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Kloster Hogots

2011-07-12T13:06:31Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Unreferenced}}. (Build p613)

{{Unreferenced|date=July 2011}}
{{Infobox religious building
| building_name = Hogots monsatery Հոգոց վանք
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| map_type = Turkey
| map_size = 290
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| location = {{flagicon|TUR}}
| geo =
| latitude = 38.0833
| longitude = 43.4326
| religious_affiliation = [[Armenian Apostolic Church]]
| rite =
| region = [[Armenian highland|Armenian upland]]
| state = Turkey
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| sector =
| district = [[Gürpınar_(District),_Van|Gürpınar district]]
| cercle =
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| status = Destroyed by Turks in 1946
| functional_status = Ceased functioning as a monastery in 1915
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| architecture = yes
| architect =
| architecture_type = Armenian church
| architecture_style = [[Armenian architecture|Armenian]]
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| year_completed = 528 A.D.
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Destroyed Armenian monastery at the west of [[Gürpınar_(District),_Van|Gürpınar district]] of modern [[Turkey]]. About 3.2 miles northwest to [[Özlüce]] village of the district.

==Etymology==
Hogots vank ({{Lang-hy|Հոգոց վանք }}) in Armenian for '''Monastery of the Holy Spirit'''.

==History==
Hogots monsatery was one of the few notable monasteries of Historical Armenia's Hayots Dzor district wich was a part of larger province of Vaspurakan. Similar to [[Saint_Bartholomew_Monastery|Surb Bardughmeosi vank]], the Hogots monsatery was a beloved pilgrimage site for Armenians of Van region. Since the 17 century becoming the main religious building of [[Norduz]] district of Vilayet of Van in Ottoman Empire. Vahan the priest ({{Lang-hy|Վահան Քահանայ}}) was a last of the known priests of the monastery preceding 1915 Armenian genocide. It's believed that in Hogots monsatery almost a hundred Armenian women and children was burnt alive by Turks when they tried to lock themselves inside this sacred place.

== Current condition ==
According to unconfirmed sources Hogots monsatery was used as a target during Turkish military training exercises in late 1946 when it was heavily ruined.

[[Category:Armenian Churches in Turkey]]
[[Category:Christian monasteries established in the 7th century]]

Chester Zoo

2011-07-12T10:07:45Z

SmackBot: Dated {{When}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox zoo
|zoo_name=Chester Zoo
|logo=Chester-zoo-logo-2011.jpg
|logo_width=200
|logo_caption=Chester Zoological Gardens
|date_opened=1931
|location=[[Upton-by-Chester]], [[Cheshire]], [[England]]
|area={{Convert|111|acre}}
|coordinates={{Coord|53|13|36|N|2|53|3|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=it}}
|num_species=422 (2007)
|num_animals=9019+ (2007)
|exhibits = Elephants of the Asian Forest, Realm of the Red Ape Tsavo Black Rhino Experience Spirit of the Jaguar
|annual_visitors =1.3 million visitors (2007)<ref name="goodzoos"/>
|website=http://www.chesterzoo.org
}}

'''Chester Zoo''' is a [[zoological garden]] at [[Upton-by-Chester]], in [[Cheshire]], [[England]]. It was opened in 1931 by George Mottershead and his family, who used as a basis some animals reported to have come from an earlier zoo in [[Shavington]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Chester Zoo |work=Chester Zoo website |url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/Home/About/History%20of%20Chester%20Zoo.aspx |accessdate=2008-05-08}}</ref> It is the one of the UK's largest zoos at {{convert|111|acre}}.<ref name="goodzoos">{{cite web | title=Chester Zoo |work=Goodzoos website |url=http://www.goodzoos.com/UK%20Zoos/chester.htm | accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> The zoo has a total land holding of approximately {{convert|400|acre}}.

Chester Zoo is currently operated by the [[North of England]] Zoological Society, a [[registered charity]] founded in 1934. The zoo receives no government funding. It is the most-visited wildlife attraction in Britain with more than 1.3 million visitors in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/news/Visitors-flock-to-Chester-Zoo.3841672.jp|publisher=''Ellesmere Port and Neston Standard''|date=2008-03-05 |accessdate=2008-06-20|title=Visitors flock to Chester Zoo}}</ref> In the same year ''[[Forbes]]'' described it as one of the best fifteen zoos in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbestraveler.com/best-lists/top-zoos-slide-6.html|publisher=''[[Forbes]]''|date=2007-11-05 |accessdate=2008-05-21|title=The World's Best Zoos}}</ref>

==History==
===Early history===
The Mottershead family's [[market garden]] business was based in Shavington near [[Crewe]]. George Mottershead collected animals such as [[lizard]]s and [[insect]]s that arrived with exotic plants imported by the business. A visit to [[Belle Vue Zoo]] in [[Manchester]] as a boy in 1903 fuelled his developing interest in creating a zoo of his own.

Mottershead was wounded in [[World War I]] and spent several years in a wheelchair. Despite this, his collection of animals grew and he began to search for a suitable home for his zoo. He chose Oakfield House in [[Upton, Cheshire|Upton]], a suburb of [[Chester]], which he purchased for £3,500 in 1930.<ref name=history>{{cite web |title=From Polar Bears to Pandas: The History of Chester Zoo |publisher=Chester City Council |url=http://www.chester.gov.uk/tourism_and_leisure/culture_and_leisure/chester_history_and_heritage/past_exhibitions/from_polar_bears_to_pandas.aspx |date=2008-02-13 |accessdate=2008-06-20}}</ref> The house had {{convert|9|acre}} of gardens and provided easy access to the railways and to Manchester and [[Liverpool]]. There were local objections, but Mottershead prevailed, and Chester Zoo opened to the public on 10 June 1931.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chester Zoo |work=Goodzoos website |url=http://www.goodzoos.com/UK%20Zoos/chester.htm |accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> The first animals were displayed in pens in the courtyard.<ref name="history" />

Rapid expansion followed after [[World War II]], despite the difficulty of sourcing materials. Mottershead had to be resourceful; the [[polar bear]] exhibit (1950) was built from recycled wartime road blocks and [[British hardened field defences of World War II|pillboxes]].<ref name="history" /> "Always building" was the zoo's slogan at the time. Mottershead received the [[OBE]], an honorary degree of MSc, and served as President of the International Union of Zoo Directors. He died in 1978 aged 84.

===Zoo design===
Mottershead wanted to build a zoo without the traditional [[Victorian era|Victorian]] iron bars to cage the animals.<ref>{{citebook|title=Veterinary medicine: a guide to historical sources|first=Pamela|last=Hunter|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2004|ISBN=0754640531|pages=455}}</ref> He was influenced by the ideas of [[Carl Hagenbeck]], who invented the modern zoo concept and by Heine Hediger, a pioneer of [[ethology]].

At Chester, Mottershead took Hagenback's idea for moats and ditches as an alternative to cage bars, and extended their use throughout the zoo, often with species that Hagenback had not considered. For example, when [[chimpanzee]]s were released into their new enclosure at Chester in 1956, a group of grassy islands separated the [[ape]]s from visitors by no more than a {{Convert|12|ft|sing=on}} strip of water. Nobody knew then if chimps could swim. It turned out that they could not, and today the chimp islands are a centrepiece of Chester Zoo.

In 1986 the zoo was enclosed with a fence, in line with the [[Zoo Licensing Act 1981]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The Zoo Estate | work = Chester Zoo website | url = http://www.chesterzoo.co.uk/corporate.asp?Page=130 | accessdate = 2007-02-28}}</ref>

==Management structure==
The zoo is split into three separate directorates under the management of the Director General, [[Gordon McGregor Reid]]:

*Conservation and Education
*Corporate Services
*Business Operations

==Layout and facilities==
[[Mobility scooter]]s are available near the main entrance, as is locker and buggy hire.

[[File:Chester zoo train.jpg|thumb|right|Flag Lane divides the zoo park into two which the ''Zoofari'' monorail has to cross]]
The zoo is bisected by a public bridleway, Flag Lane. For many years, a single bridge (now called Elephants' Bridge), drivable by zoo vehicles and powered wheelchairs, near the elephant exhibit was the only crossing place within the grounds. A second crossing, passable by pedestrians and [[mobility scooter]]s, called Bats' Bridge, opened in April 2008 near the Twilight Zone, has improved the ability of visitors to circulate.

There are other ways to travel around the zoo:
*A transportation system, now generally known as the [[monorail]], with a station near the elephants and a station near the lions. It runs in a circle.
*A water bus operates on a canal network within the zoo in peak season, but it stops at only one place.
Visitors must pay extra for using the monorail and the water bus.

Chester's catering facilities include the '''Café Bembé''' near the main entrance which opened in 2006. '''June's Pavilion''' is in the middle of the zoo. The '''Oakfield Restaurant''', in a Victorian mansion house near the lion enclosure, and the '''Acorn Bar''', are both used for private functions as well as catering to zoo visitors.

There are children's play areas, shops, kiosks and several picnic lawns around the zoo. A second pedestrian entrance is located in the southeast corner of the zoo behind Oakfield House.

For a long time the public entrance was at the east end. In recent years the public entrance has moved to the north side, west of Flag Lane, near the elephants, and the old car parks at the east end are being built over with service and educational buildings.

The zoo owns land outside the public area, and uses that land to grow food for its [[herbivorous]] animals.

===Monorail===
[[File:Chesterzoomonorail.jpg|right|thumb|Elevated view from the monorail. The side track leads to the depot]]
A [[monorail]] system was built and installed by Computerised People Mover International at a cost of $4 million and then opened by [[Katharine, Duchess of Kent]] in 1991.<ref name="next-stop">{{cite journal|url=http://ntlsearch.bts.gov/tris/record/tris/00635385.html|title=Next Stop for the Peoplemover (Abstract)|date=1992-07|journal=Urban Transport International - Peoplemovers Update Supplement|first=B H|last=North|publisher=Landor Publishing Limited|quote=Computerised People Mover International have developed a straddling monorail which is in use at Chester Zoo.}}</ref><ref name="tms">{{cite web|url=http://www.monorails.org/tmspages/Chstrzo.html|title=Chester Zoo|work=Monorails of Europe|publisher=The Monorail Society|accessdate=2009-07-24}}</ref><ref name="local-history-group">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofuptonbychester.org.uk/zoo.html|title=Historical Archives of the site of Upton's Zoo|publisher=Upton-by-Chester Local History Group|accessdate=2009-07-25|quote=in 1991 the duchess of Kent opened the zoo monorail.}}</ref> The system is 1 mile (1½ km) long and travels on an elevated guideway to give views of the park grounds — the track crosses Flag Lane twice on its one-way circular shape. The two halves of the park are connected by the system and there is one station in each part, near lion and monkey enclosures respectively. Each train on the system holds 24 passengers<ref name="mogul"/> between its four cars and a full tour takes around fifteen minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/en/Home/News/July%202009/Pete%20Waterman%20gets%20birds%20eye%20view%20of%20zoo.aspx|title=Pete Waterman gets birds eye view of the zoo|work=News|publisher=Chester Zoo|date=2009-07-17|accessdate=2009-07-24}}</ref>

The system is a straddle beam monorail. The layout has a separate depot and control room<ref name="next-stop"/><ref name="mogul">{{cite web|url=http://www.chesterchronicle.co.uk/chester-news/local-chester-news/2009/07/23/music-mogul-pete-waterman-launches-chester-zoo-s-revamped-monorail-59067-24217641/|title=Music mogul Pete Waterman launches Chester Zoo’s revamped monorail|first=Ben|last=Coulbeck|publisher=''Chester Chronicle''|date=2009-07-23|accessdate=2009-07-24}}</ref> and carries approximately 2,000 passengers per day.<ref name="gold-coast">{{cite web|url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/15425/1/15425.pdf|title=Challenges to Urban Transport Sustainability and Smart Transport in a Tourist City: The Gold Coast|last=Yigitcanlar|first=Tan|coauthors=Fabian, Lawrence; Coiacetto, Eddo|work=The Open Transportation Journal|year=2008|page=42|quote=Automated People Movers: Daily Ridership (Thousand People)... Chester Zoo, UK: 2}}</ref> During 2009 improvements to the monorail's drive system and electrics were made by T&M Machine Tool Electronics, including the laying of over {{convert|25|mi|km}} of new cabling bringing the total cost of the improvements to £300,000. The monorail was re-launched by music producer [[Pete Waterman]] during a visit on 23 July 2009, when Waterman drove the first loop of the new system.<ref name="mogul"/>

==Species and animals==
Chester Zoo holds a large and diverse collection. At the end of 2007, over half the species at the zoo appeared on the [[IUCN Red List]] and 155 were classified as [[threatened species]]. 134 species were kept as part of a managed captive breeding programme. The zoo manages the studbooks for [[African Forest Buffalo|Congo buffalo]], [[jaguar]], [[Blue-eyed Cockatoo|blue-eyed cockatoo]], [[Boa manditra|Madagscan tree boa]], [[gemsbok]] (all ESB species), [[black rhinoceros]], [[Red-lored Amazon|Ecuadorian Amazon parrot]], [[Mindanao Wrinkled Hornbill|Mindanao writhe-billed hornbill]] and [[Rodrigues fruit bat]] (all [[European Endangered Species Programme|EEP]] species). In addition, Chester holds 265 threatened plant species.<ref>{{cite web | title = Livestock Totals, Threatened Animals and Threatened Plants | title = Chester Zoo Annual Review 2007 - Appendices | publisher = Chester Zoo | url = http://www.chesterzoo.org/Home/About/Annual%20Reports/2007.aspx | accessdate = 2008-06-18}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Group
! Number of species
! Number of animals
|-
| [[Mammal]]s
| 79
| 1864
|-
| [[Bird]]s
| 155
| 1138
|-
| [[Reptile]]s
| 52
| 230
|-
| [[Amphibian]]s
| 24
| 577
|-
| [[Fish]]
| 80
| 3829
|-
| [[Invertebrate]]s
| 32
| 1381+
|- class="sortbottom"
| '''Total'''
| '''422'''
| '''9019+'''
|}

==Animal exhibits==
===Elephants of the Asian Forest===
Chester was the first zoo in the UK to successfully [[breed]] [[Asian elephant]]s in captivity. The most famous of these was Jubilee (1977–2003), so named as he was born in 1977, the year of the [[Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II|Queen's Silver Jubilee]]. The zoo has a breeding herd of eight elephants,<ref>{{cite web |title=Elephant calf makes debut |work=Chester Zoo website |url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/newsitem.asp?ID=254 |accessdate=2007-03-03 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070928094459/http://www.chesterzoo.org/newsitem.asp?ID=254  |archivedate = 2007-09-28}}</ref> There have been two calves born in the last year: Nayan (male, born 2010) and Jamilah (female, born 2011). Long-time favourite Sheba died in 2011. The current herd is composed of two males and six females - 16-year old breeding male Upali, aging females Maya and Jangolie, the 'grandma' of the herd, Thi, her two daughters, Sithami and Jamilah, and Sithami's young Sundara and Nayan. The elephant house also used to house [[African elephant]]s, [[rhinoceros|rhinos]], [[hippo]]s and [[tapir]]s. Motty, a [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] [[African elephant|African]]-Asian elephant calf was born in July 1978, but died in infancy.

A [[Pound sterling|GBP]]2 million breeding facility modelled on an [[Assam]] ([[India]]) [[rainforest]] called '''Elephants of the Asian Forest''' opened at Easter 2006, as a major alteration of the zoo's previous elephant house. In the elephant house other indigenous species are exhibited, including [[Great Hornbill|great Indian hornbills]], [[azure-winged magpie]]s, [[green peafowl]], [[red-billed blue magpie]], [[red junglefowl]], [[Callosciurus|Prevost's squirrels]], [[red-bellied tree squirrel]]s, [[spiny turtle]]s, and [[Northern treeshrew|Northern tree shrews]]. There is an aquarium for [[Barb (fish)|Pla Eesok]], [[pig-nosed turtle]]s, [[clown loach]] and [[Asian arowana]] fish.<ref>{{cite web | title = Elephants of the Asian Forest | work = Zoolex website | url = http://www.zoolex.org/zoolexcgi/view.py?id=859 | accessdate = 2007-06-13}}</ref>

===Spirit of the Jaguar===
'''Spirit of the Jaguar'''<ref>{{cite web | title = Spirit of the Jaguar | work = Zoolex website | url = http://www.zoolex.org/zoolexcgi/view.py?id=864 | accessdate = 2007-06-13}}</ref> was opened in 2001 and is sponsored by [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar cars]]. The exhibit is split into four sections. The two inside are modelled on a rainforest and a dry [[savannah]], and the two outside contain rivers and pools so that the cats can exercise their swimming skills. There are currently five [[jaguar]]s, four spotted and one [[Black panther|melanistic (black)]]. A male and female named Salvador and Sophia had cubs in 2005 that died soon after birth. As well as jaguars, the exhibit also contains a colony of [[leaf-cutter ant]]s, [[poison arrow frogs]], [[Corallus caninus|emerald tree boa]]s and numerous rainforest [[fish]] including [[Ameca splendens|butterfly goodeid]]. In 2008, an amphibian based exhibit with [[Surinam toad]]s, [[caecilian]]s and poison dart frogs was opened, and the exhibit will undergo further work in late 2011.

[[File:ChesterZooJaguars.JPG|300px|thumb|alt=Jaguars at Chester Zoo|Jaguars]]

===Realm of the Red Ape===
'''Realm of the Red Ape''' is a [[Pound sterling|GBP]]3.5 million extension to the existing orangutan house, home to [[Bornean Orangutan|Bornean]] and [[Sumatran orangutan]]s, and is the most expensive capital project in the zoo's history.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.wirralglobe.co.uk/mostpopular.var.1426575.mostviewed.new_pad_for_the_apes_opens_this_weekend.php |title=New pad for the apes opens this weekend |publisher=''Wirral Globe'' |date=25 May 2007}}</ref> The exhibit opened to the public on 26 May 2007 after a two-year construction period. It comprises a new two-story building linked to the existing orangutan house with three indoor and two outdoor enclosures, providing accommodation for a larger number of apes. The outdoor areas can be viewed from a first floor public gallery and feature mesh roofs supported by tree-like structures which act as climbing frames for the apes. A further enclosure houses a group of four [[lar gibbon]]s. On 29 January 2008, the zoo celebrated the birth of new baby [[Sumatra]]n orangutan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://chesterzoo.org/Home/News/February%202008/Mums%20the%20word%20for%20Orang-utan%20Emma.aspx |title=Mum's the word for orang-utan Emma |publisher=www.chesterzoo.org |accessdate=2008-06-19}}</ref>

Animals and plants from [[Indonesia]] are exhibited inside Realm of the Red Ape in a rainforest-themed setting. Birds on display include the [[Timor Sparrow|Timor sparrow]], [[Chestnut-backed Thrush|chestnut-backed thrush]], and [[orange-headed thrush]]. The [[Papua monitor|crocodile monitor]], [[reticulated python]], [[Gonyosoma oxycephalum|red-tailed racer]], [[Elaphe carinata|king ratsnake]], [[White's tree frog]], [[emerald tree monitor]] and [[Morelia viridis|green tree python]] feature among the reptiles. Asian Tree Toads and [[Phobaeticus serratipes|giant walking sticks]] and [[Phylliidae|leaf insects]] complete the lineup.

Located next to Realm of the Red Ape is an enclosure for Europe's first breeding pair of [[Babirusa]] and [[Oriental Small-clawed Otter]]s.

===The Chimpanzee Breeding Centre===
This pavilion was opened in 1989 by [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] (who also used the title [[Earl of Chester|Countess of Chester]]) and is home to 26 [[common chimpanzee]]s. This is the largest colony of chimps in Europe, housed in the Roundhouse, a conical indoor enclosure linked to an outside moated island. The island is planted with many bushes and has large poles for the chimps to climb on. The inside area has a climbing frame that allows the chimps to stay close together on several levels of platform. There are seven interconnected off-show dens. Dylan is the current dominant male of the Chester Zoo colony.

[[Image:Aa 2006 05 10 okapis.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The two [[okapi]]s at the zoo]]

===Tsavo Rhino Experience===
The zoo's [[black rhinoceros]] exhibit, modelled on the [[Tsavo National Park]] in [[Kenya]], was opened in 2003 at a cost of [[GBP]]2 million. The zoo has a successful rhinoceros breeding programme and currently keeps 10 animals. [[Meerkat]]s are kept in a small enclosure nearby, and the surrounding paddocks are home to [[banded mongoose]] and [[warthog]].

===Fruit Bat Forest===
''Fruit Bat Forest'' is the largest free-flying [[bat]] cave in Europe. The cave holds three species of bat: [[Rodrigues fruit bat]], [[Livingstone's Fruit Bat|Livingstone's fruit bat]] and [[Seba's short-tailed bat]]. It is also home to a varied collection of other species including freshwater fish, [[Madagascar hissing cockroach]]es, [[spiny mouse|Turkish spiny mice]] and [[blind cave fish]].

===Monkey Islands===
'''Monkey Islands''' was opened in 1997, replacing the old monkey house, and is currently home to four monkey species: [[Colombian spider monkey|Colombian black spider monkeys]], [[mandrill]]s, [[lion-tailed macaque]]s and [[Celebes Crested Macaque|Sulawesi crested macaques]]. [[Campbell's guenon]]s and [[porcupine]]s were formerly housed with the mandrills. Visitors enter the monkey house and view the animals from a central corridor. Each species has a glass-fronted indoor enclosure with climbing apparatus and an outdoor enclosure, moated and heavily planted.

===Miniature Monkeys===
'''Miniature Monkeys''', opened in May 2004, consists of two enclosures. The first is home to a pair of [[black-tailed marmoset]]s with two male [[pygmy marmoset]]s, and the second is shared by a family of [[White-headed Marmoset|Geoffrey's marmosets]] and three female [[golden-headed lion tamarin]]s. The marmosets have successfully bred on several occasions. [[Azara's Agouti|Azara's agouti]], [[pied tamarin]]s and [[black lion tamarin]]s have also been housed here in the past but have been moved out for various reasons.

===Bears of the Cloud Forest===
'''Bears of the Cloud Forest''' opened in 2004 and is home to a pair of [[spectacled bear]]s and other South American animals. The purpose-built exhibit is designed to mimic the bear's natural habitat by providing trees and a rocky terrain. Sharing the bears' enclosure with them are a non-breeding group of [[Coati|ring-tailed coatis]]. Nearby are paddocks housing [[vicuña]] (wild relatives of the [[llama]]), [[capybara]], [[South American Tapir|Brazilian tapirs]] and [[Greater Rhea|common rheas]].

[[Guanaco]] were previously housed with the rhea.

===Secret World of the Okapi===
Formerly the camel house, this enclosure was remodelled in 2006 to house [[okapi]]. Initially two males were kept, Dicky arrived from [[Marwell Wildlife]] in 2005 and Mbuti came from [[Bristol Zoo]] in the same year. In 2006 Dicky left for [[London Zoo]] to make way for a female named Stuma from [[Germany]]. In 2009 Mbuti and Dicky were swapped back with Mbuti going to London after failing to breed with Stuma and Dicky coming back to Chester. Other animals that can be seen here include the [[giant pouched rat]], [[Graphiurus|African dormouse]], several species of [[cichlid]] from [[Lake Barombi Mbo]] in [[Cameroon]], [[Gaboon viper]], [[Neumann's Grass Rat|Tanzanian grass rat]], [[Spiny mouse|Mount Kulal spiny mouse]] and [[Rhabdomys dilcetus|Mesic four-striped grass mouse]].

[[Image:fountain chester zoo.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The fountain and gardens in front of ''Islands in Danger'']]

===Islands in Danger===
This exhibit is primarily a [[herpetarium]] for the zoo's [[Komodo dragon]]s, originating from the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. It was opened in 1998 and extended in 2003 to include an outdoor enclosure used by the dragons in the warmer summer months. The exhibit is built on the site of the zoo's former bird house. In 2007 several young baby Komodo dragons were put on display after one of the zoo's two females had a virgin birth through [[parthenogenesis]], the first such case recorded in this species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6196225.stm |title='Virgin births' for giant lizards |publisher=BBC News |date=2006-12-20 |accessdate=2008-06-20}}</ref>. The exhibit was revamped in 2009 to house [[Iguana]]s in one section of the building.

'''Islands in Danger''' also houses various [[Indonesia]]n and [[Philippine]] rainforest birds, such as [[Red Bird of Paradise|Red Birds of Paradise]], [[Palawan Peacock-pheasant]]s, [[Pheasant Pigeon]]s and [[Victoria Crowned Pigeon]]s. Recently added was a small group of [[Mindanao Bleeding-heart]]s which have successfully bred. Birds formally{{Verify source|date=July 2011}} kept in the exhibit include [[Visayan Tarictic Hornbill]], [[Socorro Dove]], [[Papuan Lorikeet]] and [[St. Lucia Amazon]].

===Mongoose Mania ===
Located near the [[tiger]]s, this area used to be a petting farm, but was closed due to an outbreak of [[foot-and-mouth disease]]. The petting farm is now a picnic lawn and a former Kune Kune Pig enclosure has been demolished in favour of a food stall.

'''Mongoose Mania''', which houses [[Common Dwarf Mongoose|dwarf mongooses]] features tunnels beneath the enclosure which allow children to crawl through, popping up their heads into plastic domes to give them a mongoose's eye view of the world.

===Giant Otters and Penguins===
In early 2010 the [[Californian Sealion]]s left the collection. Over the late winter the pool was converted to house a new species to the zoo. The [[Giant Otter]]s went on show for the first time on 26 March 2010. The zoo plans to try and breed the species in the near future.

In the neighbouring enclosure a large breeding group of over 40 [[Humboldt Penguin]]s have their own pool, and visitors can watch the birds from an underwater viewing window.

===Tropical Realm===
Chester's '''Tropical Realm''' is Britain's largest tropical house at over 26,000 cubic metres. Opened in 1964, most of the interior is an open-plan space extending to roof level and themed with pools and mature tropical plants, with pathways for visitors through the undergrowth. Here, more than 30 species of birds are free-flying, including [[Nicobar Pigeon]]s, various species of [[starling]]s and ground birds such as [[Crested Wood Partridge|Roul-roul Partridges]].

Aviaries and vivaria are arranged around the sides of the building; those on the upper level were originally designed for [[birds of paradise]]. The aviaries currently house birds such as the [[Great Indian Hornbill]], [[Rhinoceros Hornbill]], two pairs of [[Tarictic Hornbill]] (one pure-bred and one hybrid), [[Writhed-billed Hornbill]], [[Wrinkled Hornbill]], [[Red-crested Turaco]], [[Palawan Peacock-pheasant]], [[Congo Peafowl]], [[Bali Starling]], [[Western Crowned Pigeon|Blue-crowned Pigeon]], [[White-rumped Shama]], [[Montserrat Oriole]] and [[Curassow|Red-billed Curassow]].

The Tropical Realm is also the centre of the reptile collection. The [[crocodile]] pools are currently house Chester's new pair of [[Philippine Crocodile|Philippine crocodile]]s, which arrived in early 2008. Near the entrance is an enclosure for [[tuatara]]s. This lizard-like species from [[New Zealand]] is the last surviving [[Sphenodontia|sphenodont]], a prehistoric group of reptiles, and Chester is the only British zoo to exhibit them. There were many varieties of snake in the past; [[Rhinoceros rat snake]] and emerald tree boa. Lizards include the [[gila monster]]s and [[beaded lizard]]s. [[Dracaena (lizard)|Caiman lizard]]s joined the collection in 2007. Problems heating the reptile enclosures have meant that many species are no longer kept at the zoo, however some of the exhibits have been refurbished for emerald tree boas, and potentially [[Parson's Chameleon]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} [[Garter snake]]s have recently{{When|date=July 2011}} gone on show in the Tropical Realm.

[[Tortoise]]s are represented by the [[Galápagos tortoise|Galápagos]] and [[radiated tortoise|radiated]], along with frogs and insects.

===Europe on the Edge===
This is the zoo's largest aviary, and is one of the biggest in the UK. It was opened in 1993 on the site of the former [[polar bear]] enclosure. It houses a variety of European birds, including the [[European Black Vulture|European Black]] and [[Griffon Vulture]]s and the rarer of the two European storks, the [[Black Stork]]. There are [[spoonbill]]s, [[ibis]] and [[egret]]s as well as a selection of waterfowl. Smaller birds include the [[Rock Dove]], [[Northern Lapwing]], [[Red-legged Partridge]] and the native but rare [[Red-billed Chough]].

===Condor Cliffs===
This aviary was constructed to rehouse the zoo's breeding pair of [[Andean condor]]s, who have since parent-reared a chick for the first time. It is now also home for the [[American black vulture]] from the [[Americas]] and several species of waterfowl. The aviary is dominated by a large sandstone waterfall, and a fake llama skeleton is used at feeding time. The enclosure is built on the site of the zoo's former [[brown bear]] enclosure.

===Rare Parrot Breeding Centre===
Parrots on display here include [[Blue-eyed Cockatoo]]s, [[Red-vented Cockatoo]]s, [[Palm Cockatoo]]s, [[Short-billed Black Cockatoo]]s, [[Red-and-blue Lory|Red-and-Blue lories]], [[Chattering Lory|Yellow-backed Chattering Lories]], [[Mindanao Lorikeet|Mount Apo Lorikeet]]s and [[Blue-and-yellow Macaw]]s. Most of the birds were moved to the '''Rare Parrot Breeding Centre''' from the old parrot house when it was demolished in 2005 to make way for Realm of the Red Ape.

===Mythical Macaws===
This enclosure consists of several aviaries housing rare and endangered South American parrots and macaws. These include the [[Hyacinth Macaw]], [[Blue-winged Macaw]], [[Blue-throated Macaw]], [[Golden Conure]], [[Golden-capped Parakeet|Golden-capped Conure]], [[Blue-chested Parakeet|Blue-throated Conure]], [[Red-crowned Amazon]] and [[Red-tailed Amazon]]. The first aviary was opened in 2001 and the remainder in 2004. A single [[Azara's Agouti]] also forms part of the exhibit.

===Aquarium===
The [[aquarium]] is a small and traditional building (one of the oldest at the zoo, built by George Mottershead's daughter and son-in-law in the 1950s) housing a varied collection of freshwater and marine fish, aquatic invertebrates and amphibians. It has had notable success breeding [[seahorse]]s and achieved the first captive breeding of the [[Potamotrygon|freshwater motoro stingray]].

Other notable fish include the [[electric eel]], [[African lungfish]], tropical reef fishes and various [[Lake Malawi]] [[cichlid]]s. Amphibians include the [[Surinam toad]], [[Japanese Fire Belly Newt|Japanese fire belly newt]] and [[axolotl]].

===Asian Plains and paddocks===
In 2008, '''Asian Plains''' received its official opening.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/Home/News/May%202008/American%20Entrepreneur%20opens%20the%20Asian%20Plains%20exhibit.aspx |title=Marc Ecko opens Asian Plains exhibit |publisher=www.chesterzoo.org |accessdate=2008-06-20}}</ref> Based around a mixed-species paddock featuring [[blackbuck]] and [[Eld's deer|Burmese brow-antlered deer]], the exhibit has recently been extended to include new enclosures for [[Indian rhinoceros]] and [[cheetah]]. The male rhino was joined by a female in 2008 to form a pair which the zoo hoped would breed. Sadly in November 2009 the male Indian rhino "Patna" was put down due to a longstanding leg injury. The zoo obtained a replacement male from [[Edinburgh Zoo]] in March 2010. Since they were closely related the previous female departed for a zoo in [[Spain]] shortly after, and the zoo are in the progress of creating a breeding situation. The paddocks formerly housed [[barasingha]], [[Ankole cattle]] and [[sitatunga]].

Other paddocks on the west side of the zoo support grazing herds of [[Grevy's zebra]], sitatunga, [[scimitar-horned oryx]], [[gemsbok]], [[Red Lechwe]] and [[Roan Antelope]]. The sitatunga share their paddock with [[ostrich]], and the Red Lechwe and Roan antelope also share an exhibit.

[[Przewalski's horse]]s have recently left the collection to make way for the new [[African hunting dog]] enclosure.

===African Painted Dogs===
In 2011, a new exhibit on the site of the former Przewalski's horse paddock was opened. In the style of an African Research Station, the exhibit has a dry landscape with fake [[kopje]] stones. A pack of seven African Painted Dogs are the main exhibit, however [[Crested Porcupine]]s are nearby. [[Yellow Mongoose]] and [[Rock Hyrax]] are also due to join the display.

===Forest Zone===
The north east area of the zoo is where many forest-dwelling species are kept. As well as the [[chimpanzee]]s, [[okapi]], [[jaguar]] and Tropical Realm, there are enclosures for [[African Forest Buffalo|Congo buffalo]], [[red river hog]]s and endangered [[Visayan warty pig|Negros Island warty pigs]]. Nearby is a large paddock for the zoo's six [[giraffe]]s. [[Golden-bellied capuchin|Buffy-headed capuchins]] are housed near the exit of the Tropical Realm as well as a group of native [[sand lizard]]s.
The empty enclosure formerly housing [[maned wolf|maned wolves]] has been replaced by a heated [[butterfly]] house called '''Butterfly Journey''', which is based around the life cycle of a butterfly, featuring free-flying butterflies, a cabinet of [[cocoon]]s, and an area with [[caterpillar]]s. The exhibit also houses a Parson's Chameleon.

===Big cats===
As well as [[jaguar]]s, Chester Zoo keeps [[lion]]s, [[tiger]]s and [[cheetah]]s <ref name=cheetah>{{cite web |url=http://www.wrexhamleader.co.uk/news/Bank-holiday-is-a-record.4072518.jp |title=Bank Holiday is a record |publisher=Wrexham Leader |date=2008-05-12 |accessdate = 2008-06-18}}</ref> in its [[big cat]] collection. The [[Asiatic Lion|lions]] are the Asiatic [[subspecies]] found only in the [[Gir Forest]] in [[India]] in the wild. The zoo's former resident male Asoka was joined by a female, Asha, from [[Rome]] in 2006. The pair have bred on three occasions, but so far their only offspring to survive has been a male cub, Tejas, born and hand-reared in 2007. His upbringing was featured prominently in the first series of ''[[Chester Zoo#Television documentary|Zoo Days]]''. Tejas left Chester Zoo for [[Besancon]] early in 2008 as part of the European breeding programme for this subspecies. Asoka left the zoo in early 2010, he was moved to [[Rome Zoo]] as part of the European breeding programme. His replacement is 3-year-old Iblis, who arrived from Planckendael Zoo in [[Belgium]].

In 2007, a male [[Sumatran tiger]] called Kepala arrived from [[Dudley Zoo]] to join the two resident female [[Bengal tiger]]s, who left in 2008. The same year, the zoo acquired a female tiger named Kirana, but unfortunately it was discovered that the pair were related. Kepala departed to [[Dublin Zoo]] and a new male named Fabi was brought in to form a breeding pair of Sumatrans, a critically endangered subspecies<ref>{{cite web |title=Sumatran Tiger |work=IUCN Red List |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15966/summ |accessdate=2008-03-05 }}</ref> in the wild. The zoo welcomed their first tiger cub in 23 years when Kirana gave birth in the early hours of June 18th, 2011. The as-yet unnamed cub is the first born to Kirana and Fabi.

===Other exhibits===
Other animals exhibited at Chester Zoo include [[Bactrian camel]] and [[onager]] in a large paddock in the centre of the zoo, formerly the zebra exhibit. A paddock which was only visible from the monorail but can now be seen from the Bats' Bridge holds a group of [[Philippine spotted deer]], alongside Negros Island Warty Pigs next door.

Bordering the paddocks is a waterway running north-south along which the water bus travels, past island groups of [[Black-and-white ruffed lemur]]s, [[Lac Alaotra Gentle Lemur|Alaotran gentle lemur]]s, [[red ruffed lemur]]s and a young male [[anoa]]. [[Cottontop tamarin]]s were formerly housed on the gentle lemur island.

In the southeast corner of the zoo are enclosures housing an assortment of animals including [[Bongo (antelope)|bongo]]s, Yellow Mongooses, [[bush dog]]s, [[red panda]]s, [[Serval]]s, [[western grey kangaroo]]s, [[Southern Cassowary|southern cassowaries]] [[red-crowned crane]]s and [[golden pheasant]].

Near the Rare Parrot Breeding Centre is an aviary currently housing [[Spectacled Owl|spectacled owl]]s and formerly home to macaws and [[kea]]s the remainder of the zoo’s [[owl]] collection are seen nearby. The owl aviaries were recently modified.

Aviaries for [[snowy owl]]s, [[Rhinoceros Hornbill|rhinoceros hornbill]]s and [[Mauritius kestrel]]s are located behind the Children's Fun Ark. Flocks of [[Chilean flamingo|Chilean]] and [[Caribbean flamingo]]s live in shallow water alongside a large island housing a group of [[ring-tailed lemur]]s. New indoor accommodation for the flamingos was completed in 2007. [[Pelican]]s, [[stork]]s, [[Crane (bird)|crane]]s and a variety of [[waterfowl]] are housed in large pens alongside Tsavo.

From 1 July 2011 to 8 October 2011 a little southeast of the [[Komodo Dragon]]s is a display of [[animatronic]] dinosaurs: ''[[Triceratops]]'', ''[[Edmontosaurus]]'' and its eggs and hatchlings, ''[[Dilophosaurus]]'' (which squirts water from its mouth), ''[[Allosaurus]]'', ''[[Rugops]]'', ''[[Omeisaurus]]'', ''[[Apatosaurus]]'', ''[[Baryonyx]]'', ''[[Dimetrodon]]'', ''[[Tyrannosaurus]] rex''.

==Future developments==
In January 2009, Chester Zoo unveiled an ambitious £225 million plan that will see it transformed into the largest conservation, animal and leisure attraction of its kind in Europe.
The project – given the working title ''Natural Vision'' – will involve a £90 million first phase which will include the only domed ecosystem in the United Kingdom.
Called ‘Heart of Africa’, the bio-dome will be an African rainforest-themed sanctuary for a band of [[gorilla]]s, a large troop of chimpanzees, okapi (rare giraffe-like creatures), and a wide variety of tropical birds, [[amphibian]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[fish]]es and [[invertebrate]]s, moving freely among lush vegetation.
The first phase – planning permission for which will be sought later this year (2009) – will also include a 90-bed hotel, a conservation college, a key element of which is the ‘Futures’ education centre, and a revamped main entrance linking to a marina development on zoo land beside the [[Shropshire Union Canal]].
The rest of the Natural Vision project will be completed by 2018, thus creating one of the largest wildlife attractions in the world and providing a major boost to the [[North West England|Northwest]] economy. This will showcase and financially support the zoo’s national and international conservation work, which already spans 50 countries.
The zoo currently occupies 50 hectares of land but owns a further 200. The completed Natural Vision project will cover 80 hectares including new access roads and parking.
The project is the culmination of years of planning and design and is being carried out in conjunction with a number of agencies, notably including the [[Northwest Regional Development Agency]] (NWDA) which has provided funding to enable the project to progress to the planning stage.
Realm of the Red Ape (expansion of the orangutan exhibit, opened May 2007) and Beginnings (redevelopment of the main entrance, opened Easter 2007) both form part of the "Natural Vision" project.

== Membership and adoption ==
The zoo has a scheme whereby people can adopt an animal of their choice, they are also given two complimentary tickets to allow them to visit the animals. They can also become members which allows them to visit Chester and a range of other zoos across [[England]] free of charge for a year. Every three months, members and adopters receive ''Z'' magazine, which provides updates and information about what is happening at the zoo.

== Television documentary ==
During summer 2007, television crews from [[Granada Television|Granada]] filmed at Chester for the documentary series ''Zoo Days'', a behind the scenes look at the day-to-day running of the zoo, narrated by [[Jane Horrocks]]. British broadcast rights were sold to [[Five (channel)|Five]] and the first 20-part series began airing on British terrestrial TV on 8 October 2007, transmitting on weekday evenings in a regular 6:30pm slot. A second 20-part series of ''Zoo Days'' was swiftly commissioned and began airing on 3 March 2008.<ref>{{cite web | title = Zoo Days returns to the small screen | work = Chester Zoo website | url=http://chesterzoo.org/Home/News/Zoo%20Days.aspx | accessdate = 2008-03-05 }}</ref> The third 20-part series was broadcast from [[Colchester Zoo]], before returning to Chester for the fourth 20-part series on 10 November 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/Home/News/October%202008/Zoo%20Days%20Series%20Three.aspx|title=Zoo Days Series Three}}</ref>

In February 2009, "The History Of Chester Zoo" was a contestant's chosen subject on ''[[Mastermind (TV series)|Mastermind]]''.

==Images==
<gallery>
Image:Aa chesterzoo batsbridge 00.jpg|New bridge over Flag Lane
Image:Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros) -Chester Zoo-4.jpg|Female [[Rhinoceros Hornbill]] at Chester Zoo
Image:Aa chesterzoo scimitarhornedoryx 00.jpg|[[Scimitar-horned oryx]]es
Image:Aa chesterzoo cleaning up after the elephants 00.jpg‎|Cleaning up elephant dung
Image:Aa chesterzoo elephants 00.jpg‎|Asian [[elephant]]s
Image:Aa chesterzoo sitatunga 00.jpg|[[Sitatunga]]s
Image:Aa chesterzoo bluecranes 00.jpg‎|[[Blue crane]]s
Image:Aa chesterozoo flamingos 00.jpg|[[Flamingo]]s
File:Aa 2006 05 10 train closeup.jpg|The [[monorail]]
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Chester Zoo}}
* [http://www.chesterzoo.org/ Chester Zoo Website]
* [http://www.goodzoos.com/UK%20Zoos/chester.htm Goodzoos Website]
* [http://www.record-lrc.co.uk/ rECOrd (Local Biological Records Centre for Cheshire)]

{{British zoos}}
{{Zoos}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

[[Category:Zoos in England]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Animal charities based in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Chester]]

[[cy:Sw Caer]]
[[id:Kebun Binatang Chester]]
[[pt:Zoológico de Chester]]

Schlacht um Rajasthan

2011-07-12T01:30:21Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}} x 2. (Build p613)

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of [[Rajasthan]]
|partof=
|image=[[File:Indian Kanauj triangle map.svg|400px]]
|caption=
|date= 730 CE
|place=[[Rajasthan]], India
|result=Decisive Hindu Allied victory
|territory=Umayyad Arab expansion checked and contained to [[Sindh]]
|combatant1=[[Gurjara Pratihara]][[Chalukya dynasty]] of [[Gujarat|Lata]]
|combatant2= [[File:Umayyad Flag.svg|25px]][[Umayyad Caliphate]]
|commander1=[[Nagabhata I]][[Avanijanashraya Pulakesi]]
|commander2=[[Junaid ibn Abdur-Rahman al-Marri]][[Tamim bin Zaid al-Utbi]]
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
The '''Battle of Rajasthan''' is a battle (or series of battles) where the [[Hindu]] [[Rajput]] clans defeated the [[Muslim]] [[Arab]] invaders in 738 CE. While all sources (Hindu and Muslim) agree on the broad outline of the conflict and the result, there is no detailed information on the actual battle/s. There is also no indication of the exact places where these battles were fought——what is clear is that the final battle took place somewhere on the borders of modern Sindh-Rajasthan. Following their defeat the remnants of the Arab army fled to the other bank of the River [[Indus]].

This is one reason to choose the title “Battle of Rajasthan” to describe that conflict{{Or|date=November 2008}}. But a more important reason is the participation of the Rajput clans of [[Rajasthan]]: [[Gurjara Pratihara]], [[Chauhans]], and [[Guhilots]]

==Background==

With the break-up of the [[Gupta Empire]] (550 CE), northern [[India]] was covered with warring states, which attempted to wrest the imperial position left vacant by the Guptas. Among these were Yasodharman of [[Malwa]], the [[Maitraka]]s of [[Vallabhi]], and [[Harsha|Harshvardhan]] of Thanesar. But a stable empire in the north was only established by the [[Gurjara Pratihara]]s of the Rajasthan-Gujarat-Malwa region by 750 CE, which lasted for over a century.

Before the onset of this age West Asia was conquered by the politico-religious ideology of Islam (7th Century). Under the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphs]] the Muslim Arabs attempted to conquer the frontier kingdoms of India; [[Kabul]], Zabul, and Sindh, but were repulsed. In the early 8th Century the Kingdom of [[Sindh]] under [[Raja Dahir|King Dahir]] was convulsed by internal strife——taking advantage of the conditions the Arabs renewed their assaults and finally occupied it under [[Muhammad bin Qasim]], the nephew of Al-Hajjaj (governor of Iraq and Khurasan). Qasim and his successors attempted to expand from Sindh into Punjab and other regions but were badly defeated by Lalitaditya of [[Kashmir]] and Yasovarman of [[Kannauj]]. Even their position in Sindh was unstable at this time.

==Events leading up to the battle==

[[Junaid ibn Abdur-Rahman al-Marri]], the successor of [[Muhammad bin Qasim]], finally subdued the Hindu resistance within Sindh. Taking advantage of the conditions in Western India, which at that time was covered with several small states, Junaid led a large army into the region in early 730 CE. Dividing this force into two he plundered several cities in southern Rajasthan, western [[Malwa]], and [[Gujarat]].

Indian inscriptions confirm this invasion but record the Arab success only against the smaller states in Gujarat. They also record the defeat of the Arabs at two places. The southern army moving south into Gujarat was defeated at Navsari by the [[Solanki]]s and [[Rashtrakutas]]. The army that went east, reached Avanti whose ruler Gurjara Pratihara <ref>{{cite book
| title =A historical review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D.
| author =Panchānana Rāya
| url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=kHEBAAAAMAAJ&q=Gurjar+parihar&dq=Gurjar+parihar&cd=1
| publisher =I. M. H. Press
| year =1939
| page =125
}}</ref> Nagabhatta utterly defeated the invaders and they fleed to save their life.

==The Battle of Rajasthan==
When Emir Junaid invaded Rajasthan with his forces, [[Gurjara Pratihara]] ruler [[Nagabhata I]] made an alliance with Rajput clans as well as the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] governor of [[Gujarat|Lata]], [[Jayasimha Varman]], who was a brother of King [[Vikramaditya I]]. In response [[Jayasimha Varman]] sent his son [[Avanijanashraya Pulakesi]] to support [[Nagabhata I]]. Junaid probably died from the wounds inflicted in the battle with this allied force {{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}.

==Aftermath==
Junaid's successor [[Tamim bin Zaid al-Utbi]] organized a fresh campaigns against Rajasthan but failed to hold any territories there. He would be further pushed across River [[Indus]] by the combined forces of the King of [[Kannauj]], [[Yaso Varman]] and King of [[Kashmir]], [[Latityaditya]] in [[738]] C.E. thus limiting the Arabs to the territory of [[Sindh]] across River Indus.

In the words of the Arab chronicler Suleiman, “''a place of refuge to which the Muslims might flee was not to be found''.” The Arabs crossed over to the other side of the River Indus, abandoning all their lands to the victorious Hindus. The local chieftains took advantage of these conditions to re-establish their independence. Subsequently the Arabs constructed the city of '''[[Mansura (Brahmanabad)|Mansurah]]''' on the other side of the wide and deep Indus, which was safe from attack. This became their new capital in '''Sindh'''.

==Equipment and resources==
In the Gwalior inscription it is recorded that Nagabhatta “''crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king''.” This large army consisted of [[cavalry]], [[infantry]], siege [[artillery]], and probably a force of [[camels]]. Since Tamin was a new governor he had a force of [[Syria]]n cavalry from Damascus, local Arab contingents, converted Hindus of Sindh, and foreign mercenaries like the [[Turkish people|Turks]]. All together the invading army have had anywhere between 20-25,000 cavalry, 10000 infantry, and 2000 camels. In comparison the Rajputs had only 2000-5000 cavalry.

The Arab chronicler Suleiman describes the army of the Imperial [[Gurjara Pratihara]]s as it stood in 851 CE; ''The king of [[Gurjar]]s maintains numerous forces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still he acknowledges that the king of the Arabs is the greatest of kings. Among the princes of India there is no greater foe of the Islamic faith than he. He has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous''.<ref>{{cite book
| title =History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.
| author = Radhey Shyam Chaurasia
| publisher =Atlantic Publishers & Distributors
| year =2002
| page =207
| id = ISBN 812690027X,ISBN 9788126900275
| url =http://books.google.co.in/books?id=cWmsQQ2smXIC&pg=PA207&dq
| quote=The king of [[Gurjar]]s maintain numerous faces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry .He has...
}}</ref>

But at the time of the '''Battle of Rajasthan''' the Gurjar Pratihars<ref>{{cite book
| title =A historical review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D.
| author =Panchānana Rāya
| url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=kHEBAAAAMAAJ&q=Gurjar+parihar&dq=Gurjar+parihar&cd=1
| publisher =I. M. H. Press
| year =1939
| page =125
}}</ref> had only just risen to power. In fact Nagabhatta was their first prominent ruler. But the composition of his army, which was predominantly cavalry, is clear from the description. There are other anecdotal references to the Indian kings and commanders riding elephants to have a clear view of the battlefield. The infantry stood behind the elephants and the cavalry formed the wings and advanced guard.

==Later events==

Following their victory the [[Gurjara Pratihara]]s spread their rule over North India. The Guhilot Rajputs under their leader Khommana ([[Bappa Rawal]]'s son) captured Chittor from the Mori Rajputs (who had been weakened by the Arab raid) and the Chauhans established a kingdom in North Rajasthan. Along with their [[Gurjara Pratihara]] overlords these clans formed a recognized clan hierarchy and a hereditary ownership of lands and forts, both of which are hallmarks of the Rajput clan-system.

The Arabs in Sindh took a long time to recover from their defeat. In the early 9th Century the governor '''Bashar''' attempted an invasion of India but was defeated by '''Nagabhatta II''' and his subordinates, '''Govindraja Chauhan''' and '''Khommana II Guhilot'''. Even a naval expedition sent by the Caliphs was defeated by the Saindhava Rajputs of [[Kathiawar]]. After this the Arab chroniclers admit that the Caliph Mahdi, “''gave up the project of conquering any part of India'.”

The Arabs in Sindh lost all power and broke up into two warring [[Shia]] states of '''[[Mansura (Brahmanabad)|Mansurah]]''' and '''[[Multan]]''', both of which paid tribute to the [[Gurjara Pratihara]]s {{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}. The local resistance in Sindh, which had not yet died out and was inspired by the victories of their Rajput neighbors manifested itself when the foreign rulers were overthrown and Sindh came under its own [[Muslim Rajputs]] dynasties like the [[Soomra Dynasty|Soomras]] and [[Samma]]s.

==See also==
* [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Original Hindu sources===

* Gwalior stone inscription of Bhoja Pratihara
* Jodhpur inscription of Bauka Pratihara
* ''Bappabhattcharitam''
* ''Harivamsapurana'' by Jinasena
* ''Kumarpalacharita'' by Jaysimha
* ''Vikramarjuna Vijaya'' by Pampa
* ''Khummana-Raso''

===Original Muslim sources===

* ''Al-Madaini''
* ''Futuhu-l Buldan'' by Ahmad bin Yahya
* ''Chach-nama'' by Muhammad Ali Kufi
* ''Kitab ul-Aqalim'' by Istakhri
* ''Ashkal ul-Bilad'' by [[ibn Hauqal]]
* ''Silsilat ut-Tawarikh'' by Sulayman

===Modern works===

* ''The Age of Imperial Kannauj'' (The History and Culture of the Indian People - Volume IV)
* ''Who were the Imperial Pratiharas'' by RR Halder
* ''The Glory that was Gurjaradesa'' by KM Munshi

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Rajasthan}}
[[Category:8th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Rajputs]]
[[Category:History of Hinduism]]

[[mr:राजस्थानचे युद्ध]]

Myriam François-Cerrah

2011-07-12T01:30:12Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Cleanup-link rot}}{{Dead end}}. (Build p613)

{{Cleanup-link rot|date=July 2011}}
{{Dead end|date=July 2011}}
Myriam Francois-Cerrah, also known as Emilie Francois, is a British actress of French and Irish heritage. Aged 12, her screen career began in Ang Lee's Sense and Sensibility (1995) in which she played Margaret Dashwood alongside Emma Thompson and Kate Winslet. She went on to star in Paws (1997) alongside Nathan Cavaleri and Heath Ledger and New Year's Day (2000) in which she played Heather.

In 2003, following extensive research into the faith, she converted to Islam <ref>http://liveshots.blogs.foxnews.com/2010/09/24/female-converts-to-islam-in-britain/</ref> and is active as a spokesperson for Muslim understanding, appearing on BBC Big Questions (2008, 2009, 2010, 2011)<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00qmzqf</ref> alongside Dame Ann Leslie, Beverly Knight, Rev. Peter Owen-Jones and others; She has also contributed to discussions on Newsnight(2009), 4thought (2011)<ref>http://www.4thought.tv/4thoughts/0258-Myriam-Francois-Cerrah-Should-Muslims-adapt-to-Britain-or-should-Britain-adapt-to-Muslims-?comment_id=12952&reply=true#reply_12962</ref> , BBC News (2010)<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/impact_asia/8816594.stm</ref> , Crosstalk (2010) and documentaries, including 'The Life of Muhammad', presented by Rageh Omar (2011)<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2011/06_june/20/muhammad.shtml</ref>.

She currently works as a freelance journalist, with articles featured in The London Paper, Index on Censorship<ref>http://www.indexoncensorship.org/2011/01/tunisia-france’s-faux-pas/</ref>, the F-Word<ref>http://www.thefword.org.uk/archives/author/myriam_francois-cerrah</ref>, emel magazine<ref>http://www.emel.com/article?id=86&a_id=2400</ref> and more.

==Education==
She is due to complete her PhD at Oxford University in Oriental Studies in 2012<ref>http://www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/research/student_research.html</ref>. She has an MA, with honours, in Middle East politics from Georgetown university and a BA from Cambridge university in Social and Political science.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Arbeitsbataillon (Osmanisches Reich)

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{{for|more information on battalion|Labour battalion}}
{{Armenian Genocide}}
A '''labour battalion''' (Turkish: ''Amele Taburu'', {{lang-hy|Աշխատանքային բատալիոն}}, [[Greek language|Greek]]: Τάγμα Εργασίας ''Tagma Ergasias'') was a form of [[unfree labour]] in the late [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Republic of Turkey]].<ref>Henry Morgentau, Sr., "I was sent to Athens", Garden City N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran & Co, 1929 {{Page needed|date=July 2011}}</ref> The term is associated with disarmament and murder of Ottoman Armenian soldiers during [[World War I]]<ref> Foreign Office Memorandum by Mr. G.W. Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice, March 20, 1922, Paragraph 35</ref><ref> [http://rs9.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c105:H.+Con.+Res.+148: USA Congress, Concurrent Resolution, September 9, 1997]</ref> and with the [[Greek genocide|Greek Genocide]].<ref>[http://www.genocidetext.net/iags_resolution_supporting_documentation.htm Notes on the Genocides of Christian Populations of the Ottoman Empire]</ref>

== Armenians in labour battalions ==
{{See also|Conscription in the Ottoman Empire}}
Armenians did not serve in the Ottoman Empire until 1908. Soon after the [[Young Turk Revolution]], which declared that unfair treatments between Muslim and Christian members of the Empire would end; the Armenians, now treated as equal citizens, became subject to conscription like other members of the society. This meant that they had to serve in the military.

On February 25, 1915, the Ottoman War minister [[Enver Pasha]] sent an order to all military units that Armenians in the active Ottoman forces be demobilized and assigned to the Labour battalion. Enver ordered that all Armenians in the Ottoman forces, some as old as sixty,{{citation needed|date=March 2011}} to be disarmed, demobilized and assigned to labour battalion units. The Ottoman Army had high rate of desertion, and the number of Armenian deserters appears to have been especially large. Enver claimed Armenian soldiers in the Ottoman Army joined Armenian guerrilla bands or went over to the [[Armenian volunteer units]] in the Russian Army.{{citation needed|date=March 2011}}

==Depictions==
The well-known writer-novelist [[Elias Venezis]] later described the situation in his work ''The Number 31328'' (''Το Νούμερο 31328'').

[[Leyla Neyzi]] has published a study of the diary of [[Yaşar Paker]], a member of the [[Jewish]] community of early 20th century [[Ankara]] who was drafted to the Labour Battalions twice, first during the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) and then during the [[World War II]] in which Turkey did not take part. Neyzi's paper on the basis of Paker's diary published by [[Jewish Social Studies]] presents an overall picture for the conditions in these battalions, which were composed entirely of non-[[Muslim]]s.<ref>Strong as Steel, Fragile as a Rose: A Turkish Jewish Witness to the Twentieth Century, Leyla Neyzi paper on the basis of Yaşar Paker's diary published in the Jewish Social Studies in Fall 2005</ref>

==See also==
*[[Labour battalion]]s in other places

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Conscription]]
[[Category:Greek Genocide]]
[[Category:Ottoman Empire in World War I]]
[[Category:Unfree labor by country]]
[[Category:World War I crimes by the Ottoman Empire]]

Chester Zoo

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{{Infobox zoo
|zoo_name=Chester Zoo
|logo=Chester-zoo-logo-2011.jpg
|logo_width=200
|logo_caption=Chester Zoological Gardens
|date_opened=1931
|location=[[Upton-by-Chester]], [[Cheshire]], [[England]]
|area={{Convert|111|acre}}
|coordinates={{Coord|53|13|36|N|2|53|3|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=it}}
|num_species=422 (2007)
|num_animals=9019+ (2007)
|exhibits = Elephants of the Asian Forest, Realm of the Red Ape Tsavo Black Rhino Experience Spirit of the Jaguar
|annual_visitors =1.3 million visitors (2007)<ref name="goodzoos"/>
|website=http://www.chesterzoo.org
}}

'''Chester Zoo''' is a [[zoological garden]] at [[Upton-by-Chester]], in [[Cheshire]], [[England]]. It was opened in 1931 by George Mottershead and his family, who used as a basis some animals reported to have come from an earlier zoo in [[Shavington]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Chester Zoo |work=Chester Zoo website |url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/Home/About/History%20of%20Chester%20Zoo.aspx |accessdate=2008-05-08}}</ref> It is the one of the UK's largest zoos at {{convert|111|acre}}.<ref name="goodzoos">{{cite web | title=Chester Zoo |work=Goodzoos website |url=http://www.goodzoos.com/UK%20Zoos/chester.htm | accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> The zoo has a total land holding of approximately {{convert|400|acre}}.

Chester Zoo is currently operated by the [[North of England]] Zoological Society, a [[registered charity]] founded in 1934. The zoo receives no government funding. It is the most-visited wildlife attraction in Britain with more than 1.3 million visitors in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/news/Visitors-flock-to-Chester-Zoo.3841672.jp|publisher=''Ellesmere Port and Neston Standard''|date=2008-03-05 |accessdate=2008-06-20|title=Visitors flock to Chester Zoo}}</ref> In the same year ''[[Forbes]]'' described it as one of the best fifteen zoos in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbestraveler.com/best-lists/top-zoos-slide-6.html|publisher=''[[Forbes]]''|date=2007-11-05 |accessdate=2008-05-21|title=The World's Best Zoos}}</ref>

==History==
===Early history===
The Mottershead family's [[market garden]] business was based in Shavington near [[Crewe]]. George Mottershead collected animals such as [[lizard]]s and [[insect]]s that arrived with exotic plants imported by the business. A visit to [[Belle Vue Zoo]] in [[Manchester]] as a boy in 1903 fuelled his developing interest in creating a zoo of his own.

Mottershead was wounded in [[World War I]] and spent several years in a wheelchair. Despite this, his collection of animals grew and he began to search for a suitable home for his zoo. He chose Oakfield House in [[Upton, Cheshire|Upton]], a suburb of [[Chester]], which he purchased for £3,500 in 1930.<ref name=history>{{cite web |title=From Polar Bears to Pandas: The History of Chester Zoo |publisher=Chester City Council |url=http://www.chester.gov.uk/tourism_and_leisure/culture_and_leisure/chester_history_and_heritage/past_exhibitions/from_polar_bears_to_pandas.aspx |date=2008-02-13 |accessdate=2008-06-20}}</ref> The house had {{convert|9|acre}} of gardens and provided easy access to the railways and to Manchester and [[Liverpool]]. There were local objections, but Mottershead prevailed, and Chester Zoo opened to the public on 10 June 1931.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chester Zoo |work=Goodzoos website |url=http://www.goodzoos.com/UK%20Zoos/chester.htm |accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> The first animals were displayed in pens in the courtyard.<ref name="history" />

Rapid expansion followed after [[World War II]], despite the difficulty of sourcing materials. Mottershead had to be resourceful; the [[polar bear]] exhibit (1950) was built from recycled wartime road blocks and [[British hardened field defences of World War II|pillboxes]].<ref name="history" /> "Always building" was the zoo's slogan at the time. Mottershead received the [[OBE]], an honorary degree of MSc, and served as President of the International Union of Zoo Directors. He died in 1978 aged 84.

===Zoo design===
Mottershead wanted to build a zoo without the traditional [[Victorian era|Victorian]] iron bars to cage the animals.<ref>{{citebook|title=Veterinary medicine: a guide to historical sources|first=Pamela|last=Hunter|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2004|ISBN=0754640531|pages=455}}</ref> He was influenced by the ideas of [[Carl Hagenbeck]], who invented the modern zoo concept and by Heine Hediger, a pioneer of [[ethology]].

At Chester, Mottershead took Hagenback's idea for moats and ditches as an alternative to cage bars, and extended their use throughout the zoo, often with species that Hagenback had not considered. For example, when [[chimpanzee]]s were released into their new enclosure at Chester in 1956, a group of grassy islands separated the [[ape]]s from visitors by no more than a {{Convert|12|ft|sing=on}} strip of water. Nobody knew then if chimps could swim. It turned out that they could not, and today the chimp islands are a centrepiece of Chester Zoo.

In 1986 the zoo was enclosed with a fence, in line with the [[Zoo Licensing Act 1981]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The Zoo Estate | work = Chester Zoo website | url = http://www.chesterzoo.co.uk/corporate.asp?Page=130 | accessdate = 2007-02-28}}</ref>

==Management structure==
The zoo is split into three separate directorates under the management of the Director General, [[Gordon McGregor Reid]]:

*Conservation and Education
*Corporate Services
*Business Operations

==Layout and facilities==
[[Mobility scooter]]s are available near the main entrance, as is locker and buggy hire.

[[File:Chester zoo train.jpg|thumb|right|Flag Lane divides the zoo park into two which the ''Zoofari'' monorail has to cross]]
The zoo is bisected by a public bridleway, Flag Lane. For many years, a single bridge (now called Elephants' Bridge), drivable by zoo vehicles and powered wheelchairs, near the elephant exhibit was the only crossing place within the grounds. A second crossing, passable by pedestrians and [[mobility scooter]]s, called Bats' Bridge, opened in April 2008 near the Twilight Zone, has improved the ability of visitors to circulate.

There are other ways to travel around the zoo:
*A transportation system, now generally known as the [[monorail]], with a station near the elephants and a station near the lions. It runs in a circle.
*A water bus operates on a canal network within the zoo in peak season, but it stops at only one place.
Visitors must pay extra for using the monorail and the water bus.

Chester's catering facilities include the '''Café Bembé''' near the main entrance which opened in 2006. '''June's Pavilion''' is in the middle of the zoo. The '''Oakfield Restaurant''', in a Victorian mansion house near the lion enclosure, and the '''Acorn Bar''', are both used for private functions as well as catering to zoo visitors.

There are children's play areas, shops, kiosks and several picnic lawns around the zoo. A second pedestrian entrance is located in the southeast corner of the zoo behind Oakfield House.

For a long time the public entrance was at the east end. In recent years the public entrance has moved to the north side, west of Flag Lane, near the elephants, and the old car parks at the east end are being built over with service and educational buildings.

The zoo owns land outside the public area, and uses that land to grow food for its [[herbivorous]] animals.

===Monorail===
[[File:Chesterzoomonorail.jpg|right|thumb|Elevated view from the monorail. The side track leads to the depot]]
A [[monorail]] system was built and installed by Computerised People Mover International at a cost of $4 million and then opened by [[Katharine, Duchess of Kent]] in 1991.<ref name="next-stop">{{cite journal|url=http://ntlsearch.bts.gov/tris/record/tris/00635385.html|title=Next Stop for the Peoplemover (Abstract)|date=1992-07|journal=Urban Transport International - Peoplemovers Update Supplement|first=B H|last=North|publisher=Landor Publishing Limited|quote=Computerised People Mover International have developed a straddling monorail which is in use at Chester Zoo.}}</ref><ref name="tms">{{cite web|url=http://www.monorails.org/tmspages/Chstrzo.html|title=Chester Zoo|work=Monorails of Europe|publisher=The Monorail Society|accessdate=2009-07-24}}</ref><ref name="local-history-group">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofuptonbychester.org.uk/zoo.html|title=Historical Archives of the site of Upton's Zoo|publisher=Upton-by-Chester Local History Group|accessdate=2009-07-25|quote=in 1991 the duchess of Kent opened the zoo monorail.}}</ref> The system is 1 mile (1½ km) long and travels on an elevated guideway to give views of the park grounds — the track crosses Flag Lane twice on its one-way circular shape. The two halves of the park are connected by the system and there is one station in each part, near lion and monkey enclosures respectively. Each train on the system holds 24 passengers<ref name="mogul"/> between its four cars and a full tour takes around fifteen minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/en/Home/News/July%202009/Pete%20Waterman%20gets%20birds%20eye%20view%20of%20zoo.aspx|title=Pete Waterman gets birds eye view of the zoo|work=News|publisher=Chester Zoo|date=2009-07-17|accessdate=2009-07-24}}</ref>

The system is a straddle beam monorail. The layout has a separate depot and control room<ref name="next-stop"/><ref name="mogul">{{cite web|url=http://www.chesterchronicle.co.uk/chester-news/local-chester-news/2009/07/23/music-mogul-pete-waterman-launches-chester-zoo-s-revamped-monorail-59067-24217641/|title=Music mogul Pete Waterman launches Chester Zoo’s revamped monorail|first=Ben|last=Coulbeck|publisher=''Chester Chronicle''|date=2009-07-23|accessdate=2009-07-24}}</ref> and carries approximately 2,000 passengers per day.<ref name="gold-coast">{{cite web|url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/15425/1/15425.pdf|title=Challenges to Urban Transport Sustainability and Smart Transport in a Tourist City: The Gold Coast|last=Yigitcanlar|first=Tan|coauthors=Fabian, Lawrence; Coiacetto, Eddo|work=The Open Transportation Journal|year=2008|page=42|quote=Automated People Movers: Daily Ridership (Thousand People)... Chester Zoo, UK: 2}}</ref> During 2009 improvements to the monorail's drive system and electrics were made by T&M Machine Tool Electronics, including the laying of over {{convert|25|mi|km}} of new cabling bringing the total cost of the improvements to £300,000. The monorail was re-launched by music producer [[Pete Waterman]] during a visit on 23 July 2009, when Waterman drove the first loop of the new system.<ref name="mogul"/>

==Species and animals==
Chester Zoo holds a large and diverse collection. At the end of 2007, over half the species at the zoo appeared on the [[IUCN Red List]] and 155 were classified as [[threatened species]]. 134 species were kept as part of a managed captive breeding programme. The zoo manages the studbooks for [[African Forest Buffalo|Congo buffalo]], [[jaguar]], [[Blue-eyed Cockatoo|blue-eyed cockatoo]], [[Boa manditra|Madagscan tree boa]], [[gemsbok]] (all ESB species), [[black rhinoceros]], [[Red-lored Amazon|Ecuadorian Amazon parrot]], [[Mindanao Wrinkled Hornbill|Mindanao writhe-billed hornbill]] and [[Rodrigues fruit bat]] (all [[European Endangered Species Programme|EEP]] species). In addition, Chester holds 265 threatened plant species.<ref>{{cite web | title = Livestock Totals, Threatened Animals and Threatened Plants | title = Chester Zoo Annual Review 2007 - Appendices | publisher = Chester Zoo | url = http://www.chesterzoo.org/Home/About/Annual%20Reports/2007.aspx | accessdate = 2008-06-18}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Group
! Number of species
! Number of animals
|-
| [[Mammal]]s
| 79
| 1864
|-
| [[Bird]]s
| 155
| 1138
|-
| [[Reptile]]s
| 52
| 230
|-
| [[Amphibian]]s
| 24
| 577
|-
| [[Fish]]
| 80
| 3829
|-
| [[Invertebrate]]s
| 32
| 1381+
|- class="sortbottom"
| '''Total'''
| '''422'''
| '''9019+'''
|}

==Animal exhibits==
===Elephants of the Asian Forest===
Chester was the first zoo in the UK to successfully [[breed]] [[Asian elephant]]s in captivity. The most famous of these was Jubilee (1977–2003), so named as he was born in 1977, the year of the [[Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II|Queen's Silver Jubilee]]. The zoo has a breeding herd of eight elephants,<ref>{{cite web |title=Elephant calf makes debut |work=Chester Zoo website |url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/newsitem.asp?ID=254 |accessdate=2007-03-03 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070928094459/http://www.chesterzoo.org/newsitem.asp?ID=254  |archivedate = 2007-09-28}}</ref> There have been two calves born in the last year: Nayan (male, born 2010) and Jamilah (female, born 2011). Long-time favourite Sheba died in 2011. The current herd is composed of two males and six females - 16-year old breeding male Upali, aging females Maya and Jangolie, the 'grandma' of the herd, Thi, her two daughters, Sithami and Jamilah, and Sithami's young Sundara and Nayan. The elephant house also used to house [[African elephant]]s, [[rhinoceros|rhinos]], [[hippo]]s and [[tapir]]s. Motty, a [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] [[African elephant|African]]-Asian elephant calf was born in July 1978, but died in infancy.

A [[GBP]]2 million breeding facility modelled on an [[Assam]] ([[India]]) [[rainforest]] called '''Elephants of the Asian Forest''' opened at Easter 2006, as a major alteration of the zoo's previous elephant house. In the elephant house other indigenous species are exhibited, including [[Great Hornbill|great Indian hornbills]], [[azure-winged magpie]]s, [[green peafowl]], [[red-billed blue magpie]], [[red junglefowl]], [[Callosciurus|Prevost's squirrels]], [[red-bellied squirrel]]s, [[spiny turtle]]s, and [[Northern treeshrew|Northern tree shrews]]. There is an aquarium for [[Barb (fish)|Pla Eesok]], [[Pig-nosed turtle]]s, [[Clown loach]] and [[Asian arowana]] fish.<ref>{{cite web | title = Elephants of the Asian Forest | work = Zoolex website | url = http://www.zoolex.org/zoolexcgi/view.py?id=859 | accessdate = 2007-06-13}}</ref>

===Spirit of the Jaguar===
'''Spirit of the Jaguar'''<ref>{{cite web | title = Spirit of the Jaguar | work = Zoolex website | url = http://www.zoolex.org/zoolexcgi/view.py?id=864 | accessdate = 2007-06-13}}</ref> was opened in 2001 and is sponsored by [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar cars]]. The exhibit is split into four sections. The two inside are modelled on a rainforest and a dry [[savannah]], and the two outside contain rivers and pools so that the cats can exercise their swimming skills. There are currently five [[jaguar]]s, four spotted and one [[Black panther|melanistic (black)]]. A male and female named Salvador and Sophia had cubs in 2005 that died soon after birth. As well as jaguars, the exhibit also contains a colony of [[leaf-cutter ants]], [[poison arrow frogs]], [[Corallus caninus|emerald tree boa]]s and numerous rainforest [[fish]] including [[Ameca splendens|butterfly goodeid]]. In 2008, an amphibian based exhibit with Surinam Toads, Caecilians and Poison Dart Frogs was opened, and the exhibit will undergo further work in late 2011.

