Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-10-09T00:42:08Z

Tech77: improved cite ref with original edition information

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay rise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had thus severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore [pressed men] who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay rise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the withholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' (released in the U.S. as ''Damn the Defiant!'') is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==References==
*{{cite book|last=Manwaring|first=G.E.|title=The Floating Republic: An Account Of The Mutinies At Spithead And The Nore In 1797|year=1987|publisher=Cresset Library|location=London|isbn=0-09173-154-2|pages=299|origyear=1st pub. New York: [[Harcourt (publisher)#Harcourt, Brace & Howe (1919) and Harcourt, Brace & Company|Harcourt, Brace and Company]] 1935|coauthors=Dobrée, Bonamy}}
*{{cite book|last=Dugan|first=James|title=The Great Mutiny|year=1965|publisher=[[G. P. Putnam's Sons]]|isbn=unspecified|pages=510|edition=New American Library {paperback}, 1967|authorlink=James Dugan}}
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title=The Naval Mutinies of 1797|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Jason|title=A Sense of the World : How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler|year=2007|publisher=[[HarperCollins#Current{{!}}Harper Perennial]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-00-716106-9|pages=432}}
*{{cite book|last=Woodman|first=Richard|title=A Brief History of Mutiny|year=2005|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=0-7867-1567-7|pages=352|edition=1st Carroll & Graf}}
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's Who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006|publisher=Greenhill Books/Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5|pages=388}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
*{{cite book|last=Schneer|first=Jonathan|title=The Thames : England's River|year=2006|publisher=[[Hachette Book Group USA#Inactive imprints{{!}}Abacus]]|location=London|isbn=0349119295|pages=352|edition=Paperback}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-10-09T00:22:17Z

Tech77: chg'd format for original publication date of Manwaring & Dobrée's work

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay rise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had thus severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore [pressed men] who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay rise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the withholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' (released in the U.S. as ''Damn the Defiant!'') is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==References==
*{{cite book|last=Manwaring|first=G.E.|title=The Floating Republic: An Account Of The Mutinies At Spithead And The Nore In 1797|year=1987|publisher=Cresset Library|location=London|isbn=0-09173-154-2|pages=299|origyear=1935|coauthors=Dobrée, Bonamy}}
*{{cite book|last=Dugan|first=James|title=The Great Mutiny|year=1965|publisher=[[G. P. Putnam's Sons]]|isbn=unspecified|pages=510|edition=New American Library {paperback}, 1967|authorlink=James Dugan}}
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title=The Naval Mutinies of 1797|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Jason|title=A Sense of the World : How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler|year=2007|publisher=[[HarperCollins#Current{{!}}Harper Perennial]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-00-716106-9|pages=432}}
*{{cite book|last=Woodman|first=Richard|title=A Brief History of Mutiny|year=2005|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=0-7867-1567-7|pages=352|edition=1st Carroll & Graf}}
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's Who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006|publisher=Greenhill Books/Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5|pages=388}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
*{{cite book|last=Schneer|first=Jonathan|title=The Thames : England's River|year=2006|publisher=[[Hachette Book Group USA#Inactive imprints{{!}}Abacus]]|location=London|isbn=0349119295|pages=352|edition=Paperback}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-10-08T23:10:38Z

Tech77: /* In the arts */additional info about the movie "H.M.S. Defiant"

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay rise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had thus severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore [pressed men] who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay rise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the withholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' (released in the U.S. as ''Damn the Defiant!'') is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==References==
*{{cite book|last=Manwaring|first=G.E.|title=The Floating Republic: An Account Of The Mutinies At Spithead And The Nore In 1797|year=1935|publisher=Cresset Library|location=London|isbn=0-09173-154-2|pages=299|edition=1987|coauthors=Dobrée, Bonamy}}
*{{cite book|last=Dugan|first=James|title=The Great Mutiny|year=1965|publisher=[[G. P. Putnam's Sons]]|isbn=unspecified|pages=510|edition=New American Library {paperback}, 1967|authorlink=James Dugan}}
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title=The Naval Mutinies of 1797|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Jason|title=A Sense of the World : How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler|year=2007|publisher=[[HarperCollins#Current{{!}}Harper Perennial]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-00-716106-9|pages=432}}
*{{cite book|last=Woodman|first=Richard|title=A Brief History of Mutiny|year=2005|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=0-7867-1567-7|pages=352|edition=1st Carroll & Graf}}
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's Who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006|publisher=Greenhill Books/Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5|pages=388}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
*{{cite book|last=Schneer|first=Jonathan|title=The Thames : England's River|year=2006|publisher=[[Hachette Book Group USA#Inactive imprints{{!}}Abacus]]|location=London|isbn=0349119295|pages=352|edition=Paperback}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-10-08T23:06:03Z

Tech77: clean up cite ref for Dugan's "The Great Mutiny"

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay rise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had thus severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore [pressed men] who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay rise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the withholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==References==
*{{cite book|last=Manwaring|first=G.E.|title=The Floating Republic: An Account Of The Mutinies At Spithead And The Nore In 1797|year=1935|publisher=Cresset Library|location=London|isbn=0-09173-154-2|pages=299|edition=1987|coauthors=Dobrée, Bonamy}}
*{{cite book|last=Dugan|first=James|title=The Great Mutiny|year=1965|publisher=[[G. P. Putnam's Sons]]|isbn=unspecified|pages=510|edition=New American Library {paperback}, 1967|authorlink=James Dugan}}
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title=The Naval Mutinies of 1797|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Jason|title=A Sense of the World : How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler|year=2007|publisher=[[HarperCollins#Current{{!}}Harper Perennial]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-00-716106-9|pages=432}}
*{{cite book|last=Woodman|first=Richard|title=A Brief History of Mutiny|year=2005|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=0-7867-1567-7|pages=352|edition=1st Carroll & Graf}}
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's Who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006|publisher=Greenhill Books/Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5|pages=388}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
*{{cite book|last=Schneer|first=Jonathan|title=The Thames : England's River|year=2006|publisher=[[Hachette Book Group USA#Inactive imprints{{!}}Abacus]]|location=London|isbn=0349119295|pages=352|edition=Paperback}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-10-08T22:41:56Z

Tech77: clean up cite ref for Tracy's "Who's Who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes"

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay rise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had thus severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore [pressed men] who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay rise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the withholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==References==
*{{cite book|last=Manwaring|first=G.E.|title=The Floating Republic: An Account Of The Mutinies At Spithead And The Nore In 1797|year=1935|publisher=Cresset Library|location=London|isbn=0-09173-154-2|pages=299|edition=1987|coauthors=Dobrée, Bonamy}}
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title=The Naval Mutinies of 1797|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Jason|title=A Sense of the World : How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler|year=2007|publisher=[[HarperCollins#Current{{!}}Harper Perennial]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-00-716106-9|pages=432}}
*{{cite book|last=Woodman|first=Richard|title=A Brief History of Mutiny|year=2005|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=0-7867-1567-7|pages=352|edition=1st Carroll & Graf}}
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's Who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006|publisher=Greenhill Books/Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5|pages=388}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
*{{cite book|last=Schneer|first=Jonathan|title=The Thames : England's River|year=2006|publisher=[[Hachette Book Group USA#Inactive imprints{{!}}Abacus]]|location=London|isbn=0349119295|pages=352|edition=Paperback}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-10-08T22:33:13Z

Tech77: Clean up cite ref for Robert's "A Sense of the World : How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler"

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay rise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had thus severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore [pressed men] who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay rise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the withholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==References==
*{{cite book|last=Manwaring|first=G.E.|title=The Floating Republic: An Account Of The Mutinies At Spithead And The Nore In 1797|year=1935|publisher=Cresset Library|location=London|isbn=0-09173-154-2|pages=299|edition=1987|coauthors=Dobrée, Bonamy}}
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title=The Naval Mutinies of 1797|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Jason|title=A Sense of the World : How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler|year=2007|publisher=[[HarperCollins#Current{{!}}Harper Perennial]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-00-716106-9|pages=432}}
*{{cite book|last=Woodman|first=Richard|title=A Brief History of Mutiny|year=2005|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=0-7867-1567-7|pages=352|edition=1st Carroll & Graf}}
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
*{{cite book|last=Schneer|first=Jonathan|title=The Thames : England's River|year=2006|publisher=[[Hachette Book Group USA#Inactive imprints{{!}}Abacus]]|location=London|isbn=0349119295|pages=352|edition=Paperback}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-10-08T22:24:31Z

Tech77: clean up cite ref for Woodman's "A Brief History of Mutiny"

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay rise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had thus severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore [pressed men] who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay rise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the withholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==References==
*{{cite book|last=Manwaring|first=G.E.|title=The Floating Republic: An Account Of The Mutinies At Spithead And The Nore In 1797|year=1935|publisher=Cresset Library|location=London|isbn=0-09173-154-2|pages=299|edition=1987|coauthors=Dobrée, Bonamy}}
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title=The Naval Mutinies of 1797|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*"''A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler''" – Roberts (2006) ISBN 0-00-716106-9
*{{cite book|last=Woodman|first=Richard|title=A Brief History of Mutiny|year=2005|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=0-7867-1567-7|pages=352|edition=1st Carroll & Graf}}
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
*{{cite book|last=Schneer|first=Jonathan|title=The Thames : England's River|year=2006|publisher=[[Hachette Book Group USA#Inactive imprints{{!}}Abacus]]|location=London|isbn=0349119295|pages=352|edition=Paperback}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-10-08T22:21:57Z

Tech77: clean up cite ref for Manwaring & Dobrée's "The Floating Republic"

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay rise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had thus severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore [pressed men] who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay rise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the withholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==References==
*{{cite book|last=Manwaring|first=G.E.|title=The Floating Republic: An Account Of The Mutinies At Spithead And The Nore In 1797|year=1935|publisher=Cresset Library|location=London|isbn=0-09173-154-2|pages=299|edition=1987|coauthors=Dobrée, Bonamy}}
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title=The Naval Mutinies of 1797|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*"''A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler''" – Roberts (2006) ISBN 0-00-716106-9
*''A Brief History of Mutiny'' — Richard Woodman (2005) ISBN 0-7867-1567-7
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
*{{cite book|last=Schneer|first=Jonathan|title=The Thames : England's River|year=2006|publisher=[[Hachette Book Group USA#Inactive imprints{{!}}Abacus]]|location=London|isbn=0349119295|pages=352|edition=Paperback}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-10-08T22:18:28Z

Tech77: clean up cite ref for Schneer's

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay rise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had thus severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore [pressed men] who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay rise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the withholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==References==
*"''The Floating Republic''" – Dobree and Manwaring (1935) ISBN 0-09-173154-2
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title=The Naval Mutinies of 1797|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*"''A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler''" – Roberts (2006) ISBN 0-00-716106-9
*''A Brief History of Mutiny'' — Richard Woodman (2005) ISBN 0-7867-1567-7
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
*{{cite book|last=Schneer|first=Jonathan|title=The Thames : England's River|year=2006|publisher=[[Hachette Book Group USA#Inactive imprints{{!}}Abacus]]|location=London|isbn=0349119295|pages=352|edition=Paperback}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-06-06T02:35:21Z

Tech77: add'l info & cite ref

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by [[Admiral]] [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay raise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had then severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore, who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers or [[impressment|pressed men]]), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay raise and abolition of the purser's pound. As a direct result of the mutinies at Spithead and The Nore, many of the worst abuses prevalent in the Royal Navy up until this time, such as bad food, brutal discipline, and the witholding of pay, were remedied.<ref>{{cite book|last=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|first=Sixth Edition|title=Article: Mutiny|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=46B0FDDA47213A9530CDAEFBC0F27563.inst3_1a?a=o&d=117034782}}</ref> Afterward, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships should be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==References==
*"''The Floating Republic''" – Dobree and Manwaring (1935) ISBN 0-09-173154-2
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title="The Naval Mutinies of 1797"|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*"''A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler''" – Roberts (2006) ISBN 0-00-716106-9
*''A Brief History of Mutiny'' — Richard Woodman (2005) ISBN 0-7867-1567-7
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
* ''The Thames, England's River'', Jonathan Schneer, published by Abacus

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-06-06T02:22:06Z

Tech77: cite needed and cite ref

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by [[Admiral]] [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay raise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had then severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore, who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers or [[impressment|pressed men]]), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay raise and abolition of the purser's pound. Afterward, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]],<ref name=Napoleonguide>{{cite web|title=Demands of the Nore Mutineers|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/navy-nore-articles.htm|work=Royal Navy Mutinies at the Nore and Spithead|publisher=Napoleonguide.com|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships should be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==References==
*"''The Floating Republic''" – Dobree and Manwaring (1935) ISBN 0-09-173154-2
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title="The Naval Mutinies of 1797"|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*"''A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler''" – Roberts (2006) ISBN 0-00-716106-9
*''A Brief History of Mutiny'' — Richard Woodman (2005) ISBN 0-7867-1567-7
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
* ''The Thames, England's River'', Jonathan Schneer, published by Abacus

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-06-06T02:06:49Z

Tech77: /* The Nore */ add'l information on the blockade, cite ref

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by [[Admiral]] [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay raise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had then severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore, who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers or [[impressment|pressed men]]), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay raise and abolition of the purser's pound. Afterward, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797. Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]], eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy [[Victualler|victualling]] (i.e., supply) ships should be detained; the ostensible reason provided in the order was that "...the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore.", although this decision may actually have been perhaps more due to the complexities involved in such a wide undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy [[Thames]].{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=184}} After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==References==
*"''The Floating Republic''" – Dobree and Manwaring (1935) ISBN 0-09-173154-2
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title="The Naval Mutinies of 1797"|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*"''A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler''" – Roberts (2006) ISBN 0-00-716106-9
*''A Brief History of Mutiny'' — Richard Woodman (2005) ISBN 0-7867-1567-7
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
* ''The Thames, England's River'', Jonathan Schneer, published by Abacus

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-06-06T01:44:03Z

Tech77: chg'd ref of cited book "The Naval Mutinies of 1797" to cite book template format (in order to add inline text citations)

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by [[Admiral]] [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay raise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had then severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore, who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers or [[impressment|pressed men]]), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay raise and abolition of the purser's pound. Afterward, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797. Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]], eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London{{sfn|Gill|1913|p=182}}, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==References==
*"''The Floating Republic''" – Dobree and Manwaring (1935) ISBN 0-09-173154-2
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Conrad|title="The Naval Mutinies of 1797"|year=1913|location=Manchester, U.K.|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=unspecified|pages=445|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tx68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=The+naval+mutinies+of+1797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eajOT_6ODsOxgwezrtS6CQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20naval%20mutinies%20of%201797&f=false}}
*"''A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler''" – Roberts (2006) ISBN 0-00-716106-9
*''A Brief History of Mutiny'' — Richard Woodman (2005) ISBN 0-7867-1567-7
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
* ''The Thames, England's River'', Jonathan Schneer, published by Abacus

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-06-06T00:53:45Z

Tech77: /* Spithead */added article "the" and citation needed for "...nicknamed "breeze at Spithead"...

