGRAMS/SOS/4KIDS/4kids2000/wvhenry.htm John Henry Statue at Heritagepreservation.org]
*[http://www.threeriverswv.com/legend-of-john-henry.php Three Rivers Travel Council - John Henry Information] The Legend of John Henry Information

{{American tall tales}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Henry, John}}
[[Category:American folklore]]
[[Category:Disney films]]
[[Category:Short films]]
[[Category:Bluegrass songs]]
[[Category:Fictional African-American people]]
[[Category:Fictional characters from Missouri]]
[[Category:Fictional characters from West Virginia]]
[[Category:Steel (comics)|Folklore]]
[[Category:American legends]]
[[Category:Legendary people]]
[[Category:Tall tales]]
[[Category:Folklore of the Southern United States]]

[[es:John Henry (folclore)]]
[[fr:John Henry (folklore)]]
[[ja:ジョン・ヘンリー]]
[[no:John Henry]]
[[ru:Джон Генри (фольклор)]]
[[sv:John Henry (folklore)]]

John Henry (Volksheld)

2012-03-12T15:19:11Z

TechBear: /* Historicity */ Corrected spelling.

{{Other uses|John Henry (disambiguation)}}
[[Image:John Henry-27527.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Statue of John Henry outside the town of Talcott in [[Summers County, West Virginia]]]]

'''John Henry''' is an American [[folk hero]] and [[tall tale]]. Henry worked as a "steel-driver"—a man tasked with hammering and chiseling rock in the construction of [[tunnel]]s for [[railroad]] tracks. In the legend, John Henry's prowess as a steel-driver was measured in a race against a [[Power hammer|steam powered hammer]], which he won only to die in victory with his hammer in his hand. The story of John Henry has been the subject of numerous songs, stories, plays, and novels.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=Tracy/>

== Legend ==
The legend of John Henry has been compared to that of other American "Big Men", such as [[Paul Bunyan]]<ref name="Botkin"/> and [[Pecos Bill]].<ref name=Grimes>Grimes, William. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/18/books/18grim.html?ex=1168750800&en=2c72dddaeac54265&ei=5070 "Taking Swings at a Myth, With John Henry the Man"], ''[[New York Times]]'', Books section, October 18, 2006.</ref> John Henry's heroism is associated with several elements: his strength and grit as a [[Working class|working-class]] [[common man]], his status as a hero to [[African American]] laborers, and his [[allegory|allegorical]] depiction of "the tragedy of man versus machine" and other aspects of modernization.<ref name=Botkin>Botkin, B.A., ''Treasury of American folklore: Stories, ballads, and traditions of the people'', Crown Publishers, 1944, [http://library.du.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1/7004/Ch03-Part1%20Heroes%20and%20boasters%20%283%29.pdf?sequence=7 pp. 230-240]</ref><ref name=Grimes/>

There are many versions of John Henry's story. In almost all versions of the story, John Henry is a black man of exceptional physical gifts, a former [[slavery in the United States|slave]],<ref name=NPR>[http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/johnhenry/ "John Henry, Present at the Creation"], Stephen Wade, ''[[NPR]]'', September 2, 2002</ref> possibly born in [[Tennessee]].<ref name=Botkin/> Henry becomes the greatest "steel-driver" in the mid-nineteenth-century push to expand [[railroad]]s from the [[east coast of the United States]], across and through the mountains, to the frontier West. However, the owner of the railroad buys a [[Steam hammer|steam-powered hammer]] to do the work of his mostly black steel-driving crew. To save his job and the jobs of his men, John Henry challenges the owner to a contest: Henry will race the steam-powered hammer. John Henry beats the machine, but exhausted, collapses and dies.

==Historicity==
[[File:Big Bend Tunnel John Henry.jpg|thumb|240px|A sign by the C&O railway line near [[Talcott, West Virginia]].]]
The historicity of many aspects of the John Henry legend is subject to wide debate.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=Tracy/> It is commonly stated that Henry's rail work, including his race against the steam hammer, occurred while working along the [[Chesapeake and Ohio Railway]].<ref name=Botkin/> In particular, Henry is claimed to have raced the steam hammer during the construction of Big Bend tunnel near [[Talcott, West Virginia]] between 1869 and 1871.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=Plummer/><ref>[http://www.threeriverswv.com/legend-of-john-henry.php John Henry - The Steel Drivin' Man], Three Rivers Travel Council, [[Summers County]], West Virginia</ref> Talcott holds a yearly festival named for Henry and a statue and memorial plaque have been placed along a highway south of Talcott as it crosses over the Big Bend tunnel.<ref name=Plummer>[http://www.register-herald.com/local/x1617565480/Talcott-prepares-for-John-Henry-Days "Talcott prepares for John Henry Days"], Sarah Plummer, ''[[The Register-Herald]]'', June 28, 2010</ref>

In ''Steel Drivin' Man: John Henry, the Untold Story of an American Legend'', [[Scott Reynolds Nelson]], an associate professor of history at the [[College of William and Mary]], argues that John William Henry (prisoner #497 in the [[Virginia]] penitentiary, released by the warden to work on the C&O Railway in the 1870s) is the basis for the legendary John Henry.<ref name=Nelson>{{cite book |author=Nelson, Scott Reynolds |title=Steel drivin' man: John Henry, the untold story of an American legend |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=0-19-530010-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>{{rp|39}} Nelson asserts that a steam drill race at the Big Bend Tunnel would have been impossible because railroad records do not indicate a steam drill being used there.<ref name=Grimes/> Instead, he believes the contest took place at the Lewis Tunnel, between Talcott and [[Millboro, Virginia]], where [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|prison slaves]] worked beside steam drills.<ref name=Downes>Downes, Lawrence. [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/books/review/Downes-t.html "John Henry Days"], ''[[New York Times]]'', Books section, April 18, 2008.</ref> Nelson also believes that an early version of the ballad that refers to John Henry's grave as being at "the white house", "in sand", and somewhere that locomotives roar, indicates that Henry was buried at the Virginia penitentiary, where unmarked graves have been found.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/john_henry/nelson.html |title=John Henry - The Story - Lewis Tunnel |publisher=Ibiblio.org |date=2006-07-13 |accessdate=2010-07-20}}</ref>

According to Nelson:<blockquote>...workers managed their labor by setting a "stint," or pace, for it. Men who violated the stint were shunned...Here was a song that told you what happened to men who worked too fast: they died ugly deaths; their entrails fell on the ground. You sang the song slowly, you worked slowly, you guarded your life, or you died.<ref name="Nelson" />{{rp|32}}</blockquote>

[[Image:Coosa Tunnel IMG 3760.JPG|thumb|240px|Coosa Tunnel and tracks between Coosa Tunnel and neighboring Oak Mountain Tunnel, possible Alabama sites of John Henry legend.]]

Other research has placed Henry's famous race near [[Leeds, Alabama]]. Retired chemistry professor and folklorist John Garst, of the [[University of Georgia]], has argued that the contest instead happened at the Coosa Mountain Tunnel or the Oak Mountain Tunnel of the Columbus & Western Railway (now part of [[Norfolk Southern Railway]]) near Leeds on September 20, 1887. Based on documentation that corresponds with the account of C. C. Spencer, who claimed in the 1920s to have witnessed the contest, Garst speculates that John Henry may have been a man named Henry who was born a [[slave]] to P.A.L. Dabney, the father of the chief engineer of that railroad, in 1850.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Garst | first = John | title = Chasing John Henry in Alabama and Mississippi: A Personal Memoir of Work in Progress | journal = Tributaries: Journal of the Alabama Folklife Association | volume = 5 | year = 2002 | pages = 92–129| url=http://www.ibiblio.org/john_henry/alabama.html}}</ref> Since 2007, the city of Leeds has honored John Henry's legend during an annual September festival, held third weekend in September, called the Leeds Downtown Folk Festival & John Henry Celebration.<ref>[http://blog.al.com/bargain-mom/2011/09/free_leeds_downtown_folk_festi.html "Free Leeds Downtown Folk Festival is Saturday & Sunday"], Christie Dedman -- The Birmingham News The Birmingham News, September 15, 2011<p>[http://leedsfolkfestival.com/john-henry.php "John Henry in Leeds"], Leeds Folk Festival</ref>

Garst and Nelson have debated the merits of their divergent research conclusions.<ref>Garst, John (November 27, 2006) "[http://hnn.us/articles/31137.html On the Trail of the Real John Henry]". ''History News Network'', [[George Mason University]], includes rebuttal by Scott Nelson</ref> Other claims have been made over the years that places Henry and his contest in [[Kentucky]] or [[Jamaica]].<ref name=Cohen/>
{{clear}}

==Cultural references and influence==
The tale of John Henry has been used as a symbol in many cultural movements, including [[labor movement]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author=Singer A |title=Using Songs to Teach Labor History |journal=OAH Magazine of History |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=13–16 |year=1997 |month=Winter |doi= |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163131}}</ref> and the [[Civil Rights Movement]].<ref name=Nikola-Lisa/>

{{cquote|John Henry is a symbol of physical strength and endurance, of exploited labor, of the dignity of a human being against the degradations of the machine age, and of racial pride and solidarity. During World War II his image was used in U.S. government propaganda as a symbol of social tolerance and diversity.<ref name=Bicknell/>}}

===Music===
The story of John Henry is traditionally told through two types of songs: [[ballad]]s, commonly referred to as "The Ballad of John Henry", and work songs known as hammer songs, each with wide-ranging and varying lyrics.<ref name=Tracy/><ref name=Cohen/> Some songs, and some early folk historian research, conflate the songs about John Henry with those of [[John Hardy (song)|John Hardy]], a West Virginian outlaw.<ref name=Cohen/> Ballads about John Henry's life typically contain four major components: a [[premonition]] by John Henry as a child that steel-driving would lead to his death, the lead-up to and the results of the race against the steam hammer, Henry's death and burial, and the reaction of John Henry's wife.<ref name=Cohen/>

It is unclear when, where, and by whom the ballad of John Henry was first recorded for others to hear.

Songs featuring the story of John Henry have been recorded by many blues, folk, and rock musicians of different ethnic backgrounds. Many notable musicians have recorded John Henry ballads, including: [[Harry Belafonte]], [[Furry Lewis]],<ref name=Tracy/> [[Big Bill Broonzy]],<ref name=Tracy/> [[Pink Anderson]],<ref name=Cohen>{{cite book |author=Cohen, Norm |title=Long steel rail: the railroad in American folksong |publisher=University of Illinois Press |location=Urbana |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-252-06881-5 |oclc= |doi= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=AY7St4-8x10C&pg=PA61&dq=%22John+Henry%22+%22Pink+Anderson%22#v=onepage&q=%22John%20Henry%22&f=false}}</ref> [[Fiddlin' John Carson]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Uncle Dave Macon]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[J. E. Mainer]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Leon Bibb (musician)|Leon Bibb]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Lead Belly]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Johnny Cash]], [[Joe Bonamassa]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Woody Guthrie]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Paul Robeson]],<ref name=Bicknell>{{cite journal |author=Bicknell J |title=Reflections on "John Henry": Ethical Issues in Singing Performance |journal=The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism |volume=67|issue=2 |pages=173–180 |year=2009 |month=Spring |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6245.2009.01346.x |url=}}</ref> [[Pete Seeger]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Van Morrison]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Bruce Springsteen]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Gillian Welch]],<ref name=Bicknell/> the [[Drive-By Truckers]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Ramblin' Jack Elliott]],<ref name=Cohen/> and [[Jerry Lee Lewis]].<ref name=Cohen/>


===Literature===
Henry is the subject of the [[1931 in literature|1931]] [[Roark Bradford]] novel ''[[John Henry (novel)|John Henry]]'', illustrated by noted woodcut artist [[J. J. Lankes]]. The novel was adapted into a [[Musical theatre|stage musical]] in 1940, starring [[Paul Robeson]] in the title role.<ref name=Tracy/> According to [[Steven Carl Tracy]], Bradford's works were influential in broadly popularizing the John Henry legend beyond railroad and mining communities and outside of African American oral histories.<ref name=Tracy>{{cite book |author=Tracy, Steven C.; Bradford, Roark |title=John Henry: Roark Bradford's Novel and Play |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |location= |year=2011 |pages= |isbn=0-19-976650-9 |oclc= |doi= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=7hbFnHc_wcgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bradford&cd=5#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> In a 1933 article published in ''[[The Journal of Negro Education]]'', Bradford's John Henry was criticized for "making over a folk-hero into a clown."<ref>Sterling A. Brown. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2292236 "Negro Character as Seen by White Authors"], ''[[The Journal of Negro Education]]'', Vol. 2, No. 2 (Apr., 1933), pp. 179-203</ref> A 1948 obituary for Bradford described ''John Henry'' as "a better piece of native folklore than Paul Bunyan."<ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=6gBQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jlUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6151,4066920&dq=roark-bradford+john-henry&hl=en "Bradford was one of Immortals"], Robert C. Ruark, ''[[The Evening Independent]]'', November 22, 1948</ref>

[[Ezra Jack Keats]]'s ''John Henry: An American Legend'', published in 1965, is a notable [[picture book]] chronicling the history of John Henry and portraying him as the "personification of the [[medieval]] [[Everyman]] who struggles against insurmountable odds and wins."<ref name=Nikola-Lisa>{{cite journal |author=Nikola-Lisa W |title=John Henry: Then and Now |journal=African American Review |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=51–56 |year=1998 |month=Spring |doi= |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3042267}}</ref>

[[Colson Whitehead]]'s 2001 novel ''[[John Henry Days]]'' uses the John Henry myth as story background. Whitehead fictionalized the Talcott, West Virginia, John Henry Days festival and the release of the John Henry postage stamp in 1996.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/05/13/reviews/010513.13franzt.html "Freeloading Man"], Jonathan Franzen, ''[[New York Times]]'', May 13, 2001</ref>

The legend of John Henry was the inspiration for the third version of the [[DC Comics]] superhero [[John Henry Irons|Steel]] — also known as [[Steel (John Henry Irons)|John Henry Irons]], created by writer [[Louise Simonson]] and artist [[Jon Bogdanove]]. He is depicted fighting the [[Ku Klux Klan]] in the [[Southern United States]] in the 2003 limited series ''[[DC: The New Frontier]]'', set in the 1950s.

===Film===
Stop-motion animator [[George Pal]]'s 7-minute short film ''[[John Henry and the Inky-Poo]]'' was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] in [[19th Academy Awards|1947]] for [[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]].

In 1973, [[Nick Bosustow]] and [[David Adams (producer)|David Adams]] co-produced an 11-minute animated short, ''[[The Legend of John Henry]]''<ref>{{cite book |author=Lenburg, Jeff |title=Who's Who in Animated Cartoons: An International Guide to Film and Television's Award-Winning and Legendary Animators |publisher=Applause Books |location=New York |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=1-55783-671-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>{{rp|33}} for [[Paramount Pictures]]. The film featured narration by [[Roberta Flack]], who also sings a song detailing the legend of John Henry, and was nominated for an Academy Award in [[46th Academy Awards|1974]] for Best Animated Short Film.

John Henry was played by [[Roger Aaron Brown]] in the 1995 live-action [[Disney]] movie ''[[Tall Tale (film)|Tall Tale]]''; in this film, Henry is depicted as losing the battle with the steam powered hammer.

In 2000, [[Walt Disney Animation Studios]] released ''John Henry'', a short subject film directed by [[Mark Henn]], with music from [[Sounds of Blackness]] and voice acting from [[Alfre Woodard]], [[Geoffrey Jones]] and [[Tim Hodge]]. The film won a 2000 [[Giffoni Film Festival]] award and was nominated at the 2000 [[Annie Awards]]. An edited version was released as part of a video compilation entitled ''[[Disney's American Legends]]'' in 2002.

===Social Sciences===
The "John Henry effect" describes a possible behavioral response by people who are in a social science experiment. Typically, researchers worry that subjects in a control group, upon learning that they are in the control group, put in additional effort. For example, in an experiment to test the effect of class size on student performance, teachers of large classes might increase effort to show that teachers matter more than class size. Typically a John Henry effect will make detecting a true treatment effect more difficult.

===Other===

In 1996, the [[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States|U.S. Post Office]] issued a John Henry 32-cent [[postage stamp]]. It was part of a set honoring American folk heroes that included Paul Bunyan, Pecos Bill and [[Casey at the Bat]].<ref>[http://www.deseretnews.com/article/503453/NEW-STAMPS-TELL-TALL-TALES-OF-FOLK-HEROES.html NEW STAMPS TELL TALL TALES OF FOLK HEROES], ''[[Deseret News]]'', July 24, 1996</ref>

The American race horse [[John Henry (horse)|John Henry]] was named after the legendary figure.

The band [[They Might Be Giants]] named their 1994 album [[John_Henry_(album)|John Henry]] as a reference to the fable's "man versus machine" theme. (The album marked the band's switch from using an electronic drum machine to a human drummer)

In the Superman comics and novel, 'The Death and Return of Superman', one of the characters is named John Henry, and carries a large
steel driving sledge hammer.

John Henry was a fictional character on the TV series [[Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles]]. It was a humanoid machine equipped with the first artificial intelligence programming.

On the [[The Simpsons|''Simpsons'']] episode [[Homer's Odyssey (The Simpsons)|''Homer's Odyssey'']], [[Bart Simpson]] is made to sing the song "John Henry Was a Steel Drivin' Man" as punishment.

John Henry's ballad was referenced by Charles Kroger ([[Stanley Kamel]]) in a season five episode of ''[[Monk (TV series)|Monk]]''.

==See also==
* [[John Henryism]]
* [[Alexey Stakhanov]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Johnson, Guy B. (1929) ''John Henry: Tracking Down a Negro Legend''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press
* Chappell, Louis W. (1933) ''John Henry; A Folk-Lore Study''. Reprinted 1968. Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press
* [[Ezra Jack Keats|Keats, Ezra Jack]] (1965) ''John Henry, An American Legend''. New York: Pantheon Books.
* Williams, Brett (1983) ''John Henry: A Bio-Bibliography by Brett Williams.'' Westport, CT.: Greenwood Press
* Nelson, Scott. "Who Was John Henry? Railroad Construction, Southern Folklore, and the Birth of Rock and Roll", ''Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas Summer'' 2005 2(2): 53-80; {{doi|10.1215/15476715-2-2-53}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|John Henry (folk hero)|John Henry}}
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/john_henry/ John Henry - The Steel Driving Man] Includes a page with the updated abstract of Garst (2002) above.
*[http://www.heritagepreservation.org/PROGRAMS/SOS/4KIDS/4kids2000/wvhenry.htm John Henry Statue at Heritagepreservation.org]
*[http://www.threeriverswv.com/legend-of-john-henry.php Three Rivers Travel Council - John Henry Information] The Legend of John Henry Information

{{American tall tales}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Henry, John}}
[[Category:American folklore]]
[[Category:Disney films]]
[[Category:Short films]]
[[Category:Bluegrass songs]]
[[Category:Fictional African-American people]]
[[Category:Fictional characters from Missouri]]
[[Category:Fictional characters from West Virginia]]
[[Category:Steel (comics)|Folklore]]
[[Category:American legends]]
[[Category:Legendary people]]
[[Category:Tall tales]]
[[Category:Folklore of the Southern United States]]

[[es:John Henry (folclore)]]
[[fr:John Henry (folklore)]]
[[ja:ジョン・ヘンリー]]
[[no:John Henry]]
[[ru:Джон Генри (фольклор)]]
[[sv:John Henry (folklore)]]

John Henry (Volksheld)

2012-03-12T15:17:58Z

TechBear: Undid revision 481391431 by 184.2.178.251 (talk) Revert seeming vandalism.

{{Other uses|John Henry (disambiguation)}}
[[Image:John Henry-27527.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Statue of John Henry outside the town of Talcott in [[Summers County, West Virginia]]]]

'''John Henry''' is an American [[folk hero]] and [[tall tale]]. Henry worked as a "steel-driver"—a man tasked with hammering and chiseling rock in the construction of [[tunnel]]s for [[railroad]] tracks. In the legend, John Henry's prowess as a steel-driver was measured in a race against a [[Power hammer|steam powered hammer]], which he won only to die in victory with his hammer in his hand. The story of John Henry has been the subject of numerous songs, stories, plays, and novels.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=Tracy/>

== Legend ==
The legend of John Henry has been compared to that of other American "Big Men", such as [[Paul Bunyan]]<ref name="Botkin"/> and [[Pecos Bill]].<ref name=Grimes>Grimes, William. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/18/books/18grim.html?ex=1168750800&en=2c72dddaeac54265&ei=5070 "Taking Swings at a Myth, With John Henry the Man"], ''[[New York Times]]'', Books section, October 18, 2006.</ref> John Henry's heroism is associated with several elements: his strength and grit as a [[Working class|working-class]] [[common man]], his status as a hero to [[African American]] laborers, and his [[allegory|allegorical]] depiction of "the tragedy of man versus machine" and other aspects of modernization.<ref name=Botkin>Botkin, B.A., ''Treasury of American folklore: Stories, ballads, and traditions of the people'', Crown Publishers, 1944, [http://library.du.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1/7004/Ch03-Part1%20Heroes%20and%20boasters%20%283%29.pdf?sequence=7 pp. 230-240]</ref><ref name=Grimes/>

There are many versions of John Henry's story. In almost all versions of the story, John Henry is a black man of exceptional physical gifts, a former [[slavery in the United States|slave]],<ref name=NPR>[http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/johnhenry/ "John Henry, Present at the Creation"], Stephen Wade, ''[[NPR]]'', September 2, 2002</ref> possibly born in [[Tennessee]].<ref name=Botkin/> Henry becomes the greatest "steel-driver" in the mid-nineteenth-century push to expand [[railroad]]s from the [[east coast of the United States]], across and through the mountains, to the frontier West. However, the owner of the railroad buys a [[Steam hammer|steam-powered hammer]] to do the work of his mostly black steel-driving crew. To save his job and the jobs of his men, John Henry challenges the owner to a contest: Henry will race the steam-powered hammer. John Henry beats the machine, but exhausted, collapses and dies.

==Historicity==
[[File:Big Bend Tunnel John Henry.jpg|thumb|240px|A sign by the C&O railway line near [[Talcott, West Virginia]].]]
The historicity of any aspects of the John Henry legend is subject to wide debate.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=Tracy/> It is commonly stated that Henry's rail work, including his race against the steam hammer, occurred while working along the [[Chesapeake and Ohio Railway]].<ref name=Botkin/> In particular, Henry is claimed to have raced the steam hammer during the construction of Big Bend tunnel near [[Talcott, West Virginia]] between 1869 and 1871.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=Plummer/><ref>[http://www.threeriverswv.com/legend-of-john-henry.php John Henry - The Steel Drivin' Man], Three Rivers Travel Council, [[Summers County]], West Virginia</ref> Talcott holds a yearly festival named for Henry and a statue and memorial plaque have been placed along a highway south of Talcott as it crosses over the Big Bend tunnel.<ref name=Plummer>[http://www.register-herald.com/local/x1617565480/Talcott-prepares-for-John-Henry-Days "Talcott prepares for John Henry Days"], Sarah Plummer, ''[[The Register-Herald]]'', June 28, 2010</ref>

In ''Steel Drivin' Man: John Henry, the Untold Story of an American Legend'', [[Scott Reynolds Nelson]], an associate professor of history at the [[College of William and Mary]], argues that John William Henry (prisoner #497 in the [[Virginia]] penitentiary, released by the warden to work on the C&O Railway in the 1870s) is the basis for the legendary John Henry.<ref name=Nelson>{{cite book |author=Nelson, Scott Reynolds |title=Steel drivin' man: John Henry, the untold story of an American legend |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=0-19-530010-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>{{rp|39}} Nelson asserts that a steam drill race at the Big Bend Tunnel would have been impossible because railroad records do not indicate a steam drill being used there.<ref name=Grimes/> Instead, he believes the contest took place at the Lewis Tunnel, between Talcott and [[Millboro, Virginia]], where [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|prison slaves]] worked beside steam drills.<ref name=Downes>Downes, Lawrence. [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/books/review/Downes-t.html "John Henry Days"], ''[[New York Times]]'', Books section, April 18, 2008.</ref> Nelson also believes that an early version of the ballad that refers to John Henry's grave as being at "the white house", "in sand", and somewhere that locomotives roar, indicates that Henry was buried at the Virginia penitentiary, where unmarked graves have been found.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/john_henry/nelson.html |title=John Henry - The Story - Lewis Tunnel |publisher=Ibiblio.org |date=2006-07-13 |accessdate=2010-07-20}}</ref>

According to Nelson:<blockquote>...workers managed their labor by setting a "stint," or pace, for it. Men who violated the stint were shunned...Here was a song that told you what happened to men who worked too fast: they died ugly deaths; their entrails fell on the ground. You sang the song slowly, you worked slowly, you guarded your life, or you died.<ref name="Nelson" />{{rp|32}}</blockquote>

[[Image:Coosa Tunnel IMG 3760.JPG|thumb|240px|Coosa Tunnel and tracks between Coosa Tunnel and neighboring Oak Mountain Tunnel, possible Alabama sites of John Henry legend.]]

Other research has placed Henry's famous race near [[Leeds, Alabama]]. Retired chemistry professor and folklorist John Garst, of the [[University of Georgia]], has argued that the contest instead happened at the Coosa Mountain Tunnel or the Oak Mountain Tunnel of the Columbus & Western Railway (now part of [[Norfolk Southern Railway]]) near Leeds on September 20, 1887. Based on documentation that corresponds with the account of C. C. Spencer, who claimed in the 1920s to have witnessed the contest, Garst speculates that John Henry may have been a man named Henry who was born a [[slave]] to P.A.L. Dabney, the father of the chief engineer of that railroad, in 1850.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Garst | first = John | title = Chasing John Henry in Alabama and Mississippi: A Personal Memoir of Work in Progress | journal = Tributaries: Journal of the Alabama Folklife Association | volume = 5 | year = 2002 | pages = 92–129| url=http://www.ibiblio.org/john_henry/alabama.html}}</ref> Since 2007, the city of Leeds has honored John Henry's legend during an annual September festival, held third weekend in September, called the Leeds Downtown Folk Festival & John Henry Celebration.<ref>[http://blog.al.com/bargain-mom/2011/09/free_leeds_downtown_folk_festi.html "Free Leeds Downtown Folk Festival is Saturday & Sunday"], Christie Dedman -- The Birmingham News The Birmingham News, September 15, 2011<p>[http://leedsfolkfestival.com/john-henry.php "John Henry in Leeds"], Leeds Folk Festival</ref>

Garst and Nelson have debated the merits of their divergent research conclusions.<ref>Garst, John (November 27, 2006) "[http://hnn.us/articles/31137.html On the Trail of the Real John Henry]". ''History News Network'', [[George Mason University]], includes rebuttal by Scott Nelson</ref> Other claims have been made over the years that places Henry and his contest in [[Kentucky]] or [[Jamaica]].<ref name=Cohen/>
{{clear}}

==Cultural references and influence==
The tale of John Henry has been used as a symbol in many cultural movements, including [[labor movement]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author=Singer A |title=Using Songs to Teach Labor History |journal=OAH Magazine of History |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=13–16 |year=1997 |month=Winter |doi= |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163131}}</ref> and the [[Civil Rights Movement]].<ref name=Nikola-Lisa/>

{{cquote|John Henry is a symbol of physical strength and endurance, of exploited labor, of the dignity of a human being against the degradations of the machine age, and of racial pride and solidarity. During World War II his image was used in U.S. government propaganda as a symbol of social tolerance and diversity.<ref name=Bicknell/>}}

===Music===
The story of John Henry is traditionally told through two types of songs: [[ballad]]s, commonly referred to as "The Ballad of John Henry", and work songs known as hammer songs, each with wide-ranging and varying lyrics.<ref name=Tracy/><ref name=Cohen/> Some songs, and some early folk historian research, conflate the songs about John Henry with those of [[John Hardy (song)|John Hardy]], a West Virginian outlaw.<ref name=Cohen/> Ballads about John Henry's life typically contain four major components: a [[premonition]] by John Henry as a child that steel-driving would lead to his death, the lead-up to and the results of the race against the steam hammer, Henry's death and burial, and the reaction of John Henry's wife.<ref name=Cohen/>

It is unclear when, where, and by whom the ballad of John Henry was first recorded for others to hear.

Songs featuring the story of John Henry have been recorded by many blues, folk, and rock musicians of different ethnic backgrounds. Many notable musicians have recorded John Henry ballads, including: [[Harry Belafonte]], [[Furry Lewis]],<ref name=Tracy/> [[Big Bill Broonzy]],<ref name=Tracy/> [[Pink Anderson]],<ref name=Cohen>{{cite book |author=Cohen, Norm |title=Long steel rail: the railroad in American folksong |publisher=University of Illinois Press |location=Urbana |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-252-06881-5 |oclc= |doi= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=AY7St4-8x10C&pg=PA61&dq=%22John+Henry%22+%22Pink+Anderson%22#v=onepage&q=%22John%20Henry%22&f=false}}</ref> [[Fiddlin' John Carson]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Uncle Dave Macon]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[J. E. Mainer]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Leon Bibb (musician)|Leon Bibb]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Lead Belly]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Johnny Cash]], [[Joe Bonamassa]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Woody Guthrie]],<ref name=Cohen/> [[Paul Robeson]],<ref name=Bicknell>{{cite journal |author=Bicknell J |title=Reflections on "John Henry": Ethical Issues in Singing Performance |journal=The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism |volume=67|issue=2 |pages=173–180 |year=2009 |month=Spring |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6245.2009.01346.x |url=}}</ref> [[Pete Seeger]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Van Morrison]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Bruce Springsteen]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Gillian Welch]],<ref name=Bicknell/> the [[Drive-By Truckers]],<ref name=Bicknell/> [[Ramblin' Jack Elliott]],<ref name=Cohen/> and [[Jerry Lee Lewis]].<ref name=Cohen/>


===Literature===
Henry is the subject of the [[1931 in literature|1931]] [[Roark Bradford]] novel ''[[John Henry (novel)|John Henry]]'', illustrated by noted woodcut artist [[J. J. Lankes]]. The novel was adapted into a [[Musical theatre|stage musical]] in 1940, starring [[Paul Robeson]] in the title role.<ref name=Tracy/> According to [[Steven Carl Tracy]], Bradford's works were influential in broadly popularizing the John Henry legend beyond railroad and mining communities and outside of African American oral histories.<ref name=Tracy>{{cite book |author=Tracy, Steven C.; Bradford, Roark |title=John Henry: Roark Bradford's Novel and Play |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |location= |year=2011 |pages= |isbn=0-19-976650-9 |oclc= |doi= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=7hbFnHc_wcgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bradford&cd=5#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> In a 1933 article published in ''[[The Journal of Negro Education]]'', Bradford's John Henry was criticized for "making over a folk-hero into a clown."<ref>Sterling A. Brown. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2292236 "Negro Character as Seen by White Authors"], ''[[The Journal of Negro Education]]'', Vol. 2, No. 2 (Apr., 1933), pp. 179-203</ref> A 1948 obituary for Bradford described ''John Henry'' as "a better piece of native folklore than Paul Bunyan."<ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=6gBQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jlUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6151,4066920&dq=roark-bradford+john-henry&hl=en "Bradford was one of Immortals"], Robert C. Ruark, ''[[The Evening Independent]]'', November 22, 1948</ref>

[[Ezra Jack Keats]]'s ''John Henry: An American Legend'', published in 1965, is a notable [[picture book]] chronicling the history of John Henry and portraying him as the "personification of the [[medieval]] [[Everyman]] who struggles against insurmountable odds and wins."<ref name=Nikola-Lisa>{{cite journal |author=Nikola-Lisa W |title=John Henry: Then and Now |journal=African American Review |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=51–56 |year=1998 |month=Spring |doi= |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3042267}}</ref>

[[Colson Whitehead]]'s 2001 novel ''[[John Henry Days]]'' uses the John Henry myth as story background. Whitehead fictionalized the Talcott, West Virginia, John Henry Days festival and the release of the John Henry postage stamp in 1996.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/05/13/reviews/010513.13franzt.html "Freeloading Man"], Jonathan Franzen, ''[[New York Times]]'', May 13, 2001</ref>

The legend of John Henry was the inspiration for the third version of the [[DC Comics]] superhero [[John Henry Irons|Steel]] — also known as [[Steel (John Henry Irons)|John Henry Irons]], created by writer [[Louise Simonson]] and artist [[Jon Bogdanove]]. He is depicted fighting the [[Ku Klux Klan]] in the [[Southern United States]] in the 2003 limited series ''[[DC: The New Frontier]]'', set in the 1950s.

===Film===
Stop-motion animator [[George Pal]]'s 7-minute short film ''[[John Henry and the Inky-Poo]]'' was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] in [[19th Academy Awards|1947]] for [[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]].

In 1973, [[Nick Bosustow]] and [[David Adams (producer)|David Adams]] co-produced an 11-minute animated short, ''[[The Legend of John Henry]]''<ref>{{cite book |author=Lenburg, Jeff |title=Who's Who in Animated Cartoons: An International Guide to Film and Television's Award-Winning and Legendary Animators |publisher=Applause Books |location=New York |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=1-55783-671-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>{{rp|33}} for [[Paramount Pictures]]. The film featured narration by [[Roberta Flack]], who also sings a song detailing the legend of John Henry, and was nominated for an Academy Award in [[46th Academy Awards|1974]] for Best Animated Short Film.

John Henry was played by [[Roger Aaron Brown]] in the 1995 live-action [[Disney]] movie ''[[Tall Tale (film)|Tall Tale]]''; in this film, Henry is depicted as losing the battle with the steam powered hammer.

In 2000, [[Walt Disney Animation Studios]] released ''John Henry'', a short subject film directed by [[Mark Henn]], with music from [[Sounds of Blackness]] and voice acting from [[Alfre Woodard]], [[Geoffrey Jones]] and [[Tim Hodge]]. The film won a 2000 [[Giffoni Film Festival]] award and was nominated at the 2000 [[Annie Awards]]. An edited version was released as part of a video compilation entitled ''[[Disney's American Legends]]'' in 2002.

===Social Sciences===
The "John Henry effect" describes a possible behavioral response by people who are in a social science experiment. Typically, researchers worry that subjects in a control group, upon learning that they are in the control group, put in additional effort. For example, in an experiment to test the effect of class size on student performance, teachers of large classes might increase effort to show that teachers matter more than class size. Typically a John Henry effect will make detecting a true treatment effect more difficult.

===Other===

In 1996, the [[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States|U.S. Post Office]] issued a John Henry 32-cent [[postage stamp]]. It was part of a set honoring American folk heroes that included Paul Bunyan, Pecos Bill and [[Casey at the Bat]].<ref>[http://www.deseretnews.com/article/503453/NEW-STAMPS-TELL-TALL-TALES-OF-FOLK-HEROES.html NEW STAMPS TELL TALL TALES OF FOLK HEROES], ''[[Deseret News]]'', July 24, 1996</ref>

The American race horse [[John Henry (horse)|John Henry]] was named after the legendary figure.

The band [[They Might Be Giants]] named their 1994 album [[John_Henry_(album)|John Henry]] as a reference to the fable's "man versus machine" theme. (The album marked the band's switch from using an electronic drum machine to a human drummer)

In the Superman comics and novel, 'The Death and Return of Superman', one of the characters is named John Henry, and carries a large
steel driving sledge hammer.

John Henry was a fictional character on the TV series [[Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles]]. It was a humanoid machine equipped with the first artificial intelligence programming.

On the [[The Simpsons|''Simpsons'']] episode [[Homer's Odyssey (The Simpsons)|''Homer's Odyssey'']], [[Bart Simpson]] is made to sing the song "John Henry Was a Steel Drivin' Man" as punishment.

John Henry's ballad was referenced by Charles Kroger ([[Stanley Kamel]]) in a season five episode of ''[[Monk (TV series)|Monk]]''.

==See also==
* [[John Henryism]]
* [[Alexey Stakhanov]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Johnson, Guy B. (1929) ''John Henry: Tracking Down a Negro Legend''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press
* Chappell, Louis W. (1933) ''John Henry; A Folk-Lore Study''. Reprinted 1968. Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press
* [[Ezra Jack Keats|Keats, Ezra Jack]] (1965) ''John Henry, An American Legend''. New York: Pantheon Books.
* Williams, Brett (1983) ''John Henry: A Bio-Bibliography by Brett Williams.'' Westport, CT.: Greenwood Press
* Nelson, Scott. "Who Was John Henry? Railroad Construction, Southern Folklore, and the Birth of Rock and Roll", ''Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas Summer'' 2005 2(2): 53-80; {{doi|10.1215/15476715-2-2-53}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|John Henry (folk hero)|John Henry}}
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/john_henry/ John Henry - The Steel Driving Man] Includes a page with the updated abstract of Garst (2002) above.
*[http://www.heritagepreservation.org/PROGRAMS/SOS/4KIDS/4kids2000/wvhenry.htm John Henry Statue at Heritagepreservation.org]
*[http://www.threeriverswv.com/legend-of-john-henry.php Three Rivers Travel Council - John Henry Information] The Legend of John Henry Information

{{American tall tales}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Henry, John}}
[[Category:American folklore]]
[[Category:Disney films]]
[[Category:Short films]]
[[Category:Bluegrass songs]]
[[Category:Fictional African-American people]]
[[Category:Fictional characters from Missouri]]
[[Category:Fictional characters from West Virginia]]
[[Category:Steel (comics)|Folklore]]
[[Category:American legends]]
[[Category:Legendary people]]
[[Category:Tall tales]]
[[Category:Folklore of the Southern United States]]

[[es:John Henry (folclore)]]
[[fr:John Henry (folklore)]]
[[ja:ジョン・ヘンリー]]
[[no:John Henry]]
[[ru:Джон Генри (фольклор)]]
[[sv:John Henry (folklore)]]

Homosexuelles Verhalten bei Tieren

2010-04-21T04:01:36Z

TechBear: Undid revision 357331415 by 74.166.241.252 (talk) Revert vandalism

[[Image:St Croix sheep.jpg|thumb|right|A pair of [[St. Croix]] [[ewe]]s.]]
'''Homosexual behavior in animals''' refers to the documented evidence, [[bisexual]] and [[transgender]] behavior in non-human animals. Such behaviors include [[Sexual intercourse|sex]], [[courtship]], [[affection]], [[pair bond]]ing, and [[parenting]]. A 1999 review by researcher [[Bruce Bagemihl]] shows that homosexual behavior has been observed in close to 1500 species, ranging from [[primates]] to [[Acanthocephala|gut worms]], and is well documented for 500 of them.<ref name="ReferenceA">Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref><ref name="Biological Exuberance: Animal">{{cite web
| last =Harrold
| first =Max
| title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity
| publisher=[[The Advocate]], reprinted in Highbeam Encyclopedia
| date=1999-02-16
| url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-53877996.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> [[Non-human animal sexual behavior|Animal sexual behavior]] takes many different forms, even within the same [[species]]. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied.<ref name="‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches">{{cite web
| last =Gordon
| first =Dr Dennis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches one million species
| publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]]
| date=10 April 2007
| url=http://www.niwascience.co.nz/pubs/mr/archive/2007-04-10-3
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>
According to Bagemihl, "the animal kingdom <nowiki>[does]</nowiki> it with much greater sexual diversity — including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex — than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept."<ref>http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA166452.html</ref> Current research indicates that various forms of same-sex sexual behavior are found throughout the animal kingdom.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090616122106.htm "Same-sex Behavior Seen In Nearly All Animals, Review Finds"], [[Science Daily]]</ref> A new review made in 2009 of existing research showed that same-sex behavior is a nearly universal phenomenon in the animal kingdom, common across species.<ref>http://www.physorg.com/news164376975.html</ref> Homosexuality is best known from social species.

The frequent observation of homosexual behaviour in non-human animals has been seen as an argument for the acceptance of [[human sexuality|homosexuality in humans]] as natural,<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/> however, this conclusion is controversial due to opposition to the [[LGBT]] social movements<ref name="The Animal Homosexuality Myth">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=The Animal Homosexuality Myth
| publisher=[[NARTH]], National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality
| date=21 September 2004
| url=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref><ref name="Defending A Higher Law">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Defending A Higher Law: Why We Must Resist Same-Sex "Marriage" and the Homosexual Movement
| publisher=Spring Grove, Penn.: The American TFP
| date=2004, ISBN 187790533X
| url=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> and many experts in the field are reluctant to extrapolate from animals to humans.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL|title=Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate|last= Smith,|first=Dinitia|date=7 February 2004|work=New York Times|publisher=Hearst Communications Inc.|accessdate=22 December 2009}}</ref> Some consider it also counters the '[[peccatum contra naturam]]' ('sin against nature') — after [[Thomas Aquinas]] — established since the Medieval Christianities.<ref>[http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/index.php/Homosexuality_in_the_Middle_Ages "Homosexuality in the Middle Ages"] by Warren Johansson and William A. Percy; ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality''; accessed 5 April 2009.</ref> Whether this has logical or ethical implications is also a source of debate, with some arguing that it is illogical to use animal behavior to justify what is or is not [[morality|moral]] (see ''[[appeal to nature]]'').<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/><ref name="The Animal Homosexuality Myth"/>

==Applying the term "homosexual" to animals==
The term ''[[homosexual]]'' was coined by [[Karl-Maria Kertbeny]] in 1868 to describe same-sex sexual attraction and sexual behavior in humans.<ref>The first known use of the word ''Homoseksuäl'' is found in Benkert Kertbeny, K.M. (1869): Paragraph 143 des Preussichen Strafgesetzebuches vom 14/4-1851 und seine Aufrechterhaltung als Paragraph 152 im Entwurf eines Strafgesetzbuches fur den Norddeutschen Bundes, Leipzig, 1869. Reprinted in ''Jahrbuch fur sexuelle Zwischenstufen 7'' (1905), pp. 1-66</ref> Its use in animal studies has been controversial for two main reasons: animal sexuality and motivating factors have been and remain poorly understood, and the term has strong cultural implications in western society that are irrelevant for species other than [[human]]s.<ref name="Rethinking Sex">{{cite web
| last =Dorit
| first =Robert
| title= Rethinking Sex
| publisher=[[American Scientist]]
| date=September-October 2004
| url=http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/rethinking-sex
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Thus homosexual behavior has been given a number of terms over the years. When describing animals, the term "homosexual" is preferred over "gay", "lesbian" and other terms currently in use, as these are seen as even more bound to the human condition.<ref name=autogenerated1>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.122-166</ref>

Animal preference and motivation is always inferred from behavior. In wild animals, researchers will as a rule not be able to map the entire life of an individual, and must infer from frequency of single observations of behavior. The correct usage of the term ''homosexual'' is that an animal ''exhibits homosexual behavior'' or even ''same-sex sexual behaviour''; however, this article conforms to the usage by modern research<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004; pp.13-183</ref><ref>Vasey, Paul L. (1995), Homosexual behaviour in primates: A review of evidence and theory, [[International Journal of Primatology]] 16: p 173-204</ref><ref name=autogenerated2>Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. ISBN 0521864461</ref>
<ref name="Homosexual selection: The power of same-sex liaisons">{{cite web
| last =Douglas
| first =Kate
| title= Homosexual selection: The power of same-sex liaisons
| publisher=[[New Scientist]]
| date=December 7 2009
| url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20427370.800-homosexual-selection-the-power-of-samesex-liaisons.html?page=1
| accessdate = 2009-12-21}}</ref>
applying the term ''homosexuality'' to all sexual behavior ([[copulation]], [[genitals|genital]] stimulation, mating games and sexual [[Display (zoology)|display behavior]]) between animals of the same sex. In most instances, it is presumed that the homosexual behavior is but part of the animal's overall sexual behavioral repertoire, making the animal "bisexual" rather than "homosexual" as the terms are commonly understood in humans,<ref name=autogenerated2 /> but cases of clear homosexual preference and exclusive homosexual pairs are known (see examples for details).

==Research on homosexual behavior in animals==
The presence of [[same-sex sexual behavior]] was not 'officially' observed on a large scale until recent times, possibly due to [[Observer effect|observer bias]] caused by social attitudes to [[same-sex sexual behavior]],<ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004</ref> innocent confusion, or even from a fear of "being ridiculed by their colleagues."<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/> Georgetown University [[biologist]] Janet Mann states "Scientists who study the topic are often accused of trying to forward an agenda, and their work can come under greater scrutiny than that of their colleagues who study other topics.<ref name="Homosexuality Commo">{{cite web | last = Moskowitz | first =Clara | title=Homosexuality Common in the Wild, Scientists Say| publisher=Fox News | date=19 May 2008 | url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,356639,00.html| accessdate = 2008-07-02}}</ref> They also noted "Not every sexual act has a reproductive function ... that's true of humans and non-humans."<ref name="Homosexuality Commo"/> It appears to be widespread amongst social [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, particularly the sea mammals and the [[primates]]. The true extent of homosexuality in animals is not known. While studies have demonstrated homosexual behavior in a number of species, [[Petter Bøckman]], the scientific advisor of the exhibition [[Against Nature?]] in 2007, speculated that the true extent of the phenomenon may be much larger than then recognized:

<blockquote>No species has been found in which homosexual behaviour has ''not'' been shown to exist, with the exception of species that never have sex at all, such as [[sea urchin]]s and [[aphis]]. Moreover, a part of the animal kingdom is [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]], truly bisexual. For them, homosexuality is not an issue.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice">{{cite web| url = http://www.news-medical.net/?id=20718| title = 1,500 Animal Species Practice Homosexuality
| date = 2006-10-23| publisher = News-medical.net| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref></blockquote>

[[Image:Two Giraffes.PNG|thumb|Two male [[giraffes]] in [[Kenya]].]]
An example of overlooking homosexual behavior is noted by [[Bruce Bagemihl]] describing mating giraffes where nine out of ten pairings occur between males.

<blockquote>Every male that sniffed a female was reported as sex, while anal intercourse with orgasm between males was only "revolving around" [[dominance]], competition or [[greeting]]s.<ref>[[Bruce Bagemihl]], citing a study by Leuthold, W. (1977): African Ungulates: A Comparative Review of Their Ethology and Behavioural Ecology. ''[[Springer Verlag]]'', Berlin, cited in ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity'', 1999;</ref>
</blockquote>
Some researchers believe this behavior to have its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits shown in [[prison sexuality]]. Others, particularly [[Joan Roughgarden]], [[Bruce Bagemihl]], [[Thierry Lodé]]<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacb, Paris, 2006, ISBN 2-7381-1901-8</ref> and [[Paul Vasey]] suggest the social function of sex (both homosexual and heterosexual) is not necessarily connected to dominance, but serves to strengthen alliances and social ties within a flock. Others have argued that social organization theory is inadequate because it cannot account for some homosexual behaviors, for example, [[penguin]] species where same-sex individuals mate for life and refuse to pair with females when given the chance.<ref name="DW">http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1484083,00.html</ref><ref name="CBC">http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/06/05/gay-penguins-adopt005.html</ref> While reports on many such mating scenarios are still only anecdotal, a growing body of scientific work confirms that permanent homosexuality occurs not only in species with permanent pair bonds<ref name="Homosexual selection: The power of same-sex liaisons"/>, but also in non-monogamous species like sheep.

One report on sheep cited below states:

<blockquote>Approximately 8% of rams exhibit sexual preferences [that is, even when given a choice] for male partners (male-oriented rams) in contrast to most rams, which prefer female partners (female-oriented rams). We identified a cell group within the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus of age-matched adult sheep that was significantly larger in adult rams than in ewes...<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=Journal of [[Endocrinology]], Endocrine Society, Bethesda, MD,
| date=2004, vol. 145, no2, pp. 478-483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/reprint/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref></blockquote>

In fact, apparent homosexual individuals are known from all of the traditional domestic species, from sheep, cattle and horses to cats, dogs and budgerigars.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==Cross species sex==
{{Main|Animal sexual behaviour#Cross species sex}}
Although a commonly held conception is that animals' sexuality is instinctive almost to the point of being mechanistic, research regularly records that many animals are sexual opportunists, and may show an interest in partners that are not of their own, or related, species.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7379554.stm "The seal then alternated between resting on the penguin, and thrusting its pelvis, trying to insert itself, unsuccessfully."</ref> This is more visible in domesticated species, as domestication commonly selects for increased breeding rate (and so an accelerated breeding cycle has commonly arisen in domesticated species over the centuries), and also because these species are easier to witness by humans. Cross-species sex has been observed in the wild and investigations describe productive and non-productive inter-species mating as a "natural occurrence".<ref>Haeberle (1978) states that sexual intercourse is not so very unusual between animals of different species as it is between humans and animals. Kinsey et al. (1948, p. 668) states "When one examines the observed cases of such crosses, and especially the rather considerable number of instances in which primates, including man, have been involved, one begins to suspect that the rules about intraspecific mating are not so universal as tradition would have it". Kinsey et al. (1953) further point out that genetic studies have shown the existence of a "large number" of inter-specific hybrids, that have occurred in the wild, and investigations (eg, Cauldwell, 1968; Ford & Beach, 1951; Harris, 1969; Masters, 1962; Ullerstam, 1966, etc) have found that interspecies mating is a "natural occurrence".' (Cited by [[Hani Miletski|Miletski]], in her [[anthrozoology|anthrozoological]] study of animal-human sexuality, 1999, p.51)</ref><ref>LODÉ T., GUIRAL G. & PELTIER D. 2005. European mink-polecat hybridization events: hazards from natural process ? Journal of Heredity 96 (2): 1-8</ref> Most observations, however, are from animals in captivity, including those kept in zoos.

If the pair are a male and a female, and if the two species are related, [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] offspring can result. However, the offspring themselves may not be able to breed. The [[mule]], for example, a horse/donkey cross, is normally sterile, whilst the [[liger]] (a lion/tiger cross) is sometimes fertile. Novosibirsk zoo director Rostislav Shilo says of the liger born in his zoo: “It’s just that the lion and the tiger live in neighboring caves in the Novosibirsk zoo, and got used to each other. It’s practically impossible in the wild.”.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tiger Mates With Lion, Gives Birth to "Liger" Cub in Siberian Zoo |url=http://www.mosnews.com/news/2004/12/06/liger.shtml |work=MosNews.com |date=December 6, 2004 |accessdate=27 August 2009 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20041209065820/http://www.mosnews.com/news/2004/12/06/liger.shtml |archivedate=December 9, 2006 }}</ref> Cross-species sex in the wild has been observed between several species, among them [[blue tit]] and [[great tit]], [[chimpanzee]] and [[olive baboon]], and between [[Boto|Amazon River Dolphin]] and the [[tucuxi]] dolphin,<ref>Sylvestre, J-P. (1985): Some Observations on Behavior of Two Orinoco Dolphins (''Inia geoffrensis humbottiana'' {Pilleri and Gihr 1977}), in captivety at Duinsburg Zoo. ''Aquativ Mammals'' no. 11, pp 58-65</ref> as well as a reported attempt at copulation with a [[king penguin]] by a [[fur seal]].<ref>Walker, M (2008): "Sex pest" seal attacks penguin. BBC news, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7379554.stm article]</ref>

==Some selected species and groups==
{{See also|List of animals displaying homosexual behavior}}

===Birds===
====Black swans====
[[Image:Black Swans.jpg|left|thumb|[[Black Swan]]s, ''Cygnus atratus'']]
An estimated one-quarter of all [[black swans]] pairings are homosexual and they steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.
<ref>Braithwaite, L. W., 'Ecological studies of the Black Swan III – Behaviour and social organization', ''Australian Wildlife Research'' 8, 1981: 134-146</ref><ref>Braithwaite, L. W., 'The Black Swan', ''Australian Natural History'' 16, 1970: 375-379</ref> More of their cygnets survive to adulthood than those of different-sex pairs, possibly due to their superior ability to defend large portions of land. The same reasoning has been applied to male flamingo pairs raising chicks.
<ref>Bagemihl, B., ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity'', St. Martin's Press, New York 1999: 487-491</ref>
<ref name="Oslo gay animal show draws crowds">{{cite web
| title=Oslo gay animal show draws crowds
| publisher=[[BBC]]
| date=19 October 2006
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6066606.stm
| accessdate = 2009-06-15}}</ref>

====Gulls====
Studies have shown that 10 to 15 percent of female western gulls in some populations in the wild exhibit homosexual behavior.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate
| publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]], reprinted from New York Times
| date=February 7, 2004
| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

====Mallards====
[[Image:Males Anas platyrhynchos 2 .jpg|thumb|Two male [[Mallard]]s, ''Anas platyrhynchos'']]
Mallards form male-female pairs only until the female lays eggs, at which time the male leaves the female. Mallards have rates of male-male sexual activity that are unusually high for birds, in some cases, as high as 19% of all pairs in a population.<ref name="mallard">Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref>

====Penguins====
In early February 2004 the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported that a male pair of [[chinstrap penguin]]s in the [[Central Park Zoo]] in [[New York City]] had successfully hatched and fostered a female chick from a fertile egg they had been given to incubate.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Love That Dare Not Squeak Its Name
| publisher=[[New York Times]]
| date=February 7, 2004
| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0C1EF83A5F0C748CDDAB0894DC404482
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> Other [[penguin]]s in New York zoos have also been reported to have formed same-sex pairs.<ref name="They're in love. They're gay">{{cite web
| title=They're in love. They're gay. They're penguins... And they're not alone.
| publisher=[[Columbia University]], Columbia News Service
| date=June 10, 2002
| url=http://www.timelessspirit.com/SEPT04/cristina.shtml}}</ref>
<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL "Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate"], ''San Francisco Chronicle'', hosted at SFGate.com</ref>

Zoos in [[Japan]] and [[Germany]] have also documented homosexual male penguin couples.<ref name="DW"/><ref name="CBC"/> The couples have been shown to build nests together and use a stone as a substitute for an egg. Researchers at [[Rikkyo University]] in [[Tokyo]] found 20 homosexual pairs at 16 major aquariums and zoos in Japan.