[[File:ChesterZooJaguars.JPG|300px|thumb|alt=Jaguars at Chester Zoo|Jaguars]]

===Realm of the Red Ape===
'''Realm of the Red Ape''' is a [[GBP]]3.5 million extension to the existing orangutan house, home to [[Bornean Orangutan|Bornean]] and [[Sumatran orangutan]]s, and is the most expensive capital project in the zoo's history.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.wirralglobe.co.uk/mostpopular.var.1426575.mostviewed.new_pad_for_the_apes_opens_this_weekend.php |title=New pad for the apes opens this weekend |publisher=''Wirral Globe'' |date=25 May 2007}}</ref> The exhibit opened to the public on 26 May 2007 after a two-year construction period. It comprises a new two-story building linked to the existing orangutan house with three indoor and two outdoor enclosures, providing accommodation for a larger number of apes. The outdoor areas can be viewed from a first floor public gallery and feature mesh roofs supported by tree-like structures which act as climbing frames for the apes. A further enclosure houses a group of four [[lar gibbon]]s. On 29 January 2008, the zoo celebrated the birth of new baby [[Sumatra]]n orangutan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://chesterzoo.org/Home/News/February%202008/Mums%20the%20word%20for%20Orang-utan%20Emma.aspx |title=Mum's the word for orang-utan Emma |publisher=www.chesterzoo.org |accessdate=2008-06-19}}</ref>

Animals and plants from [[Indonesia]] are exhibited inside Realm of the Red Ape in a rainforest-themed setting. Birds on display include the [[Timor Sparrow|Timor sparrow]], [[Zoothera dohertyi|chestnut-backed thrush]], and [[orange-headed thrush]]. The [[Papua monitor|crocodile monitor]], [[reticulated python]], [[Gonyosoma oxycephalum|red-tailed racer]], [[Elaphe carinata|king ratsnake]], [[White's tree frog]], [[emerald tree monitor]] and [[Green Tree Python|green tree python]] feature among the reptiles. Asian Tree Toads and [[Phobaeticus serratipes|giant walking stick]]s and [[Phylliidae|leaf insect]]s complete the lineup.

Located next to Realm of the Red Ape is an enclosure for Europe's first breeding pair of [[Babirusa]] and [[Oriental Small-clawed Otter]]s.

===The Chimpanzee Breeding Centre===
This pavilion was opened in 1989 by [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] (who also used the title [[Earl of Chester|Countess of Chester]]) and is home to 26 [[chimpanzee]]s. This is the largest colony of chimps in Europe, housed in the Roundhouse, a conical indoor enclosure linked to an outside moated island. The island is planted with many bushes and has large poles for the chimps to climb on. The inside area has a climbing frame that allows the chimps to stay close together on several levels of platform. There are seven interconnected off-show dens. Dylan is the current dominant male of the Chester Zoo colony.

[[Image:Aa 2006 05 10 okapis.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The two [[okapi]]s at the zoo]]

===Tsavo Rhino Experience===
The zoo's [[black rhinoceros]] exhibit, modelled on the [[Tsavo]] national park in [[Kenya]], was opened in 2003 at a cost of [[GBP]]2 million. The zoo has a successful rhinoceros breeding programme and currently keeps 10 animals. [[Meerkat]]s are kept in a small enclosure nearby, and the surrounding paddocks are home to [[banded mongoose]] and [[warthog]].

===Fruit Bat Forest===
''Fruit Bat Forest'' is the largest free-flying [[bat]] cave in Europe. The cave holds three species of bat: [[Rodrigues fruit bat]], [[Livingstone's Fruit Bat|Livingstone's fruit bat]] and [[Seba's short-tailed bat]]. It is also home to a varied collection of other species including freshwater fish, [[Madagascar hissing cockroach]]es, [[spiny mouse|Turkish spiny mice]] and [[blind cave fish]].

===Monkey Islands===
'''Monkey Islands''' was opened in 1997, replacing the old monkey house, and is currently home to four monkey species: Colombian black [[spider monkey]]s, [[mandrill]]s, [[lion-tailed macaque]]s and[[Celebes Crested Macaque|Sulawesi crested macaques]]. [[guenon|Campbell's guenons]] and [[Porcupines]] were formerly housed with the mandrills. Visitors enter the monkey house and view the animals from a central corridor. Each species has a glass-fronted indoor enclosure with climbing apparatus and an outdoor enclosure, moated and heavily planted.

===Miniature Monkeys===
'''Miniature Monkeys''', opened in May 2004, consists of two enclosures. The first is home to a pair of [[Black-tailed Marmoset|black-tailed marmosets]] with two male pygmy marmosets, and the second is shared by a family of [[White-headed Marmoset|Geoffroy's marmosets]] and three female Golden-Headed Lion Tamarins. The marmosets have successfully bred on several occasions. [[Azara's Agouti|Azara's agouti]], [[Pied Tamarin|pied tamarins]] and [[Black Lion Tamarin|black lion tamarins]] have also been housed here in the past but have been moved out for various reasons.

===Bears of the Cloud Forest===
'''Bears of the Cloud Forest''' opened in 2004 and is home to a pair of [[Spectacled Bear|spectacled bear]]s and other South American animals. The purpose-built exhibit is designed to mimic the bear's natural habitat by providing trees and a rocky terrain. Sharing the bears' enclosure with them are a non-breeding group of [[Coati|ring-tailed coatis]]. Nearby are paddocks housing [[vicuña]] (wild relatives of the [[llama]]), [[capybara]], [[South American Tapir|Brazilian tapirs]] and [[Rhea (bird)|common rheas]].

[[Guanaco]] were previously housed with the [[rhea]].

===Secret World of the Okapi===
Formerly the camel house, this enclosure was remodelled in 2006 to house [[okapi]]. Initially two males were kept, Dicky arrived from [[Marwell Wildlife]] in 2005 and Mbuti came from [[Bristol Zoo]] in the same year. In 2006 Dicky left for [[London Zoo]] to make way for a female named Stuma from [[Germany]]. In 2009 Mbuti and Dicky were swapped back with Mbuti going to London after failing to breed with Stuma and Dicky coming back to Chester. Other animals that can be seen here include the [[giant pouched rat]], [[dormouse|African dormouse]], several species of [[cichlid]] from [[Lake Barombi Mbo]] in [[Cameroon]], [[Gaboon viper]], [[Neumann's Grass Rat|Tanzanian grass rat]], [[Spiny mouse|Mount Kulal spiny mouse]] and [[Rhabdomys dilcetus|Mesic four-striped grass mouse]].

[[Image:fountain chester zoo.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The fountain and gardens in front of ''Islands in Danger'']]

===Islands in Danger===
This exhibit is primarily a [[herpetarium]] for the zoo's [[Komodo dragon]]s, originating from the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. It was opened in 1998 and extended in 2003 to include an outdoor enclosure used by the dragons in the warmer summer months. The exhibit is built on the site of the zoo's former bird house. In 2007 several young baby Komodo dragons were put on display after one of the zoo's two females had a virgin birth through [[parthenogenesis]], the first such case recorded in this species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6196225.stm |title='Virgin births' for giant lizards |publisher=BBC News |date=2006-12-20 |accessdate=2008-06-20}}</ref>. The exhibit was revamped in 2009 to house [[Iguana]]s in one section of the building.

'''Islands in Danger''' also houses various [[Indonesia]]n and [[Philippines]] rainforest birds, such as [[Red Bird of Paradise|Red Birds of Paradise]], [[Palawan Peacock-pheasant]]s, [[Pheasant Pigeon]]s and [[Victoria Crowned Pigeon]]s. Recently added was a small group of [[Mindanao Bleeding-heart]]s which have successfully bred. Birds formally{{Verify source|date=July 2011}} kept in the exhibit include [[Visayan Tarictic Hornbill]], [[Socorro Dove]], [[Papuan Lorikeet]] and [[St. Lucia Amazon]].

===Mongoose Mania ===
Located near the [[tiger]]s, this area used to be a petting farm, but was closed due to an outbreak of [[foot-and-mouth disease]]. The petting farm is now a picnic lawn and a former Kune Kune Pig enclosure has been demolished in favour of a food stall.

'''Mongoose Mania''', which houses [[Common Dwarf Mongoose|dwarf mongooses]] features tunnels beneath the enclosure which allow children to crawl through, popping up their heads into plastic domes to give them a mongoose's eye view of the world.

===Giant Otters and Penguins===
In early 2010 the [[Californian Sealion]]s left the collection. Over the late winter the pool was converted to house a new species to the zoo. The [[Giant Otter]]s went on show for the first time on 26 March 2010. The zoo plans to try and breed the species in the near future.

In the neighbouring enclosure a large breeding group of over 40 [[Humboldt Penguin]]s have their own pool, and visitors can watch the birds from an underwater viewing window.

===Tropical Realm===
Chester's '''Tropical Realm''' is Britain's largest tropical house at over 26,000 cubic metres. Opened in 1964, most of the interior is an open-plan space extending to roof level and themed with pools and mature tropical plants, with pathways for visitors through the undergrowth. Here, more than 30 species of birds are free-flying, including [[Nicobar Pigeon]]s, various species of [[starling]]s and ground birds such as [[Crested Wood Partridge|Roul-roul Partridges]].

Aviaries and vivaria are arranged around the sides of the building; those on the upper level were originally designed for [[birds of paradise]]. The aviaries currently house birds such as the [[Great Indian Hornbill]], [[Rhinoceros Hornbill]], two pairs of [[Tarictic Hornbill]] (one pure-bred and one hybrid), [[Writhed-billed Hornbill]], [[Wrinkled Hornbill]], [[Red-crested Turaco]], [[Palawan Peacock-pheasant]], [[Congo Peafowl]], [[Bali Starling]], [[Western Crowned Pigeon|Blue-crowned Pigeon]], [[White-rumped Shama]], [[Montserrat Oriole]] and [[Curassow|Red-billed Curassow]].

The Tropical Realm is also the centre of the reptile collection. The [[crocodile]] pools are currently house Chester's new pair of [[Philippine Crocodile|Philippine crocodile]]s, which arrived in early 2008. Near the entrance is an enclosure for [[tuatara]]. This lizard-like species from [[New Zealand]] is the last surviving [[Sphenodontia|sphenodont]], a prehistoric group of reptiles, and Chester is the only [[UK|British]] zoo to exhibit them. There were many varieties of snake in the past; [[Rhinoceros rat snake]] and Emerald Tee Boa. Lizards include the [[gila monster]]s and [[beaded lizard]]s. [[Dracaena (lizard)|Caiman lizard]]s joined the collection in 2007. Problems heating the reptile enclosures have meant that many species are no longer kept at the zoo, however some of the exhibits have been refurbished for Emerald Tree Boas, and potentially [[Parson's Chameleon]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} [[Garter snakes]] have recently gone on show in the Tropical Realm.

[[Tortoise]]s are represented by the [[Galápagos tortoise|Galápagos]] and [[radiated tortoise|radiated]], along with frogs and insects.

===Europe on the Edge===
This is the zoo's largest aviary, and is one of the biggest in the UK. It was opened in 1993 on the site of the former [[polar bear]] enclosure. It houses a variety of European birds, including the [[European Black Vulture|European Black]] and [[Griffon Vulture]]s and the rarer of the two European storks, the [[Black Stork]]. There are [[spoonbill]]s, [[ibis]] and [[egret]]s as well as a selection of waterfowl. Smaller birds include the [[Rock Dove]], [[Northern Lapwing]], [[Red-legged Partridge]] and the native but rare [[Red-billed Chough]].

===Condor Cliffs===
This aviary was constructed to rehouse the zoo's breeding pair of [[Andean condor]]s, who have since parent-reared a chick for the first time. It is now also home for the [[American black vulture]] from [[South America]] and several species of waterfowl. The aviary is dominated by a large sandstone waterfall, and a fake llama skeleton is used at feeding time. The enclosure is built on the site of the zoo's former [[brown bear]] enclosure.

===Rare Parrot Breeding Centre===
Parrots on display here include [[Blue-eyed Cockatoo]]s, [[Red-vented Cockatoo]]s, [[Palm Cockatoo]]s, [[Short-billed Black Cockatoo]]s, [[Red-and-blue Lory|Red-and-Blue lories]], [[Chattering Lory|Yellow-backed Chattering Lories]], [[Mindanao Lorikeet|Mount Apo Lorikeet]]s and [[Blue-and-yellow Macaw]]s. Most of the birds were moved to the '''Rare Parrot Breeding Centre''' from the old parrot house when it was demolished in 2005 to make way for Realm of the Red Ape.

===Mythical Macaws===
This enclosure consists of several aviaries housing rare and endangered South American parrots and macaws. These include the [[Hyacinth Macaw]], [[Blue-winged Macaw]], [[Blue-throated Macaw]], [[Golden Conure]], [[Golden-capped Parakeet|Golden-capped Conure]], [[Blue-chested Parakeet|Blue-throated Conure]], [[Red-crowned Amazon]] and [[Red-tailed Amazon]]. The first aviary was opened in 2001 and the remainder in 2004. A single [[Azara's Agouti]] also forms part of the exhibit.

===Aquarium===
The [[aquarium]] is a small and traditional building (one of the oldest at the zoo, built by George Mottershead's daughter and son-in-law in the 1950s) housing a varied collection of freshwater and marine fish, aquatic invertebrates and amphibians. It has had notable success breeding [[seahorse]]s and achieved the first captive breeding of the [[Potamotrygon|freshwater motoro stingray]].

Other notable fish include the [[electric eel]], [[African lungfish]], tropical reef fishes and various [[Lake Malawi]] [[cichlid]]s. Amphibians include the [[Surinam toad]], [[Japanese Fire Belly Newt|Japanese fire belly newt]] and [[axolotl]].

===Asian Plains and paddocks===
In 2008, '''Asian Plains''' received its official opening.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/Home/News/May%202008/American%20Entrepreneur%20opens%20the%20Asian%20Plains%20exhibit.aspx |title=Marc Ecko opens Asian Plains exhibit |publisher=www.chesterzoo.org |accessdate=2008-06-20}}</ref> Based around a mixed-species paddock featuring [[blackbuck]] and [[Eld's deer|Burmese brow-antlered deer]], the exhibit has recently been extended to include new enclosures for [[Indian rhinoceros]] and [[cheetah]]. The male rhino was joined by a female in 2008 to form a pair which the zoo hoped would breed. Sadly in November 2009 the male Indian rhino "Patna" was put down due to a longstanding leg injury. The zoo obtained a replacement male from [[Edinburgh Zoo]] in March 2010. Since they were closely related the previous female departed for a zoo in [[Spain]] shortly after, and the zoo are in the progress of creating a breeding situation. The paddocks formerly housed [[barasingha]], [[Ankole cattle]] and [[sitatunga]].

Other paddocks on the west side of the zoo support grazing herds of [[Grevy's zebra]], sitatunga, [[scimitar-horned oryx]], [[gemsbok]], [[Red Lechwe]] and [[Roan Antelope]]. The sitatunga share their paddock with [[ostrich]], and the Red Lechwe and Roan antelope also share an exhibit.

[[Przewalski's horse]]s have recently left the collection to make way for the new [[African hunting dog]] enclosure.

===African Painted Dogs===
In 2011, a new exhibit on the site of the former Przewalski's horse paddock was opened. In the style of an African Research Station, the exhibit has a dry landscape with fake [[kopje]] stones. A pack of seven African Painted Dogs are the main exhibit, however [[Crested Porcupine]]s are nearby. [[Yellow Mongoose]] and [[Rock Hyrax]] are also due to join the display.

===Forest Zone===
The north east area of the zoo is where many forest-dwelling species are kept. As well as the [[chimpanzee]]s, [[okapi]], [[jaguar]] and Tropical Realm, there are enclosures for [[African Forest Buffalo|Congo buffalo]], [[red river hog]]s and endangered [[Visayan warty pig|Negros Island warty pigs]]. Nearby is a large paddock for the zoo's six [[giraffe]]s. [[Golden-bellied capuchin|Buffy-headed capuchins]] are housed near the exit of the Tropical Realm as well as a group of native [[sand lizard]]s.
The empty enclosure formerly housing [[maned wolf|maned wolves]] has been replaced by a heated [[butterfly]] house called '''Butterfly Journey''', which is based around the life cycle of a butterfly, featuring free-flying butterflies, a cabinet of [[cocoon]]s, and an area with [[caterpillar]]s. The exhibit also houses a Parson's Chameleon.

===Big cats===
As well as [[jaguar]]s, Chester Zoo keeps [[lion]]s, [[tiger]]s and [[cheetah]]s <ref name=cheetah>{{cite web |url=http://www.wrexhamleader.co.uk/news/Bank-holiday-is-a-record.4072518.jp |title=Bank Holiday is a record |publisher=Wrexham Leader |date=2008-05-12 |accessdate = 2008-06-18}}</ref> in its [[big cat]] collection. The [[Asiatic Lion|lions]] are the Asiatic [[subspecies]] found only in the [[Gir Forest]] in [[India]] in the wild. The zoo's former resident male Asoka was joined by a female, Asha, from [[Rome]] in 2006. The pair have bred on three occasions, but so far their only offspring to survive has been a male cub, Tejas, born and hand-reared in 2007. His upbringing was featured prominently in the first series of ''[[Chester Zoo#Television documentary|Zoo Days]]''. Tejas left Chester Zoo for [[Besancon]] early in 2008 as part of the European breeding programme for this subspecies. Asoka left the zoo in early 2010, he was moved to [[Rome Zoo]] as part of the European breeding programme. His replacement is 3-year-old Iblis, who arrived from Planckendael Zoo in [[Belgium]].

In 2007, a male [[Sumatran tiger]] called Kepala arrived from [[Dudley Zoo]] to join the two resident female [[Bengal tiger]]s, who left in 2008. The same year, the zoo acquired a female tiger named Kirana, but unfortunately it was discovered that the pair were related. Kepala departed to [[Dublin Zoo]] and a new male named Fabi was brought in to form a breeding pair of Sumatrans, a critically endangered subspecies<ref>{{cite web |title=Sumatran Tiger |work=IUCN Red List |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15966/summ |accessdate=2008-03-05 }}</ref> in the wild. The zoo welcomed their first tiger cub in 23 years when Kirana gave birth in the early hours of June 18th, 2011. The as-yet unnamed cub is the first born to Kirana and Fabi.

===Other exhibits===
Other animals exhibited at Chester Zoo include [[Bactrian camel]] and [[onager]] in a large paddock in the centre of the zoo, formerly the zebra exhibit. A paddock which was only visible from the monorail but can now be seen from the Bats' Bridge holds a group of [[Philippine spotted deer]], alongside Negros Island Warty Pigs next door.

Bordering the paddocks is a waterway running north-south along which the water bus travels, past island groups of [[Black-and-white ruffed lemur]]s, [[Lac Alaotra Gentle Lemur|Alaotran gentle lemur]]s, [[red ruffed lemur]]s and a young male [[anoa]]. [[Cottontop tamarin]]s were formerly housed on the gentle lemur island.

In the southeast corner of the zoo are enclosures housing an assortment of animals including [[Bongo (antelope)|bongo]]s, Yellow Mongooses, [[bush dog]]s, [[red panda]]s, [[Serval]]s, [[western grey kangaroo]]s, [[Southern Cassowary|southern cassowaries]] [[red-crowned crane]]s and [[golden pheasant]].

Near the Rare Parrot Breeding Centre is an aviary currently housing [[Spectacled Owl|spectacled owl]]s and formerly home to macaws and [[kea]]s the remainder of the zoo’s [[owl]] collection are seen nearby. The owl aviaries were recently modified.

Aviaries for [[snowy owl]]s, [[Rhinoceros Hornbill|rhinoceros hornbill]]s and [[Mauritius kestrel]]s are located behind the Children's Fun Ark. Flocks of [[Chilean flamingo|Chilean]] and [[Caribbean flamingo]]s live in shallow water alongside a large island housing a group of [[ring-tailed lemur]]s. New indoor accommodation for the flamingos was completed in 2007. [[Pelican]]s, [[stork]]s, [[Crane (bird)|crane]]s and a variety of [[waterfowl]] are housed in large pens alongside Tsavo.

From 1 July 2011 to 8 October 2011 a little southeast of the [[Komodo Dragon]]s is a display of [[animatronic]] dinosaurs: ''[[Triceratops]]'', ''[[Edmontosaurus]]'' and its eggs and hatchlings, ''[[Dilophosaurus]]'' (which squirts water from its mouth), ''[[Allosaurus]]'', ''[[Rugops]]'', ''[[Omeisaurus]]'', ''[[Apatosaurus]]'', ''[[Baryonyx]]'', ''[[Dimetrodon]]'', ''[[Tyrannosaurus]] rex''.

==Future developments==
In January 2009, Chester Zoo unveiled an ambitious £225 million plan that will see it transformed into the largest conservation, animal and leisure attraction of its kind in Europe.
The project – given the working title ''Natural Vision'' – will involve a £90 million first phase which will include the only domed ecosystem in the United Kingdom.
Called ‘Heart of Africa’, the bio-dome will be an African rainforest-themed sanctuary for a band of [[gorilla]]s, a large troop of chimpanzees, okapi (rare giraffe-like creatures), and a wide variety of tropical birds, [[amphibian]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[fish]]es and [[invertebrate]]s, moving freely among lush vegetation.
The first phase – planning permission for which will be sought later this year (2009) – will also include a 90-bed hotel, a conservation college, a key element of which is the ‘Futures’ education centre, and a revamped main entrance linking to a marina development on zoo land beside the [[Shropshire Union Canal]].
The rest of the Natural Vision project will be completed by 2018, thus creating one of the largest wildlife attractions in the world and providing a major boost to the [[North West England|Northwest]] economy. This will showcase and financially support the zoo’s national and international conservation work, which already spans 50 countries.
The zoo currently occupies 50 hectares of land but owns a further 200. The completed Natural Vision project will cover 80 hectares including new access roads and parking.
The project is the culmination of years of planning and design and is being carried out in conjunction with a number of agencies, notably including the [[Northwest Regional Development Agency]] (NWDA) which has provided funding to enable the project to progress to the planning stage.
Realm of the Red Ape (expansion of the orangutan exhibit, opened May 2007) and Beginnings (redevelopment of the main entrance, opened Easter 2007) both form part of the "Natural Vision" project.

== Membership and adoption ==
The zoo has a scheme whereby people can adopt an animal of their choice, they are also given two complimentary tickets to allow them to visit the animals. They can also become members which allows them to visit Chester and a range of other zoos across [[England]] free of charge for a year. Every three months, members and adopters receive ''Z'' magazine, which provides updates and information about what is happening at the zoo.

== Television documentary ==
During summer 2007, television crews from [[Granada Television|Granada]] filmed at Chester for the documentary series ''Zoo Days'', a behind the scenes look at the day-to-day running of the zoo, narrated by [[Jane Horrocks]]. British broadcast rights were sold to [[Five (channel)|Five]] and the first 20-part series began airing on British terrestrial TV on 8 October 2007, transmitting on weekday evenings in a regular 6:30pm slot. A second 20-part series of ''Zoo Days'' was swiftly commissioned and began airing on 3 March 2008.<ref>{{cite web | title = Zoo Days returns to the small screen | work = Chester Zoo website | url=http://chesterzoo.org/Home/News/Zoo%20Days.aspx | accessdate = 2008-03-05 }}</ref> The third 20-part series was broadcast from [[Colchester Zoo]], before returning to Chester for the fourth 20-part series on 10 November 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chesterzoo.org/Home/News/October%202008/Zoo%20Days%20Series%20Three.aspx|title=Zoo Days Series Three}}</ref>

In February 2009, "The History Of Chester Zoo" was a contestant's chosen subject on ''[[Mastermind (TV series)|Mastermind]]''.

==Images==
<gallery>
Image:Aa chesterzoo batsbridge 00.jpg|New bridge over Flag Lane
Image:Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros) -Chester Zoo-4.jpg|Female [[Rhinoceros Hornbill]] at Chester Zoo
Image:Aa chesterzoo scimitarhornedoryx 00.jpg|[[Scimitar-horned oryx]]es
Image:Aa chesterzoo cleaning up after the elephants 00.jpg‎|Cleaning up elephant dung
Image:Aa chesterzoo elephants 00.jpg‎|Asian [[elephant]]s
Image:Aa chesterzoo sitatunga 00.jpg|[[Sitatunga]]s
Image:Aa chesterzoo bluecranes 00.jpg‎|[[Blue crane]]s
Image:Aa chesterozoo flamingos 00.jpg|[[Flamingo]]s
File:Aa 2006 05 10 train closeup.jpg|The [[monorail]]
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Chester Zoo}}
* [http://www.chesterzoo.org/ Chester Zoo Website]
* [http://www.goodzoos.com/UK%20Zoos/chester.htm Goodzoos Website]
* [http://www.record-lrc.co.uk/ rECOrd (Local Biological Records Centre for Cheshire)]

{{British zoos}}
{{Zoos}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

[[Category:Zoos in England]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Cheshire]]
[[Category:Animal charities based in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Chester]]

[[cy:Sw Caer]]
[[id:Kebun Binatang Chester]]
[[pt:Zoológico de Chester]]

Weißserbien

2011-07-11T21:45:44Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}} x 3. (Build p613)

{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = Бојка
|conventional_long_name =
|common_name =White Serbia
|continent = Europe
|region = Central Europe
|country = White Serbia
|era = Early Middle Ages
|government_type = Tribal
|year_start = Unknown
|year_end = 610
|event1 =
|date_event1 =
|s1 = Rascia
|flag_s1 = Flag of Serbia 1281.svg
|image_coat =
|image_map = Migration of Serbs.png
|image_map_caption = Map
|capital =
|common_languages =Slavic
|religion = [[Slavic paganism]] (Polyteism)
|category=
}}

'''White Serbia''' or '''Bojka''' ({{lang-sr|''Белa Србиja''; [[Archaism|Archaic]]: ''Бојка''}}, {{lang-gr|Boiki}}), is the mythical homeland of the ancestors of the '''[[Serbs]]''', of the '''White Serbs''' ({{lang-sr| Бели Срби, Beli Srbi}}).<ref name="DAI">''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'' -[[Constantine Porphyrogenitus]]</ref><ref>[http://www.rastko.org.rs/rastko-cg/povijest/vlahovic.html Projekat Rastko Cetinje - Petar Vlahovic: The Serbian Origin of the Montenegrins]</ref>

The area adjacent to White Serbia was known as [[White Croatia]], where the [[Croats]] trace their origin. White Serbia and its ethnic designates, the White Serbs, could be interpreted through attributes such as "the unbaptized" or "pagan" (Pre- [[Christian]]), according to the ''De administrando imperio''.<ref name=DAI/>

==Etymology==
The term White Serbia (''Bela Srbija'') is connected with that of ''[[Belarus]]'' (White [[Rus' people|Rus]]), in this case it may refer to it being an unbaptized land, in relation to the Serbs of the Balkans who were Christian.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

Bojka, (Boiki, derived from the [[Proto-Slavic]] *bojь. = ''battle, war, fight'') may be connected with the ethnographic group of Ukrainians, the [[Boyko]], and the Celtic tribe of Boii, who in the 2nd century BC dwelled around the Danube.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

The White Serbs formed [[Rascia]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

==Location==
The location of White Serbia has been disputed. It has been described as:
*north of the [[Danube]] and the [[Carpathians]]<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=VcH8wdj_j2gC]</ref>
*the modern [[Czech Republic]]<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=Cvk6oMf9R7AC]</ref>
**[[Bohemia]]<ref>http://books.google.se/books?id=y4MJAQAAIAAJ</ref>
*between the [[Elbe]] and [[Saale]] Rivers<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=QoZAAAAAIAAJ]</ref><ref name=SERBS/>
*[[Poland]]<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=kvFJAAAAMAAJ]</ref>
*[[Red Ruthenia]]<ref name="books.google.com">[http://books.google.com/books?id=TqIEAAAAQAAJ]</ref>
*[[Rügen]], Svantevit's island in northern Germany.<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Lusatia]], triangle of Germany, Czech republic and Poland.

==History==
{{Serbs}}
{{main|History of the Serbs|Medieval Serbia}}

The White Serbs were a [[Polabian Slav]]<ref>http://www.jstor.org/pss/2841974</ref> tribe that lived in [[Central Europe]], adjacent to [[White Croatia]].

{| class="toccolours" style="float: center; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:70em; max-width: 100%;" cellspacing="0"
| style="text-align: left;" |
''"The Serbs are descended from the unbaptized Serbs, also called 'white', who live beyond Turkey in a place called by them Boiki, where their neighbour is Francia, as is also Great Croatia, the unbaptized, also called 'white': in this place, then, these Serbs also originally dwelt. But when two brothers succeeded their father in the rule of Serbia, one of them, taking a moiety of the folk, claimed the protection of Heraclius, the emperor of the Romans, and the same emperor Heraclius received him and gave him a place in the province of Thessalonica to settle in, namely Serbia, which from that time has acquired this denomination."...'' 
''..."Now, after some time these same Serbs decided to depart to their own homes, and the emperor sent them off. But when they had crossed the river Danube, they changed their minds and sent a request to the emperor Heraclius, through the military governor then governing Belgrade, that he would grant them other land to settle in."...'' 
''..."And since what is now [[Rascia]] ([[Serbia]]) and [[Pagania]] and the so-called country of the [[Zachlumi]] and [[Trebounia]] and the country of the [[Kanalites]] were under the dominion of the emperor of the Romans, and since these countries had been made desolate by the Avars (for they had expelled from those parts the Romans who now live in Dalmatia and Dyrrachium), therefore the emperor settled these same Serbs in these countries, and they were subject to the emperor of the Romans; and the emperor brought elders from Rome and baptized them and taught them fairly to perform the works of piety and expounded to them the faith of the Christians."...'' 
''..."And since Bulgaria was beneath the dominion of the Romans * * * when, therefore, that same Serbian prince died who had claimed the emperor's protection, his son ruled in succession, and thereafter his grandson, and in like manner the succeeding princes from his family"...
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | -[[De Administrando Imperio]] chapter 31, [[Constantine VII]]<ref name="DAI"/>
|}

</blockquote>

===Serbian line===

The tribe was ruled by an archont, who was succeeded by two sons, one of them, the [[Unknown Archont]], led a part of his tribe against Byzantine lands during Emperor Heraclius rule (610-641). While Heraclius had fought the [[Persia]]ns, the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] became a great threat in the frontiers of the [[Byzantine Empire]], capturing cities: [[Singidunum]] ([[Belgrade]]), [[Viminacium]] ([[Kostolac]]), Naissus ([[Niš]]), Sardica ([[Sofia]]), and destroying [[Salona]] in 614. At this time the Serbs had come into connection with the Emperor. The White Serbs were first given the area of ''[[Servia, Greece|Servia]]'' (Σέρβια, transliteration: ''Serbia'') in the province of [[Thessalonica]] by the [[Roman emperor]] [[Heraclius]] as a gift following their victory against the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] of [[Dalmatia]]. They soon contact the Byzantine ''stratēgos'' of [[Singidunum]] (modern Belgrade) and settle down in the ''[[Serbian lands]]'', today's [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Croatia]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Serbia]], administrated into ''[[župa]]s''; [[Pagania]], [[Rascia]], [[Travunia]], [[Duklja|Doclea]], [[Bosnia]] and [[Zachlumia]], all incorporated in the 14th-century [[Serbian Empire]].

[[File:Serb lands04.png|thumb|left|Serbian lands 8th century]]

The descendants of the White Serbs (''proto-Serbs'') are thus the Serbs and the [[Sorbs]] of [[Lusatia]] ([[Sorbian language]]: ''Serbja'').<ref name=SERBS>[http://books.google.se/books?id=Ki1icLbr_QQC&pg=PR17 ''The Serbs'']</ref><ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=mzEqAQAAIAAJ ''The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe'' - Tomasz Kamusella]</ref>

===Sorbian line===

The name [[Dervan]] (''DERVANUS'') is mentioned by [[Fredegar]] in his Latin chronicle as ''"dux gente Surbiorum que ex genere Sclavinorum'':<ref>Making of the Slavs, page 331</ref> "ruler of the people of the ''Serbs'' (Sorb autonym: ''Serby'', Serb autonym: ''Srbi'') from the nation of the Slavs".<ref name=curta109>Curta, 109.</ref> He is the first ruler of the tribe mentioned by name. Fredegar says that he had been subordinate to the [[Franks]] for a long time. After the defeat of the Frankish king [[Dagobert I]] by the Slavic king [[Samo]] near [[Battle of Wogastisburg|Wogastisburg]] in 631 or 632, Dervan declared independence from the Franks and "placed himself and his people under the rule of Samo".

Dervan joined Samo in his subsequent wars against the Franks. Further reports of Fredegar imply that Dervan and his people lived to the east of the Saxon [[Saale]]. The reference to Dervan in 631/632 is also the first written confirmation of the presence of Slavs north of the [[Ore Mountains (Central Europe)|Ore Mountains]].

He was fighting against [[Thuringii|Thuringia]] 631-634 and Derwan was finally defeated by duke Randulf, governor of Thuringia.(636)

[[Miliduch]] liberated the Sorbs from Frankish rule but he and Knez [[Nussito]] was killed in 806 by [[Charles the Younger]].

==People==
*An ''Unnamed King''
*''[[Unknown Archont]]'', fl. 610-641 (son of the King)
*''[[Dervan]]'', fl. 631-636 (Unknown genealogy)

==See also==
*[[List of Medieval Slavic tribes]]
*[[South Slavs]]
*[[White Croatia]], neighbouring Slavic tribe

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Serbia topics}}

[[Category:History of the Serbs]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Poland]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Germany]]

[[bg:Бела Сърбия]]
[[es:Sorabia]]
[[fr:Serbie blanche]]
[[it:Serbia bianca]]
[[mk:Бела Србија]]
[[nl:Wit-Servië]]
[[pl:Biała Serbia]]
[[ro:Sârbi albi]]
[[ru:Белые сербы]]
[[sr:Бојка]]
[[uk:Білі серби]]

Kerio Technologies

2011-07-11T10:34:02Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Merge from}} x 2. (Build p613)

{{Merge from|Kerio Control|date=July 2011}}
{{Merge from|Kerio Connect|date=July 2011}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Kerio Technologies
| logo = [[Image:KerioTechnologiesLogo.png|200px]]
| type = [[Privately held company|Private]]
| genre =
| foundation = 2001
| founder =
| location_city =
| location_country =
| location = [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| locations =
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| key_people =
| industry = [[Computer software]]
| products = [[Kerio Connect]], [[Kerio Control]]
| services =
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| num_employees =
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| homepage = http://www.kerio.com/
| footnotes =
| intl =
}}
'''Kerio Technologies, Inc.''' (or simply ''Kerio'') is a [[software company]] in [[San Jose, CA]] that offers security, messaging, voice and collaboration products for small and medium businesses. The company has offices in in the Czech Republic, Germany, Russia, Australia and the UK.

''Kerio'' distributes its products globally using the Internet and a network of more than 5,000 resellers who help provide support to thousands of customers in 160 countries. Kerio's products are primarily intended for small and medium sized organizations with 5-500 employees. It opened it's first office in Pilsen, CZ in 1998 and was incorporated as Kerio Technologies on and on September 11, [[2001]].

''Kerio'' first entered the Internet security market in 1997 with the ''WinRoute Pro'' product<ref>[http://www.kerio.com/media_factsheet.html Kerio Media Factsheet]</ref>, which was owned and maintained by [[Tiny Software]] until Feb. 1, 2002.<ref>ServerWatch: [http://www.serverwatch.com/sreviews/article.php/1376581/WinRoute-Pro----A-proxy-server-with-built-in-router-firewall-and-mail-services.htm WinRoute Pro -- A proxy server with built-in router, firewall, and mail services] as of September 14, 2000</ref>

In February, 2002, [[Tiny Software]] transferred sales and development of its leading software to Kerio, where the developers would continue to work on the software under the Kerio brand.<ref name="tiny-to-kerio">[http://groups.google.co.uk/group/comp.security.firewalls/browse_thread/thread/bedc6093b7b59b07/f3db0071c9fc6985?lnk=st&q=%22Based+on+an+agreement+between+Tiny+Software+and+Kerio+Technologies%22&rnum=3#f3db0071c9fc6985 Kerio/Tiny name change]</ref>

== Products ==

* [[Kerio Connect]], formerly known as Kerio MailServer, a secure [[mail server]] for Windows, Linux and Mac OS X
* [[Kerio Control]], formerly known and Kerio WinRoute Firewall, a network [[firewall (networking)|firewall]] for Windows and Linux
* [[Kerio Workspace]], a document collaboration and project management tool
* [[Kerio Operator]], VoIP phone system

=== Discontinued products ===

* [[Kerio Personal Firewall]], a [[personal firewall]] - acquired by [[Sunbelt Software]] on December 21, 2005
* Kerio ServerFirewall, a server firewall - discontinued on September 30, 2005 <ref>[http://www.windowsitpro.com/Article/ArticleID/47572/47572.html Goodbye Kerio ServerFirewall and Personal Firewall]</ref>
* [[Kerio WebSTAR]], a [[Web server]] - discontinued on June 30, 2008 <ref>[http://www.kerio.com/discontinued_products.html Discontinued Products]</ref>

== Kerio Personal Firewall ==
On February 8, 2002 Kerio Technologies released Kerio Personal Firewall 2.1 beta 3.<ref name="tpffaq">[http://web.archive.org/web/20020601213728/http://www.tpffaq.com/ Kerio Personal Firewall FAQ]</ref> This was the first release since development moved from [[Tiny Software]].

On March 10, 2002 Kerio Personal Firewall v2.1.0 was released.<ref name="tpffaq" />

Kerio Personal Firewall v4 was released on November 11, 2003.<ref name="KPFv4">[http://www.kerio.co.uk/kerio-pr-uk-2003-1125.html All-New Kerio Personal Firewall 4]</ref>

On December 1, 2005 Kerio announced that Kerio Personal Firewall (v4) was to be acquired by [[Sunbelt Software]],<ref name="sunbelt-acquire-keriopf">[http://www.kerio.co.uk/kerio-pr-uk-2005-2884.html Sunbelt Software to acquire Kerio Personal Firewall]</ref> the acquisition was completed December 21, 2005<ref name="sunbelt-acquire-complete">[http://www.kerio.co.uk/kerio-pr-uk-2005-2962.html Sunbelt Software completes acquisition of Kerio Personal Firewall and Kerio ServerFirewall]</ref> and soon after the product was renamed to [[Sunbelt Personal Firewall]].<ref name="sunbeltpf">[http://www.sunbelt-software.com/Home-Home-Office/Sunbelt-Personal-Firewall/ Sunbelt Personal Firewall]</ref>

Kerio no longer supports the personal firewall and has since released its [[WinRoute]] v6 product as Kerio WinRoute Firewall v6.

== See also ==
*[[Personal firewall]]
*[[Tiny Software]]
*[[Sunbelt Software]]
*[[WinRoute]]

==External links==
*[http://www.kerio.com Official homepage]
*[http://www.kerio.nl Official Dutch distributor]
*[http://www.sunbelt-software.com/ Sunbelt Software]

== Notes ==
<references />

{{Firewall software}}

[[Category:Software companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Software companies of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Companies based in San Jose, California]]
[[Category:Firewall software]]
[[Category:Privately held companies based in California]]

[[cs:Kerio]]
[[ru:Kerio Technologies]]
[[sv:Kerio (mjukvara)]]

Carleton S. Coon

2011-07-11T04:46:44Z

SmackBot: Fix cleanup tag - incomplete date replacing with current. 2011 => July 2011. Fix cleanup tag - incomplete date replacing with current. 2011 => July 2011. (Build p613)

'''Carleton Stevens Coon''', (23 June 1904 – 3 June 1981) was an [[United States|American]] [[biological anthropology|physical anthropologist]], Professor of Anthropology at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], lecturer and professor at [[Harvard]], and president of the [[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]].<ref>[http://collopy.net/projects/2009/race.html “Race” Relations: Montagu, Dobzhansky, Coon, and the Divergence of Race Concepts]</ref>

==Biography==
Carleton Coon was born in [[Wakefield, Massachusetts]] to a [[Cornish American]] family.<ref>Rowse, A.L. The Cousin Jacks, The Cornish in America</ref> He developed an interest in prehistory, and attended [[Phillips Academy|Phillips Academy, Andover]] where he studied [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]]ics and became proficient in ancient [[Greek language|Greek]]. Coon matriculated to [[Harvard]], where he studied [[Egyptology]] with [[George Reisner]]. He was attracted to the relatively new field of [[anthropology]] by [[Earnest Hooton]] and he graduated [[Latin_honors#Types|''magna cum laude'']] in 1925. He became the Curator of Ethnology at the University Museum of Philadelphia.<ref>Coon, Carleton S. (1962). The Origins of Races. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.</ref><ref>http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/ccoon.pdf</ref>

Coon continued with coursework at Harvard. He conducted fieldwork in the [[Rif]] area of [[Morocco]] in 1925, which was politically unsettled after a rebellion of the local populace against the Spanish. He earned his Ph.D. in 1928<ref>The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2005.</ref> and returned to Harvard as a lecturer and later a professor. Coon's interest was in attempting to use [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s theory of [[natural selection]] to explain the differing physical characteristics of races. Coon studied [[Albania]]ns from 1929–1930; he traveled to [[Ethiopia]] in 1933; and in [[Arabia]], [[North Africa]] and the [[Balkans]], he worked on sites from 1925 to 1939, where he discovered a Neanderthal in 1939. Coon rewrote [[William Z. Ripley]]'s 1899 ''[[The Races of Europe]]'' in 1939.

Coon wrote widely for a general audience like his mentor [[Earnest Hooton]]. Coon published ''The Riffians'', ''Flesh of the Wild Ox'', ''Measuring Ethiopia'', and ''A North Africa Story: The Anthropologist as OSS Agent''. The North Africa Story was an account of his work in North Africa during [[World War II]], which involved [[espionage]] and the smuggling of arms to French resistance groups in German-occupied [[Morocco]] under the guise of anthropological fieldwork. During that time, Coon was affiliated with the United States [[Office of Strategic Services]], the forerunner to the [[Central Intelligence Agency]].

Coon left Harvard to take up a position as Professor of [[Anthropology]] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in 1948, which had an excellent museum. Throughout the 1950s he produced academic papers, as well as many popular books for the general reader, the most notable being ''The Story of Man'' (1954).

Coon did photography work for the United States Air Force from 1954-1957. He photographed areas where US planes might be attacked. This led him to travel throughout Korea, Ceylon, India, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Taiwan, Nepal, Sikkim, and the Philippines.

Coon published ''The Origin of Races'' in 1962. In its "Introduction" he described the book as part of the outcome of his project he conceived (in light of his work on ''The Races of Europe'') around the end of 1956, for a work to be titled along the lines of ''Races of the World''. He said that since 1959 he had proceeded with the intention to follow ''The Origin of Races'' with a sequel, so the two would jointly fulfill the goals of the original project.<ref name="OoR-Int">Carleton S. Coon, ''The Origin of Races'', Knopf, 1962, p. vii</ref> (He indeed published ''The Living Races of Man'' in 1965.) The book asserted that the human species divided into five races before it had evolved into Homo sapiens. Further, he suggested that the races evolved into ''Homo sapiens'' at different times. It was not well received.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011|July}} The field of anthropology was moving rapidly from theories of racial typing to sociological explanations, and some of Coon's critics{{Who|date=July 2011|July}} even regarded his work as racist.

He continued to write and defend his work, publishing two volumes of memoirs in 1980 and 1981.<ref name="SmIns">[http://www.nmnh.si.edu/naa/guide/_c3.htm ''National Anthropological Archives'', "Coon, Carleton Stevens (1904-1981), Papers" </ref>

He died on June 3, 1981, in [[Gloucester, Massachusetts]].

==Racial theories==
Coon concluded that sometimes different [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] types annihilated other types while in other cases warfare and/or settlement led to the partial displacement of racial types. He asserted that Europe was the refined product of a long history of racial progression. He stated that historically "different strains in one population have showed differential survival values and often one has reemerged at the expense of others (in Europeans)", in ''The Races of Europe, The White Race and the New World'' (1939).<ref name=racesofeurope>[http://www.snpa.nordish.net/racesofeurope.htm The Races of Europe by Carleton Coon 1939] (Hosted by the Society for Nordish Physical Anthropology)</ref>

He stated the "maximum survival" of the European racial type was increased by the replacement of the indigenous peoples of the New World.<ref name=racesofeurope/> He stated the history of the White race to have involved "racial survivals" of White subraces.<ref>[http://www.snpa.nordish.net/chapter-II12.htm The Races of Europe, Chapter II, Section 12]</ref>

===Study of the Caucasoid race===
In his book ''The Races of Europe, The White Race and the New World'' (1939), Coon used the term "Caucasoid" and "White race" synonymously, as had become common in the United States (although not elsewhere). This is in contrast to many uses of the term "White race" that exclude Arabs and those from the Indian subcontinent. Typically Coon would include most people from the Middle East and South Asia within the "Caucasoid" and "White" definitions, which he used interchangeably. In his introduction, he stated his interest was "the somatic character of peoples belonging to the white race". His first chapter was entitled, "Introduction to the Historical Study of the White Race", and his last chapter, "The White Race and the New World".<ref>[http://www.snpa.nordish.net/chapter-XIII2.htm The Races of Europe, Chapter XIII, Section 2]</ref>

He considered the European racial type to be a sub-race of the Caucasoid race, one that warranted more study. In other sections of ''The Races of Europe'', he mentioned people to be "European in racial type" and having a "European racial element."<ref>[http://www.snpa.nordish.net/chapter-VII2.htm The Races of Europe, Chapter 7, Section 2]</ref>

Coon suggested that the study of some major versions of European racial types was sadly lacking compared with other types, writing, <blockquote>
"For many years physical anthropologists have found it more amusing to travel to distant lands and to measure small remnants of little known or romantic peoples than to tackle the drudgery of a systematic study of their own compatriots. For that reason, sections in the present book that deal with the [[Lapps]], the [[Arab]]s, the [[Berber people|Berbers]], the [[Tājik people|Tajiks]], and the [[Gheg Albanian|Ghegs]] may appear more fully and more lucidly treated than those that deal with the French, the Hungarians, the Czechs, or the English. What is needed more than anything else in this respect is a thoroughgoing study of the inhabitants of the principal and most powerful nations of Europe."<ref name=racesofeurope/>
</blockquote>

'''Summary of ''The Races of Europe''<ref name=racesofeurope/>'''
 Coon's 1939 book concluded the following:

#The Caucasian race is of dual origin consisting of Upper Paleolithic (mixture of sapiens and neandertals) types and Mediterranean (purely sapiens) types.
#The Upper Paleolithic peoples are the truly indigenous peoples of Europe.
#Mediterraneans invaded Europe in large numbers during the Neolithic period and settled there.
#The racial situation in Europe today may be explained as a mixture of Upper Paleolithic survivors and Mediterraneans.
#When reduced Upper Paleolithic survivors and Mediterraneans mix, then occurs the process of [[dinaric race|dinarization]], which produces a hybrid with non-intermediate features.
#The Caucasian race encompasses the regions of [[Europe]], [[Central Asia]], [[South Asia]], the [[Near East]], [[North Africa]], and [[Horn of Africa|Northeast Africa]].
#The Nordic race is part of the Mediterranean racial stock, being a mixture of Corded and Danubian Mediterraneans.

===Mediterranean Race===

According to Carleton Coon the "homeland and cradle" of the [[Mediterranean race]] is in the [[Middle East]], in the area from [[Morocco]] to [[Afghanistan]].<ref name="coon">"Our area, from Morocco to Afghanistan, is the homeland and cradle of the Mediterranean race. Mediterraneans are found also in Spain, Portugal, most of Italy, Greece and the Mediterranean islands, and in all these places, as in the Middle East, they form the major genetic element in the local populations. In a dark-skinned and finer-boned form they are also found as the major population element in Pakistan and northern India ... The Mediterranean race, then, is indigenous to, and the principal element in, the Middle East, and the greatest concentration of a highly evolved Mediterranean type falls among two of the most ancient Semitic-speaking peoples, notably the Arabs and the Jews. (Although it may please neither party, this is the truth.) The Mediterraneans occupy the center of the stage; their areas of greatest concentration are precisely those where civilization is the oldest. This is to be expected, since it was they who produced it and it, in a sense, that produced them.", [[Carleton Coon]], ''the Story of the Middle East'', 1958, pp. 154-157</ref> Coon argued that smaller Mediterraneans traveled by land from the Mediterranean basin north into Europe in the [[Mesolithic]] era. Taller Mediterraneans (Atlanto-Mediterraneans) were Neolithic seafarers who sailed in reed-type boats and colonized the Mediterranean basin from a [[Near East]]ern origin.<ref name="coon"/>

While often characterized by dark brown hair, dark eyes and robust features, he stressed that Mediterraneans skin is, as a rule, some shade of white from pink to light brown, hair is usually black or dark brown but his whiskers may reveal a few strands of red of even blond, and blond hair is an exception but can be found, and a wide range of eye color can be found. He stressed the central role of the Mediterraneans in his works, claiming "The Mediterraneans occupy the center of the stage; their areas of greatest concentration are precisely those where civilization is the oldest. This is to be expected, since it was they who produced it and it, in a sense, that produced them".<ref name="coon"/>

===Polygenism===
{{main|Polygenism}}
{{see also|Multi-regional origin}}

Carleton Coon believed that each of the five races followed a separate evolutionary path for tens of thousands of years. He believed, "The earliest Homo sapiens known, as represented by several examples from Europe and Africa, was an ancestral long-headed white man of short stature and moderately great brain size." Further, he wrote, "The negro group probably evolved parallel to the white strain." (The Races of Europe, Chapter II) Coon hypothesized that modern [[human]]s, ''Homo sapiens'', arose five separate times in five separate places from ''[[Homo erectus]]'', "as each subspecies, living in its own territory, passed a critical threshold from a more brutal to a more ''sapient'' state".

In his 1962 book, ''The Origin of Races'', Coon theorized that some races reached the [[Homo sapiens]] stage in evolution before others, resulting in the higher degree of civilization among some races.<ref>Coon, Carleton S. (1962) . The Origins of Races. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.</ref> He had continued his theory of five races. He considered both what he called the Mongoloid race and the Caucasoid race had individuals who had adapted to crowding through evolution of the endocrine system, which made them more successful in the modern world of civilization. This can be found on pages 108-109 of The Origin of Races.
In his book Coon contrasted a picture of an [[Indigenous Australian]] with one of a Chinese professor. His caption "The Alpha and the Omega" was used to demonstrate his research that brain size was positively correlated with intelligence.
{{cquote|Wherever Homo arose, and Africa is at present the most likely continent, he soon dispersed, in a very primitive form, throughout the warm regions of the Old World....If Africa was the cradle of mankind, it was only an indifferent kindergarten. Europe and Asia were our principal schools.}}By this he meant that the Caucasoid and Mongoloid races had evolved more in their separate areas after they had left Africa in a primitive form.

===Races in India===
In his 1962 book, Coon wrote that within the Caucasoid race there was a "third division [Mediterraneans, which]... included... southern India," but remarked this group had "facial features of a Veddoid character, which in some instances suggest Australoid affinities."<ref name=RacesEurope /> He said that in India there were "Veddoids... individuals who are to all extents and purposes Australoid." Regarding the exact racial composition of India, Coon noted, "[T]he racial history of southern Asia has not yet been thoroughly worked out, and it is too early to postulate what these relationships may be...[I] shall leave the problems of Indian physical anthropology in the competent hands of Guha and of Bowles."<ref name=RacesEurope>Coon, Carleton S. The Races of Europe. Greenwood:USA, 1972 ISBN 0-8371-6328-5 p.2</ref>

==Criticism==
===Contemporary reception===
When Coon published his magnum opus ''[[The Origin of Races]]'' in 1962, the field of physical anthropology had changed markedly, and his book was not well received. Contemporary researchers such as [[Sherwood Washburn]] and [[Ashley Montagu]] were heavily influenced by the [[modern synthesis]] in biology and [[population genetics]]. In addition, they were influenced by [[Franz Boas]], who had moved away from typological racial thinking. Rather than supporting Coon's theories, they and other contemporary researchers viewed the human species as a continuous serial progression of populations.

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and changing social attitudes challenged racial theories like Coon's that had been used by segregationists to justify discrimination and depriving people of civil rights. In 1961 non-fiction writer [[Carleton Putnam]] published ''Race and Reason: A Yankee View'', a popular theory of [[racial segregation]]. The [[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]] voted to censure Putnam's book. Coon, who was then the president of the association, resigned in protest, claiming the action violated free speech.<ref>Academic American Encyclopedia (vol. 5, p.271). Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Incorporated (1995).</ref>

===Posthumous reputation===
In 2001 [[John P. Jackson, Jr.]] researched Coon's papers in order to the ''Journal of the History of Biology''<ref>John P. Jackson, Jr., "[http://comm.colorado.edu/jjackson/research/coon.pdf 'In Ways Unacademical': The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's ''The Origin of Races,'']" ''Journal of the History of Biology'' 34 (2001): pp. 247–285. Retrieved 17 November 2006.</ref> reviewed the controversy around the reception of ''The Origin of Races'', stating in the article abstract
: Segregationists in the [[United States]] used Coon’s work as proof that [[African Americans]] were "junior" to white Americans, and thus unfit for full participation in American society. The paper examines the interactions among Coon, segregationist [[Carleton Putnam]], geneticist [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]], and anthropologist [[Sherwood Washburn]]. The paper concludes that Coon actively aided the segregationist cause in violation of his own standards for scientific objectivity.

== Works ==
'''Science:'''
*''[[The Origin of Races]]'' (1962)
* ''The Story of Man'' (1954)
* ''[[The Races of Europe (Coon)|The Races of Europe]]'' (1939)
* ''Caravan: the Story of the Middle East'' (1958)
* ''Races: A Study of the Problems of Race Formation in Man''
* ''The Hunting Peoples''
* ''Anthropology A to Z'' (1963)
* ''Living Races of Man'' (1965)
* ''Seven Caves: Archaeological Exploration in the Middle East''
* ''Mountains of Giants: A Racial and Cultural Study of the North Albanian Mountain Ghegs''
* ''Yengema Cave Report'' (his work in Sierra Leone)
* ''Racial Adaptations'' (1982)

'''Fiction and Memoir:'''
* ''Flesh of the Wild Ox'' (1932)
* ''The Riffian'' (1933)
* ''A North Africa Story: Story of an Anthropologist as OSS Agent'' (1980)
* ''Measuring Ethiopia''
* ''Adventures and Discoveries: The Autobiography of Carleton S. Coon'' (1981

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Further reading===
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/lagarvelho.html The Lagar Velho 1 Skeleton]
*Hybrid Humans? Archaeological Institute of America Volume 52 Number 4, July/August 1999 by Spencer P.M. Harrington [http://www.archaeology.org/9907/newsbriefs/hybrid.html]
*''Carleton Steven Coons, 23 June 1904 - 3 June 1981'' (obituary). 1989. W.W. Howells in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, v.58 108-131.
*''Two Views of Coon's Origin of Races with Comments by Coon and Replies''. 1963. Theodosius Dobzhansky; Ashley Montagu; C. S. Coon in Current Anthropology, Vol. 4, No. 4. (Oct., 1963), pp. 360–367.
*''[http://comm.colorado.edu/jjackson/research/coon.pdf In Ways Unacademical: The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's "The Origin of Races"]'' by JOHN P. JACKSON JR. '''Journal of the History of Biology''' 34: 247–285, 2001. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
*{{Cite book |title=Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case against Brown v. Board of Education |last=Jackson |first= John P. |publisher=[[NYU Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-081474271-6 |laysummary=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/25.2/br_19.html |laydate=30 August 2010 |ref=harv }}
*The Races of Europe (1939) by Carleton S. Coon - physical anthropological information on the indigenous peoples of Europe.
*{{Cite book |title=The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund |last=Tucker |first=William H. |authorlink=William H. Tucker |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-252-07463-9 |laysummary=http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/65rwe7dm9780252074639.html |laydate=4 September 2010 |ref=harv }}

{{Historical definitions of race}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Special:Search/Carleton S. Coon|Carleton S. Coon}}
*[http://www.nmnh.si.edu/naa/guide/_c3.htm#jrg446 Carleton Stevens Coon Papers], National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution
*[http://www.questia.com/library/book/caravan-the-story-of-the-middle-east-by-carleton-s-coon.jsp Caravan: The Story of the Middle East]

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[[Category:1904 births]]
[[Category:1981 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Wakefield, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:American Congregationalists]]
[[Category:American anthropologists]]
[[Category:Office of Strategic Services]]
[[Category:Phillips Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard University faculty]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania faculty]]
[[Category:Race and intelligence controversy]]
[[Category:American people of Cornish descent]]

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Generation Z

2011-07-11T00:29:33Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{Wiktionary}}
'''Generation Z''' (also known as '''Generation M''', the '''Net Generation''', or the '''Internet Generation''') is a common name for the group of people born between the early [[1990s]] and the early [[2000s (decade)|2000s]].<ref name="NCBI"/><ref name="CTA"/><ref name="Tapscott">{{cite book |title=Grown Up Digital: How the Net Generation is Changing Your World |first=Don |last=Tapscott |authorlink=Don Tapscott |coauthors= |year=2008 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location= |isbn=9780071508636 |pages=15–16 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Walliker |first=Annalise |title=Generation Z comes of age |publisher=''Herald Sun'' |date=25 February 2008 |url=http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,23269842-662,00.html |accessdate=27 April 2009 }}</ref><ref name="SchmidtHawkins2008"/>

As the most recent generation, the earliest birth year commonly noted is 1991.<ref name="NCBI">{{cite news| url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18704218 | work=[[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] | title=Generation Z-striking the balance | first=David |last=Mitchell | date=2008-08-16 | accessdate=2010-06-15}}</ref><ref name="CTA">{{cite news| url=http://www.cta.org/Professional-Development/Publications/Educator-Feb-10/Meet-Generation-Z.aspx | work=[[California Teachers Association]] | title=Meet generation Z | first=Sherry | last=Posnick-Goodwin | date=February 2010 | accessdate=2010-06-15}}</ref><ref name="SchmidtHawkins2008"/><ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.essentialbaby.com.au/toddler/gen-z-digital-natives-20080716-3g5p.html?page=-1 | work=essentialbaby.com.au | title=Gen Z: digital natives |first=Lucinda |last=Schmidt |authorlink= |coauthors=Hawkins, Peter |date=2008-07-18 | accessdate=2010-06-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.premierstudios.com/believe-ads/generation-quot-amp-quot/ | work=premierstudios.com| title=Generation X...Y...Z... | accessdate=2010-06-15}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Generally speaking, these people are born after the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] and the dawn of the [[World Wide Web]]. More generally, some of the oldest members of this generation were born at the end of the "Echo Boom", which ended during the time of the [[Gulf War]], while the youngest of the generation were born during a baby boomlet around the time of the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2010|Global financial crisis]] of the late [[2000s (decade)|2000s]] decade, ending around the year 2010, with the next unnamed generation succeeding.<ref>{{cite news | first=Sharon | last=Jayson | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Is this the next baby boom? | date=2008-07-16 | publisher= | url =http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-07-16-baby-boomlet_N.htm | work =USA Today | pages = | accessdate = 2010-01-21 | language = }}</ref><ref name="Generation Alpha">{{cite news|url=http://www.news.com.au/features/babies-born-from-2010-to-form-generation-alpha/story-e6frfl49-1225797766713|title=Babies born after the early 2010s to form Generation Alpha | work=The Sunday Telegraph | date=2009-11-15}}</ref>

Members of Generation Z are typically the [[children]] of [[Generation X]]; their parents may also include the youngest [[Baby Boomers]] as well as older members of [[Generation Y]].<ref name="NCBI"/><ref name="CTA"/>

==Other common terms==
Due to media attention, a variety of terms are being used to describe Generation Z, including:

*Generation I, Internet Generation,or the Millenial Generation, or Net Generation<ref>{{cite news |last=Leonard |first=Bill |title=After Generations X and Y Comes Generation I - Internet generation - Brief Article |publisher=''BNET (Orig. HR Magazine)'' |date=January 2000 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3495/is_1_45/ai_59283651/ |accessdate=13 Dec 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release | title=The Challenge and Promise of "Generation I" | publisher=Microsoft | date=28 October 1999 | url=http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/features/1999/10-28geni.mspx | accessdate=13 Dec 2009 }}</ref>
*Generation M<ref>{{cite news |last=Wallis |first=Claudia|title=genM: The Multitasking Generation |publisher=''Time Magazine'' |date=March 2006 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1174696,00.html |accessdate=2011-05-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Holguin |first=Jaime|title=Generation M: Natural Multitaskers |publisher=''CBS News'' |date=May 2005 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/05/10/eveningnews/main694344.shtml |accessdate=2011-05-15 }}</ref> (for multitasking)
*Generation 9/11<ref>{{cite news |last=Kalb|first=Claudia|title=Generation 9/11 |publisher=''Newsweek'' |date=September 2009 |url=http://www.newsweek.com/2009/09/07/generation-9-11.html |accessdate=2011-05-22 }}</ref> (referencing the juvenile population at the time of the [[September 11 attacks]])
*Homeland Generation<ref>{{cite book |title=Millennials & K-12 Schools|first1=Neil |last1=Howe |first2=William |last2=Strauss |authorlink=Strauss and Howe|year=2008 |publisher=LifeCourse Associates |isbn=0971260656|pages=109–111}}</ref> (from within the [[Strauss-Howe generational theory]], similar in type to the [[Silent Generation]])
*Generation iY<ref>{{cite book |title=Generation iY: Our Last Chance to Save Their Future|first1=Tim |last1=Elmore |authorlink=Tim Elmore|year=2010 |publisher=Poet Gardener Publishing |isbn=9780578063553}}</ref>

==Observed traits and trends==

Generation Z is highly connected, as many of this generation have had lifelong use of [[communications]] and media technologies such as the [[World Wide Web]], [[instant messaging]], [[text messaging]], [[MP3 players]], [[mobile phone]]s and [[YouTube]],<ref>[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-5289198_ITM The generation Z connection: teaching information literacy to the newest net generation. Teacher Librarian (February, 2006)]</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=An educator's guide to information literacy: what every high school senior needs to know |first=Ann Marlow |last=Riedling |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |publisher=Libraries Unlimited |location= |isbn=1591584469 |pages= }}</ref> earning them the nickname "[[digital native]]s".<ref name="SchmidtHawkins2008">{{cite news |first=Lucinda |last=Schmidt |authorlink= |coauthors=Hawkins, Peter |title=Children of the tech revolution |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/parenting/children-of-the-tech-revolution/2008/07/15/1215887601694.html |publisher=''Sydney Morning Herald'' |date=July 15, 2008 |accessdate= }},</ref> No longer limited to the home computer, the Internet is now increasingly carried in their pockets on mobile Internet devices such as [[mobile phone]]s. A marked difference between Generation Y and Generation Z is that older members of the former remember life before the takeoff of mass technology, while the latter have been born completely within it.<ref>http://www.omigoddess.com.au/family/inside-generation-z/ Inside Generation Z January 2010</ref>

This generation was a generation that was born completely into the era of [[postmodernism]] and [[globalization]].

Another difference between Generation Y and Generation Z, even though considered as "Millennials" by Howard and Strauss, that Generation Y, especially the oldest members of Generation Y, has significant memory of the Cold War in their childhood and remember its existence. Generation Z, on the other hand, was not even born during the time of the [[Soviet Union]].

The majority of Generation Z is extremely liberal. Most of the generation supports same-sex marriage and adoption and the legalization of abortion and marijuana. Also, a large portion of the generation is either agnostic or atheist.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

Parents of Generation Z are working part time or are becoming stay-at-home parents so that children are raised by them and other family members instead of a day care facility, which forces children to be in groups. However, [[Soccer moms]] and [[helicopter parents]] are just as common with these members as with children of the previous generation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1940395-2,00.html|title=Helicopter Parents: The Backlash of Overparenting|author=Nancy Gibbs | work=Time|date=2009-11-20}}</ref>

==Beyond Z==
It has been suggested by Mark McCrindle that the next [[generation]], born from 2010, will be called "Generation Alpha".<ref name="Generation Alpha"/>

While Generation Z is often referred to as the 21st century generation, Generation Alpha will be truly the first millennial generation because they will be the first entirely born into the 21st century (some of the oldest members of Generation Z were born at the tail end of the 20th century).<ref name="ABCXYZ">{{cite book |title=The ABC of XYZ: Understanding the Global Generations |first=Mark |last=McCrindle |last2=Wolfinger |first2=Emily ||year=2009 |publisher=UNSW Press |location=Sydney |isbn=9781742230351 |pages=202–204 }}</ref>

Generation Alpha will largely be the children of [[Generation Y]] and older members of Generation Z, as well as the grandchildren of the younger [[Baby Boomers]] and of the older members of [[Generation X]].<ref name="ABCXYZ"/>

==See also==
*[[Year 2000 baby boom]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Further reading===
* {{cite book | ref=harv
| last=Palfrey | first=John
| author-link=John Palfrey
| last2=Gasser | first2=Urs
| year=2008
| title=[[Born Digital|Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation of Digital Natives]]
| publisher=Basic Books
}}
* {{cite book | ref=harv
| last=McCrindle| first=Mark
| last2=Wolfinger| first2=Emily
| year=2009
| title=The ABC of XYZ: Understanding the Global Generations
| publisher=UNSW Press
}}

{{Cultural gens}}

[[Category:Demographics]]
[[Category:Cultural generations|Z]]
[[Category:Postmodern terminology]]

[[es:Generación Z]]
[[fr:Nouvelle génération silencieuse]]
[[ja:ニュー・サイレント・ジェネレーション]]
[[pt:Geração Z]]
[[fi:Sukupolvi Z]]

Der Rattengott

2011-07-10T23:30:41Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Expand section}}. (Build p613)

{{Expand Croatian|topic=culture|date=August 2010}}
{{Infobox film
| name = The Rat Saviour (Izbavitelj)
| image =
| image size =
| alt =
| caption =
| director = [[Krsto Papić]]
| producer = [[Jadran film]]
| writer = [[Ivo Brešan]] [[Krsto Papić]] [[Zoran Tadić]] (based on the novel by [[Alexander Grin]])
| narrator =
| starring = [[Ivica Vidović]] [[Mirjana Majurec]] [[Relja Bašić]] [[Ilija Ivezić]] [[Fabijan Šovagović]] [[Branko Špoljar]]
| music = [[Brane Živković]]
| cinematography = [[Ivica Rajković]]
| editing = [[Miroslava Kapić]] [[Žana Gerova]]
| studio = [[Drago Turina]]
| distributor =
| released = 26 October 1976 - Yugoslavia 21 January 1981 24 July 1992 - Portugal
| runtime = 80 min.
| country = Croatia (then a member of Yugoslavia)
| language = [[Croatian language|Croatian]]
| budget =
| gross =
| preceded by =
| followed by =
}}
'''''Izbavitelj''''' is a [[1976]] [[Croatian language|Croatian]] [[horror film|horror]] [[sci-fi film|Sci-Fi]] film directed by [[Krsto Papić]]. It was released in 1976, but won Best Film at the 1982 [[Fantasporto]].

==Plot==
{{Expand section|date=July 2011}}

==Cast==
*[[Ivica Vidovic]] ... Ivan Gajski
*[[Mirjana Majurec]] ... Sonja Boskovic
*[[Fabijan Sovagovic]] ... Professor Martin Boskovic
*[[Relja Basic]] ... Mayor
*[[Ilija Ivezic]] ... Police Chief

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=0074701}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rat Savior, The}}
[[Category:1981 films]]
[[Category:Croatian films]]
[[Category:Croatian-language films]]
[[Category:Yugoslav films]]
[[Category:Jadran Film films]]
{{Croatia-film-stub}}

[[hr:Izbavitelj (1976)]]
[[sr:Избавитељ]]

Advanced Vector Extensions

2011-07-10T22:55:48Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}} x 2. (Build p613)

'''Advanced Vector Extensions''' (AVX) is an extension to the [[x86]] [[instruction set architecture]] for [[microprocessor]]s from [[Intel Corporation|Intel]] and [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]] proposed by Intel in March 2008.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://softwareprojects.intel.com/avx/ | title=Intel Software Network | publisher=Intel | accessdate=2008-04-05}}</ref>

AVX provides new features, new instructions and a new coding scheme.

==New features==
The width of the [[SIMD]] register file is increased from 128 bits to 256 bits, and renamed from [[Streaming SIMD Extensions#Registers|XMM]]0–XMM15 to YMM0–YMM15. In processors with AVX support, the legacy SSE instructions (which previously operated on 128-bit XMM registers) now operate on the lower 128 bits of the YMM registers. Further extensions to 512 or 1024 bits are expected in the future.{{Citation needed|July 2011|date=July 2011}}

AVX introduces a three-operand SIMD instruction format, where the destination register is distinct from the two source operands. For example, an [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] instruction using the conventional two-operand form ''a'' = ''a'' + ''b'' can now use a non-destructive three-operand form ''c'' = ''a'' + ''b'', preserving both source operands. AVX's three-operand format is limited to the instructions with [[SIMD]] operands (YMM), and does not include instructions with general purpose registers (e.g. EAX), but such support may be added in the future.{{Citation needed|July 2011|date=July 2011}}

The [[Data structure alignment|alignment]] requirement of [[SIMD]] memory operands is relaxed.

==New coding scheme==
{{Main|VEX prefix}}
The new [[VEX prefix|VEX coding scheme]] introduces a new set of code prefixes that extends the [[opcode]] space, allows instructions to have more than two operands, and allows [[SIMD]] vector registers to be longer than 128 bits.

==New instructions==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Instruction
! Description
|-
| VBROADCASTSS, VBROADCASTSD, VBROADCASTF128
| Copy a 32-bit, 64-bit or 128-bit memory operand to all elements of a XMM or YMM vector register.
|-
| VINSERTF128
| Replaces either the lower half or the upper half of a 256-bit YMM register with the value of a 128-bit source operand. The other half of the destination is unchanged.
|-
| VEXTRACTF128
| Extracts either the lower half or the upper half of a 256-bit YMM register and copies the value to a 128-bit destination operand.
|-
| VMASKMOVPS, VMASKMOVPD
| Conditionally reads any number of elements from a SIMD vector memory operand into a destination register, leaving the remaining vector elements unread and setting the corresponding elements in the destination register to zero. Alternatively, conditionally writes any number of elements from a SIMD vector register operand to a vector memory operand, leaving the remaining elements of the memory operand unchanged.
|-
| VPERMILPS, VPERMILPD
| Shuffle 32-bit or 64-bit vector elements, with a register or memory operand as selector.
|-
| VPERM2F128
| Shuffle the four 128-bit vector elements of two 256-bit source operands into a 256-bit destination operand, with an immediate constant as selector.
|-
| VZEROALL
| Set all YMM registers to zero and tag them as unused. Used when switching between 128-bit use and 256-bit use.
|-
| VZEROUPPER
| Set the upper half of all YMM registers to zero. Used when switching between 128-bit use and 256-bit use.
|}

==Applications==
* Suitable for [[floating point]]-intensive calculations in multimedia, scientific and financial applications ([[integer]] operations are expected in later extensions).
* Increases parallelism and throughput in floating point [[SIMD]] calculations.
* Reduces register load due to the non-destructive instructions.

==Compiler and assembler support==
Recent releases of [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] starting with 4.6 (although there was a 4.3 branch with certain support) and the Intel Compiler Suite support AVX starting with version 11.1. The [[Visual Studio 2010]] compiler supports AVX via intrinsic and /arch:AVX switch. The [[GNU Assembler]] (GAS) inline assembly functions support these instructions (accessible via GCC), as do Intel primitives and Intel inline assembler (closely compatible to GAS, although more general in its handling of local references within inline code). Other assemblers such as [[MASM]] VS2010 version, [[YASM]] 1.1.0, [[FASM]] and [[Netwide Assembler|NASM]] also apparently support AVX instructions.

==Operating system support==
AVX adds new register-state through the 256-bit wide YMM register file, so explicit [[operating system]] support is required to properly save & restore AVX's new registers between context switches. The following operating system versions will support AVX:

* Apple OS X: Support for AVX added in 10.6.8 (Snow Leopard) update<ref>{{cite web | url=https://twitter.com/#!/comex/status/85401002349576192 | title=Twitter | accessdate=2010-06-23}}</ref> released on June 23, 2011.
* Linux: supported since kernel version 2.6.30,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://git.kernel.org/linus/a30469e7921a6dd2067e9e836d7787cfa0105627 | title=x86: add linux kernel support for YMM state | accessdate=2009-07-13}}</ref> released on June 9, 2009.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_2_6_30 | title=Linux 2.6.30 - Linux Kernel Newbies | accessdate=2009-07-13}}</ref>
* Windows: supported in [[Windows 7]] SP1 and [[Windows Server 2008 R2]] SP1.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ff545910.aspx | title=Floating-Point Support for 64-Bit Drivers | accessdate=2009-12-06}}</ref>; hotfix 2517374 available for non-SP1 version of Windows Server 2008 R2.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://support.microsoft.com/kb/2517374 | title=AVX support for Hyper-V R2| accessdate=2011-04-22}}</ref>; [[Windows 8]]

==CPUs with AVX==
* [[Intel Corporation|Intel]]
** [[Sandy Bridge (microarchitecture)|Sandy Bridge]] processor, Q1 2011.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,1697,2276803,00.asp | title=Intel Offers Peek at Nehalem and Larrabee | date=March 17, 2008 | publisher=ExtremeTech}}</ref>
** [[Sandy Bridge (microarchitecture)|Ivy Bridge]] processor, Q1 2012.

