Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Soziales Modell von Behinderung

2010-11-28T00:55:48Z

Tcp-ip: merge proposal

{{Merge from|Medical model of disability|discuss=Talk:Social model of disability#Merger proposal|date=November 2010}}
{{Template:Disability}}
{{dablink|For specific activity related to implementation of certain aspects of this model, see the article [[Inclusion (disability rights)]] and the other articles and links there.}}

The '''social model of disability''' is a reaction to the dominant [[medical model of disability]] which in itself is a [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|Cartesian]] functional analysis of the body as machine to be fixed in order to conform with normative values.<ref> {{Cite doi| 10.1046/j.1466-769X.2002.00113.x}}</ref> The social model of disability identifies systemic barriers, negative attitudes and exclusion by society (purposely or inadvertently) that mean society is the main contributory factor in disabling people. While [[Physiology|physical]], sensory, intellectual, or [[psychology|psychological]] variations, may cause individual functional limitation or [[impairment]]s, these do not have to lead to [[disability]] unless society fails to take account of and include people regardless of their individual differences. The origins of the approach can be traced to the 1960s; the specific term emerged from the [[United Kingdom]] in the 1980s.

==History==
The approach behind the model is traced to the [[Civil Rights Movement|civil rights]]/[[human rights]] movements of the 1960s.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} In 1975, the UK organization [[Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation]] (UPIAS) claimed : "In our view it is society which disables physically impaired people. Disability is something imposed on top of our impairments by the way we are unnecessarily isolated and excluded from full participation in society."<ref>THE UNION OF THE PHYSICALLY IMPAIRED ,1975 , Fundamental Principles of Disability , London W13 / London W1 , The Disability Alliance / UPIAS.[http://www.leeds.ac.uk/disability-studies/archiveuk/UPIAS/fundamental%20principles.pdf Fundamental Principles of Disability] accessed : 23.10.2010</ref><ref>Finkelstein,V.,1975,Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation :Comments on the discussion held between the Union and the Disability Alliance on 22nd November 1975 , Fundamental Principles of Disability.[http://www.leeds.ac.uk/disability-studies/archiveuk/finkelstein/UPIAS%20Principles%202.pdf Comments on the discussion held between the Union and the Disability Alliance on 22nd November,1975]</ref>

In 1983, the disabled academic [[Mike Oliver (disability advocate)|Mike Oliver]] coined the phrase "social model of disability" in reference to these ideological developments.<ref name="OliverSapey2006">{{cite book|author1=Michael Oliver|author2=Bob Sapey|title=Social work with disabled people|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qqiUQgAACAAJ|accessdate=23 October 2010|date=27 April 2006|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9781403918383}}</ref> Oliver focused on the idea of an individual model (of which the medical was a part) versus a social model, derived from the distinction originally made between impairment and disability by the UPIAS.<ref> Oliver, M. (1990) The individual and social models of disability : People with established locomotor disabilities in hospitals. Joint Workshop of the Living Options Group and the Royal College of Physicians. 23/7/1990. [http://www.leeds.ac.uk/disability-studies/archiveuk/Oliver/in%20soc%20dis.pdf The individual and social models of disability : People with established locomotor disabilities in hospitals.] accessed : 23.10.2010 </ref>

The "social model" was extended and developed by academics and activists in the UK, US and other countries, and extended to include all disabled people, including those who have [[learning difficulties]] / [[learning disabilities]] / or who are [[mentally handicapped]], or people with emotional, mental health or behavioural problems.<ref>{{Cite doi| 10.1080/09687590120035816 }}</ref><ref> [http://www.bfi.org.uk/education/teaching/disability/thinking/medical.html Medical model' vs 'social model'] </ref>

Oliver did not intend the "social model of disability" to be an all encompassing theory of disability, rather a starting point in reframing how society views disability.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

