Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Joyner Lucas

2018-05-24T14:22:44Z

Slatersteven:

{{pp-blp|expiry=18:14, 21 May 2018|small=yes}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Joyner Lucas
| background = solo_singer
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name = Gary Lucas<ref name="tidal">{{cite web|url=https://listen.tidal.com/album/74886178|title=508-507-2209 / Joyner Lucas|work=[[Tidal (service)|Tidal]]|accessdate=December 1, 2017}}</ref>
| alias = Future Joyner<ref name="Stashed">{{cite web|url=http://thestashed.com/2015/10/28/10-things-to-know-about-joyner-lucas/|title=10 Things to Know About Joyner Lucas|accessdate=12 July 2017}}</ref>
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1988|08|17}}
| birth_place = [[Worcester, Massachusetts]], U.S.
| genre = [[Hip hop music|Hip hop]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Rapper|singer|songwriter|record producer}}
| instrument = Vocals
| years_active = 2007–present
| label = [[Atlantic Records]]
| associated_acts = [[Boi-1da]], [[Chris Brown]], [[Mystikal]], [[Tech N9ne]], [[Hasib UK]]{{cn}}
| website = {{URL|http://www.joynerlucas.com/}}
}}

'''Gary Lucas<ref name="tidal"/>''' (born August 17, 1988) better known by his stage name '''Joyner Lucas''', is an [[United States|American]] [[Rapping|rapper]] from [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]], [[Massachusetts]] currently signed to [[Atlantic Records]].<ref name="ETN">{{cite news | last=Rao| first=Naveen| title =Joyner Lucas Wiki: Hip Hop, Album, Gangs, Net Worth, and the Heat of the Street | newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =Earn the Necklace | date =16 June 2017 | url =https://www.earnthenecklace.com/joyner-lucas-wiki-hip-hop-album-gangs-net-worth/| accessdate =12 July 2017}}</ref> He garnered widespread exposure and critical acclaim after the release of his single "Ross Capicchioni" in 2015.<ref name="Stashed"/><ref name="VibeRoss">{{cite news | last=Robertson| first=Darryl| title =Joyner Lucas Releases Moving Video About Gang Initiation, ‘Ross Capicchioni’ | newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =''[[Vibe (magazine)|Vibe]]'' | date =22 May 2015| url =http://www.vibe.com/2015/05/joyner-lucas-releases-moving-video-about-gang-initiation-ross-capicchioni/| accessdate =12 July 2017}}</ref> In 2017, he released his fourth [[mixtape]] (and first on a major label), ''[[508-507-2209]]''.<ref name="DXAlbum">{{cite news | last=Ivey| first=Justin| title =Joyner Lucas Unleashes Debut Album "508-507-2209" | newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =''[[HipHopDX]]'' | date =16 June 2017 | url =http://hiphopdx.com/news/id.43796/title.joyner-lucas-unleashes-debut-album-508-507-2209| accessdate =12 July 2017}}</ref>

==Early life==
Gary Lucas was born on August 17, 1988, in Worcester, Massachusetts. Lucas began rapping at the age of ten<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.fromtheoh.com/interviews/joynerlucas|title=INTERVIEW: Joyner Lucas touches on his flair for storytelling and who he gets compared to|work=From the O-H|access-date=2018-02-01|language=en-US}}</ref> after listening to artists like [[Eminem]], [[The Notorious B.I.G.]], [[Nas]], and [[Method Man|Method Man.]]<ref name="ETN"/><ref name="Telegram">{{cite news | last=Infante| first=Victor D.| title =Worcester rapper Joyner Lucas eyes new EP, Underground Music Award nods| newspaper =[[Telegram & Gazette]]| location = | pages = | language = | publisher = | date =23 October 2015| url =http://www.telegram.com/article/20151023/ENTERTAINMENTLIFE/151029628| accessdate =12 July 2017}}</ref>

He attended [[South High Community School]] in Worcester.<ref name="Telegram" /><ref name="Rolling">{{cite news | last=Williams| first=Stereo| title =Joyner Lucas: ‘A lot of artists are afraid to be themselves’| newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =''Rolling Out'' | date =24 April 2014| url =http://rollingout.com/2014/04/24/joyner-lucas-lot-artists-afraid/| accessdate =12 July 2017}}</ref>

==Career==
Lucas first started recording under the name G-Storm. In 2007, he changed his stage name to ''Future Joyner'' and started working with his uncle, Cyrus tha Great, and formed a group called "Film Skool Rejekts". They released their mixtape, ''Workprint: The Greatest Mixtape of All Time'' in the same year.<ref name="XXL">{{cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2017/06/best-lyrics-joyner-lucas-508-507-2209-album/|title=20 of the Best Lyrics From Joyner Lucas' '508-507-2209' Album|work=XXL|accessdate=November 30, 2017}}</ref> Lucas went on to release his first mixtape under the name ''Future Joyner'' titled ''Listen 2 Me'' in 2011. After rapper [[Future (rapper)|Future]] came to prominence, Lucas dropped the "Future" from his name and continued as Joyner Lucas.<ref name="XXL"/>

Lucas went on to release his next mixtape ''Along Came Joyner'' on April 5, 2015.<ref name="ACJ">{{cite web|url=http://www.datpiff.com/Joyner-Lucas-Along-Came-Joyner-mixtape.696922.html|title=Joyner Lucas - Along Came Joyner Mixtape - Stream & Download|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref> This mixtape contained his critically acclaimed "Ross Capicchioni".<ref name="Stashed"/> Following the success of the song, Lucas was featured in the [[2015 BET Hip Hop Awards|2015 BET Hip-Hop Awards]] Cypher.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2015/10/twitter-reacts-to-the-2015-bet-hip-hop-awards/|title=Twitter Reacts to the 2015 BET Hip-Hop Awards - XXL|website=XXL Mag|access-date=2018-02-01}}</ref>

Lucas signed to Atlantic Records on September 21, 2016.<ref>{{cite web|author=Victor D. Infante Telegram & Gazette Staff |url=http://www.telegram.com/article/20151023/ENTERTAINMENTLIFE/151029628 |title=Worcester rapper Joyner Lucas eyes new EP, Underground Music Award nods - Entertainment & Life - telegram.com - Worcester, MA |publisher=telegram.com |date= |accessdate=2017-07-04}}</ref> Lucas went on to release a project titled ''[[508-507-2209]]'' on June 16, 2017, with Atlantic Records.<ref name="508Joyner">{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/508-507-2209/id1246495550|title=508-507-2209 by Joyner Lucas on Apple Music|publisher=[[iTunes]]|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref> The mixtape charted at #7 on the [[Heatseekers Albums]] chart on ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' and contained the singles "I'm Sorry", "Ultrasound" and "Winter Blues".<ref name="HeatseekerssAlbums">{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/artist/7843102/joyner-lucas/chart|title=Joyner Lucas - Chart History: Heatseekers Albums|work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref>

On November 28, 2017, Lucas released his single "I'm Not Racist", onto his [[YouTube]] account which quickly went [[Viral video|viral]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=43gm3CJePn0|title=Joyner Lucas - I'm Not Racist|work=joyner lucas|accessdate=November 30, 2017}}</ref> The song is controversial, rapping about [[race and society]], and race relations from the perspective of a white man, and a black man.<ref>{{cite web|last=Criss|first=Doug|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/11/29/entertainment/joyner-lucas-not-racist-video-trnd/index.html|title='I'm Not Racist' is the brutal race conversation nobody wants to have|work=[[CNN]]|accessdate=November 30, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Khal|url=http://www.complex.com/music/2017/11/joyner-lucas-im-not-racist-video|title=Massachusetts Rapper Joyner Lucas Makes Powerful Statement With "I'm Not Racist" Video|work=[[Complex (magazine)|Complex]]|accessdate=November 30, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Lindsey India|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/video/2017/11/joyner-lucas-im-not-racist-video/|title=Joyner Lucas Confronts Race Relations in ''I'm Not Racist'' Video|work=[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]]|accessdate=November 30, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bet.com/music/2017/11/30/joyner-lucas-im-not-racist-video.html|title=Joyner Lucas Is Going Viral For This 'I'm Not Racist' Video|work=[[BET]]|accessdate=November 30, 2017}}</ref> Lucas and singer [[Chris Brown]] announced their collaboration project, titled ''Angels & Demons'' on February 25, 2018<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.complex.com/music/2018/02/joyer-lucus-chris-brown-announce-joint-project-release-stranger-things|title=Joyner Lucas and Chris Brown Announce Joint Project, Release "Stranger Things"|website=Complex|language=en|access-date=2018-03-03}}</ref> with the single "Stranger Things" releasing the following day.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/8220149/joyner-lucas-chris-brown-stranger-things-video-angels-and-demons|title=Joyner Lucas & Chris Brown Take a Break From Their Day Jobs to Party in 'Stranger Things' Video|work=Billboard|access-date=2018-03-03}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Joyner Lucas has a son whom he references frequently in his music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2017/10/joyner-lucas-interview-508-507-2209-album/|title=Joyner Lucas Dreams of Acting With Mark Wahlberg One Day - XXL|website=XXL Mag|access-date=2018-02-01}}</ref>

==Discography==
===Mixtapes===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" border="1"
|+ List of mixtapes, with selected chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:10em;" | Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:19em;" | Album details
! scope="col" colspan="1" | Peak chart positions
|-
! scope="col" style="width:2.2em;font-size:90%;" | [[Heatseekers Albums|US Heat]] <ref name="HeatseekerssAlbums"/>
|-
! scope="row" | ''Listen 2 Me (as Future Joyner)''
|
* Released: 2011
* Label: Dead Silence
* Format: [[Compact disc|CD]], [[Music download|digital download]]
| —
|-
! scope="row" | ''Low Frequency Oscillators''
|
* Released: 2012
* Label: Dead Silence
* Format: CD, digital download
| —
|-
! scope="row" | ''Along Came Joyner''
|
* Released: April 5, 2015<ref name="ACJ"/>
* Label: Dead Silence
* Format: CD, digital download
| —
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[508-507-2209]]''
|
* Released: June 16, 2017<ref name="508Joyner"/>
* Label: [[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]
* Format: CD, digital download
| 7
|}