Bremerhaven Zoo in Germany attempted to encourage reproduction of endangered [[Humbolt penguin]]s by importing females from Sweden and separating three male pairs, but this was unsuccessful. The zoo's director said that the relationships were "too strong" between the homosexual pairs.<ref>[http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1275591.html Ananova Article on "Tempting Gay Penguins Straight"]</ref> German gay groups protested at this attempt to break up the male-male pairs <ref>[http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1284769.html Followup Ananova Article on German authorities stopping trying to change the penguins' sexual orientation, after GLBTQI organizations protest]</ref> but the zoo's director was reported as saying "We don't know whether the three male pairs are really homosexual or whether they have just bonded because of a shortage of females... nobody here wants to forcibly separate homosexual couples." <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4264913.stm</ref>.

A pair of male [[Magellanic penguin]]s who had shared a burrow for six years at the [[San Francisco Zoo]] and raised a surrogate chick, split when the male of a pair in the next burrow died and the female sought a new mate.<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/07/14/BAUS18NTE7.DTL Widow a wedge between zoo's male penguin pair]</ref>

====Vultures====
In 1998 two male [[Griffon vulture]]s named Dashik and Yehuda, at the [[Jerusalem Biblical Zoo]], engaged in "open and energetic sex" and built a nest. The keepers provided the couple with an artificial egg, which the two parents took turns incubating; and 45 days later, the zoo replaced the egg with a baby vulture. The two male vultures raised the chick together.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/gay-vulture-couple-raise-surrogate-chicks-1110120.html
|title=Gay vulture couple raise surrogate chicks
|author=Eric Silver
|publisher=The Independent News
|date=2 August 1999
|accessdate=2009-09-21
}}</ref> A few years later, however, Yehuda became interested in a female vulture that was brought into the aviary. Dashik became depressed, and was eventually moved to the zoological research garden at [[Tel Aviv University]] where he too set up a nest with a female vulture.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1115739.html|title='Gay' vulture couple split up at Jerusalem zoo, then become fathers|author=Jonathan Lis|publisher=[[Haaretz]]|date=21 September 2009|accessdate=2009-09-21}}</ref>

===Mammals===
====Amazon Dolphin====
The [[Boto|Amazon River dolphin]] or boto has been reported to form up in bands of 3–5 individuals enjoying group sex.<ref name="BEDolphin">Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398; pages. 339-348 - "Marine mammals:Dolphins and Whales"</ref> The groups usually comprise young males and sometimes one or two females. Sex is performed in non-reproductive ways, using snout, flippers and general rubbing, without regards to gender.<ref name="BEDolphin"/> They will sometimes perform homosexual penetration of the [[Blowhole (biology)|blowhole]], a hole homologous with the [[nostril]] of other mammals, making this the only known example of nasal sex in the animal kingdom.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1288633.ece Birds do it, bees do it . . . - Times Online]</ref> The males will sometimes also perform sex with [[tucuxi]] males, a small porpoise.

====American Bison====
[[Image:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|The American Bison is a [[bovine]] [[mammal]] which commonly displays homosexual behavior.]]
Courtship, mounting, and full [[anal sex|anal penetration]] between bulls has been noted to occur among [[American Bison]]. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season."<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous">{{cite web
| last =Bagemihl
| first =Bruce
| title= Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous Cassowaries: Homosexual/transgendered animals and indigenous knowledge
| publisher=[[Whole Earth Magazine]]
| month=May | year=2000
| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0GER/is_2000_Spring/ai_61426233/pg_5?tag=artBody;col1
| accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref> Also, mounting of one female by another is common among [[cattle]]. Intersexual bison are referred to by the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] as ''pte winkte'' —''pte'' meaning bison and ''winkte'' designating [[Two-Spirit|two-spirit]]— thereby drawing an explicit parallel with [[transgender]] in people.<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous"/>

====Bonobo and other apes====
[[Image:Bonobo 011.jpg|thumb|left|Bonobo]]

The [[Bonobo]], which has a [[matriarchy|matriarchal]] society, unusual amongst apes, is a fully [[bisexual]] species—both males and females engage in heterosexual and homosexual behavior, being noted for female-female homosexuality in particular. About 60% of all sexual activity in this species is between two or more females. While the homosexual bonding system in Bonobos represent the highest frequency of homosexuality known in any species, homosexuality has been reported for all [[great apes]] (a group which includes [[human]]s), as well as a number of other [[primate]] species.<ref name=penisfencing>{{cite book | author= Frans B. M. de Waal |authorlink= Frans de Waal| title=The ape and the sushi master : cultural reflections by a primatologist | publisher=Basic Books | chapter=Bonobos and Fig Leaves | year= 2001}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/aforest/bonobo.html Bonobos at the Columbus Zoo]</ref><ref name=ancestor>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |chapter=Chimpanzees}}</ref><ref name=songweaver>{{cite web|url= http://songweaver.com/info/bonobos.html|title= Bonobo Sex and Society|accessdate= 2006-07-17|author= Frans B. M. de Waal|authorlink= Frans de Waal |year= 1995|month= March|work= Scientific American|pages= 82–88}}</ref><ref>Frans de Waal, "Bonobo Sex and Society" in ''Scientific American'' (March 1995), p. 82ff</ref><ref>[http://www.primates.com/bonobos/bonobosexsoc.html The behavior of a close relative challenges assumptions about male supremacy in human evolution]</ref><ref>[http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm Courtney Laird, "Social Organization"]</ref><ref>Stanford, C. B. (1998). The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos. Current Anthropology 39: 399–407.</ref><ref>Kano, Takayoshi (1992). The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.</ref> Dutch [[primatologist]] [[Frans de Waal]] on observing and filming bonobos noted that there were two reasons to believe sexual activity is the bonobo's answer to avoiding conflict.

Anything that arouses the interest of more than one bonobo at a time, not just food tends to result in sexual contact. If two bonobos approach a cardboard box thrown into their enclosure, they will briefly mount each other before playing with the box. Such situations lead to squabbles in most other species. But bonobos are quite tolerant, perhaps because they use sex to divert attention and to diffuse tension.

Bonobo sex often occurs in aggressive contexts totally unrelated to food. A jealous male might chase another away from a female, after which the two males reunite and engage in scrotal rubbing. Or after a female hits a juvenile, the latter's mother may lunge at the aggressor, an action that is immediately followed by genital rubbing between the two adults.<ref>Frans B. M. de Waal, <u>"Bonobo Sex and Society"<u> Scientific American, Mar. 1995, pp. 82-88</ref>

====Bottlenose dolphins====
[[Bottlenose dolphin]] males have been observed working in pairs or larger groups to follow and/or restrict the movement of a female for weeks at a time, waiting for her to become sexually receptive. The same pairs/groups have also been observed engaging in ardent sexual play with each other.

Janet Mann, [[Georgetown University]] professor of biology and psychology, argues that the strong personal behavior among male dolphin calves is about bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins"/> She cites studies showing that these dolphins later in life as adults are in a sense bisexual, and the male bonds forged earlier in life work together for protection as well as locating females to reproduce with.

====Elephants====
African and Asiatic males will engage in same-sex bonding and mounting. Such encounters are often associated with affectionate interactions, such as kissing, trunk intertwining, and placing trunks in each other's mouths. Male elephants, who often live apart from the general flock, often form "companionships", consisting of an older individual and one or sometimes two younger, attendant males with sexual behavior being an important part of the social dynamic. Unlike heterosexual relations, which are always of a fleeting nature, the relationships between males may last for years. The encounters are analogous to heterosexual bouts, one male often extending his trunk along the other's back and pushing forward with his tusks to signify his intention to mount. Same-sex relations are common and frequent in both sexes, with Asiatic elephants in captivity devoting roughly 45% of sexual encounters to same-sex activity.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.427-430</ref>

====Giraffes====
Male giraffes have been observed to engage in remarkably high frequencies of homosexual behavior. After aggressive "necking", it is common for two males giraffes to caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.<ref>Coe, M.J. (1967). "Necking" behavior in the giraffe." Journal of Zoology, London 151: 313-321.</ref> In one study, up to 94% of observed mounting incidents took place between two males. The proportion of same sex activities varied between 30 and 75%, and at any given time one in twenty males were engaged in non-combative necking behavior with another male. Only 1% of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.391-393.
</ref>

====Humans====
''See [[Homosexuality]]''

====Japanese macaque====
With the [[Japanese macaque]], also known as the "snow [[monkey]]", [[Homosexuality|same-sex relations]] are frequent, though rates vary between troupes. Females will form "consortships" characterized by affectionate social and sexual activities. In some troops up to one quarter of the females form such bonds, which vary in duration from a few days to a few weeks. Often, strong and lasting friendships result from such pairings. Males also have same-sex relations, typically with multiple partners of the same age. Affectionate and playful activities are associated with such relations.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305</ref>

====Lions====
Both male and female lions have been seen to interact [[animal sexuality|homosexually]].<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305. In his discussion of lion same-sex relations, Bagemihl is making use of published work by: J.B. Cooper, "An Exploratory Study on African Lions" in ''Comparative Psychology Monographs'' 17:1-48; R.L. Eaton, "The Biology and Social Behavior of Reproduction in the Lion" in Eaton, ed. ''The World's Cats,'' vol. II; pp.3-58; Seattle, 1974; G.B. Schaller, ''The Serengeti Lion''; University of Chicago Press, 1972</ref><ref>
{{cite web | last =Srivastav | first =Suvira | title =Lion, Without Lioness | work =TerraGreen: News to Save the Earth | publisher = Terragreen | date = 15–31 December 2001 | url = http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/terragreen/issue3/feature.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-02}}</ref> Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and thrusting. About 8% of mountings have been observed to occur with other males. Pairings between females are held to be fairly common in captivity but have not been observed in the wild.

====Polecat====
[[European polecat]]s ''Mustela putorius'' were found to engage homosexually with non-sibling animals. Deliberate exclusive homosexuality with mounting and anal penetration in this solitary species serves no apparent adaptive function<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacob, Paris, 2006.ISBN 2-7381-1901-8</ref>.

====Sheep====
An October 2003 study by Dr. Charles E. Roselli et al. ([[Oregon]] Health and Science University) states that homosexuality in male sheep (found in 8% of rams) is associated with a region in the rams' brains which the authors call the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) which is half the size of the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep.<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=[[Endocrinology]], Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health & Science University (C.E.R., K.L., J.A.R.), [[Portland, Oregon]]; Department of Animal Sciences, Oregon State University (F.S.), Corvallis, Oregon; and Agricultural Research Service, United States Sheep Experiment Station (J.N.S.), Dubois, [[Idaho]].
| date=2004, Vol. 145, No. 2 478-483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

Scientists found that, "The oSDN in rams that preferred females was significantly larger and contained more [[neurons]] than in male-oriented rams and ewes. In addition, the oSDN of the female-oriented rams expressed higher levels of [[aromatase]], a substance that converts [[testosterone]] to [[estradiol]], a form of [[estrogen]] which is believed to facilitate typical male sexual behaviors. [[Aromatase]] expression was no different between male-oriented rams and ewes."

"The dense cluster of neurons that comprise the oSDN express cytochrome P450 aromatase. Aromatase mRNA levels in the oSDN were significantly greater in female-oriented rams than in ewes, whereas male-oriented rams exhibited intermediate levels of expression." These results suggest that "...naturally occurring variations in sexual partner preferences may be related to differences in brain anatomy and its capacity for estrogen synthesis."<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic"/> As noted prior, given the potential unagressiveness of the male population in question, the differing aromatase levels may also have been evidence of aggression levels, not sexuality. It should also be noted that the results of this study have not been confirmed by other studies.

The [[Merck Veterinary Manual|Merck Manual of Veterinary Medicine]] appears to consider homosexuality among sheep as a routine occurrence and an issue to be dealt with as a problem of animal husbandry.<ref>Scrivener, C.J (2008): [http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/140208.htm Behavioural problems], Merck Manual of Veterinary Medicine.</ref>

====Spotted Hyena====
[[Image:Spotted hyena2.jpg|right|thumb|The '''Spotted Hyena''' is a moderately large, terrestrial carnivore native to [[Africa]].]]
The family structure of the female [[Spotted Hyena]] is matriarchal, and dominance relationships with strong sexual elements are routinely observed between related females. Due largely to the female [[spotted hyena#Reproduction|spotted hyena]]'s unique [[urogenital system]], which looks more like a penis than a vagina, early naturalists thought hyenas were [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] males who commonly practiced [[homosexuality]].<ref name="Like mother, like cubs">{{cite web
| title= Like mother, like cubs: Hyena alpha moms jumpstart cubs with hormonal jolt
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]]
| year=2006
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Early writings such as [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' and the ''[[Physiologus]]'' suggested that the hyena continually changed its sex and nature from male to female and back again. In ''[[Paedagogus]]'', Clement of Alexandria noted that the hyena (along with the [[hare]]) was "quite obsessed with sexual intercourse." Many Europeans associated the hyena with sexual deformity, prostitution, deviant sexual behavior, and even witchcraft.

The reality behind the confusing reports is the sexually aggressive behavior between the females, including mounting between females. Research has shown that "in contrast to most other female mammals, female ''Crocuta'' are male-like in appearance, larger than males, and substantially more aggressive,"<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction">{{cite web
| last =Holekamp
| first =Kay E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction and Overview
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]], Department of [[Zoology]]
| year=2003
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> and they have "been [[masculine|masculinized]] without being [[Femininity|defeminized]].”<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/>

Study of this unique genitalia and aggressive behavior in the female hyena has led to the understanding that more aggressive females are better able to compete for resources, including food and mating partners.<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/><ref name="Top Dogs: Steroid hormones">{{cite web
| last =Selim
| first =Jocelyn
| title=Top Dogs: Steroid hormones give hyenas a head start.
| publisher=[[Discover Magazine]]
| date=2006-04-28
| url=http://discovermagazine.com/2006/apr/hormone-hyenas
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Research has shown that "elevated levels of [[testosterone]] [[in utero]]"<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal"/> contribute to extra aggressiveness; both males and females mount members of the same sex,<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal">{{cite web
| last =Forger
| first =Nancy G.
| coauthors =Laurence G. Frank, S. Marc Breedlove, Stephen E. Glickman
| title=Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal Muscles and Motoneurons in Spotted Hyenas
| publisher=The Journal of Comparative Neurology
| date=6 December 1998, Volume 375, Issue 2 , Pages 333 - 343
| url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19961111)375:2%3C333::AID-CNE11%3E3.0.CO;2-W
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Wilson, Sexing the Hyena">{{cite web
| title=Wilson, Sexing the Hyena - "The males mount each other"
| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
| date=
| url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?SIGNS032803
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> who in turn are possibly acting more [[submissive]] because of lower levels of testosterone in utero.<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction"/>

===Others===
====Lizards====
Whiptail lizard ([[Teiidae]] genus) females have the ability to reproduce through [[parthenogenesis]] and as such males are rare and sexual breeding non-standard.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cole|first=Charles J.|coauthors=Townsend, Carol R.|date=9 May 2005|title=Parthenogenetic lizards as vertebrate systems |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology|publisher=Wiley Interscience|volume=256 |issue=S4|pages=174–176|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/110491269/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|accessdate=2008-12-14|doi=10.1002/jez.1402560436}}</ref> Females engage in sexual behavior to stimulate [[ovulation]], with their behavior following their hormonal cycles; during low levels of estrogen, these (female) lizards engage in "masculine" sexual roles. Those animals with currently high estrogen levels assume "feminine" sexual roles.

Lizards that perform the courtship ritual have greater fertility than those kept in isolation due to an increase in hormones triggered by the sexual behaviors. So, even though [[asexual]] whiptail lizards populations lack males, sexual stimuli still increase reproductive success.

From an [[evolutionary]] standpoint, these females are passing their full genetic code to all of their offspring (rather than the 50% of genes that would be passed in sexual reproduction). Certain species of [[gecko]] also reproduce by parthenogenesis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/06/050608053415.htm|title=Geckos: It's Not Always About Sex|last=Anon|date=9 June 2005|work=Science Daily|publisher=Lewis & Clark College |accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref>

====Dragonflies====
[[Image:Head of dragonfly 2.jpg|thumb|The head of Darner Dragonfly (Basiaeschna janata).]]

Male homosexuality has been inferred in several species of [[dragonflies]] (the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Odonata]]). The [[cloacal]] pinchers of male damselflies and dragonflies inflict characteristic head damage to females during sex. A survey of 11 species of damsel and dragonflies<ref>Dunkle, S.W. (1991), Head damage from mating attempts in dragonflies (Odonata:Anisoptera). Entomological News 102, pp. 37-41</ref><ref>Utzeri, C. & C. Belfiore (1990): Anomalous tandems in Odonata. Fragmenta Entomologica 22(2), pp. 271-288</ref> has revealed such mating damages in 20 to 80 % of the males too, indicating a fairly high occurrence of sexual coupling between males.

====Fruit flies====
Male ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' flies bearing two copies of a mutant allele in the [[Fruitless (gene)|fruitless]] gene court and attempt to mate exclusively with other males.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gailey |first=D. A.|coauthors=Hall |date=J.C.|title=Behavior and Cytogenetics of fruitless in Drosophila melanogaster: Different Courtship Defects Caused by Separate, Closely Linked Lesions|journal=Genetics |publisher=The Genetics Society of America|volume= 121, |pages=773–785|url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/4/773|accessdate=2008-12-14|pmid=2542123|issue=4|pmc=1203660}}</ref> The genetic basis of animal homosexuality has been studied in the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''.<ref name="yamamoto3">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Nakano Y |title=Sexual behavior mutants revisited: molecular and cellular basis of Drosophila mating |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=56 |issue=7-8 |pages=634–46 |year=1999 |pmid=11212311 |doi=10.1007/s000180050458}}</ref> Here, multiple genes have been identified that can cause homosexual courtship and mating.<ref name=Yamamoto>{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Ito H, Fujitani K |title=Genetic dissection of sexual orientation: behavioral, cellular, and molecular approaches in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Neurosci. Res. |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=95–107 |year=1996 |pmid=8953572 |doi=10.1016/S0168-0102(96)01087-5}}</ref> These genes are thought to control behavior through [[pheromone]]s as well as altering the structure of the animal's brains.<ref name="ferveur">{{cite journal |author=Ferveur JF, Savarit F, O'Kane CJ, Sureau G, Greenspan RJ, Jallon JM |title=Genetic feminization of pheromones and its behavioral consequences in Drosophila males |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5318 |pages=1555–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9171057 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5318.1555}}</ref><ref name="yamamoto2">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Fujitani K, Usui K, Ito H, Nakano Y |title=From behavior to development: genes for sexual behavior define the neuronal sexual switch in Drosophila |journal=Mech. Dev. |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=135–46 |year=1998 |pmid=9622612 |doi=10.1016/S0925-4773(98)00042-2}}</ref> These studies have also investigated the influence of environment on the likelihood of flies displaying homosexual behavior.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal |author=Zhang SD, Odenwald WF |title=Misexpression of the white (w) gene triggers male-male courtship in Drosophila |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=92 |issue=12 |pages=5525–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7777542 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=7777542 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.12.5525 |pmc=41728}}</ref><ref name="svetec">{{cite journal |author=Svetec N, Ferveur JF |title=Social experience and pheromonal perception can change male-male interactions in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=208 |issue=Pt 5 |pages=891–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15755887 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/5/891 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01454}}</ref>

====Bed bugs====

Male [[bed bug]]s (Cimex lectularius) are sexually attracted to any newly fed individual and this results in homosexual mounting. This occurs in heterosexual mounting by the traumatic insemination in which the male pierces the female abdomen with his needle-like penis. In homosexual mating this risks abdominal injuries as males lack the female counteradaptive spermalege structure. Males produce alarm [[pheromone]]s to reduce such homosexual matings.<ref>Ryne C. (2009). Homosexual interactions in bed bugs: alarm pheromones as male recognition signals. Animal Behaviour 78: 1471–1475{{doi|10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.09.033}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Animal sexual behavior]]
* [[Xq28]]
* [[Against Nature?]]
* [[Biology and sexual orientation]]
* [[Freemartin]]
* [[Homosexuality and psychology]]
* [[Innate bisexuality]]
* [[Non-human primate experiments]]
* [[Norms of reaction]]
* [[Plant sexuality]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
* [[Sexual orientation and medicine]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.salon.com/it/feature/1999/03/cov_15featurea.html biologists' view]
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0722_040722_gayanimal.html National Geographic]
* [http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Bartos_Holeckova_2006.pdf Homosexual Behaviour in Animals An Evolutionary Perspective]
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=bisexual-species Driscoll, E.V. (2008), Bisexual Species, Scientific American Mind, 19(3), p. 68-73.]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Homosexual Behavior In Animals}}
[[Category:Sexual orientation and science]]
[[Category:Ethology]]

[[cy:Cyfunrywioldeb mewn anifeiliaid]]
[[da:Homoseksualitet blandt dyr]]
[[es:Homosexualidad en animales]]
[[id:Homoseksualitas pada binatang]]
[[it:Omosessualità negli animali]]
[[he:הומוסקסואליות בבעלי חיים]]
[[ja:動物の同性愛]]
[[pl:Homoseksualne zachowania zwierząt]]
[[pt:Homossexualidade no reino animal]]
[[ru:Гомосексуальность у животных]]
[[sv:Homosexualitet hos djur]]
[[tr:Hayvanlarda eşcinsel davranışlar]]
[[zh:动物界的同性恋行为]]

Jesus-Mythos

2009-11-19T20:40:15Z

TechBear: Undid revision 326772284 by Eugeneacurry (talk) Assuming good faith, but too much synthesis.

{{Dablink|This article is about the view that Jesus never existed. For a discussion of the mythological elements of Jesus, see [[Jesus Christ in comparative mythology]]. For a list of related articles, see [[Jesus and history]].}}
{{jesus}}
{{Synthesis|date=August 2009}}
{{Merge|historicity of Jesus|date=August 2009}}
The '''Christ myth theory''' (sometimes called the '''Christ myth''', '''Jesus myth''', or '''nonexistence hypothesis''') is the contention that [[Jesus of Nazareth]] did not exist as a [[Historical Jesus|historical person]], that the Jesus of [[Early Christianity]] is a personification of an ideal saviour or mythical being to whom earthly events were later attached.<ref>{{harvnb|Farmer|1975|p=43}}: "The radical solution was to deny the possibility of reliable knowledge of Jesus, and out of this developed the Christ myth theory, according to which Jesus never existed as a historical figure and the Christ of the Gospels was a social creation of a messianic community."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Goguel|1926b|pp=117-118}}</ref><ref>Gerrish (1975) p. 13.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bennett|2001|p=202}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Townsend|2006|p=150n2}}</ref>

Proponents of a mythical origin of Christianity allow that some gospel material may have been drawn from a historical preacher or preachers, but they hold that these preachers were not in any sense "the founder of Christianity"; rather they contend that Christianity emerged organically from [[Hellenistic Judaism]]. The epistles and Gospels largely chronicle a mythical, non-historical Jesus. The proponents of the theory trace the evolution of the religion through the evolution of the literature and thus give primacy to the epistles over the gospels in determining the views of the earliest Christians.

Those who have proposed one form or another of the theory have documented the similarities between stories of Jesus and those of [[Krishna]], [[Adonis]], [[Osiris]], [[Mithra]], and a pre-Christian cult of Jesus ([[Joshua]]) within Judaism. Some authors attribute the [[Origins of Christianity|beginning of Christianity]] to a historical founder who predates the time Jesus is said to have lived.<ref name="Mead">Mead, G.R.S. (1903): "Did Jesus Live 100 B.C.?" c</ref><ref name="The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud">Gil Student, [http://talmud.faithweb.com/articles/jesusnarr.html The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud]</ref>

The antecedents of the theory can be traced to the French Enlightenment thinkers [[Constantin-François Chassebœuf|Constantin-François Volney]] and [[Charles François Dupuis]] in the 1790s. The first academic advocate was the 19th century historian and theologian [[Bruno Bauer]]. Proponents such as [[Arthur Drews]] were influential in biblical studies during the early 20th century. Authors such as [[Earl Doherty]], [[Robert M. Price]], and [[George Albert Wells]] have recently re-popularised the [[theory]] among lay audiences. The theory is essentially without supporters in academic circles, biblical historians and scholars being highly dismissive of it.<ref name="Burridge">"There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church’s imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more.” {{harvnb|Burridge|2004|p=34}}</ref><ref name=voorst>"The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted." - {{harvnb|Van Voorst|2000|p=16}}</ref><ref name="stanton">{{harvnb|Stanton|2002|p=145}}</ref><ref name="Charlesworth13">{{harvnb|Charlesworth|2006|p=xxiii}}</ref><ref name="Grantmajority">{{harvnb|Grant|1995|p=199}}</ref><ref name="Dohertyms"/><ref>"I think that there are hardly any historians today, in fact I don't know of any historians today, who doubt the existence of Jesus... So I think that question can be put to rest.", Wright, N.T., "The Self-Revelation of God in Human History: A Dialogue on Jesus with N. T. Wright", There Is A God, [[Antony Flew]] & [[Roy Abraham Varghese]], New York: HarperOne, 2007, 188. ISBN 978-0061335297</ref><ref>"The alternative thesis... that within thirty years there had evolved such a coherent and consistent complex of traditions about a non-existent figure such as we have in the sources of the Gospels is just too implausible. It involves too many complex and speculative hypotheses, in contrast to the much simpler explanation that there was a Jesus who said and did more or less what the first three Gospels attribute to him.", [[James Dunn (theologian)|Dunn, James D. G.]] The Evidence for Jesus. Louisville: Westminster, 1985, 29)</ref><ref>"We know a lot about Jesus, vastly more than about John the Baptist, Theudas, Judas the Galilean, or any of the other figures whose names we have from approximately the same date and place." [[E. P. Sanders|Sanders, E.P.]], The Historical Figure of Jesus, New York: Penguin Press, 1993, xiv)</ref><ref>"Some writers may toy with the fancy of a 'Christ-myth,' but they do not do so on the ground of historical evidence. The historicity of Christ is as axiomatic for an unbiased historian as the historicity of Julius Caesar. It is not historians who propagate the 'Christ-myth' theories.", Bruce, F.F., The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? 5th revised edition, Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1972</ref><ref>"Even the most critical historian can confidently assert that a Jew named Jesus worked as a teacher and wonder-worker in Palestine during the reign of Tiberius, was exicuted by crucifiction under the prefect Pontius Pilate, and continued to have followers after his death.", [[Luke Timothy Johnson]], The Real Jesus, San Francisco: Harper, 1996, 121. ISBN 978-0060641665</ref><ref>"Jesus is in no danger of suffering Catherine (of Alexandria)'s fate as an unhistorical myth" [[Dale Allison|Allison, Dale C.]], The Historical Christ and the Theological Jesus, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009, 37. ISBN 978-082862624</ref><ref>"I don't think there's any serious historian who doubts the existence of Jesus. There are a lot of people who want to write sensational books and make a lot of money who say Jesus didn't exist. But I don't know any serious scholar who doubts the existence of Jesus.", [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]], Discussion on the [[Infidel Guy]] Radio Show, relevant audio available at http://www.aomin.org/podcasts/20090113fta.mp3</ref><ref>"I am not sure, as I said earlier, that one can persuade people that Jesus did exist as long as they are ready to explain the entire phenomenon of historical Jesus and earliest Christianity either as an evil trick or a holy parable. I had a friend in Ireland who did not believe that Americans had landed on the moon but that they had created the entire thing to bolster their cold-war image against the communists. I got nowhere with him. So I am not at all certain that I can prove that the historical Jesus existed against such an hypothesis and probably, to be honest, I am not even interested in trying.", [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]], interview, available at http://www.doxa.ws/Jesus_pages/HistJesus1.html</ref>

==History==
===Early proponents===
Doubt about the historical existence of Jesus emerged when critical study of the [[Gospel]]s developed in the 18th century,<ref>Goguel (1926a) 11.</ref> and some English [[deism|deists]] towards the end of that century are said to have believed that no historical Jesus existed.<ref>Goguel (1926a) 14; Van Voorst (2000) 8.</ref> However, the "great forerunners" of the nonhistoricity hypothesis are usually identified as two thinkers of the French [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], [[Constantin-François Chassebœuf|Constantin-François Volney]] and [[Charles François Dupuis]].<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 355; similarly Weaver (1999) 45.</ref> In works published in the 1790s, both argued that numerous ancient myths, including the life of Jesus, were based on the movement of the sun through the zodiac.<ref>Wells (1969); more briefly Schweitzer (2000) 527 n. 1.</ref><ref>Constantin-François Volney, ''Les ruines, ou Méditations sur les révolutions des empires'' (Paris: Desenne, 1791); English translation, ''The Ruins, or a Survey of the Revolutions of Empires'' (New York: Davis, 1796).</ref><ref name="Dupuis">C. F. Dupuis, ''Origine de tous les cultes'' (Paris: Chasseriau, 1794); English translation, ''The Origin of All Religious Worship'' (New York: Garland, 1984).</ref>

Dupuis identified pre-Christian rituals in [[Greater Syria|Syria]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Persian Empire|Persia]] as representing the birth of a god to a virgin at the [[winter solstice]], and connected this to the winter rising of the constellation of [[Virgo (constellation)|Virgo]]. He believed that this and other annual occurrences were allegorised as the life-histories of [[solar deity|solar deities]] (see for example [[Sol Invictus]]), who passed their childhoods in obscurity (low elevation of the sun after the solstice), died (winter) and were resurrected (spring [[equinox]]). Jewish and Christian myth could also be interpreted according to the solar pattern: the [[Fall of Man]] in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] was an allegory of the hardship caused by winter, and the [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection of Christ]] the [[Lamb of God|"paschal lamb"]] at Easter represented the growth of the Sun's strength in the sign of [[Aries (astrology)|Aries]] at the spring solstice.<ref>Wells (1969) 153–156.</ref> Dupuis rejected the historicity of Jesus entirely, explaining the 2nd-century Roman historian [[Tacitus]]' reference to his execution under [[Pontius Pilate]] as based only on the inaccurate Christian beliefs of Tacitus' own day.<ref>Wells (1969) 159–160.</ref>

Volney, who published before Dupuis but made use of a draft version of his work,<ref>Wells (1969) 151.</ref> followed much of his argument. His differing in thinking that solar myths, rather than being deliberate extended allegories, were compiled when simple allegorical statements like "the virgin has brought forth" were misunderstood as history.<ref>Wells (1969) 155.</ref> Unlike Dupuis, Volney believed that confused memories of a historical but obscure Messianic claimant could have contributed to Christianity when they become linked with solar mythology.<ref>Wells (1969) 157.</ref>

The works of Volney and Dupuis went rapidly through numerous editions,<ref name=goguelb117>Goguel (1926b) 117.</ref> and [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] may have been basing his opinion on Volney's work when he stated privately that the existence of Jesus was an open question.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 356.</ref> However, their influence even in France did not outlast the first quarter of the nineteenth century.<ref name=goguelb117/> They had based their views on limited historical data, and later critics showed, for example, that the birth of Jesus was not placed in December until the 4th century.<ref>Solmsen (1970) 277–279, not disputed by Wells (1973) 143: "The question of a date of birth I mention (155) in connection with the views of Dupuis, who did deny Jesus' historicity on grounds which ... I regard as inadequate."</ref>

====Bruno Bauer====
[[Image:Bruno Bauer.jpg|thumb|Bruno Bauer]]
{{Main|Bruno Bauer}}
Scholarly attention to the possibility of Jesus' non-existence began with the 19th-century German historian [[Bruno Bauer]]. In a series of studies produced while he was teaching at the [[University of Bonn]] (1839–1842), Bauer disputed the historical value of the New Testament [[Gospel]]s. In his view, the [[Gospel of John]] was composed not as a historical narrative but to adapt the idea of the Jewish [[Messiah]] to the philosopher [[Philo]]'s concept of the "[[logos]]". Turning to the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], he followed earlier critics in regarding them as based on [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]'s narrative, but rejected the standard view that they also drew upon a common tradition apart from Mark. For Bauer, this was ruled out by the incompatible stories of [[Nativity of Jesus|Jesus' nativity]] which Matthew and Luke presented, as well as by the way their material which was not taken directly from Mark still appeared to be developing Markan ideas. Bauer instead concluded that Matthew depended on Luke for the content found only in those two Gospels. Now that the entire Gospel tradition could be traced through a single author (Mark), the hypothesis of outright invention became credible.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 124–128.</ref> Bauer believed that there was no expectation of a Messiah among Jews in the time of [[Tiberius]], and that Mark's portrayal of Jesus being recognised as the Messiah must therefore be a retrojection of later Christian ideas. He also argued that many details in the Gospels which seemed implausible as historical deeds or sayings of Jesus could be explained instead as reflections on the life of the Christian community.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 128–136.</ref> Bauer also concluded "that the Alexandrian Jew [[Philo]], who was still living about A.D. 40 but was already very old, was the real father of Christianity, and that the Roman stoic [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] was, so to speak, its uncle."<ref>Engels, Frederick, "Bruno Bauer and Early Christianity" ''Sozialdemokrat'' May 4-11, 1882 republished in Marx and Engels, ''On Religion'', Progress Publishers, 1966</ref>

Bauer left open the question of whether a historical Jesus existed at all, pending a study of the [[Pauline epistles]], but his published views were sufficiently unorthodox that in 1842 they cost him his lectureship.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 124, 139–140.</ref> In a revised edition of his work on the Gospels, published in 1850–1851, Bauer favoured a 2nd-century date for all the epistles and concluded that Jesus had not existed. Bauer's own explanation of Christian origins appeared in 1877: the religion was a synthesis of the [[Stoicism]] of [[Seneca the Younger]], whom Bauer viewed as having planned to create a new Roman state based on his philosophy, with the Jewish theology of Philo as developed politically by pro-Roman Jews such as [[Josephus]].<ref name = "otto">Otto Pfleiderer, ''Development of Theology'', p. 226 Quoted in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition.</ref><ref>Douglas Moggach, ''The Philosophy and Politics of Bruno Bauer'', 2003, Cambridge University Press, p.184</ref> Mark, according to Bauer, was an Italian, influenced by Seneca's [[stoicism|Stoic]] philosophy.<ref name = "otto"/> The movement developed in [[Rome]] and [[Alexandria]], and was not attested until [[Pliny the Younger]]'s letter to [[Trajan]] in the 110s, but over the following fifty years Mark and his successors developed the myth of a much earlier foundation.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 140–141.</ref>

Later arguments against a historical Jesus were not all directly dependent on Bauer's work, but usually echoed it on several general points: that New Testament references to Jesus lacked historical value, that the lack of 1st-century non-Christian references to Jesus was evidence against his existence, and that Christianity originated through [[syncretism]].<ref>Van Voorst (2000) 9.</ref>

====Radical Dutch school====
In the 1870s and 1880s, a group of scholars associated with the [[University of Amsterdam]], who were known in German scholarship as the "Radical Dutch school",<ref> [http://www.radikalkritik.de Radical Dutch school]</ref> rejected the authenticity of the Pauline epistles and took a generally negative view of the Bible's historical value. Within this group, the existence of Jesus was rejected by Allard Pierson, S. Hoekstra and Samuel Adrian Naber, while others came close to that position but concluded that the Gospels contained a core of historical fact.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 356, 527 n. 4; Van Voorst (2000) 10.</ref>

====Other writers====

[[Edwin Johnson (historian)|Edwin Johnson]] argued that Christianity emerged from a combination of liberal trends in Judaism and [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] mysticism and not from a historical founder in "Antiqua Mater: A Study of Christian Origins" (1887, published in London anonymously).
{{cquote|If one has approached the literature of the period with the assumption that something definite could be made out respecting the lives of Christ and the apostles independently of the New Testament, one assuredly has been brought, sooner or later, to the consciousness of a complete illusion.... The bare result of the whole examination is, that from some time unknown, the statement that Jesus Christ had been crucified under Pontius Pilate, was repeated as a formula in connection with the rites of Exorcism and Baptism, and that coaeval with this belief, was that in His resurrection, ascension, and second coming. .... There was an intense craving, both in the interests of spiritual satisfaction and in that of controversy, to emerge out of the atmosphere of vague intuition and reminiscence into the daylight of historic portraiture.... ‘La mère, c’est la Tradition meme,’ said the brilliant author of La Bible de l’Humanité. And in the poetical sense it is true that the modern quest of the ‘ancient Mother’ means the renewed study, not so much of the antiquities of this or that people, as of the common heart of Humanity which throbs in all.<ref>Edwin Johnson [http://www.hermann-detering.de/antiqua_mater.htm Antiqua Mater:A Study of Christian Origins], London:Trübner & Co., Ludgate Hill 1887</ref> }}

===Early 20th century===
By the early twentieth century a number of writers had published arguments against Jesus' historicity, ranging from the highly speculative to the more scholarly. These treatments were sufficiently influential to merit several book-length responses by historians and New Testament scholars. Proponents of the nonhistoricity hypothesis drew on the work of liberal theologians, who tended to deny any value to sources for Jesus outside the New Testament, and to limit their attention within the canon to Mark and the hypothetical [[Q document]].<ref>Weaver (1999) 46–47; cf. Schweitzer (2000) 359–361.</ref> The [[University of Zurich|Zurich]] professor [[Paul Wilhelm Schmiedel]] identified just nine "pillar passages" in the Gospels which he thought early Christians could not have invented; although he intended these to serve as the foundation for a more detailed account of Jesus' life, they "proved to be a tempting target for the deniers of Jesus' historicity".<ref>Weaver (1999) 47.</ref> These authors also made use of the growing field of [[comparative religion]], which seemed to find sources for many Christian ideas in Greek and Oriental [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery cult]]s rather than the life of Jesus.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 356–359.</ref>

====J. M. Robertson====
{{Main|J. M. Robertson}}
[[J. M. Robertson]], a British [[Freethinker]] and [[independent scholar]], began to promote his account of Christian origins in 1900.<ref>Weaver (1999) 58.</ref> In Robertson's view, belief in a slain Messiah Jesus arose before the New Testament period, within one of the sects known in later times as [[Ebionites]] or [[Nazarene (sect)|Nazarenes]]. These would have expected a Messiah named Jesus, a hope possibly based on a divinity of that name reflected in the Biblical [[Joshua]].<ref>Robertson (1902) 6–12.</ref> An additional but less significant basis for their belief may have been the executed [[Yeshu|Jesus Pandira]], placed by the [[Talmud]] in about 100 BCE.<ref>Robertson (1902) 14–15.</ref> The "Jesuine" cultists observed a meal at which they commemorated the sacrifice of Jesus or ritually consumed his "body and blood". This was adapted from meals held in honour of gods such as [[Dionysus]] and [[Mithra]], a fact which encouraged Jesus' followers to elevate him from a mere "servant" of the Jewish God to a divinity in his own right.<ref>Robertson (1902) 22–25.</ref>

Once references to "[[Twelve Apostles|the twelve]]" and to Jesus' institution of the [[Eucharist]] are rejected as [[interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolations]], Robertson argued, the Jesus of the Pauline epistles is reduced to a crucified savior who "counts for absolutely nothing as a teacher or even as a wonder-worker".<ref>Robertson (1902) 2–3.</ref> Those components of the Gospel narrative must have developed later, among Gentile believers who were converted by Jewish evangelists like Paul. The Gentile party represented Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection in mystery-plays in which, wishing to disassociate the cult from Judaism, they attributed his execution to the Jewish authorities and his betrayal to "a Jew" (''Ioudaios'', misunderstood as [[Judas Iscariot|Judas]]).<ref>Robertson (1902) 21, 32–33.</ref> Such plays evolved over time into Gospels.<ref>Robertson (1902) 87–89.</ref> The religion enhanced its appeal to Gentiles by adopting myths from pagan cults, albeit with some "Judaic manipulation" – thus Jesus' healings came from [[Asclepius]], feeding of multitudes from [[Dionysus]], and walking on water from [[Poseidon]], but his descent from [[David]] and his raising of a widow's son from the dead were in deference to Jewish Messianic expectations. The Fourth Gospel's portrayal of Jesus as [[Logos]] was Jewish but came ultimately from the function of [[Mithra]], [[Thoth]] and [[Hermes]] as representatives to humanity from the supreme god.<ref>Robertson (1902) 43–46, 95–96.</ref> Robertson consistently explained the Gospels through comparative mythology, making no use of the symbolic interpretations developed by Bauer.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 357, 363.</ref>

He argued that the [[authorship of the Pauline epistles|authentic letters]] of [[Paul of Tarsus]] are the earliest surviving Christian writings. This remains true to this day and the earliest datable references we have and the earliest manuscripts are from Paul.<ref>John 18 exempted see [[List of New Testament papyri]] for additional information</ref> However epistles discuss theology and morality abstractly while gospels teach metaphorically showing examples from "Jesus' actual life and ministry". Robertson noted that the epistles are silent in areas where they would expect to see events from Jesus's actual life:
<blockquote>
Allowing for the fact that some are spurious and others contain interpolations, their importance is [the epistles] are ostensibly the oldest documents of the Christian cult. Yet they show little awareness of the teachings and narrative of the gospels. They speak of a crucified Jesus in terms of a slain and resurrected God or demi-god, rather than of the teacher and wonder-worker of the gospels.... The Jesus of the Pauline doctrine was either a mythical construction or a remote figure that had been crucified but no longer traceable in history.<ref> Robertson(1996) ch. The Silence of Paul.</ref> </blockquote>

====William Benjamin Smith====
{{Main|William Benjamin Smith}}
[[William Benjamin Smith]] (1850-1934) was a professor of mathematics at [[Tulane University]]. In a series of books, beginning with ''Ecce Deus: The Pre-Christian Jesus'', published in 1894, and ending with ''The Birth of the Gospel'', published posthumously in 1954, Smith argued that the earliest Christian sources, particularly the Pauline epistles, stress Christ's divinity at the expense of any human personality, and that this would have been implausible, if there had been a human Jesus. Smith therefore argued that Christianity's origins lay in a pre-Christian Jesus cult—that is, a Jewish sect had worshipped a divine being Jesus in the centuries before the human Jesus was supposedly born.<ref>Case (1911) 627.</ref> Evidence for this cult was found in [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]]' mention of the [[Naassenes]]<ref>Hippolytus ''Philosophumena'' 5.10.</ref> and [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]]' report of a Nazaraean or Nazorean sect that existed before Christ, as well as passages in ''[[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]''.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 375.</ref> The seemingly historical details in the New Testament were built by the early Christian community around narratives of the pre-Christian Jesus.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 378.</ref>

Smith also argued against the historical value of non-Christian writers regarding Jesus, particularly Josephus and Tacitus.<ref>Van Voorst (2000) 12.</ref>

====Arthur Drews====
{{Main|Arthur Drews}}
[[Arthur Drews]] (1865-1935) was the most prominent advocate of a "Christ-myth" theory in the early twentieth century. A professor of philosophy at the [[University of Karlsruhe (TH)|Technische Hochschule Karlsruhe]], Drew's 1909 ''Die Christusmythe'' ("The Christ Myth") became greatly popular in Germany, and was available in French and English translations in 1910. Prominent German theologians and historians addressed Drews' work, and a few wrote monographs refuting his arguments; Drews appeared at a series of public debates, of which the most famous occurred on January 31-February 1, 1910 at the [[Berlin Zoological Garden]] against [[Hermann, Freiherr von Soden]] .<ref>{{Citation
| last =
| first =
| author-link =
| last2 =
| first2 =
| author2-link =
| title = JESUS NEVER LIVED, ASSERTS PROF. DREWS; Stirs Germany Deeply by Publicly Attacking Basis of the Christian Religion.
| newspaper = New York Times
| pages =
| year = 1910
| date = February 6, 1910
| url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9900E7DA1539E433A25755C0A9649C946196D6CF}}</ref><ref>Case (1911) p. 2n1.</ref> In England and the United States, Drews' views also aroused controversy, with responses appearing in the ''[[Hibbert Journal]]'', the ''[[American Journal of Theology]]'', and other leading journals of religion.<ref>Gerrish (1975) pp. 3-4.</ref> At least two monographs on the historicity of Jesus were written partially in response to Drews.<ref>Case (1912).</ref><ref>Conybeare (1914).</ref>

Drews brought together the scholarship of the day in defense of the idea that Christianity had been a Jewish Gnostic cult that spread by appropriating aspects of [[Greek philosophy]] and Frazerian [[Life-death-rebirth deity|death-rebirth deities]].

The first and second editions of ''Die Christusmythe'' have prefaces written by Drews himself that stated that Drews' "purpose was to show that everything about the historical Jesus had a mythical character and thus it was not necessary to presuppose that a historical figure ever existed,"<ref>Weaver (1999) pg 50</ref>

====Other writers====

Other versions of the argument developed under Bible scholars such as [[A. D. Loman]] and [[G. I. P. Bolland]] (1907). Loman argued that episodes in Jesus's life, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]], were fictions written to justify compilations of pre-existing liberal Jewish sayings. Bolland developed the hypothesis that Christianity evolved from Gnosticism and that Jesus was a symbolic figure representing Gnostic ideas about God.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/story/pagels.html The Gnostic Gospels, PBS]</ref><ref>[http://www.egodeath.com/BollandGospelJesus.htm G.J.P.J. Bolland: The Gospel Jesus]</ref>

[[G. R. S. Mead|G.R.S. Mead's]] 1903 ''Did Jesus Live 100 B.C.?'' book did not say Jesus was an entirely fictional person but rather that based on the Talmud the historical Jesus lived around 100 BCE. The main criticism of Mead's position is "authorities are agreed that most of this Talmudic material derives from the period from 200 to 500 A.D., and represents Jewish attempts to deal with the growing strength of Christianity. It makes no attempt to be historically accurate and, in fact, is of no use in determining if Jesus was a historical person."<ref>Stein, Gordon (1982) [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gordon_stein/jesus.shtml The Jesus of History: A Reply to Josh McDowell]</ref> [[Alvar Ellegård]] explored a similar theme a century later in ''Jesus – One Hundred Years Before Christ: A Study In Creative Mythology''.

Albert Kalthoff believed that Christianity began as a [[communism|communist]] community that developed in response to oppression of the [[proletariat]] of the Roman empire; this was not specifically Jewish but adopted features of Jewish apocalypticism. Jesus was a personification created by this community, wrote Kalthoff, who argued that no man without superhuman elements could be discovered from the sources and that incidents in the Gospels were adapted from first-to-third century Roman history.<ref>Goguel (1926a) 22–23; Schweitzer (2000) 279–283.</ref> Peter Jensen viewed Jesus as based on the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]] and primarily on the character [[Gilgamesh]] himself, whom Jensen regarded as a [[solar deity]].<ref>Goguel (1926a) 23; Schweitzer (2000) 369–372.</ref>

[[John Remsburg]]'s 1909 ''The Christ'' along with ''The Bible'' and ''Six Historic Americans'' is regarded as an important [[freethought]] book<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown
| first = Marshall G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Gordon Stein
| title = Freethought in the United States: A Descriptive Bibliography
| publisher = Published by Greenwood Press, University of California
| date = 1978
| pages = 52
| isbn = 031320036X}}</ref> rather than a major contribution to the Christ Myth hypothesis despite references to the [http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/rmsbrg02.htm "Silence of Contemporary Writers"] chapter by self-published authors like James Patrick Holding<ref>{{cite book | last = Holding
| first = James Patrick
| title = Shattering the Christ Myth
| publisher = Xulon Press
| date = 2008
| pages = 52
| isbn = 1606472712}}</ref>, Hilton Hotema<ref>{{cite book | last = Hotema | first = Hilton | title = Cosmic Creation | publisher = Health Research | date = 1956 | page = 178 | isbn = 0787309990}}</ref>, Jawara D. King<ref>{{cite book | last = King
| first = Jawara D.
| title = World Transformation: A Guide to Personal Growth and Consciousness
| publisher = AuthorHouse
| date = 2007
| pages = 35
| isbn = 1434321150
}}</ref>, Madalyn Murray O'Hair<ref>{{cite book
| last = O'Hair
| first = Madalyn Murray
| title = What on earth is an atheist!
| place = Austin, Texas
| publisher = American Atheist Press
| year = 1969
| pages = 246
| isbn = 1578849187}}</ref>, and Asher Norman<ref>{{cite book
| last = Norman
| first = Asher
| author-link =
| last2 = Tellis
| first2 = Ashley
| title = Twenty-six reasons why Jews don't believe in Jesus
| publisher = Black White and Read Publishing
| year = 2007
| pages = 182
| isbn = 0977193705}}</ref> and the 200 some blogs using the list or the book's recent retitling as ''The Christ Myth''.

A book-length response to such authors, described by [[R. Joseph Hoffmann]] as "perhaps the best of its kind",<ref>Hoffmann (2006) 34. Hoffmann criticises a number of Goguel's argument (23–34).</ref> came from the French Biblical scholar Maurice Goguel in 1925. Goguel rejected arguments for a "pre-Christianity", and argued that "preliminary" evidence for a historical Jesus came from the agreement on his existence between ancient orthodox Christians, [[Docetism|Docetists]] and opponents of Christianity. Goguel proceeded to examine the theology of the [[Pauline epistles]], the other New Testament epistles, the Gospels and the [[Book of Revelation]], as well as belief in Jesus' resurrection and divinity. He argued in each case that Christian beliefs were best explained by a tradition stemming from a recent historical Jesus.<ref>Goguel (1926a).</ref>

[[Joseph Wheless]] in his 1930 ''Forgery In Christianity'' claimed there was an active effort to forge documents to make the myth seem historical beginning as early as the 2nd century.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wheless | first = Joseph | title = Forgery In Christianity | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | date = 1930 | location = New York City | url = http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_wheless/forgery_in_christianity}}</ref>

===Recent proponents===
====George Albert Wells====
{{Main|George Albert Wells}}
A number of Christ myth theories start with the notion that Christianity had obscure beginnings and fail to notice that the early Christians appealed to historical events already known by the general public.<ref name=Bromiley1982>{{Citation| title = International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J Volume 2 of The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia,| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1034&| year = 1982| author = Bromiley, Geoffrey W.| publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing| pages = 1034| isbn = 0802837824| accessdate = 2009-09-12}}</ref> "For the king knows about these matters, and I speak to him also with confidence, since I am persuaded that none of these things escape his notice; for this has not been done in a corner.” Acts 26:26,<ref>http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2026:26&version=NASB</ref> and “For we did not follow cleverly devised tales when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of His majesty.” 2 Peter 1:16.<ref> http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20peter%201:16&version=NASB</ref> The early Christians appealed to real historical events to advance their faith and they opposed speculative and mythical notions by appealing to eyewitness accounts.<ref name=Henry1999>{{Citation| title = God, Revelation, and Authority: God who speaks and shows, preliminary considerations Volume 1 of God, Revelation, and Authority| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Pn9RScnSELUC&pg=PA161&| year = 1999| author = Henry, Carl Ferdinand Howard| publisher = Good News Publishers| pages = 162| isbn = 1581340419| accessdate = 2009-09-12}}</ref>

[[George Albert Wells|G. A. Wells]] believed that the Jesus of these earliest Christians is not based on a historical character, but a pure [[mythology|myth]], derived from the mystical speculations based on the Jewish Wisdom tradition. The earlier works by George Albert Wells drew on the [[Pauline Epistles]] and the lack of early non-Christian documents to argue that the Jesus figure of the [[Gospels]] was symbolic, not historical.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wells | first = G.A. | year = 1998 | title = The Jesus Myth | publisher = Open Court | isbn = 0-8126-9392-2 }}</ref> [[George Albert Wells|G. A. Wells]] suggests that the level of discussion of the historical Jesus in the [[Pauline epistles]], except for the [[pastoral epistles|Pastorals]], as well as in [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]], [[Epistle of James|James]], [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]], the [[Johannine epistles]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] supports his position. In these works, Wells argues, Jesus is presented as "a basically supernatural personage only obscurely on Earth as a man at some unspecified period in the past".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wells|first=GA|year=1999|month=September|title=Earliest Christianity|journal=New Humanist|volume=114|issue=3|pages=13–18|url=http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/g_a_wells/earliest.html|accessdate=2007-01-11}}</ref> Wells considers this to be the original Christian view of Jesus, based not on the life of a historical figure but on the personified figure of [[Wisdom]] as portrayed in Jewish [[wisdom literature]].