==Components and usage==

A fundamental aspect of the social model concerns equality. The struggle for equality is often compared to the struggles of other socially marginalized groups. Equal rights are said to give empowerment and the "ability" to make decisions and the opportunity to live life to the fullest. A related phrase often used by disability rights campaigners, as with other [[social activism]], is "[[Nothing About Us Without Us]]."<ref name="Charlton2000">{{cite book|author=James I. Charlton|title=Nothing about us without us: disability oppression and empowerment|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ohqff8DBt9gC|accessdate=23 October 2010|year=2000|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520224810}}</ref><ref> [http://www.publications.doh.gov.uk/learningdisabilities/access/ Nothing About Us Without Us]</ref>

The social model of disability focuses on changes required in society. These might be in terms of:

*Attitudes, for example a more positive attitude toward certain mental traits or behaviors, or not underestimating the potential quality of life of those with impairments,
*Social support, for example help dealing with barriers; resources, aids or [[positive discrimination]] to overcome them, for example providing a buddy to explain work culture for an employee with autism,
*Information, for example using suitable formats (e.g. [[braille]]) or levels (e.g. simplicity of language) or coverage (e.g. explaining issues others may take for granted),
*Physical structures, for example buildings with sloped access and elevators, or
*Flexible work hours for people with [[circadian rhythm sleep disorders]] or, for example, for people who experience [[anxiety]]/[[panic attacks]] in rush hour traffic.<ref> [http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/advice-and-guidance/your-rights/disability/disability-in-employment/examples-of-reasonable-adjustments-in-the-workplace/ Equality and human rights commission : Examples of reasonable adjustments in the workplace]</ref>

The social model of disability implies that attempts to change, "fix" or "cure" individuals, especially when against the wishes of the patient, can be discriminatory and prejudiced. This attitude, which may be seen as stemming from a medical model and a subjective value system, can harm the self-esteem and social inclusion of those constantly subjected to it (e.g. being told they are not as good or valuable, in an overall and core sense, as others). Some communities have actively resisted "treatments", while, for example, defending a unique culture or set of abilities. In the deaf community, sign language is valued even if most people do not know it and some parents argue against cochlear implants for deaf infants who cannot consent to them.<ref>http://www.beyonddiscovery.org/content/view.asp?I=261</ref> People diagnosed with an [[autism spectrum disorder]] may argue against efforts to change them to be more like others. They argue instead for acceptance of [[neurodiversity]] and accommodation to different needs and goals.<ref>http://www.neurodiversity.com/autistic_distinction.html</ref> Some people diagnosed with a [[mental disorder]] argue that they are just different and don't necessarily conform. The [[Biopsychosocial model]] of disease/disability is a holistic attempt by practitioners to address this.<ref>{{Cite doi| 10.1126/science.847460}} </ref>

The social model implies that practices such as [[eugenics]] are founded on social values and a prejudiced understanding of the potential and value of those labeled disabled. "Over 200,000 disabled people were the first victims of the holocaust."<ref>Mckee, B. 'Disabled and the holocaust : Disabled Persecution',2004,[http://www.eastrenfrewshire.gov.uk/holocaust/holocaust_remembrance_2004_-_other_victims/holocaust_remembrance_2004_-_disabled___the_holocaust.htm Disabled and the holocaust : Disabled Persecution'] accessed 23.10.2010</ref>

A 1986 article stated: "It is important that we do not allow ourselves to be dismissed as if we all come under this one great metaphysical category 'the disabled'. The effect of this is a depersonalization, a sweeping dismissal of our individuality, and a denial of our right to be seen as people with our own uniqueness, rather than as the anonymous constituents of a category or group. These words that lump us all together -'the disabled', 'spina bifida', 'tetraplegic', 'muscular dystrophy’, - are nothing more than terminological rubbish bins into which all the important things about us as people get thrown away."<ref>{{Cite doi| 10.1080/02674648666780171}}</ref>