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by [[Admiral]] [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay raise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had then severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore, who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers or [[impressment|pressed men]]), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay raise and abolition of the purser's pound. Afterward, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797. Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]], eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==References==
*"''The Floating Republic''" – Dobree and Manwaring (1935) ISBN 0-09-173154-2
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*''The naval mutinies of 1797'' – Conrad Gill (Manchester University Press, 1913)
*"''A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler''" – Roberts (2006) ISBN 0-00-716106-9
*''A Brief History of Mutiny'' — Richard Woodman (2005) ISBN 0-7867-1567-7
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
* ''The Thames, England's River'', Jonathan Schneer, published by Abacus

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Meutereien von Spithead und Nore

2012-06-06T00:38:05Z

Tech77: /* The Nore */ added Template:Contradict-inline as article does not agree on where fleet would sail upon leaving England

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Delegates in council or beggars on horseback.jpg|thumb|''The Delegates in Council, or beggars on horseback'', contemporary caricature]]
The '''Spithead and Nore mutinies''' were two major [[mutiny|mutinies]] by sailors of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1797. There were also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other locations in the same year. They were not violent insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes, demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were potentially dangerous for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], because at the time the country was at [[French Revolutionary Wars|war with Revolutionary France]]. There were also concerns among some members of the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.

==Spithead==
The mutiny at [[Spithead]] (an [[anchor]]age near [[Portsmouth]]) lasted from 16 April – 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the [[Channel Fleet]], commanded by [[Admiral]] [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]], protested against the living conditions aboard [[Royal Navy]] vessels and demanded a pay raise.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 [[Seven Years' War]]; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had then severely eroded the real value of the pay. At the same time, the practice of [[Copper sheathing|coppering]] the submerged part of [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]], which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea significantly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Finally, the new wartime [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|quota system]] meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore, who did not mix well with the career seamen (volunteers or [[impressment|pressed men]]), leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the [[Admiralty]] for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a [[wikt:perquisite|perquisite]]), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers; neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] intervened to negotiate an agreement that saw a [[Pardon#Pardons and clemency in the United Kingdom|Royal pardon]] for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay raise and abolition of the purser's pound. Afterward, the mutiny was to become nicknamed "breeze at Spithead".

The leader of the mutiny remained anonymous even after its resolution. Rumours during the time placed [[Valentine Joyce]] as the mastermind. Joyce was a quartermaster's mate aboard Lord Bridport's {{HMS|Royal George|1788|2}}.<ref>Roberts 2006</ref>

==The Nore==
[[Image:Richard Parker about to be hanged.JPG|270px|right|thumb|Richard Parker about to be hanged for mutiny. Image from the [[Newgate Calendar]].]]

{{unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}

Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the [[Nore]] (an anchorage in the [[Thames Estuary]]) also mutinied, beginning on 12 May, when the crew of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|2}} seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away and continued to slip away during the mutiny, despite gunfire from the ships that remained (who attempted to use force to hold the mutiny together). The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship. [[Richard Parker (British sailor)|Richard Parker]] was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet" due to his obvious intelligence, education and empathy with the suffering of the sailors. Parker was a former [[master's mate]] who was disrated and court-martialed in December 1793, and reenlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797. Demands were formulated and on 20 May, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the [[Articles of War]], eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in return for an immediate return to duty.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances into the beginnings of a social revolution and [[blockade]]d London, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not minded to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France,{{Contradict-inline|article=Richard Parker (sailor)|date=June 2012}} all of the remaining ships refused to follow; eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of [[treason]] and [[piracy]] and [[Hanging|hanged]] from the [[yardarm]] of ''Sandwich'', the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals which followed, a total of 29 leaders were hanged, while others were sentenced to [[flogging]], imprisonment or [[Penal transportation|transportation]] to Australia. The vast majority of men involved in the mutiny, however, were not punished at all.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five [[Ship's bell|bells]] on the last [[dog watch]], as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Nore_mutiny::sub::The_Nore |title=Nore Mutiny |accessdate=12 September 2011 |publisher=Museum of Learning}}</ref>

==Other mutinies and discontent in 1797==
In September 1797, the crew of the {{HMS|Hermione|1782|2}} mutinied in the [[West Indies]], killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances including the throwing into the sea of the bodies of three men who had been killed in falling from the rigging in a desperate scramble to avoid [[flogging]] for being last man down on deck.<ref name="Tracy294">{{cite book|last=Tracy| title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy|page=294}}</ref>

On 27 December, the crew of {{HMS|Marie Antoinette|1793|2}} murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies.<ref name="WLC548">The Royal Navy. A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, William Clowes, Volume 4, p. 548</ref>

Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and spread to the fleet under Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Jervis]] off the coast of Spain.

==In the arts==
*[[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', and the [[Billy Budd (opera)|opera]] based on it by [[Benjamin Britten]], are set immediately after the main mutinies.
*[[The Men They Couldn't Hang]], an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
*''Mutiny'' by [[Julian Stockwin]] is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.
*The movie ''[[H.M.S. Defiant]]'' is a fictional account of a similar mutiny at sea at this time.
*The father of the protagonist of [[Frederick Marryat]]'s ''[[The King's Own]]'' was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
*Much of the Dewey Lambdin novel ''A King's Captain'' is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, [[Alan Lewrie]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
"The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797", by G.E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies.

==References==
*"''The Floating Republic''" – Dobree and Manwaring (1935) ISBN 0-09-173154-2
*''The Great Mutiny'' – James Dugan (1965)
*''The naval mutinies of 1797'' – Conrad Gill (Manchester University Press, 1913)
*"''A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History's Greatest Traveler''" – Roberts (2006) ISBN 0-00-716106-9
*''A Brief History of Mutiny'' — Richard Woodman (2005) ISBN 0-7867-1567-7
*{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Tracy|title=Who's who in Nelson's Navy: 200 Naval Heroes|year=2006 |publisher=Chatham Publishing|location=London|isbn=1-86176-244-5}}
*"''Born in Exeter''" a biography Chapter on Richard Parker – By The Historical Society of Hele's School Exeter (1950) Publisher A. Wheaton & Company Ltd Exeter
* ''The Thames, England's River'', Jonathan Schneer, published by Abacus

==See also==

*[[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]]
*[[Chilean naval mutiny of 1931]]
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*[[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]]
*[[HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)#Mutiny in the Indies]]
*[[Invergordon Mutiny]]
*[[Revolt of the Lash]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.585/viewPage/1 Research guide B8: The Spithead and Nore mutinies of 1797] (from the [[National Maritime Museum]])

[[Category:History of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Naval mutinies]]
[[Category:1797 in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1797 in military history]]

[[fr:Mutinerie de Spithead]]
[[ja:スピットヘッドとノアの反乱]]
[[no:Spithead og Nore-mytteriene]]
[[ru:Мятежи в Спитхеде и Норе]]

Eroberung von Bagdad

2012-05-06T23:59:59Z

Tech77: /* Aftermath */ added "thereafter" (clarity/structure)

{{Infobox military conflict
|partof=the [[Mongol invasions]]
|image=[[File:Bagdad1258.jpg|300px]]
|caption=Hulagu's army conducting a siege on Baghdad walls.
|date=January 29 – February 10, 1258
|place=[[Baghdad]], modern-day [[Iraq]]
|result=Decisive Mongol victory
|combatant1=[[File:White Sulde of the Mongol Empire.jpg|border|22px]] [[Mongol Empire]] [[File:Il-Khanate Flag.svg|border|22px]] [[Ilkhanate]] {{flagicon|Georgia}} [[Kingdom of Georgia]]
|combatant2=[[File:Black flag.svg|border|22px]] [[Abbasid Caliphate]] [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|border|22px]] [[Ayyubid dynasty]]
||commander1=[[Hulagu Khan]] [[Guo Kan]] [[Arghun Agha|Arghun]] [[David VII of Georgia]] [[Baiju]] Buqa-Temur Sunitai [[Kitbuga]] [[Koke Ilge]]<ref>John Masson Smith, Jr. - Mongol Manpower and Persian Population, pp.276</ref>
|commander2=Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]]{{POW}} [[Mujaheduddin]] [[Sulaiman Shah]]{{POW}} [[Qarasunqur]]
|strength1=120,000<ref name=Venegoni>L. Venegoni (2003). [http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/venegoni.html Hülägü's Campaign in the West - (1256-1260)], ''Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I'', Webfestschrift Marshak 2003.</ref>-150,000<ref name=Geographic/> total (40,000+ [[Mongols|Mongol]],<ref>John Masson Smith, Jr. - Mongol Manpower and Persian Population, pp.271-299</ref> [[Georgians|Georgian]] [[infantry]], 12,000 Armenian [[cavalry]],<ref name=Venegoni/> 1,000 [[Chinese people|Chinese]] [[artillery|bombardiers]],<ref name=Geographic/> and [[Turkic people|Turkic]], [[Persian people|Persian]] and [[Georgians|Georgian]] soldiers)
|strength2=50,000 Abbasid 30,000 Ayyubid
|casualties1=Unknown but believed to be minimal
|casualties2=50,000 soldiers, 100,000+(non Arab sources) 2,000,000 civilians (Arab sources)<ref>''The different aspects of Islamic culture: Science and technology in Islam'', Vol.4, Ed. A. Y. Al-Hassan, (Dergham sarl, 2001), 655.</ref>
}}
{{more footnotes|date=February 2011}}

The '''Siege of Baghdad''', which occurred in 1258, was an [[invasion]], [[siege]] and sacking of the city of [[Baghdad]], the capital of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] at the time and the modern-day capital of [[Iraq]], by the [[Ilkhanate]] [[Mongol]] forces along with other allied troops under [[Hulagu Khan]]. The main aim of Hulagu's expedition into the Middle East was to establish the firm imperial (now [[Toluid]]) control over the area and to extend the empire but not directly overthrow the Abbasids who had submitted to them previously.<ref>Peter Jackson, “The Dissolution of the Mongol Empire,” Central Asiatic Journal 32 (1978): 186-243</ref> If the Abbasid Caliph only refused to submit and send a contingent, the Khagan ordered his brother, Hulagu, to destroy him.

The invasion left Baghdad in a state of total destruction. Estimates of the number of inhabitants massacred during the invasion range from 100,000 to 1,000,000. The city was sacked and burned. Even the libraries of Baghdad, including the [[House of Wisdom]], were not safe from the attacks of the [[Ilkhanate]] forces, who totally destroyed the libraries and used the invaluable books to make a passage across [[Tigris|Tigris River]]{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}.
As a result, Baghdad remained depopulated and in ruins for several centuries, and the event is widely regarded as the end of the [[Islamic Golden Age]].<ref>Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia, George Samonis (2006). "Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 C.E.) and today", ''[[Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology|The FASEB Journal]]'' '''20''', pp. 1581–1586.</ref>

==Background==
[[Baghdad]] was the [[capital (political)|capital]] of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], an [[Islamic]] state whose heart became the modern state of [[Iraq]]. The Abbasid caliphs were the second of the Islamic dynasties, having in 751 toppled the [[Umayyads]], who had ruled from the death of [[Ali]] in 661.<ref name=nicolle-108>Nicolle, p. 108</ref> At Baghdad's peak it had a population of approximately one million residents and was defended by an army of 60,000 soldiers. By the mid-13th century the caliphate had been long on the wane and was now a minor state; however, although its caliph was a figurehead, controlled by [[Mamluk]] or [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] warlords, he still had great symbolic significance, and Baghdad remained a rich and cultured city.

It is said that the Caliph an-Nasir li-dini’llah (r. 1180–1225) attempted to ally with [[Genghis Khan]] and sent his envoy to [[Mongolia]] when the Turkic Shah [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm]] Dynasty threatened to attack the caliphate.<ref>Jack Weatherford - Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world, p.135</ref> There is also rumour that he sent a few crusader captives to the Mongols.<ref>Jack Weatherford - Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world, p.136</ref>

According to the [[Secret History of the Mongols]], Genghis Khan and his successor, Ogedei, ordered their [[kheshig]] member, [[Chormaqan]], to invade Baghdad.<ref>Sh.Gaadamba - Mongoliin nuuts tovchoo (1990), p.233</ref> In 1236, one division of the Mongol army under Chormaqan invaded Irbil, the sphere of the Caliphate.<ref>Timothy May - Chormaqan Noyan, p.62</ref> After this, Mongol raids on Irbil and the caliphate, even down to the walls of Baghdad,<ref name="Mongol Empire p.2">C.P.Atwood - Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.2</ref> became an almost annual occurrence.<ref>Al-Sa'idi,. , op. cit., pp. 83, 84, from Ibn al-Fuwati</ref> The armies of the caliphate defeated Mongol detachments in 1238<ref>Spuler, op. cit., from Ibn al-'Athir, vol. 12, p. 272.</ref> and 1245.<ref>http://www.alhassanain.com/english/book/book/history_library/various_books/the_alleged_role_of_nasir_al_din_al_tusi_in_the_fall_of_baghdad/004.html</ref>

Despite these successes the caliph hoped to come to terms with the Mongols, and by 1241 they
were sending a rich annual tribute to the Mongols.<ref name="Mongol Empire p.2"/> Envoys from the caliphate were present at the coronation of
[[Guyuk Khan]] in 1246<ref>Giovanni, da Pian del Carpine (translated by Erik Hildinger) - The story of the Mongols whom we call the Tartars (1996), p. 108</ref> and that of [[Mongke Khan]] in 1251.<ref>http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/lectures/wulec3.html</ref> Guyuk Khan insisted the Caliph fully submit and come to his court, [[Karakorum]], in person. Both Guyuk and Hulegu blamed Chormaqan's successor, [[Baiju]], for the irritated resistance of the Abbasid Caliphate.