* [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]]:
** Future [[Bulldozer (processor)|Bulldozer]] processor, Q3 2011.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://blogs.amd.com/developer/2009/05/06/striking-a-balance/ | title=Striking a balance | date=May 7, 2009 | publisher=Dave Christie, AMD Developer blogs | accessdate=2009-05-08}}</ref>

Issues regarding compatibility between future Intel and AMD processors are discussed under [[XOP_instruction_set#Compatibility_issues|XOP instruction set]].

==Future instruction sets==
The [[VEX prefix|VEX coding scheme]] allows future extensions of the [[SIMD]] register size.

Descriptions of other future [[x86]] instruction sets:

* Intel [[FMA instruction set|FMA3]]
* AMD [[FMA instruction set|FMA4]]
* AMD [[XOP instruction set|XOP]]
* AMD [[CVT16 instruction set|CVT16]]

== Advanced Vector Extensions 2 ==

Advanced Vector Extensions 2 (AVX2), also known as '''Haswell New Instructions''',<ref> http://software.intel.com/en-us/blogs/2011/06/13/haswell-new-instruction-descriptions-now-available/</ref> is an expansion of the AVX instruction set to be first introduced in Intel's [[Haswell (microarchitecture)|Haswell microarchitecture]]. AVX2 makes the following additions:

* Expansion of integer SIMD types to 256 bits
* General-purpose bit manipulation instructions
* [[Gather-scatter (vector addressing)|Gather]] support, enabling vector elements to be loaded from non-contiguous memory locations
* DWORD- and QWORD-granularity any-to-any permutes
* Vector shifts
* Fused multiply-accumulate support

==CPUs with AVX2==
* [[Intel Corporation|Intel]]
** [[Haswell (microarchitecture)|Haswell]] processor, 2013.
** [[Haswell (microarchitecture)|Broadwell]] processor, 2014.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Multimedia extensions}}

[[Category:X86 instructions]]
[[Category:SIMD computing]]

[[ko:고급 벡터 확장]]
[[it:Advanced Vector Extension]]
[[pl:Advanced Vector Extensions]]
[[ru:AVX]]

Mentmore Towers

2011-07-10T18:44:08Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Non-free}}. (Build p613)

{{Non-free|date=July 2011}}
[[File:Mentmore towers from below.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mentmore, view towards the [[cour d'honneur]] (''35 on plan below'')]]
[[File:Mentmore Towers from angle.jpg|thumb|right|250px]]

'''Mentmore Towers''' is a [[Neo-Renaissance]] [[English country house]] in the village of [[Mentmore]] in [[Buckinghamshire]]. It takes its name from the village in which it stands, and from its numerous towers and [[pinnacle]]s. It was built by [[Mayer Amschel de Rothschild|Baron Mayer de Rothschild]] in the [[Goût Rothschild]]. Historically it was always known simply as 'Mentmore', and by locals and estate staff as the Mansion, as is the case at nearby [[Tring Park]]. However, the name Mentmore Towers has stuck and is the accepted one today. One of the house's former owners, [[Harry Primrose, 6th Earl of Rosebery|Lord Rosebery]], once said: "Mentmore Towers sounded like a second-rate boarding house". It is a [[Grade 1 listed building]].

==The Rothschild era==
[[File:Mentmorehannahinhall.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Grand Hall at Mentmore. Aged just six months, Hannah de Rothschild laid the foundation stone for the great mansion on 31 December 1851.<ref name="Robinson5">Robinson, p. 5.</ref>]]
[[File:Mentmore-explodingJpeg.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Mentmore, the ground floor; many of the rooms named for the collections they once contained. 1:Grand Hall; 2:White Drawing Room; 3:Dining Room; 4:Library; 5:[[Amber|Amber Room]]; 6:[[Vitreous enamel|limoges Room]]; 7:[[Imperial staircase]]; 8:Study; 9:Vestibule; 10:Green drawing Room; 11:South Enrance Hall; 12:[[Blarenberghe|Blarenberghe Room]]; 13:[[Madame du Barry|du Barry Room]]; 14:Billiards Room; 15:Smoking Room/Armoury; 33: Italian garden; 34:Servants' courtyard; 35:[[Cour d'honneur]]; 36:South Terrace; ST:minor service staircases. For other rooms, please see [[Servants' quarters]]]]

The house was built between 1852 and 1854 for [[Mayer Amschel de Rothschild|Baron Mayer de Rothschild]], who needed a house close to London. Later, other Rothschild family homes were built at [[Tring]] in [[Hertfordshire]], [[Ascott, Buckinghamshire|Ascott]], [[Aston Clinton]], [[Waddesdon Manor|Waddesdon]] and [[Halton House|Halton]].<ref name=Cowles>{{cite book
| last = Cowles
| first = Virginia
| year = 1975
| title = The Rothschilds, a family of fortune
| publisher = First Futura Publications
| location = London
| isbn = 08600 7206 1
}}</ref> Since 1846 Baron Mayer had been slowly buying land in the area.<ref name=Binney>{{cite book
| last = Binney, Marcus. John Robinson. William Allan
| first =
| year = 1977
| title = SAVE Mentmore for the Nation
| publisher = [[SAVE Britain's Heritage]]
| location = London
}}</ref> However, it was not until 1850 that he bought the manor and [[advowson]] of Mentmore for £12,400 from the trustees of the Harcourt family.

The plans for the new mansion, which was begun in 1852, imitated [[Wollaton Hall]] in [[Nottingham]] and were drawn by the architect [[Joseph Paxton]], famous for [[the Crystal Palace]].

The old manor house, with its later [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] façade built by the Wigg family in the 16th century, became known as the 'Garden House', the home of the Rothschild's head gardener, and later it became the Estate Office. It has been the village Manor House since 2004.

==The Rosebery era==
[[File:Mentmore towers dining room.jpg|thumb|right|208px|The dining room (3). The [[boiseries]], or elaborately carved wood panels, were from the [[Hôtel de Villars]], Paris, and are the first example of this type of decoration to be used in an English house. The fragments of the boiseries not used at Mentmore were later installed at [[Waddesdon Manor]]]]
The Baron and his wife did not live long after the Towers' completion. After the Baroness's death it was inherited by her daughter [[Hannah Primrose, Countess of Rosebery|Hannah]], later Countess of Rosebery.<ref name=McKinstry>{{cite book
| last = McKinstry
| first = Leo
| year = 2005
| title = Rosebery, a statesman in turmoil
| publisher = John Murray (publishers)
| location = London
| isbn = 0 7195 6586 3
}}</ref> Following her death from [[Bright's Disease]] in 1890 at age 39, the house became the home of her widower [[Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery]], later [[Prime Minister]] for two years from 1894.<ref name=McKinstry /> In the late 1920s, the fifth earl gave the estate to his son [[Harry Primrose, 6th Earl of Rosebery|Harry]], Lord Dalmeny, who in 1929 on the death of his father, became the sixth Earl.<ref name=McKinstry />

Both earls bred numerous winners of classic [[horse race]]s at the two stud farms on the estate, including five [[Epsom Derby]] winners. These were [[Ladas (horse)|Ladas]], [[Sir Visto]], and [[Cicero (horse)|Cicero]] from the [[Crafton Stud]]; plus [[Ocean Swell (horse)|Ocean Swell]] and [[Blue Peter (horse)|Blue Peter]] from the [[Mentmore stud]]. Both stud farms were within a kilometre of the mansion and together with the stable yard were designed by the architect [[George Devey]], who also designed many cottages in the estate's villages of Mentmore, Crafton and [[Ledburn]].<ref name=Binney />

During the Second World War, the [[Gold State Coach]] was transferred to Mentmore to protect it from German bombing.

[[File:Mentmore Tower grand staircase.jpg|thumb|left|208px|The staircase (7), view to the Grand Hall (1).]] Following the death of the sixth earl in 1973, the Labour government of [[James Callaghan]] refused to accept the contents in lieu of [[Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom)|inheritance taxes]], which would have turned the house into one of England's finest [[museum]]s of European furniture, ''objets d'art'' and [[Victorian era]] [[architecture]]. The government was offered the house and contents for £2,000,000 but declined, and after three years of fruitless discussion, the executors of the estate sold the contents by [[public auction]] for over £6,000,000. Among the paintings sold were works by [[Thomas Gainsborough|Gainsborough]], [[Joshua Reynolds|Reynolds]], [[François Boucher|Boucher]], [[Drouais]], [[Giovanni Battista Moroni|Moroni]] and other well known artists, and cabinet makers, including [[Jean Henri Riesener]] and [[Thomas Chippendale|Chippendale]]. Also represented were the finest German and Russian silver- and goldsmiths, and makers of [[Limoges]] enamel. This Rothschild/Mentmore collection is said to have been one of the finest ever to be assembled in private hands, other than the collections of the Russian and British royal families.<ref name=Sotheby's>{{cite book
| last = Sotheby's
| first =
| year = 1977
| title = Mentmore Volume I -V
| publisher = Sotheby, Parke, Bernet & Co
| location = London
}}</ref>

==The Maharishi era==
The empty house, unaltered since the day it was built, was sold in 1977 for £220,000 to the [[Transcendental Meditation movement]] founded by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]. In 1992, the TM organization made Mentmore the British national headquarters of its political arm, the [[Natural Law Party]].

[[File:Sale 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mentmore 1975, during the sale by Sotheby's of the contents]]
[[File:SAVEMentmore.jpg|thumb|left|208px|Cover of "SAVE Mentmore for the Nation". This booklet was published by SAVE Britain's Heritage in February 1977]]
From 1977 to 1979, the building housed the national office of the TM organization, and was used for weekend and longer residence courses in Transcendental Meditation, as well as World Peace Assemblies for the practice of the more advanced [[TM-Sidhi program]]. In early 1979, Maharishi moved about a hundred young men, all TM teachers, to the property to maintain continuous group practice of the TM-Sidhi program. Mentmore was set up as the UK seat of the [[World Government for the Age of Enlightenment]] (founded in 1975) and was used as the launching point to establish [[City Parliaments]] in most of the UK's larger cities. For roughly three years (1979 through 1982), Mentmore Towers saw an immense level of activity, with numerous banquets to woo influential academic, government and business figures. A number of laboratories were built in the former servants' wing and used for TM research. These operated under the name [[Maharishi European Research University]] (MERU), after the original institution of the same name established earlier at Seelisberg in Switzerland. Several series of seminars were run, aimed at inspiring academics, principally from [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Cambridge University|Cambridge Universities]], to do research on TM. Visiting speakers included Nobel Laureate [[Brian Josephson]], Professor [[Ilya Prigogine]], [[Hans Eysenck]], and many other leading international academics.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}}

In 1982, Mentmore's role was changed to become the home of [[Maharishi University of Natural Law]]. In 1992, it was transformed again, to be the UK headquarters of the Natural Law Party, which launched over 300 candidates from the UK and Commonwealth countries to contest the election in that year.

In a search for sources of income, the TM organisation ran a number of businesses out of Mentmore (including making fudge, selling silk dresses, hosting classical music concerts and using the building as a film location). After 1982, the number of staff at Mentmore decreased to about thirty until the building was sold.

==Future as a hotel==


[[File:mentmoremarblestaircase.jpg|thumb|left|The Marble [[imperial staircase]] (7)]]

In 1997 Mentmore Towers was sold to a company, owned by [[Simon Halabi]], now named Mentmore Towers Ltd, that, while restoring it, plans to turn it into a luxury hotel with 101 suites, including 62 in a new wing on the slope below the house.<ref>[http://www.epr.co.uk/architect_hotels_mentmore.html# EPR Architects, Mentmore Towers] - accessed 22 September 2006.</ref> However, in September 2004 a local resident won a last-minute [[injunction]] in the [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] to halt work on the hotel while a [[judicial review]] investigated if the [[planning permission]] granted had followed the correct procedures. In March 2005 the High Court ruled that [[Aylesbury Vale District Council]]'s decision to grant planning permission to the developers was "unimpeachable" and legally sound. However, with Simon Halabi's property empire in serious trouble due the housing market's collapse, the project seems to have stalled. English Heritage has placed it on the "At Risk register" and the house needs urgent work on the roof and chimneys. There is concern that weather will penetrate to the interiors, considered among the finest examples of Victorian design and craftsmanship in Britain.

==Golf courses==
The park is home to Mentmore Golf and Country Club, established in 1992, which has two eighteen hole golf courses, the Rothschild Course and the Rosebery Course.

==Film location==
The house has appeared in many films, including [[Terry Gilliam]]'s ''[[Brazil (1985 film)|Brazil]]'' (1985), ''[[Slipstream (1989 film)|Slipstream]]'' (1989), [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[Eyes Wide Shut]]'' (1999), [[Philip Kaufman]]'s [[Marquis de Sade]] [[Biographical film|biopic]] ''[[Quills]]'' (2000), ''[[The Mummy Returns]]'' (2001), ''[[Ali G Indahouse]]'' (2002), ''[[Johnny English]]'' (2003), and [[Christopher Nolan]]'s ''[[Batman Begins]]'' (2005) where it was used as the gothic [[Wayne Manor]].

In 1982 director Howard Guard filmed the [[Roxy Music]] video to "Avalon", starring [[Sophie Ward]], at the house. It also served as the filming location of [[Enya]]'s Dan Nathan-directed "Only If.." (1997) and the [[Spice Girls]] Howard Greenhalgh-directed "[[Goodbye (Spice Girls song)|Goodbye]]" (1998) music videos.

==See also==
*[[Rothschild properties in England]]
*[[Hannah, Countess of Rosebery]]
*[[Rothschild family]]
*[[Château de Ferrières]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mentmore Towers}}
*[http://www.mentmoregolf.co.uk Mentmore Golf and Country Club]
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[[Category:Houses in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Jacobethan architecture]]
[[Category:Golf clubs and courses in England]]
[[Category:Rothschild family|*]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1854]]
[[Category:Transcendental Meditation movement]]
[[Category:Country houses in England]]

[[es:Torres Mentmore]]
[[pt:Mentmore Towers]]
[[th:คฤหาสน์เมนท์มอร์เทาเออร์ส]]

Pir Panjal

2011-07-10T18:03:19Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Refimprove}}. (Build p613)

{{Refimprove|date=July 2011}}
[[Image:Kashmir-sat-nasa.jpg|thumb|Kashmir valley seen from satellite. Snow capped Pir Panjal range separates the valley from plains.]]
[[File:Pir Panjal 2478293509 8000ae5902 o.jpg|thumb|left|Pir Panjal Range]]

The Pir Panjal ranges lie in the Inner Himalayan region, running from east southeast to west northwest across [[Himachal Pradesh State]] in [[India]] and [[Kashmir]] as well as [[Pakistan-administered Kashmir]],where the average elevation varies from {{convert|1400|m|ft}} to {{convert|4100|m|ft}}. The Himalayas show a gradual elevation towards the Dhauladhar and Pir Panjal ranges. Pir Panjal is the largest range of the lower Himalayas. Near the bank of the Sutlej river, it dissociates itself from the Himalayas and forms a divide between the rivers Beas and Ravi on one side and the Chenab on the other.

The Pir Panjal pass to the west of Srinagar, the Banihal pass ({{convert|2739|m|ft}}) which lies at the head of the Jhelum River at the southern end of the Kashmir valley, and the Sythen pass connecting Jammu and Kashmir with Kishtwar are some among the important passes in the region.<ref>[http://www.india9.com/i9show/Pir-Panjal-Range-41966.htm Pir Panjal Range in India]</ref>

''[[Rohtang]] La'' is a [[mountain pass]] on the eastern Pir Panjal range connecting [[Manali]] in [[Kullu]] Valley to [[Keylong]] in Lahaul Valley. ''[[Haji Pir Pass]]'' is a mountain pass on the western Pir Panjal range between [[Poonch]] and [[Uri]]. Deo Tibba ({{convert|6001|m|ft}}) and Indrasan ({{convert|6221|m|ft}}) are two important peaks at the eastern end of the mountain range. They can be approached from both the [[Parvati]]-Beas Valley (Kulu District) and the Chandra (Upper Chenab) Valley (Lahaul and Spiti District) in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. The [[hill station]] of [[Gulmarg]] in Kashmir lies in this range.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/461483/Pir-Panjal-Range Pir Panjal Range (mountain system, Asia) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref>

{{Coord|33|53|36|N|74|29|19|E|type:mountain_region:IN|display=title}}

==Haji Pir Pass==

Hajipir Pass is in the Pakistan-administered Kashmir area. It has been contested territory over many years, located on the road between Poonch and Uri at a height of {{convert|2637|m|ft}}. The pass, and therefore the strategically significant road, was freed from the control of Pakistani forces and others connected to that country by the [[Indian Army]] in 1947. It was later re-occupied by Pakistan, prior to the ceasefire of 1 January 1949, and control was retained until the 1965 war. At that time, India once again gained possession but only briefly, and the pass was returned as a consequence of the [[Tashkent Agreement]].

Hajipir Pass remains a volatile area. Control of its heights mean that Pakistani forces overlook the town of Poonch, while militants use it as a route into Kashmir and the Rajouri-Poonch areas. It is dominated by three hill features namely Bedori ({{convert|3760|m|ft}}) in the east, Sant ({{convert|2895|m|ft}}) in the west and Lediwali Gali ({{convert|3140|m|ft}}) in the south west. Control of the pass depends on control of these peaks.

==See also==
* [[Ganga Choti]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

[[Category:Geography of Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of India]]

{{India-geo-stub}}

[[cs:Pír Pandžál]]
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Logan Browning

2011-07-09T22:07:58Z

SmackBot: Dated {{When}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox person
| name = Logan Browning
| image = Robin Wong Photography Bratz 023.jpg
| caption = Browning at MuchMusic for a MuchOnDemand episode, 2007
| birth_name = Logan Laurice Browning
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1989|06|09}}
| birth_place = [[Atlanta|Atlanta, Georgia]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| other_name = Lolo
| occupation = [[Actress]], [[singer]]
| years_active = 2004–present
}}

'''Logan Laurice Browning''' (born June 9, 1989) is an [[United States|American]] [[actress]] and [[singer]]. She is best known for playing [[Bratz|Sasha]] in the 2007 film ''[[Bratz: The Movie]]''. She is sometimes credited as Logan L. Browning.

== Career ==
Browning made her acting debut on the teen series ''[[Summerland (TV series)|Summerland]]'' as the character Carrie, and played Vanessa on the [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] series ''[[Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide]]'' in 2005 through 2006. In 2007, Browning starred as one of the main characters, Sasha, in the live-action theatrical feature ''Bratz: The Movie'', based on the popular fashion doll line.

Browning joined the cast of ''[[Meet the Browns (TV series)|Meet The Browns]]'' during the second season, replacing Brianna Gould as the character Brianna. She also makes a brief appearance in [[Prima J|Prima J's]] "[[Rockstar (Prima J song)|Rockstar]]" music video, as well as [[B5 (band)|B5's]] music video U Got Me. She recently{{When|date=July 2011}} made an appearance on [[Disney XD]] series ''[[Pair of Kings]]''

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|2503064}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Browning, Logan
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = LoLo
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = June 9, 1989
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Atlanta, Georgia]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Browning, Logan}}
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:African American actors]]
[[Category:American child actors]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:Baptists from the United States]]
[[Category:Actors from Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Atlanta, Georgia]]

{{US-film-actor-1980s-stub}}

[[eu:Logan Browning]]
[[no:Logan Browning]]
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[[fi:Logan Browning]]

Joseph Massino

2011-07-09T20:45:53Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox person
|name=Joseph Massino
|image=Joseph Massino.jpg
|caption=FBI mugshot
|birth_date={{Birth date and age|1943|1|10|mf=y}}
|birth_place=[[New Haven, Connecticut]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|death_date=
|death_place=
}}

'''Joseph Charles Massino''' (born January 10, 1943<ref name="exlist">{{cite web |url= http://www.nj.gov/oag/ge/exclusion/massino_joseph.htm|title= Joseph Massino|work= Division of Gaming Enforcement Exclusion List|publisher= State of New Jersey|accessdate=July 8, 2011}}</ref>), also known as "Big Joey" or "The Ear". Massino was the boss of the [[Bonanno crime family]] before he became a government witness in 2004. The media nicknamed him the "The Last Don" or "The [[Horatio Alger]] of the Mob". He was convicted in July 2004 of [[racketeering]], seven murders, arson, [[extortion]], [[loansharking]], illegal gambling, [[Conspiracy (crime)|conspiracy]] and [[money laundering]].

To avoid the [[death penalty]] Massino agreed to [[turn state's evidence]] and testify against his former associates. He was sentenced to life imprisonment in 2005. He was referred to as the "Last Don" by the media because at the time, he was the only official head of the [[Five Families]] not in prison.<ref name="time magazine">Corliss, Richard. Crittle, Simon. "[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993685,00.html "The Last Don]", ''[[Time Magazine]]'', March 29, 2004. Accessed June 21, 2008.</ref> His leadership had been recognized in 2000 at a meeting of the bosses of four of the five families.<ref name="time magazine"/>

==Biography==
===Early years===
Massino first met his future wife Josephine in 1956, and married her in 1960. He had a [[lunch wagon]] business and served factory workers in [[Maspeth, Queens]] and sold Christmas trees during the winter season. When his daughter Adelaide was born he had to take loans from relatives to pay for the hospital. In 1966 he bought his first home in Maspeth to be close to his parents. He was a close friend of Carmine Rastelli and Martin Rastelli, brothers of [[Phillip Rastelli]] who ran a depot for lunch wagon supplies.

Massino is the father of three daughters named Joanne, Adeline and Linda. He stands at 5'10" with brown hair and brown eyes and weighs 300 pounds. His grandchildren referred to him by the pet name Poppy. As he grew older he enjoyed entertaining house guests by [[bellyflop]]ping and swimming with neighborhood children that he would invite over into his backyard pool. He was a one time neighbor of [[John Gotti]], [[Gene Gotti]], [[Peter Gotti]] and [[Alphonse Indelicato]].

Massino owned and operated the CasaBlanca Restaurant in [[Maspeth, Queens]], an Italian restaurant and catering firm, as well as Cafe Via Vento, also in Maspeth, and other New York and Florida properties.<ref name="time magazine"/> He once convened a meeting of four of the [[Five Families]] at CasaBlanca, and he allegedly ran his operations from the restaurant, setting it as the family's main headquarters.<ref name="time magazine"/> At CasaBella, Massino personally made the [[pasta sauce]]s and [[ravioli]] and claimed that CasaBlanca had the best [[New York-style pizza|pizza]] in the city.

===Rise to power===
[[File:Nicholasmarangello1.JPG|200px|thumb|right|FBI surveillance photograph of Joseph Massino (left) and [[Nicholas Marangello]] (right) on February 23, 1977 at the Toyland Social Club.]]

Massino was a protege of Phillip Rastelli and his brothers in the 1960s. Massino's mob association began with him running a lunch wagon in [[Maspeth, New York]], selling pastries and coffee to dock workers, while giving a kickback to Rastelli to insure he would have no competition.<ref name="king 58-59">DeStefano, pp. 58-59</ref> He would later become involved in [[truck hijacking]], with the assistance of his brother-in-law [[Salvatore Vitale]] and carjacker Duane Leisenheimer, while [[Fence (criminal)|fencing]] the stolen goods and running [[Numbers game|numbers]] using the lunch wagon as a front.<ref>DeStefano, pp. 63-64, 68</ref> In 1975 Massino participated in the murder of Vito Borelli, who he claimed was primarily executed by [[John Gotti]], at the behest of [[Paul Castellano]] of the [[Gambino crime family]].<ref>{{cite news |title= Nomerta! Mafia boss a squealer|author= Mitchel Maddux|author2= Jeremy Olshan|url= http://www.nypost.com/p/news/local/manhattan/nomerta_mafia_boss_squealer_cxVn2NPO0V7oN9poESI90J/0|newspaper= New York Post|date= 2011-04-13|accessdate=April 15, 2011}}</ref> The Borelli hit put Massino close to becoming a [[made man]] in the Bonanno family.<ref>DeStefano, p. 74</ref>

In March 1975 Massino was arrested at the scene of the arrest of one of his hijackers, [[Raymond Wean]], and charged with conspiracy to receive stolen goods.<ref>DeStefano, pp. 79-82</ref> Massino was scheduled to go on trial in 1977, but the charges were dropped after he successfully argued that he had not been properly [[Miranda warning|mirandized]], disqualifying statements Massino gave to police from being used in trial.<ref>DeStefano, pp. 84-86</ref>

On June 14, 1977, Massino was inducted into the Bonanno Family along with [[Anthony Spero]], Joseph Chilli Jr. and a group of other men in a ceremony conducted by [[Carmine Galante]], then acting boss of the Bonanno family.<ref>http://tonydestefano.com/id3.html</ref> He was placed in [[Philip Giaccone]]'s crew.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} Massino nevertheless remained loyal to Rastelli, then vying to oust Galante despite his own imprisonment. Fearing Galante wanted him dead for insubordination, Massino delivered a request to the Commission on Rastelli's behalf to have Galante killed. The hit was approved and executed on July 12, 1979; Rastelli subsequently took full control of the family and rewarded Massino's loyalty by promoting him to [[caporegime]].<ref>Raab, pp. 607-608</ref>

On June 1, 1976, close to Massino's social club and deli in Maspeth, the body of Joseph Pastore was found in a dumpster with two shots in the head. Pastore was a truck hijacker who had supplied Massino with stolen goods to fence. Massino and Richard Dormer (Pastore's half brother) were taken to the morgue to identify the body. Prior to the murder, Massino had his brother-in-law [[Salvatore Vitale]] borrow $9,000 from Pastore on behalf of Massino.

===The three capos murder===
[[File:Bonannosurveillance3.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[FBI]] surveillance photograph of Massino and [[Gerlando Sciascia]] in the morning after the murder of the three rival capos in Whitestone, Queens.]]
In 1981, Massino got word from his informants that Bonanno capos [[Alphonse Indelicato|Alphonse "Sonny Red" Indelicato]], [[Dominick Trinchera|Dominick "Big Trin" Trincera]] and [[Phillip Giaccone|Philip "Phil Lucky" Giaccone]] were stocking up on [[automatic weapons]]. Their plan was to kill the Rastelli loyalists within the Bonanno family and take complete control. Massino turned to [[Colombo crime family]] boss [[Carmine Persico|Carmine "Junior" Persico]] and Gambino boss [[Paul Castellano]] for advice; they told him to act immediately. Massino and fellow capo [[Dominic Napolitano]] went to the [[The Commission (mafia)|Commission]] for approval to kill the three plotters. The Commission gave Massino their blessing and said they would accept Rastelli as the continuing Bonanno leader.

Massino and Napolitano lured the three renegades to a sit-down regarding the future family leadership of the Bonanno family. When the three capos arrived with [[Frank Lino]], the assailants [[Sal Vitale]], [[Vito Rizzuto]] and Napolitano burst out of a closet holding shotguns and pistols. Trinchera, Giaccone and Indelicato tried to escape but were shot to death. Lino escaped unscathed by running out the door. Indelicato's son [[Anthony "Bruno" Indelicato]] was meant to be killed as well, but missed the meeting when the capos decided to take Frank Lino instead. Bruno fled New York, but when he re-surfaced, Massino and Napolitano turned to soldier [[Benjamin Ruggiero|Benjamin "Lefty" Ruggiero]] and associate [[Joseph Pistone|Donnie Brasco]] and gave them the '[[Contract killing|contract]]' so Brasco could become a made man in the Bonanno family.

===Operation Donnie Brasco===
Massino later came into conflict with Napolitano over Napolitano's proposal to admit mobster [[Donnie Brasco]] to the family before Massino's loyal associate [[Salvatore Vitale]]. Vitale had been a loyal soldier as well as a participant in several killings, including the three capo slayings, while Brasco had only been known for a few years and hadn't taken part in any sanctioned mob hits. Although Brasco accepted the contract, he disappeared and the [[FBI]] soon revealed that "Donnie Brasco" was really Joseph Pistone, an undercover agent for the [[organized crime]] division in the FBI. In the book ''Donnie Brasco: Unfinished Business'', Pistone wrote that years earlier, he had actually arrested Massino as part of a truck hijacking bust. However, when introduced to Massino as Donnie Brasco, Massino did not recognize him.

In August 1981, the Bonanno family blamed Napolitano for bringing an undercover agent into their midst, as well as almost making him a member. In order to send a message, Massino was ordered by [[Philip Rastelli|Philip "Rusty" Rastelli]] behind bars to kill Napolitano. Their former renegade [[Frank Lino]] and Steven Cannone drove Napolitano to the house of Ronald Filocomo, a Bonanno family associate. Napolitano was greeted by captain [[Frank Coppa]]. Knowing that he was finished, Napolitano simply asked the men to kill him quickly. The two hitmen threw Napolitano down the stairs and shot him to death in the basement. Whilst Napolitano's body was prepared for disposal, Lino went outside to a nearby van and told the occupants that Napolitano was dead. One of the men in the car was Massino.

===John Gotti===
By now Massino was a close friend of Gambino crime family capo and eventual boss, [[John Gotti]], his neighbor in [[Howard Beach, Queens]].<ref>Raab, Selwyn. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E0DA1739F93AA15757C0A9669C8B63 "A Mafia Family's Second Wind; Authorities Say Bonannos, All but Written Off, Are Back"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', April 29, 2000.</ref> Massino owned a cut in the house of a high stakes dice game operated by Gotti on Mott Street in [[Manhattan]]. Massino discovered a wire tap in his social club, J&S Cake Social Club in Maspeth, Queens. Massino handed over the wire to the FBI who came to pick it up.

Although a friend of Gotti, Massino later became upset with Gotti's flamboyance and openness to media attention. He also later found out that Gotti was bad-mouthing him, calling him "a punk" and "a hungry whale swallowing anything he can get", and informants testified that he remarked, "John set this [[cosa nostra|thing of ours]] back a hundred years."

===Mirra and Bonventre murders===
On November 23, 1981, six men were indicted on racketeering charges. They were Napolitano, Benjamin Ruggiero, [[Nicholas Santora]], [[John Cersani]], [[James Episcopia]] and [[Antonio Tomasulo]]. At the time of the indictment, the government did not know that Napolitano had been murdered in August. On February 18, 1982, [[Anthony Mirra]] was shot in the head by his nephew [[Joseph D'Amico]]. D'Amico had been sent to kill him by [[Richard Cantarella]], who got the order from [[Albert Embarrato]] after consultation with Massino.

Mirra had recently been released from prison, but had previously befriended Brasco and was responsible for initially bringing him into the family. Like Napolitano, Mirra died for bringing Brasco into the family. Soon after the Mirra murder, Massino went into hiding with [[Duane "Goldie" Leisenheimer]]. On March 5, 1982, Massino and other family members were charged with conspiracy to murder Indelicato, Giaccone and Trinchera. While in hiding, Massino was visited by many fellow mobsters, including Gotti. Massino received cash from his associates in [[New York City]].

On August 12, 1982, Napolitano's body was discovered with his hands cut off. This was supposedly to warn anyone else from letting an undercover agent shake hands with a made man. In 1984, Rastelli was released from prison and Massino ordered the murder of Bonanno soldier [[Cesare Bonventre]]. Still a fugitive, Massino summoned Vitale, [[Louis Attanasio]] and James Tartaglione to his hideout. Despite the fact that Rastelli was the family head, Massino was considered by most mobsters to be the real power in the family.

Bonventre was called to a meeting with Rastelli in [[Queens]]. He was picked up by Vitale and Attanasio and driven to a garage. Once inside, Attanasio then shot Bonventre twice in the head. After Bonventre staggered out of the car, Attanasio killed him with two more shots. The task of disposing of Bonventre's corpse was handed to Gabriel Infanti. Infanti promised Vitale that Bonventre's remains would disappear forever. However, after a tipoff, the remains were discovered on April 16, 1984, in a warehouse in [[Garfield, New Jersey]], stuffed into two 55-gallon glue drums. Bonventre was killed because he was considered to be a threat to the family.

===1987 trials===
[[File:Bonannosurveillance2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|FBI surveillance photograph of Joseph Massino, [[Salvatore Vitale]] and [[Frank Lino]]. The three men are headed to the wake of former [[Gambino crime family]] underboss [[Frank DeCicco]], in April 1986.]]

Massino soon decided to turn himself over to police custody to face charges. In 1985, Massino was indicted for labor racketeering along with Rastelli, Carmine Rastelli, [[Nicholas Marangello]] and 13 other defendants. In October 1986, Massino was found guilty of violations of [[Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act]] (one count), the [[Hobbs Act]] (one count) and the [[Taft-Hartley Act]] (nine counts). In January 1987, he was [[sentence (law)|sentenced]] to a ten-year prison term.

On April 18, 1987, Massino went on trial for truck hijacking and conspiracy to commit the triple murder. Raymond Wean and Joseph Pistone testified against Massino, who was acquitted of conspiracy to commit triple homicide, the conspiracies to murder Pistone and [[Anthony Indelicato|Anthony "Bruno" Indelicato]] and the hijacking charges. During one of the courtroom breaks, Massino asked Pistone who was to play him in the Donnie Brasco movie, to which Pistone replied that they could not find anyone fat enough to play him.<ref>Pistone, Joseph D.; & Brandt, Charles (2007). ''Donnie Brasco: Unfinished Business'', Running Press. ISBN 0-7624-2707-8.
</ref>

===The family regroups===
[[File:Massino.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Joseph Massino (far right) and Gerlando Sciascia (far left) with other unidentified men in an FBI surveillance photo.]]

The Bonanno family had fallen into disfavor after the Donnie Brasco operation and the [[Five Families]] kicked the family off the [[The Commission (mafia)|Mafia Commission]]. Until Massino's capos turned state's evidence against him, no made member of the Bonannos had turned informant, which gave the family an advantage over the other four of the Five Families and helped them become, in the 1990s, the most powerful crime family on the streets in New York.<ref name="time magazine"/> Massino is credited with bringing the family back to power.<ref name="time magazine"/>

Massino ordered his men to touch their ears when referring to him and never say his name out loud due to FBI surveillance. Massino gained the nickname "The Ear" because of this. Massino took a great number of precautions in regards to security and the possibility of anything incriminating being picked up on a wiretap. He closed the long-standing social clubs of the Bonanno family and often conducted family meetings in foreign countries or remote locations within the United States.

The infiltration of Donnie Brasco became somewhat of a blessing in disguise for the Bonanno family. When the [[Mafia Commission Trial]] indicted the New York crime families, the Bonnanos escaped conviction due to the fact that the family had been kicked out of the [[Mafia Commission]]. By dodging this bullet, the Bonnanos kept its leadership intact and were able to consolidate its power once again. Pistone called Massino "the last of the old-time gangsters." <ref name="time magazine"/> Massino was later charged with ordering the murders of Napolitano and Mirra. Massino was scheduled to go on trial for the second time for a separate murder trial, which he was also expected to lose. If convicted, he faced the death penalty.

===Informant===
Disillusioned by the turning of so many made men, and concerned over a possible [[Capital punishment in the United States|death penalty]] if found guilty of the murder of [[Gerlando Sciascia]] in an upcoming trial, Massino made his first offer to cooperate with the government on July 30, 2004.<ref>DeStefano, pp 314-315</ref> In October 2004, the FBI began digging up bodies at an infamous mob graveyard in Queens known as "The Hole". They were looking for the bodies of the three capos killed in the Bonanno civil war in the 1970s. They also hoped to find the body of [[John Favara]], who accidentally killed Gotti's son, the body of [[Tommy DeSimone]], murdered in 1979 for killing [[William Devino]] and [[Ronald Jerothe]]. The FBI said only that this operation was based on "credible information" from an informant.

On February 4, 2005, the FBI revealed that Massino was the source for the graveyard. Hoping to save his life and his assets, Massino had begun to cooperate sometime in late September 2004 by recording conversations with his acting boss, Vincent Basciano. Massino had been so angered at family namesake [[Joe Bonanno]]'s tell-all book, ''A Man of Honor,'' with its numerous revelations of Mafia secrets, that he suggested renaming the family the "Massino" family.<ref>DeStefano, p 17</ref> Bonanno members [[Sal Vitale]], [[Frank Lino]], [[Frank Coppa]], [[Richard Cantarella]], [[Joseph D'Amico]] and Duane Leisenheimer testified against Massino. On June 23, 2005, Massino was sentenced to [[life in prison]]. Massino suffers from [[diabetes]] and [[high blood pressure]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Crittle, Simon, ''The Last Godfather: The Rise and Fall of Joey Massino'' Berkley (March 7, 2006) ISBN 0425209393
*DeStefano, Anthony. ''King of the Godfathers: Joseph Massino and the Fall of the Bonanno Crime Family''. New York: Pinnacle Books, 2006. ISBN 0-7860-1893-3
*Pistone, Joseph D.; & Woodley, Richard (1999) ''[[Donnie Brasco: My Undercover Life in the Mafia]]'', Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-66637-4.
*Pistone, Joseph D.; & Brandt, Charles (2007). ''Donnie Brasco: Unfinished Business'', Running Press. ISBN 0-7624-2707-8.
*Raab, Selwyn, ''Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires'' Thomas Dunne books, 2006. ISBN 0-312-36181-5

==External links==
*[http://www.wjla.com/headlines/0504/145546.html Reputed Crime Boss Goes On Trial in New York], May 9, 2004, [[Associated Press]]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/23/nyregion/23mob.html?pagewanted=print&position= An Archetypal Mob Trial: It's Just Like in the Movies], [[New York Times]], May 23, 2004
*[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/02/02/national/main539032.shtml New York's 'Last Don' Convicted], CBSNews.com, July 30, 2004
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/10/13/nyregion/13mob.html Skeletal Remains Are Believed to Be Those of Mob Captains], [[New York Times]], October 13, 2004

{{S-start}}
{{s-bus}}
{{S-bef|before=Salvatore "Sal" Catalano}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Bonanno Crime Family]] Underboss|years=1981-1988}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Salvatore Vitale|Salvatore "Handsome Sal" Vitale]]}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Phillip Rastelli]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Bonanno Crime Family]] Boss|years=1991-2004}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Vincent Basciano]]}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Vincent Gigante]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Capo di tutti capi]] Boss of bosses|years=2000-2004}}
{{S-aft|after=None}}
{{end}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Massino, Joseph
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = January 10, 1943
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[New Haven]], [[Connecticut]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Massino, Joseph}}
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:American mobsters of Italian descent]]
[[Category:Acting bosses of the Five Families]]
[[Category:Bonanno crime family]]
[[Category:Bosses of the Bonanno crime family]]
[[Category:American people convicted of murder]]
[[Category:People convicted of racketeering]]
[[Category:People convicted of murder by the United States federal government]]
[[Category:Mob bosses]]
[[Category:Mobsters sentenced to life imprisonment]]
[[Category:American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment]]
[[Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the United States federal government]]
[[Category:Capi di tutti capi]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from New Haven, Connecticut]]
[[Category:People from New York City]]
[[Category:People from Queens]]
[[Category:American arsonists]]
[[Category:American money launderers]]

[[bg:Джо Масино]]
[[lt:Joseph Massino]]
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[[ro:Joseph Massino]]

Elizabeth Symons, Baroness Symons of Vernham Dean

2011-07-09T19:43:45Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

[[Image:Elizabeth Symons.jpg|thumb|250px|Lady Symons of Vernham Dean in her role as Minister of Defence Procurement.]]

'''Elizabeth Conway Symons, Baroness Symons of Vernham Dean''', [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] (born 14 April 1951) is a British life peer and former General Secretary of the [[FDA (trade union)|FDA Trade Union]] and a [[Minister of State]]. She was created a [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] [[life peer]] as '''Baroness Symons of Vernham Dean''' in the County of [[Hampshire]] in 1996.

__TOC__

==Early life==
The daughter of [[Ernest Symons]], Chairman of HM Board of [[Inland Revenue]], Symons was educated at Putney High School for Girls and [[Girton College, Cambridge]]. She was an administration trainee at the [[Secretary of State for the Environment|Department of the Environment]] from 1974 to 1977. She then worked for the [[Inland Revenue Staff Federation]] from 1977 to 1989 and was General Secretary of the [[FDA (trade union)|Association of First Division Civil Servants]] from 1989 to 1997. She resigned from this post following her appointment as a working peer.

==Political life==
From May 1997 to June 1999, she took her first government post, serving as a junior Foreign Office Minister. In 1999, she was appointed [[Minister of State]] for Defence Procurement, and in 2001 [[Minister of State for Trade]]. In June 2003, she was appointed Minister of State for the Middle East, International Security, Consular and Personal Affairs in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and Deputy Leader of the [[House of Lords]].

Symons was or remains a member of the [[British-American Project]] (BAP). It has a membership of 600 leaders and opinion formers, drawn equally from both countries, according to ''[[The Guardian]]'', and holds an annual conference at which everything that is said is officially off-the-record.<ref>[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/foreignaffairs/story/0,11538,1343704,00.html Feature: Andy Beckett reports on the British-American Project | World news | The Guardian]</ref> also serves on the Board of Governors of the [[Ditchley Foundation]].

In 2001, she married her long-standing partner, Phil Bassett, [[Rupert Murdoch]]'s former labour writer at ''[[The Times]]''. They have a son, James, born in 1985. In October 2002, Bassett was appointed to the strategic communications unit in [[10 Downing Street]], leaving in September 2003 to become special adviser to [[Charlie Falconer, Baron Falconer of Thoroton|Lord Falconer of Thoroton]], the [[Lord Chancellor]] and Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs.

===Corporate career===
Symons was not given a job in the re-shuffle after the general election of May 5, 2005, and became a [[non-executive director]] of [[British Airways]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

==Conflict of interest allegations==

''The Guardian'' alleged in its issue of January 9, 2005 that Symons may have used her office to give "special treatment" to [[David Mills (lawyer)|David Mills]], husband of Culture Secretary [[Tessa Jowell]]. Mills was seeking her assistance in sidestepping a U.S. trade embargo against Iran in order to sell $200 million worth of [[British Aerospace]] jets to that country.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/iran/story/0,,1386345,00.html Minister's 'advice' on Iran jet deal | Politics | The Observer]</ref>

On 9 February 2006, ''The Guardian'' mentioned her as one several former government ministers who had accepted lucrative positions as company directors and consultants. In the case of Symons, the companies involved were [[British Airways]], law firm [[DLA Piper]], and the [[Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company]] (P&O).<ref>[http://business.guardian.co.uk/story/0,,1705557,00.html#article_continue From Brussels to the boardroom: what George Robertson did next | Business | The Guardian]</ref>

In 2009 similar allegations were made when she took a lucrative post with UK investment bank MerchantBridge, which made millions from contracts in post-war Iraq, and also when she became a member of the National Economic Development Board of [[Libya]] shortly before the release of [[Abdelbaset Al Megrahi]], who was alleged to have been involved in the Lockerbie bombing. Symons resigned from the National Economic Development Board in 2011 in the midst of a popular uprising against the government of [[Muammar Gaddafi]], one day after she had made remarks which appeared to praise Gaddafi’s ‘sound ideology’. Symons said the remarks had been made facetiously.<ref>Seamark, Michael, [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1361674/Libya-Labour-peer-Tony-Blairs-Middle-East-envoy-forced-quit-role.html Labour peer who was Blair's Middle East envoy forced to quit Libya role], ''Daily Mail'', 1 March 2011</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Symons of Vernham Dean, Elizabeth Conway, Baroness}}
[[Category:1951 births]]
[[Category:Alumni of Girton College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Leaders of British trade unions]]
[[Category:Civil servants in the Department of the Environment]]
[[Category:Female life peers]]
[[Category:Labour Party (UK) life peers]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Pseudepigraphie (Bibel)

2011-07-09T17:51:41Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

'''Pseudepigrapha''' are falsely attributed works, texts whose claimed [[authorship]] is unfounded; a work, simply, "whose real author attributed it to a figure of the past."<ref name="Bauckham 469-494">Bauckham, Richard; "Pseudo-Apostolic Letters", ''Journal of Biblical Literature'', Vo. 107, No. 3, September 1988, pp.469–494.</ref> The word "pseudepigrapha" (from the {{lang-el|ψευδής}}, ''pseudēs'', "false" and {{Polytonic|ἐπιγραφή}}, ''epigraphē'', "inscription"; see the related ''[[epigraphy]]'') is the plural of "pseudepigraphon" (sometimes [[Latinization (literature)|Latinized]] as "pseudepigraphum"); the [[Anglicized]] forms "pseudepigraph" and "pseudepigraphs" are also used.

Few scholars would insist today that the ''[[Second Epistle of Peter]]'' was written by [[Saint Peter]].<ref name="Bauckham 469">Bauckham 1988, ''op. cit.'', pp. 469: "New Testament scholars are now nearly unanimous in the opinion that at least one NT letter, 2 Peter, is pseudepigraphical."</ref> Nevertheless, in some cases, especially for books belonging to a religious [[canon law|canon]], the question of whether a text is pseudepigraphical or not elicits sensations of loyalty and can become a matter of heavy dispute. The authenticity or value of the work itself, which is a separate question for experienced readers, often becomes sentimentally entangled in the association. Though the inherent value of the text may not be called into question, the weight of a revered or even an apostolic author lends authority to a text.

Some biblical scholars assert that in antiquity pseudepigraphy was "an accepted and honored custom practiced by students/admirers of a revered figure"<ref name="Kiley 1986a">''Colossians as Pseudepigraphy'' (Bible Seminar, 4 Sheffield:JSOT Press) 1986, p. 12.{{Nonspecific|date=September 2007}}</ref>, but provide no evidence to back up this statement{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}, and others assert that "pseudoepigraphy was not an accepted practice" and that the church attempted to avoid it [http://braincrampsforgod.blogspot.com/2007/03/or-not.html].

Pseudepigraphy covers the false ascription of names of [[author]]s to works, even to perfectly authentic works that make no such claim within their text. Thus a widely accepted but an incorrect attribution of authorship may make a perfectly authentic text pseudepigraphical. Assessing the actual writer of a text brings questions of pseudepigraphical attributions within the discipline of [[literary criticism]]. In a parallel case, [[Forgery|forgers]] have been known to improve the market value of a perfectly genuine 17th-century Dutch painting by adding a painted signature ''[[Rembrandt|Rembrandt fecit]]''.

On a related note, a famous name assumed by the author of a work is an ''[[pseudonym|allonym]]''.

These are the basic and original meanings of the terms.

In Biblical studies, the Pseudepigrapha are Jewish religious works written ''c'' 200 BC to 200 AD, not all of which are literally pseudepigraphical.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> They are distinguished by [[Protestant]]s from the [[Deuterocanonical]] (Catholic and Orthodox) or [[Apocrypha]] (Protestant), the books that appear in the [[Septuagint]] and [[Vulgate]] but not in the Hebrew Bible or in Protestant Bibles.<ref name ="Harris"/> [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] distinguish only between the [[Deuterocanonical]] and all the other books, that are called [[Apocrypha]], a name that is also used for the Pseudepigrapha in the Catholic usage.

== Classical and Biblical studies ==
There have probably been pseudepigrapha almost from [[History of literature|the invention of full writing]]. For example ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] authors often refer to texts which claimed to be by [[Orpheus]] or his pupil [[Musaeus]] but which attributions were generally disregarded. Already in Antiquity the collection known as the "[[Homeric hymn]]s" was recognized as pseudepigraphical, that is, not actually written by Homer.

=== Literary studies ===
In secular literary studies, when works of Antiquity have been demonstrated not to have been written by the authors to whom they have traditionally been ascribed, some writers apply the prefix ''pseudo-'' to their names. Thus the encyclopedic compilation of Greek myth called ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' is often now attributed, not to [[Apollodorus]], but to "[[Bibliotheke|pseudo-Apollodorus]]" and the ''[[Catasterismi]]'', recounting the translations of mythic figure into ''[[Asterism (astronomy)|asterisms]]'' and constellations, not to the serious astronomer [[Eratosthenes]], but to a "[[pseudo-Eratosthenes]]". The prefix may be abbreviated, as in "ps-Apollodorus" or "ps-Eratosthenes".

=== Biblical studies ===
{{See also|Apocrypha}}
In [[Biblical]] studies, ''pseudepigrapha'' refers particularly to works which purport to be written by noted authorities in either the Old and New Testaments or by persons involved in Jewish or Christian religious study or history. These works can also be written about Biblical matters, often in such a way that they appear to be as authoritative as works which have been included in the many versions of the Judeo-Christian scriptures. [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] indicates this usage dates back at least to [[Serapion of Antioch|Serapion, bishop of Antioch]]{{Clarify|date=September 2007}} whom Eusebius records<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiae]]'' 6,12.</ref> as having said: "But those writings which are falsely inscribed with their name (''ta pseudepigrapha''), we as experienced persons reject..."

Many such works were also referred to as ''[[Apocrypha]]'', which originally connoted "secret writings", those that were rejected for liturgical public reading. An example of a text that is both apocryphal and pseudepigraphical is the ''[[Odes of Solomon]]'', pseudepigraphical because it was not actually written by Solomon but instead is a collection of early Christian (first to second century) hymns and poems, originally written not in Hebrew, and apocryphal because they were not accepted in either the [[Tanach]] or the [[New Testament]].

But [[Protestant]]s have also applied the word ''Apocrypha'' to texts found in the [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Christianity|Orthodox]] scriptures which were not found in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] manuscripts. Roman Catholics called those texts "[[deuterocanonical]]". Accordingly, there arose in some Protestant Biblical scholarship an extended use of the term ''pseudepigrapha'' for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the Biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the [[Biblical canon]]s recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These works were also outside the particular set of books that Roman Catholics called ''deuterocanonical'' and to which Protestants had generally applied the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term ''pseudepigraphical'', as now used often among both Protestants and Roman Catholics (allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion), may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience. To confuse the matter even more, Orthodox Christians accept books as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority. There exist also churches that reject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants accept. The same is true of some [[Jewish denominations|Jewish sects]].{{Clarify|date=September 2007}}

There is a tendency not to use the word ''pseudepigrapha'' when describing works later than about 300 AD when referring to Biblical matters. But the late-appearing ''[[Gospel of Barnabas]]'', ''[[Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius]]'', the [[Pseudo-Apuleius]] (author of a fifth-century [[herbal]] ascribed to Apuleius), and the author traditionally referred to as the "[[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]]", are classic examples of pseudepigraphy. In the fifth century the moralist [[Salvian]] published ''Contra avaritiam'' under the name of Timothy; the letter in which he explained to his former pupil, Bishop Salonius, his motives for so doing survives.<ref name="Salvian">Salvian, ''Epistle'', ix.</ref> There is also a category of [[modern pseudepigrapha]].

Examples of [[Old Testament]] pseudepigrapha are the [[Ethiopian]] ''[[Book of Enoch]]'', ''[[Jubilees]]'' (both of which are canonical in the [[Abyssinian Church]] of Ethiopia); the ''[[Life of Adam and Eve]]'' and the [[Pseudo-Philo]]. Examples of New Testament pseudepigrapha (but in these cases also likely to be called [[New Testament Apocrypha]]) are the [[Gospel of Peter]] and the attribution of the ''[[Epistle to the Laodiceans]]'' to Paul. Further examples of New Testament pseudepigrapha include the aforementioned ''Gospel of Barnabas'', and the ''[[Gospel of Judas]]'', which begins by presenting itself as "the secret account of the revelation that Jesus spoke in conversation with Judas Iscariot".

==== Biblical Pseudepigrapha ====
The term Pseudepigrapha commonly refers to numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 200 BC to 200 AD.<ref name ="Harris"/> Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical.<ref name ="Harris"/> Such works include the following:<ref name ="Harris"/>

* [[3 Maccabees]]
* [[4 Maccabees]]
* [[Assumption of Moses]]
* Ethiopic [[Book of Enoch]] (1 Enoch)
* Slavonic [[Second Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] (2 Enoch)
* [[Book of Jubilees]]
* [[Greek Apocalypse of Baruch]] (3 Baruch)
* [[Letter of Aristeas]]
* [[Life of Adam and Eve]]
* [[Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah]]
* [[Psalms of Solomon]]
* [[Sibylline Oracles]]
* [[Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch]] (2 Baruch)
* [[Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs]]

== See also ==
* [[Apocrypha]]
* [[List of Old Testament pseudepigrapha]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
* von Fritz, Kurt, ed. ''Pseudepigraphica. 1'' (Geneva:Foundation Hardt). Contributions on pseudopythagorica (the literature ascribed to [[Pythagoras]]), the Platonic Epistles, Jewish-Hellenistic literature, and the characteristics particular to religious forgeries.
* Kiley, Mark. ''Colossians as Pseudepigraphy'' (Bible Seminar, 4 Sheffield:JSOT Press) 1986. Colossians as a non-deceptive school product.
* Metzger, B.M. "Literary forgeries and canonical pseudepigrapha", ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' '''91''' (1972).
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.purl.org/net/ocp "Online Critical Pseudepigrapha"] Online texts of the Pseudepigrapha in their original or extant ancient languages
* Smith, Mahlon H. [http://virtualreligion.net/iho/pseudepig.html "Pseudepigrapha"] entry in ''Into His Own: Perspective on the World of Jesus'' online historical sourcebook, at VirtualReligion.net
* [http://jsp.sagepub.com ''Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha''] official website
* [http://www.logos.com/products/lbs/pseudepigrapha ''The Value of the Pseudepigrapha for Biblical Studies''] A brief discussion of how pseudepigraphal works can be utilized in the field of Biblical Studies

[[Category:Pseudepigraphy| ]]
[[Category:Religious texts]]
[[Category:Apocrypha]]
[[Category:Christian genres]]
[[Category:Jewish literature]]

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Thatgamecompany

2011-07-09T16:15:51Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox company
| company_name = Thatgamecompany
| company_logo = [[Image:ThatGameCompany Logo.png|200px|alt=a white silhouette of an outstretched arm and hand on a light blue background, with "thatgamecompany" above it.]]
| caption = Thatgamecompany logo
| company_type = Privately held company
| foundation = May 15, 2006
| location = Los Angeles
| key_people = [[Kellee Santiago]], President [[Jenova Chen]], Creative Director
| area_served =
| industry = [[Video game industry|Video gaming]]
| products =
| revenue =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| num_employees = 12 (as of May 2011)
| parent =
| subsid =
| homepage = http://www.thatgamecompany.com
| footnotes =
}}

'''Thatgamecompany''', stylized as '''thatgamecompany''', is an American independent [[video game developer]] co-founded by [[University of Southern California]] students [[Kellee Santiago]] and [[Jenova Chen]]. The studio is currently a second-party developer for [[Sony Computer Entertainment]], and is under contract to create three downloadable games for the [[PlayStation 3]]'s [[PlayStation Network]] service. The first of these games is a remake of Chen's award-winning [[Adobe Flash|Flash]] title ''[[Flow (video game)|Flow]]'', with enhanced visuals and sound, added [[Multiplayer video game|multiplayer modes]] and compatibility with the PlayStation 3's motion sensitive controller. The title was released on the [[PlayStation Store]] in 2007. The company's second PlayStation 3 game, ''[[Flower (video game)|Flower]]'', was released on the PlayStation Store in 2009. As of May 2011, Thatgamecompany employs twelve people.

The company focuses on creating video games that provoke emotional responses from players. Its employees have stated that, while they are not opposed to making action-oriented games, they believe that enough such titles are released by the established video game industry. When designing a game, Thatgamecompany employees start by mapping out what they want the player to feel, rather than by establishing [[game mechanics]]. Employees have stated that the company does not plan to produce large, blockbuster titles, due to their belief that the pressure for high sales would stifle innovation.

==History==
In the fall of 2005, [[Jenova Chen]] and [[Kellee Santiago]] began thinking about creating their own video game company. The two were in their final year as master's students in the [[USC Interactive Media Division|Interactive Media Program]] at the [[USC School of Cinematic Arts|University of Southern California's School of Cinematic Arts]], and had just released a video game—''[[Cloud (video game)|Cloud]]''—that they had developed with several other students.<ref name="GIsantint"/> The group intended the project as an experiment, meant to reveal whether they could create a game that "expressed something different than video games had in the past", and to determine the public's level of interest in video games of that nature.<ref name="TEDint"/> Due to the game's strongly positive reception, Santiago and Chen began to consider founding their own company, so that they could continue making games like ''Cloud''—in which the design is not based on [[game mechanics|gameplay mechanics]], but on inspiring emotions in players—after they left college.<ref name="GIsantint"/>

At the time, [[Online distribution|digital distribution]] was gaining popularity. The two saw it as an opportunity to create games without the high financial risk of retail distribution, which they believed would require them to first accumulate funds by working for other video game companies.<ref name="GIsantint"/> Thatgamecompany was founded on May 15, 2006, as Chen and Santiago finished their master's degrees.<ref name="TGCstart"/><ref name="NPRint"/> The company soon signed a deal with [[Sony Computer Entertainment]], which had been impressed by Chen's [[Adobe Flash|Flash]] game ''[[Flow (video game)|Flow]]''—a component of his master's thesis at USC. Thatgamecompany was contracted to produce three games for the upcoming [[PlayStation Network]] distribution system, and was given startup funding and a location at Sony's offices in Los Angeles.<ref name="WSJedito2"/>

Initially, Thatgamecompany consisted of Chen, Santiago, Nick Clark, who had collaborated with Chen on ''Flow'', and John Edwards. Santiago was the president of the company and the [[video game producer|producer]] for its games, while Chen was the [[Game design#Game designer|lead designer]], Edwards the [[game programmer|lead engineer]], and Clark the designer.<ref name="TGCflowstaff"/> Although they considered adapting ''Cloud'' as their first product for Sony, they instead decided on ''Flow'', as it was "more fleshed-out as a design". They felt that it would be easier than ''Cloud'' to develop while they built the company; no members of the team had experience with managing a business or with creating a commercial game.<ref name="GIsantint"/> During development, Chen briefly worked for [[Maxis]] on the game ''[[Spore (2008 video game)|Spore]]''. Several contract workers assisted Thatgamecompany with ''Flow''{{'}}s development, including Austin Wintory, the game's composer.<ref name="TGCflowstaff"/><ref name="WSJedito2"/>

The company originally believed that the PlayStation 3 version of ''Flow'' could be completed in four months, and that it would be ready for the November 2006 launch of the [[PlayStation Network]]. However, when it was finally released in February 2007, it did not include "half of the original design".<ref name="GSchenint"/> According to Santiago, the Sony producer assigned to the team had anticipated that they would under-estimate the game's development length, and was not surprised by the delay.<ref name="GIsantint"/> The game was well received; it became the most downloaded game on the PlayStation Network in 2007, and was nominated for the Best Downloadable Game of the Year award at the 2008 [[Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences]] Interactive Achievement Awards, and for the Best Innovation award at the 2007 [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] (BAFTA) awards.<ref name="VARIETYpiece"/><ref name="AIASflowaward"/><ref name="BAFTAflowaward"/> After its release, an expansion pack and a [[PlayStation Portable]] version of the game were created by [[SuperVillain Studios]]. Thatgamecompany was not involved in the development of either project beyond ensuring that they retained the same [[game design|design]] and [[game art design|art direction]] as the original, as they were busy creating their next title, ''[[Flower (video game)|Flower]]''.<ref name="GSchenint"/>

''Flower'' was Thatgamecompany's "first game outside the safety net of academia," according to Santiago.<ref name="GAMAflowerdevint"/> Six to nine people were involved at different stages of development, and Chen remained with the studio for the entire project.<ref name="GAMAflowerdevint2"/> The game's music was composed by Vincent Diamante, who had worked with Chen and Santiago on ''Cloud''.<ref name="GAMAflowermusic"/> The game was developed for two years, but the team spent three-fourths of that time in the prototyping stage. After they decided on the game's elements, ''Flower'' was produced in only six months.<ref name="GSsantint"/> Like ''Flow'', the game was well received when it was released in February 2009, selling in the top ten PlayStation Network titles of the year and garnering several awards.<ref name="GSsantint"/><ref name="BAFTAflower"/> After the release of ''Flower'', Thatgamecompany moved into their own building in Los Angeles.<ref name="GSsantint"/>

The company's current project is ''[[Journey (2011 video game)|Journey]]'', which is slated for release in 2011. It is the final game in Thatgamecompany's three-game contract with Sony, and is being developed by a team of twelve.<ref name="TGCjourneystaff"/> This team does not include Santiago, who, in order to concentrate on her role as the company's president, was replaced as a producer by [[Robin Hunicke]].<ref name="GSint1"/>

==Philosophy==
When Thatgamecompany designs a game, they begin by deciding on the emotions and feelings they wish to invoke in the player. This differs from the approach of most developers, who build from game mechanics or genre features{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}. According to Santiago, the company creates emotional responses to demonstrate the wide range of possible experiences in video games, which she believes is larger than the few—excitement and fear, for example—that are typically presented.<ref name="CBCsantint"/> Chen has said that the company's games are meant to evoke emotions more than a message; he specifically changed the design of ''Flower'' when early testers felt that the game promoted green energy. Chen believes that he is "too young" to make a game with a strong message, and so designs the company's products to avoid overt meanings.<ref name="GINFint"/> Santiago has said that Thatgamecompany's goal is "to create games that push the boundaries of videogames as a communicative medium, and to create games that appeal to a wide variety of people". She hopes to change the video game industry with this process, so that other companies approach video games as a "creative medium" instead of a mass product.<ref name="ISint"/>

Thatgamecompany's employees are not opposed to making action titles, and, as a break from their regular projects, have internally created "exciting" games that were well received by Sony. However, Chen believes that there is no reason for the company to commercially produce such games, as they would not be creating new ideas that justified the cost of remaining an independent studio, as opposed to working for existing game developers.<ref name="GSchenint"/> Similarly, Chen does not intend for Thatgamecompany to make "big budget blockbuster games", as he believes that the financial pressure would stifle innovation.<ref name="GIint"/>

==Games==
{{main|Flow (video game)|l1=Flow}}
In ''Flow'', the player navigates a series of [[2D computer graphics|two-dimensional]] planes with an aquatic [[microorganism]] that evolves by consuming other microorganisms.<ref name="EGreview"/> The game's design is based on Chen's research into [[Dynamic game difficulty balancing|dynamic difficulty adjustment]] at the University of Southern California, and on psychologist [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]]'s theoretical concept of mental immersion or [[flow (psychology)|flow]].<ref name="JSint"/><ref name="WSJedito"/> It was released for the PlayStation 3 on February 22, 2007.<ref name="Flowreleasedate"/>

{{main|Flower (video game)|l1=Flower}}
''Flower'' was intended as a [[spiritual successor]] to ''Flow''. Using the PlayStation 3's motion sensitive controller, the player controls wind that blows a flower [[petal]] through the air. Flying close to flowers results in the player's petal being followed by other flower petals. Approaching flowers may also have side-effects on the game world, such as bringing vibrant color to previously dead fields or activating stationary windmills. The game features no text or dialogue, forming a narrative arc primarily through visual representation and emotional cues.<ref name="GPreview"/> It was released for the PlayStation 3 on February 12, 2009.<ref name="Flowerreleasedate"/>

{{main|Journey (2011 video game)|l1=Journey}}
''Journey'' is an upcoming video game. Interviews and previews have indicated that the player will control a robed figure who wakes up in a desert, with a large mountain in the distance as the destination. While traveling, the player can encounter other players over the Internet, one at a time. Players cannot communicate, but may help each other or not as they wish.<ref name="CBCsantint"/> The game is expected to be released for the PlayStation 3 in 2011.<ref name="Journeyreleasedate"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name="TEDint">{{cite web |last=Herro |first=Alanna |title=Fellows Friday with Kellee Santiago |url=http://blog.ted.com/2010/10/08/fellows-friday-with-kellee-santiago/ |work=[[TED (conference){{!}}TED]] |publisher=Sapling Foundation |accessdate=2011-03-10 |date=2010-10-08 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20101020203513/http://blog.ted.com/2010/10/08/fellows-friday-with-kellee-santiago/ |archivedate=2010-10-20 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GIsantint">{{cite web | url=http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/thatgamecompanys-kellee-santiago-interview |title=Thatgamecompany's Kellee Santiago |publisher=[[Eurogamer]] (login required) |last=Elliot |first=Phil |date=2010-02-07 |accessdate=2011-02-02}}</ref>

<ref name="TGCstart">{{cite web |url=http://thatgamecompany.com/general/happy-4th-birthday-tgc/ |title=Happy 4th Birthday, TGC |last=Santiago |first=Kellee |authorlink=Kellee Santiago |publisher=Thatgamecompany |date=2010-05-15 |accessdate=2011-02-02 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5yPgZu27a |archivedate=2011-05-03 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="NPRint">{{cite web|last=Chaplin|first=Heather|title=Video Game Grad Programs Open Up The Industry|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102246406 |publisher=[[NPR]]|accessdate=2011-01-05|date=2009-03-25 |archiveurl=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090326081336/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102246406 |archivedate=2009-03-26 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GSsantint">{{cite web |url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/26910/Interview_ThatGameCompanys_Santiago_Hunicke_On_Designing_For_The_Love.php |title=Interview: ThatGameCompany's Santiago, Hunicke, On Designing For The Love |last=Dugan |first=Patrick |publisher=[[Gamasutra]] |date=2010-01-26 |accessdate=2011-02-02 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20101020204802/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/26910/Interview_ThatGameCompanys_Santiago_Hunicke_On_Designing_For_The_Love.php |archivedate=2010-10-20 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="WSJedito2">{{cite web|last=Rutkoff|first=Aaron|title=How a Grad-School Thesis Theory Evolved Into a PlayStation 3 Game
|url=http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB116460570723333343-_wOSu3g2II5Vtw_TIMRN2noG0TQ_20061227.html |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|accessdate=2011-01-05|date=2006-11-28 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5xAXA302Q |archivedate=2011-03-13 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="TGCflowstaff">{{cite web |url=http://thatgamecompany.com/games/flow/ |title=thatgamecompany - flOw - Development team |publisher=Thatgamecompany |accessdate=2011-02-02 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20090317072457/http://thatgamecompany.com/games/flow/ |archivedate=2009-03-17 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="TGCjourneystaff">{{cite web |url=http://thatgamecompany.com/games/journey/ |title=thatgamecompany - Journey - Development team |publisher=Thatgamecompany |accessdate=2011-02-02 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5yPgjBNUv |archivedate=2011-05-03 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GSchenint">{{cite web |last=Sheffield |first=Brandon |title=Finding A New Way: Jenova Chen And Thatgamecompany |url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3648/finding_a_new_way_jenova_chen_and_.php |publisher=[[Gamasutra]] |accessdate=2011-01-06 |date=2008-05-05 |archiveurl=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20100810112613/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3648/finding_a_new_way_jenova_chen_and_.php |archivedate=2010-08-10 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="VARIETYpiece">{{cite web|last=Krisner|first=Scott|title=Kellee Santiago and Jenova Chen|url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117985047?refCatId=3046 |work=[[Variety (magazine){{!}}Variety]] |accessdate=2011-01-06 |date=2008-05-02 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5xAXDEDGe |archivedate=2011-03-13 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="AIASflowaward">{{cite web |title=2008 Interactive Achievement Awards |url=http://www.interactive.org/awards/2008_11th_awards.asp |publisher=[[Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences]] |accessdate=2011-01-12 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5xAXIULov |archivedate=2011-03-13 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="BAFTAflowaward">{{cite web |title=BAFTA—Games Nominations 2007 |url=http://www.bafta.org/awards/video-games/nominations/?year=2007 |publisher=[[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] |accessdate=2011-01-12 |archiveurl=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090206163422/http://www.bafta.org/awards/video-games/nominations/?year=2007 |archivedate=2009-02-06 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GAMAflowermusic">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/22454/Interview_A_Beautiful_Flight__Creating_The_Music_For_Flower.php|title=Interview: A Beautiful Flight – Creating The Music For Flower |last=Jeriaska |coauthors=Diamante, Vincent |date=2009-02-27 |publisher=[[Gamasutra]] |accessdate=2010-01-06 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20100510183632/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/22454/Interview_A_Beautiful_Flight__Creating_The_Music_For_Flower.php |archivedate=2010-05-10 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GAMAflowerdevint">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=16414|title=MIGS: First Details On Thatgamecompany's Flower Debut |last=Boyer |first=Brandon |coauthors=Nutt, Christian |date=2007-11-29 |publisher=[[Gamasutra]] |accessdate=2010-01-05 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20090214121352/http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=16414 |archivedate=2009-02-14 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GAMAflowerdevint2">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/24878/GDC_Europe_Thatgamecompanys_Santiago_On_Flowers_Emotional_Search.php|title=GDC Europe: Thatgamecompany's Santiago On Flower's Emotional Search |last=Carless |first=Simon |date=2009-08-19 |accessdate=2010-01-05 |publisher=[[Gamasutra]] |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20101020205028/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/24878/GDC_Europe_Thatgamecompanys_Santiago_On_Flowers_Emotional_Search.php |archivedate=2010-10-20 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="BAFTAflower">{{cite web|url=http://www.bafta.org/awards/video-games/nominations-in-2010,1017,BA.html#jump2|title=Video Games Award Nominations – Video Games – Awards – The BAFTA Site|date=2010-02-16|publisher=[[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]]|accessdate=2010-02-16 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5yPe1QRd2 |archivedate=2011-05-03 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GSint1">{{cite web |last=Sheffield |first=Brandon |title=Interview: Kellee Santiago Talks Thatgamecompany's Road Ahead |url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/24110/Interview_Kellee_Santiago_Talks_Thatgamecompanys_Road_Ahead.php |publisher=[[Gamasutra]] |accessdate=2011-02-01 |date=2009-07-01 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20100509105600/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/24110/Interview_Kellee_Santiago_Talks_Thatgamecompanys_Road_Ahead.php |archivedate=2010-05-09 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="CBCsantint">{{cite web|last=Young|first=Nora |authorlink=Nora Young |title=Full Interview: Kellee Santiago |url=http://www.cbc.ca/spark/2010/12/full-interview-kellee-santiago-on-video-games-and-the-power-to-communicate/ |publisher=[[CBC Radio One]] |accessdate=2011-02-04 |date=2010-12-22 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5yPgtBcZW |archivedate=2011-05-03 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GINFint">{{cite journal |title=Interview: Redefining Video Games |journal=[[Game Informer]] |year=2010 |month=July |issue=207 |pages=34 |publisher=[[GameStop]] |issn=1067-6392}}</ref>

<ref name="ISint">{{cite web |title=Dopamin statt Adrenalin: der sensationelle Erfolg von Thatgamecompany |url=http://www.innovationstuntmen.com/?p=526 |publisher=Innovation Stuntmen |date=2010-10-07 |accessdate=2011-02-02 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5yPgyVp45 |archivedate=2011-05-03 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GIint">{{cite web|last=Irwin |first=Mary Jane |title=The Beautiful Game |url=http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/the-beautiful-game |publisher=[[Eurogamer]] (login required) |accessdate=2011-01-13 |date=2009-02-19 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20090429105251/http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/the-beautiful-game |archivedate=2009-04-29 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="EGreview">{{cite web |last=Leadbetter |first=Richard |title=FlOw |url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/flow-review |publisher=[[Eurogamer]] |accessdate=2011-01-12 |date=2007-04-01 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5xAWrudU7 |archivedate=2011-03-13 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="JSint">{{cite web|last=Miller |first=Ross |title=Joystiq interview: Jenova Chen|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2006/09/18/joystiq-qanda-jenova-chen/ |publisher=[[Joystiq]] |accessdate=2011-01-05 |date=2006-09-18 |archiveurl=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090102012220/http://www.joystiq.com/2006/09/18/joystiq-qanda-jenova-chen/ |archivedate=2009-01-02 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="WSJedito">{{cite web|last=Brophy-Warren |first=Jamin |title=Joysticks and Easy Riders |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122972605155122665.html |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |accessdate=2011-01-05 |date=2008-12-20 |archiveurl=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090414011340/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122972605155122665.html? |archivedate=2009-04-14 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="Flowreleasedate">{{cite web |title=flOw |url=http://ps3.ign.com/objects/829/829990.html |publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2011-04-06 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20100427194118/http://ps3.ign.com/objects/829/829990.html |archivedate=2010-04-27 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="GPreview">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamepro.com/article/reviews/208820/flower/|title=Flower|last=Terrones|first=Terry|date=2009-02-10|publisher=''[[GamePro]]''|accessdate=2010-01-06 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20090415053039/http://www.gamepro.com/article/reviews/208820/flower/ |archivedate=2009-04-15 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="Flowerreleasedate">{{cite web |title=Flower |url=http://ps3.ign.com/objects/867/867593.html |publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=2011-04-06 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20090220053518/http://ps3.ign.com/objects/867/867593.html |archivedate=2009-02-20 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

<ref name="Journeyreleasedate">{{cite web |url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/flower-dev-doing-online-adventure |title=Flower dev doing online adventure |date=2010-06-16 |publisher=[[Eurogamer]] |last=Bramwell |first=Tom |accessdate=2011-04-06 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5yPh7V0QV |archivedate=2011-04-06 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.thatgamecompany.com/|Thatgamecompany's official website}}

{{Thatgamecompany}}

{{featured article}}
[[Category:Companies based in Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:Companies established in 2006]]
[[Category:Video game developers]]
[[Category:Video game companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Thatgamecompany| ]]
[[Category:Privately held companies of the United States]]

[[fr:Thatgamecompany]]
[[pt:Thatgamecompany]]
[[fi:Thatgamecompany]]

Philip Gould, Baron Gould of Brookwood

2011-07-09T14:06:23Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

'''Philip Gould, Baron Gould of Brookwood''' (born 30 March 1950) is a British political adviser closely linked with the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and [[Tony Blair]]. He was strategy and polling adviser to the party in the general elections of 1987, 1992, 1997, 2001 and 2005. Gould was one of the key architects of the modern communications revolution inside the Labour Party of the 1980s, which resulted in the emergence of [[New Labour]]. As such, he was a close colleague of Labour's Director of Communications in the late 1980s, [[Peter Mandelson]], and [[Alastair Campbell]].