The social model of disability is based on a distinction between the terms "impairment" and "disability." Impairment is used to refer to the actual attributes (or lack of attributes), the abnormality, of a person, whether in terms of limbs, organs or mechanisms, including psychological. Disability is used to refer to the restrictions caused by society when it does not give equivalent attention and accommodation to the needs of individuals with impairments.<ref>http://www.leeds.ac.uk/disability-studies/archiveuk/thomas%20pam/Defining%20Impairment%20within%20the%20Social%20Model%20of%20Disability.pdf</ref>

The social model also relates to economics. It proposes that people can be disabled by a lack of resources to meet their needs. It addresses issues such as the under-estimation of the potential of people to contribute to society and add economic value to society, if given equal rights and equally suitable facilities and opportunities as others. In Autumn 2001, the UK Office for National Statistics identified that approximately one fifth of the working age population were disabled - 7.1 million disabled people as opposed to 29.8 million able people - and in this analysis also provided insight into some of the reasons why disabled people were unwilling to enter the labour market, such as that the reduction in disability benefits in entering the labour market would not make it worthwhile to enter into employment. A three pronged approach was suggested:
"incentives to work via the tax and benefit system, for example through the Disabled Person’s Tax Credit;
helping people back into work, for example via the New Deal for Disabled People; and tackling discrimination in the workplace via anti-discrimination policy. Underpinning this are the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) 1995 and the Disability Rights Commission."<ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/articles/labour_market_trends/People_with_disabilities_aug2002.pdf Labour market experiences of people with disabilities]</ref>

==Policy==
In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Disability Discrimination Act 1995|Disability Discrimination Act]] defines disability using the medical model - disabled people are defined as people with certain conditions, or certain limitations on their ability to carry out "normal day-to-day activities." But the requirement of employers and service providers to make "reasonable adjustments" to their policies or practices, or physical aspects of their premises, follows the social model.<ref>[http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/DisabledPeople/RightsAndObligations/DisabilityRights/DG_4001068 The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA)]</ref> By making adjustments, employers and service providers are removing the barriers that disable - according to the social model, they are effectively removing the person's disability. In 2006, amendments to the act called for local authorities and others to actively promote disability equality. This enforcement came in the shape of the Disability Equality Duty in December 2006.<ref>[http://www.dotheduty.org/ Disability Equality Duty]</ref> In 2010, The Disability Discrimination Act (1995) was amalgamated into the [[Equality Act 2010]] along with other pertinent discrimination legislation. It extends the law on discrimination to indirect discrimination. For example if a carer of a person with a disability is discriminated against, this is now also unlawful.<ref> [http://www.equalities.gov.uk/equality_act_2010.aspx Equality Act 2010] </ref> From October 2010 when it came into effect it is now unlawful for employers to ask questions about illness or disability at interview for a job or for a referee to comment on such in a reference, except where there is a need to make reasonable adjustments for an interview to proceed. Following an offer of a job, an employer can then lawfully ask such questions.<ref> [http://www.thebottomlineonline.co.uk/pages/fullarticle.asp?id=222 THE EQUALITY ACT 2010 DISABILITY DISCRIMINATION AND PRE EMPLOYMENT HEALTH QUESTIONS]</ref> The Equality Act also extends protection to transgendered individuals.

In the [[United States]], the [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]] (ADA), revision of 2008 effective in January 2009, is a wide-ranging [[civil rights]] law that prohibits discrimination based on disability.<ref>[http://www.ada.gov/pubs/adastatute08.pdf AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT OF 1990, AS AMENDED]</ref> It affords similar protections against discrimination to Americans with disabilities as the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], which made discrimination based on [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[religion]], [[sex]], national origin, and other characteristics illegal. Certain specific conditions are excluded, such as [[alcoholism]] and [[transsexualism]].