==Composition of the besieging army==
In 1257 Mongol ruler [[Möngke Khan]] resolved to establish firm imperial authority over Iraq, Syria and Persia. The Khagan sent his brother Hulegu to Iran, demanding that the caliph come to meet Hülegu personally and send troops to assist his army in reducing the Ismaili strongholds. Mongke told Hulegu that if the caliph refused, then he was to destroy Baghdad. He conscripted one out of every ten fighting men in the empire for the invasion force, knowing that Baghdad, Ismaili strongholds and Syria were large and powerful in the region. This force—by one estimate 150,000 strong—was probably the largest ever fielded by the Mongols.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

The caliphate rejected the Mongol demands while Hulegu was fighting busy with the Nizari Isamilis. In November 1257, under the command of [[Hulagu]] it set out for Baghdad.<ref>Saunders 1971</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?ei=oeThTY-nNujW0QGWxYmmBw&ct=result&id=NZRFAAAAMAAJ&dq=Chinese+influences+soon+made+themselves+strongly+felt+in+Hulagu%27s+dominions.+A+Chinese+general+was+made+the+first+governor+of+Baghdad%2C5+and+Chinese+engineers+were+employed+to+improve+the+irrigation+of+the+Tigris-Euphrates+basin&q=Chinese+influences+soon+made+themselves+strongly+felt+in+Hulagu%27s+dominions.+A+Chinese+general+was+made+the+first+governor+of+Baghdad%2C5+and+Chinese+engineers+were+employed+to+improve+the+irrigation+of+the+Tigris-Euphrates+basin|title=The invention of printing in China and its spread westward|author=Thomas Francis Carter|editor=|year=1955|publisher=Ronald Press Co.|edition=2|location=|page=171|isbn=|pages=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jqb7L-pKCV8C&pg=PA377&dq=mongols+chinese+general+baghdad&hl=en&ei=BubhTYTkM-Lj0gGgtqG1Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=mongols%20chinese%20general%20baghdad&f=false|title=A history of Chinese civilization|author=Jacques Gernet|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=|isbn=0-521-49781-7|page=377|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> Generals of this Mongol army included the Oirat administrator [[Arghun Agha]], Baiju of the [[Besud]], Buqa-Temur of the [[Oirats]], the Chinese commander [[Guo Kan]], the [[Jalayir]] general Koke Ilge, [[Kitbuqa]] of the [[Naiman]], Tutar and Quli from the [[Golden Horde]] and Sunitai of the [[Borjigin]] (thus Hulegu's brother).<ref>Rashiddudin, Histoire des Mongols de la Perse, E. Quatrem"re ed. and trans. (Paris, I836), p. 352.</ref> It also contained a large contingent of various units from Christian vassals, chief among them apparently the [[Georgians]], who were eager to avenge the sacking of their capital, [[Tiflis]], decades earlier by Jalal al-Din Khwarazmshah.<ref>Khanbaghi, 60</ref> Other participating Christian forces were the Armenian army, led by their king, and some Frankish troops from the [[Principality of Antioch]].<ref>Demurger, 80-81; Demurger 284</ref> The contemporary Persian observer [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni]] reports as participants in the siege about 1,000 Chinese artillery experts and Armenians, Georgians, Persians and Turkic soldiers.<ref name=Geographic>''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'', v. 191 (1997)</ref> Hulegu's missile battallions formerly under the [[Barga]] commander Ambaghai used fire arrows during the invasion of Iraq.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?ei=EOvhTZ-vFubb0QGCx-CeBw&ct=result&id=fmptAAAAMAAJ&dq=mongols+chinese+general+baghdad&q=thousand+chinese+archers+crossbow+fire+arrows+iraq+baghdad|title=China considers the Middle East|author=Lillian Craig Harris|editor=|year=1993|publisher=Tauris|edition=illustrated|location=|page=26|isbn=1-85043-598-7|pages=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-hMtbFlKW5AC&pg=PT11&dq=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&hl=en&ei=cXUzTozgIqfb0QGPm42IDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBTge#v=onepage&q=mongol%20%20hungary%20chinese%20gunpowder&f=false|title=This Is Rocket Science: True Stories of the Risk-Taking Scientists Who Figure Out Ways to Explore Beyond Earth |author=Gloria Skurzynski|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=2010 |month= |publisher=National Geographic Books |location= |language= |isbn=1-4263-0597-4 |page=1958 |pages= |quote=In A.D. 1232 an army of 30,000 Mongol warriors invaded the Chinese city of Kai-fung-fu, where the Chinese fought back with fire arrows...Mongol leaders learned from their enemies and found ways to make fire arrows even more deadly as their invasion spread toward Europe. On Christmas Day 1241 Mongol troops used fire arrows to capture the city of Budapest in Hungary, and in 1258 to capture the city of Baghdad in what's now Iraq. }}</ref> One thousand northern Chinese engineer squads accompanied the Mongol Khan Hulegu during his conquest of the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&pg=PA510&dq=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&hl=en&ei=XGwzTuH4Ccb20gHbgtGQDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAzgU#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |author=Josef W. Meri|editor=Josef W. Meri|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |year=2005 |month= |publisher=Psychology Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-415-96690-6 |page=510 |pages= |quote=This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulegu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&pg=PA510&dq=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&hl=en&ei=XGwzTuH4Ccb20gHbgtGQDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBDgU#v=onepage&q=mongol%20invasion%20hungary%20chinese%20gunpowder&f=false|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index |coauthors=Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach|editor=Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume=Volume 2 of Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |date= |year=2006 |month= |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location= |language= |isbn=0-415-96692-2 |page=510 |pages= |quote=This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulegu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance. }}</ref> It was said that "a thousand engineers from China had to get themselves ready to serve the catapults, and to be able to cast inflammable substances." during Hulagu's invasions of the area from 1253-1258.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BZf_L1V7NLUC&pg=PA173&lpg=PA173&dq=In+the+campaigns+waged+in+western+Asia+(1253-1258)+by+Jenghis'+grandson+Hulagu,+%22a+thousand+engineers+from+China+had+to+get+themselves+ready+to+serve+the+catapults,+and+to+be+able+to+cast+inflammable+substances.%22+One+of+Hulagu's+principal+generals+in+his+succ&source=bl&ots=RaWDREHE41&sig=3r7kd0nVlubg1VrorYfOeMdIQQA&hl=en&ei=P8PmTtqbHsLk0QG6_KmGCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=In%20the%20campaigns%20waged%20in%20western%20Asia%20(1253-1258)%20by%20Jenghis'%20grandson%20Hulagu%2C%20%22a%20thousand%20engineers%20from%20China%20had%20to%20get%20themselves%20ready%20to%20serve%20the%20catapults%2C%20and%20to%20be%20able%20to%20cast%20inflammable%20substances.%22%20One%20of%20Hulagu's%20principal%20generals%20in%20his%20succ&f=false|title=A Short History of the Chinese People|author=L. Carrington Goodrich|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=2002 |month= |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |location= |language= |isbn=0-486-42488-X |page=173 |pages= |quote=In the campaigns waged in western Asia (1253-1258) by Jenghis' grandson Hulagu, "a thousand engineers from China had to get themselves ready to serve the catapults, and to be able to cast inflammable substances." One of Hulagu's principal generals in his successful attack against the caliphate of Baghdad was Chinese.}}</ref>

==The Siege==
[[File:Persian painting of Hülegü’s army beseiging a city. Note use of the seige engine..jpg|thumb|Persian painting of Hülegü’s army besieging a city. Note use of the siege engine.]]
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasions}}
Prior to laying siege to Baghdad, Hulagu Khan easily destroyed the [[Lurs]], [[Khwarezm-Shah]]s and [[Bukhara]]. In response to the [[Mongol Invasion]]s, the [[Hashshashin|Assassins]] Grand Master of [[Alamut]] [[Imam ‘Ala al-Din Muhammad]] (1221–1255), sent his forces to assassinate [[Möngke Khan]] and [[Kitbuqa]] but both attempts were unsuccessful. [[Hulagu Khan]] and hundreds of thousands of [[Mongol]]s then began an assault on the mountains near [[Alamut]] after capturing dozens of decoy fortresses the Mongols finally sacked [[Alamut]] and executed the last Grand Master [[Imam Rukn al-Din Khurshah]] (1255–1256). [[Hulagu Khan]] and his forces were left unchallenged and began their assault upon [[Baghdad]].

Mongke Khan had ordered his brother to spare the Caliphate if it submitted to the authority of the Mongol Khanate. Upon nearing Baghdad, Hulagu demanded surrender; the caliph, [[Al-Musta'sim]], refused. By many accounts, Al-Musta'sim had failed to prepare for the onslaught; he neither gathered armies nor strengthened the city's walls. He was unwilling to surrender the city of Baghdad to the ''Non-Muslim Barbarians'' ([[Mongols]]) and believed they would slaughter the inhabitants of the city unchallenged if they were allowed to enter, he greatly offended Hulagu Khan by threats he made, and thus assured his destruction.<ref>Nicolle</ref>

Hulagu positioned his forces on both banks of the Tigris River, dividing them to form a pincer around the city. The caliph's army repulsed the first attack of the Mongols going before the main army and attacking from the west, but were defeated in the next battle. [[Baiju]] broke some dikes and flooded the ground behind the caliph’s vanguard army, trapping it. Thus were many troops slaughtered or drowned.

The main Mongol army arrived and then laid siege to the city starting January 29, constructing a palisade and ditch, and employing siege engines and catapults. The battle was swift by siege standards: by February 5 the Mongols controlled a stretch of the wall. Al-Musta'sim begged to negotiate, but was refused.

On February 10, Baghdad surrendered. The Mongols swept into the city on February 13 and began a week of massacre and destruction.

==Destruction==
[[File:HulaguInBagdad.JPG|thumb|[[Hulagu]] (left) imprisons Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]] among his treasures to starve him to death. Medieval depiction from "Le livre des merveilles", 15th century.]]
Many historical accounts detailed the cruelties of the Mongol conquerors.

* The [[House of Wisdom|Grand Library of Baghdad]], containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the river and red from the blood of the scientists and philosophers killed.
* Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed with abandon. Martin Sicker writes that close to 90,000 people may have died (Sicker 2000, p. 111). Other estimates go much higher. [[Wassaf]] claims the loss of life was several hundred thousand. Ian Frazier of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' says estimates of the death toll have ranged from 200,000 to a million.<ref>Ian Frazier, [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050425fa_fact4 Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad], [[The New Yorker]] 25 April 2005. p.4</ref>
* The Mongols looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground.
* The caliph was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. According to most accounts, the caliph was killed by trampling. The Mongols rolled the caliph up in a rug, and rode their horses over him, as they believed that the earth was offended if touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons were killed, and the sole surviving son was sent to Mongolia, where Mongolian historians report he married and fathered children, but played no role in Islam thereafter (see [[Abbasid#The_end_of_the_dynasty|Abbasid: The end of the dynasty]]).
* Hulagu had to move his camp upwind of the city, due to the stench of decay from the ruined city.

Baghdad was a depopulated, ruined city for several centuries and only gradually recovered some of its former glory.

===Comments on the destruction===
:"Iraq in 1258 was very different from present day Iraq. Its agriculture was supported by canal networks thousands of years old. Baghdad was one of the most brilliant intellectual centers in the world. The Mongol destruction of Baghdad was a psychological blow from which Islam never recovered. Already Islam was turning inward, becoming more suspicious of conflicts between faith and reason and more conservative. With the sack of Baghdad, the intellectual flowering of Islam was snuffed out. Imagining the Athens of Pericles and Aristotle obliterated by a nuclear weapon begins to suggest the enormity of the blow. The Mongols filled in the irrigation canals and left Iraq too depopulated to restore them." <ref>[http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/WestTech/xmongol.htm Steven Dutch: The Mongols]</ref>

:"They swept through the city like hungry falcons attacking a flight of doves, or like raging wolves attacking sheep, with loose reins and shameless faces, murdering and spreading terror...beds and cushions made of gold and encrusted with jewels were cut to pieces with knives and torn to shreds. Those hiding behind the veils of the great Harem were dragged...through the streets and alleys, each of them becoming a plaything...as the population died at the hands of the invaders." (Abdullah Wassaf as cited by [[David Morgan (historian)|David Morgan]])

===Causes for agricultural decline===
Some historians believe that the Mongol invasion destroyed much of the irrigation infrastructure that had sustained [[Mesopotamia]] for many millennia. Canals were cut as a military tactic and never repaired. So many people died or fled that neither the labor nor the organization were sufficient to maintain the canal system. It broke down or silted up. This theory was advanced by historian [[Svat Soucek|Svatopluk Souček]] in his 2000 book, ''A History of Inner Asia.''

Other historians point to [[soil salination]] as the culprit in the decline in agriculture.<ref>[http://home.alltel.net/bsundquist1/ir5.html Alltel.net]</ref><ref>[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198305/the.greening.of.the.arab.east-the.planters.htm Saudiaramcoworld.com]</ref>

==Aftermath==
Hulagu left 3,000 Mongol soldiers behind to rebuild Baghdad. [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni]] was appointed governor of Baghdad, Lower [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Khuzistan]]. At the intervention of the Mongol Hulagu's [[Nestorian Christian]] wife, [[Dokuz Khatun]], the Christian inhabitants were spared.<ref>Maalouf, 243</ref><ref>Runciman, 306</ref> Hulagu offered the royal palace to the Nestorian [[Catholicos]] [[Mar Makikha]], and ordered a cathedral to be built for him.<ref>Foltz, 123</ref>

Initially, the fall of Baghdad was a shock to the whole Muslim world, but the city became one of economic centers where international trade, money minting and religious affairs flourished under the Ilkhans.<ref>Richard Coke - Baghdad, the city of peace, p.169</ref> The Chief Mongol [[darughachi|darugas (overseer)]] was thereafter stationed in the city.<ref>Judith G. Kolbas-The Mongols in Iran: Chingiz Khan to Uljaytu, 1220-1309, p.156</ref>

==See also==
* [[Seljuk siege of Baghdad 1157]]
* [[Abbasid Caliphate]]
* [[History of Baghdad]]
* [[Islamic Golden Age]]
* [[Soil salination]]
* [[Tigris-Euphrates river system]]
* [[Mongke Khan]]
* [[Mongol Empire]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. 1998. ''Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281'' (first edition). Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-46226-6.
* [[Alain Demurger|Demurger, Alain]]. 2005. ''Les Templiers. Une chevalerie chrétienne au Moyen Âge''. [[Éditions du Seuil]].
* ''ibid.'' 2006. ''Croisades et Croisés au Moyen-Age''. Paris: [[Groupe Flammarion]].
* Khanbaghi, Aptin. 2006. ''The fire, the star, and the cross: minority religions in medieval and early modern Iran''. London: [[I. B. Tauris]].
* Morgan, David. 1990. ''The Mongols''. Boston: [[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell]]. ISBN 0-631-17563-6.
* [[David Nicolle|Nicolle, David]], and Richard Hook (illustrator). 1998. ''The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane''. London: [[Brockhampton Press]]. ISBN 1-86019-407-9.
* Runciman, Steven. ''A history of the Crusades''.
* Saunders, J.J. 2001. ''The History of the Mongol Conquests''. Philadelphia: [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7.
* Sicker, Martin. 2000. ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna''. Westport, Connecticut: [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]]. ISBN 0-275-96892-8.
* Souček, Svat. 2000. ''A History of Inner Asia''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65704-0.

==External links==
* [http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/04/25/050425fa_fact4], article describing Hulagu's conquest of Baghdad, written by [[Ian Frazier]], appeared in the April 25, 2005 issue of ''[[The New Yorker]]''.