Gould grew up in [[Woking]], where his father was a headmaster, but failed his [[Eleven plus exam|11-plus]] and went to a [[Secondary modern school]]. Leaving school with only one [[GCE Ordinary Level|O-level]], he went on to study at East London College, based in [[Toynbee Hall]], where he gained four [[GCE Advanced Level|A-levels]]. He subsequently won a place at the [[University of Sussex]] in 1971 to study [[Politics|politics]], graduating in 1974. <ref name ="''The Independent'', Thursday December 3 1998>{{cite web |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/education-passedfailed-philip-gould-1188826.htm |publisher=''The Independent'' |title=Philip Gould in the Education: Passed/Failed series |date=1998-12-03}}</ref>. Gould then went to the [[London School of Economics]] to study for an MSc in the history of political thought, where he was taught by the eminent political scientist [[Michael Oakeshott]]. More recently he has returned to the LSE to teach a course in [[Politics]] and Communication.

After a career in advertising, and with the success of his wife Dame Gail Rebuck (later CEO of [[Random House UK]]), whom he had met at Sussex, Gould founded his own polling and strategy company, Philip Gould Associates, in 1985. Appointed by Mandelson (a friend from University{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}), Gould recruited the Shadow Communications Agency, a team of communication volunteers, who created Labour's admired, if unsuccessful, 1987 election campaign.

This led to his position of influence within the Labour Party under [[Neil Kinnock]] and [[Tony Blair]].

In the afterword of his (only) book 'the unfinished revolution' he proposes the amalgamation of the Labour and Liberal Democratic Parties, the purpose of this being the unity of all anti-conservative forces in Britain. This, he said, should facilitate the creation of "the progressive century", "a century in which progressive politics can take hold, and in which the great majority of working people are helped and supported … not now and again but again and again", this being in contrast to the previous "conservative century".

He was the writer of a leaked memo which, in 2000, described the New Labour brand as being contaminated.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/840440.stm]

He was made a life peer as '''Baron Gould of Brookwood''', of [[Brookwood, Surrey|Brookwood]] in the County of Surrey on 7 June 2004.

He has two daughters including the Hon. Georgia Gould. Georgia works as website and online coordinator for the Tony Blair Foundation.

==Works==
* Gould, Philip (1999). ''The Unfinished Revolution: How the Modernisers Saved the Labour Party'' Abacus, ISBN 0-349-11177-4

==References==
<references />
*[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200304/minutes/040719/ldminute.htm Introduction in the House of Lords] House of Lords minutes of proceedings, 19 July 2004

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gould, Philip Baron Gould of Brookwood}}
[[Category:Labour Party (UK) life peers|Gould of Brookwood]]
[[Category:1950 births|Gould, Philip]]
[[Category:Living people|Gould, Philip]]
[[Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics|Gould, Philip]]

{{UK-politician-stub}}

Diana E. H. Russell

2011-07-09T08:50:39Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Notability}}. (Build p613)

{{Peacock|article|date=May 2008}}
{{Notability|date=July 2011}}
'''Diana E. H. Russell''' (born November 6, 1938, [[South Africa]]) is a [[radical feminist]] writer and activist.<ref>[http://www.dianarussell.com/aboutDianaRussell.html About Diana Russell]</ref> For the past 25 years she has been engaged in research on [[sexual violence]] against women and girls. She has written numerous books and articles on [[rape]] (including [[marital rape]]), [[incest]], [[misogynist]] [[murders]] of women, and [[pornography]]. For her book ''The Secret Trauma'', she was co-recipient of the 1986 [[C. Wright Mills]] Award.

Russell was a key organizer of the First [[International Tribunal on Crimes against Women]], in [[Brussels]] in March 1976.<ref>Russell, Diana E. H. Dangerous Relationships: Pornography, Misogyny, and Rape, Sage Publications, 1998, ISBN 0761905251, p205</ref>

==Selected bibliography==
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | coauthors = and Roberta A. Harmes (eds.) | year = 2001 | title = Femicide in global perspective | publisher = Teachers College Press | location = New York | isbn = 0-8077-4048-9}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | coauthors = and Rebecca M. Bolen | year = 2000 | title = The Epidemic of Rape and Child Sexual Abuse in the United States | publisher = Sage Publications | location = Thousand Oaks, Calif. | isbn = 0-7619-0301-1}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | year = 1998 | title = Dangerous Relationships: Pornography, Misogyny, and Rape | publisher = Sage Publications | location = Thousand Oaks, Calif. | isbn = 0-7619-0524-3}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | year = 1997 | title = Behind Closed Doors in White South Africa: Incest Survivors Tell Their Stories | publisher = St. Martin's Press | location = New York | isbn = 0-312-17374-1}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | year = 1993 | title = Against Pornography: The Evidence of Harm | publisher = Russell Pub. | location = Berkeley, Calif. | isbn = 0-9634776-1-7}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. (ed.) | year = 1993 | title = Making Violence Sexy: Feminist Views on Pornography | publisher = Teachers College Press | location = New York | isbn = 0-8077-6269-5}}
*{{cite book | last = Radford | first = Jill | coauthors = and Diana E. H. Russell (eds.) | year = 1992 | title = Femicide: The Politics of Woman Killing | publisher = Twayne | location = New York | isbn = 0-8057-9026-8}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | year = 1990 | title = Rape in Marriage | edition = rev. ed. | publisher = Indiana University Press | location = Bloomington | isbn = 0-253-35055-7}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. (ed.) | year = 1989 | title = Exposing Nuclear Phallacies | publisher = Pergamon Press | location = New York | isbn = 0-08-036476-4}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | year = 1989 | title = Lives of Courage: Women for a New South Africa | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | isbn = 0-465-04139-6}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | year = 1986 | title = The Secret Trauma: Incest in the Lives of Girls and Women | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | isbn = 0-465-07595-9}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | year = 1984 | title = Sexual Exploitation: Rape, Child Sexual Abuse, and Workplace Harassment | publisher = Sage Publications | location = Beverly Hills, Calif. | isbn = 0-8039-2354-6}}
*{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Diana E. H. | year = 1974 | title = The Politics of Rape: The Victim's Perspective | publisher = Stein and Day | location = New York | isbn = 0-8128-1657-9}}

==See also==
*[[Femicide]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.dianarussell.com Homepage]
*[http://www.gendertalk.com/real/251/gt264.shtml Diana Russell] on web radio, June 26, 2000

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Russell, Diana E. H.
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Russell, Diana E. H.}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:Feminist studies scholars]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:South African sociologists]]
[[Category:South African writers]]

{{SouthAfrica-writer-stub}}
{{fem-activist-stub}}

[[ja:ダイアナ・ラッセル]]

Türkisch-Amerikaner

2011-07-08T21:40:50Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Unreferenced section}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox Ethnic group
|group = Turkish American ''ABD Türkleri''
|image =[[File:TurkishAmericans4.jpg|250px]]
|caption = The annual Turkish Day Parade in New York (2008)
|poptime = '''189,640''' {{smallsup|a}} <ref>{{cite web |author=U.S. Census Bureau: American FactFinder |title=Selected Population Profile in the United States: Turkish|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-reg=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_S0201:571;ACS_2008_1YR_G00_S0201PR:571;ACS_2008_1YR_G00_S0201T:571;ACS_2008_1YR_G00_S0201TPR:571&-qr_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_&-TABLE_NAMEX=&-ci_type=A&-redoLog=true&-geo_id=01000US&-geo_id=NBSP&-format=&-_lang=en|accessdate=2009-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=U.S. Census Bureau: American FactFinder |title=U.S. Census Tables |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-ds_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_&-_lang=en&-redoLog=true&-mt_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G2000_B04003&-format=&-CONTEXT=dt|accessdate=2009-09-22}}</ref> '''500,000''' <ref name="Encyclopedia of Cleveland History">{{cite web |author=Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |title=Immigration and Ethnicity: Turks |url=http://ech.case.edu/ech-cgi/article.pl?id=TIC |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia of Cleveland History"/><ref>{{cite web |author=Assembely of Turkish American Associations|title=ATAA 2008 DELEGATION TRIP TO TURKEY AND TRNC|url=http://www.ataa.org/press/prl_072508.html|accessdate=2009-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Amerikadaki Turk|title=Amerikadaki Turklerin Tarihi|url=http://www.amerikadakiturk.com/akademiSK09.html |accessdate=2008-12-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Ferderation of Turkish American Associations|title=Baskanin|url=http://www.tadf.org/President.html|accessdate=2008-12-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=ART|title=ABD'de Türk nüfusu sayılacak|url=http://www.avrasya.tv/s-haberoku-dunya-11067-abdde-turk-nufusu-sayilacak.html|accessdate=2010-11-27}}</ref> 
(including those of [[Genealogy|ancestral descent]])
|popplace = [[New York]] {{·}} [[New Jersey]] {{·}} [[North Carolina]] {{·}} [[Wisconsin]] {{·}} [[Ohio]] {{·}} [[Illinois]] {{·}} [[Indiana]] {{·}} [[Florida]] {{·}} [[Maryland]] {{·}} [[California]] {{·}} [[Texas]]
|langs = [[Turkish language|Turkish]] {{·}} [[American English]]
|rels = Predominantly [[Islam]]
|footnotes = {{smallsup|a}} Government immigration figures on the number of [[Turks]] in the US are not fully reliable because a considerable number of Turks were born in the [[Balkans]] and [[USSR]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Karpat|2004|loc=627}}.</ref>
|related = [[Cypriot American]]
}}

'''Turkish Americans''' ({{lang-tr|ABD Türkleri}}) are people who have [[Turkish people|Turkish]] ancestry and are citizens of the [[United States]].

==History==
[[Image:Turkish Village, Midway Plaisance.jpg|thumb|right|The ''Turkish Village'' at the World's Columbian Exposition — also known as [[The Chicago World's Fair]] in 1893.]]
[[File:A group of immigrants, most wearing fezzes.jpg|thumb|A group of immigrants, most wearing fezzes, surrounding a large vessel which is decorated with the star and crescent symbol of [[Islam]] and the [[Ottoman Turks]] (1902-1913)]]
[[Image:Turkish immigrant in New York.jpg|thumb|right|A Turkish immigrant in New York (1912).]]
Early Turkish immigrants to the United States were predominantly from Turkey's rural community. They settled in large, industrial cities and found employment as unskilled laborers. The majority came to economically support their families in [[Turkey]] where economy suffered severely from the last World War. After the 1950s, a well-skilled and highly educated group immigrated to the United States, the majority being medical doctors, engineers, and scientists. Today, Turkish Americans are visible in virtually every community and walk of life.

===Pre World War I: Ottoman Immigration===
Significant data shows an astounding number of sixteenth-century [[Mediterranean Sea]] [[Turkish–Portuguese War (1558–1566)|clashes between the Ottoman fleets and the Portuguese]]. Many [[Turkish people|Turkish]] and [[Moorish]] [[seamen]] ended up as [[Portugal|Portuguese]] galley slaves bound for the [[Canary Islands]] and [[the New World]].<ref>{{Harvnb| Kennedy|1997|loc=130}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Winkler|2005|loc=213}}.</ref> The presence of Turks in the Americas dates to the 17th century. Ottoman mariners and prisoners of war forced to slave labor on numerous Spanish galleons, have also allegedly escaped when some of these ships were wrecked near American shores and settled among Indians. Some [[Melungeon]] researchers claim Melungeons descend from these Ottomans. However, there is little authoritative evidence for this link claim. The myth of Sir Francis Drake leaving a large number of Turks on Roanoke Island in 1586 has been thoroughly [http://historical-melungeons.blogspot.com/2009/06/melungeon-myth-of-drake-dropping-off.html debunked]. Some anthropologists long questioned the [[Cherokee]] and [[Tuscarora]] Indians have Turkic and perhaps [[Basque people|Basque]] ancestry from the trans-oceanic fishermen from the regions of [[Asturias]], [[Cantabria]], [[Galiza]] and [[Navarre]] of northern [[Spain]] in the 16th century instead. {{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

It is also known that during the [[American Civil War]], Ottoman Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II|Abdulhamid]], in support of the North had sent a symbolic camel caravan of material and goods and many of the Turks who came with this shipment settled down in [[Michigan]], esp. the [[Detroit]] area. By the turn of the 20th century, both ethnic Turks and national groups under the Ottoman Empire: i.e. [[Albanians]], [[Greeks]], [[Bulgarians]], [[Romanians]], [[Ukrainians]], [[Armenians]], [[Georgians]], [[Serbs]], [[Bosnians]] and [[Arab Christians]] were already immigrating to and settled the industrial cities of the Northeast and Midwest U.S. {{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

From the 1820s until 1920 over 1.2 million people from the [[Ottoman Empire]] immigrated to [[North America]]. Approximately 15% of these immigrants (roughly 200,000) were Muslims, including about 50,000 [[Turkish people|ethnic Turks]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Karpat|2004|loc=614}}.</ref> Many ethnic Turks from [[Harput]], [[Elâzığ]], [[Akçadağ]], [[Antep]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] embarked for the Americas from [[Beirut]], [[Mersin]], [[Izmir]], [[Trabzon]] and [[Salonica]] but declared themselves as ''Syrians'' or even ''Armenians'' in order to avoid discrimination and gain easy access at the port of entry.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=615">{{Harvnb|Karpat|2004|loc=615}}.</ref>

The largest number of ethnic Turks appear to have entered the [[United States]] prior to [[World War I]], roughly between 1900 and 1914 when American immigration policies were quite liberal. The Ottoman entry into World War I put an end to the Ottoman emigration to the United States. However, a fairly large number of ethnic Turks from the [[Balkans under Ottoman rule|Balkan provinces]] of [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[Western Thrace]], and [[Bulgaria]] emigrated and settled in the United States. They were listed as ''Albanians'', ''Bulgarians'' and ''Serbians'' according to their country of origin, even though many of them were ethnically Turkish and identified themselves as such.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=615"/> Moreover, many immigrant families who were ethnically Albanian, Bulgarian, Greek, Macedonian or Serbian included children of Turkish origin whose parents had been ''cleansed'' after [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia was partitioned between Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece]] following the [[First Balkan War|Balkan War of 1912-13]]. These Turkish children had been ''sheltered'', [[baptised]] and [[adopted]], and then used as field laborers. When the adopting families had to emigrate to America, they listed these children as family members, but most of these Turkish children still remembered their origin.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=615"/>

====Ottoman Returnees====
However, upon knowledge of the [[Occupation of Istanbul|allied occupation of Istanbul]] and [[Occupation of Izmir|Greek occupation of Izmir]], fights broke out between Turks and Greeks in factories and streets and about half of the Turkish community in the United States returned to Turkey to participate in the [[Turkish War of Independence|Turkish War for Independence]]. In the 1920s, some hundreds of Turkish immigrants including Arabs from the [[Levant]] arrived as agricultural laborers in the valleys of [[California]] and [[Arizona]]. {{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

A second exodus of Turks occurred during the Great Depression. Turkish President [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] sent Turkish ships to America, offering free passage home to any Turk who would leave, so many Turks took up the offer and returned to Turkey. Another wave of migration came right after [[World War II]] when the United States passed the [[Alien Registration Act]]. After this date, especially more elite Turks, academics and professionals, migrated to the United States for better educational and economic opportunities. Along with the [[brain drain]] immigrants, many working class Turks also settled in the United States. A brief history of the Turkish presence in the United States can be found at [http://www.amerikadakiturk.com/akademiSK09.html AmerikadakiTurk].

Most Turks who first came to the United States were [[rural]], [[illiterate]] and [[poor]] but showed a remarkable degree of ethnic solidarity and sought to preserve their traditions.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=617">{{Harvnb|Karpat|2004|loc=617}}.</ref> Most Ottoman migrants to North America belonged to low income groups and their main goal was to work for a number of years in any job, without becoming a part of the country, and to save enough money to buy land and houses upon returning to their homeland. The rate of returnees among Ottoman Turks was very high; with more than half of the Muslims returning to their native lands.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=617"/>

One factor compelling ethnic Turks to return home was the lack of suitable Muslim women for them to marry in the United States.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=617"/> The great majority of Turkish immigrants at the time were men; only a few brought their wives and families. Moreover, those Turks who did marry non-Muslim women were assimilated into American culture and thus the number of Turks who survived culturally as Turks in America was very low. Those who maintained a degree of their ethnic identity did so either because they had formed their own small communities, or were gathered around a makeshift mosque, or had enough of an education and strength of personality and willpower to preserve their identity as Turks.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=617"/> Most Turks looked upon America as a culturally alien land where they had been driven by sheer necessity and where they wanted to stay as little time as possible.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=618">{{Harvnb|Karpat|2004|loc=618}}.</ref> Consequently they refused to strike permanent roots, build mosques, and establish their own communities as Muslims. At the start of the First World War the Turks ethnic identity was just beginning to differentiate itself from their basic Islamic identity and they, therefore, found it difficult to understand how one could be a Turk and a Muslim and live in a predominantly Christian country.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=618"/>

===Post World War II: Late Turkish Immigration===
Thousands of Turkish [[Physician|doctors]], [[engineers]], and other [[technicians]] came to America for training, and a number of them stayed on, becoming immigrants. The estimates of this ''[[brain drain]]'' from [[Turkey]] for the years 1948-80 range between ten and twenty-five thousand people.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=621">{{Harvnb|Karpat|2004|loc=621}}.</ref> Although a large number of professionals returned to Turkey, a significant number took advantage of the quota system, which gave priority to professionals whose skills were needed in the United States. The same was true for a large number of capable students who earned [[Graduate school|graduate]] [[Academic degree|degrees]] and were offered attractive positions in U.S academia, industry and business management. The number of Turkish students in the United States varied between 800-2,000 per year and about 10-15% of Turkish students obtaining postgraduate degrees stayed permanently in the United States and received the ''[[Permanent residence (United States)|green card]]''; five years later they could receive U.S. citizenship. Eventually Turkey also accepted dual citizenship and many Turks who had become U.S. citizens and cut off their ties to Turkey then renewed their interest in their old society.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=621"/> The difference between these post-World War II immigrants and their Ottoman predecessors is evident in key areas, such as the definition of identity, level of education and income, and social position. The new wave of immigrants not only identified themselves from the beginning as [[Turkish people|Turks]] but also defended and promoted the [[Culture of Turkey|cultural]] and [[Politics of Turkey|political]] aspects of their [[Turkishness]] in an open and direct fashion, either individually or as organized groups. Their education and income placed these early professionals turned immigrants at a social level far above both the destitute, largely uneducated and ignored Ottoman immigrants and the average American.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=621"/>

===Modern Immigration===
[[Image:TurkishAmericans2.jpg|thumb|right|The 27th Annual Turkish Day Parade (2008) in New York.]]
Turkish immigration to the United States underwent another qualitative transformation beginning in the mid-1970s as the result of various unrelated factors, such as the rising interest in business, the lack of employment opportunities in Turkey, the proliferation of well-trained professionals, and political-ideological conflicts.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=622">{{Harvnb|Karpat|2004|loc=622}}.</ref> During this period the number of legal and illegal immigrants from Turkey to the United States began to increase steadily.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=623">{{Harvnb|Karpat|2004|loc=623}}.</ref> So too did the number of ethnic Turks born in the [[USSR]] and [[Balkan countries]], who took advantage of the protection offered by the United States to people escaping from behind the Iron Curtain. However, the overwhelming majority of Turks who came to America after 1970 still had been born and educated in Turkey and shared the common political culture of the Turkish republic, its values and its identity.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=623"/>

The Turkish immigrants arriving after the mid-1970s consisted mostly of professionals, including [[engineers]], [[economists]], and [[teachers]], whose numbers tended to increase while the number of incoming doctors was decreasing by a series of new qualifications requested by American medical authorities.<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=623"/> The new Turkish immigrants also included many small businessmen, artisans and skilled workers, as well as unskilled laborers who found employment in a variety of occupations such as construction and building maintenance. A number of these latter immigrants, following the American interest in ethnic cuisines, began to opened restaurants serving [[Turkish food]].<ref name="Karpat 2004 loc=623"/>

==Demographics==
Since the 1970s, the number of Turkish immigrants has risen to more than 2,000 per year.<ref>[http://www.everyculture.com/multi/Sr-Z/Turkish-Americans.html Turkish Americans]</ref> Members of this most recent immigrant group vary widely. Many opened small businesses in the United States and created Turkish American organizations, thus developing Turkish enclaves, particularly in [[New York]] City. Still others came for educational purposes.

According to the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 US census]], there are 117,575 Americans (and to 2005 American Community Survey there are 164,945) of full or partial Turkish descent. From the beginning of Turkish immigration to the [[United States]], many Turks have settled in or around large urban centers. The greatest number have settled in [[Paterson, New Jersey|Paterson]], [[New York City]] (mostly in [[Brooklyn]]), [[Boston]], [[Chicago]], [[Detroit]], [[Philadelphia]] and [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]]. Other concentrations of Turkish Americans may be found along the East Coast in [[New York State|New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Connecticut]], [[Maryland]] and [[Virginia]]; and some have ventured into [[California]] (esp. [[Los Angeles]]), [[Minnesota]], [[Indiana]], [[Texas]], [[Florida]] and [[Alabama]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephan Thernstrom, Ann Orlov, Oscar Handlin|title=Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1980|pages=994 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=npQ6Hd3G4kgC&pg=PA994&dq=turkish+americans#PPA994,M1|isbn = 0674375122, 9780674375123}}</ref>

Little Arabia is a neighborhood in [[Paterson]], [[New Jersey]] which is sometimes called Little İstanbul because of its large number of Turks. [[Paterson]] has always been home to immigrants looking to make a start in the new world. Today, the faces are largely of immigrants from the Islamic World. [[South Paterson]] is bordered by Madison Avenue to the north, Crooks Avenue to the south, Hazel Street to the west, and East Railway Avenue to the east.

The Turkish American community is becoming more close-knit as their social life is revolved around [[coffee houses]] and benevolent societies. In [[Peabody, Massachusetts|Peabody]], [[Massachusetts]], coffee houses on ''Walnut Street'' became a congregating place for the Turks living in the area. It was here the community members exchange news about their villages while sipping Turkish coffee and noshing on sweet pastry. The [[Boston metropolitan area]] has been an area of choice for late 20th century Turkish immigration.

The top US communities with the highest percentage of people claiming Turkish ancestry in 2000 are:<ref>{{cite web |author=Epodunk.|title=Turkish Ancestry by city|url=http://www.epodunk.com/ancestry/Turkish.html|accessdate=2009-01-27}}</ref> 
{| class="toccolours sortable" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellpadding="5"
|+
|- bgcolor=#FE2712
!Community
!Place type
!% Turkish
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Islandia, NY]]
|style="text-align: right"|village
|style="text-align: right"|2.5
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Edgewater Park, NJ]]
|style="text-align: right"|township
|style="text-align: right"|1.9
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Fairview, NJ]]
|style="text-align: right"|borough
|style="text-align: right"|1.7
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Golden's Bridge, New York|Goldens Bridge, NY]]
|style="text-align: right"|populated place
|style="text-align: right"|1.6
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Point Lookout, NY]]
|style="text-align: right"|populated place
|style="text-align: right"|1.4
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Marshville, NC]]
|style="text-align: right"|town
|style="text-align: right"|1.4
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Boonton, NJ]]
|style="text-align: right"|town
|style="text-align: right"|1.3
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Bellerose Terrace, New York|Bellerose Terrace, NY]]
|style="text-align: right"|populated place
|style="text-align: right"|1.3
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Cliffside Park, NJ]]
|style="text-align: right"|borough
|style="text-align: right"|1.3
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Franksville, WI]]
|style="text-align: right"|populated place
|style="text-align: right"|1.3
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Ridgefield, NJ]]
|style="text-align: right"|borough
|style="text-align: right"|1.3
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Chester, OH]]
|style="text-align: right"|township
|style="text-align: right"|1.3
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Bay Harbor Islands, FL]]
|style="text-align: right"|town
|style="text-align: right"|1.2
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Herricks, New York|Herricks, NY]]
|style="text-align: right"|populated place
|style="text-align: right"|1.2
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Barry, IL]]
|style="text-align: right"|city
|style="text-align: right"|1.2
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Cloverdale, IN]]
|style="text-align: right"|town
|style="text-align: right"|1.2
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Highland Beach, FL]]
|style="text-align: right"|town
|style="text-align: right"|1.2
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Friendship Village, MD]]
|style="text-align: right"|populated place
|style="text-align: right"|1.2
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[New Egypt, NJ]]
|style="text-align: right"|populated place
|style="text-align: right"|1.1
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Delran, NJ]]
|style="text-align: right"|township
|style="text-align: right"|1.1
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Trumbull County, Ohio]]
|style="text-align: right"|township
|style="text-align: right"|1.1
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Summit, IL]]
|style="text-align: right"|village
|style="text-align: right"|1.1
|-
|style="text-indent: 2em"|[[Haledon, NJ]]
|style="text-align: right"|borough
|style="text-align: right"|1.0
|-
|}
</center>

== Individual and group contributions ==
Turkish Americans have made numerous contributions to [[American society]], particularly in the fields of education, medicine, arts and science.

===Arts===

''Tunç Yalman'', artistic director of the Milwaukee Repertory Theater, and ''Osmar Karakas'', who was awarded the 1991 National Press Award for the best news photograph, have contributed significantly to the arts.

===Business===
[[Muhtar Kent]] is the current president and [[CEO]] of [[the Coca-Cola Company]].

===Music industry===
Perhaps the most successful Turkish name associated with music outside of Turkey and in the United States is [[Atlantic Records]]' founder, [[Ahmet Ertegün]]. His promotion of some of the most famous [[R&B]] and [[soul music|soul artists]] in North America and contribution to the American music industry has earned him a place in the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] together with his brother [[Nesuhi Ertegün]]. [[Arif Mardin]] is another major popular music producer and arranger in America. Ertegun's clients included [[the Rolling Stones]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[Led Zeppelin]], [[ABBA]], [[The Cult]], [[Peter Frampton]], [[Manowar]], [[Queensryche]], [[Twisted Sister]], [[AC/DC]], [[Jimi Hendrix]], [[Aretha Franklin]], the [[Bee Gees]], [[Carly Simon]], [[Roberta Flack]], [[Bette Midler]] and many more. After briefly meeting [[Ahmet Ertegün]] at the Newport Jazz Festival, he joined [[Atlantic Records]] and served as their Vice President until his death.

===Politics===
Turkish American organizations have primarily tried to promote the [[Turkish culture]] as well as Turkey’s position in [[Diplomacy|international affairs]] and have generally supported the positions taken by the Turkish government.<ref name="Koslowski 2004 loc=39">{{Harvnb|Koslowski|2004|loc=39}}.</ref> They have been lobbying for [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's entry into the European Union]] and other Western European forums for cooperation. They have also defended Turkish involvement in Cyprus.<ref name="Koslowski 2004 loc=39"/> Turkish Americans have also expressed concerns about the Greek lobby in the United States undermining the typically good [[Turkish-American relations]].<ref name="Koslowski 2004 loc=39"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Aydın|Erhan|2004|loc=205-206}}.</ref>

===Medicine===
[[Mehmet Oz]] ({{lang-tr|Mehmet Cengiz Öz}}) (born June 11, 1960) is a [[Turkish-American]] [[cardiothoracic surgeon]] and [[author]]. He has made frequent appearances on ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]'', as well as appearances on [[Larry King Live|Larry King]], CNN, and other networks.

In the fall of 2009, Winfrey's [[Harpo Productions]] and Sony Pictures launched a syndicated daily talk show featuring Oz, called ''[[The Dr. Oz Show]]''.<ref>[http://www.oprah.com/article/pressroom/pressrelease/20080613_orig_drozsony Harpo Productions and Sony Pictures Television To Launch Dr. Oz], Oprah.com, June 13, 2008.</ref>

===Science===
[[Feza Gürsey]] (1921–1993) was the J. Willard Gibbs Professor Emeritus of Physics at Yale University. He contributed major studies on the group structure of elementary particles and the symmetries of interactions. Professor Gursoy helped bridge the gap between physicists and mathematicians at Yale. He was the winner of the prestigious Oppenheimer Prize and [[Wigner Medal]].

Muzafer Şerif (born July 29, 1906, in Ödemiş, İzmir, Turkey – died October 16, 1988, in Fairbanks, Alaska) was one of the founders of social psychology. He helped develop social judgment theory and realistic conflict theory.

== Media ==
===Turkish Radio and TV Broadcasts in the U.S.A.===

*[[Ebru TV]] - broadcasts educational programs about sciences, art, and culture as well as news and sports events. Can be watched online: [http://www.ebru.tv/en]
*[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]- Is the first ever Internet TV news show, which is hosted by Turkish American [[Cenk Uygur]]. The video of the show is streamed daily on their website, and available for podcast.
*[[Turkish American Hour]] - Turkish American Hour - English program produced by TATV (Turkish-American TV).Home based in Fairfax Public Access, VA and re-broadcast in Maryland and DC. [http://www.turkishamericanhour.org]
*[[Turk Amerikan Televizyonu]] - Turkish program produced by TATV (Turkish-American TV).Home based in Fairfax Public Access, VA and re-broadcast in Maryland and DC. [http://www.turkishamericanhour.org/turkce]
*[[Turkish Hour TV Show]] - Entirety of the USA. Monday through Sunday.
*[[Voice of Anatolia TV]] - WNYE Channel 25, Sundays at 3:30 PM to 4PM (Can be received off the air in the NYC metropolitan area, also everyday from 7:30 to 8 PM on cable Channel 57 in some NYC boroughs.)
*[[Turkish Hour]] - Cultural Cable Channel, Ch. 50 on Cox Cable in New Orleans, Louisiana. Mondays 4:30 - 5:30 p.m. Wednesdays7:00 - 8:00 p.m. Sundays 9:30 - 10:30 p.m. An ITVFC Program.
*[[Turkish Hour]] - Channels 7 & 10 on Warner Cable System, Cincinnati, OH. Mondays 8:30 pm (Ch. 7) Thursdays 2:00 pm (Ch. 10) Sundays 11:00 am (Ch. 10) Sponsored by Tri-State Turkish American Association.
*[[Voice of Turkey]] - ICAT Channel 15 (Cable) in Rochester, NY Wednesdays & Saturdays 8 pm -10 pm by Ahmet Turgut.

===Turkish Newspapers and Periodicals in the U.S.A.===
*[[The Turkish Times]]- a weekly newspaper of the Assembly of Turkish American Associations which covers Turkish American issues with news articles, editorials, and business information.
*[[Turk of America]]- first Turkish American bi-monthly business magazine
*[[Turkish Daily News]]- Turkey's English-language newspaper
*[[TurkishSoccer.com]]
*[[Today's Zaman]]- a daily newspaper which covers Turkish American issues with news articles,editorials, and business information.

== Organizations and associations ==

*[[Turkish Coalition of America]] (TCA) The Turkish Coalition of America is an educational nonprofit based in Washington, DC. Founded in 2007, TCA aims to foster a better understanding of issues related to US-Turkish relations and to Turkish Americans acting as part of the [[Turkish lobby in the United States]].<ref>Armenia-Turkey dispute over genocide label sets off lobbying frenzy http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/03/AR2010030303786.html</ref>
*[[Turkish Cultural Center]] (TCC) The Turkish Cultural Center is located in the heart of New York City. The Center is an institution committed to community involvement. The organization hopes to be a forum of international cultural exchange while promoting Turkish Cultural Heritage. www.turkishculturalcenter.org
*[[Istanbul Center]] (IC) The Istanbul Center is located in the Atlanta, GA. The Center is the largest Turkish-American organization in the Southeastern United States. promote a better understanding and closer relations between individuals and communities, building bridges between the Turkish, American and other communities in Atlanta and the Southeastern United States.
*[[American Turkish Friendship Council]] (ATFC)- is devoted to increasing understanding of commercial, defense, and cultural issues involving the United States and Turkey.
*[[Raindrop Turkish House]] was established in 2000 in Houston, Texas and operates in 6 states: Texas, Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Raindrop Foundation aims to introduce Turkish culture into American society and cultivate friendship and promote the understanding of diverse cultures through its unique services to the community, through dialog and corporation.
*[[American Turkish Society]] (ATS) was founded in 1949, and has a membership of 400 American and Turkish diplomats, banks, corporations, businessmen, and educators. It promotes economic and commercial relations as well as cultural understanding between the people of the United States and Turkey.
*[[Assembly of Turkish American Associations]] was founded in 1979, and has approximately 10,500 members and coordinates activities of regional associations for the purpose of presenting an objective view of Turkey and Turkish Americans and enhancing understanding between these two groups.
*[[Federation of Turkish-American Associations]] (FTAA) was founded in 1956 and composed of about 30 local organizations of Turkish Americans, it works to advance educational interests and to maintain and preserve knowledge of Turkey's cultural heritage.
*[[Turkish American Association]] (TAA) was founded in 1965, and has approximately 15,000 members and promotes cultural relations between the United States and Turkey.
*[[Turkish Women's League of America]] (TWLA)was founded in 1958, and comprises Americans of Turkish origin united to promote equality and justice for women.
*[[Turkish American Cultural Alliance]] (TACA) founded in 1968
*[http://www.tampaturkish.org Turkish Cultural Center Of Tampa Bay] was established in 2006 as a 501c(3) non-profit, non-governmental organization and its activities involve not only the Turkish community but also the larger society in Tampa Bay. As country of Turkey has been a unique bridge and meeting point for European and Asian civilizations throughout history, our organization provides intercultural and interfaith dialogue and cooperation opportunities for all organizations in Tampa Bay.
*[[Turkish-American Scientists and Scholars Association]] (TASSA) was formally established on June 5, 2004
*[[Turkish American Chamber of Commerce and Industry]] (TACCI) is founded in 2002. TACCI is the Turkish-American Chamber of Commerce and Industry dedicated to advance the business, commerce and industry relations between Turkey and the United States.
*[[American Turkish Chamber of Commerce]] is a non-profit business organization, which was officially established on March 11, 2008 and headquartered in New Jersey
*[http://www.taccmadison.org Turkish American Cultural Center of Madison] (TACC-Madison), unit of Turkish American Cultural Foundation of Wisconsin Inc., is a non-profit organization established in 2008 to promote a better understanding and closer relations between Turkish American Community and other communities in Madison, Wisconsin and United States.
*'''Lehigh Valley Turkish American Association''' - Association's goals include but not limited to: 1-Increase, improve, and promote public knowledge and understanding of Turkish culture, history and people 2-Foster friendship and communication among the American and Turkish communities 3-Promote the exchange of the arts, culture, music and cuisine of the United States and Turkey - http://www.lvtaa.us
*[[Istanbul University Alumni Association of USA]] (IUMEZUSA) is a non-political, non-profit organization founded in April, 2005 to promote better understanding between the American and Turkish peoples through social, educational, and cultural activities.

== Philanthropic organizations ==
* [http://www.bridgesofhopeproject.org/ Bridges of Hope Project - Provides funding to establish libraries in rural schools in Turkey]
* [http://www.hasna.org/ HasNa - Provides conflict resolution through cultural understanding]
* [http://www.tpfund.org/ Turkish Philanthropic Fund - Helps meet community needs in the US and in Turkey]
* Amity Turkish Cultural Center in jacksonville,Fl http://www.atccenter.org/
* Istanbul Turkish Center www.istanbulcenter.org

== Websites ==
*[http://www.turkishreporter.com turkishreporter.com] Leading Turkish-American Website with news in English
*[http://www.turkamagazine.com Turka Magazine] Coverage of Turkish events, nightlife, fashion, politics, and culture in the New York metropolitan area.
*[http://www.turkishjournal.com Turkish Journal] Leading exclusive Turkish-American news and researches.
*[http://www.turkishny.com TurkishNY.com] Leading Turkish-American Web Portal with news, classified ads, yellow pages, online radio, video and photo galleries.
*[http://www.turknorthamerica.com Turk North America] (TurkNA) established in 2002 in NJ to support the Turkish community in the US, and quickly became the most visited Turkish website. It is also the largest Turkish Yahoo group.

==Notable people==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2011}}
{{see also|List of Turkish Americans}}
<center><gallery perrow="6">
File:Dr.BULENT ATALAY.jpg|[[Bülent Atalay]], author, scientist, and artist.
File:Basak1.jpg|[[Chris Başak]], baseball player
File:Turhan Bey 1 cropped.jpg|[[Turhan Bey]], actor.
File:Tantek celik.jpg|[[Tantek Çelik]], computer scientist.
File:DavidChokachiOct08.jpg|[[David Chokachi]], actor.
File:Furkan Dogan.png|[[Furkan Doğan]], human rights activist.
File:Atilla Engin 1.jpg|[[Atilla Engin]], jazz musician.
File:AHMET ERTEGUN (1923-2006).jpg|[[Ahmet Ertegün]], founder and president of [[Atlantic Records]]
File:Nesuhi Ertegun (Gottlieb) 1.jpg|[[Nesuhi Ertegün]], record producer.
File:Defne Joy Foster Izmir Fatih College Graduation Ceremony Pic.JPG|[[Defne Joy Foster]], presenter, actress and VJ.
File:Tunch ilkin thumb.png|[[Tunch Ilkin|Tunç Ali İlkin]], sports broadcaster and a former American football player.
File:James Ben Ali Haggin.jpg|[[James Ben Ali Haggin]], Lawyer and businessman.
File:James Ben Ali Haggin III (1918).jpg|[[James Ben Ali Haggin III]], portrait painter and stage designer.
File:Chris Kanik.jpg|[[Chris Kanik]], stand-up comedian.
File:Muhtar Kent (cropped).jpg|[[Muhtar Kent]], Chairman and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of [[The Coca-Cola Company]].
File:JanetAkyuzMattei.jpg|[[Janet Akyüz Mattei]], astronomer.
File:Arif Mardin (cropped).jpg|[[Arif Mardin]], music producer.
File:Dr Oz (cropped).png|[[Mehmet Oz|Dr.Mehmet Cengiz Öz]], cardiothoracic surgeon and author.
File:DenizTek.jpg|[[Deniz Tek]], musician.
File:Özlem Tekin.jpg|[[Özlem Tekin]], singer.
File:Tiffani Thiessen .jpg|[[Tiffani Thiessen]], actress.
File:Cenk Uygur at Streamys cropped.jpg|[[Cenk Uygur]], host of the progressive talk radio show [[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]
File:Victoria chalkphoto.jpg|[[Lisa Marie Varon]], bodybuilder, fitness competitor and professional wrestler.
</gallery></center>

==See also==
*[[List of Turkish-Americans]]
*[[Turkish-American relations]]
*[[Turkish Canadian]]
*[[Turks in Europe]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Aydın|first1=Mustafa|last2=Erhan|first2=Çağrı|author-link=|year=2004|title=Turkish-American Relations: Past, Present and Future|place=|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0714652733 |ref=harv |postscript=}}.
*{{Cite book |last=Koslowski|first=Rey|author-link=|year=2004|title=Intnl Migration and Globalization Domestic Politics|place=|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0203488377 |ref=harv |postscript=}}.
*{{Cite book |last=Karpat|first=Kemal H.|author-link=|year=2004|title=Studies on Turkish Politics and Society: Selected Articles and Essays:Volume 94 of Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East|place=|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004133224 |ref=harv |postscript=}}.
*{{Cite book |last=Kennedy|first=Robyn Vaughan|author-link=|year=1997|title=The Melungeons: The Resurrection of a Proud People: An Untold Story of Ethnic Cleansing in America The Melungeons Series|place=|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=0865545162 |ref=harv |postscript=}}.
*{{Cite book |last=Winkler|first=Wayne|author-link=|year=2005|title=Walking Toward The Sunset: The Melungeons Of Appalachia
|place=|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=0865548692 |ref=harv |postscript=}}.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal| quotes = | last = Kaya| first = Ilhan| authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | year = 2004| month = October| title = Turkish-American immigration history and identity formations| journal = Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs| volume = 24| issue = 2| pages = 295–308| pmid = | doi = 10.1080/1360200042000296672| id = | url = | language = | format = | accessdate = | laysummary = | laysource = | laydate = | quote =| ref = harv }}
* {{cite journal| quotes = | last = Micallef| first = Roberta| authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | year = 2004| month = October| title = Turkish Americans: performing identities in a transnational setting| journal = Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs| volume = 24| issue = 2| pages = 233–241| pmid = | doi = 10.1080/1360200042000296636| id = | url = | language = | format = | accessdate = | laysummary = | laysource = | laydate = | quote =| ref = harv }}
* {{cite journal| quotes = | last = Otcu| first = Gulizar Bahar| authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | year = 2009| month =| title = Language maintenance and identity construction in a Turkish Saturday school in New York City (Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College Columbia University, 2009)| journal = Dissertation Abstracts International| volume = 70 | issue = 07 | pages = | pmid = | doi = | id = | url = http://gradworks.umi.com/33/68/3368361.html| language = | accessdate = | laysummary = | laysource = | laydate = | quote =| ref = harv }}
* {{cite journal| quotes = | last = Otcu| first = Bahar| authorlink = | coauthors = | date = November 11, 2010| month =| title = Language maintenance and cultural identity construction: A linguistic ethnography of discourses in a complementary school in the US| journal = | volume = | issue = | pages = | pmid = | doi = | id = | url = http://www.amazon.com/LANGUAGE-MAINTENANCE-CULTURAL-IDENTITY-CONSTRUCTION/dp/3639245644/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1290231949&sr=1-1| language = | format = | accessdate = | laysummary = | laysource = | laydate = | quote = VDM Verlag Dr. Müller| ref = harv }}

==External links==
{{commons category|Turkish Americans}}
* [http://www.turkishny.com turkishny.com, Turkish-American Web Portal]
* [http://www.turknorthamerica.com turknorthamerica.com, Turkish Community Website]
* [http://www.turkicfest.org Turkic Cultures and Children's Festival in Houston, TX, US, Turkic Fest in US]
* [http://kucukcoban.8m.com/YAZILAR/turks_america.html A History of Turks in America]

{{Turkish diaspora}}
{{Middle Eastern American}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish American}}
[[Category:American people of Turkish descent|*]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the United States|Turks]]

[[tr:Türk asıllı ABD'liler]]

Omeros

2011-07-08T17:39:06Z

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{{Unreferenced|date=July 2011}}
{{Italic title}}
'''''Omeros''''' is a 1990 [[epic poem]] by Nobel Prize-winning author [[Derek Walcott]]. Many consider it his finest work.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

==Overview==
The epic is set on the Caribbean island of [[St. Lucia]]. Although its name is Omeros ([[Homer]] in [[Greek language|greek]]) it has just a minor touch of Homer's ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]''.

The narrative of ''Omeros'' is multilayered. Walcott focuses on no single character, unlike Homer with Achilles in the ''[[Iliad]]'' and Odysseus in the ''[[Odyssey]]''. Rather, many critics have taken the "hero" of ''Omeros'' to be the island of St. Lucia itself.

While there are many characters within the epic who derive their appellations from Homeric characters, this is the only absolute correlation. Achille has been identified as [[Achilles]], but also as [[Menalaus]] and [[Odysseus]]. Hector has been connected to [[Paris]] and [[Agamemnon]], Plunkett to [[Priam]], [[Nestor]], and even [[Paris]]. Helen is [[Helen]], but also possibly [[Cassandra]], and Ma Killman, [[Patroclus]] and [[Andromache]] (whose Greek name means "battle" and "man").

The story can be divided into three main threads, all of which are introduced in Book One of the poem.

*The first is the story of the Homerically named Achille and Hector over their love for Helen, with considerable attention paid to Philoctete, an injured fisherman based on Homer's and Sophocles' [[Philoctetes]].
*The second is the interwoven story of Sergeant Major Plunkett and his Irish wife Maud, who live on the island and must reconcile themselves to the history of British colonization on St. Lucia.
*The final thread is that of the poet-narrator, who comments on the action of the poem and partakes in many trans-Atlantic journeys and wanderings himself.

The poem is ambitious in scope. Walcott takes on Homer, Virgil, and also Dante, as the form of the poem is reminiscent of the Dante-invented [[terza rima]]. Themes presented in this poem include [[nostalgia]], [[colonialism]], [[historiography]], homecoming, paternity, [[poetry]], and [[love]]. If any theme binds the characters together, it is a universal human desire for communion with the past.

Walcott has been praised for his rich and inventive use of language in ''Omeros''.

Walcott was awarded the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in 1992.

==See also==
* [[1990 in poetry]]
* [[Caribbean literature]]

==References==
*[http://academics.eckerd.edu/facultywiki/index.php/OMEROS:HOME Omeros Chart: A guide to Derek Walcott's ''Omeros'']
*[http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/worldservice/wbc/rss.xml Podcast of Derek Walcott discussing ''Omeros''] on the BBC's ''[[World Book Club]]''
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=Qoh9zIXGjjcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Omeros&lr=&sig=i-VNMVhXVaTfjqZs2T9n5ntROtg#PPP15,M1 In the Shadows of Divine Perfection By Lance Callahan]
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=VUFI53dBmFAC&pg=PA547&dq=Omeros&lr=&sig=VucJVw7eRjLPlMiz0n2PjnHtpkc A Companion to Twentieth-Century Poetry: Derek Walcott: ''Omeros'' by Bruce Woodcock]
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=5NXCc04fw3cC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Omeros&lr=&sig=g8hr7pOv387GfmKaiT4uWkFnuC0#PPP1,M1 Ambition and Anxiety by Line Henriksen]

{{poem-stub}}
[[Category:Epic poems in English]]
[[Category:Verse novels]]
[[Category:1990 poems]]
[[Category:Caribbean literature]]
[[Category:Adaptations of The Odyssey]]

[[it:Omeros]]
[[ru:Омерос]]

Widerstand von Sason 1904

2011-07-08T12:49:38Z

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{{Refimprove|date=July 2011}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Second Sasun Resistance
|partof=
|image=
|caption=
|date=March–April, 1904 (lasted for months)
|place=[[Sason]], Ottoman Empire
|result=
|combatant1=[[Ottoman Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Armenian militia]]
|commander1= vali of Bitlis
|commander2=[[Hrayr Tjokhk]], [[Andranik Ozanian]].
|strength1=15,000 troops
|strength2=1000 militiamen
|casualties1=Heavy casualties
|casualties2=
|}}

The '''Second Sassoun resistance''' of 1904 ({{lang-hy|Սասունի երկրորդ ապստամբութիւնը}}) was the resistance of the [[Armenian militia]] in the [[Sason]] region.

The Ottoman Empire's forces that were previously defeated in the [[Zeitun Resistance (1895)|First Zeitun Resistance]] did not want the formation of another semi-autonomous Armenian region in the "Eastern" [[vilayet]]s. In [[Sason]], [[Armenian national liberation movement]] was working to arm the region and to recruit young Armenians by motivating them to the Armenian cause.

==Background==
{{See also|Armenian national movement|Armenian Question}}
The [[Social Democrat Hunchakian Party]] and the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]] were two Armenian organizations of the Armenian national movement that was active in the region. The First Sassoun resistance or [[Sasun Resistance (1894)]] was the [[Armenian national movement]]'s [[Armenian militia|militia]] belonging to [[Hunchak]]. According to [[Cyrus Hamlin]], Armenians instigate the event.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9403E7DF113DE433A25750C2A96E9C94649ED7CF | work=The New York Times | title=THE SASSOUN MASSACRE; Proof of the Assertion that Armenian Revolutionists Caused It. TESTIMONY OF REV. CYRUS HAMLIN A Protest Against Americans Helping England to Realize Political Aspirations in the East | date=August 23, 1895}}</ref> The region continued to be in conflict between the Armenian [[fedayee]] (Armenian irregular forces) and the Muslim Ottomans between the local Armenian villages. Many Armenians have been compelled to accept an [[Islam]] or [[Orthodoxy]] which in the latter case they used protection of Russian consulate.

In spring 1902, in Sason, has been sent the representative of the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]] Vahan Manvelyan with the purpose to stop the insignificant skirmishes, only irritating the Turk, and to occupy in concentration of forces for the big revolt. By heads of revolt have been nominated Vahan and local native [[Hrayr Tjokhk]]. This concentration proceeded during all 1902–1903. So, in May, 1903, in Sasun, there has arrived the fighting group of Gorgos "Marrik". Vahan and Hrayr have considered it insufficient and have addressed to East bureau of a party with the request to send new forces; In September, the group from 150 [[fedayee]] led by Khan and Onik has been sent. However, at the transition of the Persian-Turkish border, it has been surrounded by Turkish armies with artillery and almost is completely destroyed. Taken place in February, 1903 in Sofia III, congress ARF has decided to transmit in order Sason of committee a lot of fighting groups.

By this time, approaches to Sasun have been blocked by a division of 4-th corps of army (8 [[battalion]]s, subsequently this number is has reached 14 battalions; in total up to 10.000 soldier and policemen, and also 6–7 thousand irregular Kurdish horses). From the Armenian party was nearby 200 [[guerrilla]] under command Vahan, Hrayr and [[Andranik Toros Ozanian|Andranik]], along with [[Kevork Chavoush]], [[Murad of Sebastia]], [[Keri]] and others. Except for them, the peasants of 21 villages also armed should take participate in resistance, but not skilled in military science — defenders of Sasun totaled all up to 1000 persons. Andranik suggested to lift general revolt in Armenia that would force to disperse the Turk forces; Hrayr from its part objected, that the Armenian revolt which has been not supported by other people of the [[Ottoman empire]], it will be doomed, and suggested to concentrate on defense of Sasun.

==Armed conflicts==
The first fighting action has undertaken [[Kevork Chavoush]] against local Kurdish aka Kor Slo, for prevention of an attack of Kurds on five Armenian villages was among territory occupied by Kurds. By means of groups of Murad Sebastatsi and Seyto on January 17, he has attacked Kurds who together with Turkish armies have receded in [[Pasur, Pakistan|Pasur]]. After that Kevork, in view of impossibility of protection of these villages, ordered to move to inhabitants in Ishkhanadzor villages has ruined. At news about this, from its part, Seyto has attacked the Kurdish leader Salikh known for the cruelty concerning Armenians, has taken in a captivity and has with own hand shot, then also has receded in Ishkhanadzor.

Simultaneously, Armenians (Western bureau of [[ARF]] and the [[Catholicos]]) tried to organize diplomatic pressure of powers upon Turkey. The [[Catholicos]] has addressed to great powers. English and French ambassadors in Constantinople have undertaken demarches before the sultan (the Russian ambassador has refused to participate in protection of Armenians). The sultan has answered, that in Sasun armies for protection of the population against robberies and violence will be sent. Then ambassadors have suggested the sultan to begin negotiations with risen so that they have peacefully left Sasun, having caused to represent itself as intermediaries. However, the Russian consul has delayed a trip and when ambassadors have arrived on a place, military actions were already in a heat.

[[File:Forty Martyrs Armenian Cathedral, Armenian memorial Alp.JPG|thumb|Monument to Sasun resistance, [[Cathedral of the Forty Martyrs (Aleppo)|Cathedral of the Forty Martyrs]] in [[Aleppo]], Syria]]
By March 20, Turks have finished preparation for approach to the risen area. Armies had been plundered a number of boundary villages. Villages, according to the order Hrayr, did not resist. Local residents have flung in prison and have subjected to tortures, but to find out something about forces risen and could not. The command at Armenians was distribute as follows: defense of area Aliank and Shenik headed Hrayr, Andranik being in the village Tapyk, should interfere with promotion of the enemy on Gelieguzan, Kevork Chavoush protected Ishkhanadzor; Murad of Senastia, Akop Kotoian and Makar Spagantsi – the area Chaji Glukh.

On April 2, Turks have undertaken the first storm at support of mountain artillery. The storm has been beaten off. On April 10, the area has arrived bringing Vali of [[Bitlis]] with the significant military forces, accompanied Armenian bishops of Bitlis and [[Muş]]. On April 11, the second storm has been undertaken. About 7 thousand Turkish horsemen have rushed into the village Shenik, but Armenians were closed at them in rear, and Turks have appeared clamped between the Armenian positions in front and on the right and the заснеженными mountains at the left. After a four-hour fight, Turks have abandoned horses and the weapon and ran in the mountains pursued by Armenians. On April 12, to Armenians, the prior of monastery Surb Arakelots, Arakel, with the decree (kondak) the [[Catholicos]] has been sent, recommending Armenians to surrender in exchange for the Sultanian amnesty. Heads of revolt have declared, that will answer tomorrow, and have taken advantage of a delay that to move the population of some neighboring villages in Gelieguzan this night and to burn villages. From its part, Turks also did not perceive negotiations seriously and at a dawn on April 13, not waiting the answer of Armenians, have begun new approach.

Defenders were broke on two groups: one, under direction of Sepukh and Murad of Sebastia, has moved in the direction Brlik, another, under direction of Hrayr, has risen in mountains. Turks, in amount 8 company and 4000 Kurdish horsemen, have rushed in Gelieguzan; Hrayr has been killed in the beginning of battle. The fierce hand-to-hand fight has begun; during the moment when business of Armenians seemed already lost, from east side of village has appeared with group Andranik and has struck in flank and rear to Turks. Turks ran, having lost, under newspaper messages, up to 136 person killed; Armenians had 7 killed and 8 wounded men.

On April 14, Turks, having received a reinforcement, have undertaken the new attack, which, however, has been quickly beaten off by Armenians. On April 16, inhabitants of Ishkhanadzor have receded in Talvorik; Turks have tried to cut off their course, but owing to persistent resistance and the help of group from Talvorik Ishkhanadzorers it was possible to break. On April 17, the new attack which also has been beaten off has been undertaken. On April 20, Turks have surrounded Gelieduzan and having subjected to its massed artillery bombardment. Seeing impossibility to keep further, fedayee led by Andranik at night also have receded in Talvorik. Inhabitants (up to 20 thousand – the population of five evacuated villages) ran a part in the mountains, a part on plain Mush, having undergone to ruthless slaughter. Talvorik resisted till May 6 and has fallen, when to Turks send reinforcements. 200 fedayee between Таlvorik and Gelieguzan have held on till May 14 and have managed to leave, having guided the bridge. The victory and the Turks was accompanied by a mass slaughter: <blockquote>''«Women have been stolen, to them cut off a breast, ripped up stomaches, children to impale, old men splitted up for parts. Young girls withdrew in uncountable set.… since May, 5th, Turkish armies have wiped out one behind another villages in areas Berdakh, Mkragom, Alikrpo, Avazakhiubr, Arnist»''<ref>[http://www.genocide.ru/lib/nersisyan/066-074.htm#71 Correspondence on events in Sasun. May 22, 1904//Sassoun et les atrocités hamidiennes, interpellation. Les atrocités. Rapport officiel. Genéve, 1904, p. 27–32.]</ref></blockquote> All it has been killed by different estimations from 3 up to 8 thousand person and 45 villages were destroyed. To hide traces of slaughter from the European consuls, bring vali of Bitlis has ordered to cut corpses on pieces and to throw them in р. Tiger.

==Aftermath==
The sultan has declared that forbids returning Armenians in Sason. However, it has caused the sharp protest of representatives of powers, and the sultan has been compelled (forced) to concede: under supervision and protection of consuls, 6000 inhabitants have returned to native places.

==References==
<references/>

==Sources==
*{{hy icon}} {{cite book | last = Kurdoghlian | first = Mihran | title = Hayots Badmoutioun, Volume III | publisher = Hradaragoutioun Azkayin Ousoumnagan Khorhourti | year = 1996 | location = Athens, Greece | page = 47}}
*Эдуард Оганесян. Век борьбы. Москва-Мюнхен, т.1., 1991, стр. 221—231.

== External links==
* [http://www.genocide.ru/lib/nersisyan/066-074.htm#71 Корреспонденции о событиях в Сасуне]
* [http://www.genocide.ru/enc/sasun.htm Сасун]
* [http://www.fedayi.ru/pages/bibl/history/st_01_012.htm Восстания и самообороны армянского народа конца XIX начала XX вв. в Западной Армении.]
* [http://www.genocide.ru/chronology/1900-1913.htm Хронология]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==

*[[Social Democrat Hunchakian Party]]
*[[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]]

{{Armenian Resistance}}

{{coord missing}}

[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Armenian resistance]]
[[Category:1904 in Armenia]]

[[ru:Сасунская самооборона (1904)]]

Seegefecht bei Barcelona (1642)

2011-07-08T10:52:04Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Who}}. (Build p613)

{{Under construction|notready=true}}
:''For other uses, see [[Battle of Barcelona (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict= Battle of Barcelona
|partof=the [[Franco-Spanish War (1635)]]
|date=June 29 – July 3, 1642
|place=Off [[Barcelona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]
|result=French victory
|combatant1={{flagcountry|Kingdom of France}}
|combatant2={{flagicon|Spain|1506}} [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Jean Armand de Maillé-Brézé]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Spain|1506}} [[Juan Alonso Idiáquez]]
|strength1=44 [[men-of-war|sailing vessels]], 25 [[galley]]s, 14 [[fireship]]s
|strength2=36 sailing vessels, 10 galleys, 6 fireships, 35 ''[[Barca-longa|barcos longos]]''
|casualties1=1 galleon and 1 fireship
|casualties2=2 galleons and 4 fireships
}}
{{Campaignbox Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659)}}

The '''Naval battle of Barcelona''' happened between 29 June and 3 July, 1642, was a naval engagement of the [[Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659)|Franco-Habsburg War]] fought off the Catalan city between a Spanish fleet commanded by Juan Alonso Idiáquez, Duke of Ciudad Real, and a French fleet under Jean Armand de Maillé-Brézé, Duc de Fronsac. In a three-day battle, Brézé defeated the Spanish fleet, which was attempting to relieve some Spanish garrisons isolated along the Catalan coast, and forced the Duke of Ciudad Real to retreat to [[Majorca]] for repairs. As usually in most of the battles involving Maillé-Brézé, the French fleet made an extensive use of her fireships. This time, however, a large French vice-flagship, the ''Galion-de-Guise'', fell victim to one of his own fireships and went down enveloped in flames. The victory, in any case, was for the French fleet, and its main long-term effect was the fall of [[Perpignan]] in hands of the Franco-catalan army.{{Who|date=July 2011}}

==Background==
The outbreak in 1640 of the [[Reapers' War]], or the Catalan Uprising against the Spanish Monarchy, left most of the Principality in hands of the rebells and their French allies by mid-1641. The Spanish forces were restricted to the area around Tarragona and [[Tortosa]] in the south and the [[County of Roussillon]] in the north, besides a series of isolated ports along the coast. The French viceroy of Catalonia, [[Philippe de La Mothe-Houdancourt]], attempted to conquer Tarragona between May and August, but failed, as a French blockading fleet under [[Henri d'Escoubleau de Sourdis]] was not big enough to prevent the entrance into Tarragona of a large Spanish relief convoy. Sourdis had been never very enthusiastic of blockading Tarragona and prefered focuss all the efforts in capturing [[Collioure]] to starvate the Spanish army in Perpignan.{{sfn|La Roncière|1899|p=85}} Cardinal Richelieu replaced him by his nephew Jean Armand de Maillé-Brézé, but for the 1642 campaign he followed his plans and commited most of his forces to conquer Rousillon.{{sfn|La Roncière|1899|p=85}}

Marshall [[Charles de La Porte]] gained Collioure on 13 April and, together with [[Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg|Frederick Schomberg]], laid siege to Perpignan.{{sfn|La Bruyère|1945|p=145–146}} The French fleet would blockade the coast between Tarragona and Collioure, and battle with the Spanish fleet if was necessary. The fleets of Ponant and Levant were concentrated at Barcelona. The squadron of [[Brest]], composed of 21 sailing vessels, 2 [[fluyt]]s and 6 fireships, doubled the [[Cabo de Gata]] on 10 June. The [[Toulon]] squadron, of 19 sailing vessels, 4 fluyts and 6 fireships under Chevalier de Cangé, arrived to Barcelona on 8 May.{{sfn|La Bruyère|1945|p=146–148}} The ''flotte des galères'' led by the bailli de Forbin, composed of 25 units, arrived on 21 June. The fleet was completed with a small squadron under [[Abraham Duquesne]] which had been left to cruise off the Catalan coast, and ten English and Dutch chartered vessels, thus increasing its strenght to nearly 60 ships.{{sfn|La Bruyère|1945|p=145–146}} After a war council was held aboard the fleet on 22 June, Maillé-Brézé put his ships on sail in order to intercept a Spanish fleet reportedly seen at the height of Tarragona.{{sfn|La Roncière|1899|p=87}}{{sfn|La Bruyère|1945|p=150}}

Spanish naval officials tried to have ready on time the Spanish fleet to avoid the conjunction of the French Levant and Ponant fleets, but failed,{{sfn|Fernández Duro|1972|p=293}} and therefore focused on collecting as many ships as possible for a relief fleet that was supposed to relieve the maritime garrisons isolated along the coast, and specifically the much tightened Rousillon.{{sfn|Fernández Duro|1972|p=293}} The maritime relief was the only way, as a land army organized to cross the country till Perpignan had been defeated by La Mothe-Houdancourt at the [[Battle of Montmeló]] and the subsequent [[Battle of La Granada]], in which Count [[Pedro Antonio de Aragón]], his lieutenant [[Gerolamo Caracciolo]] and the entire force, of some 3,500 men, were made prisoners.{{sfn|Balaguer|1885|p=70–71}} In view of the defeat, the whole [[Castile]] was put on the warpath. Foreign and private ships were seized, silver from individuals was melted to mint coins to pay troops, and soon [[Cádiz]] was full of soldiers and seamen come from all over the country.{{sfn|Fernández Duro|1972|p=294}} The Duke of Ciudad Real, a man devoid of experience in naval fighting, was the chief of the fleet. He was seconded by Admiral General Sancho de Urdanivia.{{sfn|Fernández Duro|1972|p=294}} The force consisted of 31 galleons or large sailing vessels, 2 frigates, 3 pataches, 6 fireships, a convoy of [[tartane]]s, and 35 ''barcos longos'', a newly invented sort of counter-fireships.{{sfn|Fernández Duro|1972|p=295}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
===Primary sources===
===Tertiary sources===

{{coord missing|Spain}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Barcelona}}
[[Category:Naval battles involving Spain]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving France]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the Franco-Spanish War (1635)]]
[[Category:Battles of the Catalan Revolt]]
[[Category:History of Barcelona]]

[[bg:Битка при Барселона]]
[[ca:Batalla naval de Barcelona (1642)]]
[[es:Batalla de Barcelona (1642)]]
[[fr:Bataille de Barcelone (1642)]]
[[no:Slaget ved Barcelona]]

Richard Allan, Baron Allan of Hallam

2011-07-07T04:51:43Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Dead link}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox MP
| honorific-prefix = [[The Right Honourable]] 
|name = The Lord Allan of Hallam
|honorific-suffix =
|image =
|constituency_MP = [[Sheffield Hallam (UK Parliament constituency)|Sheffield Hallam]]
|parliament =
|majority =
|term_start = 1 May 1997
|term_end = 5 May 2005
|predecessor = [[Irvine Patnick]]
|successor = [[Nick Clegg]]
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1966|02|11|df=yes}}
|birth_place = [[Sheffield]]
|death_date =
|death_place =
|restingplace =
|birthname =
|nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
|party = [[Liberal Democrats]]
|otherparty =
|spouse = Louise Netley
|relations =
|children =
|residence =
|alma_mater = [[Pembroke College, Cambridge]], [[University of the West of England]]
|occupation =
|profession =
|cabinet =
|committees =
|portfolio =
|religion =
|signature =
|website =
}}
'''Richard Beecroft Allan, Baron Allan of Hallam''' (born 11 February 1966 in [[Sheffield]]) was the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Sheffield Hallam (UK Parliament constituency)|Sheffield Hallam]] from the general election of Thursday 2 May 1997 until the dissolution of Parliament on 11 April 2005. He was made a [[life peer]] as '''Baron Allan of Hallam''', of Ecclesall in the County of South Yorkshire,<ref>http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201011/ldhansrd/text/100726-0001.htm#1007266000406</ref> in the [[2010 Dissolution Honours]].

==Early life==
He went to the independent [[Oundle School]] in north-east [[Northamptonshire]]. He studied at [[Pembroke College, Cambridge]], and gained a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] in Archaeology and Anthropology in 1988. From [[University of the West of England|Bristol Polytechnic]], he gained an [[Master of Science|MSc]] in Information Technology in 1990. He was a field archaeologist in Britain, France and the Netherlands from 1984-5, and in [[Ecuador]] from 1988-9. He was a computer manager at Avon FHSA from 1991-7.

==Parliamentary career==
In 1997, he unseated [[Irvine Patnick]] of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] achieving a majority of 8,221 with a swing of 15.3%. In 2001, he was re-elected with an increased majority of 9,347. During his tenure, Allan held various committee seats, including the Chair of the House of Commons Information Select Committee and a seat on the House of Commons [[Liaison Select Committee]]. Richard Allan was the founding chairman of the [[Parthenon 2004]] campaign for the return of the Parthenon Marbles.

Allan did not seek reelection at the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]]. He was succeeded by fellow Liberal Democrat [[Nicholas Clegg|Nick Clegg]], for whom he acted as campaign manager. He is now employed as Director of Policy in Europe by [[Facebook]];<ref>http://www.new-media-producer.co.uk/facebook-privacy-interview-facebooks-richard-allan/</ref> previously he was Head of Government Affairs for [[Cisco Systems|Cisco Systems UK]]. He is also a visiting fellow of the [[Oxford Internet Institute]] and deputy chairman of the [[British Committee for the Reunification of the Parthenon Marbles]].

On 22 July 2010, he was created a [[life peer]] as '''Baron Allan of Hallam''', of Ecclesall in the County of South Yorkshire, and was [[Introduction (House of Lords)|introduced]] in the [[House of Lords]] on 26 July 2010,<ref>[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201011/minutes/100727/ldordpap.htm#minproc Minute of Proceedings], 26 July 2010</ref> where he sits as a Liberal Democrat peer.

==Personal life==
He married Louise Netley on 25 May 1991 in Bath. They have since separated and Allan has twin daughters with his current partner.<ref>[http://www.richardallan.org.uk/?p=468 The Patter of (Four) Tiny Feet]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.richardallan.org.uk More Political Times] Richard Allan's weblog
*{{UK Peer links | parliament = | hansard = mr-richard-allan | hansardcurr = 5820 | guardian = 56/richard-allan | publicwhip = Richard_Allan | theywork = richard_allan | record = Richard-Allan/1800 | bbc = 25727.stm | journalisted = }}
* [http://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford Internet Institute]
* [http://www.sheffieldlibdems.org.uk/ Sheffield Liberal Democrats]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/mpdb/html/396.stm BBC News - Richard Allan] profile 10 February 2005{{Dead link|date=July 2011}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box | before = [[Irvine Patnick]] | title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Sheffield Hallam (UK Parliament constituency)|Sheffield Hallam]] | years = 1997–2005 | after = [[Nicholas Clegg|Nick Clegg]] }}
{{s-end}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Allan, Richard
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =11 February 1966
| PLACE OF BIRTH =[[Sheffield]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Allan, Richard}}
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:English bloggers]]
[[Category:Facebook employees]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Liberal Democrat (UK) MPs]]
[[Category:Liberal Democrat life peers]]
[[Category:Politics of Sheffield]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1997–2001]]
[[Category:UK MPs 2001–2005]]
[[Category:Old Birkdalians]]
[[Category:Old Oundelians]]
[[Category:Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of the West of England]]

[[sv:Richard Allan]]

Jean Thurel

2011-07-07T03:50:24Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox military person
| name = Jean Thurel
| image = [[File:Jean Thurel 1788 (1804), par Antoine Vestier.jpg|220px]]
| caption = Jean Thurel, [[fusilier]] of the [[Touraine Regiment]] at 89 years of age. His three ''Médaillon Des Deux Épées'' medals and his ''[[Legion of Honour|Légion d'Honneur]]'' medal are visible in this 1788 portrait by [[Antoine Vestier]], which was modified in 1804 to include the ''Légion d'Honneur''.
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1699|09|08}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1807|03|10|1699|09|08}}
| birth_place = [[Orain]], [[Burgundy]], [[France]]
| death_place = [[Tours]], [[Indre-et-Loire]], France
| placeofburial =
| placeofburial_label =
| placeofburial_coordinates = 
| nickname = The oldest soldier of Europe
| birth_name =
| allegiance = [[File:Royal Standard of the Kingdom of France.svg|23px]] [[Kingdom of France]] [[File:Flag of France (1790-1794).svg|23px]] [[Kingdom of France (1791–1792)|Kingdom of the French]] {{flagicon|FRA}} [[French First Republic]] {{flagicon|FRA}} [[First French Empire]]
| branch = [[Infantry]]
| serviceyears = 17 September 1716{{ndash}}10 March 1807 (90 years, 6 months)
| rank = [[Private (rank)|Private]]
| servicenumber =
| unit = [[Touraine Regiment]]
| commands =
| battles = [[War of the Polish Succession]] [[War of the Austrian Succession]] [[Seven Years' War]] [[American Revolutionary War]]
| battles_label =
| awards = ''Médaillon Des Deux Épées'' (3)<ref name=Riera2011>{{cite journal|last=Riera|first=Lieutenant Colonel|title=Le musée est ouvert ou une ouverture en cascade|journal=Le Musée du Sous-Officier|volume=2011|issue=4|pages=5–6|year=2011|language=French|url=http://unsor.org/mus%E9e%20du%20sousofficier%20mai%202011.pdf|accessdate=2011-07-04}}</ref> [[File:Offizierskreuz.jpg|15px]]''[[Legion of Honour|Chevalier de l' Ordre National de la Legion d'Honneur]]''
| relations =
| laterwork =
}}

'''Jean Thurel''' (or '''Jean Theurel''') (8 September 1699{{ndash}}10 March 1807) was a [[fusilier]] of the [[French Army]] with an extraordinarily long career that spanned over 90 years of service in the [[Touraine Regiment]]. Having been born during the reign of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] and died during that of [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Thurel lived in three different centuries and served three different monarchs.