== See also ==
* [[Ableism]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
* UK [[Disability Rights Commission]]: [http://83.137.212.42/sitearchive/drc/citizenship/howtouse/socialmodel/index.html The Social Model of Disability]. Accessed 2009-10-15.
* [http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/asp/gateway.asp?hr=/en/hip/odi/documents/Definitions/Definitions003.shtml&hs= Article on Disability Perspectives and Data Sources] from Government of Canada.
*{{cite journal |author=Chapireau F, Colvez A |title=Social disadvantage in the international classification of impairments, disabilities, and handicap |journal=Soc Sci Med |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=59–66 |year=1998 |month=July |pmid=9683379 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277953698000331}}
*{{cite journal |author=Kearney PM, Pryor J |title=The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and nursing |journal=J Adv Nurs |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=162–70 |year=2004 |month=April |pmid=15056329 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2648.2003.02976.x |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0309-2402&date=2004&volume=46&issue=2&spage=162}}
*[http://www.milieu.it/DisabilityStudiesItaly/DisabilityStudiesItaly.html Disability Studies Italy] (in Italian).

[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Disability rights]]
[[Category:Accessibility]]
[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Medical sociology]]
[[Category:Medical models]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Sociological theories]]
[[Category:Social theories]]

[[es:Modelo social en la discapacidad]]
[[fi:Vammaisuuden sosiaalinen malli]]

Catch-22 (Dilemma)

2007-05-14T14:06:30Z

Tcp-ip: fixed symbol

{{unreferenced|article|date=November 2006}}
'''Catch-22''' is a term coined by [[Joseph Heller]] in his novel ''[[Catch-22]]'', describing a paradox in a law, regulation or practice in which one is a victim regardless of the choice he makes[http://www.sc.edu/usctimes/articles/2003/2003-04/catch_22.html]. A familiar example of this circumstance occurs in the context of job searching. In moving from school to a [[career]], one may encounter a Catch-22 where one cannot get a [[employment|job]] without [[work experience]], but one cannot gain experience without a job. Catch-22 situations are also sometimes called [[the chicken or the egg]] problems. The concept (and the book) was originally to be called Catch-18, until a novel called Mila-18 was published by Leon Uris during the final stages of Heller's work.

== Original use ==
{{spoiler}}
The prototypical '''Catch-22,''' as formulated by [[Joseph Heller|Heller]], considers the case of a [[United States Army Air Corps|U.S. Army Air Forces]] [[bombardier (air force)|bombardier]] who wishes to be excused from combat flight duty. In order to be excused from such duty, he must submit an official medical diagnosis from his squadron's [[flight surgeon]], demonstrating that he is unfit because he is [[insanity|insane]]. According to Army regulations, any [[sanity|sane]] person would naturally not want to fly combat missions because they are so dangerous. By requesting permission not to fly combat missions, on the grounds of insanity, the bombardier demonstrates that he is in fact sane and therefore is fit to fly. Conversely, any flyer who wished to fly on combat runs implicitly demonstrated that he was insane and was unfit to fly and ought to be excused, and to be excused this person would only need to submit a request. Naturally, such flyers never submitted such requests. Of course, if they did, the "Catch" would assert itself, short-circuiting any such attempt to escape from combat duty.

This seemingly irrational situation does have a rational basis: sanity is a prerequisite to discovering one is insane. If one submits a request to stop flying because one is "insane," it shows enough sanity to recognize one is insane. In other words, one has to be sane to recognize one's own insanity.

In words, '''Catch-22''' can be expressed as: "C requires (is implied by) A and B; If A then not B; If B then not A". In formal [[Propositional logic]] symbolism this can be expressed as '('''A''' &and; '''B''') => '''C''', where ('''A''' => '''¬B''') and ('''B''' => '''¬A''')'. In this example, in order to leave the Air Corps (outcome '''C'''), you must be both ''crazy'' (proposition '''A''') and ''request to leave'' (proposition '''B'''). If you're ''crazy'' ('''A''') then you won't ''request to leave'' ''i.e.''('''¬B'''). But if you do ''request to leave'' ('''B''') then you're '''not''' ''crazy!'' ''i.e.''('''¬A'''). Thus you can ''never leave'' ('''C''' cannot occur).