{{Coord missing|Iraq}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siege Of Baghdad (1258)}}
[[Category:Battles involving the Mongols|Baghdad 1258]]
[[Category:History of Baghdad]]
[[Category:Sieges of Baghdad]]
[[Category:Massacres in Iraq]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Abbasid Caliphate]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1258]]
[[Category:Battles involving Georgia (country)]]

{{Link FA|arz}}
[[ar:سقوط بغداد (1258)]]
[[br:Emgann Baghdad (1258)]]
[[ca:Setge de Bagdad (1258)]]
[[cs:Obléhání Bagdádu]]
[[es:Batalla de Bagdad (1258)]]
[[eo:Batalo de Bagdado]]
[[fr:Bataille de Bagdad (1258)]]
[[id:Pengepungan Baghdad (1258)]]
[[it:Presa di Baghdad]]
[[he:נפילת בגדאד (1258)]]
[[mr:बगदादचा पाडाव]]
[[arz:سقوط بغداد (1258)]]
[[ms:Kejatuhan Baghdad]]
[[ja:バグダードの戦い]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Bagdadem (1258)]]
[[ru:Битва за Багдад (1258)]]
[[simple:Battle of Baghdad (1258)]]
[[sl:Obleganje Bagdada (1258)]]
[[fi:Bagdadin taistelu]]
[[ur:سقوط بغداد 1258ء]]

Eroberung von Bagdad

2012-05-06T23:58:54Z

Tech77: /* Aftermath */ minor syntax edit

{{Infobox military conflict
|partof=the [[Mongol invasions]]
|image=[[File:Bagdad1258.jpg|300px]]
|caption=Hulagu's army conducting a siege on Baghdad walls.
|date=January 29 – February 10, 1258
|place=[[Baghdad]], modern-day [[Iraq]]
|result=Decisive Mongol victory
|combatant1=[[File:White Sulde of the Mongol Empire.jpg|border|22px]] [[Mongol Empire]] [[File:Il-Khanate Flag.svg|border|22px]] [[Ilkhanate]] {{flagicon|Georgia}} [[Kingdom of Georgia]]
|combatant2=[[File:Black flag.svg|border|22px]] [[Abbasid Caliphate]] [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|border|22px]] [[Ayyubid dynasty]]
||commander1=[[Hulagu Khan]] [[Guo Kan]] [[Arghun Agha|Arghun]] [[David VII of Georgia]] [[Baiju]] Buqa-Temur Sunitai [[Kitbuga]] [[Koke Ilge]]<ref>John Masson Smith, Jr. - Mongol Manpower and Persian Population, pp.276</ref>
|commander2=Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]]{{POW}} [[Mujaheduddin]] [[Sulaiman Shah]]{{POW}} [[Qarasunqur]]
|strength1=120,000<ref name=Venegoni>L. Venegoni (2003). [http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/venegoni.html Hülägü's Campaign in the West - (1256-1260)], ''Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I'', Webfestschrift Marshak 2003.</ref>-150,000<ref name=Geographic/> total (40,000+ [[Mongols|Mongol]],<ref>John Masson Smith, Jr. - Mongol Manpower and Persian Population, pp.271-299</ref> [[Georgians|Georgian]] [[infantry]], 12,000 Armenian [[cavalry]],<ref name=Venegoni/> 1,000 [[Chinese people|Chinese]] [[artillery|bombardiers]],<ref name=Geographic/> and [[Turkic people|Turkic]], [[Persian people|Persian]] and [[Georgians|Georgian]] soldiers)
|strength2=50,000 Abbasid 30,000 Ayyubid
|casualties1=Unknown but believed to be minimal
|casualties2=50,000 soldiers, 100,000+(non Arab sources) 2,000,000 civilians (Arab sources)<ref>''The different aspects of Islamic culture: Science and technology in Islam'', Vol.4, Ed. A. Y. Al-Hassan, (Dergham sarl, 2001), 655.</ref>
}}
{{more footnotes|date=February 2011}}

The '''Siege of Baghdad''', which occurred in 1258, was an [[invasion]], [[siege]] and sacking of the city of [[Baghdad]], the capital of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] at the time and the modern-day capital of [[Iraq]], by the [[Ilkhanate]] [[Mongol]] forces along with other allied troops under [[Hulagu Khan]]. The main aim of Hulagu's expedition into the Middle East was to establish the firm imperial (now [[Toluid]]) control over the area and to extend the empire but not directly overthrow the Abbasids who had submitted to them previously.<ref>Peter Jackson, “The Dissolution of the Mongol Empire,” Central Asiatic Journal 32 (1978): 186-243</ref> If the Abbasid Caliph only refused to submit and send a contingent, the Khagan ordered his brother, Hulagu, to destroy him.

The invasion left Baghdad in a state of total destruction. Estimates of the number of inhabitants massacred during the invasion range from 100,000 to 1,000,000. The city was sacked and burned. Even the libraries of Baghdad, including the [[House of Wisdom]], were not safe from the attacks of the [[Ilkhanate]] forces, who totally destroyed the libraries and used the invaluable books to make a passage across [[Tigris|Tigris River]]{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}.
As a result, Baghdad remained depopulated and in ruins for several centuries, and the event is widely regarded as the end of the [[Islamic Golden Age]].<ref>Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia, George Samonis (2006). "Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 C.E.) and today", ''[[Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology|The FASEB Journal]]'' '''20''', pp. 1581–1586.</ref>

==Background==
[[Baghdad]] was the [[capital (political)|capital]] of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], an [[Islamic]] state whose heart became the modern state of [[Iraq]]. The Abbasid caliphs were the second of the Islamic dynasties, having in 751 toppled the [[Umayyads]], who had ruled from the death of [[Ali]] in 661.<ref name=nicolle-108>Nicolle, p. 108</ref> At Baghdad's peak it had a population of approximately one million residents and was defended by an army of 60,000 soldiers. By the mid-13th century the caliphate had been long on the wane and was now a minor state; however, although its caliph was a figurehead, controlled by [[Mamluk]] or [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] warlords, he still had great symbolic significance, and Baghdad remained a rich and cultured city.

It is said that the Caliph an-Nasir li-dini’llah (r. 1180–1225) attempted to ally with [[Genghis Khan]] and sent his envoy to [[Mongolia]] when the Turkic Shah [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm]] Dynasty threatened to attack the caliphate.<ref>Jack Weatherford - Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world, p.135</ref> There is also rumour that he sent a few crusader captives to the Mongols.<ref>Jack Weatherford - Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world, p.136</ref>

According to the [[Secret History of the Mongols]], Genghis Khan and his successor, Ogedei, ordered their [[kheshig]] member, [[Chormaqan]], to invade Baghdad.<ref>Sh.Gaadamba - Mongoliin nuuts tovchoo (1990), p.233</ref> In 1236, one division of the Mongol army under Chormaqan invaded Irbil, the sphere of the Caliphate.<ref>Timothy May - Chormaqan Noyan, p.62</ref> After this, Mongol raids on Irbil and the caliphate, even down to the walls of Baghdad,<ref name="Mongol Empire p.2">C.P.Atwood - Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.2</ref> became an almost annual occurrence.<ref>Al-Sa'idi,. , op. cit., pp. 83, 84, from Ibn al-Fuwati</ref> The armies of the caliphate defeated Mongol detachments in 1238<ref>Spuler, op. cit., from Ibn al-'Athir, vol. 12, p. 272.</ref> and 1245.<ref>http://www.alhassanain.com/english/book/book/history_library/various_books/the_alleged_role_of_nasir_al_din_al_tusi_in_the_fall_of_baghdad/004.html</ref>

Despite these successes the caliph hoped to come to terms with the Mongols, and by 1241 they
were sending a rich annual tribute to the Mongols.<ref name="Mongol Empire p.2"/> Envoys from the caliphate were present at the coronation of
[[Guyuk Khan]] in 1246<ref>Giovanni, da Pian del Carpine (translated by Erik Hildinger) - The story of the Mongols whom we call the Tartars (1996), p. 108</ref> and that of [[Mongke Khan]] in 1251.<ref>http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/lectures/wulec3.html</ref> Guyuk Khan insisted the Caliph fully submit and come to his court, [[Karakorum]], in person. Both Guyuk and Hulegu blamed Chormaqan's successor, [[Baiju]], for the irritated resistance of the Abbasid Caliphate.

==Composition of the besieging army==
In 1257 Mongol ruler [[Möngke Khan]] resolved to establish firm imperial authority over Iraq, Syria and Persia. The Khagan sent his brother Hulegu to Iran, demanding that the caliph come to meet Hülegu personally and send troops to assist his army in reducing the Ismaili strongholds. Mongke told Hulegu that if the caliph refused, then he was to destroy Baghdad. He conscripted one out of every ten fighting men in the empire for the invasion force, knowing that Baghdad, Ismaili strongholds and Syria were large and powerful in the region. This force—by one estimate 150,000 strong—was probably the largest ever fielded by the Mongols.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

The caliphate rejected the Mongol demands while Hulegu was fighting busy with the Nizari Isamilis. In November 1257, under the command of [[Hulagu]] it set out for Baghdad.<ref>Saunders 1971</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?ei=oeThTY-nNujW0QGWxYmmBw&ct=result&id=NZRFAAAAMAAJ&dq=Chinese+influences+soon+made+themselves+strongly+felt+in+Hulagu%27s+dominions.+A+Chinese+general+was+made+the+first+governor+of+Baghdad%2C5+and+Chinese+engineers+were+employed+to+improve+the+irrigation+of+the+Tigris-Euphrates+basin&q=Chinese+influences+soon+made+themselves+strongly+felt+in+Hulagu%27s+dominions.+A+Chinese+general+was+made+the+first+governor+of+Baghdad%2C5+and+Chinese+engineers+were+employed+to+improve+the+irrigation+of+the+Tigris-Euphrates+basin|title=The invention of printing in China and its spread westward|author=Thomas Francis Carter|editor=|year=1955|publisher=Ronald Press Co.|edition=2|location=|page=171|isbn=|pages=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jqb7L-pKCV8C&pg=PA377&dq=mongols+chinese+general+baghdad&hl=en&ei=BubhTYTkM-Lj0gGgtqG1Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=mongols%20chinese%20general%20baghdad&f=false|title=A history of Chinese civilization|author=Jacques Gernet|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=|isbn=0-521-49781-7|page=377|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> Generals of this Mongol army included the Oirat administrator [[Arghun Agha]], Baiju of the [[Besud]], Buqa-Temur of the [[Oirats]], the Chinese commander [[Guo Kan]], the [[Jalayir]] general Koke Ilge, [[Kitbuqa]] of the [[Naiman]], Tutar and Quli from the [[Golden Horde]] and Sunitai of the [[Borjigin]] (thus Hulegu's brother).<ref>Rashiddudin, Histoire des Mongols de la Perse, E. Quatrem"re ed. and trans. (Paris, I836), p. 352.</ref> It also contained a large contingent of various units from Christian vassals, chief among them apparently the [[Georgians]], who were eager to avenge the sacking of their capital, [[Tiflis]], decades earlier by Jalal al-Din Khwarazmshah.<ref>Khanbaghi, 60</ref> Other participating Christian forces were the Armenian army, led by their king, and some Frankish troops from the [[Principality of Antioch]].<ref>Demurger, 80-81; Demurger 284</ref> The contemporary Persian observer [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni]] reports as participants in the siege about 1,000 Chinese artillery experts and Armenians, Georgians, Persians and Turkic soldiers.<ref name=Geographic>''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'', v. 191 (1997)</ref> Hulegu's missile battallions formerly under the [[Barga]] commander Ambaghai used fire arrows during the invasion of Iraq.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?ei=EOvhTZ-vFubb0QGCx-CeBw&ct=result&id=fmptAAAAMAAJ&dq=mongols+chinese+general+baghdad&q=thousand+chinese+archers+crossbow+fire+arrows+iraq+baghdad|title=China considers the Middle East|author=Lillian Craig Harris|editor=|year=1993|publisher=Tauris|edition=illustrated|location=|page=26|isbn=1-85043-598-7|pages=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-hMtbFlKW5AC&pg=PT11&dq=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&hl=en&ei=cXUzTozgIqfb0QGPm42IDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBTge#v=onepage&q=mongol%20%20hungary%20chinese%20gunpowder&f=false|title=This Is Rocket Science: True Stories of the Risk-Taking Scientists Who Figure Out Ways to Explore Beyond Earth |author=Gloria Skurzynski|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=2010 |month= |publisher=National Geographic Books |location= |language= |isbn=1-4263-0597-4 |page=1958 |pages= |quote=In A.D. 1232 an army of 30,000 Mongol warriors invaded the Chinese city of Kai-fung-fu, where the Chinese fought back with fire arrows...Mongol leaders learned from their enemies and found ways to make fire arrows even more deadly as their invasion spread toward Europe. On Christmas Day 1241 Mongol troops used fire arrows to capture the city of Budapest in Hungary, and in 1258 to capture the city of Baghdad in what's now Iraq. }}</ref> One thousand northern Chinese engineer squads accompanied the Mongol Khan Hulegu during his conquest of the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&pg=PA510&dq=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&hl=en&ei=XGwzTuH4Ccb20gHbgtGQDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAzgU#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |author=Josef W. Meri|editor=Josef W. Meri|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |year=2005 |month= |publisher=Psychology Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-415-96690-6 |page=510 |pages= |quote=This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulegu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&pg=PA510&dq=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&hl=en&ei=XGwzTuH4Ccb20gHbgtGQDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBDgU#v=onepage&q=mongol%20invasion%20hungary%20chinese%20gunpowder&f=false|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index |coauthors=Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach|editor=Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume=Volume 2 of Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |date= |year=2006 |month= |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location= |language= |isbn=0-415-96692-2 |page=510 |pages= |quote=This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulegu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance. }}</ref> It was said that "a thousand engineers from China had to get themselves ready to serve the catapults, and to be able to cast inflammable substances." during Hulagu's invasions of the area from 1253-1258.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BZf_L1V7NLUC&pg=PA173&lpg=PA173&dq=In+the+campaigns+waged+in+western+Asia+(1253-1258)+by+Jenghis'+grandson+Hulagu,+%22a+thousand+engineers+from+China+had+to+get+themselves+ready+to+serve+the+catapults,+and+to+be+able+to+cast+inflammable+substances.%22+One+of+Hulagu's+principal+generals+in+his+succ&source=bl&ots=RaWDREHE41&sig=3r7kd0nVlubg1VrorYfOeMdIQQA&hl=en&ei=P8PmTtqbHsLk0QG6_KmGCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=In%20the%20campaigns%20waged%20in%20western%20Asia%20(1253-1258)%20by%20Jenghis'%20grandson%20Hulagu%2C%20%22a%20thousand%20engineers%20from%20China%20had%20to%20get%20themselves%20ready%20to%20serve%20the%20catapults%2C%20and%20to%20be%20able%20to%20cast%20inflammable%20substances.%22%20One%20of%20Hulagu's%20principal%20generals%20in%20his%20succ&f=false|title=A Short History of the Chinese People|author=L. Carrington Goodrich|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=2002 |month= |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |location= |language= |isbn=0-486-42488-X |page=173 |pages= |quote=In the campaigns waged in western Asia (1253-1258) by Jenghis' grandson Hulagu, "a thousand engineers from China had to get themselves ready to serve the catapults, and to be able to cast inflammable substances." One of Hulagu's principal generals in his successful attack against the caliphate of Baghdad was Chinese.}}</ref>

==The Siege==
[[File:Persian painting of Hülegü’s army beseiging a city. Note use of the seige engine..jpg|thumb|Persian painting of Hülegü’s army besieging a city. Note use of the siege engine.]]
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasions}}
Prior to laying siege to Baghdad, Hulagu Khan easily destroyed the [[Lurs]], [[Khwarezm-Shah]]s and [[Bukhara]]. In response to the [[Mongol Invasion]]s, the [[Hashshashin|Assassins]] Grand Master of [[Alamut]] [[Imam ‘Ala al-Din Muhammad]] (1221–1255), sent his forces to assassinate [[Möngke Khan]] and [[Kitbuqa]] but both attempts were unsuccessful. [[Hulagu Khan]] and hundreds of thousands of [[Mongol]]s then began an assault on the mountains near [[Alamut]] after capturing dozens of decoy fortresses the Mongols finally sacked [[Alamut]] and executed the last Grand Master [[Imam Rukn al-Din Khurshah]] (1255–1256). [[Hulagu Khan]] and his forces were left unchallenged and began their assault upon [[Baghdad]].