In ''The Jesus Myth'' (1999), Wells altered his position, contending that there were two distinct figures of Jesus: the mythic Jesus of Paul and a historicized Jesus found in the Gospels. He spells out his position in ''Can We Trust the New Testament?'' (2003): "This Galilean Jesus was not crucified and was not believed to have been resurrected after his death. The dying and rising Christ — devoid of time and place - of the early epistles is a quite different figure, and must have a different origin." [[Robert Van Voorst]] has describes this an "about-face" and an acceptance of a historical Jesus.<ref>"A final argument against the nonexistence hypothesis comes from Wells himself. In his most recent book, ''The Jesus Myth'', Wells has moved away from this hypothesis. He now accepts that there is some historical basis for the existence of Jesus, derived from the lost early 'gospel' 'Q' (the hypothetical source used by Matthew and Luke). Wells believes that it is early and reliable enough to show that Jesus probably did exist, although this Jesus was not the Christ that the later canonical Gospels portray. It remains to be seen what impact Wells's about-face will have on debate over the nonexistence hypothesis in popular circles.", Van Voorst, Robert E, "NonExistence Hypothesis," in Houlden, James Leslie (editor), ''Jesus in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia'', page 660 (Santa Barbara 2003)</ref> while on the back cover of ''Can We Trust the New Testament?'' itself Robert M Price states "G.A. Well is the eminently worth successor to radical 'Christ Myth' theorists..."

====Freke and Gandy====
:''Main article: [[The Jesus Mysteries]]'' and ''[[Neoplatonism and Gnosticism]]''

In recent years, the Christ myth theory has also been advocated by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]], who are both popular writers on mysticism, in their books '' [[The Jesus Mysteries]]''<ref name="Freke">{{cite book|last=Freke|first=T|coauthors=Gandy, P|title=The Jesus Mysteries: Was the "Original Jesus" a Pagan God?|publisher=Three Rivers Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0609807989}}</ref> and ''[[Jesus and the Lost Goddess]]'' (ISBN 1400045940). They suggested that the idea that Jesus's existence is legendary is itself as old as the [[New Testament]], pointing to [[Second Epistle of John|2 John 1:7]], though scholars of the period believe that this passage refers to [[docetism]], the belief that Jesus lacked a genuinely physical body, and not the belief that Jesus was a completely fabricated figure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Elwell|first=WA|title=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology|year=2001|publisher=Baker Academic|isbn=978-0801020759}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=DC|last=Duling|coauthors=Perrin,N|title=The New Testament: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History|year=1993|publisher=Harcourt|isbn=978-0155003781}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Docetism|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030754/Docetism|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica Online|accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=J.N.D|last=Kelly|title=Early Christian Doctrines: Revised Edition|year=1978|publisher=HarperSanFrancisco|isbn=978-0060643348}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/bible/phillips/CPn24John2.htm|title=Book 24 - John's Second Letter|first=JB|last=Phillips|accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Arendzen|first=J. P.|encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia|title=Docetae|url =http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05070c.htm|accessdate=2007-01-07|year=1909|publisher=Robert Appleton|volume=Volume V|location=New York}}</ref>

They are applying ideas of many authors from mainstream classical studies with a specialization in [[Gnosticism]]. The last generation has seen a wealth of new material on gnosticism. In 1898 Moritz Friedländer introduced the hypothesis that Gnosticism was not an aberrant form of Christianity but rather had emerged originally from Judaism. Kurt Rudolph provided the best analysis of this point.<ref>Gnosis und Gnostizismus ein Forshengsbericht</ref> [[Walter Bauer]] continued this theme, "''heresy is the original manifestation of Christianity''".<ref>Introduction to Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity, (Philadelphia: Fortress) ISBN 0-8006-1363-5 [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/Bauer/ Online]</ref>

The modern form of the case came from [[Birger A. Pearson]] an explicit continuation of Moritz Friedländer's "''Gnosticism serves as the medium by which Judaism should become a world religion''".<ref>Der vorchristliche jüdische Gnosticismus, as translated by Peason</ref> Pearson's analysis in the text starts with Friedländer Revisted Alexandrian Judaism and Gnostic Origins, which concludes with "''Although much of Friedländer's argument is open to question, he has been vindicated in his basic contention, that Gnosticism is a pre-Christian phenomenon that developed on Jewish soil.''"<ref name=Pearson>Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity (Studies in Antiquity and Christianity) Birger A. Pearson ISBN 0800631048, page 28</ref> In particular he held elsewhere in the text:
: ''the essential building blocks of the basic Gnostic myth constitute a (revolutionary) borrowing and reinterpretation of Jewish scriptures and traditions.... an attempt on the part of the Gnostics to gain entry into Christian communities, or to gain Christian adherents to their communities by means of equating their own gnosis with alleged secret teaching of Jesus Christ.... Non-Christian (pre-Christian?) varieties of Gnosticism had other reveler figures to whom to attribute their mythology, the most important of which seemed to have been [[Seth#In_Gnosticism|Seth]], son of Adam. Of course later "Christianized" Sethian Gnostics could then equate Seth with Jesus Christ, and regard the latter as an incarnation or avatar of the former.''<ref name=Pearson2006>{{Citation| year = 2006| title = Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity| pages = 9, 11| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=67aA7-wrMX8C&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=Birger+A.+Pearson+christ+myth&source=bl&ots=et7r1cZl6m&sig=p0UHkEqwTGinKl-tF12OlRvCRxE&hl=en&ei=WBq4SeyYKYuUMuHIrOUP&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result| isbn = 0800637410| publisher = Fortress Pr| author = Birger A. Pearson.}}</ref>
[[John D Turner]] analysis of the [[Sethianism|Sethian]] development yielded an end to end case study. What they both saw was an incorporation of Jewish wisdom literature into a middle platonic system. Groups of proto-gnostics (example [[Ophites]]) existed believing in a logos and a personified wisdom (Sophia) outside of history. They evolved into gnostic Christians, within two generations seeing the wisdom literature transformed into "teachings" of Jesus, an example of a Christianity evolving without any input from historical events.<ref name=Turner>''[http://jdt.unl.edu/triadaft.htm Gnosticism and Platonism: The Platonizing Sethian texts from Nag Hammadi in their Relation to Later Platonic Literature]'', John D Turner, ISBN 0-7914-1338-1.</ref><ref>see [[Gnostic Gospels]] for more on non canonical gospel accounts</ref>

The focus of Freke and Gandy's books are to explain this academic literature and weave it into a cohesive whole.

Critics of Bauer's ideas would assert that the first known explicitly Gnostic texts are from the middle of the second century, and the date of a fully developed Gnosticism is not attested to earlier than this. They may grant that fully formed Gnosticism may have had its origins in the first century or earlier.<ref>{{Citation| year = 2006| title = Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity| pages = 166| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=67aA7-wrMX8C&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=Birger+A.+Pearson+christ+myth&source=bl&ots=et7r1cZl6m&sig=p0UHkEqwTGinKl-tF12OlRvCRxE&hl=en&ei=WBq4SeyYKYuUMuHIrOUP&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result#PPA166,M1| isbn = 0800637410| publisher = Fortress Pr| author = Birger A. Pearson.}}</ref> Gnosticism and Christianity developed around the same time period but from different roots. The one pre-Christian Gnostic contribution claimed to have influenced Christian thinking is the "redeemer myth" but no pre-Christian document exists with this myth.<ref name=Ferguson2006>{{Citation| last = Ferguson | first = Everett| year = 2006| title = Backgrounds of early Christianity| pages = 308| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC&pg=PA308&dq=Gnosticism+and+christian+myth&lr=&ei=2924Sae3DIvKlQTpnsy-Cw&client=firefox-a| isbn = 0802822215| publisher = Eerdman| location = Grand Rapids, Mich.}}</ref><ref name=Keefer2006>{{Citation| last = Keefer | first = Kyle| year = 2006| title = The branches of the Gospel of John : the reception of the Fourth Gospel in the early church| pages = 22 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=HHN-CB9eUPQC&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=dating+the+redeemer+myth&source=bl&ots=G2Ukth_eiH&sig=_IuWsY2sqT5Z7r-GwqUieQQzr1o&hl=en&ei=8ua4SYDgOYvltgfttemrBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result| isbn = 0567028615
| location = London| publisher = T & T Clark International}}</ref> Other scholars question gnosticism as a category at all separate from Hellenistic Judaism and so for them the idea that Gnosticism impacted the New Testament in this area is rejected .<ref name=King2005>{{Citation| last = King | first = Karen L| year = 2005| title = What is Gnosticism?| pages = 137–38| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=df1Tz5Cn8BQC&pg=PA137&lpg=PA137&dq=dating+the+redeemer+myth&source=bl&ots=tMFb3-lBhq&sig=BAUWThpohCn56_C-TpUzE9d-bbg&hl=en&ei=8ua4SYDgOYvltgfttemrBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result| isbn = 0674017625| publisher = Belknap Press of Harvard University Press| location = Cambridge, Mass.}}</ref>

====Earl Doherty====
{{Main|Earl Doherty}}
[[Earl Doherty]] promotes the theory in his book ''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]'', where he utilizes the earliest descriptions of Christian beliefs, the earliest epistles as proposed that [[Christ]] is a myth derived from Middle Platonism with some influence from [[Merkabah#Ma'asei Merkavah|Jewish mysticism]], in the spirit of [[Christ_myth_theory#Bruno_Bauer|Bruno Bauer]] above. He essentially agreed with Wells with the key exception, that he held that these early authors did not believe that Jesus had been on Earth at all. He argues that the earliest Christians, like Philo, acceptance of a [[Middle Platonism|Platonic]] cosmology distinguished a "higher" spiritual world from the Earthly world of matter, and that they viewed Jesus as having descended only into the "lower reaches of the spiritual world".<ref name=doherty>{{cite journal|last=Doherty|first=E|year=1997|month=Fall|title=The Jesus Puzzle: Pieces in a Puzzle of Christian Origins|journal=Journal of Higher Criticism|volume=4|issue=2|url=http://home.ca.inter.net/~oblio/jhcjp.htm|accessdate=2007-01-09|format={{dead link|date=April 2009}} – <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3ADoherty+intitle%3AThe+Jesus+Puzzle%3A+Pieces+in+a+Puzzle+of+Christian+Origins&as_publication=Journal+of+Higher+Criticism&as_ylo=1997&as_yhi=1997&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>}}</ref> Doherty also suggests that this view was accepted by the authors of the Pastoral epistles, [[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]], and various second-century Christian writings outside the New Testament. Doherty contends that apparent references in these writings to events on earth, and a physical historic Jesus, should in fact be regarded as allegorical metaphors.<ref name="Doherty">{{cite web|url=http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp08.htm|title=Christ as "Man": Does Paul Speak of Jesus as a Historical Person?|accessdate=2007-01-11|last=Doherty|first=E|work=The Jesus Puzzle: Was There No Historical Jesus?}}</ref> He believes that the writer of the Gospel of Mark was the first to place Jesus Christ in a specific historical context, and that the actual view of Jesus of the early follower are best found the earliest descriptions of Christian beliefs, the earliest epistles. Opponents regard such interpretations as forced and erroneous.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bede.org.uk/price7.htm|title=Earl Doherty use of the phrase "According to the Flesh" (''sic'')|accessdate=2007-01-11|last=Price|first=C|date=2005-05-20|work=Bede's Library}}</ref> Doherty advanced the case through the creation of an exhaustive list of silences<ref>[http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/silintro.htm Sound of Silence]</ref> and the connection to [[Marcus Minucius Felix]].<ref>For the full argument ''Marcus Felix a Smoking Gun'' p285-290 of the Jesus puzzle or in more limited form online [http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/century2.htm The Second Century Apologists]</ref>

We can best see Doherty's expansion of Wells' ideas by examining a time line. For both, without a belief in a founding figure, an alternate theory of Christian development begins to emerge. The core idea is that the proto-Christian or Christian religion being practiced at any time is likely consistent with the type of literature being produced at that time. The standard historical methods are used to determine dates. From there
* If people are datable and known to have written something the book was written during their lives (though it may involve earlier tradition)
* If work A depends on work B then A preceded B
etc...

The time line that emerges<ref>See [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/g_a_wells/index.html infidels on wells] for samples of G.A. Wells</ref> would be common to both for the first 3 lines while the last 3 are more explicitly Doherty:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Period
! type of literature
! type of development
|-
| unknown (thousands of years in the past)
| imagery of [[life-death-rebirth deity]] that sacrifices himself for his followers (outside of time and history and/or in the distant past)
| [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery cults]] develop see [[Jesus Christ as myth]]
|-
| ~200 BCE<ref>[[G.A. Wells]], The Jesus Legend, ch. The 'Sayings Gospel' Q</ref>
| Jewish [[Wisdom literature]] ([[Q document|proto Q]]) for example [[Wisdom of Solomon]].
| Stories about that [[Sophia (Gnosticism)#Sophia and non-Gnostic Christianity and Judaism|Wisdom/Sophia]] including legends of wisdom having been incarnate (outside of time and history and/or in the distant past)<ref>[http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp04.htm Odes of Solomon]</ref>
|-
| 200 BCE - 70 CE
| [[Hellenistic Judaism]] (especially [[Philo of Alexandria]]) mainstream the notion of emanations of God, in particular Wisdom/Sophia and [[Philo's_view_of_God#The_Logos|Logos]]
| [[Syncretic]] Judaism forms which makes heavy use of [[allegory]] to harmonize Greek and Jewish religion. In particular proto logos Christianity.
|-
| 50-70 CE<ref>
''Such knowledge will surely have seemed to Paul, and to other early Christians, confirmation of what he interpreted the Wisdom literature as telling him: that Jesus, a redeemer ('Jesus' means 'Yahweh saves') had come to earth and been killed long ago.... traditions on which the Talmud draws persistently place Jesus among those ancient victims by dating him somewhere in the second century B.C. '' Wells, The Jesus Legend, Catholic Truth on the Historicity of Jesus</ref>
| Epistles [[Pauline Epistles]] and [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]
| Messianic literure and savior god get combined. There is no belief in a historical incarnation nor belief in any specific "teachings" outside the literature
|-
|90-110 CE<ref>Doherty(1999) places Mark 90 CE Matthew 100 CE roughly on page 196</ref>
| Gospels of Mark and Matthew constructed in essentially modern form.
| Wisdom literature teachings get incorporated into midrashic narrative.
|-
|106-140 CE<ref>''It has long been acknowledged by scholars of the second century apologists that they show little if any connection to the type of cultic Christianity of the first century as represented by Paul. They thus find themselves in the position of having to explain this discontinuity. What happened to divorce the second century stream represented by the apologists from the first century Pauline antecedent? In that group, including Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, Minucius Felix and (I maintain) in Justin's earliest thinking, there is not only no historical founder in view, there is no idea of incarnation, there is no atonement doctrine and no Calvary, there is no resurrection of a human or divine entity from the dead. These are major voids, quantum divergences from a presumed original faith movement that are hardly explainable by the rather feeble rationalizations provided by modern scholars. But they are hamstrung by their own preconceptions. They are reading a certain set of documents and beliefs into everything else. The most plausible explanation is that there was no discontinuity, no divorce or divergence from Paul or some of the early Fathers of the Church. Rather, these are the varied expressions of general trends of belief found throughout the Empire, trends which were only gradually coalescing and evolving into a commonality based on the ever more appealing and powerful figure created by the Gospels. '' Earl Doherty, reply to Gakusei Don [http://www.christianorigins.com/2ndcearl.html find original!]</ref>
| Early church fathers
| [[Jesus the Logos|Logos Christianity]]. Mixed opinion about salvation and the incarnation.<ref>[http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp12One.htm Jesus in the Apostolic Fathers at the Turn of the Second Century] Earl Doherty</ref> A Christianity exists which is essentially a form of stoicism with its mythology taken primarily from the [[Septuagint]]. Most references to the gospels themselves are thought of and written about as being [[Philo_of_Alexandria#Attitude_toward_literal_meaning|"stories" and "myths"]]<ref>For example, Tatian's Apology: "We are not fools, men of Greece, when we declare that God has been born in the form of man. . . Compare your own stories ... Take a look at your own records and accept us merely on the grounds that we too tell stories."</ref>
|-
| 140-180 CE<ref>Doherty (1999) page 269-71</ref>
| anti-heretical literature, apologetics. Form of the New Testament (gospels plus early epistles) is fixed.
| Gospels are used in anti-heretical defenses arguing that the Petrine church was specifically ordained by Jesus and thus has unique authority. [[Supersessionism]] is increasingly used to justify the fact that Christianity is an ancient religion and thus avoid [[Persecution_of_Christians#Persecution_from_the_second_century_to_Constantine|persecution]]. Gospels are given tremendous weight and are increasing seen as authoritative. Luke<ref>[http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/BkrvPNNT.htm The Pre-Nicene New Testament] has both Doherty and Price endorsing the [[Gospel_of_Marcion#Marcion_as_pre-dating_Luke|John Knox theory]] (Marcion and the New Testament] that Luke came from Marcon's [[Gospel of the Lord]] 140-160</ref> and Acts are written to create an imaginary history for the church in its anti-heresy battles.
|}

====Other writers====

[[John M. Allegro]] proposed that [[Christianity]] began as [[shamanism|shamanic]] religion based on the use of [[hallucinogenic mushrooms]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Allegro|first=John M.|authorlink=John Marco Allegro|title=The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross: A Study of the Nature and Origins of Christianity Within the Fertility Cults of the Ancient Near East|year=1970|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|location=London|isbn=0-340-12875-5}}</ref>

Advocates of the theory do not agree on the dating and meaning of the early Christian texts, with advocates like Doherty holding to traditional scholarly dating that puts the gospels toward the end of the first century, and others, like [[Hermann Detering]] (''The Fabricated Paul''), arguing that the early Christian texts are largely forgeries and products of the middle to late second century. In ''The Synoptic Apocalypse'' he shows how chapter 13 of Mark includes materials from a pamphlet written in 136 CE.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Detering
| first = Hermann
| authorlink = Hermann Detering
| title = The Synoptic Apocalypse (Mark 13 par): a document from the time of Bar Kochba
| journal = [[Journal of Higher Criticism]]
| volume = 7
| issue = 2
| publisher = Institute for Higher Critical Studies
| date = Fall 2000
| url = http://www.radikalkritik.de/Mk13%20JHC.pdf
| accessdate = May 6, 2009}}</ref>

[[Robert M. Price]], a biblical scholar, does not style himself as a proponent of the theory, but tries to demonstrate that if we apply the critical methodology (which has been developed in the area) with "ruthless consistency" then we should come to complete agnosticism regarding Jesus' historicity,<ref name="Priceagnost"> "... their own criteria and critical tools, which we have sought to apply here with ruthless consistency, ought to have left them with complete agnosticism ...", p. 351 in {{cite book|last=Price|first=Robert M.|title=The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable is the Gospel Tradition?|year=2003|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, N.Y.|isbn=1-59102-121-9}}</ref> and that the burden of proof is on those holding to Jesus's historicity.<ref name="Burden"> {{cite web|title=The Quest of the Mythical Jesus|url=http://www.mountainman.com.au/essenes/article_005.htm|first=Robert|last=Price|accessdate=2007-12-09}}</ref> In his [[Deconstructing Jesus]] ( (ISBN 1573927589)), [[Robert M. Price|Price]] argues that liberal Protestant scholars who produce reconstructions of the "historical Jesus" are, as Albert Schweitzer pointed out long ago, creating their own Jesus icons to authorize a liberal religious agenda. Christian faith, whether fundamentalist or theologically liberal, invariably tends to produce a Jesus capable of playing the role of a religious figurehead. In this way, "Jesus Christ" functions as a symbolic cloak for several hidden agendas. To Price this is no surprise, since he views the Jesus Christ of the gospels as very likely a fictional amalgam of several first-century prophets and messiahs, as well as of purely mythic Mystery Cult redeemers and Gnostic Aions. To demonstrate his point, Price follows the [[Burton Mack|Burton Mack's]] outline of a range of "Jesus movements" and "Christ cults," showing the origins of each one's Jesus figures and how they may have finally merged into the patchwork savior of Christian dogma. Finally, Price argues that there is good reason to believe that Jesus never existed as a historical figure, and that responsible historians must remain agnostic about a "historical Jesus" and what he stood for.<ref>All from Deconstructing Jesus (ISBN 1573927589), summary from flap</ref> It should be noted though that Price is often viewed as sub-academic, the [[Society of Biblical Literature|Society of Biblical Literature's]] [[Review of Biblical Literature]] describing his work as "not a serious discussion of the issues" so much as "an extremely bitter rant."<ref>http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/7049_7653.pdf</ref>

Joseph Hoffman makes a similar point, that there is no other historical figure whose core nature is so radically disputed, ''In the past generation, the 'real' Jesus has been variously a magician ([[Morton Smith|Smith]]), a Galilean rabbi ([[Bruce Chilton|Chilton]]), a marginal Jew ([[John P. Meier|Meier]]), a bastard ([[Jane Schaberg|Schaberg]]), a cipher ([[Barbara Thiering|Thiering]]), a Qumran dissident ([[John Allegro|Allegro et al.]]), a gnosticisng Jew ([[Helmut Koester|Koester]]), a dissdent Jew ([[Géza Vermes|Vermes]]) a happily married man and father of son ([[John Shelby Spong|Sprong]]), a bandit ([[Richard A. Horsley|Horsley]]) an enthusiastic (possibly Zealot?) opponent of the Temple cult ([[E. P. Sanders|Sanders]])''<ref>R Joseph Hoffman, Westminster College (Oxford) in preface to the Jesus Legend</ref>

[[Writings of D.M. Murdock|D.M. Murdock]] (publishing in part [[pseudonymous]]ly as "Acharya S") has written five books in support of the Christ myth theory. She argues that the canonical gospels represent a middle to late 2nd-century CE creation utilizing Old Testament "prophetic" scriptures as a blueprint, in combination with a collage of other, older Pagan and Jewish concepts, and that Christianity was thereby fabricated in order to compete with the other popular religions of the time.

[[Robert Eisenman]] in [[James the Brother of Jesus]] and [[The New Testament Code]] hypothesizes that Christianity was originally led by James, Jesus' role was always minor and his crucifixion had no particular importance. The teachings of Jesus are mostly James' and an amalgamation of other teachers. Paul's focus on Jesus came from a desire to undermine the political aspects, "Paul’s mission is to redirect Jewish messianism, its violent, anti-Roman, nationalistic, xenophobic ideology represented, and led, by James, into a peaceful, spiritual messianic religion presided over by a Christ-figure".<ref name="Turton" />

[[Johnny Lovewisdom]] in ''The Buddhist Essene Gospel Of John'' (Paradisian Publications, 2004), researched half a century to compile the background for his appraisal of the Divine Mysteries unveiled in the Gospels. It required a deep study of the undermeaning of the Nazarene Savior's own Syriac dialect of the Aramaic tongue. Dr. Lovewisdom chronicled the words of 'Jesus' as recorded by John, in the Pesthita Bible of the Assyrian Eastern Church - handed down through the centuries without changes by the Church or translators. The diet of Jesus and the Apostles according to historical sources of the time, is shown, along with esoteric allegorical commentary (exegesis) on the mystical meaning of the Gospels, the Buddhist origin of the Essenes and the real identity of Jesus (John's metaphor for all creation).

===The Jesus Project===
{{Main|Jesus Project}}
The Jesus Project is an ongoing inquiry into the historical existence of Jesus. Initiated by [[R. Joseph Hoffmann]], the project is a follow-up to the [[Jesus Seminar]] that regards the existence of Jesus as a "testable hypothesis."<ref>http://www.thestar.com/article/557548</ref>

==Arguments==
The arguments for the Christ myth theory center on the idea that the figure of Jesus was a fabrication of early Christians, and proponents point to a lack of reliability of historical accounts in first- and second-century CE documents traditionally held as evidence for the historical existence of Jesus:

===Earliest recorded references===
====New Testament epistles====
The [[authorship of the Pauline epistles|letters]] of [[Paul of Tarsus]] are among the earliest surviving Christian writings, probably predating all the gospels. For the Christ myth theory it is of importance that the epistles do not mention details of Jesus' life and ministry, though there are several passages that are traditionally interpreted to refer to his time on earth; for instance, "... concerning his Son who was a descendant of David with reference to the flesh.." (Romans 1:3), "... By sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh ..." (Romans 8:3) or "Before your very eyes Jesus Christ was clearly portrayed as crucified.."(Galatians 3:1). In his book ''Jesus and the Logic of History'', Bishop Paul Barnett lists 15 such details gleaned from Paul's letters.<ref>Barnett,P (1997). ''Jesus and the Logic of History'', Apollos, ISBN 978-0851115122, pp. 57-58. Among others, he mentions 1) descent from Abraham, 2) direct descent from David, 3) 'born of a woman', 4) lived in poverty, 5) born and lived under the law, 6) had a brother called James, 7) led a humble life style, 8) ministered primarily to Jews, etc.</ref> R. T. France, in his book, also argues that the [[Apostle Paul]] spoke of [[Jesus]] as a physical being and that there are several references to historical facts about Jesus' life in Paul's letters.<ref name="France"/>

The absence of references to Jesus' teachings and acts has been interpreted by a number of scholars and authors to indicate that the early Christians who wrote the epistles were not aware of a/the historical Jesus or at least of his life's details. For example, [[Earl Doherty]] holds that these early authors did not believe that Jesus had been on Earth at all. He argues that the earliest Christians accepted a [[Middle Platonism|Platonic]] cosmology that distinguished a "higher" spiritual world from the Earthly world of matter, and that they viewed Jesus as having descended only into the "lower reaches of the spiritual world".<ref name=doherty>{{cite journal|last=Doherty|first=E|year=1997|month=Fall|title=The Jesus Puzzle: Pieces in a Puzzle of Christian Origins|journal=Journal of Higher Criticism|volume=4|issue=2|url=http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/jhcjp.htm|accessdate=2008-06-05}}</ref> Doherty also suggests that this view was accepted by the authors of the Pastoral epistles, [[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]], and various second-century Christian writings outside the New Testament. Doherty contends that apparent references in these writings to events on earth, and a physical historic Jesus, should in fact be regarded as allegorical metaphors.<ref name="Doherty"/>

Opponents regard such interpretations as forced and argue that they are mostly based on [[argument from silence|arguments from silence]], which are by themselves unpersuasive.<ref name="France"/>

====Early non-Christian references to Jesus====
{{details|Historicity of Jesus#Greco-Roman sources}}

Four early writers are typically cited in support of the actual existence of Jesus: [[Josephus on Jesus|Josephus]], [[Tacitus on Jesus|Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]], and [[Pliny the Younger]]. Many challengers to their usefulness point out that each of these writers have problems.

* The two references to Jesus in the ''Antiquities'' of [[Josephus]] (written 93 CE) are contested on different grounds. The first reference [[Josephus on Jesus|Testimonium Flavianum]] is challenged on the grounds that the passage is known to have been tampered with based on comments by Origen and that it seems to break the flow of the passage it appears in. The challenge to the second passage is due the "Jesus, the son of Damneus" near the end; this is used to argue that this is a different Jesus whose brother was called James and therefore either the "who is called the Christ" part is an insertion or that this is another person given the title Christ.{{details|Historicity of Jesus#Josephus}}
* The passage by [[Tacitus]] (circa 117) is challenged based on the fact he did not state his reference material and could have just been repeating what the Christians of the time were saying. The article [[Tacitus on Christ]] has an extended discussion, and the [[Historicity of Jesus#Tacitus|Tacitus section]] of Historicity of Jesus also has additional information.
* [[Suetonius]] is challenged on the fact his reference to "Chrestus" is so vague as to be nearly useless. See [[Historicity of Jesus#Suetonius|Suetonius section]] of Historicity of Jesus for greater details.
* There are references to Christians in the letters of [[Pliny the Younger]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/pliny.html|title=Pliny, Letters 10.96-97|accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref> but they give no specific information about the founder of this movement.

The ''Babylonian [[Talmud]]'' contains several references to the name [[Yeshu]] that have been traditionally identified with Jesus of Nazareth. However, these same passages have been used to show that the biblical Jesus is based upon an earlier figure who lived about 100 BCE.<ref name="Mead" /><ref name="The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud"/> Furthermore, tradition has the Babylonian Talmud being compiled in the late third to early fourth century CE, limiting its value to determining events of the 1st century CE.

Some scholars doubt that these sources refute the Jesus-myth theory. Charles Guignebert, Professor of the History Of Christianity at the Sorbonne, who does believe that Jesus of the Gospels existed and lived in Galilee during the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, discounts the worth of all the non-Christian sources as proof of the existence of Jesus. Thus "all the pagan and Jewish testimonies, so-called, afford us no information of any value about the life of Jesus, nor even any assurance that he ever lived..."<ref name=guignebert>''Jesus'' by Ch. Guignebert (Translated from the French by S. H. Hooke, Samuel Davidson Professor of Old Testament Studies, University of London), University Books, New Yory, 1956, p22</ref>

[[Robert M. Price]] says that these non-Christian references, even if taken as genuine, merely amount to an account of what the ancient Christians of the time were saying about Jesus, not that the writers were claiming Jesus as a contemporary.

====Omissions in early records====
Many proponents of the Christ myth theory point out that there is a complete lack of non-Christian documents that make reference to Jesus before the end of the first century, and note the survival of writings by a number of Roman and Jewish commentators and historians who wrote in the first century but which lack mention of events described in the Gospels, taking this as evidence that Jesus was invented later. Opponents of the theory argue that [[argument from silence|arguments from silence]] are unreliable.<ref name="France"/>

[[Justus of Tiberias]] wrote at the end of the first century a history of Jewish kings, with whom the gospels state Jesus had interacted. Justus' history does not survive, but [[Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]], who read it in the 9th century, stated that it did not mention "the coming of Christ, the events of His life, or the miracles performed by Him."<ref>{{cite book |author=Photius |authorlink=Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople |others=trans. J. H. Freese |title=The library of Photius |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/photius_02preface.htm |accessdate=2007-01-03 |year=1920 |publisher=SPCK |location=London |chapter=33: Justus of Tiberias, ''Chronicle of the Kings of the Jews'' |chapterurl=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/photius_03bibliotheca.htm#33 }}</ref> The Jewish historian [[Philo]], who lived in the first half of the 1st century also fails to mention Jesus, as do other major contemporary writers<ref>Wells, G.A. (1971) ''The Jesus of the Early Christians, A Study in Christian Origins'', Pemberton Books, page 2.</ref>

In response to Jesus myth proponents who argue the lack of early non-Christian sources, or question their authenticity, [[R. T. France]] counters that "even the great histories of [[Tacitus]] have survived in only two manuscripts, which together contain scarcely half of what he is believed to have written, the rest is lost" and that the life of Jesus, from a Roman point of view, was not a major event.<ref name="France">{{cite book|authorlink=RT France|last=France|first=RT|title=Evidence for Jesus (Jesus Library)|publisher=Trafalgar Square Publishing|year=1986|isbn=0340381728|pages=19–20}}</ref>

R.T. France states that Christianity was actively opposed by both the [[Roman Empire]] and the Jewish authorities, and would have been utterly discredited if Jesus had been shown as a non-historical figure. He argues that there is evidence in [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]], [[Josephus]] and other sources of the Roman and Jewish approaches at the time, and none of them involved this suggestion.<ref name="France"/>

===Influenced by the Old Testament===
Advocates of the Jesus-myth believe that the gospels are not history but a type of [[midrash]]: creative narratives based on the stories, prophecies, and quotes in the Hebrew Bible. Doherty has argued that when the midrashic elements are removed, little to no content remains that could be used to demonstrate the existence of a historical Jesus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/partthre.htm|title=THE JESUS PUZZLE Was There No Historical Jesus?|first=E|last=Doherty|accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref><ref>*{{cite book|last=Doherty|first=Earl|authorlink=Earl Doherty|title=[[The Jesus Puzzle]]: Did Christianity Begin With a Mythical Christ?|year=2000|edition=rev.|publisher=Canadian Humanist Publications|location=Ottawa|isbn=0-9686014-0-5}}</ref>

A majority of scholars<ref name="tuckett">Christopher Tuckett: [http://www.webcitation.org/5YBgZFADe The current state of the Synoptic Problem], 2008 Oxford Conference In The Synoptic Problem</ref><ref>see also [[Markan priority]], [[Synoptic problem]], [[Two-source hypothesis]]</ref> explain the similarities between the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] using the [[two-source hypothesis]], according to which, Matthew and Luke derived most of their content from Mark and from a lost collection of Jesus' sayings known as the [[Q document]]. In the small amount of additional material unique to Matthew, Jesus is presented with strong parallels to Old Testament figures, most noticeably [[Moses]].<ref>{{cite journal
| last = O'Toole
| first = Robert F.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = The Parallels Between Jesus and Moses
| journal = Biblical Theology Bulletin
| volume = 20
| issue = 1
| pages = 22–29
| publisher =
| location =
| date = 1990
| url =
| issn =
| doi = 10.1177/014610799002000104
| id =
| accessdate = }}</ref><ref>Murdock (1999) Ch 15</ref><ref>Troxel, Ronald L. University of Wisconsin Madison. [http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~rltroxel/gospels/Lect20.pdf Matthew's Jesus]</ref> Thus there is no reason to assume that the sayings attributed to a postulated Q document originated with Jesus.<ref>Doherty (1999) Jesus as symbol p. 238-9</ref>

Though believing that the gospels may contain some creativity and midrash, opponents of the Jesus-myth argue that the gospels are more akin to ancient [[Greco-Roman]] biographies.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=7F_5kPoTTnoC&pg=PA63&lpg=PA63 David E. Aune; The New Testament in its literary environment page 63-7]</ref> Such works attempted to impart historical information about historical figures but were not comprehensive and could include legendary developments.

===Comparisons with Mediterranean mystery religions===
{{Main|Jesus Christ in comparative mythology}}
Some proponents of the Christ myth theory have argued that many aspects of the Gospel stories of Jesus have remarkable parallels with [[life-death-rebirth deity|life-death-rebirth gods]] in the widespread [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery religion]]s prevalent in the [[Hellenistic]] culture in which Christianity was born. Some prominent early Christians, such as [[Irenaeus]] and [[Justin Martyr]], recognized some of these parallels; Justin specifically used several to attempt to prove that Christianity was not a new cult, but that it was rooted in ancient prophecy which had been "diabolically imitated."<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cults of the Roman Empire|first=Robert|last=Turcan|year=1996|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=9780631200475|page=233}}</ref>

The central figure of one of the most widespread, [[Osiris-Dionysus]], was consistently localised and deliberately merged with local deities in each area, since it was the ''mysteries'' which were imparted that were regarded as important, not the method by which they were taught. In the view of some advocates of the Jesus Myth, most prominently [[Timothy Freke|Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy|Gandy]] in ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'', Jewish mystics adapted their form of Osiris-Dionysus to match prior Jewish heroes like Moses and Joshua, hence creating Jesus.<ref name="Freke"/>

Several parallels are frequently cited by these advocates, and often appear, mixed with other parallels, on internet sites.<ref>[http://www.stellarhousepublishing.com/christinegypt.html][http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_jcpa5.htm][http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SIMFz5ZKDVo examples]</ref> The most prominently cited parallels are with [[Horus]]<ref name="Horus">Murdock (1999) p 114-6 and Murdock (2009)</ref> and [[Mithras]].<ref>Murdock (1999) p 118-20</ref> Horus was one of the life-death-rebirth deities, and was connected and involved with those of [[Osiris]].<ref name="Horus" />

[[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]] does not see the similarities between Christianity and pagan religions to be significant. Grant states that "Judaism was a milieu to which doctrines of the deaths and rebirths, of mythical gods seemed so entirely foreign that the emergence of such a fabrication from its midst is very hard to credit."<ref>In Grant's ''An Historian's Review of the Gospels''. Grant refers to S. Neill, ''What we know about Jesus'' (Eerdmans, 1972 ed), p. 45 to support this view.</ref>

===Historiography and methodology===
[[Earl Doherty]] argues that the gospels are inconsistent concerning "such things as the baptism and nativity stories, the finding of the empty tomb and Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances" and contain numerous "contradictions and disagreements in the accounts of Jesus' words and deeds". He concludes that the evangelists freely altered their sources and invented material, and therefore could not have been concerned to preserve historical information.<ref name=doherty/>

A similar tack works from the claim that the dates in canonical and non-canonical sources do not match up.<ref>eg [[The God Who Wasn't There]]</ref> For example it is stated in the [[Toldoth Yeshu]] that one [[Yeshu]], identified with Jesis was killed under [[Salome Alexandra]],<ref name="Mead" /> and Luke and Matthew have different birth dates that are nearly a decade apart.

This criticism has frequently been answered by the observation: "The fact of Christianity's beginnings and the character of its earliest traditions is such that we could only deny the existence of Jesus by hypothesizing the existence of some other figure who was a sufficient cause of Christianity's beginnings - another figure who on careful reflection would probably come out very like Jesus!"<ref name=Dunn1986>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hfAcOPGt69YC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA27&sig=ACfU3U27Zru8QmcSwDkCYvZ3UlDDDVbtaA Dunn (1986), JDG, 'The Evidence for Jesus',Westminster John Knox Press, p.29 ISBN=0664246982]</ref>

==Scholarly reception==
A number of writers have stated that the theory has limited acceptance in the relevant scholarly circles. Richard Burridge and Graham Gould (2004: References below) state that the questioning of Jesus' existence is not accepted by mainstream critical scholarship.<ref name=Burridge/> Michael Grant believes that the Christ myth theory fails to satisfy modern critical methodology, and is rejected by all but a few modern scholars,<ref name="Grantmajority"/> stating,

<blockquote>...if we apply to the New Testament, as we should, the same sort of criteria as we should apply to other ancient writings containing historical material, we can no more reject Jesus' existence than we can reject the existence of a mass of pagan personages whose reality as historical figures is never questioned...To sum up, modern critical methods fail to support the Christ-myth theory."<ref>Grant, ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels (1977), pp. 199, 200</ref> </blockquote>

Likewise [[Graham N. Stanton]] writes,

<blockquote>Today nearly all historians, whether Christians or not, accept that Jesus existed and that the gospels contain plenty of valuable evidence which has to be weighed and assessed critically. There is general agreement that, with the possible exception of Paul, we know far more about Jesus of Nazareth than about any first- or second century Jewish or pagan religious teacher."<ref name="stanton"/></blockquote>

[[James Charlesworth]] writes that "No reputable scholar today questions that a Jew named Jesus son of Joseph lived; most readily admit that we now know a considerable amount about his actions and basic teachings ..."<ref name="Charlesworth13"/> a conclusion shared by Anglican Bishop N.T. Wright.<ref>"The Self-Revelation of God in Human History", from ''There Is A God'' by Antony Flew and Roy Abraham Varghese (2007)</ref>

[[Robert E. Van Voorst]] has stated that biblical scholars and historians regard the Jesus never existed thesis as "effectively refuted",<ref name=voorst/> with contemporary New Testament scholars typically viewing the Jesus-mythers arguments "as so weak or bizarre that they relegate them to footnotes, or often ignore them completely..."

Jesus myth proponent [[Earl Doherty]] responds to Van Voorst's claim, stating "after a survey of the history of research into the historical Jesus, Van Voorst tackles 'the noisy side current' of Jesus mythicism. He notes that over one hundred books and essays during the last two centuries have denied the existence of Jesus. Their arguments, he says, are dismissed as 'weak and bizarre' by contemporary New Testament scholars. Van Voorst is quite right in saying that 'mainstream scholarship today finds it unimportant.' Most of their comment (such as those quoted by Michael Grant) are limited to expressions of contempt." However, he insists that the "contempt" in which the theory is held "is not to be mistaken for refutation," arguing that mainstream scholars have failed to keep up with the details of the modern Jesus myth.<ref name="Dohertyms">Earl Doherty, "Responses to Critiques of the Mythicist Case: Four: Alleged Scholarly Refutations of Jesus Mythicism", available http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/CritiquesRefut3.htm, accessed 03 September 2009.</ref>

==Chart==
The chart below describes the Christ myth theory and contrasts it with conservative Christianity and mainstream academic scholarship to help clarify the points of dispute. All 3 columns represent broad positions, generalizations and averages, and there are exceptions to each point for virtually every author. "Conservative Christianity" here is being used to represent the positions of scholars who are members of the [[Christian right]], their views are consistent with, and explained in, the article [[Christian views of Jesus]], as well as the [[Christianity]] article. "Mainstream Scholarship" here is being used to represent the general consensus of interdisciplinary academic research, including [[historical theology]], [[Palestinian archaeology|secular]] and [[biblical archaeology]], and the [[Quest_for_the_historical_Jesus#Contemporary_scholarship|majority of biblical scholars]] utilizing both [[Textual criticism|lower criticism]] and [[higher criticism]]. Those views are detailed in [[Historical Jesus]]. Christ Myth theory refers to the current position of the proponents of Christ Myth theory. These theories have a natural affinity to the modern methods of [[comparative religion]] and [[anthropology]], but lack mainstream scholarly support for some of the reasons discussed below.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Christian views of Jesus|Conservative Christianity]]
! [[Historical Jesus|Mainstream Scholarship]]
! Christ Myth theory
|-
| Ideas originated in traditional Christianity.
| Ideas originated in [[liberal Christianity]].<ref>{{cite web
| last = Boa
| first = Kenneth [http://www.kenboa.org/ Kenboa.org]
| title = Letting Go:Liberal Christianity-Retreating from the Faith
| url = http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=3864
| accessdate = March 29, 2009 }}</ref><ref>"''The Jesus of Nazareth who came forward publicly as the Messiah, who preached the ethic of the Kingdom of God, who founded the Kingdom of Heaven upon earth, and died to give His work its final consecration, never had any existence. He is a figure designed by rationalism, endowed with life by liberalism, and clothed by modern theology in historical garb. '', Schweitzer (1913) [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/schweitzer/chapter20.html p. 398]</ref><ref>See also [[Ferdinand Christian Baur]] for a discussion of the early dating involving [[Adolf von Harnack]].</ref>
| Ideas originated among the [[anti-religious]]: [[atheists]], [[freethinkers]], [[deists]],<ref>Van Voorst (2000) p 16</ref> often in response to the "[[Quest for the historical Jesus]]" of mainstream scholarship.
|-
| Jesus was both man and [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] in a [[hypostatic union]].<ref Name="Nicene">[[Nicene Creed]], [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.iv.iii.html 381 version with comparison to 325 apostle's creed]</ref><ref name="Acharya Quest"> {{cite book
| last = S
| first = Acharya
| authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock
| title = The Christ Conspiracy
| publisher = Adventures Unlimited Press
| date = 1999
| location = Canada
| pages = 12–23
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=KnIYRi3upbEC&pg=PA12-IA4
| isbn = 0-932813-74-7}}</ref>
| Jesus was a man who came to be seen as God.<ref name="Acharya Quest"/><ref>{{Cite book | title=Jesus Under Fire | editor = Michael J Wilkins, J P Moreland | first=Scot | last=McKnight | chapter=Who is Jesus? An Introduction to Jesus Studies | pages=144 | year=1996 | publisher=Zondervan | isbn=0-310-21139-5}}</ref>
| Jesus was a God who came to be seen as a man.<ref name="Acharya Quest"/><ref>[http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/puzzle13.htm Putting the Jesus Puzzle Together in 12 Easy Pieces] Earl Doherty</ref>
|-
| Gospels are a historical record written by, or based on first-hand accounts from, Jesus' followers.<ref name="Pass" /><ref name="ReferenceA">See [[Biblical inerrancy]] for an extended discussion</ref><ref name="Greenleaf">{{cite book
| last = Greenleaf
| first = Simon
| authorlink = Simon Greenleaf
| title = [[Testimony of the Evangelist|The Testimony of the Evangelists Examined by The Rules of Evidence Administered in Courts of Justice]] ([http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/jesus/greenleaf.html online version of essay])
| publisher = reprint of the 1874 edition, (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1984)
| isbn = 0-8010-3803-0
| year = 1846 }}</ref>
| Gospels are later works based on materials that are themselves written by, or based on first-hand accounts from, Jesus' followers.<ref>{{Cite book | title=Jesus Under Fire | editor = Michael J Wilkins, J P Moreland | first=Scot | last=McKnight | chapter=Who is Jesus? An Introduction to Jesus Studies | pages=73–8 | year=1996 | publisher=Zondervan | isbn=0-310-21139-5}}</ref>
| The Gospels are composed as theological works containing little or nothing that occurred in a historical sense.<ref>Doherty(1999) Chapter 22, ''The Gospels as Midrash and Symbolism'' see also online [http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/partthre.htm The Evolution of Jesus of Nazareth]</ref><ref>Wells(1996) Chapter 5, ''The Gospel of Mark: History of Dogma?''</ref><ref>Murdock (1999) Throughout the book, especially p 12-23</ref>
|-
|The [[Q document]] never existed. The gospel writers were 4 independent witnesses<ref name="Pass"/><ref name="Greenleaf" /> or the "Q material" came from Matthew.<ref>see [[Augustinian hypothesis]] for extended discussion</ref>
| [[Q document]] represents earlier information about the historical Jesus. [[Two-source hypothesis]] is the standard theory.
| Earlier versions or pieces of the [[Q document]] may have some components that talk about a historical person, but that person had nothing to do with founding Christianity nor was the being that the epistles talk about.<ref>Doherty(1999) ch 14</ref><ref>{{cite web
| last = Doherty
| first = Earl
| authorlink = Earl Doherty
| title = The Evolution of Jesus of Nazareth
| url = http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/partthre.htm
| accessdate = 4-9-09 }}</ref><ref>Wells (1996) ch 6</ref><ref>[[Harold Leidner|Leidner, Harold]]. ''The Fabrication of the Christ Myth'' (Tampa, FL: Survey Books, 1999) pp. 219-282.</ref>
|-
| The [[Acts of the Apostles|book of Acts]] is an accurate record of early Christian development.<ref name="Pass">{{Citation
| last = Pope Pius X
| author-link = Pope Pius X
| title = Pascendi Dominici Gregis (
| journal = Vatican
| date = September 8, 1907
| url = http://www.vatican.edu/holy_father/pius_x/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-x_enc_19070908_pascendi-dominici-gregis_en.html}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/>
| The book of Acts is propaganda but the basic story of the Jerusalem church spreading out under Paul is correct.<ref>See [[Acts_of_the_Apostles#Historicity]] for further details</ref><ref>
Fashioning Jewish identity in medieval western Christendom, Robert Chazan page 48 [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZYAZ8LdudfgC&pg=PA48 online]</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = McKenzie
| first = Steven L.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = How to Read the Bible
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| date = 2005
| location = NY, NY 10016
| pages = 64–5
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=hYfweIriBSsC&pg=PA64
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 0195161491}}</ref>
| The book of Acts is almost entirely fiction, Christianity came out of [[Alexandria]].<ref name="Doh Alex">{{Citation
| last = Doherty
| first = Earl
| author-link = Earl Doherty
| title = Tracing the Christian Lineage in Alexandria
| url = http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/supp05.htm
| accessdate = March 29, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Fridlander" />
|-
| Identifies the first Christians with "Judaism" and/or the revelations of Moses and the prophets. Does not generally identify Christianity with a sect within Judaism.
| Identifies the first Christians with Palestinian sects of Judaism like the Pharisees or Essenes.<ref>Asserts Pharisees,{{cite book
| last = Theissen
| first = Gerd
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Annette Merz
| title = The historical Jesus
| publisher = Fortress Press
| date = 1998
| location = Great Britain
| pages =
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC&pg=PA141
| doi =
| isbn = 0800631226}}</ref><ref> {{cite book
| last = Maccoby
| first = Hyam
| authorlink = Hyam Maccoby
| title = The Mythmaker
| publisher = HarperCollins
| date = 1986
| location = San Francisco
| pages = 29–44
| isbn = 0-76070-787-1 }}</ref>
| Identifies Christianity with Hellenistic Judaism which centered itself in [[Alexandria]].<ref name="Doh Alex" /><ref name="Fridlander">{{cite book
| last = Friedlander
| first = Moritz
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Der vorchristliche judische Gnosticismus
| publisher = Gottengen: Vandenhoeck & Roprecht reprint Farnborough: Gregg International
| date = 1898 (1972)
| isbn = }} see also Pearson (1990) Chapter 1</ref>
|-
| Jesus was born of the Virgin Mary by the power of the Holy spirit.<ref name="Nicene" /><ref>{{cite book
| last = Machen
| first = J Gresham
| authorlink = John Gresham Machen
| title = The Virgin Birth of Christ
| publisher = James Clarke Company
| pages = 1
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=qG7f9wT1uqIC&pg=PA1
| isbn = 0227676300
| year = 1958}}</ref><ref name="Baker">
{{cite encyclopedia
| title = Virgin Birth
| encyclopedia = Baker's Evangelical Dictionary
| url = http://bible.crosswalk.com/Dictionaries/BakersEvangelicalDictionary/bed.cgi?number=T718
| accessdate = March 24, 2009}}</ref>
| Jesus was likely born of Mary, the virgin birth was a later add on, with authors split as to the reason.<ref name="Baker" /><ref>
{{cite book
| last = Horrell
| first = David G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = An introduction to the study of Paul
| publisher = T. & T. Clark Publishers
| date = 2006
| pages = 63–5
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=hQS6SDqDga4C&pg=PA63
| isbn = 0567040836}}</ref>
| Jesus was associated with savior gods, who are frequently ascribed unusual births in mythology.<ref>{{cite web |author=James Still |title=The Virgin Birth and Childhood Mysteries of Jesus |url=http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/james_still/virgin_birth.html |publisher=[[Internet Infidels, Inc.]] |accessdate=2009-04-06}}</ref>
|-
| Jesus is the [[Logos]] of God ''through whom all things were made.''<ref name="Nicene"/>
| A historical human behind the Jesus of the NT Canon existed. Secular scholarship is skeptical regarding any divine nature ascribed to him in Christian literature.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Bromling
| first = Brad
| date = March 1995
| title = Jesus: Truly God and Truly Human
| journal = Apologetics Press :: Reason & Revelation| volume = 15[3]
| pages = :17–20
| url = http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/263}}</ref>
| Jesus is the Logos of Yahweh, and the Logos was the mechanism certain Hellenistic Jews attributed to the creation.
|-
| Jesus rose in the 3rd day after his crucifixion in fulfillment of the scriptures.<ref name="Nicene" />
| Jesus died on the cross but his followers continued to have spiritual experiences and saw his resurrection as being fulfilled. He may also have believed during his life he would rise.
| Jesus is a creation of scriptures and thus fulfills them. Resurrection is an integral component of a [[life-death-rebirth deity]].<ref> {{cite book
| last = Allen
| first = Grant
| authorlink =
| title = The Evolution of the Idea of God
| publisher = Henry Holt
| date = 1897
| location = New York
| pages = 378–408
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=NwsTYIivPdEC&pg=RA1-PA377#PRA1-PA378,M1
| isbn = }}</ref><ref> {{cite book
| last = Graves
| first = Robert
| authorlink = Robert Graves
| title = [[The White Goddess|The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth]]
| publisher = Farrar, Straus and Giroux
| date = 1948
| location = United Kingdom
| pages = 157–9
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=4TWYmloRL0YC&pg=PA157
| isbn = 0374504938}}</ref>
|-
| Jesus would not fulfill the military mission during his life but, ''He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and His kingdom will have no end.''<ref name="Nicene" />
| Jesus did not see the messiah as having a military role and [[Realized eschatology|reinterpreted these passages spiritually]]. He did however believe that God would provide miracles to fulfill the military function of the messiah.
| Salvation was understood in a non material sense by Jewish Gnosticism and this carried through to early Christianity. When later the title messiah was applied apocalyptic literature featuring Jesus (for example the [[Book of Revelation]]) was created.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Case
| first = Shirley Jackson
| title = The Historicity of Jesus
| publisher = University of Chicago Press
| date = 1912
| location = Chicago
| pages = 148
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=drlKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA148 }}</ref>
|-
| Nominally Christian works rejected as heretical, including the [[Gnostic Gospels]], were generally written in the 2nd and 3rd century under the influence of Satan.<ref>[[Saint Irenaeus]] [[Adversus Haereses]] [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/irenaeus.html online]</ref> They should be examined to help contextualize works of the early church fathers who wrote against them<ref>{{cite book
| last = Ferguson
| first = Everett [http://www.acu.edu/campusoffices/acupress/books/authors/everett_ferguson.html]
| title = Backgrounds of Early Christianity
| publisher = Eerdmans
| date = 1981, 3rd ed 2003
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC&pg=PA1&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0#PPP1,M1
| isbn = 0802822215}}</ref> and to understand modern spiritual movements.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Jones
| first = Peter
| title = The Gnostic Empire Strikes Back: An Old Heresy for the New Age
| publisher = P & R Publishing
| date = 1992
| isbn = 0875522858}}</ref>
| Most works rejected as heretical were written by disparate minority/regional sects in 2nd and 3rd century, versus the canonical texts which are late 1st to early 2nd century. They represent alternate minority views about Jesus and can often provide useful information on the context for, and influences on, the development of Christianity. They do not contain decisive information about Jesus himself.<ref> {{cite book
| last = Smith
| first = Carl
| title = No Longer Jews
| publisher = Hendrickson
| date = 2004
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=F3wLAAAACAAJ
| isbn = 1565639448}}</ref>
| Gnostic and other heretical texts represent early strands of Christianity, and demonstrate the diversity within the early Christian community. They should be given a great deal of weight in the study of early Christian development.<ref name="Turton">{{cite journal
| last = Turton
| first = Michael
| title = Review of James the Brother of Jesus by Robert Eisenman
| journal = [[Journal of Higher Criticism]]
| date = 2002
| url = http://www.radikalkritik.de/RezEisenman.htm
| accessdate = May 3, 2009 }}</ref><ref>The Truth at the Heart of '[[The Da Vinci Code]]' [[Elaine Pagels]]
[[San Jose Mercury News]]. [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5422879 online]</ref><ref>For example: ''[[Gospel of Marcion|His Gospel]] was presumably the collection of sayings in use among the Pauline churches of his day. Of course the patristic writers say that Marcion mutilated Luke's version; but it is almost impossible to believe that, if he did this, so keen a critic as Marcion should have retained certain verses which made against his strong anti-Judaistic views.'' [[G. R. S. Mead]], [[Fragments of a Faith Forgotten]] [http://www.webcom.com/~gnosis/library/meadmarcion.htm]</ref>
|-
| Progression of beliefs:<ref>{{cite book
| last = Urban
| first = Linwood
| title = A Short History of Christian Thought (rev and expanded)
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| date = 1995
| isbn = 0195093488 }}</ref>
# [[Hasideans|Hasidean Judaism]]
# [[Cultural_and_historical_background_of_Jesus#The_Hasmonean_period|Palestinian Judaism]]
# [[Jewish_Christianity#Jewish_origin_of_Christianity|Jewish Christianity]]
# [[Orthodox Christianity]]
# Christian [[Gnosticism]]
| Progression of beliefs:<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Mack
| first = Burton L.
| authorlink = Burton L. Mack
| title = Who Wrote the New Testament?: The Making of the Christian Myth
| publisher = HarperOne
| date = 1996
| location = San Francisco
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 0060655186}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last = Carmichael
| first = Joel
| title = The Birth of Christianity: Reality and Myth
| publisher = Dorset Press
| date = 1992
| isbn = 0880297387
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last = Wilson
| first = A.N.
| authorlink = A. N. Wilson
| publisher = Ballantine Books
| date = 1993
| location = New York
| pages = 239–56
| isbn =0449908070
| title = Jesus }}</ref>
# [[Hasideans|Hasidean Judaism]]
# [[Pharisees|Pharisaic]] and/or [[Essenes|Essene]] Judaism
# [[Jewish_Christianity#Jewish_origin_of_Christianity|Jewish Christianity]]
# [[Pauline Christianity]]
# [[Orthodox Christianity]] & Christian [[Gnosticism]]
| Progression of beliefs:<ref name="Doh Alex"/><ref> {{cite book
| last = Bauer
| first = Walter
| authorlink = Walter Bauer
| title = Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum (Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity)
| publisher = J.C.B.Mohr
| date = 1934 (english 1964)
| location = Germany (English from Philadelphia Seminar on Christian Origins)
| url = http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/Bauer/
| isbn = 0962364274}}</ref>
# [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] Judaism
# [[Hellenistic Judaism]]
# [[Gnosis|Gnosticising]] Jews
# Christian [[Gnosticism]]
# [[Orthodox Christianity]]
|-
| [[Jesus Christ in comparative mythology|Comparative mythological]] elements are historic fact. The existence of pre-existing myth is the result of [[Jesus_Christ_and_comparative_mythology#Demonic_imitation|demonic imitation]]<ref>Justin Martyr, [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm First apology] Ch 20-5</ref> or [[Jesus_Christ_and_comparative_mythology#Jesus_as_.22true_myth.22|divine foreshadowing]].<ref>C.S. Lewis, Miracle [http://www.geocities.com/athens/forum/3505/LewisJoy.html online discussion].</ref>
| Myths of all types were added on to embellish Jesus' biography.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Wilson
| first = A. N.
| authorlink = A. N. Wilson
| coauthors =
| title = Paul, The Mind of the Apostle
| publisher = W. W. Norton & Company (April 1998)
| chapter = The School of Paul
| date = 1998
| location = New York
| pages = 229–39
| isbn = 0393317609}}</ref>
| Hellenistic Judaism was a synthetic religion and had absorbed myths of all types, hence Jesus biography was constructed from myths of all types.
|}