==Military career==
Thurel was born in [[Orain]], [[Burgundy]]. He enlisted on 17 September 1716 in the ''[[Touraine Regiment|Régiment de Touraine]]'', at the age of 17.<ref name=Sabretache1895>{{cite book|author=La Sabretache (societe d'etudes d'histoire militaire)|title=Carnet de la Sabretache: revue militaire rétrospective|volume=III|chapter=Le médaillon de vétérance|pages=264–73|year=1895|language=French|publisher=Berger-Levrault et Cie|location=Nancy, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Lorraine, France|url=http://books.google.com/?id=x5cPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22Le+m%C3%A9daillon+de+v%C3%A9t%C3%A9rance%22#v=onepage&q=%22Le%20m%C3%A9daillon%20de%20v%C3%A9t%C3%A9rance%22&f=false|accessdate=2011-07-04}}
</ref> He served there for over 90 years without interruption, under [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]], [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]], the [[French First Republic|Republic]] and the [[First French Empire|Empire]].<ref name=Brown1808>{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Charles Brockden|authorlink1=Charles Brockden Brown|last2=Walsh|first2=Robert|authorlink2=Robert Walsh (diplomat)|title=The American register: or general repository of history, politics and science. Part II for 1807|volume=II|chapter=Foreign literary and philosophical intelligence|page=408|year=1808|publisher=C & A. Conrad and Company|location=Philadelphia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SlrQAAAAMAAJ&q=thurel#v=snippet&q=thurel&f=false}}</ref>

Thurel was severely wounded in battle on two occasions. In 1733, during the [[Siege of Kehl (1733)|siege of Kehl]], he was shot in the chest with a [[musket]]. At the [[battle of Minden]] in 1759, he received seven sword slashes, including six to the head. Three of his brothers were killed in the [[battle of Fontenoy]] in 1745. One of Thurel's sons was a [[corporal]] and a [[veteran]] in the same [[Company (military unit)|company]]. He died at the [[Battle of the Saintes]], a [[Naval warfare|naval battle]] that occurred on 12 April 1782 off the coast of [[Dominica]], [[Caribbean|West Indies]] during the [[France in the American Revolutionary War|American campaign]].<ref name=Sabretache1895/>

A well-disciplined soldier of the [[line infantry]], Thurel was only [[admonition|admonished]] once during his entire career. This occurred after the [[Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1747)|Siege of Bergen]], which took place in 1747, during the [[War of the Austrian Succession]], as the French troops occupied the [[citadel]]. The reason for his admonition was that, the doors of the [[fortification|fortress]] being shut, he scaled its walls to gain entry so that he would not miss [[Muster (military)|muster]].<ref name=Sabretache1895/> Another example of Thurel's discipline and physical fitness occurred in 1787. When his regiment was ordered to march to the coast to embark on ships of the [[French_Navy#18th_century|French Navy]], he was given the opportunity to travel in a carriage due to his advanced age. The 88-year-old Thurel refused the offer and marched the entire distance on foot, stating that he had never before traveled by carriage and had no intention of doing so at that time.<ref name=Brown1808/> His humility is evident in his steadfast refusal to accept any promotions; he remained a low-ranking fusilier for his entire military career.<ref name=Sabretache1895/><ref name=Moniteur1801>{{cite news|author=|title=n°329, 29 thermidor an IX|pages=|newspaper=[[Le Moniteur Universel|Gazette Nationale ou Le Moniteur Universal]]|publisher=[[Charles-Joseph Panckoucke]]|location=Paris|date=17 August 1801|language=French}}</ref>

==Honors and awards==
[[File:Chevalier-legion-dhonneur-empire-1804.jpg|thumb|left|150px|''[[Legion of Honour|Légion d'Honneur]]'' medal that [[Napoleon I]] awarded to Thurel.]]

In hopes of improving re-enlistment rates, Louis XV established the ''Médaillon Des Deux Épées'' (Medal of the Two Swords) by a [[decree|royal decree]] in 1771. This was the first [[Military awards and decorations of France|military decoration]] in France for which an enlisted man could be eligible. This medal was initially awarded to soldiers who had served in the French Army, as a reward for their longevity of service. The decree was extended in 1774 so that sailors of the French Navy were also eligible to receive the medal. A soldier or sailor would have to serve for 24 years in order to be eligible for the ''Médaillon Des Deux Épées''.<ref name=Champenois2011>{{cite web|last=Champenois|first=Marc|title=Médaillon Des Deux Épées|work=Les Décorations|publisher=France Phaleristique: Le site des ordres, décorations et médailles officielles de France|location=|year=2011|language=French|url=http://www.france-phaleristique.com/deuxepees.htm|accessdate=2011-07-04}}</ref> Thurel was awarded two ''Médaillon Des Deux Épées'' in 1771, the year the medal was established, in recognition of the two 24-year periods of time (1716{{ndash}}1740 and 1740{{ndash}}1764) during which he had served up until then.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

On 8 November 1787, Thurel was presented to the royal family. The 33-year-old king of France addressed the 88-year-old Army private in a respectful manner as "father", and asked whether Thurel would prefer to be awarded the ''[[Order of Saint Louis|Ordre Royal et Militaire de Saint-Louis]]'' (Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis) or a third ''Médaillon Des Deux Épées'' medal, in recognition of the period from 1764{{ndash}}1788.<ref name=Sabretache1895/> This was a highly unusual request—not only because [[Ranks_in_the_French_Army#Militaires_du_rang_-_Enlisted|enlisted men]] and [[Ranks_in_the_French_Army#Sous-officiers_-_Sub-officers|non-commissioned officers]] were not normally eligible to receive the ''Ordre Royal et Militaire de Saint-Louis'', which was reserved for [[Officer (armed forces)|commissioned officer]]s of the Army or the Navy,<ref name=Mazas1850>{{cite book|last1=Mazas|first1=A|last2=Anne|first2=T|title=Histoire de l'ordre royal & militaire de Saint Louis, depuis son institution en 1693 jusqu'en 1830|chapter=|pages=|publisher=|location=|year=1860|language=French|url=http://www.memodoc.com/article_ordre_st_louis.htm}}</ref>—but also because Thurel still had four more months of military service to complete before being eligible for a third ''Médaillon Des Deux Épées'' medal. Thurel opted to receive a third ''Médaillon Des Deux Épées'', on the condition that the king himself attach it itself. Louis XVI granted Thurel his wish, with his customary grace. The [[Charles X of France|Comte d'Artois]] offered Thurel his sword, and the ladies of the court put a carriage at his disposal during his stay in Paris.<ref name=Sabretache1895/> The king also granted Thurel an annual pension of 300 [[French_livre#Eighteenth_century|livres]].<ref name=Brown1808/> Very few men have completed the 48 years of military service required to receive a second medal. Thurel is the only one ever to have received it three times.<ref name=Sabretache1895/><ref name=Champenois2011/>

On 26 October 1804, at the age of 105, Thurel became one of the first recipients of the newly established ''[[Legion of Honour|l' Ordre National de la Legion d'Honneur]]'' (National Order of the Legion of Honor), the highest decoration in France.<ref name=Sabretache1895/> Napoleon I also rewarded him with a pension of 1,200 [[franc]]s. He was later appointed as the "oldest soldier of Europe". He remained healthy in body and spirit throughout his remarkably long life. He died in [[Tours]] on 10 March 1807, at the age of 107, after a brief illness.<ref name=Brown1808/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Thurel, Jean
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Theurel, Jean
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = fusilier of the French Army for over 90 years
| DATE OF BIRTH = 8 September 1699
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Orain]], [[Burgundy]], [[Kingdom of France]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 10 March 1807
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Tours]], [[Indre-et-Loire]], [[First French Empire|French Empire]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Thurel, Jean}}
[[Category:1699 births]]
[[Category:1807 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Burgundy]]
[[Category:17th-century French people]]
[[Category:18th-century French people]]
[[Category:19th-century French people]]
[[Category:French centenarians]]
[[Category:French soldiers]]
[[Category:French military personnel of the War of the Polish Succession]]
[[Category:French military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession]]
[[Category:French military personnel of the Seven Years' War]]
[[Category:French military personnel of the American Revolutionary War]]
[[Category:Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur]]

[[fr:Jean Thurel]]

Lucky (2011)

2011-07-07T01:55:56Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Unreferenced}}. (Build p613)

{{Proposed deletion/dated
|concern = Unreferenced future film = not notable.
|timestamp = 20110707014928
}}
{{Unreferenced|article|date=July 2011}}
{{Infobox film
|name = Lucky
|image =
|image_size =
|caption =
|director = Gil Cates, Jr.
|producer = [[Ten/Four Pictures]]
|executive producer =
|writer = Kent Sublette
|narrator =
|starring = [[Colin Hanks]] [[Ari Graynor]] [[Jeffrey Tambor]] [[Ann-Margret]] [[Mimi Rogers]]
|music = [[David Choi]]
|cinematography =
|editing =
|distributor = [[Phase 4 Films]]
|released = July 15, 2011
|runtime =
|country = [[United States]]
|language = English
|budget =
|gross =
|preceded_by =
|followed_by =
|imdb =
}}

'''Lucky''' is a crime comedy film starring Colin Hanks whose theme song is "I Choose Happiness" by [[David Choi]].

Suzuki Equator

2011-07-07T00:18:00Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Disambiguation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox Automobile
| name = Suzuki Equator
| manufacturer = [[Nissan]]
| production = 2009- present
| image = [[File:2009 Suzuki Equator extended cab Premium.jpg|250px|2009 Suzuki Equator Premium extended cab]]
| aka = [[Nissan Frontier]] [[Nissan Navara]] ([[Europe]])
| class = [[Mid-size]] [[pickup truck]]
| body_style = 2-door [[pickup truck|truck]] 4-door [[pickup truck|truck]]
| platform = [[Nissan F-Alpha platform]]
| layout = [[Front-engine design|Front engine]], [[rear-wheel drive]] / [[four-wheel drive]]
| related = [[Nissan Frontier]]
| engine = 2.5L [[Straight-4|I4]] 4.0L [[V6]]
| transmission = 5-speed [[Automatic transmission|automatic]] 5-speed [[Manual transmission|manual]]
| assembly = [[Smyrna, Tennessee]], [[United States]]
| wheelbase = {{convert|125.9|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
| length = Crew Cab: {{convert|220.1|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} Extended Cab: {{convert|206.6|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
| width = {{convert|72.8|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
| height = {{convert|68.7|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} {{convert|69.7|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} {{convert|70.1|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
}}

The '''[[Suzuki]] Equator''' is a mid-size [[pickup truck]] based on the [[Nissan Frontier]] and assembled by [[Nissan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jbcarpages.com/suzuki/equator/2009/|title=2009 Suzuki Equator Review|publisher=JB car pages|accessdate=2009-01-31}}</ref> The Suzuki Equator is first sold in the US for the 2009 model year with MSRP prices starting at $17,220, and was first shown at the 2008 [[Chicago Auto Show]].

The Equator is offered in Extended Cab and Crew Cab styles, the former offering space for four and the latter for five passengers. In the Canadian market, the Equator is only offered in the Crew Cab configuration, in a single trim level.

Power on base Extended Cab models comes from a [[Straight-4|4-cylinder]] engine. A [[V6]] is optional on Extended Cab models and standard with the Crew Cab. Both engines are supplied by [[Nissan]].

The base 2.5 L Inline-4 produces {{convert|152|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} at 5,200 rpm and {{convert|171|lbft|Nm|abbr=on}} at 4,400 rpm,<ref name="2009specs">{{cite web|url=http://www.jbcarpages.com/suzuki/equator/2009/specs/|title=2009 Suzuki Equator Specs|publisher=JB car pages|accessdate=2009-01-31}}</ref> and is a rear-wheel-drive. It comes with a either a five-speed [[manual transmission]] or a five-speed [[Automatic transmission|automatic]].

The 4.0 L V6 engine develops {{convert|261|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} at 5,600 rpm and {{convert|281|lbft|Nm|abbr=on}} at 4,000 rpm.<ref name="2009specs"/> It comes standard with a five-speed automatic and is available with four-wheel-drive.

The Equator triumphed over the new [[Dodge Ram 1500]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=July 2011}}, 2009 [[Ford F150]], [[Hummer H3]] Alpha and H3T Adventure, [[Kia Borrego]] EX V8, and [[Toyota Sequoia]] Platinum in ''Peterson's 4Wheel & Off-Road's 2009'' 4x4 of the Year.<ref>Williams, Fred. "2009 4x4 of the Year." Peterson's 4Wheel & Off-Road February 09: 22-39.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Nissan Frontier#D40 series|Nissan Frontier]]
* [[Suzuki]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Suzuki United States}}

[[Category:Suzuki vehicles|Equator]]
[[Category:Pickup trucks]]
[[Category:Rear wheel drive vehicles]]
[[Category:All wheel drive vehicles]]
[[Category:2000s automobiles]]
[[Category:2010s automobiles]]

[[fa:سوزوکی اکواتور]]
[[it:Suzuki Equator]]
[[ja:スズキ・イクエーター]]
[[pl:Suzuki Equator]]
[[pt:Suzuki Equator]]
[[sco:Suzuki Equator]]
[[uk:Suzuki Equator]]

Jay Severin

2011-07-06T23:17:37Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox person
| name = James Thompson Severin III
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = 08 January 1951
| birth_place = [[Hudson Valley]], [[New York State|New York]]
| occupation = Political commentator
| spouse = Renee Melanie Klock
| parents = Iris Severino (m)
James Thompson Severino (f)
| children = daughter
}}

'''James Thompson Severino'''<ref name="marriage">{{cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9403E2DB1238F93BA25756C0A961958260 |title=Renee Klock, James Severin 3d |publisher=The New York Times | date=May 18, 1997 | accessdate=May 6, 2010}}</ref><ref name="lehigh">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2005/09/16/severins_phony_pulitzer/ | title=Severin's phony Pulitzer | accessdate=2006-12-28 | work=The Boston Globe | first=Scot | last=Lehigh | date=September 16, 2005}}</ref>, professionally known as '''Jay Severin''', (born January 8, 1951{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}) is an American political [[talk radio]] personality since 1995,<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/01/style/chronicle-240895.html?scp=26&sq=severin&st=nyt NYT 01 Feb 95]</ref>, formerly on [[Boston|Boston's]] [[WTKK]]-FM (96.9).

==Biography==
===Early life===
Jay Severin was born on 8 January 1951 in Dutchess County, New York. His mother was an artist and writer, and his father was a World War II Army Air Corps veteran and direct mail advertising entrepreneur.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/18/style/renee-klock-james-severin-3d.html?scp=1&sq=severin&st=nyt NYT 18 May 97]</ref>

A member of the first-ever co-ed class of [[Vassar College]] (class of 1974), Severin studied at [[Boston University]]<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/04/_jay_severin.html Boston Globe 30 Apr 09 WTKK-FM suspends Severin for derogatory comments about Mexicans]</ref>

After withdrawing from Boston University, Severin went to New York City to work for political consultant [[David Garth]]. In 1979, Severin started (Severin Aviles Associates) to direct strategy and produce media for Republican candidates<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1981/12/07/business/advertising-kappa-sport-hires-severin-aviles-agency.html?scp=5&sq=severin&st=nyt NYT 07 Dec 81]
</ref><ref>New York Magazine, 12 Nov 84 p12</ref><ref>[http://faculty1.coloradocollege.edu/~bloevy/bookgovernor1994/GovernorNine.htm Mike Bird, campaign for CO Governor]</ref> including campaigns for the U.S. House. U.S. Senate, Governor, and President ([[George H.W. Bush]]<ref>New York Magazine 23 Sept 85 p9 "Bush Group Signs Garth Vets"</ref> and [[Pat Buchanan]] (1996 campaign)<ref>[http://mediamatters.org/research/200506100003 Media Matters 10 Jun 05]</ref>).

Filling in for [[Gene Burns]] starting in October 1994, Severin began work as a talk show host on [[WOR (AM)|WOR]], and worked there during the afternoon drive time slot until June 1996 when he was replaced by [[Bob Grant]].<ref>[http://worradionet.com/about/ WOR Radio Network "About"]</ref><ref>[http://articles.nydailynews.com/1995-11-21/entertainment/17985012_1_bob-grant-talk-wor NY Daily News 21 Dec 95 "Politics Has Severin Percolating On Wor"]</ref> Severin filled in for Grant at WOR on an irregular basis<ref>[http://articles.nydailynews.com/1997-09-08/entertainment/18051062_1_mother-teresa-chancellor-media-fm NY Daily News 08 Sep 97 "Severin Got Early Jump On Diana-teresa Link"]</ref> before accepting a late-night talk show position on [[WRKO]] which lasted from April to July 1999.<ref>[http://lists.bostonradio.org/bri/v02/msg07332.html Boston Radio 27 Mar 99]</ref><ref>[http://lists.bostonradio.org/bri/v03/msg01747.html Boston Radio 27 Jul 99]</ref>

Starting in late 1999, Severin began hosting an afternoon talk show on [[WTKK]].<ref>[http://www.bostonradio.org/stations/25050.html Boston Radio]</ref>

In September 2005, CBS Radio announced that Jay Severin would host a show for select Infinity Broadcasting stations called "Jay Severin Has Issues".<ref>[http://www.cbsradio.com/press_center/releases/pressrelease130442-09-16-2005.html CBS Radio]</ref> Severin returned to WTKK on 9 October 2006, after nine months in syndication.<ref>[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/bostonherald/access/1142679841.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+9%2C+2006&author=JESSICA+HESLAM&pub=Boston+Herald&edition=&startpage=8&desc=Listeners%27+IQs+bring+Severin+back+to+Boston Boston Herald Archives 09 Oct 06 p.8]</ref>

===Controversies and termination from [[WTKK]]===

In April 2004, when a caller said United States citizens should "befriend Muslims living in the United States", Severin replied, "the vast majority" of those Muslims "... are not loyal to the United States and are ready, when the time comes, to take over this country." Severin added, "You think we should befriend them. I think we should kill them." <ref>[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/access/628267231.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+5%2C+2004&author=SCOT+LEHIGH&pub=Boston+Globe&edition=&startpage=A.11&desc=DOES+TALK+HOST+SEVERIN+EVEN+CARE+WHAT%27S+TRUE%3F Boston Globe 05 May 2004 Scott Lehigh article]</ref> On 25 April 2004, Severin said his comments were directed at terrorists, not Muslims in general, and stated, "I certainly regret any discomfort that may have been caused by the misunderstanding of my remarks." The Council for American Islamic Relations ([[CAIR]]) called for Severin's dismissal, but without result.<ref>[http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/cair-renews-call-for-radio-hosts-firing-severin-says-us-muslims-fifth-column-kill-them-72688212.html prnewswire]</ref>

On 30 April 2009, Severin said Mexicans were "the world's lowest of primitives." and, "It's millions of leeches from a primitive country come here to leech off you and, with it, they are ruining the schools, the hospitals, and a lot of life in America ..." Severin was suspended <ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2009/05/01/severin_suspended_for_comments_about_mexican_immigrants/ Boston Globe 01 May 09 "Severin suspended for comments about Mexican immigrants"]</ref> until 3 June 2009, at which time he apologized by saying (in part), " ... My remarks were hurtful, unkind and wrong. For these remarks and for failing to meet the standards you are right to expect of me, I am sincerely sorry ... "<ref>[http://www.bostonherald.com/news/regional/view.bg?articleid=1176448&srvc=home&position=active Boston Herald 03 Jun 09 "Jay Severin admits Mexican cracks wrong"]</ref><ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oe3LRp9pQP8&feature=player_embedded#at=152 YouTube Video]</ref>

In March 2011, Jay said, "I slept with virtually every young college girl I hired to be an intern or an employee for my firm." <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1374432/Jay-Severin-fired-air-radio-admission-Interns-lucky-sleep-me.html U.K. Daily Mail 07 Apr 11]</ref> Following this statement, Severin was fired from WTKK. Greater Media said, "Severin was let go because he did not maintain an appropriate level of civility and adhere to a standard that respects our listeners and the public at large ..... it had become clear at several points in the past two years that Jay was either unwilling or unable to maintain our standards on the air. It's for that reason we have made the decision to end our relationship."<ref>[http://articles.boston.com/2011-04-06/ae/29389342_1_wtkk-sexual-harassment-rock-n-roll Boston Globe 06 Apr 11 "Jay Severin fired by WTKK-FM"]</ref>

===Marriage and children===
Jay Severin's first marriage was to Kathleen Cooney, one of his partners in the Severin-Aviles consulting firm.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/07/us/smiling-and-relaxed-giuliani-puts-polished-image-forward.html?pagewanted=2 NYT 07 Sep 93]</ref>

On May 17, 1997, Jay Severin was married to Renee Melanie Klock in Sag Harbor, N.Y. They were wed in the [[Old Whaler's Church (Sag Harbor)|Old Whalers First Presbyterian Church]] by Rev. Christine Rannie Grimbol.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> They have one child, and the family currently resides in [[Manchester-by-the-Sea]],<ref>[http://www.boston.com/realestate/luxuryliving/articles/2006/11/12/the_bruins_dens/ Boston Globe 12 Nov 2006]</ref> in [[Massachusetts]].

==Philosophical and/or political views==
Within his capacity as a political consultant, Jay Severin provided advice and guidance to political conservatives such as Pat Buchanon and George H. W. Bush. By his own account, Severin opposed the war in Vietnam but supported the troops serving there. Severin has described himself on various occasions as a "libertarian libertine" and a "small 'c' conservative". Within his capacity as a conservative talk show host and while on air, Severin has described Hillary Rodham Clinton as "the devil"<ref>[http://mediamatters.org/mmtv/200506280005 Media Matters transcript 27 Jun 05]</ref> and Barack Obama as a "domestic enemy of the constitution",<ref>[http://mediamatters.org/mmtv/201006240053 Media matters audio capture 23 Jun 10]</ref> but has expressed philosophical support for gay marriage.<ref>[http://www.baywindows.com/index.php?ch=news&sc=blog&sc2=news&sc3=&id=83601 Bay Windows 19 Nov 08]</ref>

Severin has spoken at the U.S. Naval War College, and universities, including Harvard, Wellesley, Columbia, Vassar, Boston College <ref>[http://www.bcheights.com/2.6176/conservative-talk-show-host-addresses-bc-1.922249 The Heights 10 Nov 2003]</ref> and Boston University.

==Awards==
In July 2004, Jay Severin was nominated for a National Association of Broadcasters [[NAB Marconi Radio Awards|Marconi Radio Award]] for the Major Market Personality of the Year.<ref>[http://radiomagonline.com/convention_news/nab_radio_show/nabr_update_20040921/#marconi Radiomag Online 21 Sep 04]</ref>

==See also==
*[[biography]]
*[[talk radio]]
*[[Rush Limbaugh]]
*[[Air America (radio network)|Air America]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://mediamatters.org/research/200506100003 Mediamatters.org]
* [https://www.facebook.com/jayseverin?sk=wall Jay Severin Facebook page]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/02/nyregion/02garth.html NYT 01 Jun 10 article on David Garth]
{{Persondata
|NAME=Jay Severin
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=James Thompson Severino III
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Political consultant and talk show host
|DATE OF BIRTH=08 January 1951
|PLACE OF BIRTH=Hudson Valley, New York
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Severin, Jay}}
[[Category:1951 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American libertarians]]
[[Category:American political pundits]]
[[Category:American talk radio hosts]]
[[Category:Radio personalities from Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Radio personalities from New York City]]
[[Category:Vassar College alumni]]

Cameron Todd Willingham

2011-07-06T21:43:19Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

'''Cameron Todd Willingham''' (January 9, 1968, [[Carter County, Oklahoma]] – February 16, 2004, [[Huntsville Unit]], [[Huntsville, Texas]]) was convicted of [[murder]] and [[capital punishment|executed]] for the deaths of his three young children via [[arson]] at the family home in [[Corsicana, Texas]].

Willingham's case gained renewed attention in 2009 when an investigative report in ''[[The New Yorker]]'',<ref name=Grann/> drawing upon arson investigation experts and advances in fire science since the 1992 investigation suggested that the evidence for arson was unconvincing, and that had this information been available at the time of trial, Mr. Willingham would have been acquitted.

According to an August 2009 investigative report by an expert hired by the [[Texas Forensic Science Commission]], the original claims of arson were doubtful;<ref name="Beyler"/> the Corsicana Fire Department disputes the findings, stating that the expert's report overlooked several key points in the record. The case has been further complicated by allegations<ref>''[[CNN]]'', 2 October 2009, [http://www.cnn.com/2009/CRIME/10/01/texas.execution.probe/index.html Shake-up in Texas execution probe draws criticism, questions]</ref> that [[Governor of Texas]] [[Rick Perry]] has impeded the investigation by replacing three of the nine Commission members in an attempt to change the Commission's findings; Perry denies the charges.

In 2011, a documentary film dissecting the case and its controversial aftermath won the Louis Black Award at the South By Southwest Film Festival.<ref>[http://www.slackerwood.com/node/2170 Slackerwood blog: "SXSW 2011: The Awards (So Far)"]</ref> The film ([http://incendiarymovie.com INCENDIARY: The Willingham Case]) will screen amongst ten American films in the 2011 American Film Institute/Discovery SILVERDOCS U.S. Sterling Feature Competition.<ref>[http://silverdocs.com/news-links/2011/05/26/competition-slate-announced/ AFI Discovery SILVERDOCS, "Competition Slate Announced."]</ref>
== Fire ==
The fire occurred at the Willingham home in [[Corsicana, Texas]] on December 23, 1991. Killed in the fire were Willingham's three daughters: two-year-old Amber Louise Kuykendall and one-year-old twins Karmon Diane Willingham and Kameron Marie Willingham. Willingham himself escaped the home with only minor burns. Stacy Kuykendall, Willingham's then-wife and the mother of his three daughters, was not home at the time of the fire, as she was out shopping. Prosecutors charged that Willingham set the fire and killed the children in an attempt to cover up abuse of the girls.<ref name=ClarkCountyProsecutor>[http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/US/willingham899.htm The Clark County Prosecuting Attorney: Cameron Todd Willingham]</ref> This was in spite of the fact that there was never any evidence of child abuse and Willingham's wife, Stacy, had told prosecutors that he had never abused the children. "Our kids were spoiled rotten," she said and insisted he would never harm their children.<ref name=Grann/>

==Investigation and trial==
===Evidence===
The primary evidence leading to Willingham's arrest and conviction was the result of police inspections after the fire, which determined that the fire had been started using some form of liquid accelerant. This evidence included a finding of char patterns in the floor in the shape of "puddles", a finding of multiple starting points of the fire, and a finding that the fire had burned "fast and hot", all considered to indicate a fire that had been ignited with the help of a liquid accelerant. The investigators also found charring under the aluminum front door jamb that they believed was further indication of a liquid accelerant, and tested positive for such an accelerant in the area of the front door. Although no clear motive was found, and Willingham's wife denied that they had fought prior to the night of the fire, later testimony from a fellow inmate claimed that Willingham had confessed to starting the fire.

Charcoal starter fluid and an outdoor grill were kept on the front porch of Willingham's house as evidenced by a melted container found there. Some of this fluid may have entered the front doorway of the house carried along by fire hose water. While laboratory tests verified that an accelerant was used only near the front porch, it was alleged that this fluid was deliberately poured near the front porch, a children's bedroom and a hallway to start the fire and that Willingham included the entranceway by the front porch so as to impede rescue attempts. Willingham volunteered the information that squirrels had been getting into his roof in the weeks prior to the fire, and suggested to neighbours immediately afterwards that the fire was of electrical origin<ref name="Fogg statement">[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/death-by-fire/documents/police-statements-in-trial.html "Statement of Sherry Cooley"]</ref>. He maintained this explanation, with qualifications as to his lack of expertise, in his police statement. The prosecution used this and other [[arson]] theories, some of which have since been brought into question.

Long after the original conviction, in 2004 Gerald Hurst, who has a Ph.D. in chemistry, examined the arson evidence compiled by Manuel Vasquez, the state deputy fire marshal. Hurst said that Vasquez was incorrect when he said that the extreme heat of the fire (as evidenced by a melted aluminum threshold) indicated that an accelerant was used, and said that experiments prove that wood and liquid accelerant fires can burn with equal heat. Hurst's own experiments showed that burning with an accelerant does not leave the kind of brown stains that Vasquez claimed were created that way. Hurst also said that the crazed glass that Vasquez said was caused by a liquid accelerant had been found as a result of brush fires elsewhere. Experiments showed that crazed glass was caused not by rapid heating but by cooling, and that glass cooled by water from a fire hose was more likely to have a crazed or cracked pattern. A $20,000 experimental house fire set without an accelerant created the same pour patterns and V shaped pattern that Vasquez attributed to the use of a liquid accelerant. Vasquez thought that Willingham lied when he said he escaped without burning his feet, because he thought that an accelerant was used that would spread fire along the floor. However, since no accelerant was needed to create the results found, Willingham could well have been telling the truth when he said that he ran out without burning his feet, presuming he left before the fire achieved [[flashover]].

According to Hurst, when a fire reaches the flashover threshold, it is impossible to visually identify accelerant patterns. While the prosecutor thought that the "bizarre" path of the flame indicated that an accelerant was used, Hurst said that the path of the fire followed a post-flashover pattern of going in the direction of ventilation. Although Willingham was accused of using an accelerant in three different places, the front porch was the only place where an accelerant was verified by laboratory tests, and a photograph taken of the house before the fire showed that a charcoal grill was there. The family confirmed that lighter fluid was by the grill used for family barbecues. Water sprayed by firefighters likely spread the lighter fluid from the melted container. All twenty of the indications listed by Vasquez of an accelerant being used were rebutted by Hurst.<ref name="Grann"/>

However, on returning to the house after the fire in the company of fireman Ron Franks, Willingham freely admitted to pouring flammable British Sterling cologne in the hallway from the bathroom to the bedroom in which the twins died, and commented "If you get any more samples from the floor, it will have the cologne in them."<ref name="Franks statement">[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/death-by-fire/documents/police-statements-in-trial.html "Statement of fireman Ron Franks"], December 30, 1991.</ref>

A report prepared by Craig Beyler for the Texas Forensic Science Commission said that investigators ignored the scientific method for analyzing fires described in ''NFPA 921, Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations'' and relied on "folklore" and "myths". Beyler also said that Vasquez was incorrect when he said that witnesses saw three different fires, and that they only reported smoke from the fire that began in the bedroom.<ref name="Beyler"/> Beyler wrote in his report, "in the end, the only (basis) for the determination of arson ... is the burn patterns on the floor of the children's bedroom, the hallway and the porch interpreted as [[accelerant]] spill. None of these determinations have any basis in modern fire science."<ref name="Beyler"/> However, the City of Corsicana was extremely critical of Beyler's report, and produced a 21-page response pointing out that his report lacked objectivity, stating "Given some of Dr. Beyler’s distortions of the trial record, as described below, it may be that he has assumed the role of an advocate."<ref>Jacobs, Janet (October 4, 2009), [http://corsicanadailysun.com/thewillinghamfiles/x546110540/-10-04-09-City-report-on-arson-probe?keyword=secondarystory "City report on arson probe"], ''[[Corsicana Daily Sun]]''</ref>

The Board of Pardons and Paroles received Hurst's description, but unanimously denied Willingham's petition for clemency. Governor Perry refused to grant a stay of execution, saying through a spokesperson that "The Governor made his decision based on the facts of the case."<ref name="Grann"/> Governor Perry said that the "supposed experts" (using finger quotes) were wrong<ref>Gillman, Todd (September 19, 2009), [http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/news/texassouthwest/stories/DN-perry_19tex.ART.State.Edition2.4bf3d78.html "Perry defends disputed '04 execution of Corsicana man"], ''[[The Dallas Morning News]]''</ref> and not to listen to anti-death penalty "propaganda".<ref>[http://www.kltv.com/Global/story.asp?S=11313749 "Perry: Washington bad, Willingham prosecution good"], Tyler TX: [[KLTV]], October 14, 2009</ref> Perry aide Mary Anne Wiley said the commission's $30,000 hiring of fire scientist Craig Beyler was a waste of taxpayer money.<ref>[http://www.dailysentinel.com/blogs/content/shared-gen/blogs/austin/firstreading/entries/2009/10/14/_tuesday_highlights_and_the_1.html "Justice's impact seen at Capitol in recent years"], ''[[The Daily Sentinel (Texas)|The Daily Sentinel]]'' (Nacogdoches, TX)</ref> Jackson, one of the prosecutors, admitted that an "undeniably flawed forensic report" was used to convict Willingham, but claimed that other reasons established guilt.<ref name="jackson" />

In addition to the arson evidence, a [[informant#Jailhouse informants|jailhouse informant]] named Johnny Webb claimed Willingham confessed that he set the fire to hide an injury or death of one of the girls, caused by his wife<ref name="Webb testimony" />, although none of the girls at the time of death were found to have physical injuries still distinguishable after the effects of the fire.<ref name="chicagotribune">{{cite news | title = Man executed on disproved forensics | first = Steve | last = Mills | first2 = Maurice|last2=Possley | url = http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0412090169dec09,0,1173806.story | newspaper = [[Chicago Tribune]] | date = December 9, 2004 | accessdate = September 1, 2009 }}</ref> Webb later told a reporter for ''[[The New Yorker]]'', "it's very possible I misunderstood what he said. Being locked up in that little cell makes you kind of crazy. My memory is in bits and pieces. I was on a lot of medication at the time. Everyone knew that."<ref name=Grann/>. At Willingham's trial, Webb offered an explanation for the individual, distinguishable burns that were found on Amber's forehead and arm, stating that Willingham confessed to burning her twice with a piece of "wadded up" paper in an effort to make it appear as though the children were "playing with fire"<ref name="Webb testimony">[http://www.innocenceproject.org/docs/Willingham_Transcript/Willinghamv11.pdf "Testimony of Johnny Webb on the first day of the trial"]</ref>. Webb was later diagnosed bipolar and even the prosecutor described Webb as "an unreliable kind of guy", yet after Webb's testimony Jackson successfully got him released from prison early. Webb later sent Jackson a Motion to Recant Testimony, that declared, "Mr. Willingham is innocent of all charges." Willingham's attorneys were not notified and Webb later recanted his recantation. Webb later said, "The statute of limitations has run out on perjury, hasn’t it?"<ref name="Grann"/>.

During the penalty phase of the trial a prosecutor said that Willingham's tattoo of a skull and serpent fit the profile of a sociopath. Two medical experts confirmed the theory. A psychologist was asked to interpret Willingham's [[Iron Maiden]] poster, and said that a picture of a fist punching through a skull signified violence and death. He added that Willingham's [[Led Zeppelin]] poster of a fallen angel was "many times" an indicator of "cultive-type" activities. Psychiatrist [[James Grigson]], said that a man of Willingham's criminal history, was an "extremely severe sociopath" and was incurable. Grigson, also known as "Dr. Death", was an expert witness for the prosecution in murder trials across the state of Texas. Prior to his death, he upheld his record by stating that the prosecutors would not have them on trial if they were not a danger to society. "I did my part to put them away."{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

=== Witnesses ===

Further to the testimony of Webb and the arson evidence, the prosecution sought to establish that Willingham's conduct at the time of the fire and in the days afterwards was suspicious. As the fire took hold, Willingham was driven out through the front door of his house, where he crouched down near the entrance. On seeing neighbour Diane Barbe, Willingham began to shout at her to call 911, shouting "My babies are in there!"<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/death-by-fire/documents/police-statements-in-trial.html] Statements of Diane Barbe, Brandice Barbe.</ref>. At trial, Willingham's conduct at the scene was described as oscillating between collected and hysterical - at times screaming for assistance, and at other times calmly pushing his car back from the flames that were engulfing his house. Further to the testimony of Webb and the arson evidence, the prosecution sought to establish that Willingham's conduct at the time of the fire and in the days afterwards was suspicious.

Eyewitnesses also described his appearance as having "singed hair on his chest, eyelids, and head and had a two inch burn injury on his right shoulder, but the prosecution highlighted the absence of any evidence of smoke inhalation. His wrists and hands were blackened with smoke. He was eventually transported to the hospital for treatment, still resisting and still in handcuffs."<ref>[http://alt.coxnewsweb.com/shared-blogs/austin/investigative/upload/2009/08/execution_based_on_bad_investi/D_Beyler%20FINAL%20REPORT%20082509.pdf Beyler Report], 25 August 2009.</ref>

According to their sworn statements, both Brandice Barbe and Diane Barbe urged Willingham to return into the house to rescue his children, as according to Brandice Barbe, "all I could see was smoke"<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/death-by-fire/documents/police-statements-in-trial.html] Statements of Diane Barbe, Brandice Barbe.</ref>. According to Brandice, he refused, and went to move his car away from the fire before returning to sit on a nearby lawn "not once attempting to go inside to rescue his children". Once the fire had reached flashover and the fire department arrived, Willingham became far more agitated, to the point of being restrained by emergency services.

In the following days, Willingham would return to the house with some family and friends, this gathering being described by neighbours as having an odd levity, which was seen to turn sombre on the arrival of authorities<ref>[http://www.innocenceproject.org/docs/Willingham_Transcript/Willinghamv12.pdf]</ref>. On returning to the scene of the fire with fireman Ron Franks, in an effort to recover personal property (which was described as a very usual request at trial), Willingham was visibly dismayed to be unable to find a dart set. At a local bar, where a fundraiser was held for the Willingham family, he placed an order for a replacement set, stating that "money was not a problem now"<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/death-by-fire/documents/police-statements-in-trial.html Statement of Vicky Prater]</ref>.

==== Motivation ====
The prosecution claimed that Willingham may have been motivated by a desire to rid himself of his unwanted children.<ref name="TEI"/> The prosecutor claimed that the fire which killed the children was the third attempt by Willingham to do so after attempting to abort each of two pregnancies by kicking his wife in order to cause miscarriages.<ref>Jackson, op. cit., "The event which caused the three children's deaths was the third attempt by Todd Willingham to kill his children established by the evidence. He had attempted to abort both pregnancies by vicious attacks on his wife in which he beat and kicked his wife with the specific intent to trigger miscarriages."</ref> However, in a follow up article by David Grann, it was noted that" ...there is evidence that Willingham hit his wife, even when she was pregnant, but there were no police reports or medical evidence indicating that Willingham had tried to abort or kill his children" and that "Willingham’s wife insisted during the trial and under interrogation that Willingham had not physically abused the children."<ref name="Grannresponds"/>. The testimony at trial of Johnny Webb, a jailhouse informant, suggested that Willingham had set the fire in order to cover up an injury or death of one of the children due to his wife's actions<ref>http://www.innocenceproject.org/docs/Willingham_Transcript/Willinghamv11.pdf</ref>.

The prosecutor also claimed that Willingham was a serial [[domestic violence|wife abuser]], both physically and emotionally. Jackson also claimed Willingham had abused animals and was a [[sociopath]].<ref name="jackson"/> However, those not associated with the case paint a different picture of Willingham. His former probation officer, Polly Goodin, said he had never demonstrated bizarre or sociopathic behavior and “He was probably one of my favorite kids,” she said. Even a former judge named Bebe Bridges—who had often stood, as she put it, on the “opposite side” of Willingham in the legal system, and who had sent him to jail for stealing—said that she could not imagine him killing his children. “He was polite, and he seemed to care,” she said.<ref name=Grann/>

===Trial===
Willingham was charged with murder on January 8, 1992. During his trial in August 1992, he was offered a life term in exchange for a guilty plea, which he turned down insisting he was innocent.<ref>{{cite web |publisher = [[Amnesty International]] |title = Document - USA (Texas): Further Information on Death penalty, Cameron Todd Willingham |url = http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AMR51/182/2004/en/dom-AMR511822004en.html |date = December 13, 2004 |accessdate = September 1, 2009 }} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> At trial, the fire investigator Vasquez testified that there were three points of origin for the fire, which indicated that the fire was "intentionally set by human hands". A sample of burned material near the doorway of the house tested positive for mineral spirits, indicating the presence of lighter fluid. Willingham had escaped the fire with bare feet and no burn marks. This was taken as evidence that accelerant was poured by Willingham as he left the house. Several witnesses testified for the prosecution.<ref name=Grann/>

In 2009, John Jackson, the prosecutor at the trial stated that burns suffered by Willingham were so superficial as to suggest that the same were self-inflicted in an attempt to divert suspicion from himself.<ref name="jackson">{{cite news |publisher=[[Corsicana Daily Sun]] |first=John H. |last=Jackson, Sr. |date=2009-08-29 |accessdate=2009-09-05 |url=http://www.corsicanadailysun.com/opinion/local_story_241210447.html?keyword=topstory |title=Willingham guilt never in doubt}}</ref> However, ''The New Yorker'' writer David Grann says that fire investigators who reviewed the case told him that "Willingham’s first-degree and second-degree burns were consistent with being in a fire before the moment of '[[flashover]]'—that is, when everything in a room suddenly ignites."<ref name="Grannresponds">{{cite news |publisher=[[The New Yorker]] |first=David |last=Grann |date=2009-09-04 |accessdate=2009-09-06 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2009/09/david-grann-response-to-jackson.html |title=David Grann" The Prosecution Defends Itself}}</ref>

Commenting on the condition of the house, Jackson added "any escape or rescue route from the burning house was blocked by a refrigerator which had been pushed against the back door, requiring any person attempting escape to run through the conflagration at the front of the house."<ref name="jackson"/> There were two refrigerators in the Willingham house. Jimmie Hensley, a police detective, and Douglas Fogg, the assistant fire chief, who both investigated the fire, told ''The New Yorker'' author Grann that they had never believed that the fridge was part of the arson plot. “It didn’t have nothing to do with the fire,” Fogg said.<ref name=Grann/>

Jackson also contradicted Willingham's account by claiming blood-gas analysis at Navarro Regional Hospital shortly after the fire revealed that Willingham had not inhaled any smoke. Willingham's statement and eyewitness accounts had detailed rescue attempts.<ref name="jackson"/>

Consistent with typical Navarro County death penalty practice, Willingham was offered the opportunity to eliminate himself as a suspect by [[polygraph]] examination, which "was rejected in the most vulgar and insulting manner," according to Jackson.<ref name="jackson"/> Against the advice of his own counsel, Willingham also declined a life sentence in exchange for his guilty plea. He insisted he would not admit to something he had not done, even if it meant sparing his life.

== Appeals, incarceration, and execution ==
[[File:EllisUnitTX.jpg|thumb|[[Ellis Unit]], where Willingham was initially confined]]
Willingham had the [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]] number 999041.<ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/statistics/deathrow/drowlist/wilinham.jpg Cameron Todd Willingham]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref> While on death row, Willingham was initially incarcerated in the [[Ellis Unit]],<ref>Grann, David. "Trial by Fire." ''[[The New Yorker]]''. September 7, 2009. [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/09/07/090907fa_fact_grann 1]. Retrieved on July 23, 2010.</ref> and later in the [[Polunsky Unit]].<ref>[[Michael Graczyk|Graczyk, Michael]]. "[http://lubbockonline.com/stories/032010/sta_593115483.shtml Inmate maintains innocence as execution approaches]." ''[[Lubbock Avalanche-Journal]]''. Saturday March 20, 2010. Retrieved on July 23, 2010.</ref> Willingham maintained his innocence up until his death and spent years trying to appeal his conviction. The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals denied Willingham a [[habeas corpus|writ of ''habeas corpus'']] a month before his execution. Dr. Gerald Hurst, an Austin scientist and fire investigator, reviewed the case and concluded there was "no evidence of arson", the same conclusion reached by other fire investigators. Hurst's report was sent to governor [[Rick Perry]]'s office as well as Board of Pardons and Paroles along with Willingham's appeal for clemency.<ref>Rachel Farris, ''[[The Huffington Post]]'', 10 September 2009, [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rachel-farris/dare-devils-governor-rick_b_284698.html Dare Devils: Governor Rick Perry and the Texas Death Panel]</ref> Neither responded to Willingham's appeals. In response to allegations that he allowed the execution of an innocent man, Perry was quoted as stating "he was a wife beater." "The whole case was based on the purest form of junk science," Hurst later said. "There was no item of evidence that indicated arson." Perry spokeswoman Katherine Cesinger said the Governor had weighed the "totality of the issues that led to (Willingham's) conviction." She said he was aware of a "claim of a reinterpretation of (the) arson testimony."<ref>''[[Longview News-Journal]]'', 10 September 2009, [http://www.news-journal.com/news/content/region/legislature/stories/2009/09/10/0910selby.html Perry's denial of stay could become campaign issue]</ref>
[[File:PolunskyUnitWestLivingstonTX.jpg|thumb|left|Willingham was moved to the [[Allan B. Polunsky Unit]]]]
Willingham was executed by lethal injection on February 17, 2004, at the [[Huntsville Unit|Texas State Penitentiary]] in Huntsville. He was 36 years old. When asked if he had a [[final statement]], Willingham said: "Yeah. The only statement I want to make is that I am an innocent man convicted of a crime I did not commit. I have been persecuted for 12 years for something I did not do. From God's dust I came and to dust I will return, so the earth shall become my throne. I gotta go, Road Dog. I love you, Gabby."<ref>{{cite web | title=Offender Last Statement Cameron Todd Willingham #999041 | url=http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/willinghamcameronlast.htm | publisher=Texas Department of Criminal Justice | date=February 2, 2004 }}</ref>

He then addressed his ex-wife, Stacy Kuykendall, who was watching about {{convert|8|ft|m}} away through a window. Willingham said, "I hope you rot in hell, bitch; I hope you fucking rot in hell bitch; You bitch; I hope you fucking rot, cunt. That is it."<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/death-by-fire/documents/shocking-final-statement.html</ref> and then attempted to maneuver his hand, strapped at the wrist to the execution gurney, into an obscene gesture.<ref name="TEI">{{cite web | last=Carson | first=David | url=http://www.txexecutions.org/reports/320.asp | title=Texas Execution Information: Cameron Willingham | date=23 February 2004}}</ref> Kuykendall showed no reaction to the outburst. While she initially believed in her husband's innocence, following the trial she told him she no longer believed him and publicized her change of heart. Willingham was pronounced dead at 6:20 p.m., seven minutes after the lethal dose of chemicals began.
[[File:HuntsvilleUnitHuntsvilleTX.jpg|thumb|[[Huntsville Unit]], where Willingham died]]

==Post-execution attention==
Since Willingham's execution, persistent questions have been raised as to the accuracy of the forensic evidence used in the conviction; specifically, whether it can be proven that an accelerant (such as the lighter fluid mentioned above) was used to start the fatal fire.<ref>{{cite web | author = Scott Cobb | title = CNN's Anderson Cooper to Air Report on Cameron Willingham Tonight | url = http://stopexecutions.blogspot.com/2007/04/cnns-anderson-cooper-to-air-report-on.html | publisher = "Texas Moratorium Network" (stopexecutions.blogspot.com) | date = April 09, 2007 }}</ref> Fire investigator Gerald L. Hurst reviewed the case documents, including the trial transcriptions and an hour-long videotape of the aftermath of the fire scene. Hurst said in December 2004 that "There's nothing to suggest to any reasonable arson investigator that this was an arson fire. It was just a fire."<ref name="chicagotribune"/>

In June 2009 the State of Texas ordered an unprecedented re-examination of the case and may issue a ruling on it at a later date.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} In August 2009, eighteen years after the fire and five years after Willingham's execution, a report conducted by Dr. Craig Beyler, hired by the Texas Forensic Science Commission to review the case, found that "a finding of arson could not be sustained". Beyler said that key testimony from a fire marshal at Willingham's trial was "hardly consistent with a scientific mind-set and is more characteristic of mystics or psychics".<ref name=Grann>{{cite web |url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/09/07/090907fa_fact_grann|title=Trial by Fire: Did Texas execute an innocent man?|first=David|last=Grann|authorlink =David Grann|publisher=''[[The New Yorker]]''|date=2009-09-07}}</ref><ref name="Beyler">{{cite web| title = Analysis of the Fire Investigation Methods and Procedures Used in the Criminal Arson Cases Against Ernest Ray Willis and Cameron Todd Willingham | author = Craig L. Beyler, Ph.D., Technical Director | url = http://www.docstoc.com/docs/document-preview.aspx?doc_id=10401390 | publisher = docstoc.com | date = August 17, 2009 | accessdate = September 1, 2009 }}</ref>

The prosecutor, John Jackson, and the City of Corsicana have both released formal responses to the Beyler Report on the investigation of the fire that killed Willingham's three children at the behest of the Texas Forensic Science Commission.<ref>''[[Corsicana Daily Sun]]'', 3 October 2009, [http://www.corsicanadailysun.com/thewillinghamfiles/local_story_276222955.html City report on arson probe]</ref> Both were sharply critical of Beyler.<ref name="jackson"/> In a 2009 article discussing the reasons why Willingham was found guilty, Jackson recalled witness statements established that Willingham was overheard whispering to his deceased older daughter at the funeral home, "You're not the one who was supposed to die." Jackson stated that Willingham's comments was an indicator of guilt. In a rebuttal David Grann wrote, "If the arson investigators had concluded there was no scientific evidence that a crime had occurred—as the top fire investigators in the country have now determined—Willingham’s words at the funeral would surely be viewed as a sign that he was tormented by the fact that he had survived without saving his children."<ref name="Grannresponds"/>

An August 2009 ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' investigative article concluded: "Over the past five years, the Willingham case has been reviewed by nine of the nation's top fire scientists—first for the ''Tribune'', then for the [[Innocence Project]], and now for the commission. All concluded that the original investigators relied on outdated theories and folklore to justify the determination of arson. The only other evidence of significance against Willingham was twice recanted testimony<ref name="Grann"/> by another inmate who testified that Willingham had confessed to him. Jailhouse snitches are viewed with skepticism in the justice system, so much so that some jurisdictions have restrictions against their use."<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 25 August 2009, [http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi-tc-nw-texas-execute-0824-082aug25,0,5812073.story Cameron Todd Willingham case: Expert says fire for which father was executed was not arson]</ref>

The Texas Forensic Science Commission was scheduled to discuss the report by Dr. Beyler at a meeting on October 2, 2009, but two days before the meeting Texas Governor [[Rick Perry]] replaced the chair of the commission and two other members. The new chair canceled the meeting—sparking accusations that Perry was interfering with the investigation<ref>''[[CNN]]'', 2 October 2009, [http://www.cnn.com/2009/CRIME/10/01/texas.execution.probe/index.html Shake-up in Texas execution probe draws criticism, questions]</ref> and using it for his own political advantage.<ref>{{cite web | author = CNN | title = CNN's Anderson Cooper 360: “Is Texas Governor Rick Perry Trying to Cover Up Execution of Innocent Man on His Watch” | url = http://camerontoddwillingham.com/?p=205 | publisher = "Texas Moratorium Network" (camerontoddwillingham.com) | date = October 3, 2009}}</ref>

In October 2009 the city of Corsicana released two affidavits that included statements from Ronnie Kuykendall, the former brother-in-law of Willingham, originally made in 2004. According to the affidavits, Willingham's ex-wife had told Ronnie that Willingham had confessed to her that he had set the fire. Stacy herself told the ''[[Fort Worth Star-Telegram]]'' on 25 October 2009<ref>''[[Fort Worth Star-Telegram]]'', 25 October 2009, [http://www.star-telegram.com/texas/story/1709042.html Stacy Kuykendall's statement about the 1991 fire]</ref> that during a final prison meeting just weeks before he was put to death Willingham admitted setting the fire, as a response to Stacy's alleged threats of divorce the night before.<ref name=chitrib2343434>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 26 October 2009, [http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi-texas-willinghamoct26,0,1727088.story Death penalty case: Ex-wife says convicted killer confessed]</ref> Journalists familiar with the case noted that Stacy Kuykendall's statement explicitly contradicted previous comments, legal testimony, and numerous published interviews before and after the execution.<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 19 October 2009, [http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi-tc-nw-willingham-1018-1019oct19,0,286290.story Texas execution: Statements by Gov. Rick Perry, others don't align with facts]</ref> This was also noted by Willingham's prosecutor, who said "It’s hard for me to make heads or tails of anything she said or didn’t say."<ref>David Grann, ''The New Yorker'' blog, 26 October 2009, [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2009/10/stacy-kuykendall-statement.html DAVID GRANN: STACY SPEAKS]</ref> For example, Kuykendall had earlier in 2009 supported her 2004 contradiction of her brother's affidavit (saying that there had been no confession), and had previously always maintained that things had been amicable between her and Willingham before the fire.<ref name=chitrib2343434/> In 2010, she declared, "Todd murdered Amber, Karmon and Kameron. He burnt them. He admitted he burnt them to me, and he was convicted for his crime. That is the closest to justice that my daughters will ever get."<ref>Smith, Matt, "Convict in disputed execution was guilty, ex-wife says". CNN. October 6, 2010. [http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-06/justice/texas.execution.probe_1_cameron-todd-willingham-eugenia-willingham-stacy-kuykendall?_s=PM:CRIME]</ref>

A four-person panel of the [[Texas Forensic Science Commission]] investigating evidence of arson presented in the case acknowledged on July 23, 2010, that state and local arson investigators used "flawed science" in determining the blaze had been deliberately set. It also found insufficient evidence to prove that state Deputy Fire Marshal Manuel Vasquez and Corsicana Assistant Fire Chief Douglas Fogg were negligent or guilty of misconduct in their arson work.<ref>{{cite news | title=Flawed science" helped lead to Texas man's execution, but inquiry finds no negligence in probe that led to man's execution | publisher=Houston Chronicle | url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/metropolitan/7122381.html | date=2010-07-24 | last=Turner | first=Allan | accessdate=2010-08-08}}</ref>

In 2010 the Innocence Project filed a lawsuit against the State of Texas, seeking a judgment of "official oppression."<ref>Turner, Allan. "[http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/metropolitan/7220658.html Arson debate back in court]." ''[[Houston Chronicle]]''. September 27, 2010. Retrieved on September 27, 2010.</ref>

==In popular culture==
{{Original research|section|date=August 2010}}
*The plot of the season seven episode of the [[police procedural]] ''[[Cold Case (TV series)|Cold Case]]'' called ''Flashover'' which aired on March 21, 2010, bears a striking resemblance to the Cameron Todd Willingham case. A man, Joe Don Billingsley, is killed in prison after being convicted of the arson deaths of his two sons in his own home. After his death in prison evidence emerges that overwhelmingly suggest his innocence. As in the Willingham case, the man was convicted based on outdated, unscientific and incorrect assumptions by arson investigators; that original investigation not matching what the convict asserted had happened; a jail house snitch that lied under oath, and a public and authorities not understanding how a man could supposedly let his children burn to death and not make an effort to save them. Also as in real life the family, including the wife of Billingsley who was also the mother of the dead children, came to believe in Billingsley's guilt. The only significant differences being that Billingsley, unlike the real life Willingham, was killed by prisoners and it was one of the original investigating policemen [[List_of_Cold_Case_characters#Nick_Vera|Det. Nick Vera]] was the one who brought the new evidence to light, including finding that a very prominent fire investigator using recognized scientific methods that disputed the original findings (leading to profound feelings of guilt on the part of that detective) instead of reporters taking the initiative and finding the arson expert as in real life. Although [[Pennsylvania]] (''Cold Case'' is set in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]) does have a death penalty like Texas, Pennsylvania executes its death row inmates much less frequently; which is probably why the writers opted for Billingsley to be killed in prison by another inmate, for greater immediacy.

*The ''[[Law & Order: Special Victims Unit]]'' episode ''Torch'' (S11XE21) which aired on April 28, 2010 is also based on the case, but unlike real life and the ''Cold Case'' version, it has an upbeat resolution with the falsely accused alive and well when vindicated at trial only spending a minimum amount of jail time before he is released. Other differences from real life include that the victims were two girls with a third surviving eldest daughter who was not at the blaze; the prosecutor led the effort to prove the accused was innocent including finding a scientific arson expert to dispute the Fire Marshall's findings instead of the news media.

== See also ==
{{Portal box|Texas|Biography}}
* [[Capital punishment in Texas]]
* [[Capital punishment in the United States]]
* [[List of individuals executed in Texas]]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/death-by-fire/documents/ PBS portal on the Cameron Todd Willingham case - including original documents]
* [http://prezi.com/6stfswv2y4di/for a shorter summary of the Cameron Todd Willingham case - a slide show presentation]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{Cite news | title = Trial by Fire | first = David | last = Grann | url = http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/09/07/090907fa_fact_grann | newspaper = [[The New Yorker]] | date = September 7, 2009}}
* {{Cite news | title = Man executed on disproved forensics | first = Steve | last = Mills | author2 = Maurice Possley | url = http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0412090169dec09,0,1173806.story | newspaper = [[Chicago Tribune]] | date = December 9, 2004 | accessdate = September 1, 2009 }}
* [http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/statistics/deathrow/drowlist/wilinham.jpg Offender Information]. ''[[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]''. Retrieved on 2007-11-20.
* [http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/willinghamcameronlast.htm Last Statement]. ''[[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]''. Retrieved on 2007-11-20.
* [http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/US/willingham899.htm Cameron Todd Willingham]. ''The Clark County Prosecuting Attorney''. Retrieved on 2007-11-20.
* Blumenthal, Ralph. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/03/us/03execute.html Faulty Testimony Sent 2 to Death Row, Panel Finds]. ''[[The New York Times]]'' (2006-05-03). Retrieved on 2007-11-20.
* {{Cite web | title = Document - USA (Texas): Further Information on Death penalty, Cameron Todd Willingham | url = http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AMR51/182/2004/en/dom-AMR511822004en.html | date = December 13, 2004 | accessdate = September 1, 2009 }} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}
* {{Cite web | last=Carson | first=David | url=http://www.txexecutions.org/reports/320.asp | title=Texas Execution Information: Cameron Willingham | date = February 18, 2004 }}
* {{Cite web| title = Analysis of the Fire Investigation Methods and Procedures Used in the Criminal Arson Cases Against Ernest Ray Willis and Cameron Todd Willingham | author = Craig L. Beyler, Ph.D. Technical Director | url = http://www.docstoc.com/docs/document-preview.aspx?doc_id=10401390 | publisher = docstoc.com | date = August 17, 2009 | accessdate = September 1, 2009 }}

== External links ==
* [http://static.cnhi.zope.net/corsicanadailysun/images/City_of_Corsicana_response.pdf City of Corsicana Response to Beyler Report, 29 September 2009]
* "[http://web.archive.org/web/20060502193008/http://www.oag.state.tx.us/oagnews/release.php?id=373&PHPSESSID=e9e284391813cdf3d42895341aa9a096 Media Advisory: Cameron Todd Willingham Scheduled For Execution]." - [[Texas Attorney General]] - Friday February 13, 2004
* [http://alt.coxnewsweb.com/shared-blogs/austin/investigative/upload/2009/08/execution_based_on_bad_investi/D_Beyler%20FINAL%20REPORT%20082509.pdf Analysis of the Fire Investigation Methods and Procedures Used in the Criminal Arson Case Against Ernest Ray Willis and Cameran Todd Willingham - Craig L. Beyler].
* [http://www.corsicanadailysun.com/thewillinghamfiles Willingham Files - A collection of all stories published by the Corsicana Daily Sun]
* "[http://www.oag.state.tx.us/oagnews/release.php?id=373&PHPSESSID=e9e284391813cdf3d42895341aa9a096 Media Advisory: Cameron Todd Willingham Scheduled For Execution]." [[Texas Attorney General]]
* {{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/crime/2009/10/04/kaye.execution.coverup.cnn|title=Did Texas execute innocent man?|last=Kaye |first=Randi |publisher=CNN|accessdate=2009-10-04}} ''(Video)''
* {{Cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2227222|title=Not Innocent Enough|last=Lithwick |first=Dahlia |publisher=Slate.com}}
* [http://www.innocenceproject.org/Content/Cameron_Todd_Willingham_Wrongfully_Convicted_and_Executed_in_Texas.php Innocence Project case summary]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Willingham, Cameron
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = January 9, 1968
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = February 16, 2004
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Willingham, Cameron}}
[[Category:21st-century executions by the United States]]
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:2004 deaths]]
[[Category:American people convicted of murder]]
[[Category:Executed American people]]
[[Category:People convicted of murder by Texas]]
[[Category:People executed by lethal injection]]
[[Category:People executed by Texas]]
[[Category:People executed for murder]]

[[ru:Уиллингем, Кэмерон Тодд]]

Jay Severin

2011-07-06T16:34:05Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Undue}}. (Build p613)

{{POV-check|date=July 2011}}
{{Undue|date=July 2011}}
'''James Thompson Severino'''<ref name="marriage">{{cite news | url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9403E2DB1238F93BA25756C0A961958260 | title=Renee Klock, James Severin 3d | work=The New York Times | date=May 18, 1997 | accessdate=May 6, 2010}}</ref><ref name="lehigh">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2005/09/16/severins_phony_pulitzer/ | title=Severin's phony Pulitzer | accessdate=2006-12-28 | work=The Boston Globe | first=Scot | last=Lehigh | date=September 16, 2005}}</ref><ref>[http://www.savewrko.com/archives/2007/10/severinos_tempe.php Save WRKO: Jimmy Severino: Nigerian Phishing Scammer]</ref>, professionally known as '''Jay Severin''', (born January 8, 1951) is an American political [[talk radio]] personality, formerly on [[Boston|Boston's]] [[WTKK]]-FM (96.9).

Severin, a former [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] [[political consultant]], who describes himself as a [[Libertarian conservatism|libertarian conservative]], [[constitutionalist]]/[[originalist]], or [[political radicalism|radical]] [[Independent (politician)|independent]], worked for the presidential campaigns of [[George H. W. Bush]] (1980) and [[Pat Buchanan]] (1996) before becoming a radio talk show host and political analyst.<ref name="mediamatters">{{cite web | url=http://mediamatters.org/items/200506100003 | title="The "Situation" with Jay Severin"}}</ref>

For several weeks during 2005, Severin was a contributor to the [[MSNBC]] program ''[[The Situation with Tucker Carlson]]'', though he was originally billed as a permanent cast member.<ref name="mediamatters"/><ref name="fired">{{cite web | url=http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/msnbc/situation_severs_ties_with_severin_23685.asp | title='Situation' Severs Ties With Severin}}</ref> The ''[[New York Post]]'' quoted a source which said the reason was partly his displeasure over having to commute from his home in [[Sag Harbor]] [[Long Island]] to the MSNBC studio based in [[Secaucus, New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://radioequalizer.blogspot.com/2005/07/jay-severin-exits-tucker-carlsons-show.html | title=What Happened?}}</ref>

In September 2005, it was announced that Severin would be joining [[CBS Radio]] with a new show called "''Jay Severin Has Issues''". His show at WTKK, "Extreme Games", was canceled, and both parties agreed he would return to the station with his new syndicated show. However, on November 14, 2005, [[Michael Graham (radio personality)|Michael Graham]] took over Severin's slot at WTKK; days later, any mention of Severin vanished from the WTKK web page.

In December 2005, WTKK <ref>http://969fmtalk.com/listingsentryfeature.asp?ID=396783&PT=feature</ref> announced on their website that Severin would be broadcast following Michael Graham, silencing rumors that he would be moving to a competing station. During the summer 2006, Severin's syndicated radio program was heard in 48 cities across the country.

On October 9, 2006, Severin returned to his former timeslot, ending his syndication deal with [[Westwood One]]. WTKK owner, Greater Media, bought out Severin's remaining syndication contract. Despite not having a nationally syndicated program, Severin was named 53rd most important talk show host in the country.<ref name="talkers.com">http://www.talkers.com/main/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=19&Itemid=44</ref> Severin was suspended by WTKK on April 30, 2009 following a series of comments he made regarding Mexican immigrants. He returned to the air on June 2.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2009/05/01/severin_suspended_for_comments_about_mexican_immigrants/ David Abel, "Severin suspended for comments about Mexican immigrants", Boston Globe, May 1, 2009]</ref><ref>[http://www.thebostonchannel.com/family/19337285/detail.html Radio Host Suspended For 'Criminaliens' Remark]</ref> Severin's current contract with WTKK was supposed to run through 2013. Jay's show had expanded to four hours, 2 p.m. to 6 p.m. in 2010.

On April 6, 2011, Jay was fired from WTKK, the station cited the following: "Greater Media today ended its relationship with Jay Severin. Our company has always encouraged a free and open dialogue on a variety of issues and topics, and we will continue to be guided by that principle. But we also demand that our on-air talent maintain an appropriate level of civility, and adhere to a standard that respects our listeners and the public at large."<ref>
{{cite web
| url=http://www.bostonherald.com/blogs/news/mediaBiz/index.php/2011/04/06/wtkk-axes-jay-severin/
| title=WTKK Axes Jay Severin - Full Statement}}</ref>

Severin's has been married to the former Renee Klock since 1997.<ref name="marriage"/><ref name="manchester">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/realestate/luxuryliving/articles/2006/11/12/the_bruins_dens/ | title=On Location: The Bruins' dens | work=The Boston Globe | date=November 12, 2006 | first1=Carol | last1=Beggy}}</ref> Severin currently resides in [[Manchester-by-the-Sea]], [[Massachusetts]], with his wife, children, and six dogs including several [[Newfoundland dog]]s.

== Controversies ==

===Comments on Muslims===
During the 22 April 2004 broadcast of his show, as part of his response to a caller suggesting the United States should befriend its Muslim residents, Severin said, "I believe that Muslims in this country are a [[fifth column]].... The vast majority of Muslims in this country are very obviously loyal, not to the United States, but to their religion. And I'm worried that when the time comes for them to stand up and be counted, the reason they are here is to take over our culture and eventually take over our country." Later during the same conversation, Severin asked the caller, "Do you think we should befriend them?" When the caller said yes, Severin responded in part, "I have an alternative viewpoint. It's slightly different than yours. You think we should befriend them; I think we should kill them."<ref name="rosenwald">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2004/04/27/radio_host_says_remarks_misconstrued/ | title=Radio host says remarks misconstrued | work=The Boston Globe | first=Michael S. | last=Rosenwald | date=April 27, 2004}}</ref>

After these comments were heavily criticized by CAIR,<ref name=phoenix>{{cite news
| last = Kennedy
| first = Dan
| title = Killing Muslims? Jay Severin’s Muslim moment
| publisher = Boston Phoenix
| date = 2004-04-30
| url = http://bostonphoenix.com/boston/news_features/this_just_in/documents/03789089.asp
| accessdate = 2009-05-09 }}</ref> Severin responded to the criticism during his show on 26 April 2004, "[Someone listening for] any length of time longer than 10 minutes has heard me say that Muslims are not our enemies, that all Muslims are not terrorists," and also offered, "To anyone who may have been offended by misunderstanding or misconstruing my remarks, I want you to know that I regret that. This is never my intention."<ref name="rosenwald"/>

===2004 Incident with the ''Boston Globe''===
On April 23, 2004, the day after Severin's controversial comments regarding Muslims, the [[Council on American-Islamic Relations]] (CAIR) issued a press release which called for the termination of Severin's employment at WTKK. In this press release, Severin was misquoted as saying, "Let's kill all Muslims."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cair-net.org/default.asp?Page=articleView&id=166&theType=AA | title=Boston Radio Host says Kill All Muslims}}</ref> The ''[[Boston Globe]]'' subsequently ran an article on the controversy which included comments by a CAIR spokesperson. From the ''Globe'' article:<blockquote>She [CAIR spokesperson] said he [Severin] then remarked, "I've got an idea, let's kill all Muslims."<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Bennett
| first = Jessica
| title = Islamic group seeks firing of radio host
| newspaper = [[Boston Globe]]
| date = April 24, 2004
| url = http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2004/04/25/islamic_group_seeks_firing_of_radio_host/
| postscript = }}
| accessdate = 05-09-2009</ref></blockquote>Two days later, the ''Globe'' printed a [[correction (newspaper)|correction]] with the actual quote from the radio broadcast: "You think we should befriend them; I think we should kill them."<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2004/04/27/april_27_2004/ | title=April 27, 2004 | work=The Boston Globe | date=April 27, 2004}}</ref>

Severin has disparagingly referred to the ''Globe'' as "the Boston Globe Retractor." <ref name=phoenix/>

=== 2009 Comments on Mexicans, Suspension, and Reaction ===
On April 30, 2009, Severin was indefinitely suspended from WTKK-FM after making derogatory comments about Mexicans in relation to the [[2009 swine flu outbreak]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/04/_jay_severin.html
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-04-30
|title=WTKK-FM suspends Severin for derogatory comments about Mexicans
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2009/05/05/severins_agent_says_he_will_return_to_the_airwaves_soon/
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-05-05
|title=Severin's agent says he will return to the airwaves soon
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.salon.com/politics/war_room/2009/05/01/severin/index.html
|first = Alex| last = Koppleman
|date=2009-05-01
|title=Radio host suspended; blamed Mexican "primitives" for flu
|publisher=Salon.com
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>

According to news reports and recorded audio, Severin said,
<blockquote>
We are talking about illegal immigration. So now, in addition to venereal disease and the other leading exports of Mexico -- women with mustaches and VD -- now we have swine flu... When we are the magnet for primitives around the world -- and it's not the primitives' fault, by the way, I'm not blaming them for being primitives, I'm merely observing they are primitives -- and when you scoop up some of the world's lowest of primitives in poor Mexico and drop it down in the middle of the United States -- poor, without skills, without language, not share our culture, not share our hygiene, haven't been vaccinated... Millions of leeches from a primitive country come here to leech off you....
Now, at this particular moment in history, they are exporting to us a rather more active form of disease, which is the swine flu.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.salon.com/politics/war_room/2009/05/01/severin/index.html
|first = Alex | last = Koppelman
|date=2009-05-01
|title=Radio host suspended; blamed Mexican "primitives" for flu
|publisher=Salon.com
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref></blockquote>

Severin also accused illegal Mexican immigrants of "ruining the schools, the hospitals, and a lot of life in America," and said emergency rooms were "essentially condos for Mexicans." He later added, "We should be, if anything, surprised that Mexico has not visited upon us poxes of more various and serious types already, considering the number of criminaliens already here."<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/04/_jay_severin.html
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-04-09
|title=WTKK-FM suspends Severin for derogatory comments about Mexicans
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>

Several advertisers have suspended their advertising from WTKK in the wake of the suspension, although other advertisers have stated that they would continue to advertise on Severin's show if he were reinstated.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/05/holding.html
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-05-07
|title=Severin's barbs on Mexicans cause dismay among some advertisers
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>

It was announced that Severin would return to broadcasting on June 2, 2009.<ref>http://bostonherald.com/business/media/view.bg?articleid=1175762&pos=breaking</ref>

=== Removal from WTKK ===
On March 31, 2011, it was revealed that Greater Media had again suspended Severin, for an "indefinite" period, the air, according to [[Jim Romenesko]]'s Media News blog on the [[Poynter Institute]] website, 'after telling WTKK-FM listeners that he hired “mostly attractive young women” as interns and slept with nearly all of them.' <ref>http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/126148/boston-radio-talker-severin-suspended-for-second-time-in-two-years/ WTKK Talk Host Jay Severin Suspended Again </ref>

On April 6, 2011, it was announced that Severin had been fired from WTKK by Greater Media. <ref>http://www.boston.com/ae/celebrity/more_names/blog/2011/04/jay_severin_fired_from_wtkk-fm.html Jay Severin fired by WTKK-FM</ref>

==Recognition==
*Placed 66th on trade journal ''[[Talkers Magazine]]'''s list of the 2007 "Heavy Hundred". The list ranks what the magazine considers the most popular, influential, or entertaining talk-show hosts from around the country.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2007/03/02/area_talk_hosts_among_bizs_best/
|first = Clea | last = Simon
|date=2007-03-02
|title=Area talk hosts among biz's
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2007-03-26}}</ref> In 2008, he placed 53rd on the same list.<ref name="talkers.com"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2009/05/02/jay_severin_a_punk_posing_as_a_pundit/ Scot Lehigh, "Jay Severin, a punk posing as a pundit", Boston Globe, May 2, 2009]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/04/30/severin_fails_to_own_up_to_his_words/ Scot Lehigh, "Severin fails to own up to his words", Boston Globe, April 30, 2004]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2005/09/16/severins_phony_pulitzer/ Scot Lehigh, "Severin's Phony Pulitzer", Boston Globe, September 16, 2005]
* [http://thetrack.bostonherald.com/moreTrack/view.bg?articleid=117677&format=&page=3 Severin's New National Show Starts January 2006, Boston Herald, December 19, 2005]
* [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DEFDD1E38F934A25752C0A962948260 Campaign Battles January 17, 1984]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/20000224/news3.htm Jay Severin talks politics in upcoming lecture]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1998%2D3/98080608.htm Bill Clinton - Sag Harbor Kind of Guy? by Jay Severin]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1997%2D4/97102312.htm Our Town: Ole Cassini by Jay Severin]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1998%2D4/98102914.htm Our Town: Clash of Cultures by Jay Severin]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1998%2D2/98060411.htm Our Town: Sag Harbor Memorial by Jay Severin]
* [http://www.ultimatetaxi.com/1997/jan4c.htm Jay & Renee Severin in "The Ultimate Taxi"]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/05/holding.html Severin's barbs on Mexicans cause dismay among some advertisers] Boston Globe, May 7, 2009.
* [http://thephoenix.com/Boston/News/82542-Bostons-Severin-problem/ Boston's Severin Problem] The Boston Phoenix, May 6, 2009
* [http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2009/05/25/cultural_financial_storm_blowing_against_severin/?page=1 Cultural, financial storm blowing against Severin], Joseph P. Kahn, [[Boston Globe]], May 25, 2009.