===Collaborative mixtapes===
{| India class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of mixtapes, with selected details
! scope="col" style="width:12em;" | Title
! scope="col" style="width:20em;" | Album details
|-
! scope="row"| ''Workprint: The Greatest Mixtape of All Time (with Film Skool Rejekts)''<ref name="ETN"/><ref name="Stashed"/>
|
* Release date: 2007
* Label: Self-released
* Format: Digital download
|-
! scope="row"| ''Angels & Demons''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E-u9uo0laA8|title= Joyner Lucas & Chris Brown - Stranger Things|publisher=YouTube|date=February 25, 2018|accessdate=February 28, 2018}}</ref> {{small|(with [[Chris Brown]])}}
|
* To be released: 2018
* Label: Atlantic
* Format: CD, Digital download
|}

===Singles===
====As lead artist====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of singles as lead artist, with showing year released and album name
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:20em;"| Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:1em;" | Year
! scope="col" colspan="4"| Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:10em;"| Album
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Billboard Hot 100|US]] <ref name="HOT100">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/joyner-lucas/chart-history/hot-100|title=Joyner Lucas – Chart History: Billboard Hot 100|work=Billboard|accessdate=March 13, 2018}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs#|US R&B/HH]] <ref name="HHR&B">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/joyner-lucas/chart-history/r-b-hip-hop-songs|title=Joyner Lucas – Chart History: Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles|work=Billboard|accessdate=March 24, 2018}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[ARIA Charts|AUS]] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.auspop.com.au/2018/3/aria-chart-watch-463/|title=ARIA Chart Watch #463|publisher=auspOp|date=March 10, 2018|accessdate=March 10, 2018}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Canadian Hot 100|CAN]] <ref name="CAN100">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/joyner-lucas/chart-history/canadian-hot-100|title=Joyner Lucas – Chart History: Canadian Hot 100|work=Billboard|accessdate=March 24, 2018}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| "F*ck Your Feelings"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/f-ck-your-feelings-single/id888714977|title=F*ck Your Feelings - Single by Joyner Lucas on Apple Music|publisher=[[iTunes]]|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref>
| rowspan="3"| 2014
| — || — || — || —
| rowspan="3" {{N/A|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Finally Home"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/finally-home-feat-trae-tha-truth-single/id890902887|title=Finally Home (feat. Trae the Truth) - Single by Joyner Lucas on Apple Music|publisher=iTunes|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref> (featuring [[Trae tha Truth]])
| — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "Intervention"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/intervention-single/id890900428|title=Intervention - Single by Joyner Lucas on Apple Music|publisher=iTunes|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref>
| — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "Ross Capicchioni"
| rowspan="2"| 2015
| — || — || — || —
| rowspan="2"| ''Along Came Joyner''
|-
! scope="row"| "Half Nigga"<ref name="Stashed"/>
| — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "I'm Sorry"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/im-sorry/id1141911062|title=I'm Sorry - Single by Joyner Lucas on Apple Music|publisher=iTunes|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref>
| rowspan="3"| 2016
| — || — || — || —
| ''[[508-507-2209]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "Happy Birthday"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/say-hello-to-adele-single/id1148385293|title=Happy Birthday - Single by Joyner Lucas on Apple Music|publisher=iTunes|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref>
| — || — || — || —
| rowspan="2" {{N/A|non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Say Hello to Adele"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/say-hello-to-adele-single/id1148385293|title=Say Hello to Adele - Single by Joyner Lucas on Apple Music|publisher=iTunes|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref>
| — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "Ultrasound"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotnewhiphop.com/joyner-lucas-ultrasound-new-song.1973518.html|title=Joyner Lucas - Ultrasound - Stream [New Song] - HotNewHipHop|publisher=[[HotNewHipHop]]|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref>
| rowspan="4"| 2017
| — || — || — || —
| rowspan="3"| ''[[508-507-2209]]''
|-
! scope="row" | "Just Like You"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotnewhiphop.com/joyner-lucas-just-like-you-video-new-video.41697.html|title=Joyner Lucas "Just Like You" Video [New Video] - HotNewHipHop|publisher=HotNewHipHop|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref>
| — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row" | "Winter Blues"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotnewhiphop.com/joyner-lucas-winter-blues-new-song.1974396.html|title=Joyner Lucas - Winter Blues - Stream [New Song] - HotNewHipHop|publisher=HotNewHipHop|accessdate=July 4, 2017}}</ref>
| — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row" | "I'm Not Racist"<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.worldstarhiphop.com/videos/video.php?v=wshhVd0BkiLqyBJ0GzV0|title=Powerful: Joyner Lucas - I'm Not Racist (Two Sides Of The Racial & Political Spectrum)|work=WORLDSTARHIPHOP|access-date=2017-11-28|language=en}}</ref>
| — || — || — || —
| {{N/A|non-album single}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Stranger Things"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/stranger-things-single/1352067244|title=Stranger Things - Single by Joyner Lucas & Chris Brown on Apple Music|publisher=iTunes|accessdate=February 27, 2018}}</ref> (with [[Chris Brown]])
| rowspan="3"| 2018
| 91 || 46 || 100 || 75
| ''Angels & Demons''
|-
! scope="row" | "Frozen"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/frozen-single/1366299795|title=Frozen - Single by Joyner Lucas on Apple Music|publisher=iTunes|accessdate=April 2, 2018}}</ref>
| — || — || — || —
| {{N/A|non-album single}}
|-
! scope="row"| "I Don't Die"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/i-dont-die/1378370860?i=1378371404|title=I Don't Die - Single by Joyner Lucas & Chris Brown on Apple Music|work=iTunes|accessdate=May 4, 2018}}</ref> (with [[Chris Brown]])
| —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"I Don't Die" did not enter the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]], but peaked at number eight on the [[Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles]] chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/joyner-lucas/chart-history/bubbling-under-hot-100|title=Joyner Lucas Chart History: Bubbling Under Hot 100|work=Billboard|accessdate=May 15, 2018}}</ref>}} || — || — || —
| ''Angels & Demons''
|}

'''Notes'''
{{notelist-ua}}

====As featured artist====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+
! scope="col" style="width:19em;" | Title
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Album
|-
! scope="row"| "Deserve"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/deserve-feat-joyner-lucas-single/id1161996014|title=Deserve (feat. Joyner Lucas) - Single by Kyle Bent on Apple Music|publisher=iTunes|accessdate=December 5, 2017}}</ref> ([[Kyle Bent]] featuring Joyner Lucas)
| rowspan="2"| 2016
| {{N/A|non-album single}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Sriracha"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/rap-music/new-music/2016/10/tech-n9ne-logic-joyner-lucas-siracha/|title=Tech N9ne, Logic and Joyner Lucas Take Turns Destroying New Song "Sriracha"|publisher=XXL|accessdate=July 12, 2017}}</ref> ([[Tech N9ne]] featuring [[Logic (musician)|Logic]] and Joyner Lucas)
| ''[[The Storm (Tech N9ne album)|The Storm]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "Lifestyle" ([[Kyle Bent]] featuring Joyner Lucas)
| 2017
| {{N/A|non-album single}}
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.joynerlucas.com/}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lucas, Joyner}}
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Musicians from Worcester, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:African-American male rappers]]
[[Category:21st-century American singers]]
[[Category:Atlantic Records artists]]
[[Category:Rappers from Massachusetts]]

Orange Volunteers

2011-07-30T14:41:30Z

Slatersteven: They are not the only terror group in ireland based arond faith

{{Infobox War Faction
|name=Orange Volunteers
|war= [[The Troubles]]
|image=[[Image:Orange Volunteers logo.png]]
|caption=Orange Volunteers logo. The motto translates as "[[Fortune favours the bold]]"
|active= July 1998 – present
|ideology=[[Ulster loyalism]], [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Protestant fundamentalism]], [[Anti-Catholicism]]
|leaders= [[Clifford Peeples]] (until 2001)
|clans=
|headquarters=
|area=[[Northern Ireland]]
|strength=unknown
|previous=
|next=
|allies=
|opponents=[[Irish republicanism|Irish republicans]], [[Irish nationalism|Irish nationalists]], [[Irish Catholic]]s
|battles=
}}

The '''Orange Volunteers''' ('''OV''') or '''Orange Volunteer Force''' ('''OVF''')<ref>[http://www.rte.ie/news/1999/0209/toomebridge.html?view=print?view=print "Loyalist paramilitaries admit to Toomebridge attack"]. ''[[RTÉ News]]''. 9 February 1999. Retrieved 9 March 2011.</ref> is an [[Ulster loyalism|Ulster loyalist]] and [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Protestant fundamentalist]] [[paramilitary]] group in [[Northern Ireland]].

==Origins==
The OV emerged during the 1998 [[Drumcree conflict]] when the [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]] and [[British Army]] prevented members of the [[Portadown]] [[Orange Institution|Orange Order]] and their supporters from returning to the town centre down the Garvaghy road. However there is evidence to suggest that they had been actively recruiting and training members since as early as 1985.<ref name="The Troubles' p. 141">''Northern Ireland - The Troubles'' by Charles Messenger (ISBN 0-86124-236-X), p. 141.</ref> The group is believed to be made up of dissident [[Ulster loyalism|loyalists]] who disapprove of the [[Northern Ireland peace process]] and also of the more militant members of the Orange Order,<ref name="The Troubles' p. 141"/> including former members of the [[Loyalist Volunteer Force]] and [[Ulster Defence Association]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Orange Volunteers | author = | url = http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/organ/oorgan.htm#ov | publisher = CAIN Web Service (Conflict Archive on the Internet)''}}</ref> [[David Ervine]], at the time a leading member of the [[Progressive Unionist Party]], described the group as little more than a gang of Protestant fundamentalists and drug-dealers.<ref name="cain99"/>

==Activities==
In 1998 and 1999, the Orange Volunteers were led by [[Clifford Peeples]], a Protestant [[pastor]] from Belfast. One of the group's first actions was a synchronized attack on 11 Catholic churches. Peeples defended the attack on the grounds that the churches were "bastions of the [[Antichrist]]".<ref>Bruce, Steve. [http://www.irish-association.org/papers/stevebruce11_oct03.asp ''Religion and violence: the case of Paisley and Ulster evangelicals''].</ref>

On 27 November 1998, eight masked OV members brandishing guns and grenades staged a "show of strength" for a local journalist. The gunmen began the meeting with a Bible reading and ended it with prayers. They produced a "covenant" that said: "We are defenders of the reformed faith. Our members are practising Protestant worshippers".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.independent.ie/national-news/biblequoting-terror-group-threatens-death-428311.html | work=[[Irish Independent]] | title=Bible-quoting terror group threatens death | date=28 November 1998}}</ref> They went on to state: "We are prepared to defend our people and if it comes to the crunch we will assassinate the enemies of Ulster. Ordinary Catholics have nothing to fear from us. But the true enemies will be targeted, and that's a lot wider than just [[Sinn Féin]] and the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]]". They vowed to target IRA prisoners released as part of the Belfast Agreement and claimed responsibility for a string of attacks on nationalist-owned businesses a month beforehand.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/northern_ireland/latest_news/223209.stm | work=BBC News | title=New loyalist group threatens peace | date=27 November 1998}}</ref>