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

* '''Further information'''
** [[Atheism]] and [[New atheism]]
** [[Bible conspiracy theory]]
** [[The Copenhagen School (theology)]]
** [[Criticism of Jesus]]
** [[Historical Jesus]]
** [[Historicity of Jesus]]
** [[Jesus and history]]

* '''Documentaries'''
** ''[[The God Who Wasn't There]]'' (2005)
** ''[[Zeitgeist, the Movie]]'' (2007)
** ''[[Religulous]]'' (2008)

{{col-2}}

*'''Related Articles'''
** [[Jesus Christ in comparative mythology]]
** [[Jesus Project]]
** [[Life-death-rebirth deity]]
** [[List of demigods]]
** [[List of virgin births]]
** [[Osiris-Dionysus]]
**[[Panbabylonism]]
** [[Yeshu]]

* '''Biblical Criticism'''
** [[The Copenhagen School (theology)]]
** [[Higher criticism]]
** [[Ferdinand Christian Baur|Tübingen School]]
** [[New school (theology)]]

{{col-end}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references/>
</div>

==References==
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite book | last = Bennett | first = Clinton | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = In search of Jesus: insider and outsider images | publisher = Continuum | date = 2001 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0826449158}}
*{{citation | last1 = Burridge | first1 = R | last2 = Gould | first2 = G | year = 2004 | title = Jesus Now and Then | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans }}
*{{cite journal | last = Case | first = Shirley Jackson | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Historicity of Jesus an Estimate of the Negative Argument | journal = The American Journal of Theology | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–42 | publisher = | location = | date = 1911 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/3155273 | doi = 10.1086/478974| id = | accessdate = }}
*{{cite book |last=Conybeare |first=Frederick Cornwallis |origyear=1914 |year=1914 |title=The Historical Christ, or an investigation of the views of J.M. Robertson, A. Drews and W.B. Smith |others= |publisher= |location=London |url= |accessdate= }}
*{{cite book |last=Drews |first=Arthur |year=1912 |title=[[wikisource:The Witnesses to the Historicity of Jesus|The Witnesses to the Historicity of Jesus]] |others=Translated by Joseph McCabe |publisher= Watts |location=London }}
*{{Citation | last = Farmer | first = William R. | contribution = A Fresh Approach to Q | year = 1975 | title = Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults | editor-last = Neusner | editor-first = Jacob | volume = | pages = | place = | publisher = Brill | id = }}
*{{cite journal | last = Gerrish | first = B. A. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Jesus, Myth, and History: Troeltsch's Stand in the "Christ-Myth" Debate | journal = The Journal of Religion | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–35 | publisher = | location = | date = 1975 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/1202070 | doi = 10.1086/486407| id = | accessdate = }}
*{{cite book |last=Goguel |first=Maurice |origyear=1925 |year=1926a |title=Jesus the Nazarene: Myth or History? |others=translated by Frederick Stephens |publisher=T. Fisher Unwin |location=London |url=http://www.christianorigins.com/goguel/ |accessdate=2009-04-04 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Goguel |first=Maurice |year=1926b |month=April |title=Recent French Discussion of the Historical Existence of Jesus Christ |journal=Harvard Theological Review |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=115–142 }}
*{{cite book| last = Grant | first = Michael | year = 1995 | origyear = 1997 | title = Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels | publisher = Scribner | isbn = 978-0684818672 }}
*{{cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=R. Joseph |authorlink=R. Joseph Hoffmann |year=2006 |chapter=Maurice Goguel and the 'Myth Theory' of Christian Origins |editor=Maurice Goguel |title=Jesus the Nazarene: Myth or History? |others=translated by Frederick Stephens, with a new introduction by R. Joseph Hoffmann |publisher=Prometheus |location=Amherst, NY |isbn=1-59102-370-X |pages=11–41 }}
* {{cite book |last = Murdock | first = D.M. | authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock|coauthors = as Acharya S| title = The Christ Conspiracy | publisher = Adventures Unlimited Press| date = 1999 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=KnIYRi3upbEC&pg=PP1 | isbn = 0932813747}}
* {{cite book |last = Murdock | first = D.M. | authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock|coauthors = as Acharya S
| title = Suns of God: Krishna, Buddha and Christ Unveiled | publisher = Adventures Unlimited Press| date = 2004
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rey19p_ycHUC&printsec=frontcover| isbn = 1931882312}}
* {{cite book |last = Murdock | first = D.M. | authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock
| title = Who Was Jesus? Fingerprints of The Christ | publisher = Stellar House Publishing, LLC | date = 2007
| url=http://www.stellarhousepublishing.com/whowasjesus1.html| isbn = 0979963109}}
* {{cite book |last = Murdock | first = D.M. | authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock
| title = Christ in Egypt: The Horus-Jesus Connection| publisher = Stellar House Publishing, LLC| date = 2009
| url=http://www.stellarhousepublishing.com/christinegypt.html| isbn = 0979963117}}
*{{cite book |last=Robertson |first=John M. |authorlink=J. M. Robertson |year=1902 |title=A Short History of Christianity |publisher=Watts & Co. |location=London |pages=1–97 |url=http://www.archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch00roberich |accessdate=2008-08-05 }}
* {{cite book|title=Pagan Christs|last=Robertson |first=John M.|authorlink=J. M. Robertson|year=1903
|publisher=Watts & Co.|isbn=|url = http://sacred-texts.com/bib/cv/pch/index.htm}}
* {{cite book|title=Pagan Christs|last=Robertson |first=John M.|authorlink=J. M. Robertson|year=1966
|publisher=Barnes and Noble reprint of 1966 ed.|isbn=0880291419}}
*{{cite book |last=Schweitzer |first=Albert |authorlink=Albert Schweitzer |others=edited by John Bowden |origyear=1913 |year=2000 |title=The Quest of the Historical Jesus |edition=first complete |publisher=SCM |location=London |isbn=0-334-02791-8 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Solmsen |first=Friedrich |authorlink=Friedrich Solmsen |year=1970 |month=April–June |title=George A. Wells on Christmas in Early New Testament Criticism |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=277–280 |doi=10.2307/2708550 }}
*{{cite book| last = Stanton | first = Graham | year = 2002 | title = The Gospels and Jesus | publisher = Oxford University Press | edition = 2nd }}
*{{citation | last = Townsend | first = John T. | contribution = Christianity in Rabbinic Literature | year = 2006 | title = Biblical Interpretation in Judaism and Christianity | editor-last = Kalimi | editor-first = Isaac | volume = | pages = | place = | publisher = Continuum | id = }}
*{{cite book |last=Van Voorst |first=Robert E. |authorlink=Robert E. Van Voorst |year=2000 |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=0-8028-4368-9 }}
*{{cite encyclopedia
| last = Van Voorst
| first = Robert E.
| authorlink = Robert E. Van Voorst
| title = Nonexistence Hypothesis
|editor= James Leslie Houlden
| encyclopedia = Jesus in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia
| pages = 658–660
| publisher = ABC-CLIO
| location = Santa Barbara
| date = 2003}}
*{{cite book |last=Weaver |first=Walter P. |year=1999 |title=The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century, 1900-1950 |publisher=Trinity |location=Harrisburg, PA |isbn=1-56338-280-6 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Wells |first=G. A. |authorlink=George Albert Wells |year=1969 |month=April–June |title=Stages of New Testament Criticism |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=147–160 |doi=10.2307/2708429 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Wells |first=G. A. |year=1973 |month=January–March |title=Friedrich Solmsen on Christian Origins |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=143–144 |doi=10.2307/2708950 }}
</div>

==Further reading==
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite book|last=Allegro|first=John M.|title=The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth|year=1992|edition=2nd rev.|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Buffalo, N.Y.|isbn=0-87975-757-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Atwill|first=Joseph|title=The Roman Origins of Christianity|year=2003|publisher=J. Atwill|isbn=0-9740928-0-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Atwill|first=Joseph|title=Caesar's Messiah: The Roman Conspiracy to Invent Jesus|year=2005|publisher=Ulysses|location=Berkeley, Calif.|isbn=1-56975-457-8}}
* Barnett,P (1997). ''Jesus and the Logic of History'', Apollos, ISBN 978-0851115122
* {{cite book|last=Bauckham|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Bauckham|title=Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony|publisher=Wm B Eerdmans Pub Co|year=2006|isbn=978-0802831620}}
* {{cite book|last=Bovon|first=François|authorlink=François Bovon|title=The Last Days of Jesus|others=trans. Kristin Hennessy; Louisville: Westminster|publisher=John Knox|year=2006|isbn=0664230075}}
*{{cite book|last=Brodie|first=Thomas L.|title=The Crucial Bridge: The Elijah-Elisha Narrative as an Interpretive Synthesis of Genesis-Kings and a Literary Model for the Gospels|year=2000|publisher=Liturgical Press|location=Collegeville, Minn.|isbn=0-8146-5942-X}}
*{{cite book|last=Brunner|first=Constantin|authorlink=Constantin Brunner|title=Our Christ: The Revolt of the Mystical Genius.|year=1990|publisher=Van Gorcum|location=Assen|isbn=9023224124}} Originally published in German in 1919 as ''Unser Christus : oder Das Wesen des Genies''. Appendix is a critique of the Christ myth theory.
*{{cite book|last=Burridge|first=Richard A.|authorlink=Richard A. Burridge|title=Four Gospels, One Jesus? A Symbolic Reading|publisher=Grand Rapids:Eerdmans|edition=2nd edn.|year=2006|isbn=0802829805}}
*{{cite book|last=Charlesworth|first=James H. (ed.)|authorlink=James H. Charlesworth|title=Jesus and Archaeology|publisher=Grand Rapids: Eerdmans|year=2006|id=ISBN 080284880X}}
*{{cite book|last=Dunn|first=James D.G.|authorlink=James Dunn (theologian)|title=Christianity in the Making Vol 1: Jesus Remembered|publisher=Wm B Eerdmans Pub Co|year=2003|isbn=978-0802839312}}
* {{cite book|last=Dunn|first=James D.G.|authorlink=James Dunn (theologian)|title=A New Perspective On Jesus: What The Quest For The Historical Jesus Missed (Acadia Studies in Bible and Theology)|publisher=Baker Academic |location=Grand Rapids, Mich |year=2005 |isbn=0-8010-2710-1 |oclc= |doi=}}
* Eddy, PR and [[Gregory A. Boyd|Boyd, GA]], (2007), ''The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition'', Baker Academic, ISBN 978-0801031144
*{{cite book|last=Ellegård|first=Alvar|authorlink=Alvar Ellegård|title=Jesus: One Hundred Years Before Christ: A Study in Creative Mythology|year=1999|publisher=Century|location=London|isbn=0-7126-7956-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Evans|first=Craig A.|authorlink=Craig A. Evans|title=Fabricating Jesus|origyear=2006|year=2006|publisher=IVP Books|location=|isbn=978-0830833184}}
*{{cite book|last=Freke|first=Timothy|authorlink=Timothy Freke|coauthors=and [[Peter Gandy]]|title=[[The Jesus Mysteries]]: Was the 'Original Jesus' a Pagan God?|year=1999|publisher=Thorsons|location=London|isbn=0-7225-3676-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Grant (author)|title=Jesus|origyear=1977|year=1999|publisher=Phoenix|location=London|isbn=0-75380-899-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Harpur|first=Tom|authorlink=Tom Harpur|title=The Pagan Christ:Recovering the Lost Light|year=2005|publisher=Thomas Allen Publishers|location=Toronto, Canada|isbn=0-88762-195-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Historicus|first=(pseudonym for Jacob Benjamin)|title=Did Jesus Ever Live --- or Is Christianity Founded Upon a Myth|year=1972|publisher=United Secularists of America|location=Los Angeles, CA|url=http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/historicus}}
*{{cite book|last=Komoszewski|first=J. Ed|authorlink=J. Ed Komoszewski|coauthors=et al.|title=Reinventing Jesus|year=2006|publisher=Kregel Publications|location=|id=ISBN 082542982X}}
*{{cite book|last=Meier|first=John P|authorlink=John P. Meier|title=A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|edition=3 vols.|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York}}
*#{{cite book|title=The Roots of the Problem and the Person|year=1991|isbn=0-385-26425-9|author=John P. Meier|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York}}
*#{{cite book|title=Mentor, Message, and Miracles|year=1994|isbn=0-385-46992-6|author=John P. Meier|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York}}
*#{{cite book|title=Companions and Competitors|year=2001|isbn=0-385-46993-4|author=John P. Meier|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York}}
* Porter, Stanley and Bedard, Stephen(2006), ''Unmasking the Pagan Christ: An Evangelical Response to the Cosmic Christ Idea'', Clements
*{{cite book|last=Price|first=Robert M.|authorlink=Robert M. Price|title=Deconstructing Jesus|year=2000|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, N.Y.|isbn=1-57392-758-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Price|first=Robert M.|title=The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable is the Gospel Tradition?|year=2003|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, N.Y.|isbn=1-59102-121-9}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Price|first=Robert M.|title=New Testament narrative as Old Testament midrash|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Midrash: Biblical Interpretation in Formative Judaism|editor=[[Jacob Neusner]] and Alan J. Avery-Peck|year=2005|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|id=ISBN 90-04-14166-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Sanders|first=E. P.|authorlink=E. P. Sanders|title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|year=1993|publisher=Allen Lane|location=London|isbn=0-7139-9059-7}}
* Seznec, Jean. 1972, ''The Survival of the Pagan Gods'', Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691017832
*{{cite book|last=Theissen|first=Gerd|authorlink=Gerd Theissen|coauthors=and Annette Merz|title=The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide|year=1998|others=trans. John Bowden|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=0-8006-3123-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Thomas L.|title=The Messiah Myth: The Near Eastern Roots of Jesus and David|year=2005|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York|isbn=0-465-08577-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Volney|first=Constantin-François|authorlink=Constantin-François Chassebœuf|title=The Ruins, or, Meditation on the Revolutions of Empires and the Law of Nature|year=1796|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1397|publisher=Davis|location=New York, N.Y.}}
*{{cite book|last=Wells|first=G. A.|authorlink=George Albert Wells|title=The Historical Evidence for Jesus|year=1982|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Buffalo, N.Y.|isbn=0-87975-180-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Wells|first=G. A.|title=The Jesus Myth|year=1999|publisher=Open Court|location=Chicago|isbn=0-8126-9392-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Wright|first=N.T.|authorlink=N.T. Wright|title=The New Testament and the People of God
|year=1996|publisher=Augsburg Fortress Publishers|location=|isbn=0800626818}}</div>

==External links==
* The Online Book Page; [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/browse?type=lcsubc&key=Jesus%20Christ%20--%20Historicity Jesus Christ -- Historicity] Public domain books regarding the Historicity of Jesus Christ
* Debate on ABC and forum [http://www.abc.net.au/religion/stories/s1517078.htm Jesus - History or Myth?]

===Websites arguing for the Jesus myth ===
* [http://www.jesuspuzzle.com/ "The Jesus Puzzle: Was There No Historical Jesus?"] by Earl Doherty
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/jesuspuzzle.shtml "Did Jesus Exist? Earl Doherty and the Argument to Ahistoricity"] by Richard Carrier
* [http://www.ffrf.org/news/2006/debunkingJesus.php Debunking the Historical Jesus] by Dan Barker, Freedom from Religion Foundation
* [http://www.vexen.co.uk/books/jesusmysteries.html "The Jesus Mysteries"] by Freke/Gandy
* [http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/jesus_myth_history.htm Jesus Myth - The Case Against Historical Christ] by R. G. Price, rationalrevolution.net
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com Jesus Never Existed.com]
* [http://www.pocm.info Pagan Origins of the Christ Myth] by Greg Kane
* [http://www.mountainman.com.au/essenes/ "Constantine Invented Christianity"] - in the fourth century
* [http://www.egodeath.com/jesusmysterieschapsumm.htm Chapter Summaries of The Jesus Mysteries] summary of Timothy Freke and Peter Gandy.
* [http://christianity-revealed.com/cr/pages/jezuz.html Christianity Revealed] -- Collection of articles by various proponents of the Jesus myth

===Websites arguing for a historical Jesus===
* [http://www.garyhabermas.com/books/historicaljesus/historicaljesus.htm#ch9 The Historical Jesus - Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ] by [[Gary Habermas|Gary R. Habermas]]
* [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/rediscover2.html The Evidence For Jesus] by Dr. [[William Lane Craig]]
*[http://constantinbrunner.info/sbise/1/200503150938.htm On "Criticism"]. Appendix to ''Our Christ: the revolt of the mystical genius'' by Constantin Brunner.
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexisthub.html Did Jesus exist?] by James Patrick Holding, author of ''Shattering the Christ Myth''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Christ Myth Theory}}
[[Category:Atheism]]
[[Category:Historicity of religious figures]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]
[[Category:Christ myth| ]]
[[Category:Hypotheses]]

[[ca:Mite de Jesús]]
[[es:Mito de Jesús]]
[[fr:Thèse mythiste]]
[[ko:신화적 예수론]]
[[it:Mito di Gesù]]
[[nl:Jezusmythe]]
[[ja:キリスト神話説]]
[[simple:Christ myth theory]]
[[sv:Jesusmyten]]

Jesus-Mythos

2009-10-28T22:21:58Z

TechBear: Move link from redirect to actual article

{{Dablink|This article is about the view that Jesus never existed. For a discussion of the mythological elements of Jesus, see [[Jesus Christ in comparative mythology]]. For a list of related articles, see [[Jesus and history]].}}
{{jesus}}
{{Synthesis|date=August 2009}}
{{Merge|historicity of Jesus|date=August 2009}}
The '''Christ myth theory''' (sometimes called the '''Christ myth''', '''Jesus myth''', or '''nonexistence hypothesis''') is the contention that [[Jesus of Nazareth]] did not exist as a [[Historical Jesus|historical person]], that the Jesus of [[Early Christianity]] is a personification of an ideal saviour or mythical being to whom earthly events were later attached.<ref>{{harvnb|Farmer|1975|p=43}}: "The radical solution was to deny the possibility of reliable knowledge of Jesus, and out of this developed the Christ myth theory, according to which Jesus never existed as a historical figure and the Christ of the Gospels was a social creation of a messianic community."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Goguel|1926b|pp=117-118}}</ref><ref>Gerrish (1975) p. 13.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bennett|2001|p=202}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Townsend|2006|p=150n2}}</ref>

Proponents of a mythical origin of Christianity allow that some gospel material may have been drawn from a historical preacher or preachers, but they hold that these preachers were not in any sense "the founder of Christianity"; rather they contend that Christianity emerged organically from [[Hellenistic Judaism]]. The epistles and Gospels largely chronicle a mythical, non-historical Jesus. The proponents of the theory trace the evolution of the religion through the evolution of the literature and thus give primacy to the epistles over the gospels in determining the views of the earliest Christians.

Those who have proposed one form or another of the theory have documented the similarities between stories of Jesus and those of [[Krishna]], [[Adonis]], [[Osiris]], [[Mithra]], and a pre-Christian cult of Jesus ([[Joshua]]) within Judaism. Some authors attribute the [[Origins of Christianity|beginning of Christianity]] to a historical founder who predates the time Jesus is said to have lived.<ref name="Mead">Mead, G.R.S. (1903): "Did Jesus Live 100 B.C.?" c</ref><ref name="The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud">Gil Student, [http://talmud.faithweb.com/articles/jesusnarr.html The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud]</ref>

The antecedents of the theory can be traced to the French Enlightenment thinkers [[Constantin-François Chassebœuf|Constantin-François Volney]] and [[Charles François Dupuis]] in the 1790s. The first academic advocate was the 19th century historian and theologian [[Bruno Bauer]]. Proponents such as [[Arthur Drews]] were influential in biblical studies during the early 20th century. Authors such as [[Earl Doherty]], [[Robert M. Price]], and [[George Albert Wells]] have recently re-popularised the [[theory]] among lay audiences. The theory is essentially without supporters in academic circles, biblical historians and scholars being highly dismissive of it.<ref name="Burridge">"There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church’s imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more.” {{harvnb|Burridge|2004|p=34}}</ref><ref name=voorst>"The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted." - {{harvnb|Van Voorst|2000|p=16}}</ref><ref name="stanton">{{harvnb|Stanton|2002|p=145}}</ref><ref name="Charlesworth13">{{harvnb|Charlesworth|2006|p=xxiii}}</ref><ref name="Grantmajority">{{harvnb|Grant|1995|p=199}}</ref><ref name="Dohertyms"/><ref>"I think that there are hardly any historians today, in fact I don't know of any historians today, who doubt the existence of Jesus... So I think that question can be put to rest.", Wright, N.T., "The Self-Revelation of God in Human History: A Dialogue on Jesus with N. T. Wright", There Is A God, Antony Flew & Roy Abraham Varghese, New York: HarperOne, 2007, 188</ref><ref>"The alternative thesis... that within thirty years there had evolved such a coherent and consistent complex of traditions about a non-existent figure such as we have in the sources of the Gospels is just too implausible. It involves too many complex and speculative hypotheses, in contrast to the much simpler explanation that there was a Jesus who said and did more or less what the first three Gospels attribute to him.", Dunn, James G. D. The Evidence for Jesus. Louisville: Westminster, 1985, 29)</ref><ref>"We know a lot about Jesus, vastly more than about John the Baptist, Theudas, Judas the Galilean, or any of the other figures whosenames we have from approximately the same date and place." Sanders, E.P., The Historical Figure of Jesus, New York: Penguin Press, 1993, xiv)</ref><ref>"Some writers may toy with the fancy of a 'Christ-myth,' but they do not do so on the ground of historical evidence. The historicity of Christ is as axiomatic for an unbiased historian as the historicity of Julius Caesar. It is not historians who propagate the 'Christ-myth' theories.", Bruce, F.F., The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? 5th revised edition, Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1972</ref><ref>"Even the most cirtical historian can confiently assert that a Jew named Jesus worked as a teacher and wonder-worker in Palestine during the reign of Tiberius, was exicuted by crucifiction under the prefect Pontius Pilate, and continued to have followers after his death.", Luke Timothy Johnson, The Real Jesus, San Francisco: Harper, 1996, 121</ref><ref>"Jesus is in no danger of suffering Catherine[ of Alexandria]'s fate as an unhistorical myth" Allison, Dale C., The Historical Christ and the Theological Jesus, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009, 37</ref><ref>"I don't think there's any serious historian who doubts the existence of Jesus. There are a lot of people who want to write sensational books and make a lot of money who say Jesus didn't exist. But I don't know any serious scholar who doubts the existence of Jesus.", Ehrman, Bart, Discussion on the Infidel Guy Radio Show, relevant audio available at http://www.aomin.org/podcasts/20090113fta.mp3</ref><ref>"I am not sure, as I said earlier, that one can persuade people that Jesus did exist as long as they are ready to explain the entire phenomenon of historical Jesus and earliest Christianity either as an evil trick or a holy parable. I had a friend in Ireland who did not believe that Americans had landed on the moon but that they had created the entire thing to bolster their cold-war image against the communists. I got nowhere with him. So I am not at all certain that I can prove that the historical Jesus existed against such an hypothesis and probably, to be honest, I am not even interested in trying.", Crossan, John Dominic, interview, available at http://www.doxa.ws/Jesus_pages/HistJesus1.html</ref>

==History==
===Early proponents===
Doubt about the historical existence of Jesus emerged when critical study of the [[Gospel]]s developed in the 18th century,<ref>Goguel (1926a) 11.</ref> and some English [[deism|deists]] towards the end of that century are said to have believed that no historical Jesus existed.<ref>Goguel (1926a) 14; Van Voorst (2000) 8.</ref> However, the "great forerunners" of the nonhistoricity hypothesis are usually identified as two thinkers of the French [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], [[Constantin-François Chassebœuf|Constantin-François Volney]] and [[Charles François Dupuis]].<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 355; similarly Weaver (1999) 45.</ref> In works published in the 1790s, both argued that numerous ancient myths, including the life of Jesus, were based on the movement of the sun through the zodiac.<ref>Wells (1969); more briefly Schweitzer (2000) 527 n. 1.</ref><ref>Constantin-François Volney, ''Les ruines, ou Méditations sur les révolutions des empires'' (Paris: Desenne, 1791); English translation, ''The Ruins, or a Survey of the Revolutions of Empires'' (New York: Davis, 1796).</ref><ref name="Dupuis">C. F. Dupuis, ''Origine de tous les cultes'' (Paris: Chasseriau, 1794); English translation, ''The Origin of All Religious Worship'' (New York: Garland, 1984).</ref>

Dupuis identified pre-Christian rituals in [[Greater Syria|Syria]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Persian Empire|Persia]] as representing the birth of a god to a virgin at the [[winter solstice]], and connected this to the winter rising of the constellation of [[Virgo (constellation)|Virgo]]. He believed that this and other annual occurrences were allegorised as the life-histories of [[solar deity|solar deities]] (see for example [[Sol Invictus]]), who passed their childhoods in obscurity (low elevation of the sun after the solstice), died (winter) and were resurrected (spring [[equinox]]). Jewish and Christian myth could also be interpreted according to the solar pattern: the [[Fall of Man]] in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] was an allegory of the hardship caused by winter, and the [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection of Christ]] the [[Lamb of God|"paschal lamb"]] at Easter represented the growth of the Sun's strength in the sign of [[Aries (astrology)|Aries]] at the spring solstice.<ref>Wells (1969) 153–156.</ref> Dupuis rejected the historicity of Jesus entirely, explaining the 2nd-century Roman historian [[Tacitus]]' reference to his execution under [[Pontius Pilate]] as based only on the inaccurate Christian beliefs of Tacitus' own day.<ref>Wells (1969) 159–160.</ref>

Volney, who published before Dupuis but made use of a draft version of his work,<ref>Wells (1969) 151.</ref> followed much of his argument. His differing in thinking that solar myths, rather than being deliberate extended allegories, were compiled when simple allegorical statements like "the virgin has brought forth" were misunderstood as history.<ref>Wells (1969) 155.</ref> Unlike Dupuis, Volney believed that confused memories of a historical but obscure Messianic claimant could have contributed to Christianity when they become linked with solar mythology.<ref>Wells (1969) 157.</ref>

The works of Volney and Dupuis went rapidly through numerous editions,<ref name=goguelb117>Goguel (1926b) 117.</ref> and [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] may have been basing his opinion on Volney's work when he stated privately that the existence of Jesus was an open question.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 356.</ref> However, their influence even in France did not outlast the first quarter of the nineteenth century.<ref name=goguelb117/> They had based their views on limited historical data, and later critics showed, for example, that the birth of Jesus was not placed in December until the 4th century.<ref>Solmsen (1970) 277–279, not disputed by Wells (1973) 143: "The question of a date of birth I mention (155) in connection with the views of Dupuis, who did deny Jesus' historicity on grounds which ... I regard as inadequate."</ref>

====Bruno Bauer====
[[Image:Bruno Bauer.jpg|thumb|Bruno Bauer]]
{{Main|Bruno Bauer}}
Scholarly attention to the possibility of Jesus' non-existence began with the 19th-century German historian [[Bruno Bauer]]. In a series of studies produced while he was teaching at the [[University of Bonn]] (1839–1842), Bauer disputed the historical value of the New Testament [[Gospel]]s. In his view, the [[Gospel of John]] was composed not as a historical narrative but to adapt the idea of the Jewish [[Messiah]] to the philosopher [[Philo]]'s concept of the "[[logos]]". Turning to the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], he followed earlier critics in regarding them as based on [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]'s narrative, but rejected the standard view that they also drew upon a common tradition apart from Mark. For Bauer, this was ruled out by the incompatible stories of [[Nativity of Jesus|Jesus' nativity]] which Matthew and Luke presented, as well as by the way their material which was not taken directly from Mark still appeared to be developing Markan ideas. Bauer instead concluded that Matthew depended on Luke for the content found only in those two Gospels. Now that the entire Gospel tradition could be traced through a single author (Mark), the hypothesis of outright invention became credible.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 124–128.</ref> Bauer believed that there was no expectation of a Messiah among Jews in the time of [[Tiberius]], and that Mark's portrayal of Jesus being recognised as the Messiah must therefore be a retrojection of later Christian ideas. He also argued that many details in the Gospels which seemed implausible as historical deeds or sayings of Jesus could be explained instead as reflections on the life of the Christian community.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 128–136.</ref> Bauer also concluded "that the Alexandrian Jew [[Philo]], who was still living about A.D. 40 but was already very old, was the real father of Christianity, and that the Roman stoic [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] was, so to speak, its uncle."<ref>Engels, Frederick, "Bruno Bauer and Early Christianity" ''Sozialdemokrat'' May 4-11, 1882 republished in Marx and Engels, ''On Religion'', Progress Publishers, 1966</ref>

Bauer left open the question of whether a historical Jesus existed at all, pending a study of the [[Pauline epistles]], but his published views were sufficiently unorthodox that in 1842 they cost him his lectureship.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 124, 139–140.</ref> In a revised edition of his work on the Gospels, published in 1850–1851, Bauer favoured a 2nd-century date for all the epistles and concluded that Jesus had not existed. Bauer's own explanation of Christian origins appeared in 1877: the religion was a synthesis of the [[Stoicism]] of [[Seneca the Younger]], whom Bauer viewed as having planned to create a new Roman state based on his philosophy, with the Jewish theology of Philo as developed politically by pro-Roman Jews such as [[Josephus]].<ref name = "otto">Otto Pfleiderer, ''Development of Theology'', p. 226 Quoted in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition.</ref><ref>Douglas Moggach, ''The Philosophy and Politics of Bruno Bauer'', 2003, Cambridge University Press, p.184</ref> Mark, according to Bauer, was an Italian, influenced by Seneca's [[stoicism|Stoic]] philosophy.<ref name = "otto"/> The movement developed in [[Rome]] and [[Alexandria]], and was not attested until [[Pliny the Younger]]'s letter to [[Trajan]] in the 110s, but over the following fifty years Mark and his successors developed the myth of a much earlier foundation.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 140–141.</ref>

Later arguments against a historical Jesus were not all directly dependent on Bauer's work, but usually echoed it on several general points: that New Testament references to Jesus lacked historical value, that the lack of 1st-century non-Christian references to Jesus was evidence against his existence, and that Christianity originated through [[syncretism]].<ref>Van Voorst (2000) 9.</ref>

====Radical Dutch school====
In the 1870s and 1880s, a group of scholars associated with the [[University of Amsterdam]], who were known in German scholarship as the "Radical Dutch school",<ref> [http://www.radikalkritik.de Radical Dutch school]</ref> rejected the authenticity of the Pauline epistles and took a generally negative view of the Bible's historical value. Within this group, the existence of Jesus was rejected by Allard Pierson, S. Hoekstra and Samuel Adrian Naber, while others came close to that position but concluded that the Gospels contained a core of historical fact.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 356, 527 n. 4; Van Voorst (2000) 10.</ref>

====Other writers====

[[Edwin Johnson (historian)|Edwin Johnson]] argued that Christianity emerged from a combination of liberal trends in Judaism and [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] mysticism and not from a historical founder in "Antiqua Mater: A Study of Christian Origins" (1887, published in London anonymously).
{{cquote|If one has approached the literature of the period with the assumption that something definite could be made out respecting the lives of Christ and the apostles independently of the New Testament, one assuredly has been brought, sooner or later, to the consciousness of a complete illusion.... The bare result of the whole examination is, that from some time unknown, the statement that Jesus Christ had been crucified under Pontius Pilate, was repeated as a formula in connection with the rites of Exorcism and Baptism, and that coaeval with this belief, was that in His resurrection, ascension, and second coming. .... There was an intense craving, both in the interests of spiritual satisfaction and in that of controversy, to emerge out of the atmosphere of vague intuition and reminiscence into the daylight of historic portraiture.... ‘La mère, c’est la Tradition meme,’ said the brilliant author of La Bible de l’Humanité. And in the poetical sense it is true that the modern quest of the ‘ancient Mother’ means the renewed study, not so much of the antiquities of this or that people, as of the common heart of Humanity which throbs in all.<ref>Edwin Johnson [http://www.hermann-detering.de/antiqua_mater.htm Antiqua Mater:A Study of Christian Origins], London:Trübner & Co., Ludgate Hill 1887</ref> }}

===Early 20th century===
By the early twentieth century a number of writers had published arguments against Jesus' historicity, ranging from the highly speculative to the more scholarly. These treatments were sufficiently influential to merit several book-length responses by historians and New Testament scholars. Proponents of the nonhistoricity hypothesis drew on the work of liberal theologians, who tended to deny any value to sources for Jesus outside the New Testament, and to limit their attention within the canon to Mark and the hypothetical [[Q document]].<ref>Weaver (1999) 46–47; cf. Schweitzer (2000) 359–361.</ref> The [[University of Zurich|Zurich]] professor [[Paul Wilhelm Schmiedel]] identified just nine "pillar passages" in the Gospels which he thought early Christians could not have invented; although he intended these to serve as the foundation for a more detailed account of Jesus' life, they "proved to be a tempting target for the deniers of Jesus' historicity".<ref>Weaver (1999) 47.</ref> These authors also made use of the growing field of [[comparative religion]], which seemed to find sources for many Christian ideas in Greek and Oriental [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery cult]]s rather than the life of Jesus.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 356–359.</ref>

====J. M. Robertson====
{{Main|J. M. Robertson}}
[[J. M. Robertson]], a British [[Freethinker]] and [[independent scholar]], began to promote his account of Christian origins in 1900.<ref>Weaver (1999) 58.</ref> In Robertson's view, belief in a slain Messiah Jesus arose before the New Testament period, within one of the sects known in later times as [[Ebionites]] or [[Nazarene (sect)|Nazarenes]]. These would have expected a Messiah named Jesus, a hope possibly based on a divinity of that name reflected in the Biblical [[Joshua]].<ref>Robertson (1902) 6–12.</ref> An additional but less significant basis for their belief may have been the executed [[Yeshu|Jesus Pandira]], placed by the [[Talmud]] in about 100 BCE.<ref>Robertson (1902) 14–15.</ref> The "Jesuine" cultists observed a meal at which they commemorated the sacrifice of Jesus or ritually consumed his "body and blood". This was adapted from meals held in honour of gods such as [[Dionysus]] and [[Mithra]], a fact which encouraged Jesus' followers to elevate him from a mere "servant" of the Jewish God to a divinity in his own right.<ref>Robertson (1902) 22–25.</ref>

Once references to "[[Twelve Apostles|the twelve]]" and to Jesus' institution of the [[Eucharist]] are rejected as [[interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolations]], Robertson argued, the Jesus of the Pauline epistles is reduced to a crucified savior who "counts for absolutely nothing as a teacher or even as a wonder-worker".<ref>Robertson (1902) 2–3.</ref> Those components of the Gospel narrative must have developed later, among Gentile believers who were converted by Jewish evangelists like Paul. The Gentile party represented Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection in mystery-plays in which, wishing to disassociate the cult from Judaism, they attributed his execution to the Jewish authorities and his betrayal to "a Jew" (''Ioudaios'', misunderstood as [[Judas Iscariot|Judas]]).<ref>Robertson (1902) 21, 32–33.</ref> Such plays evolved over time into Gospels.<ref>Robertson (1902) 87–89.</ref> The religion enhanced its appeal to Gentiles by adopting myths from pagan cults, albeit with some "Judaic manipulation" – thus Jesus' healings came from [[Asclepius]], feeding of multitudes from [[Dionysus]], and walking on water from [[Poseidon]], but his descent from [[David]] and his raising of a widow's son from the dead were in deference to Jewish Messianic expectations. The Fourth Gospel's portrayal of Jesus as [[Logos]] was Jewish but came ultimately from the function of [[Mithra]], [[Thoth]] and [[Hermes]] as representatives to humanity from the supreme god.<ref>Robertson (1902) 43–46, 95–96.</ref> Robertson consistently explained the Gospels through comparative mythology, making no use of the symbolic interpretations developed by Bauer.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 357, 363.</ref>

He argued that the [[authorship of the Pauline epistles|authentic letters]] of [[Paul of Tarsus]] are the earliest surviving Christian writings. This remains true to this day and the earliest datable references we have and the earliest manuscripts are from Paul <ref>John 18 exempted see [[List of New Testament papyri]] for additional information</ref>. However epistles discuss theology and morality abstractly while gospels teach metaphorically showing examples from "Jesus' actual life and ministry". Robertson noted that the epistles are silent in areas where they would expect to see events from Jesus's actual life:
<blockquote>
Allowing for the fact that some are spurious and others contain interpolations, their importance is [the epistles] are ostensibly the oldest documents of the Christian cult. Yet they show little awareness of the teachings and narrative of the gospels. They speak of a crucified Jesus in terms of a slain and resurrected God or demi-god, rather than of the teacher and wonder-worker of the gospels.... The Jesus of the Pauline doctrine was either a mythical construction or a remote figure that had been crucified but no longer traceable in history.<ref> Robertson(1996) ch. The Silence of Paul.</ref> </blockquote>

====William Benjamin Smith====
{{Main|William Benjamin Smith}}
[[William Benjamin Smith]] (1850-1934) was a professor of mathematics at [[Tulane University]]. In a series of books, beginning with ''Ecce Deus: The Pre-Christian Jesus'', published in 1894, and ending with ''The Birth of the Gospel'', published posthumously in 1954, Smith argued that the earliest Christian sources, particularly the Pauline epistles, stress Christ's divinity at the expense of any human personality, and that this would have been implausible, if there had been a human Jesus. Smith therefore argued that Christianity's origins lay in a pre-Christian Jesus cult—that is, a Jewish sect had worshipped a divine being Jesus in the centuries before the human Jesus was supposedly born.<ref>Case (1911) 627.</ref> Evidence for this cult was found in [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]]' mention of the [[Naassenes]]<ref>Hippolytus ''Philosophumena'' 5.10.</ref> and [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]]' report of a Nazaraean or Nazorean sect that existed before Christ, as well as passages in ''[[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]''.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 375.</ref> The seemingly historical details in the New Testament were built by the early Christian community around narratives of the pre-Christian Jesus.<ref>Schweitzer (2000) 378.</ref>

Smith also argued against the historical value of non-Christian writers regarding Jesus, particularly Josephus and Tacitus.<ref>Van Voorst (2000) 12.</ref>

====Arthur Drews====
{{Main|Arthur Drews}}
[[Arthur Drews]] (1865-1935) was the most prominent advocate of a "Christ-myth" theory in the early twentieth century. A professor of philosophy at the [[University of Karlsruhe (TH)|Technische Hochschule Karlsruhe]], Drew's 1909 ''Die Christusmythe'' ("The Christ Myth") became greatly popular in Germany, and was available in French and English translations in 1910. Prominent German theologians and historians addressed Drews' work, and a few wrote monographs refuting his arguments; Drews appeared at a series of public debates, of which the most famous occurred on January 31-February 1, 1910 at the [[Berlin Zoological Garden]] against [[Hermann, Freiherr von Soden]] .<ref>{{Citation
| last =
| first =
| author-link =
| last2 =
| first2 =
| author2-link =
| title = JESUS NEVER LIVED, ASSERTS PROF. DREWS; Stirs Germany Deeply by Publicly Attacking Basis of the Christian Religion.
| newspaper = New York Times
| pages =
| year = 1910
| date = February 6, 1910
| url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9900E7DA1539E433A25755C0A9649C946196D6CF}}</ref><ref>Case (1911) p. 2n1.</ref> In England and the United States, Drews' views also aroused controversy, with responses appearing in the ''[[Hibbert Journal]]'', the ''[[American Journal of Theology]]'', and other leading journals of religion.<ref>Gerrish (1975) pp. 3-4.</ref> At least two monographs on the historicity of Jesus were written partially in response to Drews.<ref>Case (1912).</ref><ref>Conybeare (1914).</ref>

Drews brought together the scholarship of the day in defense of the idea that Christianity had been a Jewish Gnostic cult that spread by appropriating aspects of [[Greek philosophy]] and Frazerian [[Life-death-rebirth deity|death-rebirth deities]].

The first and second editions of ''Die Christusmythe'' have prefaces written by Drews himself that stated that Drews' "purpose was to show that everything about the historical Jesus had a mythical character and thus it was not necessary to presuppose that a historical figure ever existed," <ref>Weaver (1999) pg 50</ref>

====Other writers====

Other versions of the argument developed under Bible scholars such as [[A. D. Loman]] and [[G. I. P. Bolland]] (1907). Loman argued that episodes in Jesus's life, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]], were fictions written to justify compilations of pre-existing liberal Jewish sayings. Bolland developed the hypothesis that Christianity evolved from Gnosticism and that Jesus was a symbolic figure representing Gnostic ideas about God.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/story/pagels.html The Gnostic Gospels, PBS]</ref><ref>[http://www.egodeath.com/BollandGospelJesus.htm G.J.P.J. Bolland: The Gospel Jesus]</ref>

[[G. R. S. Mead|G.R.S. Mead's]] 1903 ''Did Jesus Live 100 B.C.?'' book did not say Jesus was an entirely fictional person but rather that based on the Talmud the historical Jesus lived around 100 BCE. The main criticism of Mead's position is "authorities are agreed that most of this Talmudic material derives from the period from 200 to 500 A.D., and represents Jewish attempts to deal with the growing strength of Christianity. It makes no attempt to be historically accurate and, in fact, is of no use in determining if Jesus was a historical person." <ref>Stein, Gordon (1982) [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gordon_stein/jesus.shtml The Jesus of History: A Reply to Josh McDowell]</ref> [[Alvar Ellegård]] explored a similar theme a century later in ''Jesus – One Hundred Years Before Christ: A Study In Creative Mythology''.

Albert Kalthoff believed that Christianity began as a [[communism|communist]] community that developed in response to oppression of the [[proletariat]] of the Roman empire; this was not specifically Jewish but adopted features of Jewish apocalypticism. Jesus was a personification created by this community, wrote Kalthoff, who argued that no man without superhuman elements could be discovered from the sources and that incidents in the Gospels were adapted from first-to-third century Roman history.<ref>Goguel (1926a) 22–23; Schweitzer (2000) 279–283.</ref> Peter Jensen viewed Jesus as based on the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]] and primarily on the character [[Gilgamesh]] himself, whom Jensen regarded as a [[solar deity]].<ref>Goguel (1926a) 23; Schweitzer (2000) 369–372.</ref>

[[John Remsburg]]'s 1909 ''The Christ'' along with ''The Bible'' and ''Six Historic Americans'' is regarded as an important freethought book<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown
| first = Marshall G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Gordon Stein
| title = Freethought in the United States: A Descriptive Bibliography
| publisher = Published by Greenwood Press, University of California
| date = 1978
| pages = 52
| isbn = 031320036X}}</ref> rather than a major contribution to the Christ Myth hypothesis despite references to the [http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/rmsbrg02.htm "Silence of Contemporary Writers"] chapter by self-published authors like James Patrick Holding<ref>{{cite book | last = Holding
| first = James Patrick
| title = Shattering the Christ Myth
| publisher = Xulon Press
| date = 2008
| pages = 52
| isbn = 1606472712}}</ref>, Hilton Hotema <ref>{{cite book | last = Hotema | first = Hilton | title = Cosmic Creation | publisher = Health Research | date = 1956 | page = 178 | isbn = 0787309990}}</ref>, Jawara D. King<ref>{{cite book | last = King
| first = Jawara D.
| title = World Transformation: A Guide to Personal Growth and Consciousness
| publisher = AuthorHouse
| date = 2007
| pages = 35
| isbn = 1434321150
}}</ref>, Madalyn Murray O'Hair<ref>{{cite book
| last = O'Hair
| first = Madalyn Murray
| title = What on earth is an atheist!
| place = Austin, Texas
| publisher = American Atheist Press
| year = 1969
| pages = 246
| isbn = 1578849187}}</ref>, and Asher Norman <ref>{{cite book
| last = Norman
| first = Asher
| author-link =
| last2 = Tellis
| first2 = Ashley
| title = Twenty-six reasons why Jews don't believe in Jesus
| publisher = Black White and Read Publishing
| year = 2007
| pages = 182
| isbn = 0977193705}}</ref> and the 200 some blogs using the list or the book's recent retitling as ''The Christ Myth''.

A book-length response to such authors, described by [[R. Joseph Hoffmann]] as "perhaps the best of its kind",<ref>Hoffmann (2006) 34. Hoffmann criticises a number of Goguel's argument (23–34).</ref> came from the French Biblical scholar Maurice Goguel in 1925. Goguel rejected arguments for a "pre-Christianity", and argued that "preliminary" evidence for a historical Jesus came from the agreement on his existence between ancient orthodox Christians, [[Docetism|Docetists]] and opponents of Christianity. Goguel proceeded to examine the theology of the [[Pauline epistles]], the other New Testament epistles, the Gospels and the [[Book of Revelation]], as well as belief in Jesus' resurrection and divinity. He argued in each case that Christian beliefs were best explained by a tradition stemming from a recent historical Jesus.<ref>Goguel (1926a).</ref>

[[Joseph Wheless]] in his 1930 ''Forgery In Christianity'' claimed there was an active effort to forge documents to make the myth seem historical beginning as early as the 2nd century.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wheless | first = Joseph | title = Forgery In Christianity | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | date = 1930 | location = New York City | url = http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_wheless/forgery_in_christianity}}</ref>

===Recent proponents===
====George Albert Wells====
{{Main|George Albert Wells}}
A number of Christ myth theories start with the notion that Christianity had obscure beginnings and fail to notice that the early Christians appealed to historical events already known by the general public.<ref name=Bromiley1982>{{Citation| title = International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J Volume 2 of The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia,| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1034&| year = 1982| author = Bromiley, Geoffrey W.| publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing| pages = 1034| isbn = 0802837824| accessdate = 2009-09-12}}</ref> "For the king knows about these matters, and I speak to him also with confidence, since I am persuaded that none of these things escape his notice; for this has not been done in a corner.” Acts 26:26,<ref>http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2026:26&version=NASB</ref> and “For we did not follow cleverly devised tales when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of His majesty.” 2 Peter 1:16.<ref> http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20peter%201:16&version=NASB</ref> The early Christians appealed to real historical events to advance their faith and they opposed speculative and mythical notions by appealing to eyewitness accounts.<ref name=Henry1999>{{Citation| title = God, Revelation, and Authority: God who speaks and shows, preliminary considerations Volume 1 of God, Revelation, and Authority| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Pn9RScnSELUC&pg=PA161&| year = 1999| author = Henry, Carl Ferdinand Howard| publisher = Good News Publishers| pages = 162| isbn = 1581340419| accessdate = 2009-09-12}}</ref>

[[George Albert Wells|G. A. Wells]] believed that the Jesus of these earliest Christians is not based on a historical character, but a pure [[mythology|myth]], derived from the mystical speculations based on the Jewish Wisdom tradition. The earlier works by George Albert Wells drew on the [[Pauline Epistles]] and the lack of early non-Christian documents to argue that the Jesus figure of the [[Gospels]] was symbolic, not historical.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wells | first = G.A. | year = 1998 | title = The Jesus Myth | publisher = Open Court | isbn = 0-8126-9392-2 }}</ref> [[George Albert Wells|G. A. Wells]] suggests that the level of discussion of the historical Jesus in the [[Pauline epistles]], except for the [[pastoral epistles|Pastorals]], as well as in [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]], [[Epistle of James|James]], [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]], the [[Johannine epistles]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] supports his position. In these works, Wells argues, Jesus is presented as "a basically supernatural personage only obscurely on Earth as a man at some unspecified period in the past".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wells|first=GA|year=1999|month=September|title=Earliest Christianity|journal=New Humanist|volume=114|issue=3|pages=13–18|url=http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/g_a_wells/earliest.html|accessdate=2007-01-11}}</ref> Wells considers this to be the original Christian view of Jesus, based not on the life of a historical figure but on the personified figure of [[Wisdom]] as portrayed in Jewish [[wisdom literature]].

In ''The Jesus Myth'' (1999), Wells altered his position, contending that there were two distinct figures of Jesus: the mythic Jesus of Paul and a historicized Jesus found in the Gospels. He spells out his position in ''Can We Trust the New Testament?'' (2003): "This Galilean Jesus was not crucified and was not believed to have been resurrected after his death. The dying and rising Christ — devoid of time and place - of the early epistles is a quite different figure, and must have a different origin." [[Robert Van Voorst]] has describes this an "about-face" and an acceptance of a historical Jesus.<ref>"A final argument against the nonexistence hypothesis comes from Wells himself. In his most recent book, ''The Jesus Myth'', Wells has moved away from this hypothesis. He now accepts that there is some historical basis for the existence of Jesus, derived from the lost early 'gospel' 'Q' (the hypothetical source used by Matthew and Luke). Wells believes that it is early and reliable enough to show that Jesus probably did exist, although this Jesus was not the Christ that the later canonical Gospels portray. It remains to be seen what impact Wells's about-face will have on debate over the nonexistence hypothesis in popular circles.", Van Voorst, Robert E, "NonExistence Hypothesis," in Houlden, James Leslie (editor), ''Jesus in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia'', page 660 (Santa Barbara 2003)</ref> while on the back cover of ''Can We Trust the New Testament?'' itself Robert M Price states "G.A. Well is the eminently worth successor to radical 'Christ Myth' theorists..."