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Severin, Jay
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = January 8, 1951
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Severin, Jay}}
[[Category:1951 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American talk radio hosts]]
[[Category:American libertarians]]
[[Category:People from Long Island]]
[[Category:Vassar College alumni]]

Never Forget You

2011-07-06T15:46:48Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{for|the Noisettes song|Never Forget You (Noisettes song)}}
{{Infobox single
| Name = Never Forget You
| Cover = Mariah Carey - Never Forget You.jpg
| Artist = [[Mariah Carey]]
| Album = [[Music Box (album)|Music Box]]
| B-side = "[[Without You (Badfinger song)#Mariah Carey version|Without You]]"
| Released = {{Start date|1994|2|22}}
| Format = [[CD single]], [[cassette single]], [[Gramophone record|7" single]], [[12-inch maxi single|12" maxi single]]
| Recorded =
| Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]], [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]]
| Length = 3:46
| Label = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]]
| Writer = Mariah Carey, [[Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds|Babyface]]
| Producer = Babyface, Mariah Carey, [[Daryl Simmons]]
| Certification = Gold (U.S.)
| Last single = "[[Hero (Mariah Carey song)|Hero]]" (1993)
| This single = "'''Never Forget You'''" / "[[Without You (Badfinger song)#Mariah Carey version|Without You]]" (1994)
| Next single = "[[Anytime You Need a Friend]]" (1994)
}}

"'''Never Forget You'''" is a pop/R&B [[slow jam]] song written by American singer [[Mariah Carey]] and [[Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds|Babyface]], produced by Carey, Babyface and [[Daryl Simmons]] for Carey's third album ''[[Music Box (album)|Music Box]]'' (1993). It was released as the third single from ''Music Box'' in the first quarter of 1994, as a double A-side with a cover of [[Badfinger]]'s "[[Without You (Badfinger song)#Mariah Carey version|Without You]]." There was no music video commissioned for the album version or any of the remixes, making it Carey's first commercially released single not to be accompanied by a video. Carey never performed this song live.{{Citation needed|July 2011|date=July 2011}}

==Chart performance==
At the time of the single's release in the U.S. as "Without You & Never Forget You," ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' magazine's rules allowed double-sided singles to chart together as one entry on the singles chart. The song that would pick up the most airplay and/or sales for the respective chart would be listed as the A-side. On the U.S. pop charts, it was listed as "Without You/Never Forget You" and reached number three on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]], remaining in the top forty for 21 weeks.

The maxi-single of "Never Forget You" was only released in the United States and promoted to [[Urban contemporary|Urban]] radio audiences, charting as the A-side when it appeared on the R&B charts. As "Never Forget You/Without You," it reached the top ten on ''Billboard'''s [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs|Hot R&B Singles]] chart primarily due to sales, and the [[Recording Industry Association of America|RIAA]] certified it [[Gold certification|gold]].

==Remixes and other versions==
[[Jermaine Dupri]]'s R&B remixes of the song are included on its maxi-single release. A radio edit, an extended version and the instrumental version of the remix replace Babyface's original production with a new, pulsating synthetic R&B rhythm. The instrumental version was used on Carey's episode of ''[[MTV Cribs]]''.

The song has been covered by a Japanese R&B singer [[Double (singer)|Double]] and is featured on her greatest hits album ''10 Years Best: We R&B''.

==Tracklist==
'''U.S. CD maxi-single'''
#"Never Forget You" (radio edit) – 3:38
#"Never Forget You" (extended) – 5:19
#"Never Forget You" (album version) – 3:48
#"Never Forget You" (instrumental) – 3:35
#"Without You" (album version) – 3:33

==Charts==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Peak positions===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!align="left"|Chart (1994)
!align="center"|Peak position
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot 100<ref name="Billboard">[http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.vnuArtistId=48340&model.vnuAlbumId=1110917 Artist Chart History - Mariah Carey]</ref>
|align="center"|3
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs<ref name="Billboard"/>
|align="center"|7
|}
{{col-2}}
===End of year charts===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!align="left"|End of year chart (1994)
!align="center"|Position
|-
|U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot 100<ref>{{cite web|url=http://longboredsurfer.com/charts.php?year=1994|title=Billboard Top 100 - 1994|accessdate=2010-08-27}}</ref>
|align="center"|16
|-
|}

===Sales and certifications===
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Provider
! Sales
! Certification
|-
| [[Recording Industry Association of America|United States]]
| 500,000+
| Gold
|}
{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Mariah Carey}}
{{Mariah Carey singles}}

[[Category:1994 singles]]
[[Category:Mariah Carey songs]]
[[Category:Pop ballads]]
[[Category:Rhythm and blues ballads]]
[[Category:Songs written by Mariah Carey]]
[[Category:Songs written by Babyface (musician)]]
[[Category:Songs written by Daryl Simmons]]

[[es:Never Forget You]]
[[it:Never Forget You (Mariah Carey)]]
[[hu:Never Forget You]]
[[pl:Never Forget You]]
[[ru:Never Forget You]]
[[fi:Never Forget You]]

Benutzer:Merkið/Robert Wedderburn

2011-07-06T15:45:30Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Where}}. (Build p613)

[[File:Robert Wedderburn.jpg|thumb|right|Robert Wedderburn]]
Born in [[Jamaica]] to an African-born house-slave master, '''Robert Wedderburn''' (1762-1835/6?) was a Unitarian, ultra-radical leader, and anti-slavery advocate in early nineteenth-century London.

==Early life==

James Wedderburn was a Scottish doctor and sugar planter working in Kingston.<ref name="McCalman 1986 100">McCalman (1986) 100.</ref> He sold Robert's mother Rosanna, then five months pregnant with his child, to Lady Douglas, stipulating that the child (Robert) should be free from birth.<ref>Chase (2008)</ref> Although he was free, Wedderburn was raised in a harsh environment, as his mother was often flogged due to her 'violent and rebellious temper' and was eventually re-sold away from her son.<ref name="McCalman 1986 100"/> Wedderburn was then raised by his maternal grandmother, a woman known as 'Talkee Amy' and renowned for her oratory skills.<ref>McCalman (1986) 100-1.</ref>

To escape the insecurity and abuse of the plantation, Wedderburn signed on with the Royal Navy at age 16.<ref name="McCalman 1986 101">McCalman (1986) 101.</ref> On the ships, food and living conditions were horrific, and it was during this time that Wedderburn became increasingly aghast at the violent punishments used by the British both on their ships and in their colonies.<ref name="McCalman 1986 101"/> He arrived in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] at age 17 and lived in St. Giles among a community of runaway slaves, Jamaican ex-servicemen, and other immigrant minorities including Jews, [[Lascar]]s and Irish.<ref>McCalman (1986) 102.</ref> Known as the 'London blackbirds', this ethnically diverse subculture is reported{{Where|date=July 2011}} to have been relatively free of the racial discrimination so prevalent elsewhere in this era. However, as people living on the margins, the 'blackbirds' often relied on criminal activity in order to survive.

Through means that remain unclear (it is possible that he had been an apprentice in Jamaica or had learned while in the Navy), Wedderburn became a journeyman [[tailor]].<ref>McCalman (1986) 103.</ref> As he referred to himself as a 'flint' tailor, this suggests he was registered in the book of trades and shared values typical of other artisans - including pride in his craft and a belief in economic independence.<ref name="McCalman 1986 104">McCalman (1986) 104.</ref> Unfortunately, the instability of his career made him increasingly susceptible to the affects of a trade recession, inflation and food shortages, and he was soon reduced to part-time mending work on the outskirts of town.<ref name="McCalman 1986 104"/> By now married and desperate for money during one of his wife's pregnancies, Wedderburn visited his father's family at [[Inveresk]] on the outskirts of [[Edinburgh]]. As this proved unsuccessful (apparently his father disavowed him and he was sent away with some small beer and a bent [[sixpence]]), Wedderburn dabbled in petty theft and keeping a [[bawdy house]].

==Religious conversion and activity==

In 1786, Wedderburn stopped to listen to a [[John Wesley|Wesleyan]] preacher he heard in [[Seven Dials]]. Influenced by a mixture of [[Arminian]], [[millenarian]], [[Calvinist]], and [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] ideas, he converted to be a [[Methodist]], and soon published a small theological tract called ''Truth Self Supported: or, a Refutation of Certain Doctrinal Errors Generally Adopted in the Christian Church''. Although this work contained no explicit mention of slavery, it does suggest Wedderburn's future path in subversive and radical political action.

Politically influenced by [[Thomas Spence]], Wedderburn published an anti-slavery book entitled ''The Horrors of Slavery'' in 1824, printed by [[William Dugdale (publisher)|William Dugdale]] and possibly coauthored by [[George Cannon (publisher)|George Cannon]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Neither fugitive nor free: Atlantic slavery, freedom suits, and the legal culture of travel | series=America and the long 19th century | first=Edlie L. | last=Wong | publisher=NYU Press | year=2009 | isbn=0814794564 | page=276 }}</ref>

To promote his religious message, he opened his own [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] chapel in Hopkins Street in [[Soho]] in [[London]].

He also campaigned for freedom of speech and in 1831, at the age of 68, he was arrested and sent to Giltspur Street Prison. According to Linebaugh (2000)<ref>Peter Linebaugh, Marcus Rediker ''The many-headed hydra: sailors, slaves, commoners, and the hidden'' 2000 p288</ref> it is recorded that Wedderburn "did time in [[Cold Bath Fields]], Dorchester, and [[Giltspur Street Compter]] prisons for theft, blasphemy, and keeping a bawdy house."

While imprisoned, Wedderburn wrote a letter to [[Francis Place]], which is his last mention in the historical record. Although it is assumed he died in prison, the exact year is unknown.

==References==
*{{cite journal |last1=McCalman |first1=Iain |year=1986 |title=Anti-Slavery and Ultra-Radicalism in Early Nineteenth Century England: The Case of Robert Wedderburn |journal=Slavery and Abolition |volume=7 |issue= |pages=99–117 |url= |doi=10.1080/01440398608574906 }}
* {{cite book | first=Iain | last=McCalman | title=Radical underworld: prophets, revolutionaries, and pornographers in London, 1795-1840| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | year=1988 | isbn=0521307554 | pages=50–72 }}
*{{citation |last=Chase |first=Malcolm |title=Wedderburn, Robert (1762–1835/6?) |volume=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |edition=online |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/47120}}

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.100greatblackbritons.com/bios/robert_wedderman.html Robert Wedderburn - 100 Great Black Britons website]
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SLAwedderburn.htm Robert Wedderburn - short biography]
* [http://pagesperso-orange.fr/euroleader/wedderburn/robert.htm A genealogical study: Robert Wedderburn]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Wedderburn, Robert
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1762
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wedderburn, Robert}}
[[Category:Jamaican non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:Scottish political writers]]
[[Category:Scottish Methodists]]
[[Category:Jamaican people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:English people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:English people of Jamaican descent]]
[[Category:Jamaican activists]]
[[Category:People from London]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:1762 births]]
[[Category:English Unitarians]]
[[Category:Scottish Unitarians]]
[[Category:Black British writers]]
[[Category:Black British churchpeople]]

Jay Severin

2011-07-06T15:05:43Z

SmackBot: Fix cleanup tag - date paramter remove day of month 06 July 2011 => July 2011. Fix cleanup tag - date paramter remove day of month 06 July 2011 => July 2011. (Build p613)

{{POV-check|date=July 2011}}
{{POV|date=July 2011}} 
'''James Thompson Severino'''<ref name="marriage">{{cite news | url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9403E2DB1238F93BA25756C0A961958260 | title=Renee Klock, James Severin 3d | work=The New York Times | date=May 18, 1997 | accessdate=May 6, 2010}}</ref><ref name="lehigh">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2005/09/16/severins_phony_pulitzer/ | title=Severin's phony Pulitzer | accessdate=2006-12-28 | work=The Boston Globe | first=Scot | last=Lehigh | date=September 16, 2005}}</ref><ref>[http://www.savewrko.com/archives/2007/10/severinos_tempe.php Save WRKO: Jimmy Severino: Nigerian Phishing Scammer]</ref>, professionally known as '''Jay Severin''', (born January 8, 1951) is an American political [[talk radio]] personality, formerly on [[Boston|Boston's]] [[WTKK]]-FM (96.9).

Severin, a former [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] [[political consultant]], who describes himself as a [[Libertarian conservatism|libertarian conservative]], [[constitutionalist]]/[[originalist]], or [[political radicalism|radical]] [[Independent (politician)|independent]], worked for the presidential campaigns of [[George H. W. Bush]] (1980) and [[Pat Buchanan]] (1996) before becoming a radio talk show host and political analyst.<ref name="mediamatters">{{cite web | url=http://mediamatters.org/items/200506100003 | title="The "Situation" with Jay Severin"}}</ref> Throughout his childhood and early adult years, he was called "Jimmy Severino", and later changed his name to "Jay Severin" upon entering the world of Republican politics.

For several weeks during 2005, Severin was a contributor to the [[MSNBC]] program ''[[The Situation with Tucker Carlson]]'', though he was originally billed as a permanent cast member.<ref name="mediamatters"/><ref name="fired">{{cite web | url=http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/msnbc/situation_severs_ties_with_severin_23685.asp | title='Situation' Severs Ties With Severin}}</ref> The ''[[New York Post]]'' quoted a source which said the reason was partly his displeasure over having to commute from his home in [[Sag Harbor]] [[Long Island]] to the MSNBC studio based in [[Secaucus, New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://radioequalizer.blogspot.com/2005/07/jay-severin-exits-tucker-carlsons-show.html | title=What Happened?}}</ref>

In September 2005, it was announced that Severin would be joining [[CBS Radio]] with a new show called "''Jay Severin Has Issues''". His show at WTKK, "Extreme Games", was canceled, and both parties agreed he would return to the station with his new syndicated show. However, on November 14, 2005, [[Michael Graham (radio personality)|Michael Graham]] took over Severin's slot at WTKK; days later, any mention of Severin vanished from the WTKK web page.

In December 2005, WTKK <ref>http://969fmtalk.com/listingsentryfeature.asp?ID=396783&PT=feature</ref> announced on their website that Severin would be broadcast following Michael Graham, silencing rumors that he would be moving to a competing station. During the summer 2006, Severin's syndicated radio program was heard in 48 cities across the country.

On October 9, 2006, Severin returned to his former timeslot, ending his syndication deal with [[Westwood One]]. WTKK owner, Greater Media, bought out Severin's remaining syndication contract. Despite not having a nationally syndicated program, Severin was named 53rd most important talk show host in the country.<ref name="talkers.com">http://www.talkers.com/main/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=19&Itemid=44</ref> Severin was suspended by WTKK on April 30, 2009 following a series of comments he made regarding Mexican immigrants. He returned to the air on June 2.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2009/05/01/severin_suspended_for_comments_about_mexican_immigrants/ David Abel, "Severin suspended for comments about Mexican immigrants", Boston Globe, May 1, 2009]</ref><ref>[http://www.thebostonchannel.com/family/19337285/detail.html Radio Host Suspended For 'Criminaliens' Remark]</ref> Severin's current contract with WTKK was supposed to run through 2013. Jay's show had expanded to four hours, 2 p.m. to 6 p.m. in 2010.

On April 6, 2011, Jay was fired from WTKK, the station cited the following: "Greater Media today ended its relationship with Jay Severin. Our company has always encouraged a free and open dialogue on a variety of issues and topics, and we will continue to be guided by that principle. But we also demand that our on-air talent maintain an appropriate level of civility, and adhere to a standard that respects our listeners and the public at large."<ref>
{{cite web
| url=http://www.bostonherald.com/blogs/news/mediaBiz/index.php/2011/04/06/wtkk-axes-jay-severin/
| title=WTKK Axes Jay Severin - Full Statement}}</ref>

Severin's has been married to the former Renee Klock since 1997.<ref name="marriage"/><ref name="manchester">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/realestate/luxuryliving/articles/2006/11/12/the_bruins_dens/ | title=On Location: The Bruins' dens | work=The Boston Globe | date=November 12, 2006 | first1=Carol | last1=Beggy}}</ref> Severin currently resides in [[Manchester-by-the-Sea]], [[Massachusetts]], with his wife, children, and six dogs including several [[Newfoundland dog]]s.

== Controversies ==

===Comments on Muslims===
During the 22 April 2004 broadcast of his show, as part of his response to a caller suggesting the United States should befriend its Muslim residents, Severin said, "I believe that Muslims in this country are a [[fifth column]].... The vast majority of Muslims in this country are very obviously loyal, not to the United States, but to their religion. And I'm worried that when the time comes for them to stand up and be counted, the reason they are here is to take over our culture and eventually take over our country." Later during the same conversation, Severin asked the caller, "Do you think we should befriend them?" When the caller said yes, Severin responded in part, "I have an alternative viewpoint. It's slightly different than yours. You think we should befriend them; I think we should kill them."<ref name="rosenwald">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2004/04/27/radio_host_says_remarks_misconstrued/ | title=Radio host says remarks misconstrued | work=The Boston Globe | first=Michael S. | last=Rosenwald | date=April 27, 2004}}</ref>

After these comments were heavily criticized by CAIR,<ref name=phoenix>{{cite news
| last = Kennedy
| first = Dan
| title = Killing Muslims? Jay Severin’s Muslim moment
| publisher = Boston Phoenix
| date = 2004-04-30
| url = http://bostonphoenix.com/boston/news_features/this_just_in/documents/03789089.asp
| accessdate = 2009-05-09 }}</ref> Severin responded to the criticism during his show on 26 April 2004, "[Someone listening for] any length of time longer than 10 minutes has heard me say that Muslims are not our enemies, that all Muslims are not terrorists," and also offered an apology, "To anyone who may have been offended by misunderstanding or misconstruing my remarks, I want you to know that I regret that. This is never my intention."<ref name="rosenwald"/>

===2004 Incident with the ''Boston Globe''===
On April 23, 2004, the day after Severin's controversial comments regarding Muslims, the [[Council on American-Islamic Relations]] (CAIR) issued a press release which called for the termination of Severin's employment at WTKK. In this press release, Severin was misquoted as saying, "Let's kill all Muslims."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cair-net.org/default.asp?Page=articleView&id=166&theType=AA | title=Boston Radio Host says Kill All Muslims}}</ref> The ''[[Boston Globe]]'' subsequently ran an article on the controversy which included comments by a CAIR spokesperson. From the ''Globe'' article:<blockquote>She [CAIR spokesperson] said he [Severin] then remarked, "I've got an idea, let's kill all Muslims."<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Bennett
| first = Jessica
| title = Islamic group seeks firing of radio host
| newspaper = [[Boston Globe]]
| date = April 24, 2004
| url = http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2004/04/25/islamic_group_seeks_firing_of_radio_host/
| postscript = }}
| accessdate = 05-09-2009</ref></blockquote>Two days later, the ''Globe'' printed a [[correction (newspaper)|correction]] with the actual quote from the radio broadcast: "You think we should befriend them; I think we should kill them."<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2004/04/27/april_27_2004/ | title=April 27, 2004 | work=The Boston Globe | date=April 27, 2004}}</ref>

Thereafter, Severin has disparagingly referred to the ''Globe'' as "the Boston Globe Retractor." However, the ''Globe'' never made a [[retraction]] since the article in question properly attributed the quote to CAIR. The same article mentions that the general manager of WTKK declined to comment on the alleged remarks by Severin. The ''Globe'''s metro editor stated, "There were numerous efforts to get in touch with him [Severin]" about the comments, although Severin claimed, "They made no effort to communicate with me."<ref name=phoenix/>

The subsequent correction issued by the ''Globe'' did not pertain to the article itself; the CAIR spokesperson was wrong, and the ''Globe'' corrected the spokesperson. For this reason, the ''Globe'''s metro editor said the correction should not have been worded as a reporting error.<ref name=phoenix/>

===Pulitzer Prize Claim===
On September 9, 2005 during an on-air discussion of journalistic standards, Severin described himself as the recipient of the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for online journalism: "But since journalism began, and up until the time at least that I took my master's degree at [[Boston University]] -- and may I add without being obnoxious, up till and including the time that I received a Pulitzer Prize for my columns for excellence in online journalism from the Columbia School of Journalism, the highest possible award for writing on the Web -- right up to and including that in 1998, you still had to practice journalism to be a journalist."<ref name="lehigh"/>

There is no Pulitzer Prize category for online journalism. It was [[msnbc.com]] that won an [[Online News Association]] award in 2000, which was administered by [[Columbia University]] but unrelated to the Pulitzer Prize. Severin had a column that ran on msnbc.com, but the award was given for the entire site.<ref name=lehigh/>

Jay's explanation of the incident is that he meant the award was "the equivalent of a Pulitzer prize for online journalism."

===Master's Degree Claim===
Although for a period of 25 years Severin claimed to hold a Master's degree in Journalism from Boston University,<ref name="lehigh"/><ref name=autobio>{{cite web | url=http://www.westwoodone.com/agnosticchart?charttype=minichart&chartID=112&formatID=1&size=1&useMiniChartID=true&destinationpage=/pg/jsp/severin/bio.jsp?more=true | title=About Jay}}</ref> on 27 September 2005 the ''Inside Track'' section of the [[Boston Herald]] reported that this is not the case.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://thetrack.bostonherald.com/moreTrack/view.bg?articleid=104215&format=&page=2 | title=Inside Track}}</ref> WTKK's web site advertises that Severin "pursued a masters degree in Journalism at Boston University," yet does not state that he received such a degree.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://wtkk.com/Personalities/JaySeverin/tabid/69/Default.aspx | title=Jay Severin}}</ref> In a brief autobiographical page on his syndicated show's web site, Severin says that he was surprised to learn in 2005 that Boston University had no record of his graduation, stating "... it would appear I have no degree."<ref name=autobio/>

=== 2009 Comments on Mexicans, Suspension, and Reaction ===
On April 30, 2009, Severin was indefinitely suspended from WTKK-FM after making derogatory comments about Mexicans in relation to the [[2009 swine flu outbreak]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/04/_jay_severin.html
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-04-30
|title=WTKK-FM suspends Severin for derogatory comments about Mexicans
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2009/05/05/severins_agent_says_he_will_return_to_the_airwaves_soon/
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-05-05
|title=Severin's agent says he will return to the airwaves soon
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.salon.com/politics/war_room/2009/05/01/severin/index.html
|first = Alex| last = Koppleman
|date=2009-05-01
|title=Radio host suspended; blamed Mexican "primitives" for flu
|publisher=Salon.com
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>

According to news reports and recorded audio, Severin said,
<blockquote>
We are talking about illegal immigration. So now, in addition to venereal disease and the other leading exports of Mexico -- women with mustaches and VD -- now we have swine flu... When we are the magnet for primitives around the world -- and it's not the primitives' fault, by the way, I'm not blaming them for being primitives, I'm merely observing they are primitives -- and when you scoop up some of the world's lowest of primitives in poor Mexico and drop it down in the middle of the United States -- poor, without skills, without language, not share our culture, not share our hygiene, haven't been vaccinated... Millions of leeches from a primitive country come here to leech off you....
Now, at this particular moment in history, they are exporting to us a rather more active form of disease, which is the swine flu.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.salon.com/politics/war_room/2009/05/01/severin/index.html
|first = Alex | last = Koppelman
|date=2009-05-01
|title=Radio host suspended; blamed Mexican "primitives" for flu
|publisher=Salon.com
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref></blockquote>

Severin also accused illegal Mexican immigrants of "ruining the schools, the hospitals, and a lot of life in America," and said emergency rooms were "essentially condos for Mexicans." He later added, "We should be, if anything, surprised that Mexico has not visited upon us poxes of more various and serious types already, considering the number of criminaliens already here."<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/04/_jay_severin.html
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-04-09
|title=WTKK-FM suspends Severin for derogatory comments about Mexicans
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>

Several advertisers have suspended their advertising from WTKK in the wake of the suspension, although other advertisers have stated that they would continue to advertise on Severin's show if he were reinstated.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/05/holding.html
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-05-07
|title=Severin's barbs on Mexicans cause dismay among some advertisers
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>

It was announced that Severin would return to broadcasting on June 2, 2009.<ref>http://bostonherald.com/business/media/view.bg?articleid=1175762&pos=breaking</ref>

=== Removal from WTKK ===
On March 31, 2011, it was revealed that Greater Media had again suspended Severin, for an "indefinite" period, the air, according to [[Jim Romenesko]]'s Media News blog on the [[Poynter Institute]] website, 'after telling WTKK-FM listeners that he hired “mostly attractive young women” as interns and slept with nearly all of them.' <ref>http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/126148/boston-radio-talker-severin-suspended-for-second-time-in-two-years/ WTKK Talk Host Jay Severin Suspended Again </ref>

On April 6, 2011, it was announced that Severin had been fired from WTKK by Greater Media. <ref>http://www.boston.com/ae/celebrity/more_names/blog/2011/04/jay_severin_fired_from_wtkk-fm.html Jay Severin fired by WTKK-FM</ref>

==Recognition==
*Placed 66th on trade journal ''[[Talkers Magazine]]'''s list of the 2007 "Heavy Hundred". The list ranks what the magazine considers the most popular, influential, or entertaining talk-show hosts from around the country.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2007/03/02/area_talk_hosts_among_bizs_best/
|first = Clea | last = Simon
|date=2007-03-02
|title=Area talk hosts among biz's
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2007-03-26}}</ref> In 2008, he placed 53rd on the same list.<ref name="talkers.com"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2009/05/02/jay_severin_a_punk_posing_as_a_pundit/ Scot Lehigh, "Jay Severin, a punk posing as a pundit", Boston Globe, May 2, 2009]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/04/30/severin_fails_to_own_up_to_his_words/ Scot Lehigh, "Severin fails to own up to his words", Boston Globe, April 30, 2004]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2005/09/16/severins_phony_pulitzer/ Scot Lehigh, "Severin's Phony Pulitzer", Boston Globe, September 16, 2005]
* [http://thetrack.bostonherald.com/moreTrack/view.bg?articleid=117677&format=&page=3 Severin's New National Show Starts January 2006, Boston Herald, December 19, 2005]
* [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DEFDD1E38F934A25752C0A962948260 Campaign Battles January 17, 1984]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/20000224/news3.htm Jay Severin talks politics in upcoming lecture]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1998%2D3/98080608.htm Bill Clinton - Sag Harbor Kind of Guy? by Jay Severin]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1997%2D4/97102312.htm Our Town: Ole Cassini by Jay Severin]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1998%2D4/98102914.htm Our Town: Clash of Cultures by Jay Severin]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1998%2D2/98060411.htm Our Town: Sag Harbor Memorial by Jay Severin]
* [http://www.ultimatetaxi.com/1997/jan4c.htm Jay & Renee Severin in "The Ultimate Taxi"]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/05/holding.html Severin's barbs on Mexicans cause dismay among some advertisers] Boston Globe, May 7, 2009.
* [http://thephoenix.com/Boston/News/82542-Bostons-Severin-problem/ Boston's Severin Problem] The Boston Phoenix, May 6, 2009
* [http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2009/05/25/cultural_financial_storm_blowing_against_severin/?page=1 Cultural, financial storm blowing against Severin], Joseph P. Kahn, [[Boston Globe]], May 25, 2009.

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Severin, Jay
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = January 8, 1951
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Severin, Jay}}
[[Category:1951 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American talk radio hosts]]
[[Category:American libertarians]]
[[Category:People from Long Island]]
[[Category:Vassar College alumni]]

Jay Severin

2011-07-06T13:17:36Z

SmackBot: Dated {{POV}}. (Build p613)

{{POV|date=July 2011}}

'''James Thompson Severino'''<ref name="marriage">{{cite news | url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9403E2DB1238F93BA25756C0A961958260 | title=Renee Klock, James Severin 3d | work=The New York Times | date=May 18, 1997 | accessdate=May 6, 2010}}</ref><ref name="lehigh">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2005/09/16/severins_phony_pulitzer/ | title=Severin's phony Pulitzer | accessdate=2006-12-28 | work=The Boston Globe | first=Scot | last=Lehigh | date=September 16, 2005}}</ref><ref>[http://www.savewrko.com/archives/2007/10/severinos_tempe.php Save WRKO: Jimmy Severino: Nigerian Phishing Scammer]</ref>, professionally known as '''Jay Severin''', (born January 8, 1951) is an American political [[talk radio]] personality, formerly on [[Boston|Boston's]] [[WTKK]]-FM (96.9).

Severin, a former [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] [[political consultant]], who describes himself as a [[Libertarian conservatism|libertarian conservative]], [[constitutionalist]]/[[originalist]], or [[political radicalism|radical]] [[Independent (politician)|independent]], worked for the presidential campaigns of [[George H. W. Bush]] (1980) and [[Pat Buchanan]] (1996) before becoming a radio talk show host and political analyst.<ref name="mediamatters">{{cite web | url=http://mediamatters.org/items/200506100003 | title="The "Situation" with Jay Severin"}}</ref> Throughout his childhood and early adult years, he was called "Jimmy Severino", and later changed his name to "Jay Severin" upon entering the world of Republican politics.

For several weeks during 2005, Severin was a contributor to the [[MSNBC]] program ''[[The Situation with Tucker Carlson]]'', though he was originally billed as a permanent cast member.<ref name="mediamatters"/><ref name="fired">{{cite web | url=http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/msnbc/situation_severs_ties_with_severin_23685.asp | title='Situation' Severs Ties With Severin}}</ref> The ''[[New York Post]]'' quoted a source which said the reason was partly his displeasure over having to commute from his home in [[Sag Harbor]] [[Long Island]] to the MSNBC studio based in [[Secaucus, New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://radioequalizer.blogspot.com/2005/07/jay-severin-exits-tucker-carlsons-show.html | title=What Happened?}}</ref>

In September 2005, it was announced that Severin would be joining [[CBS Radio]] with a new show called "''Jay Severin Has Issues''". His show at WTKK, "Extreme Games", was canceled, and both parties agreed he would return to the station with his new syndicated show. However, on November 14, 2005, [[Michael Graham (radio personality)|Michael Graham]] took over Severin's slot at WTKK; days later, any mention of Severin vanished from the WTKK web page.

In December 2005, WTKK <ref>http://969fmtalk.com/listingsentryfeature.asp?ID=396783&PT=feature</ref> announced on their website that Severin would be broadcast following Michael Graham, silencing rumors that he would be moving to a competing station. During the summer 2006, Severin's syndicated radio program was heard in 48 cities across the country.

On October 9, 2006, Severin returned to his former timeslot, ending his syndication deal with [[Westwood One]]. WTKK owner, Greater Media, bought out Severin's remaining syndication contract. Despite not having a nationally syndicated program, Severin was named 53rd most important talk show host in the country.<ref name="talkers.com">http://www.talkers.com/main/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=19&Itemid=44</ref> Severin was suspended by WTKK on April 30, 2009 following a series of comments he made regarding Mexican immigrants. He returned to the air on June 2.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2009/05/01/severin_suspended_for_comments_about_mexican_immigrants/ David Abel, "Severin suspended for comments about Mexican immigrants", Boston Globe, May 1, 2009]</ref><ref>[http://www.thebostonchannel.com/family/19337285/detail.html Radio Host Suspended For 'Criminaliens' Remark]</ref> Severin's current contract with WTKK was supposed to run through 2013. Jay's show had expanded to four hours, 2 p.m. to 6 p.m. in 2010.

On April 6, 2011, Jay was fired from WTKK, the station cited the following: "Greater Media today ended its relationship with Jay Severin. Our company has always encouraged a free and open dialogue on a variety of issues and topics, and we will continue to be guided by that principle. But we also demand that our on-air talent maintain an appropriate level of civility, and adhere to a standard that respects our listeners and the public at large."<ref>
{{cite web
| url=http://www.bostonherald.com/blogs/news/mediaBiz/index.php/2011/04/06/wtkk-axes-jay-severin/
| title=WTKK Axes Jay Severin - Full Statement}}</ref>

Severin's has been married to the former Renee Klock since 1997.<ref name="marriage"/><ref name="manchester">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/realestate/luxuryliving/articles/2006/11/12/the_bruins_dens/ | title=On Location: The Bruins' dens | work=The Boston Globe | date=November 12, 2006 | first1=Carol | last1=Beggy}}</ref> Severin currently resides in [[Manchester-by-the-Sea]], [[Massachusetts]], with his wife, children, and six dogs including several [[Newfoundland dog]]s.

== Controversies ==

===Comments on Muslims===
During the 22 April 2004 broadcast of his show, as part of his response to a caller suggesting the United States should befriend its Muslim residents, Severin said, "I believe that Muslims in this country are a [[fifth column]].... The vast majority of Muslims in this country are very obviously loyal, not to the United States, but to their religion. And I'm worried that when the time comes for them to stand up and be counted, the reason they are here is to take over our culture and eventually take over our country." Later during the same conversation, Severin asked the caller, "Do you think we should befriend them?" When the caller said yes, Severin responded in part, "I have an alternative viewpoint. It's slightly different than yours. You think we should befriend them; I think we should kill them."<ref name="rosenwald">{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2004/04/27/radio_host_says_remarks_misconstrued/ | title=Radio host says remarks misconstrued | work=The Boston Globe | first=Michael S. | last=Rosenwald | date=April 27, 2004}}</ref>

After these comments were heavily criticized by CAIR,<ref name=phoenix>{{cite news
| last = Kennedy
| first = Dan
| title = Killing Muslims? Jay Severin’s Muslim moment
| publisher = Boston Phoenix
| date = 2004-04-30
| url = http://bostonphoenix.com/boston/news_features/this_just_in/documents/03789089.asp
| accessdate = 2009-05-09 }}</ref> Severin responded to the criticism during his show on 26 April 2004, "[Someone listening for] any length of time longer than 10 minutes has heard me say that Muslims are not our enemies, that all Muslims are not terrorists," and also offered an apology, "To anyone who may have been offended by misunderstanding or misconstruing my remarks, I want you to know that I regret that. This is never my intention."<ref name="rosenwald"/>

===2004 Incident with the ''Boston Globe''===
On April 23, 2004, the day after Severin's controversial comments regarding Muslims, the [[Council on American-Islamic Relations]] (CAIR) issued a press release which called for the termination of Severin's employment at WTKK. In this press release, Severin was misquoted as saying, "Let's kill all Muslims."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cair-net.org/default.asp?Page=articleView&id=166&theType=AA | title=Boston Radio Host says Kill All Muslims}}</ref> The ''[[Boston Globe]]'' subsequently ran an article on the controversy which included comments by a CAIR spokesperson. From the ''Globe'' article:<blockquote>She [CAIR spokesperson] said he [Severin] then remarked, "I've got an idea, let's kill all Muslims."<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Bennett
| first = Jessica
| title = Islamic group seeks firing of radio host
| newspaper = [[Boston Globe]]
| date = April 24, 2004
| url = http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2004/04/25/islamic_group_seeks_firing_of_radio_host/
| postscript = }}
| accessdate = 05-09-2009</ref></blockquote>Two days later, the ''Globe'' printed a [[correction (newspaper)|correction]] with the actual quote from the radio broadcast: "You think we should befriend them; I think we should kill them."<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2004/04/27/april_27_2004/ | title=April 27, 2004 | work=The Boston Globe | date=April 27, 2004}}</ref>

Thereafter, Severin has disparagingly referred to the ''Globe'' as "the Boston Globe Retractor." However, the ''Globe'' never made a [[retraction]] since the article in question properly attributed the quote to CAIR. The same article mentions that the general manager of WTKK declined to comment on the alleged remarks by Severin. The ''Globe'''s metro editor stated, "There were numerous efforts to get in touch with him [Severin]" about the comments, although Severin claimed, "They made no effort to communicate with me."<ref name=phoenix/>

The subsequent correction issued by the ''Globe'' did not pertain to the article itself; the CAIR spokesperson was wrong, and the ''Globe'' corrected the spokesperson. For this reason, the ''Globe'''s metro editor said the correction should not have been worded as a reporting error.<ref name=phoenix/>

===Pulitzer Prize Claim===
On September 9, 2005 during an on-air discussion of journalistic standards, Severin described himself as the recipient of the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for online journalism: "But since journalism began, and up until the time at least that I took my master's degree at [[Boston University]] -- and may I add without being obnoxious, up till and including the time that I received a Pulitzer Prize for my columns for excellence in online journalism from the Columbia School of Journalism, the highest possible award for writing on the Web -- right up to and including that in 1998, you still had to practice journalism to be a journalist."<ref name="lehigh"/>

There is no Pulitzer Prize category for online journalism. It was [[msnbc.com]] that won an [[Online News Association]] award in 2000, which was administered by [[Columbia University]] but unrelated to the Pulitzer Prize. Severin had a column that ran on msnbc.com, but the award was given for the entire site.<ref name=lehigh/>

Jay's explanation of the incident is that he meant the award was "the equivalent of a Pulitzer prize for online journalism."

===Master's Degree Claim===
Although for a period of 25 years Severin claimed to hold a Master's degree in Journalism from Boston University,<ref name="lehigh"/><ref name=autobio>{{cite web | url=http://www.westwoodone.com/agnosticchart?charttype=minichart&chartID=112&formatID=1&size=1&useMiniChartID=true&destinationpage=/pg/jsp/severin/bio.jsp?more=true | title=About Jay}}</ref> on 27 September 2005 the ''Inside Track'' section of the [[Boston Herald]] reported that this is not the case.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://thetrack.bostonherald.com/moreTrack/view.bg?articleid=104215&format=&page=2 | title=Inside Track}}</ref> WTKK's web site advertises that Severin "pursued a masters degree in Journalism at Boston University," yet does not state that he received such a degree.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://wtkk.com/Personalities/JaySeverin/tabid/69/Default.aspx | title=Jay Severin}}</ref> In a brief autobiographical page on his syndicated show's web site, Severin says that he was surprised to learn in 2005 that Boston University had no record of his graduation, stating "... it would appear I have no degree."<ref name=autobio/>

=== 2009 Comments on Mexicans, Suspension, and Reaction ===
On April 30, 2009, Severin was indefinitely suspended from WTKK-FM after making derogatory comments about Mexicans in relation to the [[2009 swine flu outbreak]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/04/_jay_severin.html
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-04-30
|title=WTKK-FM suspends Severin for derogatory comments about Mexicans
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2009/05/05/severins_agent_says_he_will_return_to_the_airwaves_soon/
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-05-05
|title=Severin's agent says he will return to the airwaves soon
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.salon.com/politics/war_room/2009/05/01/severin/index.html
|first = Alex| last = Koppleman
|date=2009-05-01
|title=Radio host suspended; blamed Mexican "primitives" for flu
|publisher=Salon.com
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>

According to news reports and recorded audio, Severin said,
<blockquote>
We are talking about illegal immigration. So now, in addition to venereal disease and the other leading exports of Mexico -- women with mustaches and VD -- now we have swine flu... When we are the magnet for primitives around the world -- and it's not the primitives' fault, by the way, I'm not blaming them for being primitives, I'm merely observing they are primitives -- and when you scoop up some of the world's lowest of primitives in poor Mexico and drop it down in the middle of the United States -- poor, without skills, without language, not share our culture, not share our hygiene, haven't been vaccinated... Millions of leeches from a primitive country come here to leech off you....
Now, at this particular moment in history, they are exporting to us a rather more active form of disease, which is the swine flu.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.salon.com/politics/war_room/2009/05/01/severin/index.html
|first = Alex | last = Koppelman
|date=2009-05-01
|title=Radio host suspended; blamed Mexican "primitives" for flu
|publisher=Salon.com
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref></blockquote>

Severin also accused illegal Mexican immigrants of "ruining the schools, the hospitals, and a lot of life in America," and said emergency rooms were "essentially condos for Mexicans." He later added, "We should be, if anything, surprised that Mexico has not visited upon us poxes of more various and serious types already, considering the number of criminaliens already here."<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/04/_jay_severin.html
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-04-09
|title=WTKK-FM suspends Severin for derogatory comments about Mexicans
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>

Several advertisers have suspended their advertising from WTKK in the wake of the suspension, although other advertisers have stated that they would continue to advertise on Severin's show if he were reinstated.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/05/holding.html
|first = David | last = Abel
|date=2009-05-07
|title=Severin's barbs on Mexicans cause dismay among some advertisers
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref>

It was announced that Severin would return to broadcasting on June 2, 2009.<ref>http://bostonherald.com/business/media/view.bg?articleid=1175762&pos=breaking</ref>

=== Removal from WTKK ===
On March 31, 2011, it was revealed that Greater Media had again suspended Severin, for an "indefinite" period, the air, according to [[Jim Romenesko]]'s Media News blog on the [[Poynter Institute]] website, 'after telling WTKK-FM listeners that he hired “mostly attractive young women” as interns and slept with nearly all of them.' <ref>http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/126148/boston-radio-talker-severin-suspended-for-second-time-in-two-years/ WTKK Talk Host Jay Severin Suspended Again </ref>

On April 6, 2011, it was announced that Severin had been fired from WTKK by Greater Media. <ref>http://www.boston.com/ae/celebrity/more_names/blog/2011/04/jay_severin_fired_from_wtkk-fm.html Jay Severin fired by WTKK-FM</ref>

==Recognition==
*Placed 66th on trade journal ''[[Talkers Magazine]]'''s list of the 2007 "Heavy Hundred". The list ranks what the magazine considers the most popular, influential, or entertaining talk-show hosts from around the country.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2007/03/02/area_talk_hosts_among_bizs_best/
|first = Clea | last = Simon
|date=2007-03-02
|title=Area talk hosts among biz's
|publisher=Boston Globe
|accessdate=2007-03-26}}</ref> In 2008, he placed 53rd on the same list.<ref name="talkers.com"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2009/05/02/jay_severin_a_punk_posing_as_a_pundit/ Scot Lehigh, "Jay Severin, a punk posing as a pundit", Boston Globe, May 2, 2009]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/04/30/severin_fails_to_own_up_to_his_words/ Scot Lehigh, "Severin fails to own up to his words", Boston Globe, April 30, 2004]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2005/09/16/severins_phony_pulitzer/ Scot Lehigh, "Severin's Phony Pulitzer", Boston Globe, September 16, 2005]
* [http://thetrack.bostonherald.com/moreTrack/view.bg?articleid=117677&format=&page=3 Severin's New National Show Starts January 2006, Boston Herald, December 19, 2005]
* [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DEFDD1E38F934A25752C0A962948260 Campaign Battles January 17, 1984]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/20000224/news3.htm Jay Severin talks politics in upcoming lecture]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1998%2D3/98080608.htm Bill Clinton - Sag Harbor Kind of Guy? by Jay Severin]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1997%2D4/97102312.htm Our Town: Ole Cassini by Jay Severin]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1998%2D4/98102914.htm Our Town: Clash of Cultures by Jay Severin]
* [http://archive.sagharboronline.com/sagquery/1998%2D2/98060411.htm Our Town: Sag Harbor Memorial by Jay Severin]
* [http://www.ultimatetaxi.com/1997/jan4c.htm Jay & Renee Severin in "The Ultimate Taxi"]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2009/05/holding.html Severin's barbs on Mexicans cause dismay among some advertisers] Boston Globe, May 7, 2009.
* [http://thephoenix.com/Boston/News/82542-Bostons-Severin-problem/ Boston's Severin Problem] The Boston Phoenix, May 6, 2009
* [http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2009/05/25/cultural_financial_storm_blowing_against_severin/?page=1 Cultural, financial storm blowing against Severin], Joseph P. Kahn, [[Boston Globe]], May 25, 2009.

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Severin, Jay
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = January 8, 1951
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Severin, Jay}}
[[Category:1951 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American talk radio hosts]]
[[Category:American libertarians]]
[[Category:People from Long Island]]
[[Category:Vassar College alumni]]

Operation Thunderclap

2011-07-06T08:27:18Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Refimprove}}. (Build p613)

{{Refimprove|date=July 2011}}
In August 1944 plans were drawn for an operation code named '''Thunderclap''' but it was shelved and never implemented. The plan envisaged a massive attack on Berlin that would cause 220,000 casualties with 110,000 killed, many of them key German personnel, which would shatter German morale. But on consideration it was decided that it was unlikely to work, so it was shelved.<ref name=Taylor-207>Taylor, 207</ref>

The plan was reconsidered in early 1945, to be implemented in coordination with a Soviet advance, but again was rejected again as impractical, and instead a number of coordinated smaller attacks against cities in the communications zone of the Eastern Front, through which key routes to the east converged, were chosen.<ref name=Taylor-214/> The cities designated as choke points where the bombing would be most effective were [[Berlin]], [[Dresden]], [[Chemnitz]] and [[Leipzig]]. Intensive bombing of these targets was carried out with the intention of disrupting the rear areas of the German Eastern Front lines, to aid the Soviets advance as had been requested by the Soviets at the [[Yalta Conference]].<ref name=207-214>Taylor, 207–214 </ref> These raids were large ones, but were not the massive raids envisaged in the original Thunderclap plan.<ref name=Taylor-214>Taylor, 214</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*Taylor, Frederick (2005). ''Dresden: Tuesday 13 February 1945''. London: Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-7084-1
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

[[Category:World War II strategic bombing]]

{{WWII-battle-stub}}

VersaBank

2011-07-05T22:45:50Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Disambiguation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox company
| company_name = Pacific & Western Bank of Canada
| company_logo =
| company_type = [[Public company|Public]] {{tsx|PWC}}
| foundation = [[Saskatoon]], [[Saskatchewan]], 1980
| location = [[London, Ontario]], [[Canada]] (Corporate head office) [[Saskatoon]], [[Saskatchewan]] (Deposit operations)
| key_people = [[David Taylor]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=July 2011}}, CEO
| industry = [[Bank]]
| products = Financial services
| revenue = $19.7 million [[Canadian dollar|CAD]] (2010) <ref>http://www.pwbank.com/investor/news/?y=2010&n=1506292 </ref>
| net_income = {{profit}} $467,000 [[Canadian dollar|CAD]] (2010)
| assets = $1.4 billion [[Canadian dollar|CAD]] (2010)
| num_employees =
| homepage = [http://www.pwbank.com/ www.pwbank.com]
}}
The '''Pacific & Western Bank of Canada (PWBank)''' is a [[bank]] that was founded in [[Saskatoon]], [[Saskatchewan]] in 1980, and now maintains its headquarters in [[London, Ontario]]. The bank is wholly owned by '''Pacific & Western Credit Corp.''' ({{TSX|PWC}}).

Deposit operations are based in Saskatoon, with lending operations based in offices in Toronto, London, Saskatoon, Calgary and Vancouver. <ref>[http://www.pwbank.com/investor/profile/ Company Profile ]</ref> The bank provides deposits through a nationwide financial advisor network and provides loans to established corporations, real estate development, and public sector entities. The bank operates as a branchless financial institution.

The bank in 2009 became authorized by [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] to issue NHA Mortgage Backed Securities. <ref>[http://www.pwbank.com/about/media/?a=10 Pacific & Western Bank approved to issue NHA Mortgage Backed Securities Investment Executive ]</ref> Since 2008 the bank has been purchasing mortgages. <ref>[http://www.pwbank.com/about/media/?a=9 ''Globe and Mail'' article ]</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of banks in Canada|List of Canadian banks]]

==External links==
* [http://www.pwbank.com/ Official site]

==References==
<references/>

 
{{Canadian banks}}

[[Category:Banks of Canada]]
[[Category:Companies based in London, Ontario]]
[[Category:Companies based in Saskatoon]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange]]

Raby Castle

2011-07-05T20:42:54Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Disambiguation needed}} x 3. (Build p613)

[[File:Raby Castle from Jones' Views (1819).JPG|thumb|right|300px|A vista of Raby Castle from Jones’ Views (1819)]]
'''Raby Castle''' ({{gbmapping|NZ12912177}}) is situated near [[Staindrop]] in [[County Durham]] and is one of the largest inhabited [[castle]]s in England.<ref name="AboutUK">{{cite web |url= http://www.aboutbritain.com/RabyCastle.htm |title=Raby Castle |author=aboutbritain.com |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=20 November 2010}}</ref> The [[Grade I listed building]]<ref name="HG">{{cite web |url=http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=111447&resourceID=5 |title=Raby Castle |author=English Heritage |date=January 1952 |work=The Listed Building Register |publisher=English Heritage |accessdate=20 November 2010}}</ref> has opulent eighteenth and nineteenth century interiors<ref name="HG"/> inside a largely unchanged, late [[medieval]] shell.<ref name="Harvey">{{cite book |title=English Medieval Architects; J.F. Hodgson, 'Raby in Three Chapters' |last=Hodgson |first=J. F. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1880 to 1895 |publisher=Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland |location=Durham, UK |isbn= |page= |pages=Vols II and IV 1 et seq. |url= |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> It is the home and seat of [[John Vane, 11th Baron Barnard]], who is the present lord of the castle.<ref name="Comp.Peer">{{cite book |title=The Complete Peerage or a History of the House of Lords and All Its Members from the Earliest Times, Vol. XIV |last=Hammond |first=Peter W. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |publisher=Sutton Publishing |location=Shroud, UK |isbn=978-0750901543 |page= |pages=30–32 |url= |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> The castle is famed for both the size of the building and the artworks contained within it, including famous old masters and examples of portraiture.<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

The castle was greatly fortified by [[John Neville, 3rd Baron Neville de Raby]] in approximately 1360.<ref name="about">[http://www.aboutbritain.com/RabyCastle.htm Raby Castle at AboutBritain.com]</ref> [[Cecily Neville]], who was the mother of the Kings [[Edward IV of England]] and [[Richard III of England]] was born here. The Nevilles lost the castle after they led the failed [[Rising of the North]] in favour of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], in 1569.<ref name="Harvey"/>

Sir [[Henry Vane the Elder]] purchased the castle in 1626 and neighbouring [[Barnard Castle (castle)|Barnard Castle]] from the Crown, and as the Earls of Darlington and Dukes of Cleveland, a Gothic-style entrance hall and octagon-shaped drawing room were added.<ref name="Harvey"/> From 1833 to 1891 they were the [[Duke of Cleveland|Dukes of Cleveland]], and they retain the title of [[Baron Barnard|Lord Barnard]].<ref name="Comp.Peer"/>

==History==
===Early history===

[[File:Canute I of Sweden.jpg|thumb|right| A fantastical rendition of Canute who gave the castle to its early inhabitants.]] The first mention of the castle at Raby occurs in the reign of [[Cnut]] the Great<ref name="Harvey">{{cite book |title=English Medieval Architects; J.F. Hodgson, 'Raby in Three Chapters' |last=Hodgson |first=J. F. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1880 to1895 |publisher=Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland |location=Durham, UK |isbn= |page= |pages=Vols II and IV 1 et seq. |url= |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> and its first recorded documentary mention is in a [[charter]] from [[Algar]], the [[prior of Durham]] granting to Dolfin:

<blockquote>Staindropshire to him, the head of which honour of which was Raby Castle, originally the gift of Cnut the Great.<ref name="Harvey"/></blockquote> This confirms a lord at Raby in 1131<ref name="RabyCastle">{{cite book |title=Raby: Its Castle and Its Lords |last=Scott |first=Owen Stanley |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1906 |publisher=A & E Ward, Printers, &c. |location=Barnard Castle (UK) |isbn= |page=1, et seq. |pages= |url= |accessdate=18 November 2010}}</ref> at the latest.

Tradition is that the castle is built upon solid rock and that it occupies the site of a former palace belonging to Cnut.<ref name="Harvey"/> The early castle’s ownership continued through the FitzMaldred line, until Robert FitzMaldred married the great [[Norman dynasty|Norman]] heiress Isabel Neville <ref name="RabyCastle"/> upon which their son, Geoffery, changed his name to his mother’s maiden name of Neville, deciding to discontinue the use of the [[Saxon]] FitzMaldred.<ref name="Harvey"/> This began the Neville occupation of the castle, which lated until 1570.

===The Neville family===

{{See also|House of Neville}}
[[Robert Neville]] was a famous lord of the castle and was also the [[governor]] of [[Wark Castle]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=July 2011}}, [[Nottingham Castle]], [[Norham Castle]] and [[Bamborough Castle]].<ref name="RabyCastle"/> He was also [[wikt:warden|warden]] of [[John, King of England|King John]]’s castles north of the [[River Trent]]<ref name="Doug"/> and Captain General of all the King’s forces in England.<ref name="Harvey"/> His son, [[Robert Neville]] married the heiress of [[Robert FitzRanulph]], gaining massive Yorkshire possessions.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> Robert Neville did not occupy the position of lord of Raby for long, being killed in a “private quarrel”<ref name="Doug"/> at an early age. Unusually, Raby Castle did not pass to his son Ralph, but rather his grandson Robert Neville.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> Robert had a great dispute with [[Antony Bek (bishop of Durham)|Antony Bek]], the [[Bishop of Durham]] by refusing to obey his order to take the [[garrison]] at Raby to Scotland,<ref name="Harvey"/> stating that:

<blockquote>My tenure is only to defend the [[wikt:patrimony|patrimony]] of [[Saint Cuthbert]] and that you [the bishop] have no right to tell me to go beyond the [[River Tyne|Tyne]] or [[Tees]].<ref name="Doug"/></blockquote>

His son, also called Robert, was contemporaneously styled “[[Peacock]] of the North”<ref name="RabyCastle"/> because of his arrogance and was killed in a fray on the boarder between England and Scotland by [[James, Earl of Douglas]] and his estates passed to his brother [[Ralph Neville]] who took the castle’s garrison to the [[Battle of Neville’s Cross]] in 1346 and was hailed a great hero in that [[battle]].<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

[[Ralph Neville]] became involved with another quarrel with the Bishop of Durham concerning the rent and terms of occupation of the castle. <ref name="Doug">{{cite book |title=Monasticon Anglicanum, or, The history of the ancient abbies, and other monasteries, hospitals, cathedral and collegiate churches in England and Wales. With divers French, Irish, and Scotch monasteries formerly relating to England |last=Dugdale |first=William |authorlink=William Dugdale|coauthors= |year=1693 |publisher=Gregg Publishing; New impression edition (Dec 1970) |location=London |isbn=978-0576785372 |page= |pages=183 |url= |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> The charter issued by Algar stipulated that an annual rent of £5 was paid for the castle, but a custom had developed that the lord of Raby offer the prior of Durham a [[stag]] on Saint Cuthbert’s Day<ref name="Surtees">{{cite book |title=The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham: volume 2 –– Describes the 21 parishes and chapelries of Chester ward in the north of the county, including Gateshead, Jarrow and other parts of present-day urban Tyneside |last=Surtees |first=Robert |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1820 |publisher=Institute of Historical Research |location=London |isbn= |page= |pages=220 |url= |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> which was presented with “a [[fanfare]] of trumpets.” Ralph’s father insisted that he bring with him a great [[retinue]] of his personal servants to serve him at the meal that followed rather than making use of the prior’s servants.<ref name="Surtees"/>

The prior would not accept the stag on those terms:<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

<blockquote>[...] whereupon a great quarrel ensued [...] which did not end in words. The [[monks]] being unarmed, sized the huge [[altar|alter]] candles [...] and forced Lord Neville’s retainers to retreat, leaving the stag behind them.<ref name="Doug"/></blockquote>

[[File:Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland.png|thumb|left| Ralph Neville from an early manuscript, lord of the castle, who sided with the Lancastrian cause and secured the prominence of the family in England.]] The Lord of [[Barnard Castle]] sided with the prior and the conflict, but the two parties must had made peace as Ralph was buried in the Neville [[Chantrey]] in [[Durham Cathedral]], the first lay man to be accorded that honour.<ref name="Surtees"/> Although the Chantrey was abolished in the [[English Reformation]]<ref name="Surtees"/> the [[tomb]] and [[effigy]] is still visible today.<ref name="Surtees"/>

In 1154 no person was permitted to build fortifications in England without first obtaining a royal licence from the monarch.<ref name="Surtees"/> The power to grant the licence in [[County Durham]] was held by the bishop.<ref name="Surtees"/> In 1378 [[Bishop Hatfield]] granted such a licence to John Lord Neville:

<blockquote>To fortify, embattle and crenellate all the towers, houses, and walls in his manor at Raby [...]<ref name="Surtees"/></blockquote>

[[Robert Surtees (antiquarian)|Robert Surtees]] therefore attributes the building of Raby to John.<ref name="Surtees"/> Other authorities, such as Owen Stanley Scott, claim that extensive buildings were already in situ as part of a feudal stronghold and the license was to extend the present buildings.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> Notwithstanding this, the majority of the castle can be attributed to John.<ref name="Surtees"/>

His son, Ralph, was created [[Earl of Westmorland]] by [[Richard II of England|Richard II]], but he subsequently sided with the [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrians]] in the [[War of the Roses]] and was instrumental in placing [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] upon the throne. He was also made a knight of the [[Order of the Garter]] and [[Earl Marshal]] of England.

The military might of the Neville family grew during the feudal era, but during [[Elizabethan]] times the family’s wealth and power declined. The family lost its possessions in [[Yorkshire]] and the family was described as “in rapid decline” in contemporary sources, “being much in debt” and selling off their many of their lands.

===The Rising of the North===

{{See also|Rising of the North}}
{{quotation|
Seven hundred Knights, retainers all 
Of Neville, at their Master’s call, 
Had sate together in Raby’s Hall.<ref name="Wordsworth">{{cite book |title=The Collected Poems of William Wordsworth |last=Wordsworth |first=William |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1994 |publisher=Wordsworth Editions Ltd; New edition |location=London, UK |isbn=978-1853264016 |page= |pages=1000, et seq. |url= |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> 
:– [[William Wordsworth]]
:''The White Doe of Rylstone or; the Fate of the Nortons''}}

[[File:Pilgrimage Of Grace.jpg|thumb|right| Knights, clergy and the common people assemble for the ill-fated Rising of the North which was instigated at Raby Castle.]] On 13 November 1569 the nobility of the north and knights under the Lord of Raby assembled in the great hall of the castle and decided to mount an armed [[insurrection]] against the [[Protestant]] Elizabeth I and in favour of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], known as the [[Rising of the North]].<ref name="RofN">{{cite book |title=The Rising in the North: The Rising of the Northern Earls |last=Thornton |first=George |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2010 |publisher=Ergo Press |location=Unknown |isbn=978-0955751080 |page= |pages=24–26 |url= |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> Some of the nobles managed to persuade the council to abandon the ill-fated enterprise.<ref name="RofN"/> As the meeting was about to break up, the Countess of Westmorland, wife of the Lord of Raby, entered the room<ref name="Surtees"/> and:

<blockquote>[...] thew herself into their mist, weeping bitterly, and with taunting words spurring them anew into the course which had such fatal results.<ref name="Surtees"/></blockquote>

After the failed ''[[coup d'état]]'' the Lord of Raby escaped with his life, but surrendered the castle the Crown. He died in [[Holland]], “a very old man, forsaken and forlorn.”<ref name="Surtees"/><ref name="RofN"/> His wife was granted a [[pension]]<ref name="RofN"/> from the queen and died in 1593.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> The [[confiscation]] of the castle saw the end of the house of Neville at Raby.<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

===The House of Vane===

[[File: William Harry Vane, 1st Duke of Cleveland.png|thumb|left| [[William Harry Vane, 1st Duke of Cleveland]] was a famous political figure and lord of the castle]] After the Rising of the North the castle became the property of the Crown for over forty three years, before being bought by [[Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington]] who previously resided at [[Barnard Castle]] in County Durham.<ref name="Surtees"/> He was impressed by the size and lands, opposed to that at Barnard which was hemmed in by the surrounding town.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> The House of Vane were responsible for much of the modernising of the castle, especially the interior. These include renovation of the mediaeval chapel and famous [[drawing room]]. The family also were responsible for the driving of a carriage way though the castle, causing much damage to the castle’s mediaeval fabric.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> In 1848, the [[chapel]] was renovated by Burn with his customary disregard for antiquity.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> The present family are responsible for the great collection of artworks in the castle.<ref name="Comp.Peer"/>

In 1890 the former [[Harry Powlett, 4th Duke of Cleveland|4th Duke of Cleveland]] died, leaving the line of succession to the castle, and its vast estates, unclear.<ref name="Comp.Peer"/> The case was decided in 1891 when the [[Committee of Privileges]] of the [[House of Lords]] held his relative, Henry de Vere Vane to be the 9th Baron Barnard and inheritor of the vast estates of Raby. He did not, however, inherit the title of [[Duke of Cleveland]] which became extinct.<ref name="DurhamMasonGaz">{{cite book |title=The Official Gazette of the Provincial Grand Lodge of Durham 1908 to 1919 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1919 |publisher=Durham Freemasons |page=172 |pages= |url= |accessdate= 4 November 2010}}</ref>

[[Christopher Vane, 10th Baron Barnard]] was the last great landowner who inhabited the castle. This came to an end when, during his decline, he divested himself of all but {{convert|1713|acres|ha}} of the {{convert|53000|acres|ha|adj=on}} Raby estate.<ref name="TheTimes">{{cite news |title=Lord Barnard |author=The Correspondent for Obituaries |newspaper=The Times of London |date=Tuesday 20 October 1964 |url= |accessdate=6 November 2010}}</ref>

The present Lord Barnard can trace his ancestry back to the House of Neville, thus making the lordship of the castle one of the longest dynastic lordships in English history.<ref name="LordB">{{cite web |url=ttp://www.rabycastle.com/categoryRender.asp?categoryID=3906 |title=The Lord Barnard |author=Raby Castle |year=2008 |work=Biography of Lord Barnard |publisher=Raby Castle Estate |accessdate=9 December 2010}}</ref>

==Lords of the castle==
There have been twenty-six lords of Raby Castle from the time of the first building on the site until the preset day.

===The Houses of Gospatric and FitzMaldred<ref name="RabyCastle">{{cite book |title=Raby: Its Castle and Its Lords |last=Scott |first=Owen Stanley |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1906 |publisher=A & E Ward, Printers, &c. |location=Barnard Castle (UK) |isbn= |page=1, et seq. |pages= |url= |accessdate=18 November 2010}}</ref>===

[[File:Cecily neville.jpg|thumb|right| Cecily Neville, the Rose of Raby, was a famous resident at the castle]]
* Uehtred, son of Gospatric
* Dolfin<ref>The [[Prior of Durham]] issued a [[charter]] in 1131 granting: “Dolfin, son of Uehtred, son of Gospatric the manor of Raby, [...] as was the gift of [[Canute]] the Great.” The charter is in the possession of [[Durham Cathedral]] Library.</ref>
* Maldred
* [[Robert FitzMaldred]]

===The House of Neville<ref name="RabyCastle"/>===

* [[Geoffrey Neville]]<ref>Born Geoffery FitzMaldred but used his mother’s surname in place of his original Saxon surname.</ref>
* [[Robert Neville]]
* [[Robert Neville]] [II]<ref>Was killed in a private quarrel at an early age.</ref>
* [[Robert Neville]] ‘Peacock of the North’<ref>Grandson of the previous incumbent. He inherited the estate by the Will left by his grandmother.</ref>
* [[Ralph Neville]]
* [[John Lord Neville]]
* [[Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland]]
:* [[Cicely Neville]] ‘The Rose of Raby’
* [[John Neville]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=July 2011}}, "[[knight]] of England"
* [[Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland|Charles Neville]]<ref>Deprived of the castle due to the [[Rising of the North]].</ref>

===The Crown===

[[File:Elizabeth1.jpg|thumb|right| Elizabeth I was lord of the castle after the Rising of the North]] After Charles Neville was deprived of the castle and its estate for the ill-fated [[Rising of the North]] it became the property of the Crown by [[Act of Parliament]] in 1570 for forty-three years, the monarch becoming the lord of Raby. The castle's lordship was then translated to James II's [[favourite]], Robert Carr.

* [[Elizabeth_I_of_England|Elizabeth I]]<ref>Took possession in 1570 in compensation for 'the great treasure she expended in suppressing the north."</ref>
* [[James_I_of_England|James I]]

===The House of Carr===

* [[Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset]]

===The Crown (reverted)===

Carr had the castle removed from him after falling out of favour with the king. The castle was reverted to the Crown and subsequently was "divested for [...] the augmentation and support of Charles, Prince of Wales, to Sir Francis Bacon and others, for ninety-nine years, with power to [[lease]] for three lives [...]"<ref>National Archives, London (UK): Chancery: The Court Rolls of James I of England.</ref>

* James I (reverted)
* [[Charles_I_of_England|Charles, Prince of Wales]]
:* Sir [[Francis Bacon]] (''by proxy'')

===The House of Vane<ref name="Comp.Peer">{{cite book |title=The Complete Peerage or a History of the House of Lords and All Its Members from the Earliest Times, Vol. XIV |last=Hammond |first=Peter W. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |publisher=Sutton Publishing |location=Shroud, UK |isbn=978-0750901543 |page= |pages=66–67 |url= |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref>===

* [[Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington]]
* [[Henry Vane, 2nd Earl of Darlington]]
* [[William Henry Vane, 1st Duke of Cleveland]]
* [[Henry Vane, 2nd Duke of Cleveland]]
* [[William_Vane,_3rd_Duke_of_Cleveland|William John Frederick Vane, 3rd Duke of Cleveland]]
* [[Harry George Powlett, 4th Duke of Cleveland]]
* [[Henry de Vere Vane, 9th Baron Barnard]]<ref>Claim admitted 1892 by the [[House of Lords]].</ref>
* [[Christopher Vane, 10th Baron Barnard]]
* [[John_Vane,_11th_Baron_Barnard|(Harry) John Neville Vane, 11th Baron Barnard]]

==Exterior==
===Defences===

{{wideimage|Raby Castle, County Durham.jpg|640px|A panorama of the castle showing the towers and defences from the north east}}

{{See also|Chemin de ronde}}

Tradition is that the castle is built upon solid [[Rock (geology)|rock]],<ref name="Doug"/> which can be observed when the water is low in the [[lake]],<ref name="Surtees"/> and that the stone used to build the [[fortifications]] were quaried from base rock of the site.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> However, no [[archeological]] studies have been conducted to lend support to this theory. Notwithstanding this, physical evidence to support the theory can be gained from the deep fosse surrounding the walls of the castle.<ref name="Surtees"/> Before the complex was de-fortified this fosse formed the castle’s [[moat]].<ref name="RofN"/>

The only access that can be had into the [[enceinte]] of the castle is through the [[gatehouse]].<ref name="RofN"/> In former times the gatehouse was intended to guard the [[drawbridge]].<ref name="RofN"/> No drawbridge remains at the present day, it having been replaced by a flagged causeway.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> The gatehouse originally contained three [[portcullis]], evidenced by the groves still visible used to work them.<ref name="Surtees"/>

Two stone figures on the [[battlements]] were brought from the chapel tower during the reign of [[Edward III]].<ref name="Surtees"/> These figures are almost unique in the north of England<ref name="HG"/> and are intended to to be a semi-figure to stand at the top of the [[marlons]] (which would conceal a man below the waste), and lead the attacking party to believe that the [[garrison]] was on alert, and at their post on the walls, when viewed at a distance.<ref name="Harvey"/>

The two smaller towers beside the gatehouse have no defensive function and were added during the renovations of [[Henry Vane, 2nd Earl of Darlington]].<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

Access to the gatehouse is gained by a door through the enclosing wall of [[enceinte]],<ref name="Harvey"/> which rose to a hight of thirty feet from the waters of the moat.<ref name="HG"/> This is strengthened periodically by [[buttress]] towers<ref name="HG"/> and formed the second line of defense, the moat being the first.<ref name="RofN"/> The passage along the [[parapet]] was the ancient ''[[chemin de ronde]]'' (''allure'') on which guards were posted.<ref name="Harvey"/> Similar passages can be found at [[York Castle]] and around the city of [[Oxford]].<ref name="HG"/>

===Towers===

The castle has nine distinct towers and it is noted that no two towers are of the same hight, shape or size.<ref name="HG"/> Ranging in hight from 61 feet to 80 feet,<ref name="RabyCastle"/> they were all built for defense rather than ornamental reasons,<ref name="Harvey"/> although some have been beautified when the castle was de-fortified.<ref name="HG"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|-
! scope="col" width="600" | Name of tower
! scope="col" width="300" | Hight in feet<ref name="RabyCastle"/>
|-
| Clifford’s Tower
| 80 ft. 0 ins.
|-
| Kitchen Tower
| 77 ft. 8 ins.
|-
| Mount Raskelf
| 70 ft. 8 ins.
|-
| Chapel Tower
| 73 ft. 3 ins.
|-
| Bulmer’s Tower
| 76 ft. 6 ins.
|-
| Nevill or Neville Tower
| 62 ft. 6 ins.
|-
| Watch Tower
| 75 ft. 9 ins.
|-
| Keep
| 65 ft. 0 ins.
|-
| Joan’s Tower
| 61 ft. 6 ins.
|}

==Interior==
The proportions of the kitchen of Raby castle are virtually unaltered since it was built in 1360. The Garrison Room has walls up to twenty feet thick. where in times of danger men-at-arms (and their horses) lived and slept; and most magnificent of all, the breath-taking grandeur of the Baron's Hall where 700 knights gathered in 1569 to plot the "Rising of the North" in support of Mary, Queen of Scots, a doomed enterprise that brought about the fall of the House of Nevill.

==Artworks==
The castle is famous for its works of art, mostly collected by the House of Vane, including [[old masters]] and family portraiture. Some noted artists who's work is in the castle's collection include Titan, Canaletto and Sir Joshua Reynolds.

===Private apartments<ref name="RabyCastle"/>===

There are several works of note in the private apartments of the family, including two depictions Venetian scenes painted by Canaletto and Marieschi as well as several family portraits executed by notable artists of the day.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> The apartments also contain a selection of fine Chinese [[porcelain]], including [[vases]] and plates.<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|-
! scope="col" width="400" | Artist or medium
! scope="col" width="500" | Title or description of subject
|-
| [[Jacopo Marieschi]]
| ''On the [[Grand Canal (Venice)|Grand Canal]], Venice''
|-
| [[David Teniers the Elder]] and [[Jacques d'Arthois]]
| ''Landscape with Figures''
|-
| Giovanni Antonio Canal (known as [[Canaletto]])
| ''On the [[Grand Canal (Venice)|Grand Canal]], Venice''
|-
| [[Carlo Dolci]]<ref>Attributed to Dolci, but unsigned.</ref>
| ''The [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Madonna]] in Prayer''
|-
| David Teniers the Elder
| ''The [[Romani people|Gipsy]] Encampment''
|-
| [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]]
| ''An Architectural Composition''
|-
| Spanish School
| ''Portrait of a Man''
|-
| [[David Teniers the Younger]]
| ''Habour Scene''
|-
| Jacopo Marieschi
| ''A Public Square in Venice''
|-
| The School of [[Nicolas Poussin]]
| ''Landscape with Figures''
|}

===Library<ref name="RabyCastle"/>===

The pictures in the library, with the exception of two architectural pieces executed by Panini above the fireplace, are all portraits of the family or figures associated with them.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> Of note are depictions of the younger and older Sir Henry Vanes wearing the [[Order of the Garter]]. The room also contains a [[pastel]] drawing of the former Lady Barnard by Ellis Roberts<ref name="RabyCastle"/> which she considered to be her best work.<ref name="SRL">{{cite book |title=The Art of Somerset Maugham (Saturday Review of Literature)|last=Whitehead |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= Curtis, Anthony |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York (USA) |isbn= |page= |pages=245–256|url= |accessdate=18 November 2010}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|-
! scope="col" width="400" | Artist or medium
! scope="col" width="500" | Title or description of subject
|-
| [[Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt]]
| ''[[Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington]]''<ref>Known as Henry Vane ‘the Elder.'</ref>
|-
| The Hon. [[John_Collier_(artist)|John Collier]]
| ''Sir H. M. Vane''
|-
| [[Robert Walker (painter)|Robert Walker]]
| ''Sir Henry Vane the Younger''
|-
| [[Pompeo Batoni]]
| ''[[Sir William Meredith, 3rd Baronet]]''<ref>Believed to have been painted in Rome.</ref>
|-
| [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]
| ''Lady with Feather Fan''
|-
| [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]]
| ''An Architectural Composition''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''[[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton]], KG''
|-
| [[Peter Lely]]
| ''Lady Mary Sackville''<ref>The daughter of [[Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset]].</ref>
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''A boy''<ref>Supposed to be [[William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath]].</ref>
|-
| Ellis Roberts<ref name="SRL"/>
| ''Sylvia Mary Straker''<ref>The wife of [[Christopher Vane, 10th Baron Barnard]].</ref>
|-
| Unknown Artist
| ''[[Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Grafton]]''<ref>Depicted in this portrait as a boy.</ref>
|-
| [[Peter Lely]]
| ''[[Louise_de_Kérouaille,_Duchess_of_Portsmouth|Louise Renée de Penancoët de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth]]''
|-
| In the style of [[John Hoppner]]<ref>A photograph.</ref>
| ''Henrietta Elizabeth Frederica''<ref>The daughter of the Hon. Charles Vane and wife of [[Langham_Baronets|Sir William Langham, Bart.]]</ref>
|-
| Autotype<ref>Reproduced from the portrait in the possession of [[Sidney Sussex College]], Cambridge.</ref>
| ''[[Oliver Cromwell]]''
|-
| Maria Chalon
| ''Lord Harry Vane''
|}

===Anti-Library<ref name="RabyCastle"/>===

The pictures in the Anti-Library are chiefly of the Dutch school of painting with some notable examples by Lorrain and Titan.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> The room also contains portraits, mostly members of the family.