==Timeline==
===1998===
*'''31 Oct 1998''': The OV claimed responsibility for a gun attack on a Catholic-owned pub on Colinglen Road, Belfast.<ref>http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Gun-toting+loyalists+'will+attack'+freed+republicans.-a060710666</ref>
*'''17 Dec 1998''': The OV claimed responsibility for a blast bomb attack on a pub on Ballyganniff Road near [[Crumlin, County Antrim|Crumlin]], County Antrim. It said it was an attempt to kill a senior IRA member.<ref>http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/chron/ch98.htm</ref><ref>http://www.rte.ie/news/1998/1217/blast.html?view=print</ref>
*'''17 Dec 1998''': The OV claimed responsibility for throwing a grenade and firing shots at the home of a known republican in [[Castledawson]], County Londonderry.<ref name="nelson319">[http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/hc1012/hc09/0947/0947.pdf ''The Rosemary Nelson Inquiry Report''] (23 May 2011), p.319</ref>
*'''Dec 1998''': The OV claimed responsibility for a gun and bomb attack on the home of a Catholic civilian in [[Knockloughrim|Knockcloghrim]], County Londonderry.<ref name="anphoblacht.com">http://www.anphoblacht.com/news/detail/31764</ref>

===1999===
*'''19 Jan 1999''': The OV claimed responsibility for a pipe bomb attack on a house in [[Loughinisland]], County Down. The man who lived there was wounded. The OV claimed that he was a "PIRA commander in South Down".<ref name="nelson319"/><ref name="cain99">http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/chron/ch99.htm</ref><ref name="Loyalist dissidents claim blast">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/301708.stm | work=BBC News | title=Loyalist dissidents claim blast | date=23 March 1999}}</ref>
*'''06 Jan 1999''': The OV claimed responsibility for a booby-trap bomb attack on builders working on a [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] (GAA) club in [[Magherafelt]], County Londonderry. A Catholic builder was injured.<ref name="anphoblacht.com"/>
*'''08 Feb 1999''': The OV claimed responsibility for a grenade attack on a Catholic-owned pub near [[Toome]], County Antrim.<ref name="cain99"/>
*'''09 Feb 1999''': The OV claimed responsibility for an attack on a Catholic-owned pub in [[Castledawson]], County Londonderry. It also claimed responsibility for planting a pipe bomb outside a pub in Crumlin.<ref name="cain99"/>
*'''01 Mar 1999''': A bomb was found on the windowsill of a Catholic-owned house in [[Coalisland]], County Tyrone. It is believed the OV were responsible.<ref>[http://www.patfinucanecentre.org/cases/rosemary/appendixg.html Loyalist Attacks from 1 January 1999 - 30 April 1999]. [[Pat Finucane Centre]]</ref>
*'''03 Mar 1999''': The United Kingdom designated the OV, along with the [[Red Hand Defenders]] (RHD), as terrorist organizations.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/northern_ireland/latest_news/290043.stm | work=BBC News | title=Loyalist paramilitary groups banned | date=4 March 1999}}</ref>
*'''23 Mar 1999''': The OV claimed responsibility for a booby-trap bomb attack at a scrapyard on Station Road, [[Castlewellan]], County Down. One man was injured.<ref name="cain99"/><ref name="Loyalist dissidents claim blast"/>
*'''24 Mar 1999''': The OV claimed responsibility for a grenade attack on the Derryhirk Inn near [[Aghagallon]], County Antrim.<ref name="cain99"/><ref name="ReferenceA">http://www.anphoblacht.com/news/detail/32143</ref>
*'''26 Mar 1999''': The OV were blamed for planting a pipe bomb outside the home of a Catholic family in [[Randalstown]], County Antrim.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
*'''10 Apr 1999''': The OV claimed responsibility for a pipe bomb attack on a pub near [[Templepatrick]], County Antrim. One man was injured.<ref name="cain99"/>
*'''25 Apr 1999''': The OV claimed responsibility for a grenade attack on a house in the Legoneil area of [[Belfast]].<ref name="cain99"/>
*'''28 Apr 1999''': The OV claimed responsibility for a pipe bomb attack on the Ramble Inn pub in County Antrim. Several cars were damaged.<ref name="cain99"/>
*'''Autumn 1999''': In a series of police raids aimed at dissident loyalists, eight arrests were made while weapons and ammunition were found during a search of [[Stoneyford, County Antrim|Stoneyford]] [[Orange Hall]] in County Antrim. Police also found military files containing the personal details of over 300 republicans from south Armagh and [[Belfast]].{{fact|date=December 2010}}

===2000===
*'''Jun 2000''': The OV threatened to kill GAA officials in the run-up to the Ulster [[Gaelic football]] championships.<ref name="sep00">[http://www.patfinucanecentre.org/archive/sattacks/sep00att.html Sectarian attacks: September 2000]. Pat Finucane Centre</ref>
*'''29 Aug 2000''': The OV claimed responsibility for burning-down Brennan's Bar in west Belfast.<ref name="heathwood00">[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/heathwood/static/2000.html Peter Heathwood Collection of television programs: 2000]. [[Conflict Archive on the Internet]] (CAIN).</ref>
*'''28 Sep 2000''': The OV declared that it had ceased all "military activity".<ref name="sep00"/>

===2001===
*'''06 Dec 2001''': The [[United States]] designated the OV and Red Hand Defenders (RHD) as "terrorist organizations".<ref>http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/chron/ch01.htm</ref>
*'''27 Dec 2001''': The OV declared that it would be ceasing "military operations" after 31 December 2001. It is understood the group decided to go on ceasefire after a plea by a senior clergyman.<ref>[http://www.patfinucanecentre.org/archive/sattacks/dec01batt.html Sectarian attacks: December 2001]. Pat Finucane Centre</ref>

===2002===
*'''02 Aug 2002''': Sinn Féin's [[Alex Maskey]], the new Lord Mayor of Belfast, was sent a bullet in the post. The death threat has been attributed to the OV. It arrived at City Hall in Belfast only hours before Maskey was to take part in a rally against sectarianism.<ref name="aug02">[http://www.patfinucanecentre.org/archive/sattacks/aug02att.html Sectarian attacks: August 2002]. Pat Finucane Centre</ref>

===2003===
*'''September 2003''': The OV were believed to have been responsible for a number of attacks on Catholic-owned houses and the Catholic church in [[Stoneyford]].<ref>[http://www.anphoblacht.com/news/detail/1510 "Family may leave the North after second sectarian attack"]. ''An Phoblacht''. 2 October 2003.</ref>

===2008===
*'''26 Sep 2008''': The OV were believed to have been behind an arson arrack on St Johns GAA club near Castlewellan, County Down. It is believed that the attack was revenge for attacks on Orange halls in the area.<ref>http://www.downgaa.net/downgaa/general/news/2008/september/sept26th1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.anphoblacht.com/news/detail/35560</ref><ref>http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/2008/0926/st_johns.html</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/7637304.stm | work=BBC News | title=Campbell condemns GAA fire attack | date=26 September 2008}}</ref>
*'''14 Nov 2008''': The OV claimed responsibility for an arson attack on [[Edendork St. Malachy's|Edendork GAA]] hall in County Tyrone. It claimed that it was revenge for attacks on Orange halls.<ref>{{cite web | title = Loyalists torch GAA club ‘in revenge for Orange hall fires’ | author = | url = http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/local-national/loyalists-torch-gaa-club-lsquoin-revenge-for-orange-hall-firesrsquo-14049935.html | publisher = Belfast Telegraph'' | date = 10 November 2008}}</ref>
*'''Nov 2008''': Sinn Féin claimed that the OV was responsible for planting a pipe bomb near the home of a Sinn Féin councillor in [[Cookstown]], County Tyrone.<ref>{{cite web | title = Loyalists ‘targeted’ Sinn Féin | author = | url = http://www.irishnews.com/articles/540/5860/2008/11/20/603415_364109661226Loyalists.html | publisher = Irish News'' | date = 20 November 2008}}</ref>
*'''02 Dec 2008''': Sinn Féin minister [[Conor Murphy]] claimed to have been told by the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]] of a recent attempt on his life by the OV in the [[Newry]] area.<ref>{{cite news | title = Minister told of loyalist threat | author = | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/7760975.stm | publisher = BBC News'' | date = 2 December 2008}}</ref>

===2009===
*'''9 Mar 2009''': The OV claimed responsibility for planting a pipe bomb at Sinn Féin's office on Burn Road in Cookstown, County Tyrone. It claimed that the attack was revenge for the [[2009 Massereene Barracks shooting|Massereene Barracks shooting]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Orange Volunteers claim Burn Road pipe bomb responsibility | author = | url = http://www.midulstermail.co.uk/news/39Orange-Volunteers-claim-Burn-Road.5058825.jp | publisher = Mid Ulster Mail'' | date = 11 March 2009}}</ref>
*'''10 Jul 2009''': The OV threatened further retaliation for attacks on Orange halls.<ref>{{cite web | title = Orange Volunteers' threat condemned | author = | url = http://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/Orange-Volunteers39-threat-condemned.5447457.jp | publisher = Newsletter'' | date = 10 July 2009}}</ref>
*'''18 Aug 2009''': After more attacks on Orange halls,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/8210435.stm | work=BBC News | title=Orange Hall attack third in month | date=19 August 2009 | accessdate=20 May 2010}}</ref> the OV claimed responsibility for attacks on Catholic and nationalist owned businesses in [[Garvagh]], [[Rasharkin]], [[Dunloy]] and [[Ballymoney]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Call for Orange Volunteers to end attacks | author = | url = http://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/Call-for-Orange-volunteers-to.5562566.jp | publisher = Newsletter'' | date = 18 August 2009}}</ref>
*'''26 Aug 2009''': The OV claimed responsibility for an attack on a house on Smith Street, [[Moneymore]], County Londonderry. It claimed the attack as retaliation for "republican attacks on Protestant property and churches" in the area.{{fact|date=December 2010}}