====Freke and Gandy====
:''Main article: [[The Jesus Mysteries]]'' and ''[[Neoplatonism and Gnosticism]]''

In recent years, the Christ myth theory has also been advocated by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]], who are both popular writers on mysticism, in their books '' [[The Jesus Mysteries]]''<ref name="Freke">{{cite book|last=Freke|first=T|coauthors=Gandy, P|title=The Jesus Mysteries: Was the "Original Jesus" a Pagan God?|publisher=Three Rivers Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0609807989}}</ref> and ''[[Jesus and the Lost Goddess]]'' (ISBN 1400045940). They suggested that the idea that Jesus's existence is legendary is itself as old as the [[New Testament]], pointing to [[Second Epistle of John|2 John 1:7]], though scholars of the period believe that this passage refers to [[docetism]], the belief that Jesus lacked a genuinely physical body, and not the belief that Jesus was a completely fabricated figure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Elwell|first=WA|title=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology|year=2001|publisher=Baker Academic|isbn=978-0801020759}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=DC|last=Duling|coauthors=Perrin,N|title=The New Testament: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History|year=1993|publisher=Harcourt|isbn=978-0155003781}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Docetism|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030754/Docetism|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica Online|accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=J.N.D|last=Kelly|title=Early Christian Doctrines: Revised Edition|year=1978|publisher=HarperSanFrancisco|isbn=978-0060643348}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/bible/phillips/CPn24John2.htm|title=Book 24 - John's Second Letter|first=JB|last=Phillips|accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Arendzen|first=J. P.|encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia|title=Docetae|url =http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05070c.htm|accessdate=2007-01-07|year=1909|publisher=Robert Appleton|volume=Volume V|location=New York}}</ref>

They are applying ideas of many authors from mainstream classical studies with a specialization in [[Gnosticism]]. The last generation has seen a wealth of new material on gnosticism. In 1898 Moritz Friedländer introduced the hypothesis that Gnosticism was not an aberrant form of Christianity but rather had emerged originally from Judaism. Kurt Rudolph provided the best analysis of this point.<ref>Gnosis und Gnostizismus ein Forshengsbericht</ref> [[Walter Bauer]] continued this theme, "''heresy is the original manifestation of Christianity''".<ref>Introduction to Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity, (Philadelphia: Fortress) ISBN 0-8006-1363-5 [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/Bauer/ Online]</ref>

The modern form of the case came from [[Birger A. Pearson]] an explicit continuation of Moritz Friedländer's "''Gnosticism serves as the medium by which Judaism should become a world religion''"<ref>Der vorchristliche jüdische Gnosticismus, as translated by Peason</ref>. Pearson's analysis in the text starts with Friedländer Revisted Alexandrian Judaism and Gnostic Origins, which concludes with "''Although much of Friedländer's argument is open to question, he has been vindicated in his basic contention, that Gnosticism is a pre-Christian phenomenon that developed on Jewish soil.''"<ref name=Pearson>Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity (Studies in Antiquity and Christianity) Birger A. Pearson ISBN 0800631048, page 28</ref> In particular he held elsewhere in the text:
: ''the essential building blocks of the basic Gnostic myth constitute a (revolutionary) borrowing and reinterpretation of Jewish scriptures and traditions.... an attempt on the part of the Gnostics to gain entry into Christian communities, or to gain Christian adherents to their communities by means of equating their own gnosis with alleged secret teaching of Jesus Christ.... Non-Christian (pre-Christian?) varieties of Gnosticism had other reveler figures to whom to attribute their mythology, the most important of which seemed to have been [[Seth#In_Gnosticism|Seth]], son of Adam. Of course later "Christianized" Sethian Gnostics could then equate Seth with Jesus Christ, and regard the latter as an incarnation or avatar of the former.''<ref name=Pearson2006>{{Citation| year = 2006| title = Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity| pages = 9, 11| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=67aA7-wrMX8C&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=Birger+A.+Pearson+christ+myth&source=bl&ots=et7r1cZl6m&sig=p0UHkEqwTGinKl-tF12OlRvCRxE&hl=en&ei=WBq4SeyYKYuUMuHIrOUP&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result| isbn = 0800637410| publisher = Fortress Pr| author = Birger A. Pearson.}}</ref>
[[John D Turner]] analysis of the [[Sethianism|Sethian]] development yielded an end to end case study. What they both saw was an incorporation of Jewish wisdom literature into a middle platonic system. Groups of proto-gnostics (example [[Ophites]]) existed believing in a logos and a personified wisdom (Sophia) outside of history. They evolved into gnostic Christians, within two generations seeing the wisdom literature transformed into "teachings" of Jesus, an example of a Christianity evolving without any input from historical events.<ref name=Turner>''[http://jdt.unl.edu/triadaft.htm Gnosticism and Platonism: The Platonizing Sethian texts from Nag Hammadi in their Relation to Later Platonic Literature]'', John D Turner, ISBN 0-7914-1338-1.</ref><ref>see [[Gnostic Gospels]] for more on non canonical gospel accounts</ref>

The focus of Freke and Gandy's books are to explain this academic literature and weave it into a cohesive whole.

Critics of Bauer's ideas would assert that the first known explicitly Gnostic texts are from the middle of the second century, and the date of a fully developed Gnosticism is not attested to earlier than this. They may grant that fully formed Gnosticism may have had its origins in the first century or earlier.<ref>{{Citation| year = 2006| title = Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity| pages = 166| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=67aA7-wrMX8C&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=Birger+A.+Pearson+christ+myth&source=bl&ots=et7r1cZl6m&sig=p0UHkEqwTGinKl-tF12OlRvCRxE&hl=en&ei=WBq4SeyYKYuUMuHIrOUP&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result#PPA166,M1| isbn = 0800637410| publisher = Fortress Pr| author = Birger A. Pearson.}}</ref> Gnosticism and Christianity developed around the same time period but from different roots. The one pre-Christian Gnostic contribution claimed to have influenced Christian thinking is the "redeemer myth" but no pre-Christian document exists with this myth.<ref name=Ferguson2006>{{Citation| last = Ferguson | first = Everett| year = 2006| title = Backgrounds of early Christianity| pages = 308| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC&pg=PA308&dq=Gnosticism+and+christian+myth&lr=&ei=2924Sae3DIvKlQTpnsy-Cw&client=firefox-a| isbn = 0802822215| publisher = Eerdman| location = Grand Rapids, Mich.}}</ref><ref name=Keefer2006>{{Citation| last = Keefer | first = Kyle| year = 2006| title = The branches of the Gospel of John : the reception of the Fourth Gospel in the early church| pages = 22 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=HHN-CB9eUPQC&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=dating+the+redeemer+myth&source=bl&ots=G2Ukth_eiH&sig=_IuWsY2sqT5Z7r-GwqUieQQzr1o&hl=en&ei=8ua4SYDgOYvltgfttemrBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result| isbn = 0567028615
| location = London| publisher = T & T Clark International}}</ref>. Other scholars question gnosticism as a category at all separate from Hellenistic Judaism and so for them the idea that Gnosticism impacted the New Testament in this area is rejected .<ref name=King2005>{{Citation| last = King | first = Karen L| year = 2005| title = What is Gnosticism?| pages = 137–38| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=df1Tz5Cn8BQC&pg=PA137&lpg=PA137&dq=dating+the+redeemer+myth&source=bl&ots=tMFb3-lBhq&sig=BAUWThpohCn56_C-TpUzE9d-bbg&hl=en&ei=8ua4SYDgOYvltgfttemrBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result| isbn = 0674017625| publisher = Belknap Press of Harvard University Press| location = Cambridge, Mass.}}</ref>

====Earl Doherty====
{{Main|Earl Doherty}}
[[Earl Doherty]] promotes the theory in his book ''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]'', where he utilizes the earliest descriptions of Christian beliefs, the earliest epistles as proposed that [[Christ]] is a myth derived from Middle Platonism with some influence from [[Merkabah#Ma'asei Merkavah|Jewish mysticism]], in the spirit of [[Christ_myth_theory#Bruno_Bauer|Bruno Bauer]] above. He essentially agreed with Wells with the key exception, that he held that these early authors did not believe that Jesus had been on Earth at all. He argues that the earliest Christians, like Philo, acceptance of a [[Middle Platonism|Platonic]] cosmology distinguished a "higher" spiritual world from the Earthly world of matter, and that they viewed Jesus as having descended only into the "lower reaches of the spiritual world".<ref name=doherty>{{cite journal|last=Doherty|first=E|year=1997|month=Fall|title=The Jesus Puzzle: Pieces in a Puzzle of Christian Origins|journal=Journal of Higher Criticism|volume=4|issue=2|url=http://home.ca.inter.net/~oblio/jhcjp.htm|accessdate=2007-01-09|format={{dead link|date=April 2009}} – <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3ADoherty+intitle%3AThe+Jesus+Puzzle%3A+Pieces+in+a+Puzzle+of+Christian+Origins&as_publication=Journal+of+Higher+Criticism&as_ylo=1997&as_yhi=1997&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>}}</ref> Doherty also suggests that this view was accepted by the authors of the Pastoral epistles, [[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]], and various second-century Christian writings outside the New Testament. Doherty contends that apparent references in these writings to events on earth, and a physical historic Jesus, should in fact be regarded as allegorical metaphors.<ref name="Doherty">{{cite web|url=http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp08.htm|title=Christ as "Man": Does Paul Speak of Jesus as a Historical Person?|accessdate=2007-01-11|last=Doherty|first=E|work=The Jesus Puzzle: Was There No Historical Jesus?}}</ref> He believes that the writer of the Gospel of Mark was the first to place Jesus Christ in a specific historical context, and that the actual view of Jesus of the early follower are best found the earliest descriptions of Christian beliefs, the earliest epistles. Opponents regard such interpretations as forced and erroneous.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bede.org.uk/price7.htm|title=Earl Doherty use of the phrase "According to the Flesh" (''sic'')|accessdate=2007-01-11|last=Price|first=C|date=2005-05-20|work=Bede's Library}}</ref> Doherty advanced the case through the creation of an exhaustive list of silences <ref>[http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/silintro.htm Sound of Silence]</ref> and the connection to [[Marcus Minucius Felix]] <ref>For the full argument ''Marcus Felix a Smoking Gun'' p285-290 of the Jesus puzzle or in more limited form online [http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/century2.htm The Second Century Apologists]</ref>.

We can best see Doherty's expansion of Wells' ideas by examining a time line. For both, without a belief in a founding figure, an alternate theory of Christian development begins to emerge. The core idea is that the proto-Christian or Christian religion being practiced at any time is likely consistent with the type of literature being produced at that time. The standard historical methods are used to determine dates. From there
* If people are datable and known to have written something the book was written during their lives (though it may involve earlier tradition)
* If work A depends on work B then A preceded B
etc...

The time line that emerges<ref>See [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/g_a_wells/index.html infidels on wells] for samples of G.A. Wells</ref> would be common to both for the first 3 lines while the last 3 are more explicitly Doherty:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Period
! type of literature
! type of development
|-
| unknown (thousands of years in the past)
| imagery of [[life-death-rebirth deity]] that sacrifices himself for his followers (outside of time and history and/or in the distant past)
| [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery cults]] develop see [[Jesus Christ as myth]]
|-
| ~200 BCE <ref>[[G.A. Wells]], The Jesus Legend, ch. The 'Sayings Gospel' Q</ref>
| Jewish [[Wisdom literature]] ([[Q document|proto Q]]) for example [[Wisdom of Solomon]].
| Stories about that [[Sophia (Gnosticism)#Sophia and non-Gnostic Christianity and Judaism|Wisdom/Sophia]] including legends of wisdom having been incarnate (outside of time and history and/or in the distant past) <ref>[http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp04.htm Odes of Solomon]</ref>
|-
| 200 BCE - 70 CE
| [[Hellenistic Judaism]] (especially [[Philo of Alexandria]]) mainstream the notion of emanations of God, in particular Wisdom/Sophia and [[Philo's_view_of_God#The_Logos|Logos]]
| [[Syncretic]] Judaism forms which makes heavy use of [[allegory]] to harmonize Greek and Jewish religion. In particular proto logos Christianity.
|-
| 50-70 CE <ref>
''Such knowledge will surely have seemed to Paul, and to other early Christians, confirmation of what he interpreted the Wisdom literature as telling him: that Jesus, a redeemer ('Jesus' means 'Yahweh saves') had come to earth and been killed long ago.... traditions on which the Talmud draws persistently place Jesus among those ancient victims by dating him somewhere in the second century B.C. '' Wells, The Jesus Legend, Catholic Truth on the Historicity of Jesus</ref>
| Epistles [[Pauline Epistles]] and [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]
| Messianic literure and savior god get combined. There is no belief in a historical incarnation nor belief in any specific "teachings" outside the literature
|-
|90-110 CE <ref>Doherty(1999) places Mark 90 CE Matthew 100 CE roughly on page 196</ref>
| Gospels of Mark and Matthew constructed in essentially modern form.
| Wisdom literature teachings get incorporated into midrashic narrative.
|-
|106-140 CE <ref>''It has long been acknowledged by scholars of the second century apologists that they show little if any connection to the type of cultic Christianity of the first century as represented by Paul. They thus find themselves in the position of having to explain this discontinuity. What happened to divorce the second century stream represented by the apologists from the first century Pauline antecedent? In that group, including Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, Minucius Felix and (I maintain) in Justin's earliest thinking, there is not only no historical founder in view, there is no idea of incarnation, there is no atonement doctrine and no Calvary, there is no resurrection of a human or divine entity from the dead. These are major voids, quantum divergences from a presumed original faith movement that are hardly explainable by the rather feeble rationalizations provided by modern scholars. But they are hamstrung by their own preconceptions. They are reading a certain set of documents and beliefs into everything else. The most plausible explanation is that there was no discontinuity, no divorce or divergence from Paul or some of the early Fathers of the Church. Rather, these are the varied expressions of general trends of belief found throughout the Empire, trends which were only gradually coalescing and evolving into a commonality based on the ever more appealing and powerful figure created by the Gospels. '' Earl Doherty, reply to Gakusei Don [http://www.christianorigins.com/2ndcearl.html find original!]</ref>
| Early church fathers
| [[Jesus the Logos|Logos Christianity]]. Mixed opinion about salvation and the incarnation.<ref>[http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp12One.htm Jesus in the Apostolic Fathers at the Turn of the Second Century] Earl Doherty</ref>. A Christianity exists which is essentially a form of stoicism with its mythology taken primarily from the [[Septuagint]]. Most references to the gospels themselves are thought of and written about as being [[Philo_of_Alexandria#Attitude_toward_literal_meaning|"stories" and "myths"]] <ref>For example, Tatian's Apology: "We are not fools, men of Greece, when we declare that God has been born in the form of man. . . Compare your own stories ... Take a look at your own records and accept us merely on the grounds that we too tell stories."</ref>
|-
| 140-180 CE<ref>Doherty (1999) page 269-71</ref>
| anti-heretical literature, apologetics. Form of the New Testament (gospels plus early epistles) is fixed.
| Gospels are used in anti-heretical defenses arguing that the Petrine church was specifically ordained by Jesus and thus has unique authority. [[Supersessionism]] is increasingly used to justify the fact that Christianity is an ancient religion and thus avoid [[Persecution_of_Christians#Persecution_from_the_second_century_to_Constantine|persecution]]. Gospels are given tremendous weight and are increasing seen as authoritative. Luke<ref>[http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/BkrvPNNT.htm The Pre-Nicene New Testament] has both Doherty and Price endorsing the [[Gospel_of_Marcion#Marcion_as_pre-dating_Luke|John Knox theory]] (Marcion and the New Testament] that Luke came from Marcon's [[Gospel of the Lord]] 140-160</ref> and Acts are written to create an imaginary history for the church in its anti-heresy battles.
|}

====Other writers====

[[John M. Allegro]] proposed that [[Christianity]] began as [[shamanism|shamanic]] religion based on the use of [[hallucinogenic mushrooms]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Allegro|first=John M.|authorlink=John Marco Allegro|title=The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross: A Study of the Nature and Origins of Christianity Within the Fertility Cults of the Ancient Near East|year=1970|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|location=London|isbn=0-340-12875-5}}</ref>

Advocates of the theory do not agree on the dating and meaning of the early Christian texts, with advocates like Doherty holding to traditional scholarly dating that puts the gospels toward the end of the first century, and others, like [[Hermann Detering]] (''The Fabricated Paul''), arguing that the early Christian texts are largely forgeries and products of the middle to late second century. In ''The Synoptic Apocalypse'' he shows how chapter 13 of Mark includes materials from a pamphlet written in 136 CE.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Detering
| first = Hermann
| authorlink = Hermann Detering
| title = The Synoptic Apocalypse (Mark 13 par): a document from the time of Bar Kochba
| journal = [[Journal of Higher Criticism]]
| volume = Volume 7
| issue = No.2
| publisher = Institute for Higher Critical Studies
| date = Fall 2000
| url = http://www.radikalkritik.de/Mk13%20JHC.pdf
| accessdate = May 6, 2009}}</ref>

[[Robert M. Price]], a biblical scholar, does not style himself as a proponent of the theory, but tries to demonstrate that if we apply the critical methodology (which has been developed in the area) with "ruthless consistency" then we should come to complete agnosticism regarding Jesus' historicity,<ref name="Priceagnost"> "... their own criteria and critical tools, which we have sought to apply here with ruthless consistency, ought to have left them with complete agnosticism ...", p. 351 in {{cite book|last=Price|first=Robert M.|title=The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable is the Gospel Tradition?|year=2003|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, N.Y.|isbn=1-59102-121-9}}</ref> and that the burden of proof is on those holding to Jesus's historicity.<ref name="Burden"> {{cite web|title=The Quest of the Mythical Jesus|url=http://www.mountainman.com.au/essenes/article_005.htm|first=Robert|last=Price|accessdate=2007-12-09}}</ref> In his [[Deconstructing Jesus]] ( (ISBN 1573927589)), [[Robert M. Price|Price]] argues that liberal Protestant scholars who produce reconstructions of the "historical Jesus" are, as Albert Schweitzer pointed out long ago, creating their own Jesus icons to authorize a liberal religious agenda. Christian faith, whether fundamentalist or theologically liberal, invariably tends to produce a Jesus capable of playing the role of a religious figurehead. In this way, "Jesus Christ" functions as a symbolic cloak for several hidden agendas. To Price this is no surprise, since he views the Jesus Christ of the gospels as very likely a fictional amalgam of several first-century prophets and messiahs, as well as of purely mythic Mystery Cult redeemers and Gnostic Aions. To demonstrate his point, Price follows the [[Burton Mack|Burton Mack's]] outline of a range of "Jesus movements" and "Christ cults," showing the origins of each one's Jesus figures and how they may have finally merged into the patchwork savior of Christian dogma. Finally, Price argues that there is good reason to believe that Jesus never existed as a historical figure, and that responsible historians must remain agnostic about a "historical Jesus" and what he stood for.<ref>All from Deconstructing Jesus (ISBN 1573927589), summary from flap</ref>.

Joseph Hoffman makes a similar point, that there is no other historical figure whose core nature is so radically disputed, ''In the past generation, the 'real' Jesus has been variously a magician ([[Morton Smith|Smith]]), a Galilean rabbi ([[Bruce Chilton|Chilton]]), a marginal Jew ([[John P. Meier|Meier]]), a bastard ([[Jane Schaberg|Schaberg]]), a cipher ([[Barbara Thiering|Thiering]]), a Qumran dissident ([[John Allegro|Allegro et al.]]), a gnosticisng Jew ([[Helmut Koester|Koester]]), a dissdent Jew ([[Géza Vermes|Vermes]]) a happily married man and father of son ([[John Shelby Spong|Sprong]]), a bandit ([[Richard A. Horsley|Horsley]]) an enthusiastic (possibly Zealot?) opponent of the Temple cult ([[E. P. Sanders|Sanders]])'' <ref>R Joseph Hoffman, Westminster College (Oxford) in preface to the Jesus Legend</ref>

[[Writings of D.M. Murdock|D.M. Murdock]] (publishing in part [[pseudonymous]]ly as "Acharya S") has written five books in support of the Christ myth theory. She argues that the canonical gospels represent a middle to late 2nd-century CE creation utilizing Old Testament "prophetic" scriptures as a blueprint, in combination with a collage of other, older Pagan and Jewish concepts, and that Christianity was thereby fabricated in order to compete with the other popular religions of the time.

[[Robert Eisenman]] in [[James the Brother of Jesus]] and [[The New Testament Code]] hypothesizes that Christianity was originally led by James, Jesus' role was always minor and his crucifixion had no particular importance. The teachings of Jesus are mostly James' and an amalgamation of other teachers. Paul's focus on Jesus came from a desire to undermine the political aspects, "Paul’s mission is to redirect Jewish messianism, its violent, anti-Roman, nationalistic, xenophobic ideology represented, and led, by James, into a peaceful, spiritual messianic religion presided over by a Christ-figure".<ref name="Turton" />

[[Johnny Lovewisdom]] in ''The Buddhist Essene Gospel Of John'' (Paradisian Publications, 2004), researched half a century to compile the background for his appraisal of the Divine Mysteries unveiled in the Gospels. It required a deep study of the undermeaning of the Nazarene Savior's own Syriac dialect of the Aramaic tongue. Dr. Lovewisdom chronicled the words of 'Jesus' as recorded by John, in the Pesthita Bible of the Assyrian Eastern Church - handed down through the centuries without changes by the Church or translators. The diet of Jesus and the Apostles according to historical sources of the time, is shown, along with esoteric allegorical commentary (exegesis) on the mystical meaning of the Gospels, the Buddhist origin of the Essenes and the real identity of Jesus (John's metaphor for all creation).

===The Jesus Project===
{{Main|Jesus Project}}
The Jesus Project is an ongoing inquiry into the historical existence of Jesus. Initiated by [[R. Joseph Hoffmann]], the project is a follow-up to the [[Jesus Seminar]] that regards the existence of Jesus as a "testable hypothesis."<ref>http://www.thestar.com/article/557548</ref>

==Arguments==
The arguments for the Christ myth theory center on the idea that the figure of Jesus was a fabrication of early Christians, and proponents point to a lack of reliability of historical accounts in first- and second-century CE documents traditionally held as evidence for the historical existence of Jesus:

===Earliest recorded references===
====New Testament epistles====
The [[authorship of the Pauline epistles|letters]] of [[Paul of Tarsus]] are among the earliest surviving Christian writings, probably predating all the gospels. For the Christ myth theory it is of importance that the epistles do not mention details of Jesus' life and ministry, though there are several passages that are traditionally interpreted to refer to his time on earth; for instance, "... concerning his Son who was a descendant of David with reference to the flesh.." (Romans 1:3), "... By sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh ..." (Romans 8:3) or "Before your very eyes Jesus Christ was clearly portrayed as crucified.."(Galatians 3:1). In his book ''Jesus and the Logic of History'', Bishop Paul Barnett lists 15 such details gleaned from Paul's letters<ref>Barnett,P (1997). ''Jesus and the Logic of History'', Apollos, ISBN 978-0851115122, pp. 57-58. Among others, he mentions 1) descent from Abraham, 2) direct descent from David, 3) 'born of a woman', 4) lived in poverty, 5) born and lived under the law, 6) had a brother called James, 7) led a humble life style, 8) ministered primarily to Jews, etc.</ref>. R. T. France, in his book, also argues that the [[Apostle Paul]] spoke of [[Jesus]] as a physical being and that there are several references to historical facts about Jesus' life in Paul's letters.<ref name="France"/>

The absence of references to Jesus' teachings and acts has been interpreted by a number of scholars and authors to indicate that the early Christians who wrote the epistles were not aware of a/the historical Jesus or at least of his life's details. For example, [[Earl Doherty]] holds that these early authors did not believe that Jesus had been on Earth at all. He argues that the earliest Christians accepted a [[Middle Platonism|Platonic]] cosmology that distinguished a "higher" spiritual world from the Earthly world of matter, and that they viewed Jesus as having descended only into the "lower reaches of the spiritual world".<ref name=doherty>{{cite journal|last=Doherty|first=E|year=1997|month=Fall|title=The Jesus Puzzle: Pieces in a Puzzle of Christian Origins|journal=Journal of Higher Criticism|volume=4|issue=2|url=http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/jhcjp.htm|accessdate=2008-06-05}}</ref> Doherty also suggests that this view was accepted by the authors of the Pastoral epistles, [[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]], and various second-century Christian writings outside the New Testament. Doherty contends that apparent references in these writings to events on earth, and a physical historic Jesus, should in fact be regarded as allegorical metaphors.<ref name="Doherty"/>.

Opponents regard such interpretations as forced and argue that they are mostly based on [[argument from silence|arguments from silence]], which are by themselves unpersuasive<ref name="France"/>.

====Early non-Christian references to Jesus====
{{details|Historicity of Jesus#Greco-Roman sources}}

Four early writers are typically cited in support of the actual existence of Jesus: [[Josephus on Jesus|Josephus]], [[Tacitus on Jesus|Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]], and [[Pliny the Younger]]. Many challengers to their usefulness point out that each of these writers have problems.

* The two references to Jesus in the ''Antiquities'' of [[Josephus]] (written 93 CE) are contested on different grounds. The first reference [[Josephus on Jesus|Testimonium Flavianum]] is challenged on the grounds that the passage is known to have been tampered with based on comments by Origen and that it seems to break the flow of the passage it appears in. The challenge to the second passage is due the "Jesus, the son of Damneus" near the end; this is used to argue that this is a different Jesus whose brother was called James and therefore either the "who is called the Christ" part is an insertion or that this is another person given the title Christ.{{details|Historicity of Jesus#Josephus}}

* The passage by [[Tacitus]] (circa 117) is challenged based on the fact he did not state his reference material and could have just been repeating what the Christians of the time were saying. The article [[Tacitus on Christ]] has an extended discussion, and the [[Historicity of Jesus#Tacitus|Tacitus section]] of Historicity of Jesus also has additional information.

* [[Suetonius]] is challenged on the fact his reference to "Chrestus" is so vague as to be nearly useless. See [[Historicity of Jesus#Suetonius|Suetonius section]] of Historicity of Jesus for greater details.

* There are references to Christians in the letters of [[Pliny the Younger]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/pliny.html|title=Pliny, Letters 10.96-97|accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref> but they give no specific information about the founder of this movement.

The ''Babylonian [[Talmud]]'' contains several references to the name [[Yeshu]] that have been traditionally identified with Jesus of Nazareth. However, these same passages have been used to show that the biblical Jesus is based upon an earlier figure who lived about 100 BCE.<ref name="Mead" /><ref name="The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud"/> Furthermore, tradition has the Babylonian Talmud being compiled in the late third to early fourth century CE, limiting its value to determining events of the 1st century CE.

Some scholars doubt that these sources refute the Jesus-myth theory. Charles Guignebert, Professor of the History Of Christianity at the Sorbonne, who does believe that Jesus of the Gospels existed and lived in Galilee during the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, discounts the worth of all the non-Christian sources as proof of the existence of Jesus. Thus "all the pagan and Jewish testimonies, so-called, afford us no information of any value about the life of Jesus, nor even any assurance that he ever lived...
<ref name=guignebert>''Jesus'' by Ch. Guignebert (Translated from the French by S. H. Hooke, Samuel Davidson Professor of Old Testament Studies, University of London), University Books, New Yory, 1956, p22</ref>

[[Robert M. Price]] says that these non-christian references, even if taken as genuine, merely amount to an account of what the ancient Christians of the time were saying about Jesus, not that the writers were claiming Jesus as a contemporary.

====Omissions in early records====
Many proponents of the Christ myth theory point out that there is a complete lack of non-Christian documents that make reference to Jesus before the end of the first century, and note the survival of writings by a number of Roman and Jewish commentators and historians who wrote in the first century but which lack mention of events described in the Gospels, taking this as evidence that Jesus was invented later. Opponents of the theory argue that [[argument from silence|arguments from silence]] are unreliable.<ref name="France"/>

[[Justus of Tiberias]] wrote at the end of the first century a history of Jewish kings, with whom the gospels state Jesus had interacted. Justus' history does not survive, but [[Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]], who read it in the 9th century, stated that it did not mention "the coming of Christ, the events of His life, or the miracles performed by Him."<ref>{{cite book |author=Photius |authorlink=Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople |others=trans. J. H. Freese |title=The library of Photius |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/photius_02preface.htm |accessdate=2007-01-03 |year=1920 |publisher=SPCK |location=London |chapter=33: Justus of Tiberias, ''Chronicle of the Kings of the Jews'' |chapterurl=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/photius_03bibliotheca.htm#33 }}</ref> The Jewish historian [[Philo]], who lived in the first half of the 1st century also fails to mention Jesus, as do other major contemporary writers<ref>Wells, G.A. (1971) ''The Jesus of the Early Christians, A Study in Christian Origins'', Pemberton Books, page 2.</ref>

In response to Jesus myth proponents who argue the lack of early non-Christian sources, or question their authenticity, [[R. T. France]] counters that "even the great histories of [[Tacitus]] have survived in only two manuscripts, which together contain scarcely half of what he is believed to have written, the rest is lost" and that the life of Jesus, from a Roman point of view, was not a major event.<ref name="France">{{cite book|authorlink=RT France|last=France|first=RT|title=Evidence for Jesus (Jesus Library)|publisher=Trafalgar Square Publishing|year=1986|isbn=0340381728|pages=19–20}}</ref>

R.T. France states that Christianity was actively opposed by both the [[Roman Empire]] and the Jewish authorities, and would have been utterly discredited if Jesus had been shown as a non-historical figure. He argues that there is evidence in [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]], [[Josephus]] and other sources of the Roman and Jewish approaches at the time, and none of them involved this suggestion.<ref name="France"/>

===Influenced by the Old Testament===
Advocates of the Jesus-myth believe that the gospels are not history but a type of [[midrash]]: creative narratives based on the stories, prophecies, and quotes in the Hebrew Bible. Doherty has argued that when the midrashic elements are removed, little to no content remains that could be used to demonstrate the existence of a historical Jesus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/partthre.htm|title=THE JESUS PUZZLE Was There No Historical Jesus?|first=E|last=Doherty|accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref><ref>*{{cite book|last=Doherty|first=Earl|authorlink=Earl Doherty|title=[[The Jesus Puzzle]]: Did Christianity Begin With a Mythical Christ?|year=2000|edition=rev.|publisher=Canadian Humanist Publications|location=Ottawa|isbn=0-9686014-0-5}}</ref>

A majority of scholars<ref name="tuckett">Christopher Tuckett: [http://www.webcitation.org/5YBgZFADe The current state of the Synoptic Problem], 2008 Oxford Conference In The Synoptic Problem</ref><ref>see also [[Markan priority]], [[Synoptic problem]], [[Two-source hypothesis]]</ref> explain the similarities between the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] using the [[two-source hypothesis]], according to which, Matthew and Luke derived most of their content from Mark and from a lost collection of Jesus' sayings known as the [[Q document]]. In the small amount of additional material unique to Matthew, Jesus is presented with strong parallels to Old Testament figures, most noticeably [[Moses]].<ref>{{cite journal
| last = O'Toole
| first = Robert F.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = The Parallels Between Jesus and Moses
| journal = Biblical Theology Bulletin
| volume = 20
| issue = 1
| pages = 22–29
| publisher =
| location =
| date = 1990
| url =
| issn =
| doi = 10.1177/014610799002000104
| id =
| accessdate = }}</ref><ref>Murdock (1999) Ch 15</ref><ref>Troxel, Ronald L. University of Wisconsin Madison. [http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~rltroxel/gospels/Lect20.pdf Matthew's Jesus]</ref> Thus there is no reason to assume that the sayings attributed to a postulated Q document originated with Jesus.<ref>Doherty (1999) Jesus as symbol p. 238-9</ref>

Though believing that the gospels may contain some creativity and midrash, opponents of the Jesus-myth argue that the gospels are more akin to ancient [[Greco-Roman]] biographies.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=7F_5kPoTTnoC&pg=PA63&lpg=PA63 David E. Aune; The New Testament in its literary environment page 63-7]</ref> Such works attempted to impart historical information about historical figures but were not comprehensive and could include legendary developments.

===Comparisons with Mediterranean mystery religions===
{{Main|Jesus Christ in comparative mythology}}
Some proponents of the Christ myth theory have argued that many aspects of the Gospel stories of Jesus have remarkable parallels with [[life-death-rebirth deity|life-death-rebirth gods]] in the widespread [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery religion]]s prevalent in the [[Hellenistic]] culture in which Christianity was born. Some prominent early Christians, such as [[Irenaeus]] and [[Justin Martyr]], recognized some of these parallels; Justin specifically used several to attempt to prove that Christianity was not a new cult, but that it was rooted in ancient prophecy which had been "diabolically imitated."<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cults of the Roman Empire|first=Robert|last=Turcan|year=1996|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=9780631200475|page=233}}</ref>

The central figure of one of the most widespread, [[Osiris-Dionysus]], was consistently localised and deliberately merged with local deities in each area, since it was the ''mysteries'' which were imparted that were regarded as important, not the method by which they were taught. In the view of some advocates of the Jesus Myth, most prominently [[Timothy Freke|Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy|Gandy]] in ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'', Jewish mystics adapted their form of Osiris-Dionysus to match prior Jewish heroes like Moses and Joshua, hence creating Jesus.<ref name="Freke"/>

Several parallels are frequently cited by these advocates, and often appear, mixed with other parallels, on internet sites.<ref>[http://www.stellarhousepublishing.com/christinegypt.html][http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_jcpa5.htm][http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SIMFz5ZKDVo examples]</ref> The most prominently cited parallels are with [[Horus]]<ref name="Horus">Murdock (1999) p 114-6 and Murdock (2009)</ref> and [[Mithras]].<ref>Murdock (1999) p 118-20</ref> Horus was one of the life-death-rebirth deities, and was connected and involved with those of [[Osiris]].<ref name="Horus" />

[[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]] does not see the similarities between Christianity and pagan religions to be significant. Grant states that "Judaism was a milieu to which doctrines of the deaths and rebirths, of mythical gods seemed so entirely foreign that the emergence of such a fabrication from its midst is very hard to credit."<ref>In Grant's ''An Historian's Review of the Gospels''. Grant refers to S. Neill, ''What we know about Jesus'' (Eerdmans, 1972 ed), p. 45 to support this view.</ref>

===Historiography and methodology===
[[Earl Doherty]] argues that the gospels are inconsistent concerning "such things as the baptism and nativity stories, the finding of the empty tomb and Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances" and contain numerous "contradictions and disagreements in the accounts of Jesus' words and deeds". He concludes that the evangelists freely altered their sources and invented material, and therefore could not have been concerned to preserve historical information.<ref name=doherty/>

A similar tack works from the claim that the dates in canonical and non-canonical sources do not match up.<ref>eg [[The God Who Wasn't There]]</ref> For example it is stated in the [[Toldoth Yeshu]] that one [[Yeshu]], identified with Jesis was killed under [[Salome Alexandra]],<ref name="Mead" /> and Luke and Matthew have different birth dates that are nearly a decade apart.

This criticism has frequently been answered by the observation: "The fact of Christianity's beginnings and the character of its earliest traditions is such that we could only deny the existence of Jesus by hypothesizing the existence of some other figure who was a sufficient cause of Christianity's beginnings - another figure who on careful reflection would probably come out very like Jesus!"<ref name=Dunn1986>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hfAcOPGt69YC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA27&sig=ACfU3U27Zru8QmcSwDkCYvZ3UlDDDVbtaA Dunn (1986), JDG, 'The Evidence for Jesus',Westminster John Knox Press, p.29 ISBN=0664246982]</ref>

==Scholarly reception==
A number of writers have stated that the theory has limited acceptance in the relevant scholarly circles. Richard Burridge and Graham Gould (2004: References below) state that the questioning of Jesus' existence is not accepted by mainstream critical scholarship.<ref name=Burridge/> Michael Grant believes that the Christ myth theory fails to satisfy modern critical methodology, and is rejected by all but a few modern scholars,<ref name="Grantmajority"/> stating,

<blockquote>...if we apply to the New Testament, as we should, the same sort of criteria as we should apply to other ancient writings containing historical material, we can no more reject Jesus' existence than we can reject the existence of a mass of pagan personages whose reality as historical figures is never questioned...To sum up, modern critical methods fail to support the Christ-myth theory." <ref>Grant, ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels (1977), pp. 199, 200</ref> </blockquote>

Likewise [[Graham N. Stanton]] writes,

<blockquote>Today nearly all historians, whether Christians or not, accept that Jesus existed and that the gospels contain plenty of valuable evidence which has to be weighed and assessed critically. There is general agreement that, with the possible exception of Paul, we know far more about Jesus of Nazareth than about any first- or second century Jewish or pagan religious teacher."<ref name="stanton"/></blockquote>

[[James Charlesworth]] writes that "No reputable scholar today questions that a Jew named Jesus son of Joseph lived; most readily admit that we now know a considerable amount about his actions and basic teachings ..."<ref name="Charlesworth13"/> a conclusion shared by Anglican Bishop N.T. Wright.<ref>"The Self-Revelation of God in Human History", from ''There Is A God'' by Antony Flew and Roy Abraham Varghese (2007)</ref>

[[Robert E. Van Voorst]] has stated that biblical scholars and historians regard the Jesus never existed thesis as "effectively refuted",<ref name=voorst/> with contemporary New Testament scholars typically viewing the Jesus-mythers arguments "as so weak or bizarre that they relegate them to footnotes, or often ignore them completely..."

Jesus myth proponent [[Earl Doherty]] responds to Van Voorst's claim, stating "after a survey of the history of research into the historical Jesus, Van Voorst tackles 'the noisy side current' of Jesus mythicism. He notes that over one hundred books and essays during the last two centuries have denied the existence of Jesus. Their arguments, he says, are dismissed as 'weak and bizarre' by contemporary New Testament scholars. Van Voorst is quite right in saying that 'mainstream scholarship today finds it unimportant.' Most of their comment (such as those quoted by Michael Grant) are limited to expressions of contempt." However, he insists that the "contempt" in which the theory is held "is not to be mistaken for refutation," arguing that mainstream scholars have failed to keep up with the details of the modern Jesus myth.<ref name="Dohertyms">Earl Doherty, "Responses to Critiques of the Mythicist Case: Four: Alleged Scholarly Refutations of Jesus Mythicism", available http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/CritiquesRefut3.htm, accessed 03 September 2009.</ref>

==Chart==
The chart below describes the Christ myth theory and contrasts it with conservative Christianity and mainstream academic scholarship to help clarify the points of dispute. All 3 columns represent broad positions, generalizations and averages, and there are exceptions to each point for virtually every author. "Conservative Christianity" here is being used to represent the positions of scholars who are members of the [[Christian right]], their views are consistent with, and explained in, the article [[Christian views of Jesus]], as well as the [[Christianity]] article. "Mainstream Scholarship" here is being used to represent the general consensus of interdisciplinary academic research, including [[historical theology]], [[Palestinian archaeology|secular]] and [[biblical archaeology]], and the [[Quest_for_the_historical_Jesus#Contemporary_scholarship|majority of biblical scholars]] utilizing both [[Textual criticism|lower criticism]] and [[higher criticism]]. Those views are detailed in [[Historical Jesus]]. Christ Myth theory refers to the current position of the proponents of Christ Myth theory. These theories have a natural affinity to the modern methods of [[comparative religion]] and [[anthropology]], but lack mainstream scholarly support for some of the reasons discussed below.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Christian views of Jesus|Conservative Christianity]]
! [[Historical Jesus|Mainstream Scholarship]]
! Christ Myth theory
|-
| Ideas originated in traditional Christianity.
| Ideas originated in [[liberal Christianity]].<ref>{{cite web
| last = Boa
| first = Kenneth [http://www.kenboa.org/ Kenboa.org]
| title = Letting Go:Liberal Christianity-Retreating from the Faith
| url = http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=3864
| accessdate = March 29, 2009 }}</ref><ref>"''The Jesus of Nazareth who came forward publicly as the Messiah, who preached the ethic of the Kingdom of God, who founded the Kingdom of Heaven upon earth, and died to give His work its final consecration, never had any existence. He is a figure designed by rationalism, endowed with life by liberalism, and clothed by modern theology in historical garb. '', Schweitzer (1913) [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/schweitzer/chapter20.html p. 398]</ref><ref>See also [[Ferdinand Christian Baur]] for a discussion of the early dating involving [[Adolf von Harnack]].</ref>
| Ideas originated among the [[anti-religious]]: [[atheists]], [[freethinkers]], [[deists]],<ref>Van Voorst (2000) p 16</ref> often in response to the "[[Quest for the historical Jesus]]" of mainstream scholarship.
|-
| Jesus was both man and [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] in a [[hypostatic union]].<ref Name="Nicene">[[Nicene Creed]], [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.iv.iii.html 381 version with comparison to 325 apostle's creed]</ref><ref name="Acharya Quest"> {{cite book
| last = S
| first = Acharya
| authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock
| title = The Christ Conspiracy
| publisher = Adventures Unlimited Press
| date = 1999
| location = Canada
| pages = 12–23
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=KnIYRi3upbEC&pg=PA12-IA4
| isbn = 0-932813-74-7}}</ref>
| Jesus was a man who came to be seen as God.<ref name="Acharya Quest"/><ref>{{Cite book | title=Jesus Under Fire | editor = Michael J Wilkins, J P Moreland | first=Scot | last=McKnight | chapter=Who is Jesus? An Introduction to Jesus Studies | pages=144 | year=1996 | publisher=Zondervan | isbn=0-310-21139-5}}</ref>
| Jesus was a God who came to be seen as a man.<ref name="Acharya Quest"/><ref>[http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/puzzle13.htm Putting the Jesus Puzzle Together in 12 Easy Pieces] Earl Doherty</ref>
|-
| Gospels are a historical record written by, or based on first-hand accounts from, Jesus' followers.<ref name="Pass" /><ref name="ReferenceA">See [[Biblical inerrancy]] for an extended discussion</ref><ref name="Greenleaf">{{cite book
| last = Greenleaf
| first = Simon
| authorlink = Simon Greenleaf
| title = [[Testimony of the Evangelist|The Testimony of the Evangelists Examined by The Rules of Evidence Administered in Courts of Justice]] ([http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/jesus/greenleaf.html online version of essay])
| publisher = reprint of the 1874 edition, (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1984)
| isbn = 0-8010-3803-0
| year = 1846 }}</ref>
| Gospels are later works based on materials that are themselves written by, or based on first-hand accounts from, Jesus' followers.<ref>{{Cite book | title=Jesus Under Fire | editor = Michael J Wilkins, J P Moreland | first=Scot | last=McKnight | chapter=Who is Jesus? An Introduction to Jesus Studies | pages=73–8 | year=1996 | publisher=Zondervan | isbn=0-310-21139-5}}</ref>
| The Gospels are composed as theological works containing little or nothing that occurred in a historical sense.<ref>Doherty(1999) Chapter 22, ''The Gospels as Midrash and Symbolism'' see also online [http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/partthre.htm The Evolution of Jesus of Nazareth]</ref><ref>Wells(1996) Chapter 5, ''The Gospel of Mark: History of Dogma?''</ref><ref>Murdock (1999) Throughout the book, especially p 12-23</ref>
|-
|The [[Q document]] never existed. The gospel writers were 4 independent witnesses<ref name="Pass"/><ref name="Greenleaf" /> or the "Q material" came from Matthew.<ref>see [[Augustinian hypothesis]] for extended discussion</ref>
| [[Q document]] represents earlier information about the historical Jesus. [[Two-source hypothesis]] is the standard theory.
| Earlier versions or pieces of the [[Q document]] may have some components that talk about a historical person, but that person had nothing to do with founding Christianity nor was the being that the epistles talk about.<ref>Doherty(1999) ch 14</ref><ref>{{cite web
| last = Doherty
| first = Earl
| authorlink = Earl Doherty
| title = The Evolution of Jesus of Nazareth
| url = http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/partthre.htm
| accessdate = 4-9-09 }}</ref><ref>Wells (1996) ch 6</ref><ref>[[Harold Leidner|Leidner, Harold]]. ''The Fabrication of the Christ Myth'' (Tampa, FL: Survey Books, 1999) pp. 219-282.</ref>
|-
| The [[Acts of the Apostles|book of Acts]] is an accurate record of early Christian development.<ref name="Pass">{{Citation
| last = Pope Pius X
| author-link = Pope Pius X
| title = Pascendi Dominici Gregis (
| journal = Vatican
| date = September 8, 1907
| url = http://www.vatican.edu/holy_father/pius_x/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-x_enc_19070908_pascendi-dominici-gregis_en.html}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/>
| The book of Acts is propaganda but the basic story of the Jerusalem church spreading out under Paul is correct.<ref>See [[Acts_of_the_Apostles#Historicity]] for further details</ref><ref>
Fashioning Jewish identity in medieval western Christendom, Robert Chazan page 48 [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZYAZ8LdudfgC&pg=PA48 online]</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = McKenzie
| first = Steven L.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = How to Read the Bible
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| date = 2005
| location = NY, NY 10016
| pages = 64–5
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=hYfweIriBSsC&pg=PA64
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 0195161491}}</ref>
| The book of Acts is almost entirely fiction, Christianity came out of [[Alexandria]].<ref name="Doh Alex">{{Citation
| last = Doherty
| first = Earl
| author-link = Earl Doherty
| title = Tracing the Christian Lineage in Alexandria
| url = http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/supp05.htm
| accessdate = March 29, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Fridlander" />
|-
| Identifies the first Christians with "Judaism" and/or the revelations of Moses and the prophets. Does not generally identify Christianity with a sect within Judaism.
| Identifies the first Christians with Palestinian sects of Judaism like the Pharisees or Essenes.<ref>Asserts Pharisees,{{cite book
| last = Theissen
| first = Gerd
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Annette Merz
| title = The historical Jesus
| publisher = Fortress Press
| date = 1998
| location = Great Britain
| pages =
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC&pg=PA141
| doi =
| isbn = 0800631226}}</ref><ref> {{cite book
| last = Maccoby
| first = Hyam
| authorlink = Hyam Maccoby
| title = The Mythmaker
| publisher = HarperCollins
| date = 1986
| location = San Francisco
| pages = 29–44
| isbn = 0-76070-787-1 }}</ref>
| Identifies Christianity with Hellenistic Judaism which centered itself in [[Alexandria]].<ref name="Doh Alex" /><ref name="Fridlander">{{cite book
| last = Friedlander
| first = Moritz
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Der vorchristliche judische Gnosticismus
| publisher = Gottengen: Vandenhoeck & Roprecht reprint Farnborough: Gregg International
| date = 1898 (1972)
| isbn = }} see also Pearson (1990) Chapter 1</ref>
|-
| Jesus was born of the Virgin Mary by the power of the Holy spirit.<ref name="Nicene" /><ref>{{cite book
| last = Machen
| first = J Gresham
| authorlink = John Gresham Machen
| title = The Virgin Birth of Christ
| publisher = James Clarke Company
| pages = 1
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=qG7f9wT1uqIC&pg=PA1
| isbn = 0227676300
| year = 1958}}</ref><ref name="Baker">
{{cite encyclopedia
| title = Virgin Birth
| encyclopedia = Baker's Evangelical Dictionary
| url = http://bible.crosswalk.com/Dictionaries/BakersEvangelicalDictionary/bed.cgi?number=T718
| accessdate = March 24, 2009}}</ref>
| Jesus was likely born of Mary, the virgin birth was a later add on, with authors split as to the reason.<ref name="Baker" /><ref>
{{cite book
| last = Horrell
| first = David G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = An introduction to the study of Paul
| publisher = T. & T. Clark Publishers
| date = 2006
| pages = 63–5
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=hQS6SDqDga4C&pg=PA63
| isbn = 0567040836}}</ref>
| Jesus was associated with savior gods, who are frequently ascribed unusual births in mythology.<ref>{{cite web |author=James Still |title=The Virgin Birth and Childhood Mysteries of Jesus |url=http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/james_still/virgin_birth.html |publisher=[[Internet Infidels, Inc.]] |accessdate=2009-04-06}}</ref>
|-
| Jesus is the [[Logos]] of God ''through whom all things were made.'' <ref name="Nicene" />
| A historical human behind the Jesus of the NT Canon existed. Secular scholarship is skeptical regarding any divine nature ascribed to him in Christian literature.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Bromling
| first = Brad
| date = March 1995
| title = Jesus: Truly God and Truly Human
| journal = Apologetics Press :: Reason & Revelation| volume = 15[3]
| pages = :17–20
| url = http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/263}}</ref>
| Jesus is the Logos of Yahweh, and the Logos was the mechanism certain Hellenistic Jews attributed to the creation.
|-
| Jesus rose in the 3rd day after his crucifixion in fulfillment of the scriptures.<ref name="Nicene" />
| Jesus died on the cross but his followers continued to have spiritual experiences and saw his resurrection as being fulfilled. He may also have believed during his life he would rise.
| Jesus is a creation of scriptures and thus fulfills them. Resurrection is an integral component of a [[life-death-rebirth deity]].<ref> {{cite book
| last = Allen
| first = Grant
| authorlink =
| title = The Evolution of the Idea of God
| publisher = Henry Holt
| date = 1897
| location = New York
| pages = 378–408
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=NwsTYIivPdEC&pg=RA1-PA377#PRA1-PA378,M1
| isbn = }}</ref><ref> {{cite book
| last = Graves
| first = Robert
| authorlink = Robert Graves
| title = [[The White Goddess|The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth]]
| publisher = Farrar, Straus and Giroux
| date = 1948
| location = United Kingdom
| pages = 157–9
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=4TWYmloRL0YC&pg=PA157
| isbn = 0374504938}}</ref>
|-
| Jesus would not fulfill the military mission during his life but, ''He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and His kingdom will have no end.''<ref name="Nicene" />
| Jesus did not see the messiah as having a military role and [[Realized eschatology|reinterpreted these passages spiritually]]. He did however believe that God would provide miracles to fulfill the military function of the messiah.
| Salvation was understood in a non material sense by Jewish Gnosticism and this carried through to early Christianity. When later the title messiah was applied apocalyptic literature featuring Jesus (for example the [[Book of Revelation]]) was created.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Case
| first = Shirley Jackson
| title = The Historicity of Jesus
| publisher = University of Chicago Press
| date = 1912
| location = Chicago
| pages = 148
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=drlKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA148 }}</ref>
|-
| Nominally Christian works rejected as heretical, including the [[Gnostic Gospels]], were generally written in the 2nd and 3rd century under the influence of Satan.<ref>[[Saint Irenaeus]] [[Adversus Haereses]] [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/irenaeus.html online]</ref> They should be examined to help contextualize works of the early church fathers who wrote against them<ref>{{cite book
| last = Ferguson
| first = Everett [http://www.acu.edu/campusoffices/acupress/books/authors/everett_ferguson.html]
| title = Backgrounds of Early Christianity
| publisher = Eerdmans
| date = 1981, 3rd ed 2003
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC&pg=PA1&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0#PPP1,M1
| isbn = 0802822215}}</ref> and to understand modern spiritual movements.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Jones
| first = Peter
| title = The Gnostic Empire Strikes Back: An Old Heresy for the New Age
| publisher = P & R Publishing
| date = 1992
| isbn = 0875522858}}</ref>
| Most works rejected as heretical were written by disparate minority/regional sects in 2nd and 3rd century, versus the canonical texts which are late 1st to early 2nd century. They represent alternate minority views about Jesus and can often provide useful information on the context for, and influences on, the development of Christianity. They do not contain decisive information about Jesus himself.<ref> {{cite book
| last = Smith
| first = Carl
| title = No Longer Jews
| publisher = Hendrickson
| date = 2004
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=F3wLAAAACAAJ
| isbn = 1565639448}}</ref>
| Gnostic and other heretical texts represent early strands of Christianity, and demonstrate the diversity within the early Christian community. They should be given a great deal of weight in the study of early Christian development.<ref name="Turton">{{cite journal
| last = Turton
| first = Michael
| title = Review of James the Brother of Jesus by Robert Eisenman
| journal = [[Journal of Higher Criticism]]
| date = 2002
| url = http://www.radikalkritik.de/RezEisenman.htm
| accessdate = May 3, 2009 }}</ref><ref>The Truth at the Heart of '[[The Da Vinci Code]]' [[Elaine Pagels]]
[[San Jose Mercury News]]. [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5422879 online]</ref><ref>For example: ''[[Gospel of Marcion|His Gospel]] was presumably the collection of sayings in use among the Pauline churches of his day. Of course the patristic writers say that Marcion mutilated Luke's version; but it is almost impossible to believe that, if he did this, so keen a critic as Marcion should have retained certain verses which made against his strong anti-Judaistic views.'' [[G. R. S. Mead]], [[Fragments of a Faith Forgotten]] [http://www.webcom.com/~gnosis/library/meadmarcion.htm]</ref>
|-
| Progression of beliefs:<ref>{{cite book
| last = Urban
| first = Linwood
| title = A Short History of Christian Thought (rev and expanded)
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| date = 1995
| isbn = 0195093488 }}</ref>
# [[Hasideans|Hasidean Judaism]]
# [[Cultural_and_historical_background_of_Jesus#The_Hasmonean_period|Palestinian Judaism]]
# [[Jewish_Christianity#Jewish_origin_of_Christianity|Jewish Christianity]]
# [[Orthodox Christianity]]
# Christian [[Gnosticism]]
| Progression of beliefs:<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Mack
| first = Burton L.
| authorlink = Burton L. Mack
| title = Who Wrote the New Testament?: The Making of the Christian Myth
| publisher = HarperOne
| date = 1996
| location = San Francisco
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 0060655186}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last = Carmichael
| first = Joel
| title = The Birth of Christianity: Reality and Myth
| publisher = Dorset Press
| date = 1992
| isbn = 0880297387
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last = Wilson
| first = A.N.
| authorlink = A. N. Wilson
| publisher = Ballantine Books
| date = 1993
| location = New York
| pages = 239–56
| isbn =0449908070
| title = Jesus }}</ref>
# [[Hasideans|Hasidean Judaism]]
# [[Pharisees|Pharisaic]] and/or [[Essenes|Essene]] Judaism
# [[Jewish_Christianity#Jewish_origin_of_Christianity|Jewish Christianity]]
# [[Pauline Christianity]]
# [[Orthodox Christianity]] & Christian [[Gnosticism]]
| Progression of beliefs:<ref name="Doh Alex"/><ref> {{cite book
| last = Bauer
| first = Walter
| authorlink = Walter Bauer
| title = Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum (Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity)
| publisher = J.C.B.Mohr
| date = 1934 (english 1964)
| location = Germany (English from Philadelphia Seminar on Christian Origins)
| url = http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/Bauer/
| isbn = 0962364274}}</ref>
# [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] Judaism
# [[Hellenistic Judaism]]
# [[Gnosis|Gnosticising]] Jews
# Christian [[Gnosticism]]
# [[Orthodox Christianity]]
|-
| [[Jesus Christ in comparative mythology|Comparative mythological]] elements are historic fact. The existence of pre-existing myth is the result of [[Jesus_Christ_and_comparative_mythology#Demonic_imitation|demonic imitation]]<ref>Justin Martyr, [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm First apology] Ch 20-5</ref> or [[Jesus_Christ_and_comparative_mythology#Jesus_as_.22true_myth.22|divine foreshadowing]].<ref>C.S. Lewis, Miracle [http://www.geocities.com/athens/forum/3505/LewisJoy.html online discussion].</ref>
| Myths of all types were added on to embellish Jesus' biography.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Wilson
| first = A. N.
| authorlink = A. N. Wilson
| coauthors =
| title = Paul, The Mind of the Apostle
| publisher = W. W. Norton & Company (April 1998)
| chapter = The School of Paul
| date = 1998
| location = New York
| pages = 229–39
| isbn = 0393317609}}</ref>
| Hellenistic Judaism was a synthetic religion and had absorbed myths of all types, hence Jesus biography was constructed from myths of all types.
|}