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|-
! scope="col" width="400" | Artist or medium
! scope="col" width="500" | Title or description of subject
|-
| [[Thomas Gainsborough]]
| ''Elizabeth Wood''<ref>Wife of the Hon. Charles Vane.</ref>
|-
| [[Claude Lorrain]]
| ''The Embarcation of the [[Queen of Sheba]]''
|-
| [[George Romney (painter)|George Romney]]
| ''The Hon. Charles Vane''
|-
| Tiziano Vecelli or Tiziano Vecellio (known as [[Titian]])
| ''The [[Holy Family]]''<ref>On the frame are the arms of the Torriano family.</ref>
|-
| [[Wilhelm Schubert van Ehrenberg]]
| ''Interior of an Italian Church''
|-
| [[Pieter de Hooch]]
| ''In interior''
|-
| [[Jan Steen]]
| ''Dutch interior''
|-
| [[Willem van Mieris]]
| ''A woman huxtering fish''
|-
| [[David Teniers the Younger]]
| ''In an artist’s studio''
|-
| [[Jan Steen]]
| ''Inside a Tavern''
|-
| [[Adriaen van Ostade]]
| ''Dutch Interior''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''Sophia''<ref>Daughter of the 2nd Duke of Cleveland.</ref>
|-
| [[Sir George Hayter]]
| ''Henry Vane''
|-
| After R. Crossway RA
| ''Henry Vane''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''The Hon. Anne Vane''
|-
| [[David Teniers the Younger]]
| ''A Country Tavern''
|}

===Dining Room<ref name="RabyCastle"/>===

The [[dining room]] contains some of the castle’s most impressive paintings, such as Joshua Reynolds, Anthony van Dyck and Rembrandt.<ref name="RabyCastle"/> The subjects of the paintings in this room are mostly of portraiture of members of the family or associates and still lives.<ref name="RabyCastle"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|-
! scope="col" width="400" | Artist or medium
! scope="col" width="500" | Title or description of subject
|-
| [[Sir Godfrey Kneller]]
| ''Alexander Pope in his 28th year''<ref>Engraved by John Smith</ref>
|-
| The School of [[Bartolomé Esteban Murillo]]
| ''Joseph Interpreting the Dream of Pharaoh’s Chief Baker''
|-
| [[William Hoare]]
| ''The Hon. Charles Vane''
|-
| [[Sir Godfrey Kneller]]
| ''[[William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield]]''<ref>Was [[Lord Chief Justice]] of England.</ref>
|-
| [[Wilhelm Schubert van Ehrenberg]]
| ''[[William Talbot]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=July 2011}}''<ref>Was successively [[Bishop of Oxford]], [[Bishop of Salisbury]] and [[Bishop of Durham]], he was also Chancellor of the [[Order of the Garter]]</ref>
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''An unknown gentlemen''<ref>Possibly one of the sons of Gilbert Vane, 2nd Baron Barnard.</ref>
|-
| [[Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt]]
| ''Sir Henry Vane the Elder''
|-
| [[Jan van Huysum]]
| ''A Composition of Fruit and Lobsters''
|-
| Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (known as [[Rembrandt]])
| ''Head of an Old Man''<ref>Signed and dated 1635.</ref>
|-
| [[Ludolf Bakhuizen]]
| ''Storm Coming On: A Sea Piece''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''Sir Henry Vane the Younger''
|-
| Jacopo da Ponte (known as [[Jacopo Bassano]]
| ''A Vegetable and Fruit Market''
|-
| [[Robert Walker (painter)|Robert Walker]])
| ''[[Oliver Cromwell]]''
|-
| [[Gerard Dou]]
| ''A [[Burgomaster]]''
|-
| [[Aert van der Neer]]
| ''River Scene at Midnight''
|-
| Either Sir [[Anthony van Dyck]] or Sir [[Peter Paul Rubens]]
| ''A Group''<ref>Believed to be either (i) Jakob Jordans and his wife or; (ii) Syders and his wife.</ref>
|-
| Sir [[Anthony van Dyck]]
| ''[[James Hamilton, 1st Lord Hamilton]]''
|-
| Sir [[Anthony van Dyck]]
| ''[[John Finch, 1st Baron Finch]]''
|-
| [[Sir Joshua Reynolds]] P.R.A.<ref>Engraved by J. R. Smith</ref>
| ''Lady Margaret Powlett''
|-
| Allan Ramsay
| ''[[William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath]]''
|-
| [[Luca Giordano]]
| ''[[Manius Curius Dentatus]] Jumping into the Gulf''
|-
| Unknown artist
| ''Joseph Addison''
|-
| Thomas Barker
| ''The Woodman Returning''
|-
| The School of Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (known as [[Raphael]])
| ''The [[Holy Family]]''
|}

==Grounds==
A Deer Park of {{convert|200|acre|km2}} surrounds the Castle.<ref name="about"/>

==Tourism==
The Castle is open to the public and contains many works of art, including the original
1844 version of Hiram Powers' ''[[The Greek Slave]]''.

==See also==
*''[[The Greek Slave]]''

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.rabycastle.com/ Raby Castle] - Official site
* [http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=111447&resourceID=5 English Heritage: Images of England, listing and architectural details]
* [http://www.sine.newcastle.ac.uk/view_structure_information.asp?struct_id=216 Structures of the North East]

{{coord|54|35|27|N|1|48|7|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

{{CastlesCDT&W}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

[[Category:Castles in County Durham]]
[[Category:Houses in County Durham]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in County Durham]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in County Durham]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in County Durham]]
[[Category:Gardens in County Durham]]

[[no:Raby Castle]]

Schlacht um Kanton (1857)

2011-07-05T13:13:30Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Expert-verify}}{{Expand Chinese}}. (Build p613)

{{Expand Chinese|time=2011-07-05|date=July 2011}}
{{Expert-verify|date=July 2011}}

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Canton
| partof = the [[Second Opium War]]
| image = [[File:1858, Canton Commissioner Yeh Men.jpg|300px]]
| caption = The British capture of [[Ye Mingchen]] on 5 January 1858
| date = 28–31 December 1857
| place = [[Guangzhou|Canton]], China
| coordinates =
| territory =
| result = Anglo-French victory
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|UK}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] {{flagicon|France}} [[Second French Empire|France]]
| combatant2 = [[Qing Dynasty]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|UK}} [[Michael Seymour (Royal Navy officer)|Michael Seymour]] {{flagicon|UK}} [[Charles Thomas van Straubenzee]] {{flagicon|France}} [[Charles Rigault de Genouilly]]
| commander2 = [[Ye Mingchen]]
| strength1 = 5,679<ref name="p. 1021">''The London Gazette'': p. [http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/22104/pages/1021 1021]. 26 February 1858. Issue 22104.</ref>
| strength2 = 30,000<ref name="p. 1021" />
| casualties1 = 115 killed, 113 wounded<ref>''The London Gazette'': p. [http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/22104/pages/1026 1026]. 26 February 1858. Issue 22104.</ref>
| casualties2 = 200 killed (est.)<ref>Cooke, George Wingrove (1858). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=odJGAAAAIAAJ China: Being "The Times" Special Correspondence from China in the Years 1857-58]''. p. 357.</ref>
| notes =
}}

{{Campaignbox Second Opium War}}

The '''Battle of Canton''' was fought by British and French forces against China on 28–31 December 1857 during the [[Second Opium War]].

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

[[Category:1857 in China]]
[[Category:Battles of the Second Opium War|Canton]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1857]]

[[zh:英法聯軍入侵廣州]]

Born to Run (Lied)

2011-07-05T05:07:20Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Weasel}}{{Cleanup}}. (Build p613)

{{For|the [[Paul Kennerly]] song|Cimarron (Emmylou Harris album)}}
{{Peacock|date=September 2010}}
{{Cleanup|date=July 2011}}
{{Weasel|date=July 2011}}
{{Infobox single|
| Name = Born to Run
| Cover = borntorunsingle.jpg
| Artist = [[Bruce Springsteen]]
| from Album = [[Born to Run]]
| Released = August 25, 1975
| Format = [[7"]]
| Recorded = [[914 Sound Studios]] [[Blauvelt, New York]] up to August 6, 1974
| Genre = [[Rock music|Rock]] [[Adult-oriented rock|AOR]]
| Length = 4:30
| Writer = [[Bruce Springsteen]]
| Label = [[CBS Records]]
| Producer = [[Bruce Springsteen]] [[Mike Appel]]
| Reviews =
| Last single = ''[[Spirit in the Night]]'' (1973)
| This single = ''Born to Run/[[Meeting Across the River]]'' (1975)
| Next single = ''[[Tenth Avenue Freeze-Out]]/[[She's the One (song)|She's the One]]'' (1976)
| Misc = {{Extra track listing
| Album = Born to Run
| Type = single
| prev_track = "[[Backstreets (song)|Backstreets]]"
| prev_no = 4
| this_track = "Born to Run"
| track_no = 5
| next_track = "[[She's the One (song)|She's the One]]"
| next_no = 6
}}
}}

"'''Born to Run'''" is a song by [[United States|American]] [[singer songwriter]] [[Bruce Springsteen]], and the title song of his album ''[[Born to Run]]''.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2226603/pagenum/all
|title=Tramps Like Us: The Birth of Born To Run.
|first=Louis P.
|last=Masur
|publisher=Slate
|date=2009-09-22}}</ref>

== Songwriting ==
Written at [http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=7+west+end+court,+long+branch,+nj&sll=40.283438,-73.984616&sspn=0.011098,0.027809&g=%227+1%2F2%22++west+end+court,+long+branch,+nj&ie=UTF8&ll=40.283323,-73.985538&spn=0.011098,0.027809&t=h&z=16 7½ West End Court] in [[Long Branch, New Jersey]] in early 1974, the song was Bruce Springsteen's last-ditch effort to make it big. The prior year, Springsteen had released two albums to critical acclaim but with little commercial success. The lyrics to the song are appropriately epic for his last-ditch, all-or-nothing shot at the stars, yet they remain rooted in the universal desperation of adolescence: ''''''Will you walk with me out on the wire, cause baby I'm just a scared and lonely rider. . .We gotta get out while we're young, 'cause tramps like us, baby we were born to run.''''''

Written in the [[first-person narrative|first person]], the song is a love letter to a girl named Wendy (''Wendy let me in I wanna be your friend I wanna guard your dreams and visions...; I wanna die with you Wendy on the streets tonight/in an everlasting kiss!''), for whom the hot-rod-riding protagonist certainly has enough passion to love, but perhaps not the patience. However, Springsteen has noted that it has a much simpler core: getting out of [[Asbury Park, New Jersey|Asbury Park]].

In his 1996 book ''Songs'', Springsteen relates that while the beginning of the song was written on guitar around the opening riff, the song's writing was finished on piano, the instrument that most of the ''Born to Run'' album was composed on.

In the period prior to the release of ''Born to Run'' Springsteen was becoming well-known (especially in his native northeast) for his epic live shows. "Born to Run" joined his concert repertoire well before the release of the album, being performed in concert by May 1974 if not earlier.

The first recording of the song was made by [[Allan Clarke (singer)|Allan Clarke]] of the British group [[The Hollies]], although its release was delayed, only appearing after Springsteen's own now-famous version.

== Recording ==
In recording the song Springsteen first earned his noted reputation for perfectionism, laying down as many as eleven guitar tracks to get the sound just right. The recording process and alternate ideas for the song's arrangement are described in the ''Wings For Wheels'' documentary [[DVD]] included in the 2005 reissue ''[[Born to Run 30th Anniversary Edition]]'' package.

The track was recorded at [[914 Sound Studios]] in [[Blauvelt, New York]] amidst touring breaks during 1974, with final recording done on August 6, well in advance of the rest of the album, and featured [[Ernest Carter (drummer)|Ernest "Boom" Carter]] on the drums and [[David Sancious]] on keyboards; they would be replaced by [[Max Weinberg]] and [[Roy Bittan]] for the rest of the album and in the ongoing [[E Street Band]] (which was still uncredited on Springsteen's records at the time). The song was also recorded with only Springsteen and [[Mike Appel]] as producers; it would be later in the following year, when work on the album bogged down, that [[Jon Landau]] was brought in as an additional producer. Future record executive [[Jimmy Iovine]] engineered the majority of the sessions.

A pre-release version of the song, with a slightly different mix, was given by Appel to disc jockey [[Ed Sciaky]] of [[WMMR]] in [[Philadelphia]] in early November 1974, and within a couple of weeks was given to other [[progressive rock (radio format)|progressive rock radio]] outlets as well, including [[WWFS|WNEW]] in [[New York City|New York]], [[WMMS]] in [[Cleveland]], [[WBCN (FM)|WBCN]] in [[Boston]], and [[WVBR]] in [[Ithaca, New York]]. It immediately became quite popular on these stations, and led to cuts from Springsteen's first two albums being frequently played as well as building anticipation for the album release.

Upon release in August 1975, the song and the album became unparalleled successes for Springsteen, springing him into stardom, and resulting in simultaneous cover stories in ''[[Time Magazine|Time]]'' and ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazines.

==Honors and accolades==
*In 2004, "Born to Run" was ranked #6 in [[WXPN]]'s list of ''The 885 All-Time Greatest Songs''.
*[[Rolling Stone]] magazine's [[Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time|list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time]] placed it at #21.
*The song came in at #920 in [[Q (magazine)|Q]]'s list of the "1001 Greatest Songs Ever" in 2003, in which they described the song as "best for [[working class]] heroes."
*It is one of [[The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll]].<ref>http://rockhall.com/exhibits/500-songs-that-shaped-rock-and/</ref>
*In 2001, the [[RIAA]]'s [[Songs of the Century]] placed the song 135th (out of 365).
*In 1999, [[National Public Radio]] included the song in the "NPR 100", NPR's music editors' compiliation of the one hundred most important American musical works of the 20th century.<ref>http://www.npr.org/programs/specials/vote/list100.html</ref>
*On June 12, 1979, "Born to Run" was named New Jersey's "Unofficial Youth Rock Anthem" by the [[New Jersey State Legislature]],{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} something Springsteen always considered ironic because it was "about leaving Jersey."

==Track listing==
#Born to Run - 4:31
#[[Meeting Across the River]] - 3:18

The [[B-side]] was simply another cut from the album; Springsteen would not begin releasing unused tracks as B-sides until 1980.

== Chart performance ==
"Born to Run" was Springsteen's first worldwide [[single (music)|single]] release, although it achieved little initial success outside of the [[United States]].

Within the U.S. it received extensive airplay on [[Progressive rock (radio format)|progressive]] or [[album-oriented rock]] radio stations and the single was a top 40 hit, reaching number 23 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]].<ref>[http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/charts/chart_display.jsp?g=Singles&f=The+Billboard+Hot+100 Nielsen Business Media Inc.. 1/5/08]</ref>

== Live performance history ==
[[Image:BornToRunHartford100207.jpg|thumb|right|234px|House lights on for a typical performance of "Born to Run". [[Hartford Civic Center]], October 2, 2007.]]
[[File:BTRMeadownlands052109.jpg|thumb|right|234px|"Born to Run" in its home state of New Jersey. [[Izod Center]], May 21, 2009.]]
The song has been played at nearly every non-solo Springsteen concert since 1975 (although it was not included in the 2006 [[Bruce Springsteen with The Seeger Sessions Band Tour|Sessions Band Tour]]). Most of the time the house lights are turned fully on and fans consistently sing along with Springsteen's signature wordless vocalizations throughout the song's performance.

The song has also been released in live versions on five albums or DVDs:
*A 1975 [[Born to Run tours|Born to Run Tour]] rendition on ''[[Hammersmith Odeon London '75]]'', released in 2006;
*A 1985 [[Born in the U.S.A. Tour]] runthrough on ''[[Live/1975-85]]'', released in 1986;
*A starkly different 1988 solo acoustic guitar performance from the [[Tunnel of Love Express]] on ''[[Chimes of Freedom (EP)|Chimes of Freedom]]'', a 1988 [[extended play|EP]];
*A 2000 [[Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band Reunion Tour|Reunion Tour]] version on ''[[Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band: Live In New York City]]'', released in 2001 (the song closes disc one but does not appear on the track listing of the album cover);
*A 2002 [[The Rising Tour|Rising Tour]] take on the ''[[Live in Barcelona]]'' DVD, released in 2003.

"Born to Run" was also performed as the second number of four during Springsteen and the E Street Band's halftime performance at [[Super Bowl XLIII]].

In June 2009, Bruce Springsteen played Born to Run at [[Glastonbury Festival]].

== Music videos ==
"Born to Run" predates the [[music video]] era and no film or video clip was made of it at the time.

*In 1987, a video was released to [[MTV]] and other channels, featuring a live performance of "Born to Run" from Springsteen and the E Street Band's 1984-1985 [[Born in the U.S.A. Tour]], with the video interspersed with clips from other songs' performances from that tour as well. It closed with a "Thank you" graphic to Springsteen's fans.
*In 1988, director [[Meiert Avis]] shot a video of an acoustic version of the song during the [[Tunnel of Love Express]] tour.
*Both videos are included in the compilations ''[[Video Anthology / 1978-88]]'' and ''[[The Complete Video Anthology / 1978-2000]]''.

== Cultural references ==
===Television===
*The children's show, ''[[Sesame Street]]'', featured a song about arithmetic called "Born to Add", sung by a Springsteen-like [[Muppet]]. Its background music, however, sounded more like Springsteen's "[[Jungleland]]", although it did feature a "Born to Run"-ish saxophone solo played by a muppet named Clarice, perhaps a reference to [[Clarence Clemons]].
*The British comedy program, ''[[Spitting Image]]'', once featured a Bruce Springsteen puppet singing a parody entitled "Born To Teach Woodwork".
*In ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode, "[[Lisa's Rival]]", Lisa Simpson imagines herself in "the second best band in America" playing their "number two hit" called "Born to Runner-Up".
*In an episode of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'', [[Joel Robinson]] chides [[Tom Servo]] and [[Crow T. Robot]] for teaching [[Gypsy (MST3K)|Gypsy]] some racy lyrics from "Born to Run" ("Just wrap your legs 'round these velvet rims / and strap your hands across my engines").
*In ''[[The Sopranos]]'' episode, "[[Long Term Parking]]", [[Christopher Moltisanti]] shows up late for a meeting with [[Tony Soprano]] and [[Silvio Dante]]. Chris' explanation quoted from the "Born to Run" lyrics: "the highway was jammed with broken heroes on a last-chance power drive." Incidentally, Dante is played by E Street bandmate [[Steven Van Zandt]].
*In the ''[[Jeremy Clarkson's Motorworld]]'' episode on Detroit, [[Jeremy Clarkson]] uses the line "broken hero on a last chance powerdrive" when driving a [[Dodge Viper]].
*A Season 1 episode of the TV show, ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'', is named after the song.
*A [[Born to Run (Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles)|Season 2 episode]] of the TV show, ''[[Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles]]'', is named after the song.
*[[Jimmy Fallon]] opened the [[62nd Primetime Emmy Awards]] with a cover of the song, featuring [[Tina Fey]], [[Jon Hamm]], [[Jane Lynch]], [[Lea Michele]], [[Amber Riley]], [[Cory Monteith]], [[Chris Colfer]], [[Kate Gosselin]], [[Nina Dobrev]], [[Joel McHale]], [[Jorge Garcia]], [[Randy Jackson]] and [[Tim Gunn]].

===Literature===
*The popular 2009 book about running ''[[Christopher_McDougall#Born_to_Run|Born to Run]]'' by [[Christopher McDougall]] was named after the song, and the lyrics are also quoted at the start of one chapter.
*In the [[Japan]]ese novel ''[[Battle Royale]]'', the main character Shuya Nanahara is a Bruce Springsteen fanatic, despite the fictional Republic of East Asia's ban on [[rock and roll|rock music]]. The lyrics to "Born to Run" are quoted a few times in the book, as Shuya applies them to his own need to get out of Japan, down to singing them, replacing Wendy with his Noriko, in the very closing of the book. They also appear in the opening quotes of the book.
*In one strip of ''[[Zits (comic strip)|Zits]]'', Jeremy Duncan's father, Walt, sings the song while washing his car, wearing [[flip-flops]] and [[boxer shorts]].

===Music (also see "Covers" below)===
*Indie-rock musician and "talking-songs" creator, [[Adam Gnade]], ends his single, "We Live Nowhere and Know No One", with the line "because Bruce had it right and Johnny had it wrong/we're not born to lose/we're born to run." The "Johnny" referred to in the song is late musician and [[New York Dolls]] member [[Johnny Thunders]], who wrote the song "Born to Lose."
*[[The Hold Steady]]'s song, "Charlemange in Sweatpants", references "Born to Run" with the line: "Tramps like us and we like tramps." They also reference "Born to Run" in the song, "Barfruit Blues", with the line: "Half the crowd's calling out for 'Born to Run', the other half's calling out for 'Born to Lose', baby, we were born to choose."
*[[Titus Andronicus]] references "Born to Run" on their song "A More Perfect Union" with the line: "No, I never wanted to change the world, but I'm looking for a new New Jersey, Because tramps like us, baby, we were born to die".
*The [[Lou Reed]] song "Street Hassle" includes a spoken section performed by Bruce Springsteen that ends with the line "Y'know tramps like us, we were born to pay."
*The song "Difference" by rapper [[Childish Gambino]] has a line referencing "Born to Run" in which he raps: "Springsteen this city because this city we were born to run"

===On Stage===
*Comedian [[Robert Wuhl]] discussed and performed parts of this song in his act inquiring as to whether a song with the phrases "suicide machine" and "we gotta get out (of New Jersey?) while we're young" was appropriate for New Jersey's state anthem.
*In the 2010 series of [[The X Factor (UK)|The X Factor]], contestant [[Storm Lee]] sang it on week two of the live shows which was Heroes night.

===Games===
*The song was available as downloadable content for the game ''[[Guitar Hero World Tour]]'' on January 27, 2009, along with "[[My Lucky Day (song)|My Lucky Day]]", as part as the Bruce Springsteen Pack.

==Critical appraisals==
*''Is "Born to Run" the Best Song Ever Written?'' - Bryan Price [http://blogcritics.org/archives/2007/02/08/165141.php BlogCritics Magazine]

==Covers==
*[[Melissa Etheridge]] sang "Born to Run" at the September 11 benefit, [[The Concert for New York City]], and again at the 2009 [[Kennedy Center Honors]], where she performed the song for Springsteen himself, one of the Center's honorees for that year.
*[[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]] covered this song in their debut album [[Welcome to the Pleasuredome]] in 1984.
*[[Free Wild]] currently covers this song on their 2010 Spin-Dry Tour, often followed by a Springsteen impersonation version of the children's song "[[Born to Run (song)#Covers|Itsy Bitsy Spider]]".
*British band, [[McFly]], performed the song for [[BBC Radio 1]]'s [[Live Lounge]] on December 10, 2007.
*The Australian band, [[Something for Kate]], frequently covers "Born to Run" at live performances.
*[[Jimmy Fallon]], the cast of ''[[Glee (TV series)|Glee]]'', and other TV stars sang a cover of "Born to Run" for the opening segment to the [[62nd Primetime Emmy Awards]].
*[[Adam Green (musician)|Adam Green]], of [[The Moldy Peaches]], has covered the song.
*A rare live recording of [[Roger Daltrey]], lead singer of [[The Who]], singing "Born to Run" at a live solo performance appears on his greatest-hits/rarities collection "Gold."
*[[Light This City]] recorded their take on Born To Run during the recording of their final record, "Stormchaser," the track was featured on their myspace for a time and can be found on [[YouTube]] as well
*[[Wolfsbane]] has a heavy metal cover of this song on their 1993 EP "Everything Else"
*[[Suzi Quatro]] covered this song in 1995.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[{{Allmusic|class=song|id=t2010340|pure_url=yes}} "'Born to Run' review"], ''[[AllMusic]]''.
* [http://www.brucespringsteen.net/songs/BornToRun.html Lyrics & Audio clips from Brucespringsteen.net]
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2226603/ "The birth of Born To Run"], ''[[Slate (magazine)]]''.

{{Bruce Springsteen}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Born To Run (Song)}}
[[Category:1975 singles]]
[[Category:Bruce Springsteen songs]]
[[Category:U.S. Route 9]]
[[Category:Songs written by Bruce Springsteen]]
[[Category:WMMS]]

[[es:Born to Run (canción)]]
[[hr:Born to Run (pjesma)]]
[[it:Born to Run (brano musicale)]]
[[sv:Born to Run (sång)]]
[[uk:Born to Run]]

Dampfschifffahrt auf der Wolga

2011-07-04T23:47:33Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Close paraphrasing}}{{Multiple issues}}. (Build p613)

{{Copy edit|date=July 2011}}
{{orphan|date=July 2011}}
{{Multiple issues|orphan = July 2011|unreferenced = September 2010|wikify = September 2010|date=July 2011}}


{{Article for deletion/dated|page=Steamboats on the Volga River|timestamp=20110704022909|year=2011|month=July|day=4|substed=yes|help=off}}


{{rescue}}

[[File:Volgarivermap.png|thumb|Map of the Volga watershed]]
The [[Volga River]] is Europe's longest river, and a major trade artery in that continent. The technological arrival of the [[steam engine]] allowed cargoes to be more easily moved upstream. The use of '''[[steamboat]]s''' on the Volga River began in the year 1821.

==History==
===Volga Boatmen===

[[File:Ilia Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Volga Boatmen (1870-1873).jpg|thumb|180px|right|''[[Barge Haulers on the Volga|Burlaks on the Volga]]'' (painting by [[Ilya Yefimovich Repin]], 1870-73)]]
Formerly, tens of thousands of [[burlak]]i, or Volga boatmen, were employed in dragging boats up the Volga and its tributaries, but this method of traction has disappeared. Horses were still extensively used along the three canal systems. Steamers really took hold in the 1840s.

===First Steamers===
[[File:FreshWindOfLevitan.jpg|200px|left|thumb]]

In 1843 [[Nicholas I of Russia|Czar Nicholas I]] issued a license to the "Along the Volga" Company in 1843, which became the premier Volga Flotilla until the Soviet takeover. The first steamer "Volga" visited [[Samara]] in 1846.<ref name=""Samara">{{cite web |url= http://www.myeuropeholidays.com/city-information.php?city_id=102 |title=Samara Travel Guide |first= |last=Samara Tourist Guide|work=myeuropeholidays.com |year=2011 [last update] |quote=The first steamer 'Volga' visited to Samara in 1846. |accessdate=4 July 2011}}</ref>Nizhniy is the chief station of the Volga steamboat traffic. The first steamer made its appearance on the Volga in 1821, but it was not till 1845 that steam navigation began to assume large proportions.

The first large steamers of the American type were built in 1872.
Thousands of steamers are now employed in the traffic, to say nothing of smaller boats and rafts. Many of the steamers use as fuel mazut or petroleum refuse. . In 1870, the first Russian [[open hearth furnace]] was built in [[Nizhny Novgorod]], followed by a two-decked steamship "Perevorot" just a year later. In 1913, it produced a dry bulk cargo ship "Danilikha". The shipyard built 489 ships between 1849 and 1918. The first Volga steamers 'Komar', 'Shmel', and 'Tungus' were constructed between 1908 to 1917 in the Nobel Shipyard in [[Rybinsk]].<ref name="Nobel Shipyard">{{cite web |url=http://www.nobel-shipyard.ru/en/about |title=About Company | Nobel Shipyard |first= |last=Nobel Shipyard |work=nobel-shipyard.ru|year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=4 July 2011}}</ref>

===Cable Hauled Tugs===
[[Image:Кинешма. Промышленная часть города. Почтовая открытка. Издание Л.М.Гольдфейна. 1900-е г.г..jpg|thumb|right|Steamboat and rail connection on [[Volga River]] at [[Kineshma]], 1900]]
{{Close paraphrasing|date=July 2011}}
On several of the large rivers of Europe like the Volga, with rapid [[Current (stream)|currents]], cable towage has been introduced in addition to the older methods of transporting merchandise by sailing and steam boats or by towage with screw or paddle tugs. A chain or wire rope is laid on the bottom of the river bed, fixed to anchors at the ends and passed over a [[Pulley|chain pulley]] driven by the [[steam engine]] and guided by pulleys on the steam tug,<ref name="Gutenberg">{{cite web |url= http://www.kobobooks.com/content/Capstan-Navigation-On-The-Volga/sc-TtO6O_yEikufw4E_v8kpwA/page1.html |title=Capstan Navigation On The Volga. - Kobo |first= |last=Gutenberg |work=kobobooks.com |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=5 July 2011}}</ref> the tug lifting it out of the water at the bow and dropping it over the stern and winding itself with the barges attached to it along the chain, the latter being utilised as a rule only for the up journey, while down the river the tugs are [[Propeller|propelled by paddles or screws]], and can tow a sufficient number of barges with the assistance of the current.<ref name="Gutenberg"/> The system has been found advantageous, as, although the power required for drawing the barges and tugs against the current is of course the same in all cases, the slip and waste of power by screws and paddles is avoided. The size of the screws or paddles is also limited by the nature of the river and its traffic, and with cable towage a larger number of barges can be hauled.<ref name="Gutenberg"/>

[[Image:Rzhev.jpg|left|160px|thumb|The town of [[Rzhev]] on the banks of the Volga. 1910]]

===Many Cargoes===
The Volga is the main street of European Russia. To this end many loads are moved from their source to the market— coal from the [[Donets Basin|Donbass Region]], iron ore, timber, wheat, watermelons, zeks or exiles, machinery, cement, limestone, and oil.

===Various Troubles===
In 1897 the ''New York Times'' reported "FORTY DROWNED IN THE VOLGA.; Steamer ''Tsarevitch'' Run Down by the ''Malpitka'' Near Astrakhan."<ref name="New York Times">{{cite news |url= http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F70815FD395811738DDDAE0994D1405B8785F0D3 |title=FORTY DROWNED IN THE VOLGA. - Steamer Tsarevitch Run Down by the Malpitka Near Astrakhan. - View Article - NYTimes.com |first= |last=The New York Times |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=17 September 1897 |publisher=[[New York Times Company|NYTC]] |location=[[New York, NY|New York]] |issn=0362-4331 |accessdate=4 July 2011}}</ref> [[Alfred Nobel]] built fifty steamers at [[Baku]] to move [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] oil. He also built the [[Vandal (tanker)|MS Vandal]], which in 1903, was the ship propelled by a diesel engine.<ref name=""Naval-engineers>{{cite web |url= http://naval-engineers.blogspot.com/2008/06/history-of-shipping-industry.html |title=All About Naval Engineering: History of Shipping Industry |first= |last=Naval-engineers.Com |work=naval-engineers.blogspot.com |year=2011 [last update] |quote=In 1903 the Wandal, a steamer on the Volga River, was powered by the first diesel engine used for ship propulsion. |accessdate=4 July 2011}}</ref><ref>sources disagree over whether, Vandal or Petite-Pierre, was the first diesel ship: Thomas, p. 207: ''Petite-Pierre'' was the first diesel ship. Gardiner and Greenway, p. 160: ''Vandal'' was the first diesel ship.</ref>In 1902 Karl Hagelin, "a veteran of the Volga and sometime visionary",<ref name=T171>Tolf, p. 171.</ref>suggesting mating diesel engines to river barges. He envisioned direct shipment of oil through a 1,800-mile route from the lower Volga to [[Saint Petersburg]] and Finland.<ref name=T171/> In 1858, the [[Nizhny Novgorod]] Machine Factory produced the first Russian steam dredger. The amount of suspended matter brought down by erosion is correspondingly great. All along its course the Volga is eroding and destroying its banks with great rapidity; towns and loading ports have constantly to be shifted farther back.
[[Image:Volga-near-Zubtsov-Prokudin-Gorskii.jpeg|right|thumb|160px|View from Polustovaia Hill to the Volga near [[Zubtsov]]. circa 1910]]
The Russians move large amounts of timber for export to Europe. Large barges of {{convert|300|ft|m|lk=out|abbr=on}} length to {{convert|1000|tonne|0|lk=out|abbr=on}} are purpose built for the single journey
in the season. Large numbers of the boats and rafts are broken up after a single voyage. The wood barges are towed by tug.

In 1913 there were over 5,000 steamers on the Volga river system.

===Soviet Era===
[[File:TeploxodStalina1953.jpg|left|170px|thumb|Stamp of the Soviet Union, 1953, showing steamship "Joseph Stalin".]]
The Soviets ran fleets are armed riverboats during the [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]]. The [[Red Army]] and the [[White movement|White Army]] had small naval battles on the river. Later, during the [[Russian famine of 1921]], steamers became a way out of misery.<ref name="Hoover">{{cite web |url= http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover-digest/article/6135 |title=Food as a Weapon | Hoover Institution |first= Bertrand M.|last= Patenaude |work=hoover.org |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=5 July 2011}}</ref> With the Red control of Russia, rebuilding infrastructure became paramount.<ref name="Hoover"/>

The largest fleet of any of Soviet rivers is that on the Volga, where in 1926 there were 1,604 steamers with an indicated total horse power of 300,595. On January 1, 1927, the Internal Waterways Steamship Co. had at its disposal 2,020 steamers.<ref name="Marxists.Org">{{cite web |url= http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/ch08.htm |title=The Soviet Union: Facts, Descriptions, Statistics — Ch 8 |first= |last=Marxists.Org |work=marxists.org |year=2009 [last update] |accessdate=4 July 2011}}</ref> Batashev's steamers were on par with the world-famous ones produced by Berdov, and were installed on the majority of Volga steamships.

===World War II and beyond===
[[Image:Rachport.jpg|thumb|River boat ''Khirurg Razumovsky'' at [[Kazan]], 2010.]]
At the start of the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], and before the [[Wehrmacht]] reached the city itself, the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' had rendered the River Volga, vital for bringing supplies into the city, unusable to Soviet shipping.<ref name="Britannica 1911">{{cite book|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|chapter=Battle of Stalingrad|quote=By the end of August, … Gen. Friedrich Paulus, with 330,000 of the German army's finest troops… approached Stalingrad. On August 23 a German spearhead penetrated the city's northern suburbs, and the Luftwaffe rained incendiary bombs that destroyed most of the city's wooden housing.}}</ref> Between 25 and 31 July 1942, 32 Soviet ships were sunk, with another nine crippled.
However, the Russians put of a valiant defence. During the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], one indomitable tug "Krasnoflotets" crossed the river towing barges of men, food and ammunition, constantly under the fire of the German guns. The tug made many journeys until it was too damaged to continue. One hospital ship was struck by German artillery 11 times.

The Soviet navy built armed cutters, sporting T34 tank turrets. This "Volga Flotilla made the Red Army’s greatest victory possible, keeping open supply lines to the troops fighting for their lives in the ruins of Stalingrad. Gunboats armed with 76mm anti-aircraft guns fought off German Stuka attacks throughout the siege, and those with tank turrets hove close to the riverbanks to provide fire support for the troops ashore. Every night, they ferried reinforcements and ammunition across the river, and brought back the wounded to safety.<ref name="AvalanchePress">{{cite web |url= http://www.avalanchepress.com/RiverGunboats.php?mode=print |title=119694_avalanche Press|first= |last=Avalanche Press |work=avalanchepress.com |year=2011 [last update] |quote= “I would say briefly that had it not been for them the 62nd Army might have perished without ammunition and rations, and could not have carried out its task.” |accessdate=4 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="WorldNavalShips">{{cite web |url= http://www.worldnavalships.com/forums/showthread.php?t=1162 |title=The Volga Flotilla Russian River Gunboats - World Naval Ships Forums |first= |last=World Naval Ships |work=worldnavalships.com |year=2011 [last update] |quote=“About the role of the sailors of the fleet and their exploits,” wrote Vasiliy Chiukov, the Soviet commander in Stalingrad, “I would say briefly that had it not been for them the 62nd Army might have perished without ammunition and rations, and could not have carried out its task.” |accessdate=4 July 2011}}</ref>

“About the role of the sailors of the fleet and their exploits,” wrote [[Vasily Chuikov]], the Soviet commander in Stalingrad, “I would say briefly that had it not been for them the 62nd Army might have perished without ammunition and rations, and could not have carried out its task.”<ref name="AvalanchePress"/><ref name="WorldNavalShips"/>
The Germans surrendered in the winter of 1943 and the Volga was once again open to steamers after the
removal of war wreckage.

The Soviets embarked on a huge series of dams, canals, barrages, lakes and hydro schemes. Much of this had been planned prior to the
war but that tragedy only delayed their completion. Control of river erosion, and silting was one reason; providing enough draft for large
ships and clearing rapids was anothor. The [[Volga-Don Canal]] was one scheme, and the [[Volga-Baltic Waterway]] another.

Most of the keels on the river were of the paddle steamer type. Up until
1950, the Soviets continued with theis layout.
With the new hydrological and hydroelectric work, new ships needed to be built. In the post-war years, new steamers of the [[Ryazanclass steamship|Josef Stalin]] type were built and navigated the river.

The Soviets then went into hydrofoils and diesel steamers A few steamers have survived. Today, the river is worked by diesel cruise boats and tugs.

==See also==
* [[Lev Tolstoy class steamship]]
* [[Ryazan class steamship]]
* [[Steamboats of the Mississippi]]
* [[Parana River steamers]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Steamboats On The Volga River}}
[[Category:Water transport in Russia]]

==References==
;Sources
* Gardiner, Robert; Greenway, Ambrose (1994). ''[http://books.google.com/books?ei=BY7xS6-xL5TS-Qbc2uz0BA The golden age of shipping: the classic merchant ship, 1900–1960]''. Conway Maritime. ISBN 0851775675.
* Tolf, Robert (1976). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3DmsQLtWq1wC The Russian Rockefellers: the saga of the Nobel family and the Russian oil industry]''. Hoover Press. ISBN 0817965815.
* Thomas, Donald E. (2004). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BzxSAAAAMAAJ Diesel: Technology And Society In Industrial Germany]''. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0817351701.
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=hbB-AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA248&dq=volga+river+steamboat&hl=en&ei=BncRTq_BMYGWsgOQwJiCDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBDgU#v=onepage&q&f=false Ellis, William T., “Voyaging on the Volga Amid War and Revolution”, ''National Geographic Magazine, Volume 33 (1918), page 245]. (accessed 07-04-11)
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=rU4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=volga+river+steamboat&hl=en&ei=h3URTqehD46osAPQ0qmlDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=volga%20river%20steamboat&f=false Graebner, Walter, “1000 Miles up the Volga, ''Life Magazine'', September 7, 1942, at page 2] (accessed 07-04-11) (describes journey on Volga River during [[World War II]]).
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=NbwcAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA22&dq=volga+river+steamboat&hl=en&ei=VHMRTqWSE4musAP68JGiDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=volga%20river%20steamboat&f=false Bartlett, George H., “To Samara from Moscow, via Nizhni and the River Volga”, ''The Harvester world'', Volumes 2-3, (published by International Harvester Co.) (1910), at page 22.] (accessed 07-04-11). (describes a trip by steamboat by a salesman for International Harvester Co. on the Volga river in 1910.)
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=qRlJAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA394&dq=volga+river+steamboat&hl=en&ei=NnERTpqXH5O4sAPK0a2aDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=volga%20river%20steamboat&f=false United States Dept. of Commerce, Special Consular Reports, Vol 13, Issue 1, page 394] (accessed 07-04-11) (summarizes steamboat, routes, and fares on the Volga River and tributaries as of 1895)
* ''The Beginning of the Road: The Story of the Battle for Stalingrad'', London, 1963.<ref>[[John Keegan|Keegan, John]]. ''The Battle for History: Re-fighting World War Two'' ([[Barbara Frum]] lecture series), [[Random House#Other international branches|Vintage Canada]], Toronto, 1995. Republished by [[Vintage Books]], New York, 1996.{{Rp|121}}</ref>
* {{1911}}
* CIA. Soviet Shipping. Washington. 1950.

;Notes
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://paddlesteamers.awardspace.com/Hotel%20Aquamarina.htm photos of Volga paddle-steamer "Harkov"]
*[[Vladimir Gilyarovsky]], [http://lib.ru/RUSSLIT/GILQROWSKIJ/skitania.txt "My Travels (Мои скитания)"]

1776 – Rebellion und Liebe

2011-07-04T20:37:11Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox film
| name = 1776
| image = 1776 DVD cover.jpg
| caption = DVD release cover
| director = [[Peter H. Hunt]]
| producer = [[Jack L. Warner]]
| writer = [[Peter Stone]]
| starring = {{unbulleted list | [[William Daniels]] | [[Howard Da Silva]] }}
| music = [[Sherman Edwards]]
| cinematography = [[Harry Stradling Jr.]]
| editing = {{unbulleted list | [[Florence Williamson]] | [[William H. Ziegler]] }}
| distributor = [[Columbia Pictures]]
| released = {{film date|1972|11|9}}
| runtime = {{unbulleted list | 142 minutes (theatrical) | 168 minutes (DVD) }}
| country = {{filmUS}}
| language = English
}}
'''''1776''''' is a 1972 American musical film directed by [[Peter H. Hunt]]. The screenplay by [[Peter Stone]] was based on the [[1776 (musical)|1969 stage musical of the same name]]. Portions of the dialogue and some of the song lyrics were taken directly from the letters and [[memoir]]s of the actual participants of the [[Second Continental Congress]]. The song score was composed by [[Sherman Edwards]].

==Plot==
While General [[George Washington]] is conducting the struggle against the [[British Empire]], the Continental Congress in [[Philadelphia]] piddles away its time over trivial matters and cannot even begin debating the question of [[American Revolution|American independence]]. The leader of the independence faction is the abrasive [[John Adams]] ([[William Daniels]]) of [[Massachusetts]] whose continual pushing of the issue has brought their cause to a complete standstill. [[John Dickinson (politician)|John Dickinson]] ([[Donald Madden]]) of [[Pennsylvania]] leads the opposition that hopes for reconciliation with [[England]]. During his quieter moments, John Adams calls up the image of his wife [[Abigail Adams]] ([[Virginia Vestoff]]) who resides in Massachusetts and gives him insight and encouragement. Doctor [[Benjamin Franklin]] ([[Howard Da Silva]]) of Pennsylvania suggests another colony that supports independence should submit a proposal. [[Richard Henry Lee]] ([[Ron Holgate]]) of [[Virginia]] is sent off to [[Williamsburg]] to get authorization to propose independence. Weeks later, Lee returns with the [[Lee Resolution|resolution]] and finally debate on the question begins. After heated discussions, the question is called without a majority of positive votes present. The vote is successfully postponed until a document or declaration describing their grievances can be written. [[John Hancock]] ([[David Ford (actor)|David Ford]]), [[President of the Continental Congress]], appoints a committee up that includes John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and a protesting [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[Ken Howard]]) of Virginia who was heading home that night. Adams sends for Thomas Jefferson's wife so that the declaration can be prepared by the otherwise distracted Jefferson. Both John Adams and Benjamin Franklin are quite taken with the young [[Martha Jefferson]] ([[Blythe Danner]]). While maneuvering to get the required unanimous majority for the vote on independence, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and [[Samuel Chase]] ([[Patrick Hines]]) of [[Maryland]] go to visit the colonial army encamped in New Brunswick, New Jersey at the request of General Washington to help convince Maryland. Upon returning, the declaration is being read and then subsequently debated and amended. The [[Southern United States|Southern]] delegates walk out of Congress when the [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] clause is not removed. After removing that clause, 11 colonies are in favor, with [[New York]] [[Abstention|abstaining]]. The question is down to the colony of Pennsylvania and the vote of Judge [[James Wilson]] ([[Emory Bass]]), who always follows John Dickinson's lead. Wilson votes with the rest of Congress as part of the majority. Finally, with the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] ready to be signed, each colony (including New York) affixes their signature to the Declaration, establishing the [[United States]] on July 4, 1776.

==Cast==
*[[William Daniels]] as [[John Adams]] (MA)
*[[Howard Da Silva]] as [[Benjamin Franklin]] (PA)
*[[Ken Howard]] as [[Thomas Jefferson]] (VA)
*[[Donald Madden]] as [[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]] (PA)
*[[John Cullum]] as [[Edward Rutledge]] (SC)
*[[David Ford (actor)|David Ford]] as [[John Hancock]] (MA)
*[[Roy Poole]] as [[Stephen Hopkins (politician)|Stephen Hopkins]] (RI)
*[[Ron Holgate]] as [[Richard Henry Lee]] (VA)
*[[Ray Middleton]] as [[Thomas McKean]] (DE)
*[[William Hansen]] as [[Caesar Rodney]] (DE)
*[[Blythe Danner]] as [[Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson|Martha Jefferson]]
*[[Virginia Vestoff]] as [[Abigail Adams]]
*[[Emory Bass]] as [[James Wilson]] (PA)
*[[Ralston Hill]] as [[Charles Thomson]]
*[[Howard Caine]] as [[Lewis Morris]] (NY)
*[[Patrick Hines]] as [[Samuel Chase]] (MD)
*[[William Duell]] as [[Andrew McNair]]
*Daniel Keyes as [[Josiah Bartlett]] (NH)
*[[Leo Leyden]] as [[George Read (signer)|George Read]] (DE)
*[[Stephen Nathan]] as Courier
*[[Jonathan Moore (actor)|Jonathan Moore]] as [[Lyman Hall]] (GA)
*[[James Noble (actor)|James Noble]] as Reverend [[John Witherspoon]] (NJ)
*[[John Myhers]] as [[Robert Livingston (1746-1813)|Robert Livingston]] (NY)
*[[Rex Robbins]] as [[Roger Sherman]] (CT)
*[[Charles Rule]] as [[Joseph Hewes]] (NC)

==Production==
Many members of the original [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] cast, including [[William Daniels]], [[Ken Howard]], and [[Howard Da Silva]], reprised their roles for the film. [[Ralston Hill]], [[Donald Madden]], and Charles Rule also repeated their roles from the Broadway production, marking their only appearances in feature film.

Exteriors were filmed at the Warner Ranch in Burbank, California, the former Columbia Pictures backlot, where they built an entire street of colonial Philadelphia. Other sets were built at Colombia's Gower Ranch in Hollywood, which were among the last film shot at the location before the Warner/Colombia merger in 1971. <ref>http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/89664/1776/notes.html</ref> Most of the colonial sets were destroyed by a fire in the mid 1970s. {{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

The water fountain seen during the musical number "The Lees of Old Virginia," with [[Ben Franklin]], [[John Adams]], and [[Richard Henry Lee]], is best known to current television viewers as the fountain seen at the beginning of the TV show ''[[Friends]]''. This fountain still exists directly across the street from the ''[[Bewitched]]'' and ''[[I Dream of Jeannie]]'' houses.

Interiors were shot at the old Columbia studio on Gower Street in Hollywood <ref>{{cite web|title=COLUMBIA TRISTAR PICTURES SONY ENTERTAINMENT CORPORATION | WORLD ELECTRIC NAVIGATION CHALLENGE | SOLAR COLA, COKE, PEPSI, VIRGIN, COCA COLA. |url=http://www.solarnavigator.net/columbia_pictures_sony_entertainment.htm|work=|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5iQIWn8c6|archivedate=2009-07-20|deadurl=no|accessdate=2009-07-11}}</ref>, which is now called the Capital Studios at Sunset Gower <ref>{{cite web|title=Sunset-Gower Studios (formerly Columbia Studios) |author=Gary Wayne |url=http://www.seeing-stars.com/Studios/SunsetGower.shtml|work=|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5iQIf7vwC|archivedate=2009-07-20|deadurl=no|accessdate=2009-07-11}}</ref>.

In the director's cut DVD commentary by Peter Hunt, he informs us that ''1776'' was the last film that was supposed to be filmed in this studio. The last shot of the film, where he pulls back to show the entire hall and then fade to a painting, required the camera to pull back so far that they ran into the back wall of the building. Since it was scheduled to be demolished, they knocked a hole in the outside wall and pulled the camera back through it to get the shot. Later after ''1776'' wrapped, they changed their minds about knocking down the building and had to repair the wall.

In its theatrical and original home video releases, the film was rated G; following the restoration of various parts cut by producer [[Jack Warner]], the [[DVD]] was rated PG. The [[Laserdisc]] version, now out of print, contains additional footage and background music not contained on the DVD release. The current 168-minute version, however, is considered director Peter Hunt's preferred version, hence its "[[director's cut]]" [[moniker]]. The film was the [[Christmas]] attraction at [[Radio City Music Hall]] in [[New York City]].

"Cool, Cool, Considerate Men" was cut from the film prior to its release and not included on the [[soundtrack]] recording. The first VHS tapes and laserdiscs suffered from this deficiency. The footage, some of physically poor quality, was restored for the later laserdisc and DVD releases.

==Political changes==
The song "Cool, Cool, Considerate Men" depicts Revolutionary War era conservatives as power-hungry wheedlers focused on maintaining wealth. According to Jack L. Warner, the film's producer and a friend of [[United States President|U.S. President]] [[Richard Nixon]], Nixon pressured him to cut the song from the 1972 film version of the show, which Warner did. Nixon apparently saw the song as an insult to the conservatives of his time. Warner also wanted the original negative of the song shredded, but the film's editor secretly kept it intact. It was only decades later that the song was restored to the film.<ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/2001/sep/07/entertainment/ca-42982 Heated Debate About 'Cool' Cut], [http://articles.latimes.com/ Los Angeles Times Archives], September 07, 2001, Accessed 2009-05-30</ref>

==Critical reception==
[[Vincent Canby]] of ''[[The New York Times]]'' observed, "The music is resolutely unmemorable. The lyrics sound as if they'd been written by someone high on [[root beer]], and the book is familiar history — compressed here, stretched there — that has been gagged up and paced to Broadway's not inspiring standards. Yet Peter H. Hunt's screen version of ''1776'' ... insists on being so entertaining and, at times, even moving, that you might as well stop resisting it. This reaction, I suspect, represents a clear triumph of emotional associations over material ... [It] is far from being a landmark of musical cinema, but it is the first film in my memory that comes close to treating seriously a magnificent chapter in the American history." <ref>[http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=980DE1D7113DEF34BC4852DFB7678389669EDE ''New York Times'' review]</ref>

[[Roger Ebert]] of the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'' gave it two stars and declared, "This is an insult to the real men who were Adams, Jefferson, Franklin and the rest ... The performances trapped inside these roles, as you might expect, are fairly dreadful. There are good actors in the movie (especially William Daniels as Adams and Donald Madden as John Dickinson), but they're forced to strut and posture so much that you wonder if they ever scratched or spit or anything ... I can hardly bear to remember the songs, much less discuss them. Perhaps I shouldn't. It is just too damn bad this movie didn't take advantage of its right to the pursuit of happiness." <ref>[http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19721226/REVIEWS/212260301/1023 ''Chicago Sun-Times'' review]</ref>

==Awards and nominations==
The film was nominated for the [[Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy]] but lost to ''[[Cabaret (film)|Cabaret]]''. Harry Stradling Jr. was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]] but lost to [[Geoffrey Unsworth]] for ''Cabaret''.

==Songs==
*Overture
*"Sit Down, John"
*"Piddle, Twiddle and Resolve"/"Till Then"
*"The Lees of Old Virginia"
*"But, Mr. Adams"
*"Yours, Yours, Yours"
*"He Plays the Violin"
*"Cool, Cool, Considerate Men"
*"Momma Look Sharp"
*"The Egg"
*"Molasses to Rum"
*"Compliments"
*"Is Anybody There?"
*Finale

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0068156|1776}}
* [http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/1776 1776 at Rotten Tomatoes]

{{DEFAULTSORT:1776 (Film)}}
[[Category:1972 films]]
[[Category:1970s musical films]]
[[Category:Films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Films set in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:American Revolutionary War films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Peter H. Hunt]]
[[Category:English-language films]]
[[Category:Columbia Pictures films]]
[[Category:United States Declaration of Independence]]

[[it:1776 (film)]]

Ranau

2011-07-04T19:19:10Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Disambiguation needed}} x 2. (Build p613)

{{for|the lake in [[Indonesia]]|Lake Ranau}}
{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Ranau
|other_name =
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|map_caption = Location in [[Malaysia]] and [[Sabah]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[States of Malaysia|State]]
|subdivision_name = [[Malaysia]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Sabah]]
|established_title =
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|leader_name =
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_sq_mi = 763.9
|area_total_km2 = 1978.5
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_total = 70,649
|population_density_sq_mi =
|population_density_km2 =
|timezone = [[Malaysian Standard Time|MST]]
|utc_offset = +8
|demonym =
|area_code =
|postal_code_type = Postcode
|postal_code = 89308; 89309
|license_plate=SS
|elevation_m = 1176
|elevation_ft = 3858.27
|latd =
|latm =
|lats =
|latNS =
|longd =
|longm =
|longs =
|longEW =
|footnotes =
}}
'''Ranau''' is a district as well as a town in the East Malaysian state of [[Sabah]] on the island of [[Borneo]] and it is situated in the West Coast Division of Sabah. According to 2000 Population Census estimates, the population of the district was 70,649 with 86.66% of the population is ethnic [[Dusun]].

Located at an altitude of 1176m above sea level, Ranau is known for its hilly geographical structure and is the largest producer of highland vegetables in the state of Sabah. Apart from agriculture, Ranau is a must see tourism destination and has many wonderful places such as [[Mount Kinabalu]], [[Poring Hot Springs]], Kundasang War Memorial, Sabah Tea Garden and much more. Malaysia's first [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], the [[Kinabalu National Park]] is also located here.
[[Image:Welcome Sign.jpg|thumb|alt=caption.|''Welcome To Ranau'', just before entering Ranau township as seen from vehicles heading from [[Kota Kinabalu]]]]

==History==
===Etymology===
The origin of the name "Ranau" comes from the Dusun word "'''Ranahon'''" which means ''paddy fields''. Usually the Dusun people who live in the highland grow mountain rice on the hills (called ''tumo/dumo'' and the mountain rice is called ''parai tidong'' in Dusun), however, for those who live in the lowland of Ranau, they cultivate rice in watery paddy fields. Over time, “Ranahon” is shortened to “Ranau” and since the central district administration is nearer to the lowland, the name “Ranau” is adopted as the official name for the district.

==Geography==
{{Image|Ranau_Satellite_View.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|alt=caption|Satellite view of Ranau township circa 2008}}
Ranau is situated between 5°30’N to 6°25’N and 116°30’E to 117°5’E.
The district has a total area of 1978.5 km2 (763.9 square miles) but the number is expected to increase to 3555.51 km2 (1372.8 square miles) if the new change of border between Tambunan and Beluran districts is done.

==Administrative Divisions==
In the national and state level, Ranau has only one parliamentary seat for the ''[[Dewan Rakyat]]'' (House of Representatives) which is P179 Ranau but it is represented by three state assemblymen in the Sabah State Legislative Assembly, each one for N29 Kundasang, N30 Karanaan and N31 Paginatan state assembly seats respectively. The current Member of Parliament for Ranau is Datuk Siringan Gubat and the current state assemblymen representing the district are Dr Joachim Gunsalam for N29 Kundasang, Datuk Haji Masidi Manjun for N30 Karanaan and Datuk Ewon Ebin for N31 Paginatan.

Meanwhile, in the district level,Ranau is governed under a district office form of local government headed by a District Officer. Since 2009, the District Officer of Ranau is Haji Faimin Kamin. There is only a Magistrates’ Court in the district but there is also a Native Court, having jurisdiction on matters of native law and custom. Normally, each village will have a Village Head working as a leader, together with a Village Development and Safety Committee carrying out activities pertaining to the villagers’ interests.

Ranau district is divided into 14 sub-districts and each sub-district is divided into villages (Malay: ''kampung'', abbreviation: ''kg''.). There are a total of 212 villages in Ranau. The following are the 14 sub-districts in Ranau with its respective villages in order of proximity to Ranau township:

*'''Liwagu'''

::Pekan Ranau, Kimolohing, Muhibbah, Paka II, Longut Baru, Kiaburi, Rapak/Takurik, Lingkudau, Tiang Baru, Kasiladan/Giman/Kawog, Kandawayon, Mininsalu Baru

*'''Tanah Rata/Kituntul'''

::Lukapon, Tagudon Baru, Sinarut, Lasing, Marakau, Kilimu, Tanah Merah, Bahab, Libang, Kokob Baru, Tudangan, Matan, Silou, Badukan, Boduyon, Kituntul Lama, Kituntul Baru,Togoyog/Lipoi, Kinapulidan, Mindahuon Baru, Rugading, Kigiok

*'''Tambiau/Mohimboyon'''

::Kibbas, Purakagis, Koporingan,Tambiau, Sarapong, Paka I,Toboh Baru, Lipasu Baru, Lipasu Lama, Wa'ang, Kiwawoi, Mohimboyon

*'''Suminimpod/Kopongian'''

::Gana-Gana, Kopongian, Giring-Giring, Nampasan Lama, Gaur, Suminimpod, Mininsalu Lama/Narambai, Niasan, Bayag, Kita'ie, Longut, Tiang Lama

*'''Kundasang/Bundu Tuhan'''

::Pinausuk,Tambalang, Ruhukon, Sinisian, Samuroh, Naradau, Desa Aman, Lembah Permai, Dumpiring Bawah, Kinaundusan, JKDB Pekan Kundasang, Dumpiring Atas, Kinasaraban, Kundasang Lama, Cinta Mata, Kalangaan, Kauluan, Mesilou, Sokid Bundu Tuhan, Siba Bundu Tuhan, Gondohon

*'''Lohan/Bongkud'''

::Lohan Ulu, Karanaan Baru, Kinasaraban Baru, Lohan Scheme I, Minihas/Maukab Baru, Randagong Baru, Kinorotuan, Silad, Lohan Scheme II, Simpangan Poring, Nampasan Baru, Poring, Nopung II, Nopung I, Narawang, Namaus Bongkud, Bongkud, Lutut, Waluhu

*'''Randagong'''

::Mumpait, Kinirisan, Poropot, Randagong, Lagkau, Kosisingan,Tungou, Sumalang, Maukab

*'''Perancangan'''

::Singgaron Baru,Togis, Perancangan, Debut Langsat, Takutan, Langsat, Nalumad, Kilanas Baru, Kirokot

*'''Nalapak'''

::Sodul I, Sodul II, Muruk, Luanti Baru, Nalapak, Kobuh Baru, Nabutan, Sungangon, Sagindai Baru, Sagindai Lama

*'''Timbua'''

::Tarawas, Pinawantai, Pahu Pinawantai, Debut Timbua, Kimboroi Timbua,Timbua, Lobou Baru, Togop Laut, Tinutuan, Togop Darat, Merungin I, Lobou Timbua, Merungin II, Pinampadan,Tibabar,Turuntungan, Monggis,Tumbalang, Lobou Lama, Daramakon, Keiyep, Nawanon, Kantas Baru, Pugi

*'''Karanaan/Tagudon'''

::Karanaan, Sosondoton, Komburongoh/Mogoho/Soyod, Piasau,Tagudon Lama/Pulutan, Himbaan, Pahu, Ratau, Terolobou, Tinatasan, Toboh Pahu,Toboh Lama,Tudan II,Tudan I

*'''Paginatan'''

::Matupang, Tarikon/Tadsom, Minihas, Paginatan, Bunakon, Lungkidau, Soborong Paginatan, Maringkan, Balisok, Tabah, Nunuk Ragang, Toupus, Miruru, Mangkadait, Mindahuon Lama, Toporoh, Mentapok

*'''Malinsou'''

::Mokodou, Kopuakan,Tanid, Linapasan, Malinsou Darat / Nasakot, Sumbilangon, Wayan, Tinindoi, Sinurai, Mangkapoh I,Tinaum/Mangkapoh II, Mampakot/Malinsou

*'''Kaingaran'''

::Paka Sugut, Meningkulau, Kawiyan, Kilanas Sugut, Giring, Pinutudaan/Minintob, Kaingaran, Kotog, Meridi, Betong, Tinongian, Namaus, Ulu Sugut, Kiwakau, Karagasan, Pamaitan, Patau,Tundangon Ulu Sugut, Mansalu, Gan, Gusi
[[Image:Ranau Today.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|alt=caption|Ranau today]]

==Demographics==
===Ethnicity===
The majority of Ranau population is composed of the [[Dusun]] natives. There is a small population of [[Chinese people|Chinese]] of [[Hakka people|Hakka]], [[Hoklo people|Hokkien]] and others Chinese descent who have settled for a fairly long time in Ranau. In addition, there are also people from other ethnicities as well, such as [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]], [[Kadazan]], [[Bajau]], [[Murut people|Murut]] and other natives. Due to Ranau’s status as an agriculture-based district, there are a sizeable number of foreign workers from [[Indonesia]] and the [[Philippines]] working as labors in large farms and plantations. Indians make up a very small number of Ranau population.

The multiethnic composition of the population has resulted in many interracial marriages notably the Sino-Dusun and so on.

===Language===
Most Ranau people speak the Sabahan Malay dialect but the [[Dusun language]] is primarily spoken as well especially among the older generations. Mandarin and Chinese dialects especially Hakka is spoken among the Chinese community and native languages of the other ethnicities can be heard as well. English is more or less spoken and understood by the younger generations and the locals who work in the professional sectors.

===Religion===
[[Image:Ar-Rahman Mosque Ranau.JPG|thumb|left|alt=caption.|Ar-Rahman [[Mosque]] Ranau]][[Image:Ranau Wah San Chon Chu Kung.jpg|thumb|left|alt=caption.|Ranau Wah San Chon Chu Kung (蘭腦華山聖祖宮)]][[Image:St Peter Claver Ranau.jpg|thumb|alt=caption.|[[Roman Catholic]] Church of [[St. Peter Claver]] Ranau]][[Image:Ranau Evangelical Church of Borneo.jpg|thumb|alt=caption.|Ranau Township Evangelical Church of Borneo (SIB)]]
According to the Population Census in 2000, 46.85% of the population practices [[Islam]]. Closely behind, [[Christians]] make up 45.68% of the population while 1.09% are Buddhists and 0.06% are Hindus. 6.31% were recorded as “Others”, presumably referring to quite a number of the Dusun people and other natives who still practice animistic ancestral beliefs and traditions.

The main mosque in Ranau township is the Ar-Rahman Mosque (''Masjid Jamek Ar-Rahman''). The Chinese temple in the town area is the Ranau Wah San Chon Chu Kung ({{zh|c=蘭腦華山聖祖宮|p=''lán nǎo huá shān shèng zǔ gōng''}}). Main churches of different denominations are located within the vicinity of Ranau township too. The [[Roman Catholic]] [[St. Peter Claver]] Church is located in the town area and so does the Ranau Basel Christian Church of Malaysia. Within two kilometer radius from the township, there are the Ranau Town [[Evangelical Church]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=July 2011}} of [[Borneo]] (''Sidang Injil Borneo Pekan Ranau''), [[St. Paul]]’s [[Anglican]] Church, [[Seventh-Day Adventist]] Church, [[True Jesus Church]] and GPI Church (''Gereja Perkhabaran Injil''). The Basel church, the Chinese temple and the mosque are located next to each other along the same road called Mosque Road (''Jalan Masjid'')

Ranau has never experienced any major religious tensions and all people practice their beliefs with much freedom. This is partly because both Islam and Christian missionaries arrived in the district about the same time in the early 20th century but the mainly [[Europe|Europeans]] and [[Australians]] Christian missionaries actually took the trouble to know which villages that have majority of its villagers converted to Islam thanks to the teachings of the mainly [[Javanese people|Javanese]] Islam preachers. And so, the Christian missionaries avoided these villages but continued to seek other villages that had not received any visit from any religious groups yet, thus, preached Christian from thereon.

As a result, Ranau has an irregular pattern of religion distribution where Christian-majority villages and Muslim-majority villages are located side by side and so on and also, no sub-districts are 100% dominated by any religion. Even a Christian-majority village may have a Muslim household or two and vice-versa with a Muslim-majority village. This unique social make-up has resulted in good religion understanding between the people of Ranau.

==Economy==
[[Image:Tai Kong Building.jpg|thumb|left|alt=caption.|''Wisma Tai Kong'' (Tai Kong Building) which houses shoplots]]
Ranau is an important agricultural and tourism center in Sabah and this two sectors have been the main economy backbone for the district. Most of the tourism business are centered around the highlands of Kundasang, a sub-district in Ranau while agriculture business is widespread all over Ranau. Therefore most people of Ranau work as farmers or operators of their own business although there are white-collar workers as well mainly in the government sectors such health, education, service and administration and a few in the banking sector.

===Agriculture===
The moderate temperature of the Ranau highlands coupled with its fertile soil has been fully utilized by farmers to grow different types of vegetables and fruits such as cabbage, spring onion, tomato, lettuce, carrot and to a certain extent cauliflower, capsicum and many others. Strawberry has been successfully cultivated here and there were attempts in growing apple as well although the result has been varying. Flowers of different species are also planted here for commercial purposes.

Kundasang also boasts a dairy farm owned by Desa Cattle (Sabah) Sdn. Bhd company located at Mesilau.

===Tourism===
Hotels, resorts, motels and lodging houses can be found concentrated nearer to the Kinabalu National Park. Not only do these facilities improved the growth of tourism business by attracting more visitors to stay longer but the local residents have also benefited as more jobs have been created for them.

Among the well-known hotels in Kundasang are the Mount Kinabalu Heritage Resort & Spa and Kinabalu Pine Resort. A new 5-star hotel called the Royal Kinabalu Mountain Resort & Hotel Suites located 800 meters from the entrance of Kinabalu Park is currently undergoing construction.<ref>[http://royalkinabalu.com/home.cfm ''The Royal Kinabalu Mountain Resort & Hotel Suites Official Website'']</ref>

During weekends and school holidays, lots of tourist buses and vans plus private cars from Sarawak and Brunei can be seen heading to Ranau.

===Other business===
Apart from that, other business such as restaurants, superstores such as Milimewa and G-Mart, grocery shops, clothing stores, handphone shops and cyber cafes are mainly operated within the township area. CIMB Bank and Bank Simpanan Nasional each have their branch in Ranau. The only fast food restaurant in Ranau is [[KFC]].

==Education==
All primary schools and secondary schools in Ranau are public schools although a small private school for secondary school students do exist and a number of privately-owned kindergartens well. The Ranau Education Office operates 11 secondary schools and 67 primary schools.

There is only one Chinese national-type school in Ranau which is Ranau Pei Wen Primary School ({{zh|c=蘭腦培文小學|p=''lán nǎo péi wén xiǎo xué''}}) and two schools with [[Christian]] missionaries background, St. Benedict's Ranau Primary School in the town area and Don Bosco Bundu Tuhan Primary School in Kg. Bundu Tuhan. Apart from the typical primary schools, there are also Islamic primary schools that cater to Islamic education for primary students.For Islamic secondary school, there are only two such schools in the district i.e. the SMA Mohammad Ali Ranau in Kg. Lohan and SMA Al-Irsyadiah Marakau Ranau in Kg. Marakau.

The oldest national secondary school in Ranau is Dato Paduka Mat Salleh Ranau Secondary School while the oldest primary school is Ranau Town Primary School. Among the newly bulit schools in Ranau are Ranau Secondary School and Kilimu Primary School.[[Image:SMK Ranau.jpg|thumb|alt=caption.|The newly built ''SMK Ranau'' (Ranau Secondary School)]]

*Secondary schools in Ranau:
:National school:
::SMK Dato Paduka Mat Salleh, Pekan Ranau, SMK Ranau, Kg. Kilimu, SMK Bundu Tuhan, Kg. Bundu Tuhan, SMK Kundasang, Kg. Kundasang, SMK Matupang, Kg. Matupang, SMK Timbua, Kg. Timbua, SMK Lohan, Kg.Lohan Ulu, SMK Kaingaran, Kg. Kaingaran, SMK Kemburongoh, Kg. Kemburongoh
:Islamic school:
::SMA Mohammad Ali Ranau, Kg. Lohan, SMA Al-Irsyadiah Marakau Ranau, Kg. Marakau

Secondary school leavers can also opt to take vocational courses at the Ranau [[MARA]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=July 2011}} Vocational Centre (''Pusat Giat MARA Ranau''). There is also a bible school; ''Maktab Teologi Sabah'' (Sabah Theology School) located in Kg. Namaus which offers up until degree level programs.<ref>[http://www.sibkl.org.my/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=233:quarterly-report-on-sabah-project-december-2008-&catid=70:sabah-project&Itemid=167 ''QUARTERLY REPORT ON SABAH PROJECT - DECEMBER 2008 Website'']</ref>

==Sport & Recreation==
===Ranau Recreation & Golf Club (RRGC)===
RRGC located at Kilometer 1, Jalan Ranau - [[Tambunan]], Ranau, [[Sabah]]. 9 hole golf course with panoramic view of the imposing [[Mount Kinabalu]]. With state of the rolling fairways and green are difficult to read, it could test the strategy of golfers. Some players say, it is a 9 hole golf course is the best in the state. The club was joined by some of the best clubs around. With a total length of 5.737 meters for men and 5.053 meters for lady. Course rating : Par 72. Slope Rating : 128 (Men) / 118 (Lady).

==Culture==
A number of festive celebrations observed by Ranau people can be seen celebrated throughout the year, be it religious or cultural celebrations and among them, the major ones are ''Tadau [[Kaamatan]]'' (Harvest Festival), ''Hari Raya Aidifitri'' ([[Eid ul-Fitr]], ({{lang-ar|عيد الفطر ''‘Īdu l-Fiṭr''}})), ''Hari Krismas/Natal'' ([[Christmas]]), and ''Tahun Baru Cina'' ([[Chinese New Year]], ({{zh|c=農曆新年|p=nóng lì xīn nián}})).

''Tadau [[Kaamatan]]'' is an annual event celebrated by the Dusun people in Ranau district in the month of May although the exact date is subject to change each year but as with any district level Kaamatan celebration, the date precedes the Sabah state level Kaamatan celebration which falls on May 30 and May 31 every year. However, it is interesting to note that, at village level, the Kaamatan may be celebrated as late as June or July depending on their own preferences.

Originally a ritualistic event, Kaamatan was usually marked by strict observance of animistic rituals and rites to be performed to appease the spirit of rice at the end of the harvesting season. Nevertheless, today, Kaamatan is more akin to [[Thanksgiving]] as the majority of [[Dusun]] people have converted to mainstream religion although some still practice the rituals and rites but rarely to be seen.

Among the highlights of Kaamatan events which usually attract the most people are ''Sugandoi'' (singing competition) and ''Unduk Ngadau'' (cultural beauty queen pageant) while traditional sports competitions are also held.

During ''Hari Raya Aidifitri'', open houses are the norm, with Ranau people, regardless of religion, visiting the houses of their Muslim relatives and friends to mark the celebration. Like many other [[Christians]] in [[Asia]], [[Christmas]] is still being observed in a religious fashion where churches usually hold congregation throughout the Christmas week with the highlights on [[Christmas Eve]] and Christmas [[Mass]]. [[Christmas carol|Carol]]ling can also be seen done among the younger generations although they only visit houses where they are invited to carol. Open houses and Mass, usually by the Ranau Council of Churches where different Christians denominations celebrate together and by Christian politicians can also be seen.

[[Chinese New Year]] is celebrated mainly by the [[Chinese people|Chinese]] community and during the week of the celebration, one can hear and watch the Ranau [[Lion Dance]] team visiting Chinese peoples' houses throughout the Ranau town and its vicinities to perform the dance accompanied by its trademark musical instrument performance of drums, cymbals and gongs as well.

Other celebration includes the ''Paskah'' ([[Good Friday]]) where one would normally see the [[Christians]] in the district going to church congregations during the [[Holy Week]] with its culmination is on [[Good Friday]] to [[Holy Saturday]] and usually ends on [[Easter Sunday]]. Meanwhile, another religious celebration that can be observed here is the ''Hari Raya Aidiladha'' ([[Eid al-Adha]], ({{lang-ar|عيد الأضحى}} ''‘Īdu l-’Aḍḥā'').

==Miscellaneous==
The Kundasang War Memorial Display Garden has plants and flowers from Borneo, Australia and Great Britain. Ranau was the terminus of the infamous Sandakan Death Marches of World War II. Kundasang is a sub-district within Ranau district.