===2010===
*'''Jan 2010''': Sinn Féin MLAs [[Gerry Adams]], [[Alex Maskey]], [[Gerry Kelly]], [[Francie Molloy]] and [[Caitríona Ruane]] received death threats from the OV.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/breaking-news/uk-ireland/death-threat-to-sinn-feins-maskey-14634545.html }}</ref><ref>http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2010/0110/breaking28.html</ref>
*'''24 Mar 2010''': Sinn Féin councillor Cara McShane revealed that she had been sent a death threat from "a man with a very strong English accent" who said he represented the OV.<ref>http://www.ballymoneytimes.co.uk/news/Moyle-SF-Chair-receives-39death.6177518.jp</ref>
*'''22 July 2010''': Sinn Féin MLA Gerry Kelly revealed that he had been sent another death threat from the OV.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/breaking-news/uk-ireland/loyalist-death-threat-to-mla-kelly-14886107.html }}</ref>

===2011===
*'''May 2011''': Sinn Féin claimed a member of its party Mary McArdle received a death threat from the OV after she was appointed to the role of special adviser to [[Carál Ní Chuilín]], the then Minister for Culture, Arts and Leisure in the [[Northern Ireland Executive]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Sinn Fein: death threats won’t force a U-turn over killer’s job | author = McAdam, Noel | url = http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/local-national/northern-ireland/sinn-fein-death-threats-wonrsquot-force-a-uturn-over-killerrsquos-job-16004873.html | publisher = Belfast Teletraph'' | date = 27 May 2011}}</ref>

==Police crackdown==
In a series of police raids aimed at dissident loyalists in Autumn 1999, eight arrests were made, weapons, pipe bombs and ammunition were recovered and a search of [[Stoneyford, County Antrim|Stoneyford]] [[Orange Hall]] in County Antrim uncovered military files containing the personal details of over 300 [[Irish republicanism|republicans]] from South Armagh and [[Belfast]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Sinn Féin collusion claim
| author = | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/504900.stm | publisher = BBC News'' | date = 4 November 1999}}</ref> Peeples and another loyalist were arrested by the RUC after their car was stopped on the outskirts of [[Dungannon]] and two hand grenades and a pipe bomb were discovered. In 2001 he was jailed for ten years for possession of the weapons.<ref>{{cite news | title = Self-styled loyalist pastor jailed | author = | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/1209673.stm | publisher = BBC News'' | date = 8 March 2001}}</ref> He was released in 2004 and became the minister of a [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] church on the [[Shankill Road]] in Belfast.<ref>{{cite news | title = Church row splits congregation | author = | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4606519.stm | publisher = BBC News'' | date = 7 June 2005}}</ref> Four other members of the group were convicted of a range of terrorist offences, including possession of an automatic rifle, in December 2000.<ref>{{cite news | title = Students jailed on 'terrorism' charges
| author = | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/1082068.stm | publisher = BBC News'' | date = 21 December 2000}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Red Hand Defenders]]
*[[Real Ulster Freedom Fighters]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/northern_ireland/understanding/themes/loyalist_splinter.stm BBC: The Search for Peace 1]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/northern_ireland/understanding/parties_paramilitaries/orange_volunteers.stm BBC: The Search for Peace 2]
*[http://www.start.umd.edu/data/tops/terrorist_organization_profile.asp?id=79 National Consortium for Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism profile]
*[http://www.scottishloyalists.co.uk/paramilitaries/ovolunteers.htm Scottish Loyalists]

[[Category:Proscribed paramilitary organizations in Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Militant unionism]]
[[Category:Anti-Catholicism in Northern Ireland]]

[[no:Orange Volunteers]]
[[ru:Оранжевые волонтёры]]
[[zh:橙色志願者]]

Benutzer:Autokrator/Spielwiese

2010-07-18T19:28:01Z

Slatersteven: Undid revision 374179089 by 98.155.78.114 (talk)find a source

{{Infobox Military Conflict|
image=[[File:Knight-Iran.JPG|200px]]|
caption=Mounted Persian knight, [[Taq-e Bostan]], Iran.|
conflict=Muslim conquest of Persia|
partof=the [[Muslim conquest]]s|
date=633-644|
place=[[Mesopotamia]], [[Caucasus]], [[Persia]], and [[Bactria]]|
result=[[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] victory|
territory=[[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Sassanid Empire]] annexed by Muslims|
combatant1=[[Sassanid Empire]], [[Arab Christians]] [[Byzantine Empire]]|
combatant2=[[Rashidun Caliphate]]|
commander1=[[Yazdgerd III|Emperor Yazdegerd III]] † [[Rostam Farrokhzād]] † Mahbuzan Huzail ibn Imran Hormuz † Anushjan Andarzaghar † Bahman Pirouzan † 
Jaban †
 
Mihran †
 
Hormuzan
 
Mardan Shah †
 
Bahram
 
Isandir
 
Karinz ibn Karianz
 
Wahman Mardanshah
 
Jalinus†
 
[[Beerzan]]† |
commander2=[[Abu Bakr|Caliph Abu Bakr]] 
[[Khalid ibn Walid]]
 
Muthana ibn Haris †
 
[[Umar|Caliph Umar]]
 
Abu Ubaid †
 
[[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]]
 
Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya †
 
Hashim ibn Uthba
 
Qa’qa ibn Amr
 
[[Abu Musa Ashaari]]
 
[[Ammar ibn Yasir]]
 
[[Nouman ibn Muqarrin]] †
 
Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman
 
[[Mugheera ibn Shuba]]
 
Usman ibn Abi al-Aas
 
Asim ibn Amr
 
[[Ahnaf ibn Qais]]
 
[[Abdullah ibn Aamir]]|
strength1=|
strength2=|
casualties1=|
casualties2=|
}}
{{Campaignbox Muslim Conquest Persia}}
{{History of ICC}}
The '''Muslim conquest of Persia''' led to the end of the [[Sassanid Empire]] in 644, the [[fall of Sassanid dynasty]] in 651 and the eventual decline of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion in [[Persia]]. [[Arabs]] first entered Sassanid territory in 633, when general [[Khalid ibn Walid]] invaded what is now [[Iraq]]. Following the transfer of Khalid to the Roman front in the [[Levant]], the Muslims eventually lost their holdings to Persian counterattacks. The second invasion began in 636 under [[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]], when a key victory at the [[Battle of Qadisiyyah]] led to the permanent end of Sassanid control west of Persia. The [[Zagros mountains]] then became a natural barrier and border between the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] and the Sassanid Empire. Owing to continuous raids by Persians into the area, [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] ordered a full invasion of the Sassanid Persian empire in 642, which was completed with the complete conquest of the Sassanids by mid 644. The quick conquest of Persia in a series of well coordinated multi-pronged attacks, directed by Caliph Umar from [[Medina]] several thousand miles from the battlefields in Persia, became his greatest triumph, contributing to his reputation as a great military and political strategist.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 1 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref>

Iranian historians have propounded the idea that Persia, on the verge of the Arab invasion, was a society in decline and decay and that it consequently embraced the invading Arab armies with open arms. This is understandable since constant warfare against the Byzantines had bankrupted and torn the land apart. However, some other authors have, for example, used exclusively Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of some historians, Iranians, in fact, fought long and hard against the invading Arabs," thereby indicating Persian disdain for Arab culture and influence.<ref>Milani A. ''Lost Wisdom''. 2004 ISBN 0934211906 p.15</ref> This view furthermore holds that, once politically conquered, the Persians began to resist the Arabs culturally and maintained Persian, as opposed to Arab, culture. Regardless, Islam was embraced by many and became the dominant religion.<ref>Mohammad Mohammadi Malayeri, ''Tarikh-i Farhang-i Iran'' (Iran's Cultural History). 4 volumes. Tehran. 1982.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=ʻAbd al-Ḥusayn Zarrīnʹkūb|authorlink=Abdolhossein Zarinkoob|title=Dū qarn-i sukūt : sarguz̲asht-i ḥavādis̲ va awz̤āʻ-i tārīkhī dar dū qarn-i avval-i Islām (Two Centuries of Silence)|location=Tihrān|publisher=Sukhan|year=1379 (2000)|id={{OCLC|46632917}}, {{Listed Invalid ISBN|964-5983-33-6}} }}</ref>

==Sassanid Empire Before the Conquest==
Since the 1st century BC, the border between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] (later [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]) and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] (later [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]]) empires had been the [[Euphrates]] river. The border was constantly contested. Most battles, and thus most fortifications, were concentrated in the hilly regions of the north, as the vast Arabian or [[Syrian Desert]] (Roman Arabia) separated the rival empires in the south. The only dangers expected from the south were occasional raids by nomadic [[Arab]] tribesmen. Both empires therefore allied themselves with small, semi-independent Arab principalities, which served as buffer states and protected Byzantium and Persia from [[Bedouin]] attacks. The Byzantine clients were the [[Ghassanid]]s; the Persian clients were the [[Lakhmid]]s. The Ghassanids and Lakhmids feuded constantly — which kept them occupied, but that did not greatly affect the Byzantines or the Persians. In the 6th and 7th centuries, various factors destroyed the balance of power that had held for so many centuries.

===Revolt of the Arab Client States (602)===
[[Image:Sassanid Music Plate 7thcentury.jpg|thumb|Ancient Iranians attached great importance to music and poetry, as they still do today. This 7th century plate depicts [[Sassanid]] era musicians.]]
The Byzantine clients, the Arab [[Ghassanids]], converted to the [[Monophysite]] form of [[Christianity]], which was regarded as [[Heresy|heretical]] by the established Byzantine [[Orthodox Church]]. The Byzantines attempted to suppress the heresy, alienating the Ghassanids and sparking rebellions on their desert frontiers. The [[Lakhmids]] also revolted against the Persian king Khusrau II. [[Na'aman|Nu'man III]] (son of Al-Monder IV), the first Christian Lakhmid king, was deposed and killed by [[Khusrau II]] in 602, because of his attempt to throw off the Persian tutelage. After Khusrau's assassination, the Persian Empire fractured and the [[Lakhmids]] were effectively semi-independent. It is now widely believed that annexation of Lakhmid kingdom was one of the main factors behind the [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty]] to the Muslim Arabs and the Islamic conquest of Persia, as the [[Lakhmid]]s agreed to act as spies for the [[Muslims]] after being defeated in the [[Battle of Hira]] by [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]].<ref>Iraq After the Muslim Conquest By [[Michael G. Morony]], pg. 233</ref>

===Byzantine–Sassanid War (612 - 629)===
{{Main|Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628|Byzantine–Sassanid Wars}}
{{seealso|Fall of Sassanid dynasty}}

The Persian ruler [[Khosrau II|Khosrau II (Parviz)]] defeated a dangerous rebellion within his own empire, the [[Bahram Chobin]]'s rebellion. He afterward turned his energies towards his traditional Byzantine enemies, leading to the [[Roman-Persian Wars]]. For a few years, he succeeded gloriously. From 612 to 622, he extended the Persian borders almost to the same extent that they were under the [[Achaemenids|Achaemenid dynasty]] (550–330 BC), capturing Western states as far as [[Egypt]], the [[Holy Land]], and more.