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

* '''Further information'''
** [[Atheism]] and [[New atheism]]
** [[Bible conspiracy theory]]
** [[The Copenhagen School (theology)]]
** [[Criticism of Jesus]]
** [[Historical Jesus]]
** [[Historicity of Jesus]]
** [[Jesus and history]]

* '''Documentaries'''
** ''[[The God Who Wasn't There]]'' (2005)
** ''[[Zeitgeist, the Movie]]'' (2007)
** ''[[Religulous]]'' (2008)

{{col-2}}

*'''Related Articles'''
** [[Jesus Christ in comparative mythology]]
** [[Jesus Project]]
** [[Life-death-rebirth deity]]
** [[List of demigods]]
** [[List of virgin births]]
** [[Osiris-Dionysus]]
**[[Panbabylonism]]
** [[Yeshu]]

* '''Biblical Criticism'''
** [[The Copenhagen School (theology)]]
** [[Higher criticism]]
** [[Ferdinand Christian Baur|Tübingen School]]
** [[New school (theology)]]

{{col-end}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references/>
</div>

==References==
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite book | last = Bennett | first = Clinton | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = In search of Jesus: insider and outsider images | publisher = Continuum | date = 2001 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0826449158}}
*{{citation | last1 = Burridge | first1 = R | last2 = Gould | first2 = G | year = 2004 | title = Jesus Now and Then | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans }}
*{{cite journal | last = Case | first = Shirley Jackson | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Historicity of Jesus an Estimate of the Negative Argument | journal = The American Journal of Theology | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–42 | publisher = | location = | date = 1911 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/3155273 | doi = 10.1086/478974| id = | accessdate = }}
*{{cite book |last=Conybeare |first=Frederick Cornwallis |origyear=1914 |year=1914 |title=The Historical Christ, or an investigation of the views of J.M. Robertson, A. Drews and W.B. Smith |others= |publisher= |location=London |url= |accessdate= }}
*{{cite book |last=Drews |first=Arthur |year=1912 |title=[[wikisource:The Witnesses to the Historicity of Jesus|The Witnesses to the Historicity of Jesus]] |others=Translated by Joseph McCabe |publisher= Watts |location=London }}
*{{Citation | last = Farmer | first = William R. | contribution = A Fresh Approach to Q | year = 1975 | title = Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults | editor-last = Neusner | editor-first = Jacob | volume = | pages = | place = | publisher = Brill | id = }}
*{{cite journal | last = Gerrish | first = B. A. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Jesus, Myth, and History: Troeltsch's Stand in the "Christ-Myth" Debate | journal = The Journal of Religion | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–35 | publisher = | location = | date = 1975 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/1202070 | doi = 10.1086/486407| id = | accessdate = }}
*{{cite book |last=Goguel |first=Maurice |origyear=1925 |year=1926a |title=Jesus the Nazarene: Myth or History? |others=translated by Frederick Stephens |publisher=T. Fisher Unwin |location=London |url=http://www.christianorigins.com/goguel/ |accessdate=2009-04-04 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Goguel |first=Maurice |year=1926b |month=April |title=Recent French Discussion of the Historical Existence of Jesus Christ |journal=Harvard Theological Review |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=115–142 }}
*{{cite book| last = Grant | first = Michael | year = 1995 | origyear = 1997 | title = Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels | publisher = Scribner | isbn = 978-0684818672 }}
*{{cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=R. Joseph |authorlink=R. Joseph Hoffmann |year=2006 |chapter=Maurice Goguel and the 'Myth Theory' of Christian Origins |editor=Maurice Goguel |title=Jesus the Nazarene: Myth or History? |others=translated by Frederick Stephens, with a new introduction by R. Joseph Hoffmann |publisher=Prometheus |location=Amherst, NY |isbn=1-59102-370-X |pages=11–41 }}
* {{cite book |last = Murdock | first = D.M. | authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock|coauthors = as Acharya S| title = The Christ Conspiracy | publisher = Adventures Unlimited Press| date = 1999 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=KnIYRi3upbEC&pg=PP1 | isbn = 0932813747}}
* {{cite book |last = Murdock | first = D.M. | authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock|coauthors = as Acharya S
| title = Suns of God: Krishna, Buddha and Christ Unveiled | publisher = Adventures Unlimited Press| date = 2004
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rey19p_ycHUC&printsec=frontcover| isbn = 1931882312}}
* {{cite book |last = Murdock | first = D.M. | authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock
| title = Who Was Jesus? Fingerprints of The Christ | publisher = Stellar House Publishing, LLC | date = 2007
| url=http://www.stellarhousepublishing.com/whowasjesus1.html| isbn = 0979963109}}
* {{cite book |last = Murdock | first = D.M. | authorlink = Writings of D.M. Murdock
| title = Christ in Egypt: The Horus-Jesus Connection| publisher = Stellar House Publishing, LLC| date = 2009
| url=http://www.stellarhousepublishing.com/christinegypt.html| isbn = 0979963117}}
*{{cite book |last=Robertson |first=John M. |authorlink=J. M. Robertson |year=1902 |title=A Short History of Christianity |publisher=Watts & Co. |location=London |pages=1–97 |url=http://www.archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch00roberich |accessdate=2008-08-05 }}
* {{cite book|title=Pagan Christs|last=Robertson |first=John M.|authorlink=J. M. Robertson|year=1903
|publisher=Watts & Co.|isbn=|url = http://sacred-texts.com/bib/cv/pch/index.htm}}
* {{cite book|title=Pagan Christs|last=Robertson |first=John M.|authorlink=J. M. Robertson|year=1966
|publisher=Barnes and Noble reprint of 1966 ed.|isbn=0880291419}}
*{{cite book |last=Schweitzer |first=Albert |authorlink=Albert Schweitzer |others=edited by John Bowden |origyear=1913 |year=2000 |title=The Quest of the Historical Jesus |edition=first complete |publisher=SCM |location=London |isbn=0-334-02791-8 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Solmsen |first=Friedrich |authorlink=Friedrich Solmsen |year=1970 |month=April–June |title=George A. Wells on Christmas in Early New Testament Criticism |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=277–280 |doi=10.2307/2708550 }}
*{{cite book| last = Stanton | first = Graham | year = 2002 | title = The Gospels and Jesus | publisher = Oxford University Press | edition = 2nd }}
*{{citation | last = Townsend | first = John T. | contribution = Christianity in Rabbinic Literature | year = 2006 | title = Biblical Interpretation in Judaism and Christianity | editor-last = Kalimi | editor-first = Isaac | volume = | pages = | place = | publisher = Continuum | id = }}
*{{cite book |last=Van Voorst |first=Robert E. |authorlink=Robert E. Van Voorst |year=2000 |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=0-8028-4368-9 }}
*{{cite encyclopedia
| last = Van Voorst
| first = Robert E.
| authorlink = Robert E. Van Voorst
| title = Nonexistence Hypothesis
|editor= James Leslie Houlden
| encyclopedia = Jesus in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia
| pages = 658-660
| publisher = ABC-CLIO
| location = Santa Barbara
| date = 2003}}
*{{cite book |last=Weaver |first=Walter P. |year=1999 |title=The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century, 1900-1950 |publisher=Trinity |location=Harrisburg, PA |isbn=1-56338-280-6 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Wells |first=G. A. |authorlink=George Albert Wells |year=1969 |month=April–June |title=Stages of New Testament Criticism |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=147–160 |doi=10.2307/2708429 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Wells |first=G. A. |year=1973 |month=January–March |title=Friedrich Solmsen on Christian Origins |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=143–144 |doi=10.2307/2708950 }}
</div>

==Further reading==
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite book|last=Allegro|first=John M.|title=The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth|year=1992|edition=2nd rev.|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Buffalo, N.Y.|isbn=0-87975-757-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Atwill|first=Joseph|title=The Roman Origins of Christianity|year=2003|publisher=J. Atwill|isbn=0-9740928-0-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Atwill|first=Joseph|title=Caesar's Messiah: The Roman Conspiracy to Invent Jesus|year=2005|publisher=Ulysses|location=Berkeley, Calif.|isbn=1-56975-457-8}}
* Barnett,P (1997). ''Jesus and the Logic of History'', Apollos, ISBN 978-0851115122
* {{cite book|last=Bauckham|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Bauckham|title=Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony|publisher=Wm B Eerdmans Pub Co|year=2006|isbn=978-0802831620}}
* {{cite book|last=Bovon|first=François|authorlink=François Bovon|title=The Last Days of Jesus|others=trans. Kristin Hennessy; Louisville: Westminster|publisher=John Knox|year=2006|isbn=0664230075}}
*{{cite book|last=Brodie|first=Thomas L.|title=The Crucial Bridge: The Elijah-Elisha Narrative as an Interpretive Synthesis of Genesis-Kings and a Literary Model for the Gospels|year=2000|publisher=Liturgical Press|location=Collegeville, Minn.|isbn=0-8146-5942-X}}
*{{cite book|last=Brunner|first=Constantin|authorlink=Constantin Brunner|title=Our Christ: The Revolt of the Mystical Genius.|year=1990|publisher=Van Gorcum|location=Assen|isbn=9023224124}} Originally published in German in 1919 as ''Unser Christus : oder Das Wesen des Genies''. Appendix is a critique of the Christ myth theory.
*{{cite book|last=Burridge|first=Richard A.|authorlink=Richard A. Burridge|title=Four Gospels, One Jesus? A Symbolic Reading|publisher=Grand Rapids:Eerdmans|edition=2nd edn.|year=2006|isbn=0802829805}}
*{{cite book|last=Charlesworth|first=James H. (ed.)|authorlink=James H. Charlesworth|title=Jesus and Archaeology|publisher=Grand Rapids: Eerdmans|year=2006|id=ISBN 080284880X}}
*{{cite book|last=Dunn|first=James D.G.|authorlink=James Dunn (theologian)|title=Christianity in the Making Vol 1: Jesus Remembered|publisher=Wm B Eerdmans Pub Co|year=2003|isbn=978-0802839312}}
* {{cite book|last=Dunn|first=James D.G.|authorlink=James Dunn (theologian)|title=A New Perspective On Jesus: What The Quest For The Historical Jesus Missed (Acadia Studies in Bible and Theology)|publisher=Baker Academic |location=Grand Rapids, Mich |year=2005 |isbn=0-8010-2710-1 |oclc= |doi=}}
* Eddy, PR and [[Gregory A. Boyd|Boyd, GA]], (2007), ''The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition'', Baker Academic, ISBN 978-0801031144
*{{cite book|last=Ellegård|first=Alvar|authorlink=Alvar Ellegård|title=Jesus: One Hundred Years Before Christ: A Study in Creative Mythology|year=1999|publisher=Century|location=London|isbn=0-7126-7956-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Evans|first=Craig A.|authorlink=Craig A. Evans|title=Fabricating Jesus|origyear=2006|year=2006|publisher=IVP Books|location=|isbn=978-0830833184}}
*{{cite book|last=Freke|first=Timothy|authorlink=Timothy Freke|coauthors=and [[Peter Gandy]]|title=[[The Jesus Mysteries]]: Was the 'Original Jesus' a Pagan God?|year=1999|publisher=Thorsons|location=London|isbn=0-7225-3676-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Grant (author)|title=Jesus|origyear=1977|year=1999|publisher=Phoenix|location=London|isbn=0-75380-899-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Harpur|first=Tom|authorlink=Tom Harpur|title=The Pagan Christ:Recovering the Lost Light|year=2005|publisher=Thomas Allen Publishers|location=Toronto, Canada|isbn=0-88762-195-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Historicus|first=(pseudonym for Jacob Benjamin)|title=Did Jesus Ever Live --- or Is Christianity Founded Upon a Myth|year=1972|publisher=United Secularists of America|location=Los Angeles, CA|url=http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/historicus}}
*{{cite book|last=Komoszewski|first=J. Ed|authorlink=J. Ed Komoszewski|coauthors=et al.|title=Reinventing Jesus|year=2006|publisher=Kregel Publications|location=|id=ISBN 082542982X}}
*{{cite book|last=Meier|first=John P|authorlink=John P. Meier|title=A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|edition=3 vols.|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York}}
*#{{cite book|title=The Roots of the Problem and the Person|year=1991|isbn=0-385-26425-9|author=John P. Meier|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York}}
*#{{cite book|title=Mentor, Message, and Miracles|year=1994|isbn=0-385-46992-6|author=John P. Meier|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York}}
*#{{cite book|title=Companions and Competitors|year=2001|isbn=0-385-46993-4|author=John P. Meier|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York}}
* Porter, Stanley and Bedard, Stephen(2006), ''Unmasking the Pagan Christ: An Evangelical Response to the Cosmic Christ Idea'', Clements
*{{cite book|last=Price|first=Robert M.|authorlink=Robert M. Price|title=Deconstructing Jesus|year=2000|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, N.Y.|isbn=1-57392-758-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Price|first=Robert M.|title=The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable is the Gospel Tradition?|year=2003|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, N.Y.|isbn=1-59102-121-9}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Price|first=Robert M.|title=New Testament narrative as Old Testament midrash|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Midrash: Biblical Interpretation in Formative Judaism|editor=[[Jacob Neusner]] and Alan J. Avery-Peck|year=2005|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|id=ISBN 90-04-14166-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Sanders|first=E. P.|authorlink=E. P. Sanders|title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|year=1993|publisher=Allen Lane|location=London|isbn=0-7139-9059-7}}
* Seznec, Jean. 1972, ''The Survival of the Pagan Gods'', Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691017832
*{{cite book|last=Theissen|first=Gerd|authorlink=Gerd Theissen|coauthors=and Annette Merz|title=The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide|year=1998|others=trans. John Bowden|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=0-8006-3123-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Thomas L.|title=The Messiah Myth: The Near Eastern Roots of Jesus and David|year=2005|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York|isbn=0-465-08577-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Volney|first=Constantin-François|authorlink=Constantin-François Chassebœuf|title=The Ruins, or, Meditation on the Revolutions of Empires and the Law of Nature|year=1796|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1397|publisher=Davis|location=New York, N.Y.}}
*{{cite book|last=Wells|first=G. A.|authorlink=George Albert Wells|title=The Historical Evidence for Jesus|year=1982|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Buffalo, N.Y.|isbn=0-87975-180-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Wells|first=G. A.|title=The Jesus Myth|year=1999|publisher=Open Court|location=Chicago|isbn=0-8126-9392-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Wright|first=N.T.|authorlink=N.T. Wright|title=The New Testament and the People of God
|year=1996|publisher=Augsburg Fortress Publishers|location=|isbn=0800626818}}</div>

==External links==
* The Online Book Page; [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/browse?type=lcsubc&key=Jesus%20Christ%20--%20Historicity Jesus Christ -- Historicity] Public domain books regarding the Historicity of Jesus Christ
* Debate on ABC and forum [http://www.abc.net.au/religion/stories/s1517078.htm Jesus - History or Myth?]

===Websites arguing for the Jesus myth ===
* [http://www.jesuspuzzle.com/ "The Jesus Puzzle: Was There No Historical Jesus?"] by Earl Doherty
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/jesuspuzzle.shtml "Did Jesus Exist? Earl Doherty and the Argument to Ahistoricity"] by Richard Carrier
* [http://www.ffrf.org/news/2006/debunkingJesus.php Debunking the Historical Jesus] by Dan Barker, Freedom from Religion Foundation
* [http://www.vexen.co.uk/books/jesusmysteries.html "The Jesus Mysteries"] by Freke/Gandy
* [http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/jesus_myth_history.htm Jesus Myth - The Case Against Historical Christ] by R. G. Price, rationalrevolution.net
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com Jesus Never Existed.com]
* [http://www.pocm.info Pagan Origins of the Christ Myth] by Greg Kane
* [http://www.mountainman.com.au/essenes/ "Constantine Invented Christianity"] - in the fourth century
* [http://www.egodeath.com/jesusmysterieschapsumm.htm Chapter Summaries of The Jesus Mysteries] summary of Timothy Freke and Peter Gandy.
* [http://christianity-revealed.com/cr/pages/jezuz.html Christianity Revealed] -- Collection of articles by various proponents of the Jesus myth

===Websites arguing for a historical Jesus===
* [http://www.garyhabermas.com/books/historicaljesus/historicaljesus.htm#ch9 The Historical Jesus - Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ] by [[Gary Habermas|Gary R. Habermas]]
* [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/rediscover2.html The Evidence For Jesus] by Dr. [[William Lane Craig]]
*[http://constantinbrunner.info/sbise/1/200503150938.htm On "Criticism"]. Appendix to ''Our Christ: the revolt of the mystical genius'' by Constantin Brunner.
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexisthub.html Did Jesus exist?] by James Patrick Holding, author of ''Shattering the Christ Myth''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Christ Myth Theory}}
[[Category:Atheism]]
[[Category:Historicity of religious figures]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]
[[Category:Christ myth| ]]
[[Category:Hypotheses]]

[[ca:Mite de Jesús]]
[[es:Mito de Jesús]]
[[fr:Thèse mythiste]]
[[ko:신화적 예수론]]
[[it:Mito di Gesù]]
[[nl:Jezusmythe]]
[[ja:キリスト神話説]]
[[simple:Christ myth theory]]
[[sv:Jesusmyten]]

Homosexuelles Verhalten bei Tieren

2009-08-14T11:45:30Z

TechBear: Undid revision 307858073 by 74.33.174.133 (talk) Which is why the text points to a different article.

[[Image:Manchot 01.jpg|thumb|[[Roy and Silo]], two [[New York]] [[Central Park Zoo]] male [[Chinstrap Penguin]]s similar to those pictured, became internationally known when they coupled and later were given an egg that needed hatching and care, which they successfully did.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/>]]
'''Homosexual behavior in animals''' refers to the documented evidence of [[homosexuality|homosexual]], [[bisexual]] and [[transgender]] behavior in non-human animals. Such behaviors include [[Sexual intercourse|sex]], [[courtship]], [[affection]], [[pair bond]]ing, and [[parenting]]. A 1999 review by researcher [[Bruce Bagemihl]] shows that homosexual behavior, has been observed in close to 1500 species, ranging from [[primates]] to [[Acanthocephala|gut worms]], and is well documented for 500 of them.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref><ref name="Biological Exuberance: Animal">{{cite web
| last =Harrold
| first =Max
| title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity
| publisher=[[The Advocate]], reprinted in Highbeam Encyclopedia
| date=1999-02-16
| url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-53877996.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> [[Non-human animal sexual behavior|Animal sexual behavior]] takes many different forms, even within the same [[species]]. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied.<ref name="‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches">{{cite web
| last =Gordon
| first =Dr Dennis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches one million species
| publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]]
| date=[[10 April]] [[2007]]
| url=http://www.niwascience.co.nz/pubs/mr/archive/2007-04-10-3
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>
According to Bagemihl, "the animal kingdom <nowiki>[does]</nowiki> it with much greater sexual diversity -- including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex -- than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept."<ref>http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA166452.html</ref> Current research indicates that various forms of same-sex sexual behavior are found throughout the animal kingdom. <ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090616122106.htm "Same-sex Behavior Seen In Nearly All Animals, Review Finds"], [[Science Daily]]</ref> A new review made in 2009 of existing research showed that Same-sex behavior is a nearly universal phenomenon in the animal kingdom, common across species.<ref>http://www.physorg.com/news164376975.html</ref>

The natural existence of homosexuality in non-human animals is considered controversial by conservative religious groups who oppose [[LGBT social movements]] because these findings seem to point to the natural occurrence of [[human sexuality|homosexuality in humans]].<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/> It also counters the '[[peccatum contra naturam]]' ('sin against nature') - after [[Thomas Aquinas]] - established since the Medieval Christianities.<ref> [http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/index.php/Homosexuality_in_the_Middle_Ages "Homosexuality in the Middle Ages"] by Warren Johansson and William A. Percy; ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality''; accessed 5 April 2009. </ref> Whether this has logical or ethical implications is also a source of debate, with some arguing that it is illogical to use animal behavior to justify what is or is not [[morality|moral]] (see ''[[appeal to nature]]'').<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/><ref name="The Animal Homosexuality Myth">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=The Animal Homosexuality Myth
| publisher=[[NARTH]], National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality
| date=[[21 September]] [[2004]]
| url=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref><ref name="Defending A Higher Law">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Defending A Higher Law: Why We Must Resist Same-Sex "Marriage" and the Homosexual Movement
| publisher=Spring Grove, Penn.: The American TFP
| date=2004, ISBN 187790533X
| url=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

==Applying the term "homosexual" to animals==
The term ''[[homosexual]]'' was coined in [[Prussia]] in 1869 to describe same-sex sexual attraction and sexual behavior in humans.<ref>The first known use of the word ''Homoseksuäl'' is found in Benkert Kertbeny, K.M. (1869): Paragraph 143 des Preussichen Strafgesetzebuches vom 14/4-1851 und seine Aufrechterhaltung als Paragraph 152 im Entwurf eines Strafgesetzbuches fur den Norddeutschen Bundes, Leipzig, 1869. Reprinted in ''Jahrbuch fur sexuelle Zwischenstufen 7'' (1905), pp. 1-66</ref> Its use in animal studies has been controversial for two main reasons: animal sexuality and motivating factors have been and remain poorly understood, and the term has strong cultural implications in western society that are irrelevant for other species than [[human]]s.<ref name="Rethinking Sex">{{cite web
| last =Dorit
| first =Robert
| title= Rethinking Sex
| publisher=[[American Scientist]]
| date=September-October 2004
| url=http://www.americanscientist.org/template/BookReviewTypeDetail/assetid/35487
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Thus homosexual behavior has been given a number of terms over the years. The term "homosexual" is preferred over "gay", "lesbian" and other terms currently in use, as these are seen as even more bound to the human condition.<ref name=autogenerated1>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.122-166</ref>

Animal preference and motivation is always inferred from behavior. In wild animals, researchers will as a rule not be able to map the entire life of an individual, and must infer from frequency of single observations of behavior. The correct usage of the term ''homosexual'' is that an animal ''exhibits homosexual behavior'', however this article conforms to the usage by modern research<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004; pp.13-183</ref><ref>Vasey, Paul L. (1995), Homosexual behaviour in primates: A review of evidence and theory, [[International Journal of Primatology]] 16: p 173-204</ref><ref name=autogenerated2>Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. ISBN 0521864461</ref> applying the term ''homosexuality'' to all sexual behavior ([[copulation]], [[genitals|genital]] stimulation, mating games and sexual [[Display (zoology)|display behavior]]) between animals of the same sex. In most instances, it is presumed that the homosexual behavior is but part of the animal's overall sexual behavioral repertoire, making the animal "bisexual" rather than "homosexual" as the terms are commonly understood in humans,<ref name=autogenerated2 /> but cases of clear homosexual preference and exclusive homosexual pairs are known (see examples for details).

==Research on homosexual behavior in animals==
The presence of [[same-sex sexual behavior]] was not 'officially' observed on a large scale until recent times, possibly due to [[Observer effect|observer bias]] caused by social attitudes to [[same-sex sexual behavior]],<ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004</ref> innocent confusion, or even from a fear of "being ridiculed by their colleagues."<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/> Georgetown University [[biologist]] Janet Mann states "Scientists who study the topic are often accused of trying to forward an agenda, and their work can come under greater scrutiny than that of their colleagues who study other topics.<ref name="Homosexuality Commo">{{cite web | last = Moskowitz | first =Clara | title=Homosexuality Common in the Wild, Scientists Say| publisher=Fox News | date=[[19 May]] [[2008]] | url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,356639,00.html| accessdate = 2008-07-02}}</ref> They also noted "Not every sexual act has a reproductive function ... that's true of humans and non-humans."<ref name="Homosexuality Commo"/> It appears to be widespread amongst social [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, particularly the sea mammals and the [[primates]]. The true extent of homosexuality in animals is not known. While studies have demonstrated homosexual behavior in a number of species, [[Petter Bøckman]], the scientific advisor of the exhibition [[Against Nature?]] speculates that the true extent of the phenomenon may be much larger than currently recognized:

{{cquote|No species has been found in which homosexual behaviour has not been shown to exist, with the exception of species that never have sex at all, such as [[sea urchin]]s and [[aphis]]. Moreover, a part of the animal kingdom is [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]], truly bisexual. For them, homosexuality is not an issue.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice">{{cite web| url = http://www.news-medical.net/?id=20718| title = 1,500 Animal Species Practice Homosexuality
| date = [[2006-10-23]]| publisher = News-medical.net| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>}}

[[Image:Two Giraffes.PNG|thumb|Two male [[giraffes]] in [[Kenya]].]]
An example of overlooking homosexual behavior is noted by [[Bruce Bagemihl]] describing mating giraffes where nine out of ten pairings occur between males.

{{cquote|Every male that sniffed a female was reported as sex, while anal intercourse with orgasm between males was only "revolving around" [[dominance]], competition or [[greeting]]s.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/>}}

Some researchers believe this behavior to have its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits shown in [[prison sexuality]]. Others, particularly [[Joan Roughgarden]], [[Bruce Bagemihl]], Thierry Lodé<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacb, Paris, 2006, ISBN 2-7381-1901-8 </ref> and [[Paul Vasey]] suggest the social function of sex (both homosexual and heterosexual) is not necessarily connected to dominance, but serves to strengthen alliances and social ties within a flock. Others have argued that social organization theory is inadequate because it cannot account for some homosexual behaviors, for example, [[penguin]] species where same-sex individuals mate for life and refuse to pair with females when given the chance.<ref name="Gay Penguins Resist">{{cite web
| title=Gay Penguins Resist 'Aversion Therapy'
| publisher=365 Gay.com
| date=[[February 11]] [[2005]]
| url=http://www.365gay.com/newscon05/02/021105penguins.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> While reports on many such mating scenarios are still only anecdotal, a growing body of scientific work confirms that permanent homosexuality occurs in species with permanent pair bonds, but also in non-monogamous species like sheep.

One report on sheep cited below states:

{{quote|Approximately 8% of rams exhibit sexual preferences [that is, even when given a choice] for male partners (male-oriented rams) in contrast to most rams, which prefer female partners (female-oriented rams). We identified a cell group within the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus of age-matched adult sheep that was significantly larger in adult rams than in ewes...<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=Journal of [[Endocrinology]], Endocrine Society, Bethesda, MD,
| date=2004, vol. 145, no2, pp. 478-483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/reprint/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>}}

In fact, apparent homosexual individuals are known from all of the traditional domestic species, from sheep, cattle and horses to cats, dogs and budgerigars.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref>

==Cross species sex==
{{Main|Animal sexual behaviour#Cross species sex}}
Although a commonly held conception is that animals' sexuality is instinctive almost to the point of being mechanistic, research regularly records that many animals are sexual opportunists, and may show an interest in partners that are not of their own, or related, species.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7379554.stm "The seal then alternated between resting on the penguin, and thrusting its pelvis, trying to insert itself, unsuccessfully."</ref> This is more visible in domesticated species, as domestication commonly selects for increased breeding rate (and so an accelerated breeding cycle has commonly arisen in domesticated species over the centuries), and also because these species are easier to witness by humans. Cross-species sex has been observed in the wild and investigations describe productive and non-productive inter-species mating as a "natural occurrence".<ref>Haeberle (1978) states that sexual intercourse is not so very unusual between animals of different species as it is between humans and animals. Kinsey et al. (1948, p. 668) states "When one examines the observed cases of such crosses, and especially the rather considerable number of instances in which primates, including man, have been involved, one begins to suspect that the rules about intraspecific mating are not so universal as tradition would have it". Kinsey et al. (1953) further point out that genetic studies have shown the existence of a "large number" of inter-specific hybrids, that have occurred in the wild, and investigations (eg, Cauldwell, 1968; Ford & Beach, 1951; Harris, 1969; Masters, 1962; Ullerstam, 1966, etc) have found that interspecies mating is a "natural occurrence".' (Cited by [[Hani Miletski|Miletski]], in her [[anthrozoology|anthrozoological]] study of animal-human sexuality, 1999, p.51)</ref><ref>LODÉ T., GUIRAL G. & PELTIER D. 2005. European mink-polecat hybridization events: hazards from natural process ? Journal of Heredity 96 (2): 1-8 </ref> Most observations, however, are from animals in captivity, including those kept in zoos.

If the pair are a male and a female, and if the two species are related, [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] offspring can result, however, the offspring themselves may not be able to breed. The [[mule]], for example (a horse/donkey cross) is normally sterile, whilst the [[liger]] (a lion/tiger cross) is sometimes fertile. Novosibirsk zoo director Rostislav Shilo says of the liger born in his zoo; “It’s just that the lion and the tiger live in neighboring caves in the Novosibirsk zoo, and got used to each other. It’s practically impossible in the wild.”.{{Fact|date=November 2008}} Cross species sex in the wild has been observed between several species, among them [[blue tit]] and [[great tit]], [[Chimpanzee]] and [[olive baboon]], and between [[Boto|Amazon River Dolphin]] and the [[tucuxi]] dolphin.<ref>Sylvestre, J-P. (1985): Some Observations on Behavior of Two Orinoco Dolphins (''Inia geoffrensis humbottiana'' {Pilleri and Gihr 1977}), in captivety at Duinsburg Zoo. ''Aquativ Mammals'' no. 11, pp 58-65</ref>, as well as a reported attempt at copulation with a [[king penguin]] by a [[fur seal]].<ref>Walker, M (2008): "Sex pest" seal attacks penguin. BBC news, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7379554.stm article]</ref>

==Some selected species and groups==
{{see also|List of animals displaying homosexual behavior}}
===Birds===
====Black swans====
[[Image:Black Swans.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Black Swan]], ''Cygnus atratus'' is a large [[Wildfowl|waterbird]] which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of [[Australia]].]]
An estimated one-quarter of all [[black swans]] pairings are homosexual and they steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.<ref name="Gay animals out of the closet?">{{cite web
| last =Goudarzi
| first =Sara
| title=Gay animals out of the closet?: First-ever museum display shows 51 species exhibiting homosexuality
| publisher=[[MSNBC]]
| date=[[16 November]] [[2006]]
| url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15750604/
| accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> More of their cygnets survive to adulthood than those of different-sex pairs possibly due to their superior ability to defend large portions of land. The same reasoning has been applied to male flamingo pair raising chicks.<ref name="Oslo gay animal show draws crowds">{{cite web
| title=Oslo gay animal show draws crowds
| publisher=[[BBC]]
| date=[[19 October]] [[2006]]
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6066606.stm
| accessdate = 2009-06-15}}</ref>

====Gulls====
Studies have shown that 10 to 15 percent of female western gulls in some populations in the wild exhibit homosexual behavior.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate
| publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]], reprinted from New York Times
| date=[[February 7]] [[2004]]
| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

====Mallards====
[[Image:Males Anas platyrhynchos 2 .jpg|thumb|Two male [[Mallard]]s, ''Anas platyrhynchos'']]
Mallards form male-female pairs only until the female lays eggs, at which time the male leaves the female. Mallards have rates of male-male sexual activity that are unusually high for birds, in some cases, as high as 19% of all pairs in a population.<ref name="mallard">Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref>

====Penguins====
In early February 2004 the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported that a male pair of [[chinstrap penguin]]s in the [[Central Park Zoo]] in [[New York City]] were partnered and even successfully hatched a female chick from an egg.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Love That Dare Not Squeak Its Name
| publisher=[[New York Times]]
| date=[[February 7]] [[2004]]
| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0C1EF83A5F0C748CDDAB0894DC404482
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> A [[children's literature|children's book]], titled ''[[And Tango Makes Three]]'', was written about the real-life [[Roy and Silo]] and their chick, Tango. Tango, a female, later was found in a pairing with another female. Other [[penguin]]s in New York have also been reported to be forming same-sex pairs.<ref name="They're in love. They're gay">{{cite web
| title=They're in love. They're gay. They're penguins... And they're not alone.
| publisher=[[Columbia University]], Columbia News Service
| date=[[June 10]] [[2002]]
| url=http://www.timelessspirit.com/SEPT04/cristina.shtml}}</ref>
<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL "Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate"], ''San Francisco Chronicle'', hosted at SFGate.com</ref>

Zoos in [[Japan]] and [[Germany]] have also documented homosexual male penguin couples.<ref name="Gay Penguins Resist"/> The couples have been shown to build nests together and use a stone to replace an egg in the nest. Researchers at [[Rikkyo University]] in [[Tokyo]] found 20 homosexual pairs at 16 major aquariums and zoos in Japan. Bremerhaven Zoo in Germany attempted to encourage reproduction of the endangered species by importing female penguins from [[Sweden]] and separating the male couples, but this was unsuccessful. The zoo director stated the relationships were too strong between the homosexual couples.<ref> [http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1275591.html Ananova Article on "Tempting Gay Penguins Straight"]</ref> German gay groups protested at this attempt to break up the male-male couples <ref> [http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1284769.html Followup Ananova Article on German authorities stopping trying to change the penguins' sexual orientation, after GLBTQI organizations protest]</ref> even though the zoo's intention was explicitly to see whether the penguins were truly homosexual (rather than just intensely bonding due to a lack of female penguins), and not to prevent them from being so <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4264913.stm</ref>. A gay male couple, together for six years at the [[San Francisco Zoo]] split when the male of a couple in the next burrow died and the female sought a new mate.<ref> [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/07/14/BAUS18NTE7.DTL Widow a wedge between zoo's male penguin pair]</ref>

===Mammals===
====Amazon Dolphin====
The [[Boto|Amazon River dolphin]] or boto has been reported to form up in bands of 3-5 individuals enjoying group sex.<ref name="BEDolphin">Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398; pages. 339-348 - "Marine mammals:Dolphins and Whales"</ref> The groups usually comprise young males and sometimes one or two females. Sex is performed in non-reproductive ways, using snout, flippers and general rubbing, without regards to gender.<ref name="BEDolphin"/> They will sometimes perform homosexual penetration of the [[Blowhole (biology)|blowhole]], the only known example of nasal sex.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1288633.ece Birds do it, bees do it . . . - Times Online]</ref> The males will sometimes also perform sex with [[tucuxi]] males, a small porpoise.

====American Bison====
[[Image:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|The American Bison is a [[bovine]] [[mammal]] which commonly displays homosexual behavior.]]
Courtship, mounting, and full [[anal sex|anal penetration]] between bulls has been noted to occur among [[American Bison]]. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season."<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous">{{cite web
| last =Bagemihl
| first =Bruce
| title= Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous Cassowaries: Homosexual/transgendered animals and indigenous knowledge
| publisher=[[Whole Earth Magazine]]
| month=May | year=2000
| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0GER/is_2000_Spring/ai_61426233/pg_5?tag=artBody;col1
| accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref> Also, mounting of one female by another is common among [[cattle]]. Inter-sexual bison also occur. The [[Lakota people|Lakota]] refer to them as ''pte winkte'' —''pte'' meaning bison and ''winkte'' designating [[Two-Spirit|two-spirit]]— thereby drawing an explicit parallel between [[transgender]] in animals and people.<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous"/>

====[[Bonobo]] and other apes====
[[Image:Bonobo 011.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Bonobo]] displays the highest rate of homosexual activity in any animal, being a fully [[bisexual]] species.<ref name=penisfencing>{{cite book | author= Frans B. M. de Waal |authorlink= Frans de Waal| title=The ape and the sushi master : cultural reflections by a primatologist | publisher=Basic Books | chapter=Bonobos and Fig Leaves | year= 2001}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/aforest/bonobo.html Bonobos at the Columbus Zoo]</ref>]]

The [[Bonobo]], which has a [[matriarchy|matriarchal]] society (unusual amongst apes), is a fully [[bisexual]] species -- both males and females engage in heterosexual and homosexual behavior, being noted for female-female homosexuality in particular. About 60% of all sexual activity in this species is between two or more females. While the homosexual bonding system in Bonobos represent the highest frequency of homosexuality known in any species, homosexuality has been reported for all [[great apes]] (a group which includes [[human]]s), as well as a number of other [[primate]] species.<ref name=penisfencing /><ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref name=ancestor>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |chapter=Chimpanzees}}</ref><ref name=songweaver>{{cite web|url= http://songweaver.com/info/bonobos.html|title= Bonobo Sex and Society|accessdate= 2006-07-17|author= Frans B. M. de Waal|authorlink= Frans de Waal |year= 1995|month= March|work= Scientific American|pages= 82-88}}</ref><ref>Frans de Waal, "Bonobo Sex and Society" in ''Scientific American'' (March 1995), p. 82ff</ref><ref>[http://www.primates.com/bonobos/bonobosexsoc.html The behavior of a close relative challenges assumptions about male supremacy in human evolution]</ref><ref>[http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm Courtney Laird, "Social Organization"]</ref><ref> Stanford, C. B. (1998). The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos. Current Anthropology 39: 399–407.</ref><ref> Kano, Takayoshi (1992). The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.</ref> Dutch [[primatologist]] [[Frans de Waal]] on observing and filming bonobos noted that there were two reasons to believe sexual activity is the bonobo's answer to avoiding conflict.

Anything that arouses the interest of more than one bonobo at a time, not just food tends to result in sexual contact. If two bonobos approach a cardboard box thrown into their enclosure, they will briefly mount each other before playing with the box. Such situations lead to squabbles in most other species. But bonobos are quite tolerant, perhaps because they use sex to divert attention and to diffuse tension.

Bonobo sex often occurs in aggressive contexts totally unrelated to food. A jealous male might chase another away from a female, after which the two males reunite and engage in scrotal rubbing. Or after a female hits a juvenile, the latter's mother may lunge at the aggressor, an action that is immediately followed by genital rubbing between the two adults.<ref>Frans B. M. de Waal, <u>"Bonobo Sex and Society"<u> Scientific American, Mar. 1995, pp. 82-88</ref>

====Bottlenose Dolphins====
[[Bottlenose Dolphin]] males have been observed working in pairs or larger groups to follow and/or restrict the movement of a female for weeks at a time, waiting for her to become sexually receptive. The same pairs/groups have also been observed engaging in ardent sexual play with each other.

Janet Mann, [[Georgetown University]] professor of biology and psychology, argues that the strong personal behavior among male dolphin calves is about bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins"/> She cites studies showing that these dolphins later in life as adults are in a sense bisexual, and the male bonds forged earlier in life work together for protection as well as locating females to reproduce with.

====Elephants====
African and Asiatic males will engage in same-sex bonding and mounting. Such encounters are often associated with affectionate interactions, such as kissing, trunk intertwining, and placing trunks in each other's mouths. Male elephants, who often live apart from the general flock, often form "companionships", consisting of an older individual and one or sometimes two younger, attendant males with sexual behavior being an important part of the social dynamic. Unlike heterosexual relations, which are always of a fleeting nature, the relationships between males may last for years. The encounters are analogous to heterosexual bouts, one male often extending his trunk along the other's back and pushing forward with his tusks to signify his intention to mount. Same-sex relations are common and frequent in both sexes, with Asiatic elephants in captivity devoting roughly 45% of sexual encounters to same-sex activity.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.427-430</ref>

====Giraffes====
Male giraffes have been observed to engage in remarkably high frequencies of homosexual behavior. After aggressive "necking", it is common for two males giraffes to caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.<ref>Coe, M.J. (1967). "Necking" behavior in the giraffe." Journal of Zoology, London 151: 313-321.</ref> In one study, up to 94% of observed mounting incidents took place between two males. The proportion of same sex activities varied between 30 and 75%, and at any given time one in twenty males were engaged in non-combative necking behavior with another male. Only 1% of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.391-393.
</ref>

====Humans====
''See [[Homosexuality]]''

====Japanese Macaque====
With the [[Japanese Macaque]], also known as the "snow [[monkey]]", [[Homosexuality|same-sex relations]] are frequent, though rates vary between troupes. Females will form "consortships" characterized by affectionate social and sexual activities. In some troops up to one quarter of the females will form such bonds, which will vary in duration from a few days to a few weeks. Often, strong and lasting friendships will result from such pairings. Males also have same-sex relations, typically with multiple partners of the same age. Affectionate and playful activities are associated with such relations.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305</ref>

====Lions====
[[Image:Lions - melbourne zoo.jpg|left|thumb|A group of male [[lion]]s at the [[Melbourne]] zoo.]]
Both male and female lions have been seen to interact [[animal sexuality|homosexually]].<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305. In his discussion of lion same-sex relations, Bagemihl is making use of published work by: J.B. Cooper, "An Exploratory Study on African Lions" in ''Comparative Psychology Monographs'' 17:1-48; R.L. Eaton, "The Biology and Social Behavior of Reproduction in the Lion" in Eaton, ed. ''The World's Cats,'' vol. II; pp.3-58; Seattle, 1974; G.B. Schaller, ''The Serengeti Lion''; University of Chicago Press, 1972</ref><ref>
{{cite web | last =Srivastav | first =Suvira | title =Lion, Without Lioness | work =TerraGreen: News to Save the Earth | publisher = Terragreen | date = [[15 December]]-[[31 December]] [[2001]] | url = http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/terragreen/issue3/feature.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-02}}</ref> Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and thrusting. About 8% of mountings have been observed to occur with other males. Pairings between females are held to be fairly common in captivity but have not been observed in the wild.

====Polecat====
[[European polecat]]s ''Mustela putorius'' were found to engage homosexuality in non-sibling animals. Deliberate exclusive homosexuality with mounting and anal penetration in this solitary species apparently serves no adaptive function<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacob, Paris, 2006.ISBN 2-7381-1901-8</ref>.

====Sheep====
An October 2003 study by Dr. Charles E. Roselli et al. (Oregon Health and Science University) states that homosexuality in male sheep (found in 8% of rams) is associated with a region in the rams' brains which the authors call the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) which is half the size of the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep.<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=[[Endocrinology]], Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health & Science University (C.E.R., K.L., J.A.R.), Portland, Oregon; Department of Animal Sciences, Oregon State University (F.S.), Corvallis, Oregon; and Agricultural Research Service, United States Sheep Experiment Station (J.N.S.), Dubois, Idaho.
| date=2004, Vol. 145, No. 2 478-483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>
[[Image:St Croix sheep.jpg|thumb|left|A pair of [[St. Croix]] [[ewe]]s.]]

Scientists found that, "The oSDN in rams that preferred females was significantly larger and contained more [[neurons]] than in male-oriented rams and ewes. In addition, the oSDN of the female-oriented rams expressed higher levels of [[aromatase]], a substance that converts [[testosterone]] to [[estradiol]], a form of [[estrogen]] which is believed to facilitate typical male sexual behaviors. [[Aromatase]] expression was no different between male-oriented rams and ewes."

"The dense cluster of neurons that comprise the oSDN express cytochrome P450 aromatase. Aromatase mRNA levels in the oSDN were significantly greater in female-oriented rams than in ewes, whereas male-oriented rams exhibited intermediate levels of expression." These results suggest that "...naturally occurring variations in sexual partner preferences may be related to differences in brain anatomy and its capacity for estrogen synthesis."<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic"/> As noted prior, given the potential unagressiveness of the male population in question, the differing aromatase levels may also have been evidence of aggression levels, not sexuality. It should also be noted that the results of this study have not been confirmed by other studies.

The [[Merck Veterinary Manual|Merck Manual of Veterinary Medicine]] appears to consider homosexuality among sheep as a routine occurrence and an issue to be dealt with as a problem of animal husbandry.<ref>Scrivener, C.J (2008): [http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/140208.htm Behavioural problems], Merck Manual of Veterinary Medicine.</ref>

====Spotted Hyena====
[[Image:Spotted hyena2.jpg|right|thumb|The '''Spotted Hyena''' is a moderately large, terrestrial carnivore native to [[Africa]].]]
The family structure of the female [[Spotted Hyena]] is matriarchal, and dominance relationships with strong sexual elements are routinely observed between related females. Due largely to the female [[spotted hyena#Reproduction|spotted hyena]]'s unique [[urogenital system]], which looks more like a penis than a vagina, early naturalists thought hyenas were [[hermaphrodite|hemaphroditic]] males who commonly practiced [[homosexuality]].<ref name="Like mother, like cubs">{{cite web
| title= Like mother, like cubs: Hyena alpha moms jumpstart cubs with hormonal jolt
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]]
| year=2006
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Early writings such as [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' and the ''[[Physiologus]]'' suggested that the hyena continually changed its sex and nature from male to female and back again. In ''[[Paedagogus]]'', Clement of Alexandria noted that the hyena (along with the [[hare]]) was "quite obsessed with sexual intercourse." Many Europeans associated the hyena with sexual deformity, prostitution, deviant sexual behavior, and even witchcraft.

The reality behind the confusing reports is the sexually aggressive behavior between the females, including mounting between females. Research has shown that "in contrast to most other female mammals, female ''Crocuta'' are male-like in appearance, larger than males, and substantially more aggressive,"<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction">{{cite web
| last =Holekamp
| first =Kay E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction and Overview
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]], Department of [[Zoology]]
| year=2003
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> and they have "been [[masculine|masculinized]] without being [[Femininity|defeminized]].”<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/>

Study of this unique genitalia and aggressive behavior in the female hyena has led to the understanding that more aggressive females are better able to compete for resources, including food and mating partners.<ref name="Top Dogs: Steroid hormones">{{cite web
| last =Selim
| first =Jocelyn
| title=Top Dogs: Steroid hormones give hyenas a head start.
| publisher=[[Discover Magazine]]
| date=2006-04-28
| url=http://discovermagazine.com/2006/apr/hormone-hyenas
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/> Research has shown that "elevated levels of [[testosterone]] [[in utero]]"<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal"/> contribute to extra aggressiveness; both males and females mount members of the same sex,<ref name="Wilson, Sexing the Hyena">{{cite web
| title=Wilson, Sexing the Hyena - "The males mount each other"
| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
| date=
| url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?SIGNS032803
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal">{{cite web
| last =Forger
| first =Nancy G.
| coauthors =Laurence G. Frank, S. Marc Breedlove, Stephen E. Glickman
| title=Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal Muscles and Motoneurons in Spotted Hyenas
| publisher=The Journal of Comparative Neurology
| date=[[6 December]] [[1998]], Volume 375, Issue 2 , Pages 333 - 343
| url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19961111)375:2%3C333::AID-CNE11%3E3.0.CO;2-W
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> who in turn are possibly acting more [[submissive]] because of lower levels of testosterone in utero.<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction"/>

===Others===

====Dragonflies====
[[Image:Head of dragonfly 2.jpg|thumb|The head of Darner Dragonfly (Basiaeschna janata).]]

Male homosexuality has been inferred in several species of [[dragonflies]] (the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Odonata]]). The [[cloacal]] pinchers of male damselflies and dragonflies inflict characteristic head damage to females during sex. A survey of 11 species of damsel and dragonflies<ref>Dunkle, S.W. (1991), Head damage from mating attempts in dragonflies (Odonata:Anisoptera). Entomological News 102, pp. 37-41</ref><ref>Utzeri, C. & C. Belfiore (1990): Anomalous tandems in Odonata. Fragmenta Entomologica 22(2), pp. 271-288</ref> has revealed such mating damages in 20 to 80 % of the males too, indicating a fairly high occurrence of sexual coupling between males.

====Fruit flies====
Male ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' flies bearing two copies of a mutant allele in the [[Fruitless (gene)|fruitless]] gene court and attempt to mate exclusively with other males.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gailey |first=D. A.|coauthors=Hall |date=J.C.|title=Behavior and Cytogenetics of fruitless in Drosophila melanogaster: Different Courtship Defects Caused by Separate, Closely Linked Lesions|journal=Genetics |publisher=The Genetics Society of America|volume=Vol 121, |pages=773-785|url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/4/773|accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref> The genetic basis of animal homosexuality has been studied in the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''.<ref name="yamamoto3">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Nakano Y |title=Sexual behavior mutants revisited: molecular and cellular basis of Drosophila mating |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=56 |issue=7-8 |pages=634–46 |year=1999 |pmid=11212311 |doi=10.1007/s000180050458}}</ref> Here, multiple genes have been identified that can cause homosexual courtship and mating.<ref name=Yamamoto>{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Ito H, Fujitani K |title=Genetic dissection of sexual orientation: behavioral, cellular, and molecular approaches in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Neurosci. Res. |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=95–107 |year=1996 |pmid=8953572 |doi=10.1016/S0168-0102(96)01087-5}}</ref> These genes are thought to control behavior through [[pheromone]]s as well as altering the structure of the animal's brains.<ref name="ferveur">{{cite journal |author=Ferveur JF, Savarit F, O'Kane CJ, Sureau G, Greenspan RJ, Jallon JM |title=Genetic feminization of pheromones and its behavioral consequences in Drosophila males |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5318 |pages=1555–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9171057 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5318.1555}}</ref><ref name="yamamoto2">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Fujitani K, Usui K, Ito H, Nakano Y |title=From behavior to development: genes for sexual behavior define the neuronal sexual switch in Drosophila |journal=Mech. Dev. |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=135–46 |year=1998 |pmid=9622612 |doi=10.1016/S0925-4773(98)00042-2}}</ref> These studies have also investigated the influence of environment on the likelihood of flies displaying homosexual behavior.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal |author=Zhang SD, Odenwald WF |title=Misexpression of the white (w) gene triggers male-male courtship in Drosophila |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=92 |issue=12 |pages=5525–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7777542 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=7777542 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.12.5525}}</ref><ref name="svetec">{{cite journal |author=Svetec N, Ferveur JF |title=Social experience and pheromonal perception can change male-male interactions in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=208 |issue=Pt 5 |pages=891–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15755887 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/5/891 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01454}}</ref>

====Lizards====
Whiptail lizard ([[Teiidae]] genus) females have the ability to reproduce through [[parthenogenesis]] and as such males are rare and sexual breeding non-standard.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cole|first=Charles J.|coauthors=Townsend, Carol R.|date=9 May 2005|title=Parthenogenetic lizards as vertebrate systems |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology|publisher=Wiley Interscience|volume=256 |issue=S4|pages=174-176|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/110491269/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref> Females engage in sexual behavior to stimulate [[ovulation]], with their behavior following their hormonal cycles; during low levels of estrogen, these (female) lizards engage in "masculine" sexual roles. Those animals with currently high estrogen levels assume "feminine" sexual roles.

Lizards that perform the courtship ritual have greater fertility than those kept in isolation due to an increase in hormones triggered by the sexual behaviors. So, even though asexual whiptail lizards populations lack males, sexual stimuli still increase reproductive success.