Ranau is the largest producer of highland vegetables in the state of Sabah. Some of it are exported to Sarawak, Brunei and Labuan. Its tea products are exported to US and the Philippines. Tamu , held every Wednesday, Saturday and the 1st day of the month, is a place for the people to sell, buy, occasionally barter trade and meeting old friends. Lots of fresh local produces from all over the districts are up for sale. Middlemens from around the state with vans, trucks and lorries can be seen loading vegetables and fruits, ready to transport them out to other cities and towns.

Ranau used to be the largest producer of cooper in the 70s until the closure of the Mamut Copper Mine in late 90s as the copper ore had been fully mined.

==Notable people==
*Politics & Local Administration

::Tan Sri Haji Abdul Ghani Gilong - Former Federal Cabinet Minister, Minister of Works and Public Utilities, 1968 - 1978

::The Late Datuk Mark Koding - Former Sabah Deputy Chief Minister, 1985 - 1989

::Tan Sri Kasitah Gaddam - Former Federal Cabinet Minister, Minister of Land and Co-operative Development

::Datuk Haji Masidi Manjun - Sabah Minister of Tourism, Culture and Environment (current)

::Datuk Dr. Ewon Ebin - Sabah Minister of Industrial Development (current)

::Dr. Joachim Gunsalam - Chairman of the Sabah Parks Board of Trustees (current)

::Datuk Abidin Madingkir - Kota Kinabalu City Mayor (current)<ref>[http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news.cfm?NewsID=76908 "Abidin is KK's third Mayor"],''[[Daily Express]]'', Kota Kinabalu, 01 February 2011. Retrieved on 2011-04-30.</ref>

::Datuk Matius Sator - Permanent Secretary to the Sabah Local Government and Housing Ministry (current) <ref>[http://www.sabah.gov.my/mlgh/STsut.htm "Sabah Local Government and Housing Ministry Official Website"]</ref>

::Datuk [[Siringan Gubat]] - Ranau MP (current)
*Sports

::Danny Kuilin, Saffrey Sumping - Malaysia's top mountain runners, 2010 [[Skyrunner World Series]].<ref>[http://www.nst.com.my/nst/articles/21run/Article/ "Runners do country proud in marathon"], ''[[New Straits Times]]'', Kota Kinabalu, 23 September 2010. Retrieved on 2010-09-28.</ref>

*Entertainment

::Hain Jasli - Well-known singer in Sabah music industry
::Norlinda Nanuwil - First runner up, [[Akademi Fantasia]] Season 2
::Siti Adira Suhaimi - First runner up, [[Akademi Fantasia]] Season 8

==External links==
General
*[http://www.sabah.gov.my/pd.rnu/ Ranau District Office Website]

Tourism
*[http://www.facebook.com/photos.php?id=100473539994000#!/pages/Ranau-Malaysia/SaaaaaaaNa-Ranau/100473539994000?v=wall&ref=search ''SaaaaaaaNa Ranau!'' (Over theeeeeeeRe in Ranau!)]
*[http://www.facebook.com/#!/pages/Desa-Cattle/146570585379675?ref=ts Desa Cattle Facebook Page]
*[http://kinabalupineresort.com/ Kinabalu Pine Resort]
*[http://www.mountkinabaluheritageresort.com.my/ Mount Kinabalu Heritage Resort & Spa]
*[http://rrgcblog.blogspot.com Ranau Recreation & Golf Club (RRGC)]

==References==
<references/>

{{Sabah}}

{{Coord|5|58|N|116|41|E|region:MY_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki|display=title}}

[[Category:Populated places in Sabah]]

[[ko:라나우]]
[[ms:Ranau]]
[[nl:Ranau]]
[[ja:ラナウ]]

Máiréad Nesbitt

2011-07-03T21:02:28Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{No footnotes|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| Name = Máiréad Nesbitt
| Img = Mairead Nesbitt BN signing crop.jpg
| Img_capt = Máiréad Nesbitt at Barnes & Noble signing
| Img_size =
| Background = non_vocal_instrumentalist
| Born = [[Loughmore]], [[County Tipperary]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| Died =
| Instrument = [[Fiddle]], [[violin]], [[piano]]
| Genre = [[Celtic music|Celtic]], [[Classical music|Classical]]
| Occupation = [[Musician]]
| Years_active =
| Label = [[Vertical Records|Vertical]] [[Manhattan Records|Manhattan]]
| Associated_acts = [[Celtic Woman]], Coolfin
| URL = [http://www.maireadnesbitt.com MaireadNesbitt.com]
}}
'''Máiréad Nesbitt''' (pronounced "mah-raid") (born in [[Loughmore]], [[County Tipperary]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]) is a [[Classical music|Classical]] and [[Celtic music]] performer, most notably as a [[fiddle]]r and [[violin]]ist. She is currently the fiddler for the group [[Celtic Woman]].

== Background ==
She was born to John and [[Kathleen Nesbitt]], both well-known music teachers. She has a sister, Frances, and four brothers, Seán, Michael, Noel and Karl, all of whom are musicians. She has been a piano player since the age of four, and began playing the violin at age six.

Her formal musical studies began at The [[Ursulines|Ursuline]] Convent in [[Thurles]], Co. Tipperary, Ireland, and progressed through secondary schooling at the [[Waterford Institute of Technology]] and the [[Cork School of Music]], during which time she participated in the [[National Youth Orchestra of Ireland]]. Nesbitt completed post-graduate studies at London's [[Royal Academy of Music]] and [[Trinity College of Music]] under [[Emanuel Hurwitz]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.loadzajobs.ie/news_details.asp?id=2630 |title=How I got here: Playing it cool |work=LoadzaJobs.ie |first=Hilary |last=Fennell |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-04-17 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070928165711/http://www.loadzajobs.ie/news_details.asp?id=2630 |archivedate = 2007-09-28}}</ref>

Besides her family, Nesbitt has stated that her influences range from [[Itzhak Perlman]] and [[Michael Coleman (musician)|Michael Coleman]] to bluegrass artist [[Alison Krauss]] and rock's [[David Bowie]] and [[Sting (musician)|Sting]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maireadnesbitt.com/bio/bioindex.html |title=Biography, Paragraph 1 | work=MaireadNesbitt.com}}</ref>

== Career ==
After finishing her post-graduate studies, Nesbitt joined the [[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTÉ]] Concert Orchestra, thus beginning her professional career as a violinist at age 16.<ref>"Máiréad" bio in ''Celtic Woman: Songs from the Heart Souvenir Program'' (2010), pp. 12-13 (paraphrased information appears on p. 12).</ref> She later moved into solo performances, working with a variety of performers, including [[Van Morrison]], [[Clannad (musical group)|Clannad]] and [[Sharon Shannon]]. She also spent some time as fiddler for the Irish group Coolfin, and recorded an album with them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maireadnesbitt.com/bio/bioindex.html |title=Biography, Paragraph 5 | work=MaireadNesbitt.com}}</ref>

Nesbitt got her break in 1996 when she was invited to perform in the [[Michael Flatley]] show [[Lord of the Dance (musical)|Lord of the Dance]].<ref name="IrishTimes">{{cite web |title=Talk Time: Interview with Máiréad |work=[[Irish Times]] |date=Nov 1, 2008 |details=article requires log-in to read. http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/magazine/2008/1101/1225321601168.html |accessdate=2010-02-24}}</ref> There, she played lead fiddle until 1998, at which time she went with Flatley to his second show, [[Feet of Flames]]. She toured in this production, again as lead fiddler, until leaving in 2001. Nesbitt also played on the original soundtracks to both shows, as well as for the soundtrack to [[Riverdance]].

Nesbitt released her début solo album in 2001, ''[[Raining Up]]'', which features a broad range of musical styles, both traditional and contemporary. The album features a number of guest performers and members of Nesbitt's own family: her mother, sister, and brothers Seán and Karl. In promotion of the album, she tours with her own band.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.activeevents.org.uk/artists/mairead+nesbitt.htm |title=Active Artists: Mairead Nesbitt |work=ActiveEvents.org.uk |accessdate=2007-04-17 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060823061810/http://www.activeevents.org.uk/artists/mairead+nesbitt.htm |archivedate = 2006-08-23}}</ref>

In 2004, Nesbitt was invited to play violin for a performance at the [[The Helix|Helix Theatre]] in Dublin, called ''[[Celtic Woman]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maireadnesbitt.com/news/celticwoman.html |title=Celtic Woman | work=MaireadNesbitt.com |accessdate=February 25, 2010}}</ref> The popularity of this and subsequent performances on television and live albums has led to five tours across the [[United States]]. Celtic Woman has released a total of five albums to date: ''[[Celtic Woman (album)|Celtic Woman]]'', ''[[Celtic Woman: A Christmas Celebration]]'', ''[[Celtic Woman: A New Journey]]'', ''[[Celtic Woman: The Greatest Journey]]'', and ''[[Celtic Woman: Songs from the Heart]]''.

Nesbitt has worked with the [[bhangra]] fusion band [[Dhol Foundation|The Dhol Foundation]] on their 2005 album ''[[Drum-Believable]]'', has composed the original music score alongside Tibor Kasza for the tour of ''Irish Dance Invasion'', a production based in [[Budapest]], and has played and recorded with the group [[Afro Celt Sound System]]. Nesbitt also performed privately for ''[[Royal Highness|HRH]]'' [[Anne, Princess Royal|The Princess Anne]] during her visit to Dublin in September 2004. The [[Celtic Tenors]] Live in Concert DVD released in 2006 also features Nesbitt on several tracks.

Nesbitt is featured as a soloist on Walt Disney's direct to DVD film [[Tinker Bell (film)|Tinker Bell]]. [[Joel McNeely]] composed music specifically to fit Nesbitt's distinctive style, and collaborated with her to further polish the music for Celtic authenticity.<ref name="IrishTimes" /><ref name="march2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.northjersey.com/arts_entertainment/85308877_Celtic_Woman_riding_high_on_Irish_airs.html |title=Celtic Woman plays two shows at Radio City this weekend |work=[[Wyckoff,_New_Jersey#Local_media]] |accessdate=2010-03-09}}</ref>

Nesbitt is a former [[Fleadh Cheoil]] all-Ireland fiddle champion{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}, and was named by Irish Music Magazine as Best Traditional Female in 2003.

Currently, Nesbitt is working on a second solo album as well as an album with her very musical family.<ref name="march2010" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maireadnesbitt.com/newsletter/nl10select.html |title=Newsletter no. 11 |work=MaireadNesbitt.com |first=Máiréad |last=Nesbitt |month=May |year=2007 |accessdate=2008-12-16}}</ref>

== Discography ==
*''[[Lord of the Dance (musical)|Lord of the Dance]]'' (March 1997)<ref name="mn-recordings">{{cite web |url=http://www.maireadnesbitt.com/recordings/index.html |title=Recordings |work=MaireadNesbitt.com |accessdate=February 22, 2010}}</ref>
*''[[Feet of Flames]]'' (February 1999)
*''[[Raining Up]]'' (2001 UK Release; 2006 U.S. Release)
*''[[Drum-Believable]]'' (2005)
*''[[Celtic Woman (album)|Celtic Woman]]'' (March 2005)
*''[[Celtic Woman: A Christmas Celebration]]'' (October 2006)
*''[[Celtic Woman: A New Journey]]'' (January 2007)
*''[[Celtic Woman: The Greatest Journey]]'' (October 2008)
*''[[Tinker Bell (film)|Tinker Bell]]'' (October 2008)
*''[[Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure]]'' (September 2009)
*''[[Celtic Woman: Songs from the Heart]]'' (January 2010)

== Filmography ==
*''[[Lord of the Dance (musical)|Lord of the Dance]]'' (November 1999)<ref name="mn-recordings" />
*''[[Celtic Woman (album)|Celtic Woman]]'' (March 2005)
*''[[Celtic Woman: A New Journey]]'' (January 2007)
*''[[Celtic Woman: A Christmas Celebration]]'' (October 2007)
*''[[Celtic Woman: The Greatest Journey]]'' (October 2008)
*''[[Celtic Woman: Songs from the Heart]]'' (January 2010)

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{refbegin}}

* {{cite web |url=http://www.celticcafe.com/archive/Shows/Invasion/ |title=Invasion Dance Press Release |work=CelticCafe.com |accessdate=2008-06-16}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.irishcultureandcustoms.com/AMusic/IrishMagAwards03.html |title=Irish Music Magazine 2003 Awards Review |work=irishcultureandcustoms.com |first=Michael |last=Carlin |accessdate=2010-02-23}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.irishmusicmagazine.com/BckIssue/0310Oct/0310Oct.htm |title=Irish Music Magazine Oct. 2003 Backissue |work=irishmusicmagazine.com |details=Shows cover of Oct. 2003 edition, listing Máiréad as an Irish Music Magazine Award winner |accessdate=2010-02-23}}

{{refend}}

== External links ==

* [http://www.maireadnesbitt.com/ MaireadNesbitt.com] - Official website
* [http://www.celticwoman.com/trellis/Mairead Profile at Celticwoman.com]
* {{IMDb name|id=0626366}}

{{Celtic Woman}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Nesbitt, Máiréad
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =Classical violinist
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =[[Loughmore]], [[County Tipperary]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nesbitt, Mairead}}
[[Category:Celtic Woman members]]
[[Category:Irish fiddlers]]
[[Category:Irish violinists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from County Tipperary]]

[[es:Máiréad Nesbitt]]
[[nl:Máiréad Nesbitt]]
[[pt:Máiréad Nesbitt]]
[[sv:Máiréad Nesbitt]]

Finnischer Film

2011-07-03T20:07:55Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Disambiguation needed}}. (Build p613)

{{European cinema}}
'''The Finnish cinema''' has a long history, with first public screenings starting almost as early as modern motion picture technology was invented (the first screening in the world was in 1895, in Finland in 1896). It took over a decade before the first Finnish film was produced and screened in 1907. After these first steps of Finnish cinema, the progress was very slow. After 1907 there were two periods (1909–1911 and 1917–1918) when no Finnish films were produced. This was partly caused by the political situation, as Finland held a status as an [[Grand Duchy of Finland|autonomic]] part of [[Russia]] and was thus influenced by the worldwide political situation.

In 1917 Finland became an independent country and in 1918 there was a [[Finnish civil war|civil war]]. After the political situation had settled and stabilized, the Finnish society and its cultural life began to develop. This was very clear with cinematic arts. More films were produced and they became an important part of Finnish society. The culmination of this development came soon after the silent era, around 1940–50's, when three major studios were producing films and competing for the market. When the society changed in the 1960s, partly because of political trends and partly because of new forms of leisure, like [[television]], the appeal of films vanished, practically all studios were closed and films became political and too artistic for masses, as commercial production was deemed as a thing from the past and distateful. Few filmmakers were opposed to this development, and kept producing popular films that were bashed by the critics but loved by the people.

A new found interest for the Finnish films came in the 1990s, which was partly influenced by the new generation of filmmakers bringing in new ideas, and partly because commercial success was no longer considered to be "non-artistic", thus the commercial film projects started to receive support from the governmental funds. In the 2000s the Finnish cinema is alive and well, some films and filmmakers gaining global success and many films receiving a good response from the audience and the critics. Today, around 15–20 Finnish full-length feature films are produced every year, and the Finnish cinema is gaining new forms from the global influence, such as [[action film|action]] and [[wuxia]].

==History==
===1896–1920: Before Independence===
The [[Lumière]] company screened the first moving images at Helsinki in 1896, but it wasn't until 1904 that the first films were actually filmed in Finland. It is unknown who made the first film (called ''Novelty from Helsinki: School youth at break''), but it was shown by [[American Bioscope]] in December. The first Finnish film company, [[Atelier Apollo]], was founded in 1906 by engineer [[K. E. Ståhlberg]]. It produced mainly documentary shorts, but also the first Finnish feature film, ''The Moonshiners'' (1907). From the very beginning, Finnish film production was centered to the country's capital, although for few years starting from 1907 there was a noteworthy company [[Oy Maat ja Kansat]] producing short documentaries in [[Tampere]].

''The Moonshiners'' was directed by [[Teuvo Puro]], who was also in charge of directing the first full-length Finnish feature, ''Sylvi'', based on a play by [[Minna Canth]]. The film was shot in 1911 with two other full-length literature adaptations, but it didn't premiere until 1913. The filmmakers didn't have enough money to send films to the nearest laboratory in Copenhagen at once, so the material remained undeveloped too long, and two out of three films were ruined.

The years following ''Sylvi'' saw the formation of the first active feature film company, [[Hjalmar V. Pohjanheimo|Hjalmar V. Pohjanheimo's]] Lyyra-Filmi, which produced both short farces and "art films". There was also an attempt to create larger-scale film production by [[Erik Estlander]], who build a studio with glass walls and roof in Helsinki in 1916. At the end of the same year the Russian officials forbid all filming activity in Finland, so nothing much was made anymore before the country's independence in 1917.

The Finnish film industry of the first two decades of 20th century was never even near of the creativity or the produtiveness of its scandinavic neighbours, Sweden and Denmark - one might even say that it there was barely no industry or production at all. In addition, most of the footage filmed before independence is lost. Of feature films, only thirteen minutes of ''Sylvi'' still remains.

===1920–1930: The Silent Years===
[[Image:Erkki karu.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Erkki Karu]], founder of [[Suomi-Filmi]] and [[Suomen Filmiteollisuus]]]]

====Suomi-Filmi====
It wasn't until the 1920s before regular film production started, thanks to a successful company called [[Suomi-Filmi]] (founded under the name Suomen Filmikuvaamo in 1919) and its creative leader [[Erkki Karu]]. He also directed the most important films of the era and was the prime figure of Finnish cinema before his early death in 1935. His The ''Village Shoemakers'' (1923) is the essential silent masterpiece, a freshly told folk comedy after [[Aleksis Kivi]]'s play with mildly experimental camerawork by German [[Kurt Jäger]]. Other notable films by Karu include: ''The Logroller's Bride'' (1923), with superb cinematography by Jäger and [[Oscar Lindelöf]], and also the first Finnish film distributed widely abroad; ''When Father Has Toothache'' (1923), a short and surrealistic farce; and ''Our Boys'' (1929), a patriotisic forerunner of many military farces.

Audiences of the agricultural country were affected by Suomi-Filmi's rural subjects. Dealing with deeply national countryside stories remained as company's policy through the silent era. Occasionally there were some attempts to make more urban, or more "European" films like [[Karu]]'s ''Summery Fairytale'' (1925), but the public stayed away.

Another important director at Suomi-Filmi was [[Puro]], who made the company's first feature ''Olli's Years of Apprenticeship''(1920) and one of the few Finnish horror films, ''Evil Spells'' (1927). An interesting oddity of the last two silent years was [[Carl von Haartman]], a soldier and an adventurer, who had worked as a military advisor in Hollywood. Because of this he was considered capable of directing films. His two upper-class spy dramas, ''The Supreme Victory'' (1929) and ''Mirage'' (1930), were quite passable, but didn't attract the public.

====Other companies====
Suomi-Filmi dominated heavily the Finnish film production in the twenties: the company produced 23 out of 37 full-length feature films made between 1919 and 1930. Other companies (that appeared occasionally) seemed to vanish from Suomi-Filmi's and [[Erkki Karu]]'s way after producing one or two films. The most important of these alternative production companies appeared during the latter half of the decade.

The German cinematographer Jäger left Suomi-Filmi, and formed his own company [[Komedia-Filmi]]. It linked with a global film trust (Ufanamet), which at the time had the most of the film distribution of Finland in its possession, thus being a great threat to Suomi-Filmi. Suomi-Filmi defended itself with national values, accusing Komedia-Filmi and Ufanamet for being foreign invaders. Luckily for Suomi-Filmi, both companies proved to be unsuccessful. Komedia-Filmi made only two films, of which the latter one, ''On the Highway of Life'' (1927, directed by Jäger and [[Ragnar Hartwall]]) is an interesting attempt to make some kind of a modern comedy.

The year 1929 saw the premiere of the first two films produced by a minor company [[Fennica]] and directed by [[Valentin Vaala]], who was yet to come one of the greatest directors of the golden years of Finnish cinema. When he started making the first one of these (''Dark Eyes'') he was only 17-years old, and his leading actor Theodor Tugai (later [[Teuvo Tulio]]) 14-years old. This film and its instant remake ''The Gypsy Charmer'' were new kind, passionate dramas with clearly oriental influences. Unfortunately only the latter one has remained; the filmmakers destroyed the only negative of ''Dark Eyes'' by throwing it to the sea, because they thought the remake was far superior.

There were also enterprises to produce films outside the capital, but at least the films made in Viipuri and Oulu were too primitive to even premiere at Helsinki. ''No Tears at the Fair'' (1927) and ''The Man of Snowbound Forests'' (1928), two now vanished films produced in Tampere by [[Aquila-Suomi]] and directed by [[Uuno Eskola]] were better attempts – at least according to the contemporaries. Nothing permanent production was left in Tampere, but one of Aquila's producers, painter [[Kalle Kaarna]], proved to be a gifted director on his own right. His first film ''With the Blade of a Sword'' (1928) was boldly advertised as a neutral story about the painful civil war of 1918, and his second film, ''A Song about the Heroism of Labour'' (1929) introduced (although quite conventionally) a new kind of proletarian hero to the public. Unfortunately these films have also vanished for good.

===1931–1933: The Coming of Sound===
The first experiments with sound were done by [[Lahyn-Filmi]], a provincial company operating in Turku. The first full-length sound film with song and talk was Lahyn's ''Say It in Finnish'' (1931), directed by company's leader Yrjö Nyberg (later [[Norta]]). This lost film was more a collection of musical revue numbers than a feature.

Suomi-Filmi transformed its production from silent to sound films during the same year. The first Finnish film with soundtrack was company's ''Dressed Like Adam and a Bit Like Eve Too'' (1931), based on popular play by [[Agapetus]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=July 2011}}. There was only music and some sound effects on the soundtrack, so company's first true sound film was [[Karu]]'s talkie ''The Lumberjack's Bride'' (1931), another rural drama.

===1934–1939: The Golden Age===
====The studio system====
In 1933 Karu was kicked out from Suomi-Filmi, his own company. He took his revenge by founding a new one called [[Suomen Filmiteollisuus]], which started to use initials SF in its logo. This company managed far better than previous attempts to compete with Suomi-Filmi, and right after couple successful comedies directed by Karu it had grown as significant as its rival. It seemed at this point to be possible only for Karu to create successful production companies in Finland.

The competition between the two companies proved to be fruitful. At the end of the decade there were about twenty full-length features made every year. The quality of the productions was high, the field of the subjects expanding and the popularity of domestic films increasing. With its own stars and creative producers, Finnish film industry began to remind a national miniature of Hollywood. Alongside with the two big studios, some minor ones did well also.

Sound had increased the public's eagerness to see domestic films. The great breakthrough for Finnish talkies came with ''The Foreman of Siltala Farm'' (1934), a well-recorded comedy by Suomi-Filmi, that was seen by over 900 000 viewers.

====Suomi-Filmi====
[[Erkki Karu]] was instantly replaced with [[Risto Orko]] as the head of company, a place he held until the 1990s (although this was long after the company had stopped movie-making). [[Orko]] had directed ''The Foreman of Siltala Farm'', and he returned to directing a few times since, most notably with two historical and patriotic dramas at the end of the decade: ''Soldier's Bride'' (1938) and ''Activists'' (1939). Most of his films as a director remain forgettable.

The most important director at Suomi-Filmi was [[Valentin Vaala]], who had a stunningly creative period at the end of the 30's. After the silent years, [[Vaala]] had directed three more films for his first company Fennica. When he started the fourth, the company went broke. Now he moved to Suomi-Filmi, and although his first movie there (''Everybody's Love'', 1935) was quite a modest comedy, it was very popular, and most importantly, introduced two of the most beloved Finnish stars to the public: [[Ansa Ikonen]] and [[Tauno Palo]].

[[Vaala]]'s last Fennica-films had been urban comedies, a genre which he greatly developed at his new studio with his next two light-weighted films, ''Substitute Wife'' and ''Substitute Man'' (both 1936) . ''Hulda of Juurakko'' (1937) was far more serious attempt in the same field: a socially conscious story about a country girl who arrives to the big city, and who inevitably faces the problems of inequality between sexes. The film and its subject were greeted with huge enthusiasm by the audiences.

[[Vaala]] was also a master within the rural subjects and romantic melodramas. In 1938 he made the first and best film in the series of agrarian family saga of [[Niskavuori]] (''Women of Niskavuori'').

====SF====
After his early death in 1935, [[Karu]] was replaced by [[Toivo Särkkä]] in the head of the company. [[Särkkä]] led SF until its bancrupcy in 1965. [[Särkkä]] was the most prolific producer and director that Finnish film has ever seen: he has way over 200 feature productions in his filmography, of which he directed 51. With [[Yrjö Norta]], he directed most of the company's films in the 30's, including religious drama ''As Dream and Shadow...'' (1937) and patriotic historical film ''Manifest in February'' (1939). [[Särkkä]]'s and [[Norta]]'s output includes some highly popular folk comedies like ''Lapatossu'' (1937) - with beloved comedy actor [[Aku Korhonen]] - and ''The Regiment's Trouble Boy'' (1938), the model of Finnish military farce genre.

====Other companies====
Along with Suomi-Filmi and SF, few minor companies were able to produce many films during the golden age. With [[Vaala]]'s films, these sort of local "poverty row" productions are the most fascinating films made during the 30's.

==The New Wave from 1960 to 1980==

A new generation of film-makers were eager to take over as the old production companies, such as Suomi-Filmi and SF, were collapsing. [[Risto Jarva]] was inspired by the French [[avant-garde]] and new wave, which developed to [[social realism]] seen in ''[[Työmiehen päiväkirja]]'' (1967), and eventually to comedies ''[[Loma]]'' (1976) and ''[[Jäniksen vuosi]]'' (1977). [[Mikko Niskanen]] began his career back in 1962 with ''[[Pojat]]'', starring then unknown [[Vesa-Matti Loiri]]. Niskanen joined the new wave with ''[[Käpy selän alla]]'' (1966) and ''[[Lapualaismorsian]]'' (1967). [[Rauni Mollberg]] adapted two of [[Timo K. Mukka]]'s ''magically realistic'' [[Lapland (Finland)|Lapland]] novels to the big screen: ''[[Maa on syntinen laulu]]'' (1973) and ''[[Milka]]'' (1983).

==Kaurismäki Era of the 1980s==

The old guard of the previous film-making generation was symbolically thrown from the throne in the beginning of 1980 by a Finnish-Soviet co-production, ''[[Tulitikkuja lainaamassa]]'', followed by [[Tapio Suominen]]'s ''[[Täältä tullaan, elämä!]]''. Edvin Laine and Mikko Niskanen made their last movies, and the decade saw nearly 30 directorial debuts, including movies from [[Mika Kaurismäki|Mika]] & [[Aki Kaurismäki]], [[Markku Lehmuskallio]], [[Taavi Kassila]], [[Janne Kuusi]], [[Matti Kuortti]], [[Matti Ijäs]], [[Olli Soinio]], [[Lauri Törhönen]], [[Claes Olsson]], [[Veikko Aaltonen]], and [[Pekka Parikka]].

''[[Valehtelija]]'' (1981) and ''[[Arvottomat]]'' (1982), directed by Mika and written by Aki Kaurismäki, broke the status quo in Finnish film industry by bringing back creativity and small scale production. Mika went to pursue a more traditional way of film making in his career with ''[[Klaani]]'' (1984), ''[[Rosso]]'' (1985), and ''[[Helsinki Napoli All Night Long]]'' (1987). Aki has taken less deviations in style and theme, and his films are known for minimalistic non-verbal communication and dead-pan delivery of dialogs. While Aki is best known for the [[Finland|Suomi]]-trilogy ''[[Kauas pilvet karkaavat]]'' (1996), ''[[Mies vailla menneisyyttä]]'' (2002), and ''[[Laitakaupungin valot]]'' (2006), his work also includes comedy such as ''[[Leningrad Cowboys Go America]]'' (1989).

==From 1990s to Present==

The beginning of the 1990s did not look too good to the film industry, because the national economy was on a strong decline. Film financing was not a priority to the government-backed [[Finnish Film Foundation]], which is responsible for the majority of movie financing in Finland. Fortunately the situation would flip completely upside down by 1999, when nearly 30 domestic movies premiered. ''[[Poika ja ilves]]'', ''[[Häjyt]]'', and ''[[Kulkuri ja joutsen]]'' enjoyed over 200 000 viewers each, and helped to bring the popularity of domestic movies back to where it was a decade earlier.

Prolific directors introduced in the 1990s include [[Markku Pölönen]], [[Auli Mantila]], and [[Jarmo Lampela]]. A few popular genres can be identified from the last two decades. ''[[Rukajärven tie]]'', ''[[Pikkusisar]]'', and ''[[Hylätyt talot, autiot pihat]]'' take place during World War II. ''[[Kulkuri ja joutsen]]'' (1999), ''[[Badding (Movie)|Badding]]'' (2000), ''[[Rentun Ruusu]]'' (2001), ''[[Sibelius (Movie)|Sibelius]]'' (2003), and ''[[Aleksis Kiven elämä]]'' (2002) portray the life of popular public figures in Finland.

==See also==
* [[Cinema of the world]]
* [[List of most expensive Finnish films]]
* [http://atelierapollo.net Karl Emil Ståhlberg, Atelier Apollo]

==External links==
* [http://www.sea.fi/english/ National Audiovisual Archive (former Finnish Film Archive)]
* [http://www.ses.fi/en/ The Finnish Film Foundation]
* [http://www.filmikamari.fi/page.php?id=11 The Finnish Chamber of Films]
* [http://www.sea.fi/lahikuvassa/suomalaisen_elokuvan_historia.html Lähikuvassa: Suomalaisen elokuvan lyhyt historia]

{{CinemaofFinland}}
{{Finland topics}}
{{worldcinema}}

[[Category:Cinema of Finland| ]]

[[ar:سينما فنلندية]]
[[hu:Finn filmművészet]]
[[ja:フィンランドの映画]]
[[no:Finsk film]]
[[fi:Elokuva Suomessa]]
[[sv:Film i Finland]]

Teardrop-Anhänger

2011-07-03T00:31:46Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Where}}. (Build p613)

[[Image:Teardroptrailer.jpg|thumb|The trailer is so named for its resemblance to a [[Tears|teardrop]].]]
A '''teardrop trailer''', also known as a teardrop camper trailer, is a streamlined,<ref name=MechanixIllustrated>"Trailer For Two", [[Mechanix Illustrated]], September 1947[http://www.tinytears.cc/Scans/Trailer%20For%20Two.pdf]</ref> compact, lightweight<ref name=NYT>[http://www.trikesaustralia.com/teardrop/ny_times_article.htm New York Times: Teardrops of Joy for Campers Who Don't Mind Small Spaces]</ref> [[travel trailer]], which gets its name from its [[Tears|tear]]drop profile. They usually only have sleeping space for two adults and often have a basic kitchen in the rear.<ref name=RVBusiness>"Nostalgia makes a comeback", RVBusiness, volume 59, number 3, June 2008[http://www.golittleguy.com/cms/component/option,com_flexadvert/task,click/bannerid,26/]</ref>

Teardrop trailers first became popular {{Where|date=July 2011}} in the 1930s, when magazines such as Mechanics Illustrated published plans. The first teardrops were designed around the idea of using standard 4 by 8-foot sheets of plywood with hardwood spars.
Teardrop trailers remained popular until the mid 1960s after which they disappeared from mainstream camping. However, in the late 1990s, plans became available on the internet and in recent years teardrop trailers have made a resurgence and are again growing in popularity.

A teardrop trailer is generally small, ranging from {{convert|4|ft}} to {{convert|6|ft}} in width and {{convert|8|ft}} to {{convert|10|ft}} in length. They are usually from {{convert|4|ft}} to {{convert|5|ft}} in height. Wheels and tires are usually outside the body and are covered by fenders. Since teardrop trailers are so light, usually less than 450 kg (1000 pounds), just about any vehicle can tow one and fuel consumption is minimally affected.

There is room inside a teardrop trailer for two people to sleep as well as storage for clothes and other items. Outside, in the rear under a hatch, there is usually an area for cooking referred to as the galley. Teardrop trailers tend to have lighting and other electrical power supplied by [[battery (electricity)|battery]], although some have mains [[alternating current|power hookup]]s like regular travel trailers.

Some teardrop trailer owners participate in [[camping]] events for teardrop trailers (called 'gatherings'). The teardrop trailer phenomenon is not local to any one country. Builders reside throughout the Americas, Europe, Israel, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia. In Australia they are known as teardrop campers. Their popularity has resulted in the establishment of several commercial manufacturing organisations, and in the import of some North American models.

<gallery>
Image:‎TeardropKitchen.jpg‎|Rear [[galley]]
Image:TeardropCabin.jpg|Interior of teardrop trailer
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Commons category|Teardrop trailers}}
[[Category:Recreational vehicles]]

Eroberung von Damaskus (635)

2011-07-03T00:28:54Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Where}}. (Build p613)

{{Fix bunching|beg}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict= Siege of Damascus
|partof=[[Muslim conquest of Syria]][[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
|image=[[File:Damascus-Bab Kisan.jpg|290px|Image of one of the ancient gates of Damascus, the Kisan gate.]]
|caption=Kisan Gate, one of the six ancient gates of Damascus.
|date=21 August – 19 September, 634 AD{{cref|a}}
|place=[[Damascus]], [[Syria]]
|result=Damascus captured by [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
|combatant1=[[File:Flag of Afghanistan pre-1901.svg|23px]] [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
|combatant2=[[Byzantine empire]]
|commander1=[[Khalid ibn al-Walid]]
|commander2=Thomas
|strength1=20,000
|strength2=15,000–16,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=290}}</ref>
|casualties1=low
|casualties2=heavy
}}
{{Fix bunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab Wars}}
{{Fix bunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Khalid ibn Walid}}
{{Fix bunching|end}}

The '''Siege of Damascus (634)''' lasted from 21 August to 19 September 634 AD{{cref|b}} before the city fell to the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. [[Damascus]] was the first major city of the [[Byzantine empire]] to fall in the [[Muslim conquest of Syria]].

The last of [[Roman-Persian Wars]] ended in 627, when [[Heraclius]] concluded a successful campaign against the Persians in [[Mesopotamia]]. At the same time, [[Mohammad]] united the [[Arab]]s under the banner of [[Islam]]. After his death in 632, [[Abu Bakr]] succeeded him as the first [[Rashidun Caliph]]. Suppressing several internal revolts, Abu Bakr sought to expand the empire beyond the confines of the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=188}}</ref>

In April 634, Abu Bakr invaded the [[Byzantine empire|Byzantine Empire]] in the [[Levant]] and decisively defeated a Byzantine army at the [[Battle of Ajnadayn]]. The Muslim armies marched north and laid siege to Damascus. The city taken after a [[monophysite]] bishop informed [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]], the Muslim commander in chief, that it was possible to breach city walls by attacking a position only lightly defended at night. While Khalid entered the city by assault from the Eastern gate, Thomas, commander of Byzantine garrison, negotiated a peaceful surrender at the Jabiyah gate with [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah|Abu Ubaidah]], Khalid's second in command. After the surrender of the city, the commanders disputed the terms of the peace agreement. The commanders finally agreed that the peace terms given by Abu Ubaidah would be met. Although he acquiesced to the peace terms, Khalid followed the Damascan refugees to Antioch and defeated them in a battle three days after the surrender of the city.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avi-Yonah|2003|p=129}}</ref>

==Background==
[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslims Invasion of Syria.PNG|thumb|right|200px|alt=Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of Levant|Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of Levant.]]
In 610, during the [[Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628]], Heraclius became the emperor of the Byzantine Empire<ref>{{Harvnb|Haldon|1997|p=41}}</ref> after overthrowing [[Phocas]]. While [[Heraclius]] focused his attention on the internal affairs of his empire, the [[Sassanid|Sassanid Persians]] conquered [[Mesopotamia]], overran [[Syria]] in 611 AD, and entered [[Anatolia]] to occupy [[Caesarea Mazaca]]. In 612, Heraclius expelled the Persians from Anatolia. In 613, he launched a counter offensive against Syria, but was decisively defeated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Greatrex–Lieu|2002|p=189–190}}</ref>

Over the next decade, the Persians conquered [[Palestine]] and [[Egypt]] and Heraclius rebuilt his army, preparing for a new offensive, which he launched in 622.<ref>{{Harvnb|Greatrex–Lieu|2002|p=196}}</ref> He achieved substantial victories over the Persians and their allies in the [[Caucasus]] and [[Byzantine Armenia|Armenia]]. In 627, he launched a daring winter offensive in against Persia in [[Mesopotamia]], and won a decisive victory at the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|Battle of Nineveh]]. This victory threatened the Persian capital city of [[Ctesiphon]].<ref name="Greatrex–Lieu 2002 217–227">{{Harvnb|Greatrex–Lieu|2002|p=217–227}}</ref>

Discredited by this series of disasters, [[Khosrau II]] was killed in a coup led by his son [[Kavadh II]],<ref name="Greatrex–Lieu 2002 217–227"/> who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories of Byzantine empire. Heraclius restored the [[True Cross]] to [[Jerusalem]] with an elaborate ceremony in 629.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haldon|1997|p=46}}</ref>

In Arabia, the [[Prophet Mohammad]] had united most of Arabia under a single religious and political authority. When Mohammed died in June 632, Abu Bakr was elected to the newly-formed office of Caliph, becoming Mohammad's political and religious successor. Several Arabic tribes revolted against Abu Bakr. In the [[Ridda wars]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] for the Wars of Apostasy), Abu Bakr quelled the revolt. By 633, Arabia was firmly united under the central authority of the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Caliph]] in [[Medina]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=12–14}}</ref> In 633, Abu Bakr initiated a war of conquest against the neighboring Sassanid Persian and the Byzantine empires.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kennedy|2006|p=25}}</ref> After a successful conquest of the Persian province of [[Persia|Iraq]], Abu Bakr's confidence grew and in April 634 his armies invaded the Byzantine Levant from four different routes. These armies proved to be too small for the task, necessitating reinforcements from Iraq, led by Abu Bakr's capable general [[Khalid ibn Walid]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=33}}</ref> Crossing the desert, Khalid ibn Walid entered Syria from an unexpected route in a bold move. He attacked and overthrew the Byzantine defenses of Levant and quickly captured the [[Ghassanid]] capital city of [[Bosra]]. In July 634, the Muslim army under Khalid's command defeated another Byzantine army in the [[Battle of Ajnadayn]]. After clearing their southern flank, the Muslims laid siege to Damascus.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=56}}</ref>

===Siege site===

Located on strategic location,{{Where|date=July 2011}} Damascus attracted merchants from all over the world.{{Why?|date=May 2010}}<ref name="Burns 2007 130–132">{{Harvnb|Burns|2007|pp=130–132}}</ref> The city was known as the paradise of [[Syria]].<ref name="Akram 2004 294">{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=294}}</ref>

The fortifications matched its importance. The main part of the city was enclosed by a massive {{convert|11|m|ft|abbr=on|adj=on}} high wall.{{cref|c}}
The fortified city was approximately {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|800|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide.<ref name="Akram 2004 294"/>

The wall had six gates:

*The East Gate (''[[Bab Sharqi]]'')
*The Gate of Thomas (''[[Bab Touma]]'')
*The Jabiya Gate (''[[Bab al-Jabiya]]'')
*The Gate of Paradise (''[[Bab al-Faradis]]'')
*The Keisan Gate (''[[Bab Kisan]]'')
*The Small Gate (''[[Bab al-Saghir]]''){{cref|d}}

Although the [[Barada|River Barada]] ran along the north wall of Damascas, it was too shallow to be of defensive importance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=291}}</ref>

At the time of the [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Syrian campaign]], the Byzantine Commander of Damascus was Thomas, son-in-law of Emperor Heraclius. A devout [[Christian]], he was known for his courage and skill at command, and also for his intelligence and learning.<ref name="Akram 2004 294"/>

==Dispositions==
[[File:Mohammad adil rais-siege of damascus.PNG|thumb|right|260px|alt=Muslim troop deployment (Red) during the siege of Damascus|Muslim troop deployment (Red) during the siege of Damascus.]]
Seventh century Muslim armies had no [[siege|siege equipment]], and typically employed siege tactics only when there were no other options. Without the necessary siege equipment, armies of the [[Muslim conquest|early Muslim expansion]] would lay surround a city, denying it supplies until the city's defenders surrendered.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kennedy|2006|p=33}}</ref> Meanwhile any chance of breaking into the city would be availed, if possible, using stealth and espionage. Muslim armies would usually isolate the city from the rest of the region and deploy scouts along vital routes.

To isolate Damascus, Khalid cut the lines of transportation and communication to northern Syria.{{Clarify|how did they do this? source?|date=May 2010}} To the west, a detachment of cavalry at [[Irbid|Fahal]] occupied the attention of the Byzantine garrison{{Clarify|where was the Byzantine garrison? at Fahal?|date=May 2010}}.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} This detachment also protected the Muslim supply lines to Madinah.<ref>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=293}}</ref> Thus this cavalry detachment functioned as the rearguard of the Muslim forces on the Syrian front. Another detachment was sent on the road to [[Emesa]] to take up a position near Bait Lihya, approximately {{convert|10|mi|km}} from the city. Its instructions were to reconnoiter for any Byzantine relief columns. If unable to defeat or repel a Byzantine rescue effort, the detachment commander were instructed to send for reinforcements from Khalid.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

Having isolated Damascus, Khalid ordered his army to surround the city on August 21, 634 (the 20th of Jamadi-ul-Akhir, 13 Hijri).<ref name="Burns 2007 99">{{Harvnb|Burns|2007|p=99}}</ref> The corps commanders were instructed to repel any Byzantine attack from the respective gates, and seeking assistance in the case of heavy attack. Dharar bin al-Azwar commanded 2.000 horsemen from the [[mobile guard]] to patrol in the empty areas{{Clarify|date=May 2010}} between the gates at night and to reinforce any corps attacked by the Byzantines.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=57}}</ref>

The following Muslim generals held the siege of the six gates of the Damascus. Each commander at the gate had 4,000–5,000 forces under his command:
*Gate of Thomas: [[Shurahbil ibn Hassana|Shurahbil]]
*Jabiya Gate: [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah|Abu Ubaidah]]
*Gate of Faradis: [[Amr ibn al-A'as|Amr]]
*Keisan Gate: [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan|Yazid]]
*Small Gate: [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan|Yazid]]
*Eastern Gate: Rafay bin Umayr.<ref name=a296>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=296}}</ref>

Khalid placed the main body of his forces under the command of Rafay bin Umayr at the eastern gate.<ref name=a296/> He established his headquarters a short distance away from the eastern gate in a [[monastery]], known since then as ''Deir al Khalid'', the monastery of Khalid.<ref name=a296/> Khalid's army had encircled the city, halting the flow of supplies into Damascus while the [[Ghouta|Ghouta of Damascus]]{{Who|date=May 2010}} provided the Muslim army with all the supplies Khalid needed for his men and their mounts.<ref name="Burns 2007 99"/>

===Byzantine relief===
Emperor Heraclius was at [[Antioch]] at the beginning of the siege and {{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} on September 9, 634, he dispatched a relief force, thought to have numbered around 12,000 men.<ref>{{Harvnb|Milman|2009|p=147}}</ref> Scouts posted on the road from Emesa to Damascus reported the approach of the Byzantines. Upon hearing this news, Khalid sent Rafay bin Umayr with 5,000 troops. They met {{convert|20|mi|km}} north of Damascus at Uqab Pass (Eagle Pass) on the Damascus-Emesa road.<ref name=m148>{{Harvnb|Milman|2009|p=148}}</ref> That force proved insufficient and soon surrounded by the Byzantine troops. However before the Byzantines could defeat the Muslim detachment, Khalid arrived with another column of 4,000 men and routed the Byzantines.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sahas|1972|p=19}}</ref> It has since come to be known as [[Battle of Saniyyat-ul-Uqab|Battle of the pass of Uqab]].<ref name=m148/>

The Muslim siege forces had been weakened by the withdrawal of 9,000 men to repel the Byzantine relief force. If the Byzantine garrison had sallied out against the Muslim army, historians suspect the defenders would have broken through the Muslim lines and lifted the siege. Understanding the danger of the situation, Khalid hurriedly returned to Damascus.<ref>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=298}}</ref>

===First Byzantine attack===
[[File:DamascusBabTouma.jpg|thumb|right|265px|alt=Thomas gate of Damascus|Wall of Damascus at the Thomas gate. Although now only 7 m high, it was 11 m high at the time of the siege. Damascus has risen 4 meters since then.{{Clarify|date=May 2010}}]]
After realizing that no reinforcements would come, Thomas decided to launch a counter offensive.<ref name="Nicolle 1994 58">{{Harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=58}}</ref> Early in the third week of September 634, Thomas drew men from all sectors of the city to form a force strong enough to break through the Gate of Thomas. There he was faced by Shurahbil with his corps of about 5,000 men. The Byzantine attack began with a concentrated shower of arrows against the Muslims. The Byzantine infantry, covered by the archers on the wall, rushed through the gate and fanned out into battle formation. Thomas himself led the assault.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Harvnb|Al-Waqidi|8th century|p=46}}</ref> During this action, Thomas was struck in his right eye by an arrow. Unsuccessful in breaking the Muslim lines, the Byzantines retreated back to the fortress. The wounded Thomas is said to have sworn to take thousand eyes in return. He ordered another great [[sortie]] for that night.<ref name=m148/>

===Second Byzantine attack===
This time Thomas planned to launch simultaneous sorties from four gates. The main sector was to be again the Thomas gate, to take full advantage of the exhausted Muslim corps stationed there. The attacks from the other gates—Jabiya Gate, the Small Gate and the Eastern Gate—were intended to tie down the other Muslim corps so that they could not aid Shurhabil's corps at the Thomas gate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Milman|2009|p=148–149}}</ref>

At the Eastern Gate, Thomas assembled more forces than at the other gates, so that Khalid would be unable to move to Shurahbil's assistance and take command in that decisive sector. Thomas' attack at several gates also gave more flexibility to the operation: if success were achieved in any sector other than the Gate of Thomas, such success could be exploited by sending troops to that sector to achieve the breakthrough. Thomas ordered Khalid to be taken alive.<ref>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=299}}</ref>

After some hard fighting at the Jabiya Gate, commander Abu Ubaidah and his men, repulsed the sally and the Byzantines hastened back to the city. The battle was intense at the Small Gate, which was guarded by commander Yazid and his men. Yazid had fewer troops but Dharar came to Yazid's aid with his 2,000 cavalry of the Mobile Guard. The cavalry attacked the flank of the Byzantine sortie force and repulsed the sally.<ref name="Nicolle 1994 58"/>

At the East Gate, the situation also became serious, for a larger Roman{{Who|date=May 2010}} force had been assigned to this sector. Rafay was unable to withstand their attacks. The timely arrival of Khalid with his reserve of 400 veteran cavalry and his subsequent attack on the Roman flank, marked the turning point in the sally at the Eastern Gate.<ref name=m149>{{Harvnb|Milman|2009|p=149}}</ref>

The heaviest fighting occurred at the Thomas gate, where Thomas again commanded the sally in person.<ref name="Nicolle 1994 58"/> After intense fighting, Thomas, seeing that there was no weakening in the Muslim front, decided that continuing the attack would be fruitless and would lead to even heavier casualties among his men. He ordered a withdrawal and the Romans moved back at a steady pace, during which they were subjected to a concentrated shower of arrows by the Muslims. This was the last attempt by Thomas to break the siege. The attempt had failed. He had lost thousands{{Clarify|date=May 2010}} of men in these sallies, and could no longer afford to fight outside the walls of the city.<ref name=a300>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=300}}</ref>

==Khalid's attack==
[[File:Bab Sharqi 1.jpg|thumb|right|230px|alt=Eastern gate of damascus|Remains of the Eastern gate. Khalid's troops entered Damascus through this gate.]]
On September 18 (19 [[Rajab]], 13 [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijrah]]), a disaffected [[monophysite]] bishop of Damascus sent a Greek named Jonah<ref name="Sicker 2000 12">{{Harvnb|Sicker|2000|p=12}}</ref> to inform Khalid about a festival celebration in the city that night.{{cref|e}} The festivities offered Khalid an opportunity to capture the city in a surprise attack on the relatively lightly defended walls. In return, he{{Who|Jonah or the bishop?|date=May 2010}} requested immunity for himself and his fiance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crowdy|2006|p=45}}</ref> According to Muslim chronicles, she was still not handed over to him because of the arrival of the Muslim army that was to besiege Damascus, and according to the narrations he came to Khalid with this information only to get his beloved wife soon. Jonah also converted to [[Islam]].{{Clarify|this is very confusing|date=May 2010}}<ref name=m149/>

With no time to make a coordinated plan of attack for the whole army, Khalid decided to storm thee East Gate himself. He, Qa'qa ibn Amr, and Mazur ibn Adi climbed the wall hand-by-hand from the side of the gate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sahas|1972|p=18}}</ref> This part of the wall was the strongest, no guard was stationed at the top. They secured ropes to the wall and dropped them to 100 selected soldiers waiting at the base.<ref name=a300/> Leaving a few men to assist the climbers, Khalid descended into the city, killing the guards at the inside of the East Gate. Khalid and Qa'qa flung the gate open and the remainder of Khalid's men entered the city. An intense battle ensued.<ref name="Burns 2007 99"/>

When Thomas saw that the rest of the army did not move from the other gates, he assumed first that only Khalid's army had entered the city and second that the other corps commanders were unaware of this sudden attack. Muslim practice was specific: if a city surrendered, the inhabitants would be spared, but if a city resisted, the resisters would be killed.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} Thomas tried to save Damascus for one last time. He sent envoys to the Jabiya Gate to talk with Abu Ubaidah, the second in command to Khalid, and offered to surrender the fort peacefully and to pay the [[Jizya]].<ref name=a301>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=301}}</ref> Abu Ubaidah, who was well-known for his peace-loving nature, accepted the terms, thinking that Khalid would also agree.<ref>{{Harvnb|Archer|2008|p=129}}</ref>

The news was sent to all the corps commanders. After dawn Abu Ubaidah entered Damascus from Jabiyah gate and the other commanders from their respective gates, while Khalid's corps was still battling in the city from the East Gate.<ref name="Nicolle 1994 58"/> Abu Ubaidah marched peacefully with his corps, accompanied by Thomas, Harbees{{Who|date=May 2010}}, several dignitaries, and the [[bishop]]s of Damascus, toward the center of city. From the East Gate, Khalid and his men fought their way towards the center of Damascus, killing all who resisted. The commanders met at the [[Church of Mary]] in the center of the city.<ref name=m150>{{Harvnb|Milman|2009|p=150}}</ref>

===Capture of the city===
Khalid argued that he had conquered the city by force. Abu Ubaidah maintained the city had capitulated, through the peace agreement between him and Thomas.<ref name=m150/> The corps commanders discussed the situation, and reportedly told Khalid that the peace agreement must be honored. Their rationale had logic: the Romans{{Who|date=May 2010}} in Syria heard that the Muslims had given a guarantee of safety to a surrendered city and then had slaughtered those whose safety had been guaranteed, no other city would ever surrender to the Muslims. This would make the task of conquering Syria immeasurably more difficult. Khalid, though not happy, agreed to honor the peace agreement.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

The terms of the peace agreement were that no one would be enslaved, no harm would be done to the temples, nothing would be taken as booty and that safe passage was given to Thomas, Harbees, and every citizen of Damascus who was not willing to live under Muslim rule. The peace agreement also stated that the peace would end after three days and that the Muslims could attack after these three days without violating the agreement.<ref name=a301/>

The following pact was drawn up and signed by Khalid bin Walid:

<blockquote>In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. This is given by Khalid bin Al Waleed {{sic}} to the people of Damascus. When the Muslims enter, they (the people) shall have safety for themselves, their property, their temples and the walls of their city, of which nothing shall be destroyed. They have this guarantee on behalf of Allah, the [[Prophet Mohammad|Messenger of Allah]], the [[Caliph]] and the Muslims, from whom they shall receive nothing but good so long as they pay the Jizya.<ref name="Sicker 2000 12"/></blockquote>

==Aftermath==
The Greek, Jonah, who had helped Khalid enter the city by the East Gate, showed him a short-cut to Antioch. Leading a cavalry regiment, Khalid caught up with a convoy of Byzantine refugees from Damascus at the sea, near Antioch.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=59}}</ref> The three day truce had passed; Khalid's cavalry attacked the convoy during a heavy rain. In the subsequent battle, Khalid reportedly killed both Thomas and Harbees in a duel. After the Battle, known as [[Battle of Marj-ud-Deebaj]] (Battle of Brocade Meadow), the Muslims took a great amount of [[brocade]] taken as booty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Milman|2009|p=155}}</ref> In addition, Thomas' wife, the daughter of Heraclius, was captured. According to chronicles, the Greek man Jonah, who guided Khalid on the short cut to Antioch, got his fiance, but she committed suicide. Khalid offered Jonah the daughter of Emperor Heraclius, whom he refused. Khalid sent back to her father. Jonah died two years later in the [[Battle of Yarmuk]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Al-Waqidi|8th century|p=55–56}}</ref>

Caliph Abu Bakr died in Madinah, making [[Umar]] his successor. Umar removed Khalid from command of the Muslim army and appointed Abu Ubaidah as the new commander in chief. In later years, following the Battle of Yarmuk, the Rashidun Caliphate annexed the whole [[Levant]], followed by the [[Battle of the Iron Bridge|conquest of Antioch]] in 638.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sahas|1972|p=20}}</ref> By 639, the Byzantines had lost Armenia and Mesopotamia. Emperor Heraclius concentrated on the defenses of [[Egypt]] and Anatolia, creating a buffer-zone in Anatolia west of [[Caesarea]] by abandoning all the Byzantine fortifications. The Muslims never invaded Anatolia. However, by 642 the Byzantines lost [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Tripolitania]] to the Caliphate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Akram|2004|p=297}}</ref>
[[File:Umayyad Mosque-Dome of the Treasury211099.jpg|thumb|right|250px|alt=Image of ''Damascus treasury'' in Umayyad Mosque, Damascus.|The dome of Damascus' treasury in the Umayyad Mosque]]
While the Arabs administered the city of Damascus, the population of Damascus remained mostly Christian—[[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Monophysite]]—with a growing community of [[Arab Muslims]] from [[Makkah]], Madinah, and the [[Syrian Desert]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Burns|2007|p=105}}</ref>

The city was chosen as the capital of [[Bilad al-Sham|Islamic Syria]]. Its first Muslim governor was [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan]], one of the commanders of the Muslim army that captured the city. Yazid died of [[plague (disease)|plague]] in 640 and his younger brother, [[Mu'awiya I]], succeeded him. After the murder of the last Rashidun Caliph, [[Ali|Caliph Ali]] in 661, Mu'awiya installed himself as the caliph of the Islamic empire founding the [[Umayyad|Umayyad dynasty]].

Damascus subsequently became the capital of the Ummayad Caliphate<ref>{{Harvnb|Burns|2007|pp=106–107}}</ref> and all of the surplus revenue of the Ummayad Caliphate's provinces were forwarded to the treasury of Damascus. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] was also established as the official language, giving the Arab minority of the city an advantage over the Greek-speaking Christians in administrative affairs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Burns|2007|pp=110}}</ref>

Trade and economics prospered in the city and under the Umayyads, Damascus remained one of the most dazzling cities of the world, until in 750, when it fell to [[Abbasid]]s. On August 25, 750, the Abbasids, having already beaten the Umayyads in the [[Battle of the Zab]] in Iraq, conquered Damascus after facing little resistance. With the heralding of the Abbasid Caliphate, Damascus became eclipsed and subordinated by [[Baghdad]], the new Islamic capital.<ref name="Burns 2007 130–132"/>

==Notes==
{{cnote|a|According to some sources the city was captured in 635 (See Burns (2007), ''Damascus a history'', page:99)}}
{{cnote|b|According to some sources the siege lasted for 6 months (See Burns (2007), ''Damascus a history'', page:99)}}
{{cnote|c|Damascus City has risen 4 metres since then, so that the wall is now only 7 metres above ground level (See Akram (2004), pg.294.)}}
{{cnote|d|See [[Damascus#The walls and gates of Damascus|The walls and gates of Damascus]].}}
{{cnote|e|It is not clear which festival it was, some early Muslim sources says it was a celebration of the birth of son to the high priest of Damascus (Al-Waqidi, p.46)}}

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
===Ancient sources===
*{{Citation|title=Fatuh al Sham (Conquest of Syria)|year=8th century|given=Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Umar|surname=Al-Waqidi|authorlink=Al-Waqidi}}
*[[Ibn Ishaq]], ''[[Sirah Rasul Allah]]'', 750.
*[[Theophanes the Confessor]], ''Chronographia'', 810–815.
*[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]], ''[[History of the Prophets and Kings]]'', 915.

===Modern sources===
*{{Citation|title=The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed - His Life and Campaigns|given=Agha Ibrahim|surname=Akram|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]: Pakistan|year=2004|isbn=0195977149}}
*{{Citation|title=World History of Warfare|given=Christon I|surname= Archer|publisher=University of Nevada Press|year=2008|isbn=9780803219410}}
*{{Citation|title=History of Israel and the Holy Land|given=Michae|surname=Avi-Yonah|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2003|isbn=780826415264}}
*{{Citation|title=Damascus: A History|given=Ross|surname=Burns|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=9780415413176}}
*{{Citation|title=The enemy within: a history of espionage|given=Terry|surname=Crowdy|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2006|isbn=9781841769332}}
*{{Citation|title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)|given=|surname=Greatrex–Lieu|coauthors=Lieu, Samuel N. C.|year=2002|publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-14687-9}}
*{{Citation|title=Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture|given=John|surname=Haldon|year=1997|publisher=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-31917-X}}
*{{Citation|title=The Byzantine and early Islamic Near East|given=Hugh N. |surname=Kennedy|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2006|isbn=9780754659099}}
*{{Citation|title=The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|given=Edward Gibbon (revised by Henry Hart Milman)|surname=Milman|publisher=BiblioBazaar|year=illustrated 2009 edition|isbn=9781113928207}}
*{{Citation|title=Yarmuk 636 A.D.: The Muslim Conquest of Syria|given=David|surname=Nicolle|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=1994|authorlink=David Nicolle|isbn=1855324148}}
*{{Citation|title=John of Damascus on Islam: The "Heresy of the Ishmaelites."|given=Daniel J|surname=Sahas|publisher=BRILL|year=1972|isbn=9789004034952}}
*{{Citation|title=The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna|given=Martin|surname=Sicker|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2000|isbn=9780275968922}}

==External Links==
*[http://www.theartofbattle.com/siege-of-damascus-635.htm Siege of Damascus animated battle map] by Jonathan Webb

{{coord missing|Syria}}

[[Category:634]]
[[Category:Muslim history]]
[[Category:Battles of Khalid ibn Walid|Damascus]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Byzantine Empire|Damascus]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Rashidun Caliphate|Damascus]]
[[Category:Battles of the Byzantine–Arab Wars|Damascus]]
[[Category:History of Damascus]]
[[Category:7th century in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Muslim conquest of Syria]]

[[ar: فتح دمشق]]
[[pnb:دمشق دا کیرا]]
{{good article}}

Shantaram (Roman)

2011-07-03T00:28:22Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Where}}. (Build p613)

{{Infobox book| 
| name = Shantaram
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:GDR Shantaram.jpg|200px]]
| image_caption = 1st edition
| author = [[Gregory David Roberts]]
| cover_artist =
| country = [[Australia]]
| language = [[Language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Novel]]
| publisher = [[Scribe Publications]] (Aus)
| release_date = 2003
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages = 936 pp (US hardback edition)
| isbn = ISBN 1-920769-00-5 (First hardback edition)
| oclc= 223420249
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}

'''''Shantaram''''' is a 2003 [[novel]] by [[Gregory David Roberts]], a convicted [[Australia]]n bank robber and heroin addict who escaped from [[HM Prison Pentridge|Pentridge Prison]] and fled to [[India]] where he lived for 10 years. While partially based on Roberts' own experiences, Roberts himself has clarified that the story and its incidents are largely fictional.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}

== Plot summary ==
''Shantaram'' is a novel influenced by real events in the life of the author, [[Australian]] Gregory David Roberts. In 1978, Roberts was sentenced to 19-year imprisonment in Australia after being convicted of a series of armed robberies of [[building society]] branches, [[credit unions]], and shops, which he had committed to feed a [[heroin]] addiction after his marriage ended and he lost his daughter. In July 1980, he escaped from Victoria’s [[HM Prison Pentridge|Pentridge Prison]] in broad daylight, thereby becoming one of Australia's [[most wanted]] men for the next ten years.

The protagonist Lindsay arrives in Mumbai carrying a false passport in the name of Lindsay Ford. Mumbai was only a stopover on a journey that was to take him from [[New Zealand]] to [[Germany]], but he decides to stay in the city. Lin soon meets a local man named Prabaker whom he hires as a guide but soon becomes his best friend and who renames him Lin (Linbaba). Both men visit Prabaker's native village, Sunder, where Prabaker's mother decided to give Lin a new Maharashtrian name, like her own. Because she judged his nature to be blessed with peaceful happiness, she decided to call him ''Shantaram'', meaning ''Man of God's Peace''. On their way back to Mumbai and after a night out, Lin and Prabaker are robbed. With all his possessions gone, Lin is forced to live in the slums, giving him shelter from the authorities and free rent in Mumbai. After a massive fire on the day of his arrival in the slum, he sets up a free health clinic as a way to contribute to the community. He learns about the local culture and customs in this crammed environment, gets to know and love the people he encounters, and even becomes fluent in [[Marathi language|Marathi]], the local language. He also witnesses and battles outbreaks of [[cholera]] and firestorms, becomes involved in trading with the [[lepers]], and experiences how ethnic and marital conflicts are resolved in this densely crowded and diverse community.

The novel describes a number of foreigners of varied origin as well as local Indians, highlighting the rich diversity of life in Mumbai. Lin falls in love with Karla, a Swiss-American woman who refuses to love him back, befriends local artists and actors, landing him roles as an [[Extra (actor)|extra]] in several [[Bollywood]] movies, and is recruited by the Mumbai [[Organized crime|underworld]] for various criminal operations, including drug and weapons trade. Lin eventually lands in Mumbai's [[Arthur Road Jail|Arthur Road Prison]], where he endures many beatings and other physical and mental abuse by guards, while existing under extremely squalid conditions, along with hundreds of other inmates. However, thanks to the protection of [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] mafia don "Abdel Khader Khan", Lin is eventually released, and works in [[black market]] currency exchange and passport forgery. Having travelled as far as Africa on trips commissioned by the mafia, Lin later goes to Afghanistan to smuggle weapons for [[mujahideen]] freedom fighters in Afghanistan. When his mentor Khan is killed, Lin realizes he became everything he grew to loathe and falls into depression after he returns. He decides that he must fight for what he believes is right, and build an honest life. The story ends with him planning to go to [[Sri Lanka]] which lays the premise for the [[sequel]] to this book.

=== Fact-based elements ===
Based on Roberts' known biography, some readers believe ''Shantaram'' to be largely factual.<ref>[http://www.marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2007/05/shantaram.html Marginal Revolution: Shantaram]</ref><ref>[http://howtotellagreatstory.blogspot.com/2008/02/shantaram-by-gregory-david-roberts.html The Candid Storyteller: Shantaram by Gregory David Roberts]</ref> A few parts of the story, such as Roberts' criminal history and escape from prison in Australia, are a matter of public record,<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/gnt/future/Transcripts/s1048282.htm Greg Roberts:]</ref> while others remain harder (or impossible) to verify. However, Roberts has stated the story is mostly invented, and that he merged different elements taken from true events and people into such events and characters like Prabaker 'of the big smile'.<ref>[http://www.indiamike.com/india/books-music-and-movies-f4/shantaram-t45909/ Shantaram - India Travel Forum | IndiaMike.com]</ref> In March 2006, the ''[[Mumbai Mirror]]'', reported they may have discovered the inspiration for the big smile of the character Prabaker as belonging to a still living cab driver called Kishore, who took Roberts to his home village.<ref>[http://www.mumbaimirror.com/nmirror/mmpaper.asp Mumbai Mirror]</ref> Many other major facts of the book are fictional; for example, Roberts admits that there were no Sapna killers.<ref>[http://freegeek.livejournal.com/tag/shantaram घेउन टाक]</ref> In an interview{{Where|date=July 2011}} with the author,<ref>[http://www.all-about-india.com/Shantaram.html]</ref> Roberts stated that the person on whom Prabaker was based had died a long time ago.

== Characters ==

{{Detail|List of characters in Shantaram}}

== Publication history ==

Originally, ''Shantaram'' was published by Scribe Publications as a hardcover and later as a paperback. Following the mediated resolution in 2004 of a dispute that arose in 2003 between Scribe and the book’s author, [[Gregory David Roberts]], rights to all forms of the local publication of ''Shantaram'' reverted to the author after Scribe sold its remaining stock of hardbacks.<ref>[http://www.scribepublications.com.au/news/shantarampaperbackoutofprint Scribe Hardback - Out of Print]</ref> [[Macmillan Publishers|Pan Macmillian]] then took over publication under the [[Picador (imprint)|Picador label]].<ref>[http://www.panmacmillan.com.au/display_title.asp?ISBN=9780330423625&Author=Roberts,%20Gregory%20David Picador Edition - Softcover]</ref>

== Sequels and prequels ==

Gregory Roberts has said that ''Shantaram'' is the second book in a planned quartet; however, it is the only novel currently available. A sequel entitled ''The Mountain Shadow'' is scheduled to be published on September 1, 2011 by [[Little Brown and Company|Little Brown]] as per Borders Australia. <ref>[http://www.borders.com.au/book/mountain-shadow/6909933/]</ref> This next book is expected to be followed by a prequel, and a second sequel.<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050417/spectrum/book5.htm The Sunday Tribune - Books]</ref>
However the release date has been pushed back several times.

== Film adaptation ==

When the novel ''Shantaram'' was published in 2003, several parties, including actor [[Russell Crowe]], expressed interest in a film adaptation. Although Crowe was temporarily attached to a bid, [[Warner Bros.]] went forward with a $2 million bid primarily due to actor [[Johnny Depp]]'s expression of love for the book to studio executive Brad Grey. With the rights won, Depp was attached to star in the film, which was to be based on a script written by the book's author [[Gregory David Roberts]].<ref>{{cite journal | first=Michael | last=Fleming | coauthors=Cathy Dunkley | url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117911579.html | title=WB books adventure for Depp | journal=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] | date={{nowrap|October 6}}, 2004 }}</ref> Roberts commended the casting choice, and the author said of his intended script, "The screenplay I am writing will be as complex and will have the same sense of layering and texturing. Thematically, it will reflect everything that is in the heart of the book and that is the exile experience, and the power of love to transform and change the heart of a person. But the book is a book and the film is a film—they are different art forms so the film will have an independent life."<ref>{{cite news | first=Jonathon | last=Moran | title=Depp perfectly cast in Shantaram, author says | work=[[Australian Associated Press]] | date={{nowrap|October 8}}, 2004 }}</ref> In October 2005, Warner Bros. hired screenwriter [[Eric Roth]] to rewrite the initial draft created by Roberts.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Michael | last=Fleming | url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117931606.html | title=Scribe's in custody | journal=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] | date={{nowrap|October 25}}, 2005 }}</ref> The following November, director [[Peter Weir]] was hired by the studio to helm ''Shantaram'' and develop the script with Roth. The studio originally planned to schedule production for late 2006.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Michael | last=Fleming | url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117933791.html | title=Weir to steer Depp pic | journal=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] | date={{nowrap|November 30}}, 2005 }}</ref>

By June 2006, Weir departed from the project with a studio spokesperson citing different interpretations between the director and the studio and producers.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Michael | last=Fleming | url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117945086.html | title='Shantaram' shuffling | journal=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] | date={{nowrap|June 11}}, 2006 }}</ref> In January 2007, director [[Mira Nair]] replaced Weir at the helm. The studio anticipated for production to begin by fall 2007 for a 2008 release.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Pamela | last=McClintock | url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117957715.html | title=Nair, Depp journey to India film | journal=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] | date={{nowrap|January 18}}, 2007 }}</ref> Roth began rewriting the script to lower project costs, and actor [[Amitabh Bachchan]] joined to star opposite Depp. By November 2007, the anticipated February production start was canceled by Warner Bros., who cited the [[2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike]]'s interference with the script's readiness, the impending monsoon season in [[India]], and Depp's schedule difficulties in filming between India and New Mexico in the United States.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Michael | last=Fleming | coauthors=Anne Thompson | url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117976279.html | title=Strike delays 'Shantaram,' 'Nine' | journal=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] | date={{nowrap|November 19}}, 2007 }}</ref> The studio anticipated for production to finally begin in September 2008,<ref>{{cite journal | first=Anne | last=Thompson | url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117976784.html | title=Hollywood's new scapegoat | journal=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] | date={{nowrap|November 29}}, 2007 }}</ref> but by November 2009, with production not starting, ''[[The Independent]]'' reported the project had been cancelled.<ref>{{cite news | last=Akbar | first=Arifa | url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/the-diary-shantaram-film--lumiere-festival-tom-atkinson-hans-holbein-harold-evans-1819450.html | title=Underworld tale won't see light of day | work=[[The Independent]] | date={{nowrap|November 13}}, 2009 }}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==

{{Wikiquote|Shantaram}}
*[http://www.shantaram.com ''Shantaram'' official website]
*{{IMDb title|id=0429087|title=Shantaram}}
*[http://www.shantaram-forum.com ''Shantaram'' Forum]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shantaram}}
[[Category:Autobiographical novels]]
[[Category:2003 novels]]
[[Category:Australian novels]]

[[cs:Shantaram]]
[[hi:शांताराम (उपन्यास)]]
[[it:Shantaram]]
[[nl:Shantaram]]
[[no:Shantaram]]
[[pl:Shantaram]]
[[ru:Шантарам (роман)]]
[[zh:項塔蘭]]

Old Oswestry

2011-07-03T00:22:24Z

SmackBot: Dated {{Where}}. (Build p613)

[[image:Oswestry Hill Fort.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Old Oswestry hill fort]]
'''Old Oswestry''' is a large and impressive early [[Iron Age]] [[hill fort]] in the [[Wales|Welsh]] [[Marches]] near [[Oswestry]] in north west [[Shropshire]].

It was designated as a scheduled monument (number 27556) in 1997 and is now in the guardianship of [[English Heritage]]. After the hillfort was abandoned it was incorporated into [[Wat's Dyke]], and two sections this are adjacent to it.

== Iron Age Hillfort ==

It was occupied between the sixth century BC and the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] conquest of [[Roman Britain]], probably by the [[Cornovii]] tribe.

== Several phases ==

The complexity of its defences suggests several phases of development. The site was originally occupied by a few undefended round huts. These were then enclosed by a double bank and ditch enclosure spreading over 52,000 square metres (1.3 [[acre]]s). Entrances were placed through the enclosure at the east and west ends where the inner bank was pulled back inwards to create a more impressive gateway. These defences were later rebuilt and a third bank added on all sides except the south east where the hill's steep slope made further strengthening unnecessary. The western entrance was then remodelled with unusual rectangular hollows separated by ridges dug out and defended by [[outwork]]s. Finally two further circuits of banks and ditches were added to the outside and a flanking bank placed alongside the eastern entrance.

Although Old Oswestry was one of the most strongly defended hill forts in Britain there is no evidence that the [[Roman Legion]]s ever tried to besiege it.

During the First World War it was used as a training area for Canadian troops. Many of the large pits and trenches shown on aerial photographs relate to these military activities. <ref>http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=66112 </ref> <ref>http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/marches-uplands-mapping-project-nmp Marches Uplands Mapping Project</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Old Oswestry Hillfort}}
*[http://www.pegasusarchive.org/ancientbritain/old_oswestry.htm Ancient Britain - Old Oswestry]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/history/2003/12/old_oswestry.shtml Images and description of Old Oswestry] {{Where|date=July 2011}}
*[http://www.geograph.org.uk/search.php?i=3098807 www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Old Oswestry and surrounding area today]
*[http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/old-oswestry-hill-fort/history-and-research/ History and research into Old Oswestry: English Heritage]

*{{oscoor gbx|SJ295311}}

{{coord|52.87273|N|3.04886|W|region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(SJ295311)|display=title}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Shropshire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Shropshire]]
[[Category:Hill forts in Shropshire]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Shropshire]]
[[Category:Oswestry]]