Mongke Khan had ordered his brother to spare the Caliphate if it submitted to the authority of the Mongol Khanate. Upon nearing Baghdad, Hulagu demanded surrender; the caliph, [[Al-Musta'sim]], refused. By many accounts, Al-Musta'sim had failed to prepare for the onslaught; he neither gathered armies nor strengthened the city's walls. He was unwilling to surrender the city of Baghdad to the ''Non-Muslim Barbarians'' ([[Mongols]]) and believed they would slaughter the inhabitants of the city unchallenged if they were allowed to enter, he greatly offended Hulagu Khan by threats he made, and thus assured his destruction.<ref>Nicolle</ref>

Hulagu positioned his forces on both banks of the Tigris River, dividing them to form a pincer around the city. The caliph's army repulsed the first attack of the Mongols going before the main army and attacking from the west, but were defeated in the next battle. [[Baiju]] broke some dikes and flooded the ground behind the caliph’s vanguard army, trapping it. Thus were many troops slaughtered or drowned.

The main Mongol army arrived and then laid siege to the city starting January 29, constructing a palisade and ditch, and employing siege engines and catapults. The battle was swift by siege standards: by February 5 the Mongols controlled a stretch of the wall. Al-Musta'sim begged to negotiate, but was refused.

On February 10, Baghdad surrendered. The Mongols swept into the city on February 13 and began a week of massacre and destruction.

==Destruction==
[[File:HulaguInBagdad.JPG|thumb|[[Hulagu]] (left) imprisons Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]] among his treasures to starve him to death. Medieval depiction from "Le livre des merveilles", 15th century.]]
Many historical accounts detailed the cruelties of the Mongol conquerors.

* The [[House of Wisdom|Grand Library of Baghdad]], containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the river and red from the blood of the scientists and philosophers killed.
* Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed with abandon. Martin Sicker writes that close to 90,000 people may have died (Sicker 2000, p. 111). Other estimates go much higher. [[Wassaf]] claims the loss of life was several hundred thousand. Ian Frazier of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' says estimates of the death toll have ranged from 200,000 to a million.<ref>Ian Frazier, [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050425fa_fact4 Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad], [[The New Yorker]] 25 April 2005. p.4</ref>
* The Mongols looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground.
* The caliph was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. According to most accounts, the caliph was killed by trampling. The Mongols rolled the caliph up in a rug, and rode their horses over him, as they believed that the earth was offended if touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons were killed, and the sole surviving son was sent to Mongolia, where Mongolian historians report he married and fathered children, but played no role in Islam thereafter (see [[Abbasid#The_end_of_the_dynasty|Abbasid: The end of the dynasty]]).
* Hulagu had to move his camp upwind of the city, due to the stench of decay from the ruined city.

Baghdad was a depopulated, ruined city for several centuries and only gradually recovered some of its former glory.

===Comments on the destruction===
:"Iraq in 1258 was very different from present day Iraq. Its agriculture was supported by canal networks thousands of years old. Baghdad was one of the most brilliant intellectual centers in the world. The Mongol destruction of Baghdad was a psychological blow from which Islam never recovered. Already Islam was turning inward, becoming more suspicious of conflicts between faith and reason and more conservative. With the sack of Baghdad, the intellectual flowering of Islam was snuffed out. Imagining the Athens of Pericles and Aristotle obliterated by a nuclear weapon begins to suggest the enormity of the blow. The Mongols filled in the irrigation canals and left Iraq too depopulated to restore them." <ref>[http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/WestTech/xmongol.htm Steven Dutch: The Mongols]</ref>

:"They swept through the city like hungry falcons attacking a flight of doves, or like raging wolves attacking sheep, with loose reins and shameless faces, murdering and spreading terror...beds and cushions made of gold and encrusted with jewels were cut to pieces with knives and torn to shreds. Those hiding behind the veils of the great Harem were dragged...through the streets and alleys, each of them becoming a plaything...as the population died at the hands of the invaders." (Abdullah Wassaf as cited by [[David Morgan (historian)|David Morgan]])

===Causes for agricultural decline===
Some historians believe that the Mongol invasion destroyed much of the irrigation infrastructure that had sustained [[Mesopotamia]] for many millennia. Canals were cut as a military tactic and never repaired. So many people died or fled that neither the labor nor the organization were sufficient to maintain the canal system. It broke down or silted up. This theory was advanced by historian [[Svat Soucek|Svatopluk Souček]] in his 2000 book, ''A History of Inner Asia.''

Other historians point to [[soil salination]] as the culprit in the decline in agriculture.<ref>[http://home.alltel.net/bsundquist1/ir5.html Alltel.net]</ref><ref>[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198305/the.greening.of.the.arab.east-the.planters.htm Saudiaramcoworld.com]</ref>

==Aftermath==
Hulagu left 3,000 Mongol soldiers behind to rebuild Baghdad. [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni]] was appointed governor of Baghdad, Lower [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Khuzistan]]. At the intervention of the Mongol Hulagu's [[Nestorian Christian]] wife, [[Dokuz Khatun]], the Christian inhabitants were spared.<ref>Maalouf, 243</ref><ref>Runciman, 306</ref> Hulagu offered the royal palace to the Nestorian [[Catholicos]] [[Mar Makikha]], and ordered a cathedral to be built for him.<ref>Foltz, 123</ref>

Initially, the fall of Baghdad was a shock to the whole Muslim world, but the city became one of economic centers where international trade, money minting and religious affairs flourished under the Ilkhans.<ref>Richard Coke - Baghdad, the city of peace, p.169</ref> The Chief Mongol [[darughachi|darugas (overseer)]] was stationed in the city.<ref>Judith G. Kolbas-The Mongols in Iran: Chingiz Khan to Uljaytu, 1220-1309, p.156</ref>

==See also==
* [[Seljuk siege of Baghdad 1157]]
* [[Abbasid Caliphate]]
* [[History of Baghdad]]
* [[Islamic Golden Age]]
* [[Soil salination]]
* [[Tigris-Euphrates river system]]
* [[Mongke Khan]]
* [[Mongol Empire]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. 1998. ''Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281'' (first edition). Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-46226-6.
* [[Alain Demurger|Demurger, Alain]]. 2005. ''Les Templiers. Une chevalerie chrétienne au Moyen Âge''. [[Éditions du Seuil]].
* ''ibid.'' 2006. ''Croisades et Croisés au Moyen-Age''. Paris: [[Groupe Flammarion]].
* Khanbaghi, Aptin. 2006. ''The fire, the star, and the cross: minority religions in medieval and early modern Iran''. London: [[I. B. Tauris]].
* Morgan, David. 1990. ''The Mongols''. Boston: [[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell]]. ISBN 0-631-17563-6.
* [[David Nicolle|Nicolle, David]], and Richard Hook (illustrator). 1998. ''The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane''. London: [[Brockhampton Press]]. ISBN 1-86019-407-9.
* Runciman, Steven. ''A history of the Crusades''.
* Saunders, J.J. 2001. ''The History of the Mongol Conquests''. Philadelphia: [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7.
* Sicker, Martin. 2000. ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna''. Westport, Connecticut: [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]]. ISBN 0-275-96892-8.
* Souček, Svat. 2000. ''A History of Inner Asia''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65704-0.

==External links==
* [http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/04/25/050425fa_fact4], article describing Hulagu's conquest of Baghdad, written by [[Ian Frazier]], appeared in the April 25, 2005 issue of ''[[The New Yorker]]''.

{{Coord missing|Iraq}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siege Of Baghdad (1258)}}
[[Category:Battles involving the Mongols|Baghdad 1258]]
[[Category:History of Baghdad]]
[[Category:Sieges of Baghdad]]
[[Category:Massacres in Iraq]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Abbasid Caliphate]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1258]]
[[Category:Battles involving Georgia (country)]]

{{Link FA|arz}}
[[ar:سقوط بغداد (1258)]]
[[br:Emgann Baghdad (1258)]]
[[ca:Setge de Bagdad (1258)]]
[[cs:Obléhání Bagdádu]]
[[es:Batalla de Bagdad (1258)]]
[[eo:Batalo de Bagdado]]
[[fr:Bataille de Bagdad (1258)]]
[[id:Pengepungan Baghdad (1258)]]
[[it:Presa di Baghdad]]
[[he:נפילת בגדאד (1258)]]
[[mr:बगदादचा पाडाव]]
[[arz:سقوط بغداد (1258)]]
[[ms:Kejatuhan Baghdad]]
[[ja:バグダードの戦い]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Bagdadem (1258)]]
[[ru:Битва за Багдад (1258)]]
[[simple:Battle of Baghdad (1258)]]
[[sl:Obleganje Bagdada (1258)]]
[[fi:Bagdadin taistelu]]
[[ur:سقوط بغداد 1258ء]]

Eroberung von Bagdad

2012-05-06T23:55:54Z

Tech77: /* Background */ minor grammatical edit

{{Infobox military conflict
|partof=the [[Mongol invasions]]
|image=[[File:Bagdad1258.jpg|300px]]
|caption=Hulagu's army conducting a siege on Baghdad walls.
|date=January 29 – February 10, 1258
|place=[[Baghdad]], modern-day [[Iraq]]
|result=Decisive Mongol victory
|combatant1=[[File:White Sulde of the Mongol Empire.jpg|border|22px]] [[Mongol Empire]] [[File:Il-Khanate Flag.svg|border|22px]] [[Ilkhanate]] {{flagicon|Georgia}} [[Kingdom of Georgia]]
|combatant2=[[File:Black flag.svg|border|22px]] [[Abbasid Caliphate]] [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|border|22px]] [[Ayyubid dynasty]]
||commander1=[[Hulagu Khan]] [[Guo Kan]] [[Arghun Agha|Arghun]] [[David VII of Georgia]] [[Baiju]] Buqa-Temur Sunitai [[Kitbuga]] [[Koke Ilge]]<ref>John Masson Smith, Jr. - Mongol Manpower and Persian Population, pp.276</ref>
|commander2=Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]]{{POW}} [[Mujaheduddin]] [[Sulaiman Shah]]{{POW}} [[Qarasunqur]]
|strength1=120,000<ref name=Venegoni>L. Venegoni (2003). [http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/venegoni.html Hülägü's Campaign in the West - (1256-1260)], ''Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I'', Webfestschrift Marshak 2003.</ref>-150,000<ref name=Geographic/> total (40,000+ [[Mongols|Mongol]],<ref>John Masson Smith, Jr. - Mongol Manpower and Persian Population, pp.271-299</ref> [[Georgians|Georgian]] [[infantry]], 12,000 Armenian [[cavalry]],<ref name=Venegoni/> 1,000 [[Chinese people|Chinese]] [[artillery|bombardiers]],<ref name=Geographic/> and [[Turkic people|Turkic]], [[Persian people|Persian]] and [[Georgians|Georgian]] soldiers)
|strength2=50,000 Abbasid 30,000 Ayyubid
|casualties1=Unknown but believed to be minimal
|casualties2=50,000 soldiers, 100,000+(non Arab sources) 2,000,000 civilians (Arab sources)<ref>''The different aspects of Islamic culture: Science and technology in Islam'', Vol.4, Ed. A. Y. Al-Hassan, (Dergham sarl, 2001), 655.</ref>
}}
{{more footnotes|date=February 2011}}

The '''Siege of Baghdad''', which occurred in 1258, was an [[invasion]], [[siege]] and sacking of the city of [[Baghdad]], the capital of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] at the time and the modern-day capital of [[Iraq]], by the [[Ilkhanate]] [[Mongol]] forces along with other allied troops under [[Hulagu Khan]]. The main aim of Hulagu's expedition into the Middle East was to establish the firm imperial (now [[Toluid]]) control over the area and to extend the empire but not directly overthrow the Abbasids who had submitted to them previously.<ref>Peter Jackson, “The Dissolution of the Mongol Empire,” Central Asiatic Journal 32 (1978): 186-243</ref> If the Abbasid Caliph only refused to submit and send a contingent, the Khagan ordered his brother, Hulagu, to destroy him.

The invasion left Baghdad in a state of total destruction. Estimates of the number of inhabitants massacred during the invasion range from 100,000 to 1,000,000. The city was sacked and burned. Even the libraries of Baghdad, including the [[House of Wisdom]], were not safe from the attacks of the [[Ilkhanate]] forces, who totally destroyed the libraries and used the invaluable books to make a passage across [[Tigris|Tigris River]]{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}.
As a result, Baghdad remained depopulated and in ruins for several centuries, and the event is widely regarded as the end of the [[Islamic Golden Age]].<ref>Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia, George Samonis (2006). "Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 C.E.) and today", ''[[Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology|The FASEB Journal]]'' '''20''', pp. 1581–1586.</ref>

==Background==
[[Baghdad]] was the [[capital (political)|capital]] of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], an [[Islamic]] state whose heart became the modern state of [[Iraq]]. The Abbasid caliphs were the second of the Islamic dynasties, having in 751 toppled the [[Umayyads]], who had ruled from the death of [[Ali]] in 661.<ref name=nicolle-108>Nicolle, p. 108</ref> At Baghdad's peak it had a population of approximately one million residents and was defended by an army of 60,000 soldiers. By the mid-13th century the caliphate had been long on the wane and was now a minor state; however, although its caliph was a figurehead, controlled by [[Mamluk]] or [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] warlords, he still had great symbolic significance, and Baghdad remained a rich and cultured city.