From an [[evolutionary]] standpoint, these females are passing their full genetic code to all of their offspring (rather than the 50% of genes that would be passed in sexual reproduction). Certain species of [[gecko]] also reproduce by parthenogenesis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/06/050608053415.htm|title=Geckos: It's Not Always About Sex|last=Anon|date=9 June 2005|work=Science Daily|publisher=Lewis & Clark College |accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Animal sexual behavior]]
* [[Xq28]]
* [[Against Nature?]]
* [[Biology and sexual orientation]]
* [[Freemartin]]
* [[Homosexuality and psychology]]
* [[Innate bisexuality]]
* [[Non-human primate experiments]]
* [[Norms of reaction]]
* [[Plant sexuality]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
* [[Sexual orientation and medicine]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.salon.com/it/feature/1999/03/cov_15featurea.html biologists' view]
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0722_040722_gayanimal.html National Geographic]
* [http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Bartos_Holeckova_2006.pdf Behaviour in Animals An Evolutionary Perspective]
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=bisexual-species Driscoll, E.V. (2008), Bisexual Species, Scientific American Mind, 19(3), p. 68-73.]

[[Category:Sexual orientation and science]]
[[Category:Ethology]]

[[cy:Cyfunrywioldeb mewn anifeiliaid]]
[[da:Homoseksualitet blandt dyr]]
[[es:Homosexualidad en animales]]
[[id:Homoseksualitas pada binatang]]
[[it:Omosessualità negli animali]]
[[he:הומוסקסואליות בבעלי חיים]]
[[ja:動物の同性愛]]
[[pl:Homoseksualne zachowania zwierząt]]
[[pt:Homossexualidade no reino animal]]
[[ru:Гомосексуальность у животных]]
[[zh:动物界的同性恋行为]]

Homosexuelles Verhalten bei Tieren

2009-03-18T13:15:40Z

TechBear: Undid revision 278096601 by TechBear (talk) Reverted my revert. Still has weasel words, but addition was properly cited.

[[Image:Manchot 01.jpg|thumb|[[Roy and Silo]], two [[New York]] [[Central Park Zoo]] male [[Chinstrap Penguin]]s similar to those pictured, became internationally known when they coupled and later were given an egg that needed hatching and care, which they successfully did.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/>]]
'''Homosexual behavior in animals''' refers to the documented evidence of [[homosexuality|homosexual]], [[bisexual]] and [[transgender]] behavior in non-human animals. Such behaviors include [[Sexual intercourse|sex]], [[courtship]], [[affection]], [[pair bond]]ing, and [[parenting]]. [[Homosexual]] and bisexual behavior are widespread in the [[animal kingdom]]: a 1999 review by researcher [[Bruce Bagemihl]] shows that homosexual behavior, has been observed in close to 1500 species, ranging from [[primates]] to [[Acanthocephala|gut worms]], and is well documented for 500 of them.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref><ref name="Biological Exuberance: Animal">{{cite web
| last =Harrold
| first =Max
| title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity
| publisher=[[The Advocate]], reprinted in Highbeam Encyclopedia
| date=1999-02-16
| url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-53877996.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> [[Non-human animal sexual behavior|Animal sexual behavior]] takes many different forms, even within the same [[species]]. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied.<ref name="‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches">{{cite web
| last =Gordon
| first =Dr Dennis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches one million species
| publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]]
| date=[[10 April]] [[2007]]
| url=http://www.niwascience.co.nz/pubs/mr/archive/2007-04-10-3
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> According to Bagemihl, "the animal kingdom <nowiki>[does]</nowiki> it with much greater sexual diversity -- including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex -- than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept."<ref>http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA166452.html</ref>

The natural existence of homosexuality in non-human animals is considered controversial by conservative religious groups who oppose [[LGBT social movements]] because these findings seem to point to the natural occurrence of [[human sexuality|homosexuality in humans]].<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/> Whether this has logical or ethical implications is also a source of debate, with some arguing that it is illogical to use animal behavior to justify what is or is not [[morality|moral]] (see ''[[appeal to nature]]'').<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/><ref name="The Animal Homosexuality Myth">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=The Animal Homosexuality Myth
| publisher=[[NARTH]], National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality
| date=[[21 September]] [[2004]]
| url=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref><ref name="Defending A Higher Law">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Defending A Higher Law: Why We Must Resist Same-Sex "Marriage" and the Homosexual Movement
| publisher=Spring Grove, Penn.: The American TFP
| date=2004, ISBN 187790533X
| url=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

==Applying the term "homosexual" to animals==
The term ''[[homosexual]]'' was coined in [[Prussia]] in 1869 to describe same-sex sexual attraction and sexual behavior in humans.<ref>The first known use of the word ''Homoseksuäl'' is found in Benkert Kertbeny, K.M. (1869): Paragraph 143 des Preussichen Strafgesetzebuches vom 14/4-1851 und seine Aufrechterhaltung als Paragraph 152 im Entwurf eines Strafgesetzbuches fur den Norddeutschen Bundes, Leipzig, 1869. Reprinted in ''Jahrbuch fur sexuelle Zwischenstufen 7'' (1905), pp. 1-66</ref> Its use in animal studies has been controversial for two main reasons: animal sexuality and motivating factors have been and remain poorly understood, and the term has strong cultural implications in western society that are irrelevant for other species than [[human]]s.<ref name="Rethinking Sex">{{cite web
| last =Dorit
| first =Robert
| title= Rethinking Sex
| publisher=[[American Scientist]]
| date=September-October 2004
| url=http://www.americanscientist.org/template/BookReviewTypeDetail/assetid/35487
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Thus homosexual behavior has been given a number of terms over the years. The term "homosexual" is preferred over "gay", "lesbian" and other terms currently in use, as these are seen as even more bound to the human condition.<ref name=autogenerated1>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.122-166</ref>

Animal preference and motivation is always inferred from behavior. In wild animals, researchers will as a rule not be able to map the entire life of an individual, and must infer from frequency of single observations of behavior. The correct usage of the term ''homosexual'' is that an animal ''exhibits homosexual behavior'', however this article conforms to the usage by modern research<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004; pp.13-183</ref><ref>Vasey, Paul L. (1995), Homosexual behaviour in primates: A review of evidence and theory, [[International Journal of Primatology]] 16: p 173-204</ref><ref name=autogenerated2>Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. ISBN-10: 0521864461</ref> applying the term ''homosexuality'' to all sexual behavior ([[copulation]], [[genitals|genital]] stimulation, mating games and sexual [[Display (zoology)|display behavior]]) between animals of the same sex. In most instances, it is presumed that the homosexual behavior is but part of the animals overall sexual behavioral repertoire, making the animal "bisexual" rather than "homosexual" as the terms are commonly understood in humans,<ref name=autogenerated2 /> but cases of clear homosexual preference and exclusive homosexual pairs are known (see examples for details).

==Research on homosexual behavior in animals==
The presence of [[same-sex sexual behavior]] was not 'officially' observed on a large scale until recent times, possibly due to [[Observer effect|observer bias]] caused by social attitudes to [[same-sex sexual behavior]],<ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004</ref> innocent confusion, or even from a fear of "being ridiculed by their colleagues."<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/> Georgetown University [[biologist]] Janet Mann states "Scientists who study the topic are often accused of trying to forward an agenda, and their work can come under greater scrutiny than that of their colleagues who study other topics.<ref name="Homosexuality Commo">{{cite web | last = Moskowitz | first =Clara | title=Homosexuality Common in the Wild, Scientists Say| publisher=Fox News | date=[[19 May]] [[2008]] | url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,356639,00.html| accessdate = 2008-07-02}}</ref> They also noted "Not every sexual act has a reproductive function ... that's true of humans and non-humans."<ref name="Homosexuality Commo"/> It appears to be widespread amongst social [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, particularly the sea mammals and the [[primates]]. The true extent of homosexuality in animals is not known. While studies have demonstrated homosexual behavior in a number of species, [[Petter Bøckman]], the scientific advisor of the exhibition [[Against Nature?]] speculates that the true extent of the phenomenon may be much larger than currently recognized:

{{cquote|No species has been found in which homosexual behaviour has not been shown to exist, with the exception of species that never have sex at all, such as [[sea urchin]]s and [[aphis]]. Moreover, a part of the animal kingdom is [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]], truly bisexual. For them, homosexuality is not an issue.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice">{{cite web| url = http://www.news-medical.net/?id=20718| title = 1,500 Animal Species Practice Homosexuality
| date = [[2006-10-23]]| publisher = News-medical.net| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>}}

[[Image:Two Giraffes.PNG|thumb|Two male [[giraffes]] in [[Kenya]].]]
An example of overlooking homosexual behavior is noted by [[Bruce Bagemihl]] describing mating giraffes where nine out of ten pairings occur between males.

{{cquote|Every male that sniffed a female was reported as sex, while anal intercourse with orgasm between males was only "revolving around" [[dominance]], competition or [[greeting]]s.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/>}}

Some researchers believe this behavior to have its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits shown in [[prison sexuality]]. Others, particularly [[Joan Roughgarden]], [[Bruce Bagemihl]], Thierry Lodé<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacb, Paris, 2006, ISBN 2-7381-1901-8 </ref> and [[Paul Vasey]] suggest the social function of sex (both homosexual and heterosexual) is not necessarily connected to dominance, but serves to strengthen alliances and social ties within a flock. Others have argued that social organization theory is inadequate because it cannot account for some homosexual behaviors, for example, [[penguin]] species where same-sex individuals mate for life and refuse to pair with females when given the chance.<ref name="Gay Penguins Resist">{{cite web
| title=Gay Penguins Resist 'Aversion Therapy'
| publisher=365 Gay.com
| date=[[February 11]] [[2005]]
| url=http://www.365gay.com/newscon05/02/021105penguins.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> While reports on many such mating scenarios are still only anecdotal, a growing body of scientific work confirms that permanent homosexuality occurs in species with permanent pair bonds, but also in non-monogamous species like sheep.

One report on sheep cited below states:

{{quote|Approximately 8% of rams exhibit sexual preferences [that is, even when given a choice] for male partners (male-oriented rams) in contrast to most rams, which prefer female partners (female-oriented rams). We identified a cell group within the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus of age-matched adult sheep that was significantly larger in adult rams than in ewes...<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=Journal of [[Endocrinology]], Endocrine Society, Bethesda, MD,
| date=2004, vol. 145, no2, pp. 478-483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/reprint/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>}}

In fact, apparent homosexual individuals are known from all of the traditional domestic species.

==Cross species sex==
{{Main|Animal sexual behaviour#Cross species sex}}
Although a commonly held conception is that animals' sexuality is instinctive almost to the point of being mechanistic, research regularly records that many animals are sexual opportunists, and may show an interest in other partners than their own or related species.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7379554.stm "The seal then alternated between resting on the penguin, and thrusting its pelvis, trying to insert itself, unsuccessfully."</ref> This is more visible in domesticated species, as domestication commonly selects for increased breeding rate (and so an accelerated breeding cycle has commonly arisen in domesticated species over the centuries), and also because these species are easier to witness by humans. Cross-species sex has been observed in the wild and investigations describe productive and non-productive inter-species mating as a "natural occurrence".<ref>Haeberle (1978) states that sexual intercourse is not so very unusual between animals of different species as it is between humans and animals. Kinsey et al. (1948, p. 668) states "When one examines the observed cases of such crosses, and especially the rather considerable number of instances in which primates, including man, have been involved, one begins to suspect that the rules about intraspecific mating are not so universal as tradition would have it". Kinsey et al. (1953) further point out that genetic studies have shown the existence of a "large number" of inter-specific hybrids, that have occurred in the wild, and investigations (eg, Cauldwell, 1968; Ford & Beach, 1951; Harris, 1969; Masters, 1962; Ullerstam, 1966, etc) have found that interspecies mating is a "natural occurrence".' (Cited by [[Hani Miletski|Miletski]], in her [[anthrozoology|anthrozoological]] study of animal-human sexuality, 1999, p.51)</ref><ref>LODÉ T., GUIRAL G. & PELTIER D. 2005. European mink-polecat hybridization events: hazards from natural process ? Journal of Heredity 96 (2): 1-8 </ref> Most observations, however, are from animals in captivity, including those kept in zoos.

If the pair are a male and a female, and if the two species are related, [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] offspring can result, however, the offspring themselves may not be able to breed. The [[mule]], for example (a horse/donkey cross) is normally sterile, whilst the [[liger]] (a lion/tiger cross) is sometimes fertile. Novosibirsk zoo director Rostislav Shilo says of the liger born in his zoo; “It’s just that the lion and the tiger live in neighboring caves in the Novosibirsk zoo, and got used to each other. It’s practically impossible in the wild.”.{{Fact|date=November 2008}} Cross species sex in the wild has been observed between several species, among them [[blue tit]] and [[great tit]], [[Chimpanzee]] and [[olive baboon]], and between [[Boto|Amazon River Dolphin]] and the [[tucuxi]] dolphin.<ref>Sylvestre, J-P. (1985): Some Observations on Behavior of Two Orinoco Dolphins (''Inia geoffrensis humbottiana'' {Pilleri and Gihr 1977}), in captivety at Duinsburg Zoo. ''Aquativ Mammals'' no. 11, pp 58-65</ref>, as well as reported [[rape]] of [[king penguin]] by [[fur seal]]<ref>Walker, M (2008): "Sex pest" seal attacks penguin. BBC news, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7379554.stm article]</ref>

==Some selected species and groups==
{{see also|List of animals displaying homosexual behavior}}
===Birds===
====Black swans====
[[Image:Black Swans.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Black Swan]], ''Cygnus atratus'' is a large [[Wildfowl|waterbird]] which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of [[Australia]].]]
An estimated one-quarter of all [[black swans]] pairings are homosexual and they steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.<ref name="Gay animals out of the closet?">{{cite web
| last =Goudarzi
| first =Sara
| title=Gay animals out of the closet?: First-ever museum display shows 51 species exhibiting homosexuality
| publisher=[[MSNBC]]
| date=[[16 November]] [[2006]]
| url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15750604/
| accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> More of their cygnets survive to adulthood than those of different-sex pairs possibly due to their superior ability to defend large portions of land.

====Gulls====
Studies have shown that 10 to 15 percent of female western gulls in some populations in the wild are [[lesbian]].<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate
| publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]], reprinted from New York Times
| date=[[February 7]] [[2004]]
| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

====Mallards====
[[Image:Males Anas platyrhynchos 2 .jpg|thumb|Two male [[Mallard]]s, ''Anas platyrhynchos'']]
Mallards form male-female pairs only until the female lays eggs, at which time the male leaves the female. Mallards have rates of male-male sexual activity that are unusually high for birds, in some cases, as high as 19% of all pairs in a population.<ref name="mallard">Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref>

====Penguins====
In early February 2004 the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported that a male pair of [[chinstrap penguin]]s in the [[Central Park Zoo]] in [[New York City]] were partnered and even successfully hatched a female chick from an egg.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Love That Dare Not Squeak Its Name
| publisher=[[New York Times]]
| date=[[February 7]] [[2004]]
| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0C1EF83A5F0C748CDDAB0894DC404482
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> A [[children's literature|children's book]], titled ''[[And Tango Makes Three]]'', was written about the real-life [[Roy and Silo]] and their chick. Other [[penguin]]s in New York have also been reported to be forming same-sex pairs.<ref name="They're in love. They're gay">{{cite web
| title=They're in love. They're gay. They're penguins... And they're not alone.
| publisher=[[Columbia University]], Columbia News Service
| date=[[June 10]] [[2002]]
| url=http://www.timelessspirit.com/SEPT04/cristina.shtml}}</ref>
<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL "Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate"], ''San Francisco Chronicle'', hosted at SFGate.com</ref>

Zoos in [[Japan]] and [[Germany]] have also documented gay male penguin couples.<ref name="Gay Penguins Resist"/> The couples have been shown to build nests together and use a stone to replace an egg in the nest. Researchers at [[Rikkyo University]] in [[Tokyo]] found 20 gay pairs at 16 major aquariums and zoos in Japan. Bremerhaven Zoo in Germany attempted to break up the gay male couples by importing female penguins from [[Sweden]] and separating their male couples, but they were unsuccessful. The zoo director stated the relationships were too strong between the gay couples.<ref> [http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1275591.html Ananova Article on "Tempting Gay Penguins Straight"]</ref> German gay groups protested at this attempt to break up the male-male couples. <ref> [http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1284769.html Followup Ananova Article on German authorities stopping trying to change the penguins' sexual orientation, after GLBTQI organizations protest]</ref>

===Mammals===
====Amazon Dolphin====
The [[Boto|Amazon River dolphin]] or boto has been reported to form up in bands of 3-5 individuals enjoying group sex. The groups usually comprise young males and sometimes one or two females. Sex is performed in non-reproductive ways, using snout, flippers and general rubbing, without regards to gender. They will sometimes perform homosexual penetration of the [[Blowhole (biology)|blowhole]], the only known example of nasal sex.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1288633.ece Birds do it, bees do it . . . - Times Online]</ref> The males will sometimes also perform sex with [[tucuxi]] males, a small porpoise.

====American Bison====
[[Image:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|The American Bison is a [[bovine]] [[mammal]] which commonly displays homosexual behavior.]]
Courtship, mounting, and full [[anal sex|anal penetration]] between bulls has been noted to occur among [[American Bison]]. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season."<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous">{{cite web
| last =Bagemihl
| first =Bruce
| title= Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous Cassowaries: Homosexual/transgendered animals and indigenous knowledge
| publisher=[[Whole Earth Magazine]]
| month=May | year=2000
| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0GER/is_2000_Spring/ai_61426233/pg_5?tag=artBody;col1
| accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref> Also, mounting of one female by another is common among [[cattle]]. Inter-sexual bison also occur. The [[Lakota people|Lakota]] refer to them as ''pte winkte'' —''pte'' meaning bison and ''winkte'' designating [[two-spirit]]— thereby drawing an explicit parallel between [[transgender]] in animals and people.<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous"/>

====Bonobo and other apes====
[[Image:Bonobo 011.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Bonobo]] displays the highest rate of homosexual activity in any animal, being a fully [[bisexual]] species.<ref name=penisfencing>{{cite book | author= Frans B. M. de Waal |authorlink= Frans de Waal| title=The ape and the sushi master : cultural reflections by a primatologist | publisher=Basic Books | chapter=Bonobos and Fig Leaves | year= 2001}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/aforest/bonobo.html Bonobos at the Columbus Zoo]</ref>]]

The [[Bonobo]], which has a [[matriarchal]] society (unusual amongst apes), is a fully [[bisexual]] species -- both males and females engage in heterosexual and homosexual behavior, being noted for [[lesbianism]] in particular. About 60% of all sexual activity in this species is between two or more females. While the homosexual bonding system in Bonobos represent the highest frequency of homosexuality known in any species, homosexual behavior has been reported for all [[great apes]] (a group which many believe includes [[human]]s), as well as a number of other [[primate]] species.<ref name=penisfencing /><ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref name=ancestor>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |chapter=Chimpanzees}}</ref><ref name=songweaver>{{cite web|url= http://songweaver.com/info/bonobos.html|title= Bonobo Sex and Society|accessdate= 2006-07-17|author= Frans B. M. de Waal|authorlink= Frans de Waal |year= 1995|month= March|work= Scientific American|pages= 82-88}}</ref><ref>Frans de Waal, "Bonobo Sex and Society" in ''Scientific American'' (March 1995), p. 82ff</ref><ref>[http://www.primates.com/bonobos/bonobosexsoc.html The behavior of a close relative challenges assumptions about male supremacy in human evolution]</ref><ref>[http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm Courtney Laird, "Social Organization"]</ref><ref> Stanford, C. B. (1998). The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos. Current Anthropology 39: 399–407.</ref><ref> Kano, Takayoshi (1992). The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.</ref> Dutch [[primatologist]] [[Frans de Waal]] on observing and filming bonobos noted that there were two reasons to believe sexual activity is the bonobo's answer to avoiding conflict.

Anything that arouses the interest of more than one bonobo at a time, not just food tends to result in sexual contact. If two bonobos approach a cardboard box thrown into their enclosure, they will briefly mount each other before playing with the box. Such situations lead to squabbles in most other species. But bonobos are quite tolerant, perhaps because they use sex to divert attention and to diffuse tension.

Bonobo sex often occurs in aggressive contexts totally unrelated to food. A jealous male might chase another away from a female, after which the two males reunite and engage in scrotal rubbing. Or after a female hits a juvenile, the latter's mother may lunge at the aggressor, an action that is immediately followed by genital rubbing between the two adults.<ref>Frans B. M. de Waal, <u>"Bonobo Sex and Society"<u> Scientific American, Mar. 1995, pp. 82-88</ref>

====Bottlenose Dolphins====
[[Bottlenose Dolphin]] males have been observed working in pairs or larger groups to follow and/or restrict the movement of a female for weeks at a time, waiting for her to become sexually receptive. The same pairs/groups have also been observed engaging in ardent sexual play with each other.

Janet Mann, [[Georgetown University]] professor of biology and psychology, argues that the strong personal behavior among male dolphin calves is about bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins"/> She cites studies showing that these dolphins later in life as adults are in a sense bisexual, and the male bonds forged earlier in life work together for protection as well as locating females to reproduce with.

====Elephants====
African, as well as Asiatic males will engage in same-sex bonding and mounting. Such encounters are often associated with affectionate interactions, such as kissing, trunk intertwining, and placing trunks in each other's mouths. Males, who in elephants live apart from the general flock, often form "companionships", consisting of an older individual and one or sometimes two younger, attendant males with sexual behaviour being an important part of the social dynamic. Unlike heterosexual relations, which are always of a fleeting nature, the relationships between males may last for years. The encounters are analogous to heterosexual bouts, one male often extending his trunk along the other's back and pushing forward with his tusks to signify his intention to mount. Same-sex relations are common and frequent in both sexes, with Asiatic elephants in captivity devoting roughly 45% of sexual encounters to same-sex activity.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.427-430</ref>

====Giraffes====
Male giraffes have been observed to engage in remarkably high frequencies of homosexual behavior. After aggressive "necking", it is common for two males giraffes to caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.<ref>Coe, M.J. (1967). "Necking" behavior in the giraffe." Journal of Zoology, London 151: 313-321.</ref> In one study, up to 94% of observed mounting incidents took place between two males. The proportion of same sex activities varied between 30 and 75%, and at any given time one in twenty males were engaged in non-combative necking behaviour with another male. Only 1% of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.391-393.
</ref>

====Humans====
''See [[Homosexuality]]''

====Japanese Macaque====
With the [[Japanese Macaque]], also known as the "snow [[monkey]]", [[Homosexuality|same-sex relations]] are frequent, though rates vary between troupes. Females will form "consortships" characterized by affectionate social and sexual activities. In some troops up to one quarter of the females will form such bonds, which will vary in duration from a few days to a few weeks. Often, strong and lasting friendships will result from such pairings. Males also have same-sex relations, typically with multiple partners of the same age. Affectionate and playful activities are associated with such relations.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305</ref>

====Lions====
[[Image:Lions - melbourne zoo.jpg|left|thumb|A group of male [[lion]]s at the [[Melbourne]] zoo.]]
Both male and female lions have been seen to interact [[animal sexuality|homosexually]].<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305. In his discussion of lion same-sex relations, Bagemihl is making use of published work by: J.B. Cooper, "An Exploratory Study on African Lions" in ''Comparative Psychology Monographs'' 17:1-48; R.L. Eaton, "The Biology and Social Behavior of Reproduction in the Lion" in Eaton, ed. ''The World's Cats,'' vol. II; pp.3-58; Seattle, 1974; G.B. Schaller, ''The Serengeti Lion''; University of Chicago Press, 1972</ref><ref>
{{cite web | last =Srivastav | first =Suvira | title =Lion, Without Lioness | work =TerraGreen: News to Save the Earth | publisher = Terragreen | date = [[15 December]]-[[31 December]] [[2001]] | url = http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/terragreen/issue3/feature.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-02}}</ref> Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and thrusting. About 8% of mountings have been observed to occur with other males. Pairings between females are held to be fairly common in captivity but have not been observed in the wild.

====Polecat====
[[European polecat]]s ''Mustela putorius'' were found to engage homosexuality in non-sibling animals. Deliberate exclusive homosexuality with mounting and anal penetration in this solitary species apparently serves no adaptive function<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacob, Paris, 2006.ISBN 2-7381-1901-8</ref>.

====Sheep====
An October 2003 study by Dr. Charles E. Roselli et al. (Oregon Health and Science University) states that homosexuality in male sheep (found in 8% of rams) is associated with a region in the rams' brains which the authors call the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) which is half the size of the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep.<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=[[Endocrinology]], Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health & Science University (C.E.R., K.L., J.A.R.), Portland, Oregon; Department of Animal Sciences, Oregon State University (F.S.), Corvallis, Oregon; and Agricultural Research Service, United States Sheep Experiment Station (J.N.S.), Dubois, Idaho.
| date=2004, Vol. 145, No. 2 478-483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>
[[Image:St Croix sheep.jpg|thumb|left|A pair of [[St. Croix]] [[ewe]]s.]]
It should be noted that some{{Who|date=November 2008}} view this study to be flawed in that the determination of homosexuality within the sheep (sample population of 27 for the study) was to have animals who were unable to mount female ewes placed in a cage with two stanchioned males and two unstanchioned females (i.e. the males could not move or struggle while the females could). Given the aggressive nature of sheep copulation, the uneven treatment of males and females, many see this as simply evidence that the sheep in question were unable to be aggressive enough to mount females. The results were situational sexuality, unlike the bonds seen in human homosexuality.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}

The scientists found that, "The oSDN in rams that preferred females was significantly larger and contained more [[neurons]] than in male-oriented rams and ewes. In addition, the oSDN of the female-oriented rams expressed higher levels of [[aromatase]], a substance that converts [[testosterone]] to [[estradiol]], a form of [[estrogen]] which is believed to facilitate typical male sexual behaviors. [[Aromatase]] expression was no different between male-oriented rams and ewes."

"The dense cluster of neurons that comprise the oSDN express cytochrome P450 aromatase. Aromatase mRNA levels in the oSDN were significantly greater in female-oriented rams than in ewes, whereas male-oriented rams exhibited intermediate levels of expression." These results suggest that "...naturally occurring variations in sexual partner preferences may be related to differences in brain anatomy and its capacity for estrogen synthesis."<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic"/> As noted prior, given the potential unagressiveness of the male population in question, the differing aromatase levels may also have been evidence of aggression levels, not sexuality. It should also be noted that the results of this study have not been confirmed by other studies.

====Spotted Hyena====
[[Image:Spotted hyena2.jpg|right|thumb|The '''Spotted Hyena''' is a moderately large, terrestrial carnivore native to [[Africa]].]]
The family structure of the female [[Spotted Hyena]] is matriarchal, and dominance relationships with strong sexual elements are routinely observed between related females. Due largely to the female [[spotted hyena#Reproduction|spotted hyena]]'s unique [[urogenital system]], which looks more like a penis than a vagina, early naturalists thought hyenas were [[hermaphrodite]]s or commonly practiced [[homosexuality]].<ref name="Like mother, like cubs">{{cite web
| title= Like mother, like cubs: Hyena alpha moms jumpstart cubs with hormonal jolt
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]]
| year=2006
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Early writings such as [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' and the ''[[Physiologus]]'' suggested that the hyena continually changed its sex and nature from male to female and back again. In ''[[Paedagogus]]'', Clement of Alexandria noted that the hyena (along with the [[hare]]) was "quite obsessed with sexual intercourse." Many Europeans associated the hyena with sexual deformity, prostitution, deviant sexual behavior, and even witchcraft. Research has shown that "in contrast to most other female mammals, female Crocuta are male-like in appearance, larger than males, and substantially more aggressive,"<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction">{{cite web
| last =Holekamp
| first =Kay E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction and Overview
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]], Department of [[Zoology]]
| year=2003
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> and they have "been [[masculine|masculinized]] without being [[Femininity|defeminized]].”<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/>

Study of this unique genitalia and aggressive behavior in the female hyena has led to the understanding that more aggressive females are better able to compete for resources, including food and mating partners.<ref name="Top Dogs: Steroid hormones">{{cite web
| last =Selim
| first =Jocelyn
| title=Top Dogs: Steroid hormones give hyenas a head start.
| publisher=[[Discover Magazine]]
| date=2006-04-28
| url=http://discovermagazine.com/2006/apr/hormone-hyenas
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/> Research has shown that "elevated levels of [[testosterone]] [[in utero]]"<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal"/> contribute to extra aggressiveness; both males and females mount members of the same sex,<ref name="Wilson, Sexing the Hyena">{{cite web
| title=Wilson, Sexing the Hyena - "The males mount each other"
| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
| date=
| url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?SIGNS032803
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal">{{cite web
| last =Forger
| first =Nancy G.
| coauthors =Laurence G. Frank, S. Marc Breedlove, Stephen E. Glickman
| title=Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal Muscles and Motoneurons in Spotted Hyenas
| publisher=The Journal of Comparative Neurology
| date=[[6 December]] [[1998]], Volume 375, Issue 2 , Pages 333 - 343
| url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19961111)375:2%3C333::AID-CNE11%3E3.0.CO;2-W
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> who in turn are possibly acting more [[submissive]] because of lower levels of testosterone in utero.<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction"/>

===Others===
====Dragonflies====
[[Image:Head of dragonfly 2.jpg|thumb|The head of Darner Dragonfly (Basiaeschna janata).]]
Male homosexuality has been inferred in several species of [[dragonflies]] (the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Odonata]]). The cloacal pinchers of male damselflies and dragonflies inflict characteristic head damage to females during sex. A survey of 11 species of damsel and dragonflies<ref>Dunkle, S.W. (1991), Head damage from mating attempts in dragonflies (Odonata:Anisoptera). Entomological News 102, pp. 37-41</ref><ref>Utzeri, C. & C. Belfiore (1990): Anomalous tandems in Odonata. Fragmenta Entomologica 22(2), pp. 271-288</ref> has revealed such mating damages in 20 to 80 % of the males too, indicating a fairly high occurrence of sexual coupling between males.

====Fruit flies====
Male ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' flies bearing two copies of a mutant allele in the [[Fruitless (gene)|fruitless]] gene court and attempt to mate exclusively with other males.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gailey |first=D. A.|coauthors=Hall |date=J.C.|title=Behavior and Cytogenetics of fruitless in Drosophila melanogaster: Different Courtship Defects Caused by Separate, Closely Linked Lesions|journal=Genetics |publisher=The Genetics Society of America|volume=Vol 121, |pages=773-785|url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/4/773|accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref> The genetic basis of animal homosexuality has been studied in the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''.<ref name="yamamoto3">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Nakano Y |title=Sexual behavior mutants revisited: molecular and cellular basis of Drosophila mating |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=56 |issue=7-8 |pages=634–46 |year=1999 |pmid=11212311 |doi=10.1007/s000180050458}}</ref> Here, multiple genes have been identified that can cause homosexual courtship and mating.<ref name=Yamamoto>{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Ito H, Fujitani K |title=Genetic dissection of sexual orientation: behavioral, cellular, and molecular approaches in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Neurosci. Res. |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=95–107 |year=1996 |pmid=8953572 |doi=10.1016/S0168-0102(96)01087-5}}</ref> These genes are thought to control behavior through [[pheromone]]s as well as altering the structure of the animal's brains.<ref name="ferveur">{{cite journal |author=Ferveur JF, Savarit F, O'Kane CJ, Sureau G, Greenspan RJ, Jallon JM |title=Genetic feminization of pheromones and its behavioral consequences in Drosophila males |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5318 |pages=1555–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9171057 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5318.1555}}</ref><ref name="yamamoto2">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Fujitani K, Usui K, Ito H, Nakano Y |title=From behavior to development: genes for sexual behavior define the neuronal sexual switch in Drosophila |journal=Mech. Dev. |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=135–46 |year=1998 |pmid=9622612 |doi=10.1016/S0925-4773(98)00042-2}}</ref> These studies have also investigated the influence of environment on the likelihood of flies displaying homosexual behavior.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal |author=Zhang SD, Odenwald WF |title=Misexpression of the white (w) gene triggers male-male courtship in Drosophila |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=92 |issue=12 |pages=5525–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7777542 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=7777542 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.12.5525}}</ref><ref name="svetec">{{cite journal |author=Svetec N, Ferveur JF |title=Social experience and pheromonal perception can change male-male interactions in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=208 |issue=Pt 5 |pages=891–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15755887 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/5/891 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01454}}</ref>

====Lizards====
Whiptail lizard ([[Teiidae]] genus) females have the ability to reproduce through [[parthenogenesis]] and as such males are rare and sexual breeding non-standard.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cole|first=Charles J.|coauthors=Townsend, Carol R.|date=9 May 2005|title=Parthenogenetic lizards as vertebrate systems |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology|publisher=Wiley Interscience|volume=256 |issue=S4|pages=174-176|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/110491269/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref> Females engage in sexual behavior to stimulate [[ovulation]], with their behavior following their hormonal cycles; during low levels of estrogen, these (female) lizards engage in "masculine" sexual roles. Those animals with currently high estrogen levels assume "feminine" sexual roles.

Lizards that perform the courtship ritual have greater fertility than those kept in isolation due to an increase in hormones triggered by the sexual behaviors. So, even though asexual whiptail lizards populations lack males, sexual stimuli still increase reproductive success.

From an [[evolutionary]] standpoint, these females are passing their full genetic code to all of their offspring (rather than the 50% of genes that would be passed in sexual reproduction). Certain species of [[gecko]] also reproduce by parthenogenesis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/06/050608053415.htm|title=Geckos: It's Not Always About Sex|last=Anon|date=9 June 2005|work=Science Daily|publisher=Lewis & Clark College |accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Xq28]]
* [[Against Nature?]]
* [[Biology and sexual orientation]]
* [[Freemartin]]
* [[Homosexuality and psychology]]
* [[Innate bisexuality]]
* [[Non-Human Animal Sexuality]]
* [[Non-human primate experiments]]
* [[Norms of reaction]]
* [[Plant sexuality]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
* [[Sexual orientation and medicine]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.salon.com/it/feature/1999/03/cov_15featurea.html biologists' view]
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0722_040722_gayanimal.html National Geographic]
* [http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Bartos_Holeckova_2006.pdf Behaviour in Animals An Evolutionary Perspective]
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=bisexual-species Driscoll, E.V. (2008), Bisexual Species, Scientific American Mind, 19(3), p. 68-73.]

[[Category:Sexual orientation and science]]
[[Category:Ethology]]

[[cy:Cyfunrywioldeb mewn anifeiliaid]]
[[da:Homoseksualitet blandt dyr]]
[[es:Homosexualidad en animales]]
[[id:Homoseksualitas pada binatang]]
[[it:Omosessualità negli animali]]
[[he:הומוסקסואליות בבעלי חיים]]
[[ja:動物の同性愛]]
[[pl:Homoseksualne zachowania zwierząt]]
[[pt:Homossexualidade no reino animal]]
[[ru:Гомосексуальность у животных]]

Homosexuelles Verhalten bei Tieren

2009-03-18T13:13:47Z

TechBear: Undid revision 278076862 by 86.46.148.114 (talk) Good faith edit, but use of weasle words and uncited reference.

[[Image:Manchot 01.jpg|thumb|[[Roy and Silo]], two [[New York]] [[Central Park Zoo]] male [[Chinstrap Penguin]]s similar to those pictured, became internationally known when they coupled and later were given an egg that needed hatching and care, which they successfully did.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/>]]
'''Homosexual behavior in animals''' refers to the documented evidence of [[homosexuality|homosexual]], [[bisexual]] and [[transgender]] behavior in non-human animals. Such behaviors include [[Sexual intercourse|sex]], [[courtship]], [[affection]], [[pair bond]]ing, and [[parenting]]. [[Homosexual]] and bisexual behavior are widespread in the [[animal kingdom]]: a 1999 review by researcher [[Bruce Bagemihl]] shows that homosexual behavior, has been observed in close to 1500 species, ranging from [[primates]] to [[Acanthocephala|gut worms]], and is well documented for 500 of them.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref><ref name="Biological Exuberance: Animal">{{cite web
| last =Harrold
| first =Max
| title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity
| publisher=[[The Advocate]], reprinted in Highbeam Encyclopedia
| date=1999-02-16
| url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-53877996.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> [[Non-human animal sexual behavior|Animal sexual behavior]] takes many different forms, even within the same [[species]]. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied.<ref name="‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches">{{cite web
| last =Gordon
| first =Dr Dennis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches one million species
| publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]]
| date=[[10 April]] [[2007]]
| url=http://www.niwascience.co.nz/pubs/mr/archive/2007-04-10-3
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> According to Bagemihl, "the animal kingdom <nowiki>[does]</nowiki> it with much greater sexual diversity -- including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex -- than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept."<ref>http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA166452.html</ref>

The natural existence of homosexuality in non-human animals is considered controversial by conservative religious groups who oppose [[LGBT social movements]] because these findings seem to point to the natural occurrence of [[human sexuality|homosexuality in humans]].<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/> Whether this has logical or ethical implications is also a source of debate, with some arguing that it is illogical to use animal behavior to justify what is or is not [[morality|moral]] (see ''[[appeal to nature]]'').<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak"/><ref name="The Animal Homosexuality Myth">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=The Animal Homosexuality Myth
| publisher=[[NARTH]], National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality
| date=[[21 September]] [[2004]]
| url=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref><ref name="Defending A Higher Law">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Defending A Higher Law: Why We Must Resist Same-Sex "Marriage" and the Homosexual Movement
| publisher=Spring Grove, Penn.: The American TFP
| date=2004, ISBN 187790533X
| url=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

==Applying the term "homosexual" to animals==
The term ''[[homosexual]]'' was coined in [[Prussia]] in 1869 to describe same-sex sexual attraction and sexual behavior in humans.<ref>The first known use of the word ''Homoseksuäl'' is found in Benkert Kertbeny, K.M. (1869): Paragraph 143 des Preussichen Strafgesetzebuches vom 14/4-1851 und seine Aufrechterhaltung als Paragraph 152 im Entwurf eines Strafgesetzbuches fur den Norddeutschen Bundes, Leipzig, 1869. Reprinted in ''Jahrbuch fur sexuelle Zwischenstufen 7'' (1905), pp. 1-66</ref> Its use in animal studies has been controversial for two main reasons: animal sexuality and motivating factors have been and remain poorly understood, and the term has strong cultural implications in western society that are irrelevant for other species than [[human]]s.<ref name="Rethinking Sex">{{cite web
| last =Dorit
| first =Robert
| title= Rethinking Sex
| publisher=[[American Scientist]]
| date=September-October 2004
| url=http://www.americanscientist.org/template/BookReviewTypeDetail/assetid/35487
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Thus homosexual behavior has been given a number of terms over the years. The term "homosexual" is preferred over "gay", "lesbian" and other terms currently in use, as these are seen as even more bound to the human condition.<ref name=autogenerated1>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.122-166</ref>

Animal preference and motivation is always inferred from behavior. In wild animals, researchers will as a rule not be able to map the entire life of an individual, and must infer from frequency of single observations of behavior. The correct usage of the term ''homosexual'' is that an animal ''exhibits homosexual behavior'', however this article conforms to the usage by modern research<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004; pp.13-183</ref><ref>Vasey, Paul L. (1995), Homosexual behaviour in primates: A review of evidence and theory, [[International Journal of Primatology]] 16: p 173-204</ref><ref name=autogenerated2>Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. ISBN-10: 0521864461</ref> applying the term ''homosexuality'' to all sexual behavior ([[copulation]], [[genitals|genital]] stimulation, mating games and sexual [[Display (zoology)|display behavior]]) between animals of the same sex. In most instances, it is presumed that the homosexual behavior is but part of the animals overall sexual behavioral repertoire, making the animal "bisexual" rather than "homosexual" as the terms are commonly understood in humans,<ref name=autogenerated2 /> but cases of clear homosexual preference and exclusive homosexual pairs are known (see examples for details).

==Research on homosexual behavior in animals==
The presence of [[same-sex sexual behavior]] was not 'officially' observed on a large scale until recent times, possibly due to [[Observer effect|observer bias]] caused by social attitudes to [[same-sex sexual behavior]],<ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004</ref> innocent confusion, or even from a fear of "being ridiculed by their colleagues."<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/> Georgetown University [[biologist]] Janet Mann states "Scientists who study the topic are often accused of trying to forward an agenda, and their work can come under greater scrutiny than that of their colleagues who study other topics.<ref name="Homosexuality Commo">{{cite web | last = Moskowitz | first =Clara | title=Homosexuality Common in the Wild, Scientists Say| publisher=Fox News | date=[[19 May]] [[2008]] | url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,356639,00.html| accessdate = 2008-07-02}}</ref> They also noted "Not every sexual act has a reproductive function ... that's true of humans and non-humans."<ref name="Homosexuality Commo"/> It appears to be widespread amongst social [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, particularly the sea mammals and the [[primates]]. The true extent of homosexuality in animals is not known. While studies have demonstrated homosexual behavior in a number of species, [[Petter Bøckman]], the scientific advisor of the exhibition [[Against Nature?]] speculates that the true extent of the phenomenon may be much larger than currently recognized:

{{cquote|No species has been found in which homosexual behaviour has not been shown to exist, with the exception of species that never have sex at all, such as [[sea urchin]]s and [[aphis]]. Moreover, a part of the animal kingdom is [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]], truly bisexual. For them, homosexuality is not an issue.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice">{{cite web| url = http://www.news-medical.net/?id=20718| title = 1,500 Animal Species Practice Homosexuality
| date = [[2006-10-23]]| publisher = News-medical.net| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>}}

[[Image:Two Giraffes.PNG|thumb|Two male [[giraffes]] in [[Kenya]].]]
An example of overlooking homosexual behavior is noted by [[Bruce Bagemihl]] describing mating giraffes where nine out of ten pairings occur between males.

{{cquote|Every male that sniffed a female was reported as sex, while anal intercourse with orgasm between males was only "revolving around" [[dominance]], competition or [[greeting]]s.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/>}}

Some researchers believe this behavior to have its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits shown in [[prison sexuality]]. Others, particularly [[Joan Roughgarden]], [[Bruce Bagemihl]], Thierry Lodé<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacb, Paris, 2006, ISBN 2-7381-1901-8 </ref> and [[Paul Vasey]] suggest the social function of sex (both homosexual and heterosexual) is not necessarily connected to dominance, but serves to strengthen alliances and social ties within a flock. Others have argued that social organization theory is inadequate because it cannot account for some homosexual behaviors, for example, [[penguin]] species where same-sex individuals mate for life and refuse to pair with females when given the chance.<ref name="Gay Penguins Resist">{{cite web
| title=Gay Penguins Resist 'Aversion Therapy'
| publisher=365 Gay.com
| date=[[February 11]] [[2005]]
| url=http://www.365gay.com/newscon05/02/021105penguins.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> While reports on many such mating scenarios are still only anecdotal, a growing body of scientific work confirms that permanent homosexuality occurs in species with permanent pair bonds, but also in non-monogamous species like sheep.

One report on sheep cited below states:

{{quote|Approximately 8% of rams exhibit sexual preferences [that is, even when given a choice] for male partners (male-oriented rams) in contrast to most rams, which prefer female partners (female-oriented rams). We identified a cell group within the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus of age-matched adult sheep that was significantly larger in adult rams than in ewes...<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=Journal of [[Endocrinology]], Endocrine Society, Bethesda, MD,
| date=2004, vol. 145, no2, pp. 478-483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/reprint/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>}}

In fact, apparent homosexual individuals are known from all of the traditional domestic species.

==Cross species sex==
{{Main|Animal sexual behaviour#Cross species sex}}
Although a commonly held conception is that animals' sexuality is instinctive almost to the point of being mechanistic, research regularly records that many animals are sexual opportunists, and may show an interest in other partners than their own or related species.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7379554.stm "The seal then alternated between resting on the penguin, and thrusting its pelvis, trying to insert itself, unsuccessfully."</ref> This is more visible in domesticated species, as domestication commonly selects for increased breeding rate (and so an accelerated breeding cycle has commonly arisen in domesticated species over the centuries), and also because these species are easier to witness by humans. Cross-species sex has been observed in the wild and investigations describe productive and non-productive inter-species mating as a "natural occurrence".<ref>Haeberle (1978) states that sexual intercourse is not so very unusual between animals of different species as it is between humans and animals. Kinsey et al. (1948, p. 668) states "When one examines the observed cases of such crosses, and especially the rather considerable number of instances in which primates, including man, have been involved, one begins to suspect that the rules about intraspecific mating are not so universal as tradition would have it". Kinsey et al. (1953) further point out that genetic studies have shown the existence of a "large number" of inter-specific hybrids, that have occurred in the wild, and investigations (eg, Cauldwell, 1968; Ford & Beach, 1951; Harris, 1969; Masters, 1962; Ullerstam, 1966, etc) have found that interspecies mating is a "natural occurrence".' (Cited by [[Hani Miletski|Miletski]], in her [[anthrozoology|anthrozoological]] study of animal-human sexuality, 1999, p.51)</ref><ref>LODÉ T., GUIRAL G. & PELTIER D. 2005. European mink-polecat hybridization events: hazards from natural process ? Journal of Heredity 96 (2): 1-8 </ref> Most observations, however, are from animals in captivity, including those kept in zoos.

If the pair are a male and a female, and if the two species are related, [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] offspring can result, however, the offspring themselves may not be able to breed. The [[mule]], for example (a horse/donkey cross) is normally sterile, whilst the [[liger]] (a lion/tiger cross) is sometimes fertile. Novosibirsk zoo director Rostislav Shilo says of the liger born in his zoo; “It’s just that the lion and the tiger live in neighboring caves in the Novosibirsk zoo, and got used to each other. It’s practically impossible in the wild.”.{{Fact|date=November 2008}} Cross species sex in the wild has been observed between several species, among them [[blue tit]] and [[great tit]], [[Chimpanzee]] and [[olive baboon]], and between [[Boto|Amazon River Dolphin]] and the [[tucuxi]] dolphin.<ref>Sylvestre, J-P. (1985): Some Observations on Behavior of Two Orinoco Dolphins (''Inia geoffrensis humbottiana'' {Pilleri and Gihr 1977}), in captivety at Duinsburg Zoo. ''Aquativ Mammals'' no. 11, pp 58-65</ref>, as well as reported [[rape]] of [[king penguin]] by [[fur seal]]<ref>Walker, M (2008): "Sex pest" seal attacks penguin. BBC news, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7379554.stm article]</ref>

==Some selected species and groups==
{{see also|List of animals displaying homosexual behavior}}
===Birds===
====Black swans====
[[Image:Black Swans.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Black Swan]], ''Cygnus atratus'' is a large [[Wildfowl|waterbird]] which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of [[Australia]].]]
An estimated one-quarter of all [[black swans]] pairings are homosexual and they steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.<ref name="Gay animals out of the closet?">{{cite web
| last =Goudarzi
| first =Sara
| title=Gay animals out of the closet?: First-ever museum display shows 51 species exhibiting homosexuality
| publisher=[[MSNBC]]
| date=[[16 November]] [[2006]]
| url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15750604/
| accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> More of their cygnets survive to adulthood than those of different-sex pairs possibly due to their superior ability to defend large portions of land.

====Gulls====
Studies have shown that 10 to 15 percent of female western gulls in some populations in the wild are [[lesbian]].<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate
| publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]], reprinted from New York Times
| date=[[February 7]] [[2004]]
| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

====Mallards====
[[Image:Males Anas platyrhynchos 2 .jpg|thumb|Two male [[Mallard]]s, ''Anas platyrhynchos'']]
Mallards form male-female pairs only until the female lays eggs, at which time the male leaves the female. Mallards have rates of male-male sexual activity that are unusually high for birds, in some cases, as high as 19% of all pairs in a population.<ref name="mallard">Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref>

====Penguins====
In early February 2004 the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported that a male pair of [[chinstrap penguin]]s in the [[Central Park Zoo]] in [[New York City]] were partnered and even successfully hatched a female chick from an egg.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Love That Dare Not Squeak Its Name
| publisher=[[New York Times]]
| date=[[February 7]] [[2004]]
| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0C1EF83A5F0C748CDDAB0894DC404482
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> A [[children's literature|children's book]], titled ''[[And Tango Makes Three]]'', was written about the real-life [[Roy and Silo]] and their chick. Other [[penguin]]s in New York have also been reported to be forming same-sex pairs.<ref name="They're in love. They're gay">{{cite web
| title=They're in love. They're gay. They're penguins... And they're not alone.
| publisher=[[Columbia University]], Columbia News Service
| date=[[June 10]] [[2002]]
| url=http://www.timelessspirit.com/SEPT04/cristina.shtml}}</ref>
<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL "Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate"], ''San Francisco Chronicle'', hosted at SFGate.com</ref>

Zoos in [[Japan]] and [[Germany]] have also documented gay male penguin couples.<ref name="Gay Penguins Resist"/> The couples have been shown to build nests together and use a stone to replace an egg in the nest. Researchers at [[Rikkyo University]] in [[Tokyo]] found 20 gay pairs at 16 major aquariums and zoos in Japan. Bremerhaven Zoo in Germany attempted to break up the gay male couples by importing female penguins from [[Sweden]] and separating their male couples, but they were unsuccessful. The zoo director stated the relationships were too strong between the gay couples.<ref> [http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1275591.html Ananova Article on "Tempting Gay Penguins Straight"]</ref> German gay groups protested at this attempt to break up the male-male couples. <ref> [http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1284769.html Followup Ananova Article on German authorities stopping trying to change the penguins' sexual orientation, after GLBTQI organizations protest]</ref>

===Mammals===
====Amazon Dolphin====
The [[Boto|Amazon River dolphin]] or boto has been reported to form up in bands of 3-5 individuals enjoying group sex. The groups usually comprise young males and sometimes one or two females. Sex is performed in non-reproductive ways, using snout, flippers and general rubbing, without regards to gender. They will sometimes perform homosexual penetration of the [[Blowhole (biology)|blowhole]], the only known example of nasal sex.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1288633.ece Birds do it, bees do it . . . - Times Online]</ref> The males will sometimes also perform sex with [[tucuxi]] males, a small porpoise.

====American Bison====
[[Image:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|The American Bison is a [[bovine]] [[mammal]] which commonly displays homosexual behavior.]]
Courtship, mounting, and full [[anal sex|anal penetration]] between bulls has been noted to occur among [[American Bison]]. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season."<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous">{{cite web
| last =Bagemihl
| first =Bruce
| title= Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous Cassowaries: Homosexual/transgendered animals and indigenous knowledge
| publisher=[[Whole Earth Magazine]]
| month=May | year=2000
| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0GER/is_2000_Spring/ai_61426233/pg_5?tag=artBody;col1
| accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref> Also, mounting of one female by another is common among [[cattle]]. Inter-sexual bison also occur. The [[Lakota people|Lakota]] refer to them as ''pte winkte'' —''pte'' meaning bison and ''winkte'' designating [[two-spirit]]— thereby drawing an explicit parallel between [[transgender]] in animals and people.<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous"/>

====Bonobo and other apes====
[[Image:Bonobo 011.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Bonobo]] displays the highest rate of homosexual activity in any animal, being a fully [[bisexual]] species.<ref name=penisfencing>{{cite book | author= Frans B. M. de Waal |authorlink= Frans de Waal| title=The ape and the sushi master : cultural reflections by a primatologist | publisher=Basic Books | chapter=Bonobos and Fig Leaves | year= 2001}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/aforest/bonobo.html Bonobos at the Columbus Zoo]</ref>]]

The [[Bonobo]], which has a [[matriarchal]] society (unusual amongst apes), is a fully [[bisexual]] species -- both males and females engage in heterosexual and homosexual behavior, being noted for [[lesbianism]] in particular. About 60% of all sexual activity in this species is between two or more females. While the homosexual bonding system in Bonobos represent the highest frequency of homosexuality known in any species, homosexuality has been reported for all [[great apes]] (a group which includes [[human]]s), as well as a number of other [[primate]] species.<ref name=penisfencing /><ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref name=ancestor>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |chapter=Chimpanzees}}</ref><ref name=songweaver>{{cite web|url= http://songweaver.com/info/bonobos.html|title= Bonobo Sex and Society|accessdate= 2006-07-17|author= Frans B. M. de Waal|authorlink= Frans de Waal |year= 1995|month= March|work= Scientific American|pages= 82-88}}</ref><ref>Frans de Waal, "Bonobo Sex and Society" in ''Scientific American'' (March 1995), p. 82ff</ref><ref>[http://www.primates.com/bonobos/bonobosexsoc.html The behavior of a close relative challenges assumptions about male supremacy in human evolution]</ref><ref>[http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm Courtney Laird, "Social Organization"]</ref><ref> Stanford, C. B. (1998). The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos. Current Anthropology 39: 399–407.</ref><ref> Kano, Takayoshi (1992). The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.</ref>

====Bottlenose Dolphins====
[[Bottlenose Dolphin]] males have been observed working in pairs or larger groups to follow and/or restrict the movement of a female for weeks at a time, waiting for her to become sexually receptive. The same pairs/groups have also been observed engaging in ardent sexual play with each other.