The Byzantines regrouped and pushed back in 622 under [[Heraclius]]. Khosrau was defeated at the [[Battle of Nineveh]] in 627, and the Byzantines recaptured all of [[Syria]] and penetrated far into the Persian provinces of [[Mesopotamia]]. In 629, Khosrau's son agreed to peace, and the border between the two empires was once again the same as it was in 602.

====Assassination of Khosrau II====
[[Image:Cherub plaque Louvre MRR245 n2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sassanid King [[Khosrau II]] submitting to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, from a plaque on a 12th century French cross.]]
Khosrau II was assassinated in 628 and as a result, there were numerous claimants to the throne; from 628 to 632 there were ten kings and queens of Persia. The last, [[Yazdegerd III of Persia|Yazdegerd III]], was a grandson of Khosrau II and was said to be a mere child. However, no date of birth is known.

===During Muhammad's life===
After the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] in 628, [[Muhammad]] sent many letters to the princes, kings and chiefs of the various tribes and kingdoms of the time inviting them to convert to Islam. These letters were carried by ambassadors to [[Persia]], [[Byzantium]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Egypt]], [[Yemen]], and [[Hira (disambiguation)|Hira]] (Iraq) on the same day.<ref name="seventhyear">{{cite web | url=http://www.al-islam.org/message/43.htm | title=The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration | publisher=[[Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project]] | accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref> This assertion has been cast into scrutiny by some modern historians of Islam—notably Grimme and Caetani.<ref>Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 4, p. 74</ref> Particularly in dispute is the assertion that Khosrau II received a letter from Muhammad, as the Sassanid court ceremony was notoriously intricate, and it is unlikely that a letter from what at the time was a minor regional power would have reached the hands of the Shahanshah.<ref>Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 2, chapter 1, paragraph 45-46</ref>

With regards to Persia, Muslim histories further recount that at the beginning of the seventh year of migration, Muhammad appointed one of his officers, Abdullah Huzafah Sahmi Qarashi, to carry his letter to [[Khosrau II]] inviting him to Islam:

<blockquote>''"In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful.

From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to the great Kisra of Iran. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in God and in His Prophet and testifies that there is no god but God and that He has no partner, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of God, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe. And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi."''<ref>''Tabaqat-i Kubra, vol. I, page 360; Tarikh-i Tabari, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; Tarikh-i Kamil, vol. II, page 81 and Biharul Anwar, vol. XX, page 389''</ref></blockquote>

There are differing accounts of the reaction of [[Khosrau II]]. Nearly all assert that he destroyed the letter in anger; the variations concentrate on the extent and detail of his response.

==Rise of the Caliphate==
Muhammad died in June 632, and [[Abu Bakr]] was appointed [[Caliph]] and political successor at [[Medina]]. Soon after [[Abu Bakr]]'s succession, several Arab tribes revolted, in the [[Ridda Wars]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] for the Wars of Apostasy). The Ridda Wars preoccupied the [[Caliphate]] until March 633, and ended with the entirety of the Arab Peninsula under the authority of the Caliph at Medina.

Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]]{{Citation needed|February|date=February 2010}}, beginning with a confrontation with the Sassanid Empire under the general [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]].

==First conquest of Mesopotamia (633)==
[[File:Mohammad adil-Khalid's conquest of Iraq.PNG|thumb|right|240px|Map detailing the route of [[Khalid ibn Walid]]'s conquest of Mesopotamia.]]

After the [[Ridda Wars]], a tribal chief of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, raided the Persian towns in [[Mesopotamia]] (what is now [[Iraq]]). With the success of the raids, a considerable amount of booty was collected. Misnah ibn Haris went to Medina to inform Caliph Abu Bakr about his success and was appointed commander of his people, after which he began to raid deeper into Mesopotamia. Using the mobility of his [[light cavalry]] he could easily raid any town near the [[desert]] and disappear again into the desert, into which the [[Sassanid army]] was unable to chase them. Misnah’s acts made Abu Bakr think about the expansion of the [[Rashidun Empire]].<ref name="Tabari">Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 554.</ref>

To be certain of victory, Abu Bakr made two decisions concerning the attack on Persia: first, the invading army would consist entirely of volunteers; and second, to put in command of the army his best general: Khalid ibn al-Walid. After defeating the self-proclaimed prophet Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama, Khalid was still at [[Al-Yamama]] when Abu Bakr sent him orders to invade the Sassanid Empire. Making [[Al-Hirah]] the objective of Khalid, Abu Bakr sent reinforcements and ordered the tribal chiefs of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, Mazhur bin Adi, Harmala and Sulma to operate under the command of Khalid along with their men. Around the third week of March 633 (first week of [[Muharram]] 12th Hijrah) Khalid set out from Al-Yamama with an army of 10,000.<ref name="Tabari"/> The tribal chiefs, with 2,000 warriors each, joined Khalid; so Khalid entered the Persian Empire with 18,000 troops.

After entering Mesopotamia with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the [[Battle of Chains]], fought in April 633; the [[Battle of River]], fought in the 3rd week of April 633 A.D; the [[Battle of Walaja]], fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a [[Pincer movement|double envelopment]] manoeuvre), and the [[Battle of Ullais]], fought in the mid of May, 633 A.D. By now the Persian court, already disturbed by internal problems, was down and out. In the last week of May 633, the important city of [[Hira]] fell to the Muslims after their victory in the [[Battle of Hira|Siege of Hira]]. After resting his armies, in June 633 Khalid laid siege to the city of [[Al Anbar]], which resisted and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633 after the [[Battle of Al-Anbar|Siege of Al-Anbar]]. Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr after the [[Battle of ein-ul-tamr|Battle of Ein ut Tamr]] in the last week of July, 633. At this point, most of what is now Iraq was under Islamic control.

Khalid got a call of help from northern Arabia at Daumat-ul-Jandal, where another Muslim Arab general, Ayaz bin Ghanam, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid went to Daumat-ul-jandal and defeated the rebels in the [[Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal]] in the last week of August, 633. Returning from Arabia, he got news of the assembling of a large Persian army. He decided to defeat them all separately to avoid the risk of being defeated by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and [[Christian]] Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh. Khalid devised a brilliant plan to destroy the Persian forces. He divided his army in three units, and attacked the Persian forces in well coordinated attacks from three different sides at night, starting from the [[Battle of Muzieh]], then the [[Battle of Sanni]], and finally the [[Battle of Zumail]] during November 633. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Mesopotamia, and left the Persian capital [[Ctesiphon]] unguarded and vulnerable to Muslim attack. Before attacking the Persian capital, Khalid decided to eliminate all Persian forces in the south and west. He accordingly marched against the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the [[Sassanid army|Sassanid Persians]], the [[Byzantine army|Byzantine]] [[Roman army|Romans]] and Christian Arabs in the [[Battle of Firaz]] in December 633. This was the last battle in his conquest of Mesopotamia. While Khalid was on his way to attack Qadissiyah (a key fort in the way to the Persian capital Ctesiphon), he received a letter from Caliph Abu Bakr and was sent to the Roman front in Syria to assume the command of the Muslim armies to conquer Roman Syria.<ref>Akram, chapters 19-26.</ref>

==Second invasion of Mesopotamia (636)==
{{Main|Battle of Qadisiyyah}}
According to the will of Abu Bakr, Umar was to continue the conquest of Syria and Mesopotamia. On the northeastern borders of the Empire, in Mesopotamia, the situation was deteriorating day by day. During [[Abu Bakr]]’s era, [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] had been sent to the Syrian front to command the Islamic armies there. As soon as Khalid had left Mesopotamia with half his army of 9000 soldiers, the Persians decided to take back their lost territory. The Muslim army was forced to leave the conquered areas and concentrate on the border areas. Umar immediately sent reinforcements to aid Misna ibn Haris in Mesopotamia under the command of Abu Ubaid al Saqafi.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The Persian forces defeated Abu Ubaid in the [[Battle of Bridge]]. However, later Persian forces were defeated by Misnah bin harisah in the [[Battle of Baiyoub]]. In 635 [[Yazdgerd III]] sought alliance with Emperor [[Heraclius]] of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. Heraclius married his daughter (''according to traditions, his grand daughter'') to Yazdegerd III, an old Roman tradition to show alliance. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd, meanwhile, ordered the concentration of massive armies to pull back the Muslims from Mesopotamia for good. The goal was well coordinated attacks by both emperors, Heraclius in the Levant and Yazdegerd in Mesopotamia, to annihilate the power of their common enemy Caliph Umar. Fate, however, had decided otherwise.<ref name="ReferenceB">Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, By Kaveh Farrokh, Published by Osprey Publishing, 2007 ISBN 1846031087</ref>

===Battle of Qadisiyyah===
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{{Main|Battle of Qadisiyyah}}
[[File:Mohammad adil rais-battlefield of qadisiyyah.PNG|thumb|right|290px|The site of the Battle of Qadisiyyah, showing Muslim army (in red) and Sassanid army (in blue).]]
Umar ordered his army to retreat to the bordering areas of Mesopotamia near the Arabian desert and started raising armies for the Persian campaign. Mesopotamia was to be conquered once again, from the beginning. Armies were concentrated near [[Madinah]] and owing to the critical situation Umar decided to command the army in person. The idea was discouraged by the members of [[Majlis al Shura]] at [[Madinah]]. The Muslims were engaged on both fronts and Umar's presence in Madinah was necessary, as it was the only way he could handle the critical situation. Umar appointed [[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]] as commander for the campaign in Mesopotamia who left Medina with his army in May 636 and camped at [[Qadisiyyah]] in June.
While Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owing to exhausted conditions of his government, could not coordinate with Heraclius in that offensive and an expected decisive plan missed the mark. Umar, having alleged intelligence of this alliance, devised his own plan. As battle was imminent with the Byzantines in Syria, Umar did not want to risk a decisive battle with two great powers simultaneously; in the case of defeat on either front the Muslim empire (which had already employed all of its available manpower), might be paralyzed for this crucial moment of history. He wanted to finish the Byzantines first, and thus reinforced the Muslim army at [[Yarmouk]], sending 6000 soldiers as reinforcements in small bands. This was done to give the impression of a continuous stream of reinforcement. Meanwhile, Umar engaged [[Yazdegerd III]] using deception tactics, ordering Saad to enter into peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III and invite him to [[Islam]]. Heraclius had instructed his general [[Vahan]] not to engage in battle with the Muslims until he received the orders. However, fearing more reinforcements for Muslims from [[Madinah]], the Byzantines were left with no choice but to attack the Muslim forces before they became stronger. Heraclius's imperial army was annihilated at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in August 636 (three months before Qadisiyyah), ending the power of the Roman Emperor for good. Nevertheless, Yazdegerd III continued to execute his offensive plan and concentrated armies near his capital [[Ctesiphon]].<ref> Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:67</ref>.
With situations at ease on the Syrian front, Umar's instruction negotiations were halted as an open signal to Persians for battle. Saad defeated the powerful Persian army in the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] fought in 636. The battle proved to be a key to Mesopotamia. It marked the end of Sassanid rule west of Persia proper.<ref> The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 5 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref> The battle is regarded as one of the most decisive battle of Islamic and world history. The battle also achieved the death of the famed Persian general [[Rostam Farrokhzād]]. Saad later conquered [[Babylon]], Koosie, Bahrahsher and Madein, and the capital city of Sassanid Empire [[Siege of Ctesiphon 637|Ctesiphon fell]] in March 637 after a siege of three months.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
[[Iran]]ian historian ''Kaveh Farrokh'', in his book ''Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War'', describes the event of fall of Ctesiphon as:

{{Cquote| The local inhabitants made a desperate last stand at Veh Ardashir against the Arabs who finally broke into all of Ctesiphon in 637. For the first time the Arabs witnessed the riches, luxuries, arts, architecture and sophistication of one of the world’s greatest empires. Looting reached epic proportions. One fifth of the looted goods were sent from Ctesiphon to [[Umar|Caliph Omar]] at [[Medina]]. So great was the haul of booty that every [[Arab]] soldier was able to appropriate 12000 [[Dirham]]s worth of goods roughly the equivalent of 250,000 [[US Dollar]]s at the time of writing. Nearly 40,000 captured Sassanid noblemen were taken to Arabia and sold as [[slave]]s .<ref> Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War By Kaveh Farrokh Edition: illustrated Published by Osprey Publishing, 2007 Page 270 ISBN 1846031087, 9781846031083</ref>}}

==Conquest of Mesopotamia (636 - 638)==
[[Image:Ctesiphon, Iraq (2117465493).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Remains of [[Taq-i Kisra]] in [[Ctesiphon]], the palace of the [[Sassanid dynasty]]]]
After the conquest of [[Ctesiphon]], several detachments were immediately sent west to capture Qarqeesia and [[Heet]] the forts at the border of the Byzantine Empire. Several fortified Persian armies were still active north-east of Ctesiphon at Jalula and north of the [[Tigris]] at [[Tikrit]] and [[Mosul]].

After withdrawal from Ctesiphon, the Persian armies gathered at Jalaula north-east of Ctesiphon. Jalaula was a place of strategic importance because from here routes led to Mesopotamia, Khurasan and [[Azerbaijan]]. The Persian forces at Jalula were commanded by General Mihran. His deputy was General Khurrazad, a brother of General Rustam, who had commanded the Persian forces at the [[Battle of al-Qadisiyyah]]. As instructed by the Caliph Umar, Saad reported everything to Umar. The Caliph decided to deal with Jalula first. His plan was first to clear the way to the north before taking any decisive action against Tikrit and Mosul. Umar appointed Hashim ibn Uthba to the expedition of Jalula and Abdullah ibn Mutaam to conquer [[Tikrit]] and [[Mosul]]. In April 637, Hashim led 12,000 troops from Ctesiphon to win a victory over the Persians at the [[Battle of Jalula]]. He then laid siege to Jalula for seven months. After seizing a victory at Jalula, Abdullah ibn Mutaam marched against Tikrit and captured the city after fierce resistance and with the help of [[Christians]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} He next sent an army to [[Mosul]] which surrendered on the terms of [[Jizya]]. With victory at Jalula and occupation of the Tikrit-Mosul region, Muslim rule in Mesopotamia was established.

After the conquest of Jalula, a Muslim force under Qa'qa marched in pursuit of the Persians. The Persian army that escaped from Jalaula took its position at Khaniqeen fifteen miles from Jalula on the road to Iran, under the command of General Mihran. Qa’qa defeated the Persian forces in the Battle of Khaniqeen and captured the city of Khaniqeen. The Persians withdrew to [[Hulwan, Iran|Hulwan]]. Qaqa moved to Hulwan and laid siege to the city which was captured in January 638.<ref> The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 6 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref> Qa’qa sought permission for operating deeper into Persian land, i.e. main land Iran, but Caliph Umar didn’t approve the proposal and wrote a historic letter to Saad saying:
{{cquote|''"I wish that between the Suwad and the Persian hills there were walls which would prevent them from getting to us, and prevent us from getting to them.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:5 page no:130</ref> The fertile Suwad is sufficient for us; and I prefer the safety of the Muslims to the spoils of war."''}}

===Raids of Persians in Mesopotamia (638 - 641)===
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[[Image:Sphinx Darius Louvre.jpg|thumb|200px|Winged [[sphinx]] from the palace of [[Darius the Great]] at [[Susa]], captured by [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] general [[Abu Musa Ashaari|Abu Musa]] in 641.]]
By February 638 there was a lull in fighting on the Persian front. The Suwad, the [[Tigris]] valley, and the [[Euphrates]] valley were now under the complete control of the Muslims. The Persians had withdrawn to [[Iran|Persia proper]], east of [[Zagros mountains]]. Persians continued raiding Mesopotamia, which remained politically unstable. Nevertheless it appeared as if this was going to be the dividing line between the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] and the Sassanids. In later part of the year 638 [[Hormuzan]], who commanded one of the Persian corps at the [[Battle of Qadisiyyah]] and was one of the seven great chiefs of Persia, intensified his raids in Mesopotamia, Saad according to Umar’s instructions took offensive against Hormuzan and Utbah ibn Ghazwan aided by Nouman ibn Muqarin attacked [[Ahwaz]] and forced Hormuzan to enter into a peace treaty with the Muslims according to which Ahwaz will remain Hormuzan’s estate and he will rule it as a vassal of the Muslims and will pay tritube.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Hormuzan broke the treaty and revolted against the Muslims, Umar sent [[Abu Musa Ashaari]], governor of [[Busra]] to deal with Hormuzan. Hormuzan was defeated and sought once again for peace, Umar accepted the offer and Hormuzan was again made vassal of the Muslims. This peace also proved short termed and once Hormuzan was reinforced by the fresh Persian troops sent by Emperor [[Yazdgerd III]] in late 640. The troops concentrated at Tuster north of Ahwaz, Umar sent Governor of [[Kufa]], [[Ammar ibn Yasir]], governor of [[Busra]] Abu Musa, and Nouman ibn Muqarin towards Tustar where Hormuzan was defeated, captured and sent to Madinah to Caliph Umar, where he apparently converted to Islam. He remained a useful adviser of Umar through out the campaign of conquest of Persia. He is also considered to be master mind behind the assassination of Caliph Umar in 644. After victory at [[Tustar]], Abu Musa marched against [[Susa]], a place of military importance, in January 641, which was captured after a siege of couple of months. Next [[Abu Musa Ashaari|Abu Musa]] marched against Junde Sabur, the only place left of military importance in the Persian province of [[Khuzistan]] which surrender to the Muslims after the siege of few weeks.<ref> The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 7 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref>

==Battle of Nihawand (641)==
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{{Main|Battle of Nahavand}}
[[File:Sassanid army helmet by Nickmard Khoey.jpg|thumb|<center>A Sassanid army helmet<center>]]
After the conquest of Khuzistan, the Caliph Umar wanted peace. They wanted to leave rest of Persia to the Persians. Umar said:
{{cquote|"''I wish there were a mountain of fire between us and the Persians, so that neither could they get to us, nor we to them.<ref name="ReferenceC">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 8 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>''"}}
But the Persians thought differently. The pride of the imperial Persians had been hurt by the conquest of their land by the Arabs. They could not acquiesce in the occupation of their lands by the Arabs.<ref>Dictionary of Islamic Architecture By Anderew Petersen pg.120</ref>

After defeat of Persian forces at the [[Battle of Jalula]] in 637, Emperor Yazdgerd III went to [[Rayy]] and from there moved to [[Merv]] where he set up his capital. From Merv, he directed his chiefs to conduct continuous raids in Mesopotamia to destabilize the Muslim rule. Within the next four years, Yazdgerd III felt powerful enough to challenge the Muslims once again for the throne of Mesopotamia. The Emperor sent a call to his people to drive away the Muslims from their lands. In response to the call, hardened veterans and young volunteers from all parts of Persia marched in large numbers to join the imperial standard and marched to [[Nihawand]] for the last titanic struggle for the between the forces of Caliphate and Sassanid Persia. 60,000 fighters assembled, commanded by Mardan Shah.

Governor of [[Kufa]], [[Ammar ibn Yasir]], received intelligence of the Persian movements and concentration at Nihawand. He reported the matter to Umar. Although Umar had expressed a desire for Mesopotamia to be his eastern most frontier, he felt compelled to act given the concentration of Persian army at Nihawand.<ref>Rome's Enemies 3: Parthians and Sassanids By Peter Wilcox, pg 4</ref> He believed that so long as Persia proper remained under Sassanid rule, Persian forces would continue raiding Mesopotamia with a view to one day re-capture the region. Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman was appointed commander of the forces of Kufa, and was ordered to march to Nihawand. Governor of Busra Abu Musa, was to march to Nihawand commanding his forces of [[Busra]] [[Nouman ibn Muqarrin]] marched from Ctesiphon to Nihawand while Umar decided to lead the army concentrated at [[Madinah]] in person and command the Muslims at the battle. Umar’s decision of commanding the army in person was not popularly accepted by the members of [[Majlis al Shura]] at Madinah. It was suggested that Umar should command the campaign from Madinah, and should appoint an astute military commander to lead the Muslims at Nihawand. Umar appointed [[Mugheera ibn Shuba]], commander of the forces concentrated at Madinah and appointed Nouman ibn Muqarrin as commander in chief of the Muslims at Nihawand. The Muslim army left for Nihawand and first concentrated at Tazar, and then moved to Nihawand and defeated the Persian forces at the [[Battle of Nihawand]] in December 641. Nouman died in action, and as per Umar’s instructions Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman became new commander in chief. After the victory at Nihawand, the Muslim army captured the whole district of [[Hamadan]] after feeble resistance by Persians.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