It is said that the Caliph an-Nasir li-dini’llah (r. 1180–1225) attempted to ally with [[Genghis Khan]] and sent his envoy to [[Mongolia]] when the Turkic Shah [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm]] Dynasty threatened to attack the caliphate.<ref>Jack Weatherford - Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world, p.135</ref> There is also rumour that he sent a few crusader captives to the Mongols.<ref>Jack Weatherford - Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world, p.136</ref>

According to the [[Secret History of the Mongols]], Genghis Khan and his successor, Ogedei, ordered their [[kheshig]] member, [[Chormaqan]], to invade Baghdad.<ref>Sh.Gaadamba - Mongoliin nuuts tovchoo (1990), p.233</ref> In 1236, one division of the Mongol army under Chormaqan invaded Irbil, the sphere of the Caliphate.<ref>Timothy May - Chormaqan Noyan, p.62</ref> After this, Mongol raids on Irbil and the caliphate, even down to the walls of Baghdad,<ref name="Mongol Empire p.2">C.P.Atwood - Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.2</ref> became an almost annual occurrence.<ref>Al-Sa'idi,. , op. cit., pp. 83, 84, from Ibn al-Fuwati</ref> The armies of the caliphate defeated Mongol detachments in 1238<ref>Spuler, op. cit., from Ibn al-'Athir, vol. 12, p. 272.</ref> and 1245.<ref>http://www.alhassanain.com/english/book/book/history_library/various_books/the_alleged_role_of_nasir_al_din_al_tusi_in_the_fall_of_baghdad/004.html</ref>

Despite these successes the caliph hoped to come to terms with the Mongols, and by 1241 they
were sending a rich annual tribute to the Mongols.<ref name="Mongol Empire p.2"/> Envoys from the caliphate were present at the coronation of
[[Guyuk Khan]] in 1246<ref>Giovanni, da Pian del Carpine (translated by Erik Hildinger) - The story of the Mongols whom we call the Tartars (1996), p. 108</ref> and that of [[Mongke Khan]] in 1251.<ref>http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/lectures/wulec3.html</ref> Guyuk Khan insisted the Caliph fully submit and come to his court, [[Karakorum]], in person. Both Guyuk and Hulegu blamed Chormaqan's successor, [[Baiju]], for the irritated resistance of the Abbasid Caliphate.

==Composition of the besieging army==
In 1257 Mongol ruler [[Möngke Khan]] resolved to establish firm imperial authority over Iraq, Syria and Persia. The Khagan sent his brother Hulegu to Iran, demanding that the caliph come to meet Hülegu personally and send troops to assist his army in reducing the Ismaili strongholds. Mongke told Hulegu that if the caliph refused, then he was to destroy Baghdad. He conscripted one out of every ten fighting men in the empire for the invasion force, knowing that Baghdad, Ismaili strongholds and Syria were large and powerful in the region. This force—by one estimate 150,000 strong—was probably the largest ever fielded by the Mongols.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

The caliphate rejected the Mongol demands while Hulegu was fighting busy with the Nizari Isamilis. In November 1257, under the command of [[Hulagu]] it set out for Baghdad.<ref>Saunders 1971</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?ei=oeThTY-nNujW0QGWxYmmBw&ct=result&id=NZRFAAAAMAAJ&dq=Chinese+influences+soon+made+themselves+strongly+felt+in+Hulagu%27s+dominions.+A+Chinese+general+was+made+the+first+governor+of+Baghdad%2C5+and+Chinese+engineers+were+employed+to+improve+the+irrigation+of+the+Tigris-Euphrates+basin&q=Chinese+influences+soon+made+themselves+strongly+felt+in+Hulagu%27s+dominions.+A+Chinese+general+was+made+the+first+governor+of+Baghdad%2C5+and+Chinese+engineers+were+employed+to+improve+the+irrigation+of+the+Tigris-Euphrates+basin|title=The invention of printing in China and its spread westward|author=Thomas Francis Carter|editor=|year=1955|publisher=Ronald Press Co.|edition=2|location=|page=171|isbn=|pages=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jqb7L-pKCV8C&pg=PA377&dq=mongols+chinese+general+baghdad&hl=en&ei=BubhTYTkM-Lj0gGgtqG1Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=mongols%20chinese%20general%20baghdad&f=false|title=A history of Chinese civilization|author=Jacques Gernet|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=|isbn=0-521-49781-7|page=377|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> Generals of this Mongol army included the Oirat administrator [[Arghun Agha]], Baiju of the [[Besud]], Buqa-Temur of the [[Oirats]], the Chinese commander [[Guo Kan]], the [[Jalayir]] general Koke Ilge, [[Kitbuqa]] of the [[Naiman]], Tutar and Quli from the [[Golden Horde]] and Sunitai of the [[Borjigin]] (thus Hulegu's brother).<ref>Rashiddudin, Histoire des Mongols de la Perse, E. Quatrem"re ed. and trans. (Paris, I836), p. 352.</ref> It also contained a large contingent of various units from Christian vassals, chief among them apparently the [[Georgians]], who were eager to avenge the sacking of their capital, [[Tiflis]], decades earlier by Jalal al-Din Khwarazmshah.<ref>Khanbaghi, 60</ref> Other participating Christian forces were the Armenian army, led by their king, and some Frankish troops from the [[Principality of Antioch]].<ref>Demurger, 80-81; Demurger 284</ref> The contemporary Persian observer [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni]] reports as participants in the siege about 1,000 Chinese artillery experts and Armenians, Georgians, Persians and Turkic soldiers.<ref name=Geographic>''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'', v. 191 (1997)</ref> Hulegu's missile battallions formerly under the [[Barga]] commander Ambaghai used fire arrows during the invasion of Iraq.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?ei=EOvhTZ-vFubb0QGCx-CeBw&ct=result&id=fmptAAAAMAAJ&dq=mongols+chinese+general+baghdad&q=thousand+chinese+archers+crossbow+fire+arrows+iraq+baghdad|title=China considers the Middle East|author=Lillian Craig Harris|editor=|year=1993|publisher=Tauris|edition=illustrated|location=|page=26|isbn=1-85043-598-7|pages=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-hMtbFlKW5AC&pg=PT11&dq=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&hl=en&ei=cXUzTozgIqfb0QGPm42IDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBTge#v=onepage&q=mongol%20%20hungary%20chinese%20gunpowder&f=false|title=This Is Rocket Science: True Stories of the Risk-Taking Scientists Who Figure Out Ways to Explore Beyond Earth |author=Gloria Skurzynski|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=2010 |month= |publisher=National Geographic Books |location= |language= |isbn=1-4263-0597-4 |page=1958 |pages= |quote=In A.D. 1232 an army of 30,000 Mongol warriors invaded the Chinese city of Kai-fung-fu, where the Chinese fought back with fire arrows...Mongol leaders learned from their enemies and found ways to make fire arrows even more deadly as their invasion spread toward Europe. On Christmas Day 1241 Mongol troops used fire arrows to capture the city of Budapest in Hungary, and in 1258 to capture the city of Baghdad in what's now Iraq. }}</ref> One thousand northern Chinese engineer squads accompanied the Mongol Khan Hulegu during his conquest of the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&pg=PA510&dq=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&hl=en&ei=XGwzTuH4Ccb20gHbgtGQDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAzgU#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |author=Josef W. Meri|editor=Josef W. Meri|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |year=2005 |month= |publisher=Psychology Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-415-96690-6 |page=510 |pages= |quote=This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulegu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&pg=PA510&dq=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&hl=en&ei=XGwzTuH4Ccb20gHbgtGQDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBDgU#v=onepage&q=mongol%20invasion%20hungary%20chinese%20gunpowder&f=false|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index |coauthors=Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach|editor=Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume=Volume 2 of Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |date= |year=2006 |month= |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location= |language= |isbn=0-415-96692-2 |page=510 |pages= |quote=This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulegu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance. }}</ref> It was said that "a thousand engineers from China had to get themselves ready to serve the catapults, and to be able to cast inflammable substances." during Hulagu's invasions of the area from 1253-1258.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BZf_L1V7NLUC&pg=PA173&lpg=PA173&dq=In+the+campaigns+waged+in+western+Asia+(1253-1258)+by+Jenghis'+grandson+Hulagu,+%22a+thousand+engineers+from+China+had+to+get+themselves+ready+to+serve+the+catapults,+and+to+be+able+to+cast+inflammable+substances.%22+One+of+Hulagu's+principal+generals+in+his+succ&source=bl&ots=RaWDREHE41&sig=3r7kd0nVlubg1VrorYfOeMdIQQA&hl=en&ei=P8PmTtqbHsLk0QG6_KmGCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=In%20the%20campaigns%20waged%20in%20western%20Asia%20(1253-1258)%20by%20Jenghis'%20grandson%20Hulagu%2C%20%22a%20thousand%20engineers%20from%20China%20had%20to%20get%20themselves%20ready%20to%20serve%20the%20catapults%2C%20and%20to%20be%20able%20to%20cast%20inflammable%20substances.%22%20One%20of%20Hulagu's%20principal%20generals%20in%20his%20succ&f=false|title=A Short History of the Chinese People|author=L. Carrington Goodrich|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=2002 |month= |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |location= |language= |isbn=0-486-42488-X |page=173 |pages= |quote=In the campaigns waged in western Asia (1253-1258) by Jenghis' grandson Hulagu, "a thousand engineers from China had to get themselves ready to serve the catapults, and to be able to cast inflammable substances." One of Hulagu's principal generals in his successful attack against the caliphate of Baghdad was Chinese.}}</ref>

==The Siege==
[[File:Persian painting of Hülegü’s army beseiging a city. Note use of the seige engine..jpg|thumb|Persian painting of Hülegü’s army besieging a city. Note use of the siege engine.]]
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasions}}
Prior to laying siege to Baghdad, Hulagu Khan easily destroyed the [[Lurs]], [[Khwarezm-Shah]]s and [[Bukhara]]. In response to the [[Mongol Invasion]]s, the [[Hashshashin|Assassins]] Grand Master of [[Alamut]] [[Imam ‘Ala al-Din Muhammad]] (1221–1255), sent his forces to assassinate [[Möngke Khan]] and [[Kitbuqa]] but both attempts were unsuccessful. [[Hulagu Khan]] and hundreds of thousands of [[Mongol]]s then began an assault on the mountains near [[Alamut]] after capturing dozens of decoy fortresses the Mongols finally sacked [[Alamut]] and executed the last Grand Master [[Imam Rukn al-Din Khurshah]] (1255–1256). [[Hulagu Khan]] and his forces were left unchallenged and began their assault upon [[Baghdad]].

Mongke Khan had ordered his brother to spare the Caliphate if it submitted to the authority of the Mongol Khanate. Upon nearing Baghdad, Hulagu demanded surrender; the caliph, [[Al-Musta'sim]], refused. By many accounts, Al-Musta'sim had failed to prepare for the onslaught; he neither gathered armies nor strengthened the city's walls. He was unwilling to surrender the city of Baghdad to the ''Non-Muslim Barbarians'' ([[Mongols]]) and believed they would slaughter the inhabitants of the city unchallenged if they were allowed to enter, he greatly offended Hulagu Khan by threats he made, and thus assured his destruction.<ref>Nicolle</ref>

Hulagu positioned his forces on both banks of the Tigris River, dividing them to form a pincer around the city. The caliph's army repulsed the first attack of the Mongols going before the main army and attacking from the west, but were defeated in the next battle. [[Baiju]] broke some dikes and flooded the ground behind the caliph’s vanguard army, trapping it. Thus were many troops slaughtered or drowned.

The main Mongol army arrived and then laid siege to the city starting January 29, constructing a palisade and ditch, and employing siege engines and catapults. The battle was swift by siege standards: by February 5 the Mongols controlled a stretch of the wall. Al-Musta'sim begged to negotiate, but was refused.

On February 10, Baghdad surrendered. The Mongols swept into the city on February 13 and began a week of massacre and destruction.

==Destruction==
[[File:HulaguInBagdad.JPG|thumb|[[Hulagu]] (left) imprisons Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]] among his treasures to starve him to death. Medieval depiction from "Le livre des merveilles", 15th century.]]
Many historical accounts detailed the cruelties of the Mongol conquerors.

* The [[House of Wisdom|Grand Library of Baghdad]], containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the river and red from the blood of the scientists and philosophers killed.
* Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed with abandon. Martin Sicker writes that close to 90,000 people may have died (Sicker 2000, p. 111). Other estimates go much higher. [[Wassaf]] claims the loss of life was several hundred thousand. Ian Frazier of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' says estimates of the death toll have ranged from 200,000 to a million.<ref>Ian Frazier, [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050425fa_fact4 Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad], [[The New Yorker]] 25 April 2005. p.4</ref>
* The Mongols looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground.
* The caliph was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. According to most accounts, the caliph was killed by trampling. The Mongols rolled the caliph up in a rug, and rode their horses over him, as they believed that the earth was offended if touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons were killed, and the sole surviving son was sent to Mongolia, where Mongolian historians report he married and fathered children, but played no role in Islam thereafter (see [[Abbasid#The_end_of_the_dynasty|Abbasid: The end of the dynasty]]).
* Hulagu had to move his camp upwind of the city, due to the stench of decay from the ruined city.

Baghdad was a depopulated, ruined city for several centuries and only gradually recovered some of its former glory.

===Comments on the destruction===
:"Iraq in 1258 was very different from present day Iraq. Its agriculture was supported by canal networks thousands of years old. Baghdad was one of the most brilliant intellectual centers in the world. The Mongol destruction of Baghdad was a psychological blow from which Islam never recovered. Already Islam was turning inward, becoming more suspicious of conflicts between faith and reason and more conservative. With the sack of Baghdad, the intellectual flowering of Islam was snuffed out. Imagining the Athens of Pericles and Aristotle obliterated by a nuclear weapon begins to suggest the enormity of the blow. The Mongols filled in the irrigation canals and left Iraq too depopulated to restore them." <ref>[http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/WestTech/xmongol.htm Steven Dutch: The Mongols]</ref>

:"They swept through the city like hungry falcons attacking a flight of doves, or like raging wolves attacking sheep, with loose reins and shameless faces, murdering and spreading terror...beds and cushions made of gold and encrusted with jewels were cut to pieces with knives and torn to shreds. Those hiding behind the veils of the great Harem were dragged...through the streets and alleys, each of them becoming a plaything...as the population died at the hands of the invaders." (Abdullah Wassaf as cited by [[David Morgan (historian)|David Morgan]])

===Causes for agricultural decline===
Some historians believe that the Mongol invasion destroyed much of the irrigation infrastructure that had sustained [[Mesopotamia]] for many millennia. Canals were cut as a military tactic and never repaired. So many people died or fled that neither the labor nor the organization were sufficient to maintain the canal system. It broke down or silted up. This theory was advanced by historian [[Svat Soucek|Svatopluk Souček]] in his 2000 book, ''A History of Inner Asia.''