Janet Mann, [[Georgetown University]] professor of biology and psychology, argues that the strong personal behavior among male dolphin calves is about bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins"/> She cites studies showing that these dolphins later in life as adults are in a sense bisexual, and the male bonds forged earlier in life work together for protection as well as locating females to reproduce with.

====Elephants====
African, as well as Asiatic males will engage in same-sex bonding and mounting. Such encounters are often associated with affectionate interactions, such as kissing, trunk intertwining, and placing trunks in each other's mouths. Males, who in elephants live apart from the general flock, often form "companionships", consisting of an older individual and one or sometimes two younger, attendant males with sexual behaviour being an important part of the social dynamic. Unlike heterosexual relations, which are always of a fleeting nature, the relationships between males may last for years. The encounters are analogous to heterosexual bouts, one male often extending his trunk along the other's back and pushing forward with his tusks to signify his intention to mount. Same-sex relations are common and frequent in both sexes, with Asiatic elephants in captivity devoting roughly 45% of sexual encounters to same-sex activity.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.427-430</ref>

====Giraffes====
Male giraffes have been observed to engage in remarkably high frequencies of homosexual behavior. After aggressive "necking", it is common for two males giraffes to caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.<ref>Coe, M.J. (1967). "Necking" behavior in the giraffe." Journal of Zoology, London 151: 313-321.</ref> In one study, up to 94% of observed mounting incidents took place between two males. The proportion of same sex activities varied between 30 and 75%, and at any given time one in twenty males were engaged in non-combative necking behaviour with another male. Only 1% of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.391-393.
</ref>

====Humans====
''See [[Homosexuality]]''

====Japanese Macaque====
With the [[Japanese Macaque]], also known as the "snow [[monkey]]", [[Homosexuality|same-sex relations]] are frequent, though rates vary between troupes. Females will form "consortships" characterized by affectionate social and sexual activities. In some troops up to one quarter of the females will form such bonds, which will vary in duration from a few days to a few weeks. Often, strong and lasting friendships will result from such pairings. Males also have same-sex relations, typically with multiple partners of the same age. Affectionate and playful activities are associated with such relations.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305</ref>

====Lions====
[[Image:Lions - melbourne zoo.jpg|left|thumb|A group of male [[lion]]s at the [[Melbourne]] zoo.]]
Both male and female lions have been seen to interact [[animal sexuality|homosexually]].<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305. In his discussion of lion same-sex relations, Bagemihl is making use of published work by: J.B. Cooper, "An Exploratory Study on African Lions" in ''Comparative Psychology Monographs'' 17:1-48; R.L. Eaton, "The Biology and Social Behavior of Reproduction in the Lion" in Eaton, ed. ''The World's Cats,'' vol. II; pp.3-58; Seattle, 1974; G.B. Schaller, ''The Serengeti Lion''; University of Chicago Press, 1972</ref><ref>
{{cite web | last =Srivastav | first =Suvira | title =Lion, Without Lioness | work =TerraGreen: News to Save the Earth | publisher = Terragreen | date = [[15 December]]-[[31 December]] [[2001]] | url = http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/terragreen/issue3/feature.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-02}}</ref> Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and thrusting. About 8% of mountings have been observed to occur with other males. Pairings between females are held to be fairly common in captivity but have not been observed in the wild.

====Polecat====
[[European polecat]]s ''Mustela putorius'' were found to engage homosexuality in non-sibling animals. Deliberate exclusive homosexuality with mounting and anal penetration in this solitary species apparently serves no adaptive function<ref>[[Thierry Lodé]] "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacob, Paris, 2006.ISBN 2-7381-1901-8</ref>.

====Sheep====
An October 2003 study by Dr. Charles E. Roselli et al. (Oregon Health and Science University) states that homosexuality in male sheep (found in 8% of rams) is associated with a region in the rams' brains which the authors call the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) which is half the size of the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep.<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=[[Endocrinology]], Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health & Science University (C.E.R., K.L., J.A.R.), Portland, Oregon; Department of Animal Sciences, Oregon State University (F.S.), Corvallis, Oregon; and Agricultural Research Service, United States Sheep Experiment Station (J.N.S.), Dubois, Idaho.
| date=2004, Vol. 145, No. 2 478-483
| url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>
[[Image:St Croix sheep.jpg|thumb|left|A pair of [[St. Croix]] [[ewe]]s.]]
It should be noted that some{{Who|date=November 2008}} view this study to be flawed in that the determination of homosexuality within the sheep (sample population of 27 for the study) was to have animals who were unable to mount female ewes placed in a cage with two stanchioned males and two unstanchioned females (i.e. the males could not move or struggle while the females could). Given the aggressive nature of sheep copulation, the uneven treatment of males and females, many see this as simply evidence that the sheep in question were unable to be aggressive enough to mount females. The results were situational sexuality, unlike the bonds seen in human homosexuality.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}

The scientists found that, "The oSDN in rams that preferred females was significantly larger and contained more [[neurons]] than in male-oriented rams and ewes. In addition, the oSDN of the female-oriented rams expressed higher levels of [[aromatase]], a substance that converts [[testosterone]] to [[estradiol]], a form of [[estrogen]] which is believed to facilitate typical male sexual behaviors. [[Aromatase]] expression was no different between male-oriented rams and ewes."

"The dense cluster of neurons that comprise the oSDN express cytochrome P450 aromatase. Aromatase mRNA levels in the oSDN were significantly greater in female-oriented rams than in ewes, whereas male-oriented rams exhibited intermediate levels of expression." These results suggest that "...naturally occurring variations in sexual partner preferences may be related to differences in brain anatomy and its capacity for estrogen synthesis."<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic"/> As noted prior, given the potential unagressiveness of the male population in question, the differing aromatase levels may also have been evidence of aggression levels, not sexuality. It should also be noted that the results of this study have not been confirmed by other studies.

====Spotted Hyena====
[[Image:Spotted hyena2.jpg|right|thumb|The '''Spotted Hyena''' is a moderately large, terrestrial carnivore native to [[Africa]].]]
The family structure of the female [[Spotted Hyena]] is matriarchal, and dominance relationships with strong sexual elements are routinely observed between related females. Due largely to the female [[spotted hyena#Reproduction|spotted hyena]]'s unique [[urogenital system]], which looks more like a penis than a vagina, early naturalists thought hyenas were [[hermaphrodite]]s or commonly practiced [[homosexuality]].<ref name="Like mother, like cubs">{{cite web
| title= Like mother, like cubs: Hyena alpha moms jumpstart cubs with hormonal jolt
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]]
| year=2006
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> Early writings such as [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' and the ''[[Physiologus]]'' suggested that the hyena continually changed its sex and nature from male to female and back again. In ''[[Paedagogus]]'', Clement of Alexandria noted that the hyena (along with the [[hare]]) was "quite obsessed with sexual intercourse." Many Europeans associated the hyena with sexual deformity, prostitution, deviant sexual behavior, and even witchcraft. Research has shown that "in contrast to most other female mammals, female Crocuta are male-like in appearance, larger than males, and substantially more aggressive,"<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction">{{cite web
| last =Holekamp
| first =Kay E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction and Overview
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]], Department of [[Zoology]]
| year=2003
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> and they have "been [[masculine|masculinized]] without being [[Femininity|defeminized]].”<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/>

Study of this unique genitalia and aggressive behavior in the female hyena has led to the understanding that more aggressive females are better able to compete for resources, including food and mating partners.<ref name="Top Dogs: Steroid hormones">{{cite web
| last =Selim
| first =Jocelyn
| title=Top Dogs: Steroid hormones give hyenas a head start.
| publisher=[[Discover Magazine]]
| date=2006-04-28
| url=http://discovermagazine.com/2006/apr/hormone-hyenas
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/> Research has shown that "elevated levels of [[testosterone]] [[in utero]]"<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal"/> contribute to extra aggressiveness; both males and females mount members of the same sex,<ref name="Wilson, Sexing the Hyena">{{cite web
| title=Wilson, Sexing the Hyena - "The males mount each other"
| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
| date=
| url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?SIGNS032803
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal">{{cite web
| last =Forger
| first =Nancy G.
| coauthors =Laurence G. Frank, S. Marc Breedlove, Stephen E. Glickman
| title=Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal Muscles and Motoneurons in Spotted Hyenas
| publisher=The Journal of Comparative Neurology
| date=[[6 December]] [[1998]], Volume 375, Issue 2 , Pages 333 - 343
| url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19961111)375:2%3C333::AID-CNE11%3E3.0.CO;2-W
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> who in turn are possibly acting more [[submissive]] because of lower levels of testosterone in utero.<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction"/>

===Others===
====Dragonflies====
[[Image:Head of dragonfly 2.jpg|thumb|The head of Darner Dragonfly (Basiaeschna janata).]]
Male homosexuality has been inferred in several species of [[dragonflies]] (the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Odonata]]). The cloacal pinchers of male damselflies and dragonflies inflict characteristic head damage to females during sex. A survey of 11 species of damsel and dragonflies<ref>Dunkle, S.W. (1991), Head damage from mating attempts in dragonflies (Odonata:Anisoptera). Entomological News 102, pp. 37-41</ref><ref>Utzeri, C. & C. Belfiore (1990): Anomalous tandems in Odonata. Fragmenta Entomologica 22(2), pp. 271-288</ref> has revealed such mating damages in 20 to 80 % of the males too, indicating a fairly high occurrence of sexual coupling between males.

====Fruit flies====
Male ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' flies bearing two copies of a mutant allele in the [[Fruitless (gene)|fruitless]] gene court and attempt to mate exclusively with other males.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gailey |first=D. A.|coauthors=Hall |date=J.C.|title=Behavior and Cytogenetics of fruitless in Drosophila melanogaster: Different Courtship Defects Caused by Separate, Closely Linked Lesions|journal=Genetics |publisher=The Genetics Society of America|volume=Vol 121, |pages=773-785|url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/4/773|accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref> The genetic basis of animal homosexuality has been studied in the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''.<ref name="yamamoto3">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Nakano Y |title=Sexual behavior mutants revisited: molecular and cellular basis of Drosophila mating |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=56 |issue=7-8 |pages=634–46 |year=1999 |pmid=11212311 |doi=10.1007/s000180050458}}</ref> Here, multiple genes have been identified that can cause homosexual courtship and mating.<ref name=Yamamoto>{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Ito H, Fujitani K |title=Genetic dissection of sexual orientation: behavioral, cellular, and molecular approaches in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Neurosci. Res. |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=95–107 |year=1996 |pmid=8953572 |doi=10.1016/S0168-0102(96)01087-5}}</ref> These genes are thought to control behavior through [[pheromone]]s as well as altering the structure of the animal's brains.<ref name="ferveur">{{cite journal |author=Ferveur JF, Savarit F, O'Kane CJ, Sureau G, Greenspan RJ, Jallon JM |title=Genetic feminization of pheromones and its behavioral consequences in Drosophila males |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5318 |pages=1555–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9171057 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5318.1555}}</ref><ref name="yamamoto2">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Fujitani K, Usui K, Ito H, Nakano Y |title=From behavior to development: genes for sexual behavior define the neuronal sexual switch in Drosophila |journal=Mech. Dev. |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=135–46 |year=1998 |pmid=9622612 |doi=10.1016/S0925-4773(98)00042-2}}</ref> These studies have also investigated the influence of environment on the likelihood of flies displaying homosexual behavior.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal |author=Zhang SD, Odenwald WF |title=Misexpression of the white (w) gene triggers male-male courtship in Drosophila |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=92 |issue=12 |pages=5525–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7777542 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=7777542 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.12.5525}}</ref><ref name="svetec">{{cite journal |author=Svetec N, Ferveur JF |title=Social experience and pheromonal perception can change male-male interactions in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=208 |issue=Pt 5 |pages=891–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15755887 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/5/891 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01454}}</ref>

====Lizards====
Whiptail lizard ([[Teiidae]] genus) females have the ability to reproduce through [[parthenogenesis]] and as such males are rare and sexual breeding non-standard.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cole|first=Charles J.|coauthors=Townsend, Carol R.|date=9 May 2005|title=Parthenogenetic lizards as vertebrate systems |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology|publisher=Wiley Interscience|volume=256 |issue=S4|pages=174-176|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/110491269/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref> Females engage in sexual behavior to stimulate [[ovulation]], with their behavior following their hormonal cycles; during low levels of estrogen, these (female) lizards engage in "masculine" sexual roles. Those animals with currently high estrogen levels assume "feminine" sexual roles.

Lizards that perform the courtship ritual have greater fertility than those kept in isolation due to an increase in hormones triggered by the sexual behaviors. So, even though asexual whiptail lizards populations lack males, sexual stimuli still increase reproductive success.

From an [[evolutionary]] standpoint, these females are passing their full genetic code to all of their offspring (rather than the 50% of genes that would be passed in sexual reproduction). Certain species of [[gecko]] also reproduce by parthenogenesis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/06/050608053415.htm|title=Geckos: It's Not Always About Sex|last=Anon|date=9 June 2005|work=Science Daily|publisher=Lewis & Clark College |accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Xq28]]
* [[Against Nature?]]
* [[Biology and sexual orientation]]
* [[Freemartin]]
* [[Homosexuality and psychology]]
* [[Innate bisexuality]]
* [[Non-Human Animal Sexuality]]
* [[Non-human primate experiments]]
* [[Norms of reaction]]
* [[Plant sexuality]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
* [[Sexual orientation and medicine]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.salon.com/it/feature/1999/03/cov_15featurea.html biologists' view]
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0722_040722_gayanimal.html National Geographic]
* [http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Bartos_Holeckova_2006.pdf Behaviour in Animals An Evolutionary Perspective]
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=bisexual-species Driscoll, E.V. (2008), Bisexual Species, Scientific American Mind, 19(3), p. 68-73.]

[[Category:Sexual orientation and science]]
[[Category:Ethology]]

[[cy:Cyfunrywioldeb mewn anifeiliaid]]
[[da:Homoseksualitet blandt dyr]]
[[es:Homosexualidad en animales]]
[[id:Homoseksualitas pada binatang]]
[[it:Omosessualità negli animali]]
[[he:הומוסקסואליות בבעלי חיים]]
[[ja:動物の同性愛]]
[[pl:Homoseksualne zachowania zwierząt]]
[[pt:Homossexualidade no reino animal]]
[[ru:Гомосексуальность у животных]]

Sarah Monette

2008-02-28T14:27:48Z

TechBear: Undid revision 194204592 by Deb (talk)

{{US-novelist-stub}}

'''Sarah Monette''' is an American [[novel]]ist and [[short story]] [[author]] writing mostly in the genres of [[fantasy]] and [[Horror fiction|horror]]. She was born and raised in [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee]]. In 2004 she earned a PhD in English literature, specializing in Renaissance Drama and writing her dissertation on ghosts in English Renaissance revenge tragedy. She double-majored in Classics and Literature (a cross-departmental program between French, English, and Comparative Literature) in college. She is currently teaching a course on seventeenth century literature.

She won the Spectrum award in 2003 for her short story ‘Three Letters from the Queen of Elfland.' Her first novel, [[Mélusine (novel)|'''''Mélusine''''']] was published by Ace Books in August 2005, earning starred reviews in Publisher's Weekly and Booklist and a place in Locus's Recommended Reading list for 2005. The sequel, [[The Virtu (novel)|'''''The Virtu''''']], followed in July 2006, also earning starred reviews and making Locus's Recommended Reading lists for 2006. Her short stories have been published in Strange Horizons, Alchemy, and Lady Churchill's Rosebud Wristlet, among other venues, and have received four Honorable Mentions from The Year's Best Fantasy and Horror (eds. Datlow, Grant, and Link). Her poem "Night Train: Heading West" appeared in The Year's Best Fantasy and Horror XIX, and a story she co-wrote with 2005 Campbell winner Elizabeth Bear, "The Ile of Dogges," appeared in The Year's Best SF (ed. Dozois) 2007.

==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*[[Mélusine (novel)|'''''Mélusine''''']] (Ace Books, 2005)
*[[The Virtu (novel)|'''''The Virtu''''']] (Ace Books, 2006)
*[[The Mirador (novel)|'''''The Mirador''''']] (Ace Books, 2007)
* '''''Corambis''''' (Ace Books, publish date 2009)
*[[A Companion to Wolves(novel)|'''''A Companion to Wolves''''']] (Tor Books, October, 2007)

===Short Stories===
*"Amante Dorée", [[Paradox Magazine]] 10 (Winter 2006)
*"Ashes, Ashes" [[All Hallows: The Journal of the Ghost Story Society]]
*"The Bone Key" [[SAY... What's the Combination?]] (May 2007)
*"Boojum" [with Elizabeth Bear]. [[Fast Ships, Black Sails]], eds. Jeff and Ann VanderMeer, [[Night Shade Books]]
*"Bringing Helena Back" [[All Hallows: The Journal of the Ghost Story Society]] 35 (February 2004)
*"Draco campestris" [http://www.strangehorizons.com/2006/20060807/draco-f.shtml] [[Strange Horizons]] (August 2006)
*"Drowning Palmer" [[All Hallows: The Journal of the Ghost Story Society]] 41 (February 2006)
*"Elegy for a Demon Lover" [[Tales of the Unanticipated]] 26 (October 2005)
*"A Gift of Wings" [[The Queen in Winter]] [[Ace Books]], 2006
*"The Green Glass Paperweight" [[Tales of the Unanticipated]] 25 (August 2004)
*"The Half-Sister" [[Lady Churchill's Rosebud Wristlet]] 15 (January 2005)
*"The Ile of Dogges" (with Elizabeth Bear). [[Aeon]] 7 (May 2006)
*"The Inheritance of Barnabas Wilcox" [[Lovecraft's Weird Mysteries]] 7 (May 2004)
*"Katabasis: Seraphic Trains" [[Tales of the Unanticipated]] 27 (2006)
*"Letter from a Teddy Bear on Veterans' Day" [http://www.ideomancer.com/main/vol5issue3/monette/one.html] [[Ideomancer]] 5.3 (September 2006)
*"A Light in Troy" [http://clarkesworldmagazine.com/monette_10_06.html] [[Clarkesworld Magazine]] 1 (October 2006)
*"Listening to Bone" [[The Bone Key]], [[Prime Books]], 2007
*"National Geographic On Assignment: Mermaids of the Old West." ''Fictitious Force'' 2 (Spring 2006)
*"A Night in Electric Squidland" [http://literary.erictmarin.com/archives/Issue%2015/squidland.htm] [[Lone Star Stories]] 15 (June 2006)
*"No Man's Land" [[Fictitious Force]]
*"Queen of Swords" [http://www.sarahmonette.com/qos.html] [[Alienskin Magazine]] (November 2003)
*"The Séance at Chisholm End" [[Alchemy Magazine]] 3 (May 2006)
*"Sidhe Tigers" [[Lady Churchill's Rosebud Wristlet]] 13 (November 2003)
*"Somewhere Beneath Those Waves Was Her Home" [[Fantasy Magazine]] (2007)
*"Straw" [http://www.strangehorizons.com/2004/20040628/straw.shtml] [[Strange Horizons]] (June 2004)
*"Three Letters from the Queen of Elfland" [[Lady Churchill's Rosebud Wristlet]] 11 (November 2002)
*"Under the Beansidhe's Pillow" [http://literary.erictmarin.com/archives/Issue%2022/pillow.htm] [[Lone Star Stories]] 22 (August 2007)
*"The Venebretti Necklace" [[Alchemy Magazine]] 2 (September 2004)
*"Wait for Me" [http://www.sarahmonette.com/wfm.html] [[Naked Snake Online]] (September 2004)
*"The Wall of Clouds" [[Alchemy Magazine]] 1 (December 2003)

===Collections===
*[[The Bone Key (collection)|'''''The Bone Key''''']] ([[Prime Books]], publish date June, 2007)

==External links==
*[http://www.sarahmonette.com/ Sarah Monette's website, ''Labyrinthine'']

*[http://www.fantasybookspot.com/node/250 August 2005 interview] conducted by Jay Tomio of Fantasy Bookspot
*[http://www.wotmania.com/fantasymessageboardshowmessage.asp?MessageID=192540 Part I of August 2007 interview] conducted by wotmania.com
*[http://www.wotmania.com/fantasymessageboardshowmessage.asp?MessageID=192848 Part II of August 2007 interview] conducted by wotmania.com

Sarah Monette

2007-12-23T00:30:07Z

TechBear: (Grumble about Smackbot removing the category)

{{US-novelist-stub}}

'''Sarah Monette''' is an American [[novel]]ist and [[short story]] [[author]] writing mostly in the genres of [[fantasy]] and [[Horror fiction|horror]]. She was born and raised in [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee]]. In 2004 she earned a PhD in English literature, specializing in Renaissance Drama and writing her dissertation on ghosts in English Renaissance revenge tragedy. She double-majored in Classics and Literature (a cross-departmental program between French, English, and Comparative Literature) in college. She is currently teaching a course on seventeenth century literature.

She won the Spectrum award in 2003 for her short story ‘Three Letters from the Queen of Elfland.' Her first novel, [[Mélusine (novel)|'''''Mélusine''''']] was published by Ace Books in August 2005, earning starred reviews in Publisher's Weekly and Booklist and a place in Locus's Recommended Reading list for 2005. The sequel, [[The Virtu (novel)|'''''The Virtu''''']], followed in July 2006, also earning starred reviews and making Locus's Recommended Reading lists for 2006. Her short stories have been published in Strange Horizons, Alchemy, and Lady Churchill's Rosebud Wristlet, among other venues, and have received four Honorable Mentions from The Year's Best Fantasy and Horror (eds. Datlow, Grant, and Link). Her poem "Night Train: Heading West" appeared in The Year's Best Fantasy and Horror XIX, and a story she co-wrote with 2005 Campbell winner Elizabeth Bear, "The Ile of Dogges," appeared in The Year's Best SF (ed. Dozois) 2007.

==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*[[Mélusine (novel)|'''''Mélusine''''']] (Ace Books, 2005)
*[[The Virtu (novel)|'''''The Virtu''''']] (Ace Books, 2006)
*[[The Mirador (novel)|'''''The Mirador''''']] (Ace Books, 2007)
* '''''Corambis''''' (Ace Books, publish date 2009)
*[[A Companion to Wolves(novel)|'''''A Companion to Wolves''''']] (Tor Books, October, 2007)

===Short Stories===
*"Amante Dorée", [[Paradox Magazine]] 10 (Winter 2006)
*"Ashes, Ashes" [[All Hallows: The Journal of the Ghost Story Society]]
*"The Bone Key" [[SAY... What's the Combination?]] (May 2007)
*"Boojum" [with Elizabeth Bear]. [[Fast Ships, Black Sails]], eds. Jeff and Ann VanderMeer, [[Night Shade Books]]
*"Bringing Helena Back" [[All Hallows: The Journal of the Ghost Story Society]] 35 (February 2004)
*"Draco campestris" [http://www.strangehorizons.com/2006/20060807/draco-f.shtml] [[Strange Horizons]] (August 2006)
*"Drowning Palmer" [[All Hallows: The Journal of the Ghost Story Society]] 41 (February 2006)
*"Elegy for a Demon Lover" [[Tales of the Unanticipated]] 26 (October 2005)
*"A Gift of Wings" [[The Queen in Winter]] [[Ace Books]], 2006
*"The Green Glass Paperweight" [[Tales of the Unanticipated]] 25 (August 2004)
*"The Half-Sister" [[Lady Churchill's Rosebud Wristlet]] 15 (January 2005)
*"The Ile of Dogges" (with Elizabeth Bear). [[Aeon]] 7 (May 2006)
*"The Inheritance of Barnabas Wilcox" [[Lovecraft's Weird Mysteries]] 7 (May 2004)
*"Katabasis: Seraphic Trains" [[Tales of the Unanticipated]] 27 (2006)
*"Letter from a Teddy Bear on Veterans' Day" [http://www.ideomancer.com/main/vol5issue3/monette/one.html] [[Ideomancer]] 5.3 (September 2006)
*"A Light in Troy" [http://clarkesworldmagazine.com/monette_10_06.html] [[Clarkesworld Magazine]] 1 (October 2006)
*"Listening to Bone" [[The Bone Key]], [[Prime Books]], 2007
*"National Geographic On Assignment: Mermaids of the Old West." [[Fictitious Force]] 2 (Spring 2006)
*"A Night in Electric Squidland" [http://literary.erictmarin.com/archives/Issue%2015/squidland.htm] [[Lone Star Stories]] 15 (June 2006)
*"No Man's Land" [[Fictitious Force]]
*"Queen of Swords" [http://www.sarahmonette.com/qos.html] [[Alienskin Magazine]] (November 2003)
*"The Séance at Chisholm End" [[Alchemy Magazine]] 3 (May 2006)
*"Sidhe Tigers" [[Lady Churchill's Rosebud Wristlet]] 13 (November 2003)
*"Somewhere Beneath Those Waves Was Her Home" [[Fantasy Magazine]] (2007)
*"Straw" [http://www.strangehorizons.com/2004/20040628/straw.shtml] [[Strange Horizons]] (June 2004)
*"Three Letters from the Queen of Elfland" [[Lady Churchill's Rosebud Wristlet]] 11 (November 2002)
*"Under the Beansidhe's Pillow" [http://literary.erictmarin.com/archives/Issue%2022/pillow.htm] [[Lone Star Stories]] 22 (August 2007)
*"The Venebretti Necklace" [[Alchemy Magazine]] 2 (September 2004)
*"Wait for Me" [http://www.sarahmonette.com/wfm.html] [[Naked Snake Online]] (September 2004)
*"The Wall of Clouds" [[Alchemy Magazine]] 1 (December 2003)

===Collections===
*[[The Bone Key (collection)|'''''The Bone Key''''']] ([[Prime Books]], publish date June, 2007)

==External links==
*[http://www.sarahmonette.com/ Sarah Monette's website, ''Labyrinthine'']

*[http://www.fantasybookspot.com/node/250 August 2005 interview] conducted by Jay Tomio of Fantasy Bookspot
*[http://www.wotmania.com/fantasymessageboardshowmessage.asp?MessageID=192540 Part I of August 2007 interview] conducted by wotmania.com
*[http://www.wotmania.com/fantasymessageboardshowmessage.asp?MessageID=192848 Part II of August 2007 interview] conducted by wotmania.com

Homosexuelles Verhalten bei Tieren

2007-12-20T20:24:00Z

TechBear: Undid revision 179245362 by 70.50.39.7 (talk) Revert vandalism.

[[Image:Bonobo 011.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Bonobo]] displays the highest rate of homosexual activity in any animal, being a fully [[bisexual]] species.<ref name=penisfencing>{{cite book | author= Frans B. M. de Waal |authorlink= Frans de Waal| title=The ape and the sushi master : cultural reflections by a primatologist | year 2001 | publisher=Basic Books | chapter=Bonobos and Fig Leaves}}</ref><ref>[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/aforest/bonobo.html Bonobos at the Columbus Zoo]</ref>]]
[[Homosexual]] (as well as [[bisexual]]) behavior is widespread in the [[animal kingdom]].<ref name="‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches">{{cite web
| last =Gordon
| first =Dr Dennis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches one million species
| publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]]
| date=[[10 April]] [[2007]]
| url
=http://www.niwascience.co.nz/pubs/mr/archive/2007-04-10-3
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> [[Non-human animal sexual behavior|Animal sexual behavior]] takes many different forms, even within the same [[species]] and the motivations for and implications of their behaviors have yet to be fully understood. A [[1999]] review by researcher [[Bruce Bagemihl]] shows that homosexual behavior, not necessarily [[sex]], has been observed in close to 1500 species, ranging from [[primates]] to [[Acanthocephala|gut worms]], and is well documented for 500 of them.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; ISBN 0312192398</ref><ref name="Biological Exuberance: Animal">{{cite web
| last =Harrold
| first =Max
| title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity
| publisher=[[The Advocate]], reprinted in Highbeam Encyclopedia
| date=2/16/1999
| url
=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-53877996.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

Homosexuality in animals is seen as controversial because some assert it points to the naturalness of [[Human sexuality|homosexuality in humans]], while others counter that it has no implications and is nonsensical to use animal behavior to justify what is or is not [[Morality|immoral]].<ref name="The Animal Homosexuality Myth">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=The Animal Homosexuality Myth
| publisher=[[NARTH]], National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality
| date=[[21 September]] [[2004]]
| url
=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref><ref name="Defending A Higher Law">{{cite web
| last =Solimeo
| first =Luiz Sérgio
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Defending A Higher Law: Why We Must Resist Same-Sex "Marriage" and the Homosexual Movement
| publisher=Spring Grove, Penn.: The American TFP
| date=2004, ISBN 187790533X
| url
=http://www.narth.com/docs/animalmyth.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>
{{Sexual orientation}}
__TOC__

==Applying the term homosexual to animals==
The term ''[[homosexual]]'' was coined in [[Prussia]] in the [[1870's]] to describe same-sex sexual attraction and sexual behaviour in humans. Its use in animal studies has been controversial for two main reasons: animal sexuality and motivating factors have been and remain poorly understood, and the term has strong cultural implication in western society that are irrelevant for other species than [[human]]s.<ref name="Rethinking Sex">{{cite web
| last =Dorit
| first =Robert
| title= Rethinking Sex
| publisher=[[American Scientist]]
| date=September-October 2004
| url
=http://www.americanscientist.org/template/BookReviewTypeDetail/assetid/35487
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref>

Animal preference and motivation is always inferred from behaviour. Thus homosexual behaviour has been given a number of terms over the years. The correct usage of the term ''homosexual'' is that an animal ''exhibit homosexual behaviour'', however this article conform to the usage by modern research <ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.122-166</ref><ref>[[Joan Roughgarden]], Evolutions rainbow: Diversity, gender and sexuality in nature and people, [[University of California Press]], Berkeley, 2004; pp.13-183</ref><ref>Vasey, Paul L. (1995), Homosexual behaviour in primates: A review of evidence and theory, [[International Journal of Primatology]] 16: p 173-204</ref><ref>Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. ISBN-10: 0521864461</ref> applying the term ''homosexuality'' to all sexual behaviour ([[copulation]], [[genitals|genital]] stimulation, mating games and sexual [[Display (zoology)|display behaviour]]) between animals of the same sex.

==Research on homosexual behavior in animals==
The presence of [[same-sex sexual behavior]] was not 'officially' observed on a large scale until recent times, possibly due to [[Observer effect|observer bias]] caused by social attitudes to [[same-sex sexual behavior]]. It appears to be widespread amongst social [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, particularly the sea mammals and the [[primates]].

<blockquote>"No species has been found in which homosexual behaviour has not been shown to exist, with the exception of species that never have sex at all, such as [[sea urchin]]s and [[aphis]]. Moreover, a part of the animal kingdom is [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]], truly bisexual. For them, homosexuality is not an issue."<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice">{{cite web
| url = http://www.news-medical.net/?id=20718
| title = 1,500 Animal Species Practice Homosexuality
| date = [[2006-10-23]]
| publisher = News-medical.net
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref></blockquote>

Some researchers believe it to have its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits shown in [[prison sexuality]]. Others, particularly [[Joan Roughgarden]], [[Bruce Bagemihl]] and [[Paul Vasey]] suggest the social function of sex (both homosexual and heterosexual) is not necessarily connected to dominance, but serves to strengthen alliances and social ties within a flock. Others have argued that social organization theory is inadequate because it cannot account for some homosexual behaviors, for example, [[penguin]] species where same-sex individuals mate for life and refuse to pair with females when given the chance.<ref name="Gay Penguins Resist">{{cite web
| title=Gay Penguins Resist 'Aversion Therapy'
| publisher=365 Gay.com
| date=[[February 11]] [[2005]]
| url
=http://www.365gay.com/newscon05/02/021105penguins.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> While reports on many such mating scenarios are still only anecdotal, a growing body of scientific work confirm that permanent homosexuality occur in species with permanent pair bonds, but also in non-monogamous species like sheep.

One report on sheep cited below states:
:''"Approximately 8% of rams exhibit sexual preferences [that is, even when given a choice] for male partners (male-oriented rams) in contrast to most rams, which prefer female partners (female-oriented rams). We identified a cell group within the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus of age-matched adult sheep that was significantly larger in adult rams than in ewes..."''<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=Journal of [[Endocrinology]], Endocrine Society, Bethesda, MD,
| date=2004, vol. 145, no2, pp. 478-483
| url
=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15419685
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> In fact, apparent homosexual individuals are known from all of the traditional domestic species.

==Cross-species sex==
Although a commonly held conception is that animals' sexuality is instinctive almost to the point of being mechanistic, research regularly records that many animals are sexual opportunists, and may show an interest in other partners than their own or related species. This is more visible in domesticated species, as domestication commonly selects for increased breeding rate (and so an accelerated breeding cycle has commonly arisen in domesticated species over the centuries), and also because these species are easier to witness by humans. Nevertheless non-domesticated animals have been observed to attempt sexual activity with other species, or indeed inanimate objects. This form of cross-species sex has occasionally been observed in the wild, however most observations are from animals in captivity (such as the zoo).

If the pair are a male and a female, [[hybrid]] offspring can result if the two species are related. However, this offspring may not be able to breed itself. The [[mule]], for example (horse/donkey cross) is normally sterile, whilst the [[liger]] (lion/tiger cross) is sometimes fertile. Novosibirsk zoo director Rostislav Shilo says on the liger (born in its zoo); “It’s just that the lion and the tiger live in neighboring caves in the Novosibirsk zoo, and got used to each other. It’s practically impossible in the wild.”. Cross species sex in the wild has been observed between several species, among them [[blue tit]] and [[great tit]], [[Chimpanzee]]s and [[olive baboon]]s and [[Boto|Amazon River Dolphin]] and the [[tucuxi]] dolphin.

==Some selected species and groups==
{{see also|List of animals displaying homosexual behavior}}
===American Bison===
[[Image:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|The American Bison is a [[bovine]] [[mammal]] which commonly displays homosexual behavior.]]
Courtship, mounting, and full [[anal sex|anal penetration]] between bulls has been noted to occur among [[American Bison]]. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behaviour, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season."<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous">{{cite web
| last =Bagemihl
| first =Bruce
| title= Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous Cassowaries: Homosexual/transgendered animals and indigenous knowledge
| publisher=[[Whole Earth Magazine]]
| date=Spring 2000
| url
=http://www.wholeearthmag.com/ArticleBin/338.html
| accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref> Also, mounting of one female by another is common among [[cattle]]. Inter-sexual bison also occur. The [[Lakota people|Lakota]] refer to them as ''pte winkte'' —''pte'' meaning bison and ''winkte'' designating [[two-spirit]]— thereby drawing an explicit parallel between [[transgender]] in animals and people.<ref name="Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous"/>

===Birds===
[[Image:Black Swans.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Black Swan]], ''Cygnus atratus'' is a large [[Wildfowl|waterbird]] which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of [[Australia]].]]
An estimated one-quarter of all [[black swans]] pairings are homosexual and they steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.<ref name="Gay animals out of the closet?">{{cite web
| last =Goudarzi
| first =Sara
| title=Gay animals out of the closet?: First-ever museum display shows 51 species exhibiting homosexuality
| publisher=[[MSNBC]]
| date=[[16 November]] [[2006]]
| url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15750604/
| accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> More of their cygnets survive to adulthood than those of different-sex pairs possibly due to their superior ability to defend large portions of land.

In early February [[2004]] the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported a male pair of [[chinstrap penguin]]s in the [[Central Park Zoo]] in [[New York City]] were partnered and even successfully hatched a female chick from an egg.<ref name="Love That Dare Not Squeak">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Love That Dare Not Squeak Its Name
| publisher=[[New York Times]]
| date=[[February 7]] [[2004]]
| url
=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0C1EF83A5F0C748CDDAB0894DC404482 | accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> Other penguins in New York have also been<ref name="They're in love. They're gay">{{cite web
| title=They're in love. They're gay. They're penguins... And they're not alone.
| publisher=[[Columbia University]], Columbia News Service
| date=[[June 10]] [[2002]]
| url
=http://www.jrn.columbia.edu/studentwork/cns/2002-06-10/591.asp
| accessdate = 2006-07-21}}</ref> reported to be forming same-sex pairs.

Zoos in [[Japan]] and [[Germany]] have also documented gay male penguin couples.<ref name="Gay Penguins Resist"/> The couples have been shown to build nests together and use a stone to replace an egg in the nest. Researchers at [[Rikkyo University]] in [[Tokyo]], found 20 gay pairs at 16 major aquariums and zoos in Japan. Bremerhaven Zoo in Germany attempted to break up the gay male couples by importing female penguins from [[Sweden]] and separating the male couples, they were unsuccessful. The zoo director stated the relationships were too strong between the gay couples.

Studies have shown that 10 to 15 percent of female western gulls in some populations in the wild are [[lesbian]].<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins">{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Dinitia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate
| publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]], reprinted from New York Times
| date=[[February 7]] [[2004]]
| url
=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>

===Bonobo and other apes===
The [[bonobo]], which has a [[matriarchal]] society (unusual amongst apes), is a fully [[bisexual]] species -- both males and females engage in heterosexual and homosexual behavior, being noted for [[lesbianism]] in particular. About 60% of all sexual activity in this species is between two or more females. While the homosexual bonding system in bonobos represent the highest frequency of homosexuality known in any species, homosexuality has been reported for all [[great apes]], including [[human]]s, as well as a number of other [[primate]] species.<ref name=penisfencing>{{cite book | author= Frans B. M. de Waal |authorlink= Frans de Waal| title=The ape and the sushi master : cultural reflections by a primatologist | year 2001 | publisher=Basic Books | chapter=Bonobos and Fig Leaves}}</ref><ref>[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/aforest/bonobo.html Bonobos at the Columbus Zoo]</ref><ref name=ancestor>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |chapter=Chimpanzees}}</ref><ref name=songweaver>{{cite web|url= http://songweaver.com/info/bonobos.html|title= Bonobo Sex and Society|accessdate= 2006-07-17|author= Frans B. M. de Waal|authorlink= Frans de Waal |year= 1995|month= March|work= Scientific American|pages= 82-88}}</ref><ref>Frans de Waal, "Bonobo Sex and Society" in ''Scientific American'' (March 1995), p. 82ff</ref><ref>[http://www.primates.com/bonobos/bonobosexsoc.html The behavior of a close relative challenges assumptions about male supremacy in human evolution]</ref><ref>[http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm Courtney Laird, "Social Organization"]</ref><ref> Stanford, C. B. (1998). The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos. Current Anthropology 39: 399–407.</ref><ref> Kano, Takayoshi (1992). The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.</ref>

===Bottlenose Dolphins===
[[Bottlenose Dolphin]] males have been observed working in pairs or larger groups to follow and/or restrict the movement of a female for weeks at a time, waiting for her to become sexually receptive. The same pairs/groups have also been observed engaging in ardent sexual play with each other.

Janet Mann, [[Georgetown University]] professor of biology and psychology, argues that the strong personal behaviour among male dolphin calves is about bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context.<ref name="Central Park Zoo's gay penguins"/> She cites studies showing that these dolphins later in life as adults are in a sense bisexual, and the male bonds forged earlier in life work together for protection as well as locating females to reproduce with.

===Dragonflies===
[[Image:Head of dragonfly 2.jpg|thumb|The head of Darner Dragonfly (Basiaeschna janata).]]
Male homosexuality has been inferred in several species of [[dragonflies]] (the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Odonata]]). The cloacal pinchers of male damselflies and dragonflies inflict characteristic head damage to females during sex. A survey of 11 species of damsel and dragonflies<ref>Dunkle, S.W. (1991), Head damage from mating attempts in dragonflies (Odonata:Anisoptera). Entomological News 102, pp. 37-41</ref><ref>Utzeri, C. & C. Belfiore (1990): Anomalous tandems in Odonata. Fragmenta Entomologica 22(2), pp. 271-288</ref> has revealed such mating damages in 20 to 80 % of the males too, indicating a fairly high occurrence of sexual coupling between males.

===Elephants===
African, as well as Asiatic males will engage in same-sex bonding and mounting. Such encounters are often associated with affectionate interactions, such as kissing, trunk intertwining, and placing trunks in each other's mouths. The encounters are analogous to heterosexual bouts, one male often extending his trunk along the other's back and pushing forward with his tusks to signify his intention to mount. Unlike heterosexual relations, which are always of a fleeting nature, those between males result in a "companionship", consisting of an older individual and one or two younger, attendant males. Same-sex relations are common and frequent in both sexes, with Asiatic elephants in captivity devoting roughly 45% of sexual encounters to same-sex activity.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.427-430</ref>

===Fruit flies===
Male ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' flies bearing two copies of a mutant allele in the [[Fruitless (gene)|fruitless]] gene court and attempt to mate exclusively with other males.

===Giraffes===
[[Image:Two Giraffes.PNG|thumb|Two [[giraffes]] in [[Kenya]].]]
Researchers have treated homosexual behavior in animals as a [[taboo]] subject perhaps from innocent confusion or even from a fear of "being ridiculed by their colleagues."<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/> A case of overlooking behaviour is noted by [[Bruce Bagemihl]] describing mating giraffes where nine out of ten pairings occur between males.
<blockquote>"Every male that sniffed a female was reported as sex, while anal intercourse with orgasm between males was only "revolving around" [[dominance]], competition or [[greeting]]s.<ref name="1,500 Animal Species Practice"/></blockquote>

===Japanese Macaque===
With the [[Japanese Macaque]], also known as the "snow [[monkey]]", [[Homosexuality|same-sex relations]] are frequent, though rates vary between troops. Females will form "[[consort]]ships" characterized by affectionate social and sexual activities. In some troops up to one quarter of the females will form such bonds, which will vary in duration from a few days to a few weeks. Often, strong and lasting friendships will result from such pairings. Males also have same-sex relations, typically with multiple partners of the same age. Affectionate and playful activities are associated with such relations.<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305</ref>

===Lions===
[[Image:Lions - melbourne zoo.jpg|left|thumb|A group of male [[lion]]s at the [[Melbourne]] zoo.]]
Both male and female lions have been seen to interact [[animal sexuality|homosexually]].<ref>Bruce Bagemihl, ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity,'' St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.302-305. In his discussion of lion same-sex relations, Bagemihl is making use of published work by: J.B. Cooper, "An Exploratory Study on African Lions" in ''Comparative Psychology Monographs'' 17:1-48; R.L. Eaton, "The Biology and Social Behavior of Reproduction in the Lion" in Eaton, ed. ''The World's Cats,'' vol. II; pp.3-58; Seattle, 1974; G.B. Schaller, ''The Serengeti Lion''; University of Chicago Press, 1972</ref><ref>
{{cite web | last =Srivastav | first =Suvira | title =Lion, Without Lioness | work =TerraGreen: News to Save the Earth | publisher = Terragreen | date = [[15 December]]-[[31 December]] [[2001]] | url =http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/terragreen/issue3/feature.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-02}}</ref> Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and thrusting. About 8% of mountings have been observed to occur with other males, while female pairings are held to be fairly common in captivity but have not been observed in the wild.

===Lizards===
Whiptail lizard ([[Teiidae]] genus) females have the ability to reproduce through [[parthenogenesis]] and as such males are rare and sexual breeding non-standard. Females engage in sexual behavior to stimulate [[ovulation]], with their behavior following their hormonal cycles; during low levels of estrogen, these (female) lizards engage in "masculine" sexual roles. Those animals with currently high estrogen levels assume "feminine" sexual roles.

Lizards that perform the courtship ritual have greater fertility than those kept in isolation due to an increase in hormones triggered by the sexual behaviors. So, even though asexual whiptail lizards populations lack males, sexual stimuli still increase reproductive success.

From an [[Evolutionary]] standpoint, these females are passing their full genetic code to all of their offspring (rather than the 50% of genes that would be passed in sexual reproduction). Certain species of [[gecko]] also reproduce by parthenogenesis.

===Sheep===
An [[October]] [[2003]] study by Dr. Charles E. Roselli et al. (Oregon Health and Science University) states that homosexuality in male sheep (found in 8% of rams) is associated with a region in the rams' brains which the authors call the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) which is two times smaller than the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep.<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic">{{cite web
| last =Roselli
| first =Charles E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John N. Stellflug and Fred Stormshak
| title=The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference
| publisher=[[Endocrinology]], Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health & Science University (C.E.R., K.L., J.A.R.), Portland, Oregon; Department of Animal Sciences, Oregon State University (F.S.), Corvallis, Oregon; and Agricultural Research Service, United States Sheep Experiment Station (J.N.S.), Dubois, Idaho.
| date=2004, Vol. 145, No. 2 478-483
| url
=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/2/478
| accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref>
[[Image:St Croix sheep.jpg|thumb|A pair of [[St. Croix]] [[ewe]]s.]]
It should be noted that some view this study to be flawed in that the determination of homosexuality within the sheep (sample population of 27 for the study) was to have animals who were unable to mount female ewes placed in a cage with two stanchioned males and two unstanchioned females (i.e. the males could not move or struggle while the females could). Given the aggressive nature of sheep copulation, the uneven treatment of males and females, many see this as simply evidence that the sheep in question were unable to be aggressive enough to mount females. As with most animal homosexuality, the results were situational sexuality, unlike the bonds seen in human homosexuality.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}

The scientists found that, "The oSDN in rams that preferred females was significantly larger and contained more [[neurons]] than in male-oriented rams and ewes. In addition, the oSDN of the female-oriented rams expressed higher levels of [[aromatase]], a substance that converts [[testosterone]] to [[estradiol]], a form of [[estrogen]] which is believed to facilitate typical male sexual behaviors. [[Aromatase]] expression was no different between male-oriented rams and ewes."

"The dense cluster of neurons that comprise the oSDN express cytochrome P450 aromatase. Aromatase mRNA levels in the oSDN were significantly greater in female-oriented rams than in ewes, whereas male-oriented rams exhibited intermediate levels of expression." These results suggest that "...naturally occurring variations in sexual partner preferences may be related to differences in brain anatomy and its capacity for estrogen synthesis."<ref name="The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic"/> As noted prior, given the potential unagressiveness of the male population in question, the differing aromatase levels may also have been evidence of aggression levels, not sexuality. It should also be noted that the results of this study have not been confirmed by other studies.

===Spotted Hyena===
[[Image:Spotted hyena2.jpg|right|thumb|The '''Spotted Hyena''' is a moderately large, terrestrial carnivore native to [[Africa]].]]
The female [[Spotted Hyena]] has a unique urinary-genital system, closely resembling the penis of the male. The family structure is matriarchal and dominance relationships with strong sexual elements are routinely observed between related females.

Early naturalists thought hyenas were [[hermaphrodite]]s or commonly practiced [[homosexuality]], largely due to the female [[spotted hyena#Reproduction|spotted hyena]]'s unique [[urogenital system]] which looks more like a penis than a vagina.<ref name="Like mother, like cubs">{{cite web
| title= Like mother, like cubs: Hyena alpha moms jumpstart cubs with hormonal jolt
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]]
| date=2006
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> According to early writings such as [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' and the ''[[Physiologus]]'', the hyena continually changed its sex and nature from male to female and back again. In ''[[Paedagogus]]'', Clement of Alexandria noted that the hyena (along with the [[hare]]) was "quite obsessed with sexual intercourse." Many Europeans associated the hyena with sexual deformity, prostitution, deviant sexual behavior and even witchcraft. Research has shown that "in contrast to most other female mammals, female Crocuta are male-like in appearance, larger than males, and substantially more aggressive,"<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction">{{cite web
| last =Holekamp
| first =Kay E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction and Overview
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]], Department of [[Zoology]]
| date=2003
| url=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> they have "been [[masculine|masculinized]] without being [[feminine|defeminized]].”<ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/>

This unique genitalia and aggressive behavior in the female hyena has led to the understanding that more aggressive females are better able to compete for resources including food and mating partners.<ref name="Top Dogs: Steroid hormones">{{cite web
| last =Selim
| first =Jocelyn
| title=Top Dogs: Steroid hormones give hyenas a head start.
| publisher=[[Discover Magazine]]
| date=04.28.2006
| url=http://discovermagazine.com/2006/apr/hormone-hyenas
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Like mother, like cubs"/> Research has shown that "elevated levels of [[testosterone]] [[in utero]]"<ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal"/> contributes to extra aggressiveness from their mother and both males and females mount members of the same sex,<ref name="Wilson, Sexing the Hyena">{{cite web
| title=Wilson, Sexing the Hyena - "The males mount each other"
| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
| date=
| url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?SIGNS032803
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal">{{cite web
| last =Forger
| first =Nancy G.
| coauthors =Laurence G. Frank, S. Marc Breedlove, Stephen E. Glickman
| title=Sexual Dimorphism of Perineal Muscles and Motoneurons in Spotted Hyenas
| publisher=The Journal of Comparative Neurology
| date=[[6 December]] [[1998]], Volume 375, Issue 2 , Pages 333 - 343
| url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19961111)375:2%3C333::AID-CNE11%3E3.0.CO;2-W
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref> who in turn are possibly acting more [[submissive]] because of lower levels of testosterone from their mothers.<ref name="Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction">{{cite web
| last =Holekamp
| first =Kay E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title=Research: Spotted Hyena - Introduction and Overview
| publisher=[[Michigan State University]], Department of [[Zoology]]
| date=2003
| url
=http://hyenas.zoology.msu.edu/crocuta/hyena_research_overview.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-11}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Xq28]]
* [[Against Nature?]]
* [[Biology and sexual orientation]]
* [[Freemartin]]
* [[Homosexuality and psychology]]
* [[Innate bisexuality]]
* [[National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality]]
* [[Non-Human Animal Sexuality]]
* [[Non-human primate experiments]]
* [[Norms of reaction]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
* [[Sexual orientation and medicine]]

==External links==

* [http://www.salon.com/it/feature/1999/03/cov_15featurea.html biologists' view]
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0722_040722_gayanimal.html National Geographic]
* [http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Bartos_Holeckova_2006.pdf Behaviour in Animals An Evolutionary Perspective]

[[Category:Sexual orientation and science]]

[[es:Homosexualidad en animales]]
[[he:הומוסקסואליות בבעלי חיים]]
[[it:omosessualità negli animali]]
[[ja:動物の同性愛]]

Sarah Monette

2007-06-07T15:34:52Z

TechBear:

Sarah Monette is an American novelist and short story author writing mostly in the genres of fantasy and horror. She lives in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*[[Mélusine (novel)|'''''Mélusine''''']] (Ace Books, 2003)
*[[The Virtu (novel)|'''''The Virtu''''']] (Ace Books, 2006)
*[[The Mirador (novel)|'''''The Mirador''''']] (Ace Books, publish date August 7, 2007)
* '''''Summerdown''''' (Ace Books, publish date 2008)

===Short Stories===
''List pending''

==External Links==
*[http://www.sarahmonette.com/ Sarah Monette's website, ''Labryinthine'']

Sarah Monette

2007-06-07T15:17:13Z

TechBear:

Sarah Monette

2007-06-07T15:07:08Z

TechBear: /* =Short Stories */

Sarah Monette is an American novelist and short story author writing mostly in the genres of fantasy and horror. She lives in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*[[Mélusine (novel)|'''''Mélusine''''']] (Ace Books, 2003)
* [[The Virtu (novel)|'''''The Virtu''''']] (Ace Books, 2006)
* '''''The Mirador''''' (Ace Books, publish date August 7, 2007)
* '''''Summerdown''''' (Ace Books, publish date 2008)

===Short Stories===
''List pending''

Sarah Monette

2007-06-07T15:06:19Z

TechBear:

Sarah Monette is an American novelist and short story author writing mostly in the genres of fantasy and horror. She lives in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*[[Mélusine (novel)|'''''Mélusine''''']] (Ace Books, 2003)
* [[The Virtu (novel)|'''''The Virtu''''']] (Ace Books, 2006)
* '''''The Mirador''''' (Ace Books, publish date August 7, 2007)
* '''''Summerdown''''' (Ace Books, publish date 2008)

===Short Stories==
''List pending''

Sarah Monette

2007-06-07T15:05:48Z

TechBear:

Sarah Monette is an American novelist and short story author writing mostly in the genres of fantasy and horror. She lives in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*[[Mélusine (novel)|'''''Mélusine''''']] (Ace Books, 2003)
* [[The Virtu (novel)|'''''The Virtu''''']] (Ace Books, 2006)
* ''The Mirador'' (Ace Books, publish date August 7, 2007)
* ''Summerdown'' (Ace Books, publish date 2008)

===Short Stories==
''List pending''

Sarah Monette

2007-06-07T15:04:28Z

TechBear:

Sarah Monette is an American novelist and short story author writing mostly in the genres of fantasy and horror. She lives in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

==Bibliography==
===Novels===
* ''Mélusine'' (Ace Books, 2003)
* ''The Virtu'' (Ace Books, 2006)
* ''The Mirador'' (Ace Books, publish date August 7, 2007)
* ''Summerdown'' (Ace Books, publish date 2008)

===Short Stories==
''List pending''

Sarah Monette

2007-06-07T14:47:33Z

TechBear: ←Created page with 'Article being written; holding text to verify links.'

Article being written; holding text to verify links.