==Conquest of Persia (642 - 644)==

After years of no fighting Umar now adopted a new offensive policy.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:18 page no:130</ref> The wholescale invasion of the Sassanid Empire was to begin. The [[Battle of Nihawand]] was one of the most decisive battles in Islamic history and certainly the most decisive battle in the history of Persia. More decisive than [[Alexander the great|Alexander]]’s fatal blow at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]], because after Gaugamela the Persians recovered within a few centuries and built another Persian empire, but after Umar's blow to the Persians at Nihawind, the Persians would never raise another empire.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The battle proved to be the key to Persia. After the devastating defeat at Nihawand, the last Sassanid emperor, Yazdgerd III, a man with iron nerves, was never able again to raise more troops to resist the mighty onslaught of Umar. It had now became a war between two rulers. Umar would follow Yazdgerd III to every corner of his empire in order to kill or capture him, like he did with [[Hormuzan]]. Yazdgerd III had a narrow escape at [[Marv]] when Umar’s lieutenant was about to capture him. He saved his life by fleeing to [[China]], far enough from the reach of Umar. In this way the 400 years old Sassanid dynasty ultimately ended.<ref>Iranian History and Politics: The Dialectic of State and Society By Homa Katouzian, pg. 25</ref> The conquest of the Sassanid Empire was the greatest triumph of Umar, because he commanded the operations 1000 kilometers away from the battlefields and it marked his reputation as one of the greatest military and political genius of all time, like his late cousin [[Khalid ibn Walid]] (590 – 642) had proven to be.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Strategic planning for the conquest of Persia===

Umar decided to strike the Persians immediately after their defeat at Nihawand now that he had gained a psychological advantage over them. The main strategic problem for Umar was from where to start the offensive. There were three alternatives: [[Fars Province|Fars]] in the south, [[Azerbaijan]] in the north or [[Isfahan]] in the center. Umar chose Isfahan to be the first target. His strategy was to strike the heart of the Persian Empire. This would cut off the supply lines and communication lines of the Sassanid garrisons from the rest of the Persian provinces. In order words, an attack on Isfahan would isolate Fars and Azerbaijan from Khurasan. After having captured the heart land of Persia, that is [[Fars Province|Fars]] and [[Isfahan]], the next attacks would be simultaneously launched against [[Azerbaijan]], the North Western province, and [[Sistan]], the most Eastern province of the Persian Empire.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The conquest of these provinces would leave [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]], the stronghold of [[Yazdegerd III|Emperor Yazdegerd III]], isolated and vulnerable.

In the last phase of this grand campaign Khurasan was to be attacked. This would be the last nail in the coffin of the Sassanid dynasty. The plan was formulated and preparations were completed by January 642. The success of plan depended upon how brilliantly Umar would be able to coordinate these attacks from Madinah, about 1000 miles from the battlefields in Persia and upon the skills and abilities of his field commanders. Umar appointed his best field commanders to conquer the Sassanid Empire and bring down his most formidable foe [[Yazdegerd III|Emperor Yazdegerd III]]. The campaign saw a different pattern in command structure. Umar did not appoint a single field commander to campaign across the Persian lands. He rather appointed several commanders each with their own objectives, and once the mission was over he would act as an ordinary subordinate under the new field commander for the next mission. This was done by Umar to prevent any of his commanders to gain prominence and power that could in the future threaten his own authority.

In 638 he feared Khalid’s growing power and popularity and dismissed him from military services when he was at the zenith of his military career. At the time of his dismissal Khalid was more than able to rebel against Umar but he never rebelled and made a soft corner in Umar’s heart. In 642 at the eve of the conquest of Persia, Umar, wanting to give a moral boost to his troops, decided to reinstall Khalid as new field commander against Persia.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Already well reputed as an invincible military commander and conqueror of the Eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, Khalid’s presence in Persia would strike terror in the Persian commanders, most of whom had already faced Khalid in 633 during his lightning conquest of Mesopotamia.

Umar wanted a sure victory in the early campaigns, which would increase the confidence of his troops and meanwhile demoralize the Persians. Unfortunately before Umar could issue orders of reappointment, Khalid, residing in [[Emesa]], died. In various campaigns in Persia, Umar even appointed the commanders of the wings, the center and the [[cavalry]] of the army. Umar strictly instructed his commanders to consult him before making any decisive move in Persia. All the commanders, before starting their assigned campaigns were instructed to send a detailed report of the geography and terrain of the region and the position of the Persian [[garrison]]s, [[fort]]s, cities and troops in it. Umar then would send them a detailed plan of how he wanted this region to be captured. Only the tactical issues were left to the field commanders to be tackled in accordance with the situation they faced at their fronts.<ref>The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires, Translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, ISBN 0791408523,</ref> Umar appointed the best available and well reputed commanders for the campaign.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref><ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref>

===Conquest of Central Persia (Isfahan & Tabaristan)===
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[[Image:Choghazanbil2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ziggurat of [[Choqa Zanbil]] in Khuzestan.]]
The preparation and planning of conquest of Persian Empire was completed by early 642. Umar appointed [[Abdullah ibn Uthban]], commander of the Muslim forces to invade [[Isfahan]]. From Nihawand Abdullah marched to [[Hamadan]], which was already in Muslim hand. From Hamadan, Abdullah marched to North East to [[Rayy]], about 200 miles from Hamadan and laid siege to the city which surrendered after fierce resistance. Once Rayy was captured Abdullah marched 230 miles south east against [[Isfahan]] city and laid siege to it, here the Muslim army was reinforced by the fresh troops from Busra and Kufa under the command of [[Abu Musa Ashaari]] and [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:11 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The siege continued for few months and finally city surrendered. From Isfahan Abdullah again marched 150 miles north-east towards [[Qom]], which was captured with out much resistance. This was the outer most boundary of [[Isfahan]] region. Further north east of it laid [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]], and south east of it lay [[Sistan]]. Meanwhile Hamadan and Rayy had rebelled, Umar sent [[Naiem ibn Muqarrin]], brother of late [[Nauman ibn Muqarrin]], who was Muslim commander at Nihawand, to crush the rebellion and clear the western most boundaries of Isfahan. Naiem marched towards Hamadan from Isfahan, a bloody battle was fought and Hamadan was recaptured by the Muslims, Naiem next moved to Rayy, here too Persians resisted and were defeated out side the fort, and city was recaptured by Muslims.<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993">The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires, Translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, ISBN 0791408523</ref> Persian citizen sought for peace and agreed to pay [[Jizya]]. From Rayy, Naiem moved north towards [[Tabaristan]], which laied south of [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993"/> The ruler of Tabaristan surrendered and a peace treaty was signed according to which he will govern Tabaristan on behalf of Caliph and will pay annual Jizya. This was all done in April 642. Naiem’s brother advanced further north and captured Qumas, Jarjan and [[Amol]]. He too signed a peace treaty with locals according to which they will accept the Muslim rule over area and will pay Jizya. With this campaign that ended some time 643, the Muslims were master of [[Tabaristan]]. Further North West of the region laid [[Azerbaijan]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:11 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Southern Persia (Fars)===
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With [[Isfahan]] firmly in Muslim hand, conquest of [[Fars Province|Fars]] begun about the same time when conquest of [[Tabaristan]] was started. The first army that will penetrate Fars, was under the command of [[Maja’a ibn Masood]], his objective was [[Sabur]]. Maja’a marched from [[Busra]] to [[Tawwaj]], where Persian forces halt his way and were defeated in a quick battle thus fought. From Tawwaj Maja’a moved to Sabur, which was a fortified town.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:12 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The siege continued for few weeks after which city surrendered and usual terms of Jizya were enforced on it. With the conquest of Sabur Maja’a ibn Masood’s mission was over. Reinforcement came under the command of [[Usman ibn Abi al-Aas]], who took over the command of Majaa’s army. Usman’s objective was ancient Persian capital city of [[Persepolis]]. Usman marched from Tawwaj to [[Shiraz]], which surrendered peacefully. From Shiraz, Usman moved 35 miles north to Persepolis and laid siege to the historic Persian city. Siege lasted for several weeks before the city surrendered. Usman’s mission was over at Persepolis. Here again a change of command occurred. The mission to captured eastern districts of [[Fasa]] and [[Darab]] was given to [[Sariyah ibn Zuneim]], who moved 80 miles south east to capture Fasa and then Darab, 60 miles from Fasa after resistance from local Persian garrisons. With this last successful expedition, conquest of Fars was completed by late [[642]]. Further east of Fars laid [[Kerman]] and [[Sistan]]. A simultaneous campaign was launched against eastern (sistan and Balochistan), southern (Kerman and Makran) and north western (Azerbaijan) Persia.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

===Conquest of Southeastern Persia (Kerman & Makran)===
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[[Image:Head horse Kerman Louvre MAO132.jpg|150px|thumb|Sassanid era horse head Found in Kerman.]]
Expedition to [[Kerman]] was sent roughly at the same time when expedition to [[Sistan]] and [[Azerbaijan]] were sent. [[Suhail ibn adi]] was given command of this expedition. Suhail marched from Busra in 643, passing from [[Shiraz]] and [[Persepolis]] he join with other Muslim armies and marched against Kerman, which was subdued after a pitch battle with local garrisons. Further east of Kerman laid [[Makran]] what is now a part of present day [[Pakistan]]. It was domain of [[Hindu]] king of Rasil (sindh),the [[Rai Dynasty]] dominions were vast, extending from Kashmir and Kanauj to Kandhar and Seistan and on the west to Mekran and a part of Debal while on the south to Surat their capital was [[Alor]] and during their rule Sindh was divided into four provinces of Bahmanabad. Siwistan. Chachpur (which comprised the greater part of Bahaw'alpur Division) and the province consisting of Multan and West Punjab.<ref>http://www.world66.com/asia/southasia/pakistan/rahimyarkhan/history</ref>[[Raja]] of Rasil concentrated huge armies from Sindh and [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] to halt the advance of the Muslims. Suhail was reinforced by Usman ibn Abi Al Aas from Persepolis, and Hakam ibn Amr from Busra, the combined forces defeated Raja Rasil at the [[Battle of Rasil]], who retreated to the eastern bank of [[Indus|River Indus]]. Further east from Indus River laid [[Sindh]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:13 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Umar, after knowing that sindh was a poor and relatively barran land, disapproved Suhail’s proposal to cross Indus River.<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993"/> For the time being, Umar declared the Indus River, a natural barrier, to be the eastern most frontier of his domain. This campaign came to an end in mid 644.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref>