However, in Heller's text, two meanings for Catch-22 exist beyond that of an unsolvable logical [[dilemma]]. In the first chapter, officers who censor the privates' letters must sign their own name according to Catch-22, and in the final chapters it is restated simply as "anything can be done to you that you can not prevent," the logical conclusion being eventual destruction or assimilation ...unless one breaks out of the system entirely. The solution for Heller is, to borrow a Prussian expression, ''die Flucht nach vorne antreten'' ("to take flight (flee) forward") decisively freeing oneself from a situation in which it is not possible to withdraw. In the case of Heller’s hero Yossarian, this was done by deserting and fleeing to Sweden. Note that the act of fleeing is not the primary issue: The central point is a [[decision]] to be [[Freedom (philosophy)|free]] of a [[constraint]] combined with a strong course of action; such decisions are probably more typically found in the philosophy of [[existentialism]] than other systems of philosophy.

== Deadlock ==
{{main article|Deadlock}}
In computer science, a [[deadlock]] is a condition whereby two [[Process (computing)|processes]] are waiting for a particular resource which the other has and will release only after receiving the resource for which it is waiting. Thus, the only way the resource will become available for one of the processes is if the other releases it — which neither will do, until it receives the resource that the other has.

For example, suppose Process A has a block of [[Memory (computers)|memory]], and needs to access a [[Floppy disk|disk drive]]. Meanwhile, Process B has control of the disk drive, and needs to put its information in memory — specifically, it needs the block of memory Process A controls. Process A will hold onto its block of memory and wait for the disk drive to become available, while Process B will hold onto the disk drive and wait for the memory to become available. Both processes are dependent on the other, thus they will wait for each other forever.

Thus, this situation is a ''vicious circle'' and is a good example of a ''Catch-22''. This type of situation has also been referred to as a ''deadly embrace''. A deadlock is, of course, an undesirable state in a computing system.

== See also ==
*[[Hobson's choice]]
*[[Morton's Fork]]
*[[Circular logic]]
*[[Double bind]] (a type of formalized catch-22 which is found in psychology and psychotherapy)
*[[Reductio ad absurdum]]
*[[Lesser of two evils principle (politics)|Lesser of two evils principle]]
*[[No-win situation]]
*[[Zugzwang]]
*[[Paradox]]

[[it:Paradosso del Comma 22]]
[[nl:Catch-22 (logica)]]

[[Category:English idioms]]
[[Category:Logic]]

San-Ciriaco-Hurrikan

2007-01-10T08:42:14Z

Tcp-ip: moved trivia section into the article

{{Infobox hurricane| name=San Ciriaco Hurricane of 1899
| category=cat4
| type=hurricane
| image location=1899 hurricane damage.jpg
| image name=Hurricane damage in [[Puerto Rico]] after Hurricane San Ciriaco
| formed=[[August 3]], [[1899]]
| dissipated=[[September 4]], [[1899]]
| highest winds=150 [[miles per hour|mph]] (250 [[kilometers per hour|km/h]])
| lowest pressure=≤930 [[mbar]] ([[hPa]])
| total damages=Not available
| total fatalities=3,433 direct
| areas affected=[[Leeward Islands]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Haiti]], [[Bahamas]], [[North Carolina]], [[Azores]]
| hurricane season=[[1899 Atlantic hurricane season]]
|}}

'''Hurricane San Ciriaco''', also known as the '''1899 Puerto Rico Hurricane''', '''San Ciriaco Hurricane''', or '''1899 Hurricane San Ciriaco''', was an intense and long-lived Atlantic [[Cape Verde-type hurricane]] which crossed [[Puerto Rico]] over the two day period [[August 8]] to [[August 9]], [[1899]]. Many deaths occurred as a result, due to flooding. The cyclone kept tropical storm strength or higher for 28 days, which makes it the longest duration [[Atlantic hurricane]] on record and the second-longest anywhere in the world (behind [[Hurricane John (1994)|Hurricane John]] in [[1994]]).
With an estimated [[Accumulated Cyclone Energy|ACE]] of 73.6, it is the tropical storm with the highest ever ACE recorded in the Atlantic basin. [http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/atlantic/1899/3/track.dat] {{fact}}