Other historians point to [[soil salination]] as the culprit in the decline in agriculture.<ref>[http://home.alltel.net/bsundquist1/ir5.html Alltel.net]</ref><ref>[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198305/the.greening.of.the.arab.east-the.planters.htm Saudiaramcoworld.com]</ref>

==Aftermath==
Hulagu left 3,000 Mongol soldiers behind to rebuild Baghdad. [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni]] was appointed governor of Baghdad, Lower [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Khuzistan]]. At the intervention of the Mongol Hulagu's [[Nestorian Christian]] wife, [[Dokuz Khatun]], the Christian inhabitants were spared.<ref>Maalouf, 243</ref><ref>Runciman, 306</ref> Hulagu offered the royal palace to the Nestorian [[Catholicos]] [[Mar Makikha]], and ordered a cathedral to be built for him.<ref>Foltz, 123</ref>

Initially, the fall of Baghdad was a shock to the whole Muslim world, but the city became one of economic centers where international trade, money minting and religious affairs flourished under the Ilkhans.<ref>Richard Coke - Baghdad, the city of peace, p.169</ref> Chief of Mongol [[darughachi|darugas (overseer)]] stationed in the city.<ref>Judith G. Kolbas-The Mongols in Iran: Chingiz Khan to Uljaytu, 1220-1309, p.156</ref>

==See also==
* [[Seljuk siege of Baghdad 1157]]
* [[Abbasid Caliphate]]
* [[History of Baghdad]]
* [[Islamic Golden Age]]
* [[Soil salination]]
* [[Tigris-Euphrates river system]]
* [[Mongke Khan]]
* [[Mongol Empire]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. 1998. ''Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281'' (first edition). Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-46226-6.
* [[Alain Demurger|Demurger, Alain]]. 2005. ''Les Templiers. Une chevalerie chrétienne au Moyen Âge''. [[Éditions du Seuil]].
* ''ibid.'' 2006. ''Croisades et Croisés au Moyen-Age''. Paris: [[Groupe Flammarion]].
* Khanbaghi, Aptin. 2006. ''The fire, the star, and the cross: minority religions in medieval and early modern Iran''. London: [[I. B. Tauris]].
* Morgan, David. 1990. ''The Mongols''. Boston: [[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell]]. ISBN 0-631-17563-6.
* [[David Nicolle|Nicolle, David]], and Richard Hook (illustrator). 1998. ''The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane''. London: [[Brockhampton Press]]. ISBN 1-86019-407-9.
* Runciman, Steven. ''A history of the Crusades''.
* Saunders, J.J. 2001. ''The History of the Mongol Conquests''. Philadelphia: [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7.
* Sicker, Martin. 2000. ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna''. Westport, Connecticut: [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]]. ISBN 0-275-96892-8.
* Souček, Svat. 2000. ''A History of Inner Asia''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65704-0.

==External links==
* [http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/04/25/050425fa_fact4], article describing Hulagu's conquest of Baghdad, written by [[Ian Frazier]], appeared in the April 25, 2005 issue of ''[[The New Yorker]]''.

{{Coord missing|Iraq}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siege Of Baghdad (1258)}}
[[Category:Battles involving the Mongols|Baghdad 1258]]
[[Category:History of Baghdad]]
[[Category:Sieges of Baghdad]]
[[Category:Massacres in Iraq]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Abbasid Caliphate]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1258]]
[[Category:Battles involving Georgia (country)]]

{{Link FA|arz}}
[[ar:سقوط بغداد (1258)]]
[[br:Emgann Baghdad (1258)]]
[[ca:Setge de Bagdad (1258)]]
[[cs:Obléhání Bagdádu]]
[[es:Batalla de Bagdad (1258)]]
[[eo:Batalo de Bagdado]]
[[fr:Bataille de Bagdad (1258)]]
[[id:Pengepungan Baghdad (1258)]]
[[it:Presa di Baghdad]]
[[he:נפילת בגדאד (1258)]]
[[mr:बगदादचा पाडाव]]
[[arz:سقوط بغداد (1258)]]
[[ms:Kejatuhan Baghdad]]
[[ja:バグダードの戦い]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Bagdadem (1258)]]
[[ru:Битва за Багдад (1258)]]
[[simple:Battle of Baghdad (1258)]]
[[sl:Obleganje Bagdada (1258)]]
[[fi:Bagdadin taistelu]]
[[ur:سقوط بغداد 1258ء]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-23T01:10:09Z

Tech77: /* Prelude */ minor corrections/additions

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsement to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed by the Russians with the command of the Ottoman [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to [[Baku]] by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in Baku and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany and welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to [[Ganjak]] (or Ganja). At the same time, Germany turned to negotiations with the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They reached an agreement on 27 August whereby Germany was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested that the Ottoman Empire delay any offensive into Azerbaijan; Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Front, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces were commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who had arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-23T01:07:39Z

Tech77: /* Background */ added link to Ganja, Azerbaijan

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsement to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed by the Russians with the command of the Ottoman [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to [[Baku]] by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in Baku and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany and welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to [[Ganjak]] (or Ganja). At the same time, Germany turned to negotiations with the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They reached an agreement on 27 August whereby Germany was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested that the Ottoman Empire delay any offensive into Azerbaijan; Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Front, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:55:05Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "In May, on the Persian Campaign..." to "In May, on the Persian Front..."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsement to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed by the Russians with the command of the Ottoman [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to [[Baku]] by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in Baku and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany and welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to negotiations with the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They reached an agreement on 27 August whereby Germany was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested that the Ottoman Empire delay any offensive into Azerbaijan; Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Front, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:52:49Z

Tech77: /* Background */ rewrote 7th paragraph description of Russo-German negotiations over Baku's oil production

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsement to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed by the Russians with the command of the Ottoman [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to [[Baku]] by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in Baku and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany and welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to negotiations with the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They reached an agreement on 27 August whereby Germany was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested that the Ottoman Empire delay any offensive into Azerbaijan; Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:44:28Z

Tech77: /* Background */ corrected sp. of "endorsment" to "endorsement in 4th sentence

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsement to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed by the Russians with the command of the Ottoman [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to [[Baku]] by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in Baku and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany and welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested that the Ottoman Empire delay any offensive into Azerbaijan; Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:42:43Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "...which was signed with the Ottoman command of Third Army" to "...which was signed by the Russians with the command of the Ottoman Third Army"

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed by the Russians with the command of the Ottoman [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to [[Baku]] by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in Baku and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany and welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested that the Ottoman Empire delay any offensive into Azerbaijan; Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:35:30Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd linking to article "Baku" from 2nd instance in this article to 1st instance

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to [[Baku]] by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in Baku and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany and welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested that the Ottoman Empire delay any offensive into Azerbaijan; Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:25:15Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan." to "The German government requested that the Ottoman Empire delay any offensive into Azerbaijan;..."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany and welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested that the Ottoman Empire delay any offensive into Azerbaijan; Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:22:15Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the Treaty of Poti with Germany, welcomed the..." to "On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the Treaty of Poti with Germany and welcomed the..."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany and welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:19:19Z

Tech77: /* Background */ added space b4 "representatives"

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:17:37Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "...and the following the ..." to "..., quickly followed by those of ..."; added "...representatives..." later in same sentence

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]), quickly followed by those of the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]])representatives on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T19:02:13Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "...Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate." to "...Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate.<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:59:07Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days" to "The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]]. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:56:05Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "...the news of March Days arrived." to "the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in Baku and adjacent areas of the Baku Governorate arrived."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of the internecine conflict & massacre of Azerbaijanis and other Muslims in [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:46:53Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers." to "Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplemented by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:44:35Z

Tech77: /* Background */ added "groups" to "This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian, did not last long.

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:41:28Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "...named as "Transcaucasian Commissariat (Sejm)"..." to "...named the "Transcaucasian Commissariat" (also known as the Sejm)..."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named the "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]]" (also known as the Sejm) following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:31:13Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "...The Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia..." to "...the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia..."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named as "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]] (Sejm)" following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, the Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:29:19Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "...other pro-Ally elements that still existed in the Caucuses." to "...other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named as "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]] (Sejm)" following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Allied elements that still existed in the Caucasus.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, The Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:26:42Z

Tech77: /* Background */ More en. corrections, preimarily addition of articles where appropriate

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named as "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]] (Sejm)" following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach the Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Ally elements that still existed in the Caucuses.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, The Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, the British mission Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce was ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]; here they were denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, the Grand Vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and that the cities of [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to the Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:19:21Z

Tech77: /* Background */ chg'd "A number of Russian troops left in the Persian Campaign which did not obey the rules of the Armistice." to "A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named as "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]] (Sejm)" following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left for the Persian Campaign, contrary to the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Ally elements that still existed in the Caucuses.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, The Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, The British mission, Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]. Here, he was denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, The Grand vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and the cities [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:16:03Z

Tech77: /* Background */ added "the" to "...Persia while Persian Campaign was active."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named as "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]] (Sejm)" following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left in the Persian Campaign which did not obey the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach Caucasus via Persia while the Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Ally elements that still existed in the Caucuses.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, The Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, The British mission, Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]. Here, he was denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, The Grand vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and the cities [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:13:47Z

Tech77: /* Background */ added "...to form an "advisory" force,..." to "In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers organizing..."

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named as "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]] (Sejm)" following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left in the Persian Campaign which did not obey the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers to form an "advisory" force, organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach Caucasus via Persia while Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Ally elements that still existed in the Caucuses.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, The Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, The British mission, Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]. Here, he was denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, The Grand vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and the cities [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[ar:معركة باكو]]
[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
[[id:Pertempuran Baku]]
[[it:Battaglia di Baku]]
[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]

Schlacht um Baku

2012-04-22T18:07:24Z

Tech77: /* Background */ added corrections for en. syntax, both articles & conjunctions

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Baku
|partof=[[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]] & [[Caucasus Campaign]]
|image=[[File:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] troops entering [[Baku]] on 15 September 1918.
|place=[[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]
|date=26 August 1918 – 14 September 1918<ref name="caven"/>
|result=Decisive Turkish Victory
|combatant1={{flag|Ottoman Empire}} {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<hr>
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australia
*{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} Canada
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand
{{flagicon|Armenia|1918}} [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]
 [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] {{flagicon|Russia}} [[White movement|White Russians]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Grigory Korganov]] <hr> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lionel Dunsterville]] [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] General Dokuchaev<ref>[http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville: 1911-1922]</ref> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|22px]] Colonel Avetisov<ref name="caven"/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}}<ref name="caven"/>[[Ottoman Army of Islam]] ''14,000 infantry'' ''500 cavalry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/>
|strength2={{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 6,000 regulars {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Dunsterforce]] ''1,000 infantry'' ''1 artillery battery'' ''1 machine gun section'' ''3 armored cars'' ''2 [[Martinsyde G.100]] planes''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ''6,000 infantry'' ''40 guns''<ref name="caven"/> {{flagicon|Russia}} Bicherakhov detachment ''600''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties1=''Total: 2,000''<ref name="caven"/>
|casualties2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]] ''200''<ref name="caven"/> [[Image:Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg|23px]] [[Baku Army]] ?
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Baku''' ({{lang-az|Bakı döyüşü}}, {{lang-ru|Битва за Баку}}) in June – September 1918 was a clash between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]–[[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijani]] coalition forces led by [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] and [[Bolshevik]]–[[Dashnak]] [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Soviet]] forces, later succeeded by the [[British Empire|British]]–[[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenian]]–[[White Movement|White Russian]] forces led by [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. The battle was fought as a conclusive part the [[Caucasus Campaign]], but as a beginning of the [[Armenian-Azerbaijani War]].<ref>Yale, William (1968) ''Near East: A Modern History'' p. 247</ref><ref>Dadyan, Khatchatur(2006) ''Armenians and Baku'', p. 118</ref>

== Background ==
{{See|Persian Campaign|Caucasus Campaign}}
{{See|March Days}}
In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|abdication of the Tsar]]. On 9 March 1917, the [[Special Transcaucasian Committee]] was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[Transcaucasia]]. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian, did not last long. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi and named as "[[Transcaucasian Commissariat]] (Sejm)" following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. On 5 December 1917, this new "Transcaucasian Committee" gave endorsment to the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] which was signed with the Ottoman command of [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]].<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119</ref> Russian soldiers mainly left the front and returned to their homes. A number of Russian troops left in the Persian Campaign which did not obey the rules of the Armistice.<ref name="caven"/> General [[Nikolai Baratov]] remained in [[Hamadan]] and at [[Kermanshah]], a Russian colonel named [[Lazar Bicherakhov]] remained with 10,000 troops. Both forces were supplanted by British liaison officers.<ref name="caven"/>

In 1918, the British invited the Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers organizing them under the command of [[Lionel Dunsterville]] at Baghdad.<ref name="p788"/> It was named the [[Dunsterforce]].<ref name="p788"/> The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach Caucasus via Persia while Persian Campaign was active.<ref name="p788">{{Harv|Northcote|1922|pp=788}}</ref> The British planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Ally elements that still existed in the Caucuses.<ref name="p788"/> On 10 February 1918, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat|Sejm]] gathered and made the decision to establish independence. On 24 February 1918, The Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as independent under [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. On 27 January 1918, The British mission, Dunsterforce set out from Baghdad with officers and instructors to the region.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterforce ordered to keep the Caucasus-Tabriz front intact and put a stop to Enver's plans.<ref name="caven"/> On 17 February, Dunsterforce arrived at [[Enzeli]]. Here, he was denied passage to Baku by local [[Bolsheviks]], who cited the change in the political situation.<ref name="caven"/>

On 3 March 1918, The Grand vizier [[Talat Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with the [[Russian SFSR]]. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and the cities [[Batum]], [[Kars]], and [[Ardahan]] be transferred to Ottoman Empire. Between 14 March - April 1918, the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Sejm.

On 30 March 1918, the tenth day of Trabzon peace conference, the news of [[March Days]] arrived. The following days witnessed the inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the March Days. It resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the [[Baku Governorate]].<ref>"New Republics in the Caucasus", ''The New York Times Current History'', v. 11 no. 2 (March 1920), p. 492</ref><ref>Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol 36, No. 2, (April 2001), p. 228</ref><ref name="Smith">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm Michael Smith. "Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory"]</ref> While before the "March Days" Azerbaijani leaders claimed autonomy within Russia, after these events they demanded only independence and placed their hopes no longer in the Russian Revolution, but in support from Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Harv|Swietochowski|2004|pp=119}}</ref>

On 5 April 1918, [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] of the Transcaucasian delegation to the Trabzon peace conference accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in Tiflis (where the assembly located) was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Shortly after, the Third Army began its advance and took Erzerum, Kars and [[Van, Turkey|Van]].<ref name=caven>{{Harv|Missen|1984|pp=2766–2772}}</ref> The situation was especially dire in the Caucasus, where [[Enver Pasha]] had wanted to place Transcaucasia under Turkish suzerainty as part of his [[Pan-Turanism|Pan-Turanian]] plan.<ref name="caven"/> This would give the Central Powers numerous natural resources, including the oilfields of Baku. The control of the Caspian would open the way to further expansion in [[Central Asia]], and possibly [[British India]].<ref name="caven"/>

On 11 May 1918, a new peace conference opened at Batum.<ref>Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> At this conference Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin through which they wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on 21 May, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24).