==Storm history==
{{storm path|1899 San Ciriaco hurricane track.png}}
The tropical storm that later ravaged Puerto Rico developed on [[August 3]] in the tropical Atlantic, likely from a tropical wave. It moved in a west-northwest direction, becoming a hurricane on the 5th. As it neared the northern [[Lesser Antilles]], it strengthened into a major hurricane, bringing heavy winds to [[Dominica]], [[St. Kitts]], and [[Guadeloupe]] on the 7th. It continued to intensify to its peak of 150 mph before hitting southeast [[Puerto Rico]] on the 8th, the [[Namesdays|namesday]] of [[Saint Cyriacus]]. It crossed the island in an east-southeast to west-northwest direction, causing maximum wind speeds between 110 and 140 mph throughout. (A good account of the hurricane's passage through the city of Ponce, where he was stationed at the time, is given by Dr. [[Bailey Ashford]] in his book ''A Soldier in Science'').

After it passed Puerto Rico, it brushed northern [[Dominican Republic]] as a Category 3 hurricane, but passed north enough to not cause major damage. It passed through the [[Bahamas]], retaining its strength as it moved slowly northward. After drifting northeastward, the hurricane turned northwestward, hitting the [[Outer Banks]] on [[August 17]]. It drifted northeastward over the state, re-emerging into the Atlantic on the 19th. It continued eastward, where it became extratropical on the 22nd.
{{Highest ACE Atlantic hurricanes|align=left}}

The extratropical cyclone turned southeastward where, on [[August 26]], it became a tropical storm again. Like most of the rest of its lifetime, it drifted, first to the northwest then to the east. It strengthened as it moved eastward, and on [[September 3]], as it was moving through the [[Azores]], it again became a hurricane. The intensification didn't last long, and the hurricane became extratropical for the final time on the 4th. It dissipated that day while racing across the northeastern Atlantic.

==Impact==
{{deadliest Atlantic hurricanes|align=right}}
Estimates of storm-related fatalities range from 3,100 to 3,400, with millions of dollars in crop damage in Puerto Rico. North Carolina had considerable [[tobacco]] and [[corn]] damage from the longevity of the strong winds and rain.

Another hurricane struck Puerto Rico on [[August 22]]. Overall, the island was swamped by 28 days of rain, contributing to the overall disaster (see [[History of Puerto Rico]]).

==See also==
{{tcportal}}
* [[History of Puerto Rico]]
* [[List of notable tropical cyclones]]
* [[List of notable Atlantic hurricanes]]

==Sources and external links==
*[http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/index.html Highlights of Re-analysis]
*[http://www.weather.unisys.com/hurricane/atlantic/index.html Unisys Track archive]
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/sanciriaco.html Hurricane San Ciriaco]
* [http://tunapointlighthouse.homestead.com/Hurricane.html Puerto Rico Hurricanes and Tropical Storms]
*Schwartz, Stuart B. “The Hurricane of San Ciriaco: Disaster, Politics, and Society in Puerto Rico, 1899-1901.” Hispanic American Historical Review 72 (August 1982): 303-334.

[[Category:Atlantic hurricanes|* (1899)]]
[[Category:1899 Atlantic hurricane season|*]]
[[Category:Category 4 hurricanes|* (1899)]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Guadeloupe|* (1899)]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Puerto Rico|* (1899)]]
[[Category:North Carolina hurricanes|* (1899)]]
[[Category:1899]]
[[Category:1899 meteorology]]

[[nl:Sint Cyriacus-orkaan]]