On 26 May 1918, the federation dissolved initially with the Georgian declaration of independence ([[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]) and the following the Armenian ([[Democratic Republic of Armenia]]), and Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]) on 28 May. On 28 May 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, welcomed the [[German Caucasus Expedition]], seeing in the Germans protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the Ottoman military advances.<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> The government of Azerbaijan moved from Tiflis to Ganja. At the same time, Germany turned to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] and offered to stop the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. They negotiations reached an agreement on 27 August, between Russian SFSR and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production. The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request.

In May, on the Persian Campaign, a military mission under [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]], brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks.<ref name="caven"/> Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks.<ref name="rusaz"/>

On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman empire would provide military assistance to Azerbaijan, if such assistance was required for maintaining peace and security in the country.

== Prelude ==
The Ottoman Army of Islam was under the command of Nuri Pasha. It was formed in Ganja. It included the Ottoman 5th Caucasian and 15th divisions, and the Azerbaijani Muslim Corps under general [[Ali-Agha Shikhlinski]]. There were roughly 14,000 Ottoman troops with 500 cavalrymen and 40 pieces of artillery.<ref name="caven"/> 30% of the newly formed army consisted of Ottoman soldiers, the rest being Azerbaijani forces and volunteers from Dagestan.<ref name="rusaz">{{cite book | last = Swietochowski | first =Tadeusz | title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year =1985 | location =Cambridge | pages = | isbn = | author = link = }}</ref>

The Baku forces commanded by the former Tsarist General Dokuchaev,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.pseudology.org/gazprom/vrednoe_iskopaemoe.htm Довольно вредное ископаемое] by Alexander Goryanin</ref> with his [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]], [[Colonel Avetisov]].<ref name="caven"/> Under their command were about 6,000 [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] troops of the [[Baku Army]] or [[Baku Battalions]].<ref name="caven"/> The vast majority of the troops in this force were [[Armenians]], though there were some [[Russians]] among them. Their artillery comprised some 40 field guns. Most of the Baku Soviet troops and practically all their officers were Armenians of [[Dashnak]] leanings, and often outright Dashnaks. One of the Red Army commanders was the notorious Amazasp, who had fought as a guerrilla leader against the Turks, and for whom any Muslim was an enemy simply because he was a Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/>

The British mission, [[Dunsterforce]], was headed by Major-General [[Lionel Dunsterville]], who arrived to take command of the mission force in [[Baghdad]] on 18 January 1918. The first members of the force were already assembled.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville set out from Baghdad on 27 January 1918, with four NCOs and batmen in 41 Ford vans and cars.<ref name="caven"/> The British troops in battle under Dunsterville numbered roughly 1,000. They were supported by a field artillery battery, machine gun section, three armoured cars, and two [[airplanes]]. He was to proceed through Persia (began from [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] through [[Persian Campaign]]) to the port of [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]].

<gallery caption="Opposing forces" perrow="7">
Image:Dunster1.jpg|[[Dunsterville]] (far left) with [[Dunsterforce]] staff.
Image:Dunsterforce training.jpg|Members of Dunsterforce training troops of the local Baku Army.
Image:Armenians_baku1918.jpg|Armenian units drilling in Baku.
Image:Armenian Resistance -Mourat - Defense of Erzinjan 1916.png|[[Murad of Sebastia]] lead his volunteers and died at the Battle of Baku<ref>{{Harv|Pasdermadjian|1918|pp=22}}</ref>
Image:Azerbaijani troops enter Baku 1918.jpg|Azerbaijani troops in Baku
</gallery>

== Battle ==
[[Image:bakuroad.jpg|thumb|North Staffords, a contingent of the [[Dunsterforce]], on the road to [[Baku]].]]
[[Image:Armenian defenders.jpg|thumb|Armenian troops in a trench.]]

=== Outside city of Baku ===
On 6 June 1918, [[Grigory Korganov]], People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Baku Soviet, issued an order to the Red Army to begin offensive operations against Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> Being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, the government of Azerbaijan asked the Ottoman empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. The Baku Soviet troops looted and killed Muslims as they moved towards Ganja.<ref name="Kazemzadeh"/> However many of the troops Shahumian requested from Moscow for the protection of Baku did not arrive because they were held up on the orders of [[Stalin]] in [[Tsaritsyn]]. Also, on Stalin's orders, grain collected in Northern Caucasus to feed the starving people in Baku was directed to Tsaritsyn. Shahumian protested to Lenin and to the Military Committee about Stalin's behavior and he often stated: "Stalin will not help us". Lack of troops and food would be decisive in the fate of the Baku Soviet.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kun
| first =Miklós
| title =Stalin: An Unknown Portrait
| publisher = Central European University Press
| year =2003
| location =
| pages =
| isbn =
| author = link = }}</ref>

On 27 June - 1 July 1918, in the battle near [[Goychay (city)|Goychay]], the Army of Islam defeated the Red Army and started advancing towards Baku. At this point, earlier in June, Bicherakhov was in the vicinity of [[Qazvin]], trying to go north.<ref name="caven"/> After defeating some Jangalis, he proceeded to check the situation in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> Returning on 22 June, he planned to save the situation by blocking the Army of Islam at Alyaty Pristan'.<ref name="caven"/> However, he arrived too late, and instead went farther north to [[Derbent]], planning to attack the invading Army of Islam from the north. At Baku, he left only a small [[Cossack]] contingent.<ref name="caven"/> Beside the Russians, the Jangalis also harassed elements of the [[Dunsterforce]] going to Anzali on their way to Baku. Once defeated, the Jangalis dispersed. On reaching Anzali in late July, Dunsterville also arrested the local Bolsheviks who had sided with the Jangalis.<ref name="caven"/>

On 26 July 1918, a [[coup d'état]] overthrew the Bolsheviks in Baku.<ref name="caven"/> The new body, the [[Central Caspian Dictatorship]], wanted to arrest [[Stepan Shahumian]], but he and his 1,200 Red Army troops seized the local arsenal and 13 ships, and began heading to [[Astrakhan]]. The [[Caspian fleet]], loyal to the new government, turned them back.<ref name="caven"/>

By 30 July 1918, the advance parties of the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] had reached the heights above Baku, causing Dunsterville to immediately send contingents of his troops to Baku, which arrived on 16 August.<ref name="caven"/>

On 17 August 1918, Dokuchaev started an offensive at [[Diga]].<ref name="caven"/> He planned for 600 Armenians under [[Colonel Stepanov]] to attack to the north of Baku.<ref name="caven"/> He would further be reinforced by some [[Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|Warwicks]] and [[North Staffordshire Regiment|North Staffords]], eventually taking [[Novkhani]]. By doing this, they planned to close the gap to the sea, and control a strongly defensible line from one end of the [[Apsheron Peninsula]] to the other. The attack failed without artillery support, as the "Inspector of Artillery" had not been given warning.<ref name="caven"/> As a result of the failure, the remnants of the force retired to a line slightly north of Diga.<ref name="caven"/>

=== City of Baku ===
[[Image:Bakuoil.jpg|150px|thumb|The oil derricks of Baku shelled during the battle.]]
[[Image:Dunsterforce Rus Arm.jpg|thumb|Shortly before the Ottoman attack: Russian and Armenian soldiers near the front line.]]
While Baku and its environs had been the site of clashes since June and into mid-August, the term ''Battle of Baku'' refers to the operations of 26 August - 14 September.<ref name="caven"/><ref>{{cite web
| last =Comtois
| first =Pierre
| title =World War I: Battle for Baku
| publisher =HistoryNet
| url =http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3035386.html?page=1&c=y
| accessdate = 19 July 2007}}</ref>
On 26 August, the Army of Islam launched its main attack against positions at the [[Wolf's Gate]].<ref name="caven"/> Despite a shortage of artillery, British and Baku troops held the positions against the Army of Islam. Following the main assault, the Turks also attacked [[Binəqədi raion|Binagadi]] Hill farther north, but also failed. After these attacks, reinforcements were sent to the [[Biləcəri|Balajari station]], from where they held the heights to the north.<ref name="caven"/> However, faced with increased artillery fire from Turks, they retired to the railway line.<ref name="caven"/>

Over the period 28–29 August, the Turks shelled the city heavily, and attacked the Binagadi Hill position. 500 Turks in close order charged up the hill, but were repulsed with the help of artillery. However, the under-strength British troops were forced to retire to positions further south.<ref name="caven"/>

29 August– 1 September, the Turks managed to capture the positions of Binagadi Hill and Diga. Several coalition units were overrun, and losses were heavy. By this point, allied troops were pushed back to the saucer-like position that made up the heights surrounding Baku.<ref name="caven"/> However, Ottoman losses were so heavy that [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] was not immediately able to continue his offensive. This gave the Baku Army invaluable time to reorganize.<ref name="caven"/> Faced with an ever worsening situation, Dunsterville organized a meeting with the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspian Dictators]] on 1 September. He said that he was not willing to risk more British lives and hinted at his withdrawal. However, the dictators protested that they would fight to the bitter end, and the British should leave only when troops of the Baku Army did.<ref name="caven"/> Dunsterville decided to stay until the situation became hopeless. Meanwhile, Bicherakhov captured [[Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast|Petrovsk]], allowing him to send help to Baku. The reinforcements consisting of 600 men from his force, including [[Cossacks]], raised hope.<ref name="caven"/>

1–13 September, the Turks did not attack. During this period, the Baku force prepared itself and sent out airplane patrols constantly.<ref name="caven"/> In his diary, Dunsterville reported the atrocities against the Muslim population perpetrated by Armenian militants.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dunsterville | first =Lionel | title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918 | publisher =Great War Documentary Archive | url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html | accessdate = 10 January 2009}}</ref> On 12 September, an [[Arab]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] from the [[10th Division (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 10th Division]] [[desertion|deserted]], giving information suggesting the main assault would take place on 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

On the night of 13/14 September, the Turks began their attacks. The Turks nearly overran the strategic [[Wolf's Gate]] ({{lang-az|Qurd qapısı}}) west of Baku, from which the whole battlefield could be seen. However, their advance was halted by a counterattack. The fighting continued for the rest of the day, and the situation eventually became hopeless. By the night of the 14 September, the remnants of the [[Baku Army]] and [[Dunsterforce]] evacuated the city for Anzali.<ref name="caven"/>

On 30 October, The [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces left the city.

=== Atrocities ===
==== March days ====
{{Main|March days}}
On 9 March 1918, the arrest of General Talyshinski, the commander of the Azerbaijani division, and some of its officers all of whom arrived in Baku increased the anti-Soviet feelings among the city's Azeri population. On 30 March, based on the unfounded report that the Azerbaijani (Muslim) crew of the ship ''Evelina'' was armed and ready to revolt against the Soviet, the Soviet disarmed the crew who tried to resist <ref name="Kazemzadeh">Firuz Kazemzadeh. Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917—1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951</ref><ref>''{{lang|ru|Документы об истории гражданской войны в С.С.С.Р.}}'', Vol. 1, pp. 282–283.</ref> The three days of inter-ethnic warfare referred to as the [[March Days]], which resulted in the massacre of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis by the Bolsheviks and armed Armenian units in the city of Baku and other locations in the Baku Governorate. The March events, beyond the violent three day period, touched off a series of massacres all over Azerbaijan.<ref name="kazemzadeh73">F. Kazemzadeh. ''open citation'', p. 73.</ref>

==== September days ====
{{Main|September Days}}
In September 1918, a terrible panic in Baku ensued when the Army of Islam began to enter the city. Armenians crowded the harbour in a frantic effort to escape.<ref name="walker">Christopher, Armenia, page = 260</ref> Regular Ottoman troops were not allowed to enter the city for two days, so that the local irregulars could take their revenge. The violence with which they turned on the Armenians as a revenge for massacre of Azeris knew no bounds.<ref name="walker" /> It was the last major massacre of World War I.<ref>Andreopoulos, George(1997) ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions'' University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812216164 p. 236</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The British losses in the battle totaled about 200 men and officers killed, missing or wounded. Mürsel Bey admitted Ottoman losses of around 2,000.<ref name="caven"/> Among the civilians the casualties of Baku's 80,000 person Armenian community were between 9,000 and 10,000, roughly equal to the number of Azeris massacred by Armenians and Bolsheviks during the [[March Days]].<ref name="rusaz"/> Altogether up to 20,000 Armenians were killed or deported.<ref name=bruno>{{cite book
| last = Coppieters
| first = Bruno
| title =Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia
| publisher = Routlege
| year =1998
| location =
| isbn = 0714644803
| author = link =
| page = 82}}</ref>

No oil from Baku's oilfields got beyond [[Tbilisi]] before the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and [[German Empire|Germans]] signed the armistice.<ref name="caven"/> By 16 November, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and [[Mürsel Bakû|Mürsel Bey]] were ejected from Baku and a British general sailed into the city, headed by one of the ships that had evacuated on the night of 14 September.<ref name="caven"/>

[[Image:SV100190-azeri genocide.jpg|thumb|Memorial in Baku to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat.]]
[[Image:Memorial anglichanam.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.]]
A memorial in Baku was established to the Turkish soldiers who were killed in combat. There is also a memorial to the British soldiers in Baku.

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
{{Reflist}}
</div>

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book | last = Walker | first = Christopher | title = ARMENIA: The Survival of a Nation | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year =1980 | location =New York | isbn = 0709902107 | author = link = | page = 260}}
* {{Cite book |title=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War |last=Pasdermadjian |first=Garegin |authorlink=Karekin Pastermadjian |coauthors=Aram Torossian |year=1918 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Hairenik Pub. Co. |location= |isbn= |page=45 |ref=CITEREFPasdermadjian1918}}
* {{Cite book | last = Missen | first =Leslie | title = Dunsterforce. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ix | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year =1984 | location = | pages = 2766–2772 | isbn =0-86307-181-3 | author = link = ref=CITEREFMissen1984}}
* {{Cite news |first=Dudley S.|last=Northcote |title=Saving Forty Thousand Armenians |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip |work=Current History |publisher=New York Times Co.,|year=1922 |accessdate=12 December 2008 |ref=CITEREFNorthcote1922}}
* {{Cite book |title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url= |isbn=9780521522458 |ref=CITEREFSwietochowski2004}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Dunsterville
| first =Lionel
| title = The Diaries of General Lionel Dunsterville, 1918
| publisher =Great War Documentary Archive
| url = http://www.gwpda.org/Dunsterville/Dunsterville_1918.html
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
*{{Cite web
| last =Judge
| first =Cecil
| title = With General Dunsterville in Persia and Transcaucasus
| publisher =Russia-Australia Historical Military Connections
| url = http://www.argo.net.au/andre/captain_judge.htm
| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

{{World War I}}

{{Coord missing|Azerbaijan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baku 1918}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Caucasus Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Russia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:1918 in the Ottoman Empire]]

{{Link FA|az}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
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[[az:Bakı döyüşü]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μπακού (1918)]]
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[[ru:Битва за Баку (1918)]]
[[tr:Bakü Muharebesi (1918)]]