===Conquest of Eastern Persia (Sistan)===

{{Main|History of Arabs in Afghanistan}}
[[Sistan]] was believed to be the largest province of the Sassanid Empire. In the south it bordered with Kerman and in the north with Khurasan. It stretches from what is now [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan, Pakistan]] in the east and southern [[Afghanistan]] in the north. [[Asim ibn Amr]], veteran of the great battles of [[Battle of Qadisiyyah|Qadisiyyah]] and [[Battle of Nihawand|Nihawand]] was appointed to conquer Sistan. Asim marched from [[Busra]], and passing through Fars and taking under his command the Muslim troops already present in Fars, entered Sistan. No resistance was offered and cities surrendered. Asim reached [[Zaranj]], 250 miles from [[Kandahar]], a small town in present day southern Afghanistan, then a bustling capital of Sistan. Asim laid siege to the city which lasted several months. A pitch battle was fought outside the city and the Persians were defeated and routed. With the surrender of Zaranj, Sistan submitted to Muslim rule. Further east of Sistan was northern [[Sindh]] which was beyond the scope of the mission assigned to Asim. The Caliph, for the time being, didn’t approve of any incursion in the land east of the Persian Empire and ordered his men to consolidate power in the newly conquered land.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:14 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Azerbaijan===
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[[Image:Derbent winter.jpg|thumb|left|275px|Sassanid fortress in [[Derbent]]. It fell to the Muslims in 643.]]
Conquest of [[Azerbaijan]] started in 643. It was part of simultaneous attack launched against north, south and east of Persia, after capturing Isfahan and Fars. These brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks by Caliph Umar, paralyzed whole of what then remained of Persian Empire. Expeditions were sent against Kerman and Makran in south east, against Sistan in north east and against Azerbaijan in North West. [[Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman]] was appointed commander to conquer Azerbaijan. Hudheifa marched from [[Rayy]] in central Persia to [[Zanjan]], a stronghold of Persians in north. Zanjan was a well defended fortified town, Persians came out of the city and gave a battle, Hudheifa defeated the Persian garrison and captured the city, as per Caliph Umar’s order, the civilians who sought for peace were given peace on the usual terms of [[Jizya]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:15 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> From Zanjan, Hudheifa marched to [[Ardabil]] which surrendered peacefully and Hudheifa continued his march north along with the western coast of [[Caspian Sea]] and captured [[Bab]] by force.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref> At this point Hudheifa was recalled by Caliph umar. [[Bukair ibn Abdullah]] and [[Utba ibn Farqad]] succeeded him. They were sent to carry out a two prong attack against Azerbaijan. Bukair was to march north along western coast of Caspian Sea while Uthba will march direct in the heart of Azerbaijan. On his way north Bukair was halt by a large Persian force under Isandir. A pitch battle was fought and Isandir was defeated and captured. Isandir in return of safety of his life agreed to surrender his estates in Azerbaijan and persuade others for submission to Muslim rule.<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993"/> Uthba ibn Farqad defeated Bahram, brother of Isandir. He too sought for peace. A pact was drawn according to which Azerbaijan was surrendered to Caliph Umar on usual terms of paying annual [[Jizya]]. The espedition commenced some time in late 643.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:15 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Armenia===

[[File:Tbilisi (20).jpg|thumb|right|200px|View of Tbilisi, which fell to the Rashidun Caliphate in 644.]]
[[Byzantine]] [[Armenia]] was already conquered in 638-639. Persian Armenia lay north of Azerbaijan. By now, except for [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] and [[Armenia]], the whole of the Persian Empire was under Umar’s control and Emperor Yazdegred III was on the run. Umar never wanted to take a chance; he never perceived the Persians to be weak and weary. The fact that Umar didn't underestimate the Persians is the secret behind the brilliant and speedy conquest of the Persian Empire. Again Umar decided to send simultaneous expeditions to the far north-east and north-west of the Persian Empire. An expedition was sent to [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] in late 643 and at the same time an expedition was launched against [[Armenia]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
[[Bukair ibn Abdullah]], who had recently subdued Azerbaijan, was assigned a mission to capture [[Tiflis]], the present day capital of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], then a Capital of Persian Armenia. From [[Bab]] at the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Bukair continued his march north. Umar decided to practice his traditional and successful strategy of multi-pronged attacks. While Bukair was still miles away from [[Tiflis]], Umar instructed him to divide his army into three corps. Umar appointed [[Habib ibn Muslaima]] to capture Tiflis, [[Abdulrehman]] to march north against the mountains and [[Hudheifa]] to march against the southern mountains. Habib captured Tiflis and the region up to the eastern coast of the [[Black Sea]]. Abdulrehman marched north to the [[Caucasus|Caucasus Mountains]] and subdued the tribes. Hudheifa marched south-west to the mountainous region and subdued the local tribes. The advance into Armenia came to an end with the death of Caliph Umar in November 644. By then almost the whole of the South [[Caucasus]] was captured.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:16 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Khurasan===
{{See|Islamic conquest of Afghanistan|History of Arabs in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Ancient Khorasan highlighted.jpg|thumb|]]
[[File:Afghanistan 14.jpg|thumb|The [[Shah-Do Shamshira Mosque]] in [[Kabul]].]]
[[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] was the second largest province of the Sassanid Empire. It stretched from what is now northeastern [[Iran]], northwestern [[Afghanistan]] and southern [[Turkmenistan]]. Its capital was [[Balkh]], in northern Afghanistan. In late 643 the mission of conquering Khurasan was assigned to [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]].<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref> Ahnaf marched from [[Kufa]] and took a short and less frequented route via [[Rayy]] and [[Nishapur]]. Rayy was already in Muslim hands and Nishapur surrendered without resistance. From Nishapur Ahnaf marched to [[Herat]] which is in western Afghanistan. Herat was a fortified town, the [[Siege of Herat]] lasted for a few months before surrendering. With the surrender of Heart, the whole of southern Khurasan came under Muslim control. With Herat under his firm control, Ahnaf marched north directly to [[Merv]], in present [[Turkmenistan]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:17 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Merv was the capital of Khurasan and here Yazdegred III held his court. On hearing of the Muslim advance, Yazdegred III left for Balkh. No resistance was offered at Merv, and the Muslims occupied the capital of Khurasan without firing a shot. Ahnaf stayed at Merv and waited for reinforcement from Kufa.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Meanwhile Yazdgird had also gathered considerable power at Balkh and also sought alliance with the Khan of [[Farghana]], who personally led the Turkish contingent to help Yazdegred III. Umar ordered that Yazdgird’s allied forces should be weaken by breaking up the alliance with the Turks. Ahnaf successfully broke up the alliance and the Khan of Farghana pulled back his forces realizing that fighting with the Muslims was not a good idea and that it might endanger his own kingdom. Yazdgird's army was defeated at the [[Battle of Oxus River]] and retreated across the [[Oxus]] to [[Transoxiana]]. Yazdegred III had a narrow escape and fled to [[China]]. Balkh was occupied by the Muslims, and with this occupation the Persian war was over. The Muslims had now reached the outermost frontiers of Persia. Beyond that lay the lands of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and still further lay China. The old mighty empire of the Sassanids had ceased to exist. Ahnaf returned to Marv and sent a detail report of operations to Umar, a historic letter Umar was anxiously waiting for, subject of which was the downfall of the Persian Empire, and with which permission was sought to cross the Oxus river and invade Transoxiana. Umar ordered Ahnaf to desist and instead to consolidate his power south of Oxus.

==Persian rebellion==

Caliph Umar was assassinated in November 644 by a Persian Slave. The assassination is often seen by various historians as a Persian conspiracy against Umar.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref> [[Hormuzan]] is said to have masterminded this plot. Caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan]] (644-656) succeeded Umar. During his reign almost the whole of the former Sassanid empire's territory rebelled from time to time until 651, until the last Sassanid emperor was assassinated near [[Merv]] ending the Sassanid dynasty and Persian resistance to the Muslims. Caliph Uthman therefore had to send several military expeditions to crush the rebellions and recapture Persia and their vassal states. The Empire expanded beyond the borders of the Sassanid Empire in [[Transoxiana]], [[Balochistan (region)|Baluchistan]] and the [[Caucasus]]. The main rebellion was in the Persian provinces of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Fars, Sistan ( in 649), Tabaristan, Khorasan (651), and Makran (650).<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:19 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

==End of the Sassanid dynasty==

[[Yazdegerd III]], after being defeated at the [[Battle of Oxus river]], was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive.
Following the battle he fled to [[Central Asia]] to the court of the Khan of Farghana. From there Yazdegerd went to China.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Nevertheless Yazdegerd III kept on returning to Persia to exert his influence over the notables and chiefs of Persia. He thus remained a motivating force behind the Persian rebellion. During Caliph Uthman's reign Yazdegerd III came back to [[Bactria]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] rebelled against the Caliphate. [[Abdullah ibn Aamir]] crushed the rebellion and defeated Yazdegerd's forces. He fled from one district to another until a local miller killed him for his purse at [[Merv]] in 651.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324 | title=Iran | publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> For many decades to come, this was the easternmost limit of Muslim rule.

==Persia under Muslim rule==
{{Copyedit-section|date=January 2010}}

{{See also|Islamization in Iran|Islam in Iran}}
[[Image:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb|right|300px|Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654 {{legend|#009900|Strongholds of Rashidun Caliphate}}.]]
[[File:Naghsh-e-jahan masjed-e-shah esfahan.jpg|thumb|300px|View of [[Naqsh-e Jahan Square]] and [[Shah Mosque]], Iran.]]

According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:
<blockquote>"''Arab Muslims conquests have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision… Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna.''"<ref name="lewis">{{cite web | url=http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html | title=Iran in history | first=Bernard | last=Lewis | publisher=[[Tel Aviv University]] | accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref></blockquote>

===Administration===
{{Copyedit-section|date=January 2010}}

Under Umar and his immediate successors, the Arab conquerors attempted to maintain their political and cultural cohesion despite the attractions of the civilizations they had conquered. The Arabs initially settled in the garrison towns rather than on scattered estates.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
The new non-Muslim subjects were protected by the state and known as ''[[dhimmi]]'' (meaning protected), were to pay a special tax, the [[jizya]] (''tribute''), which was calculated per individual at varying rates, usually two [[dirham]]s for able bodied men of military age, in return for their exemption from military services. Women and Children were exempted from Jizya.<ref>{{cite book
| author = [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Kennedy, Hugh]]
| title = The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates
| publisher = Longman
| date = 2004
| page = 68
}}</ref>.
Mass conversions were neither desired nor allowed, at least in the first few centuries of Arab rule<ref>{{cite book | authorlink=Richard Nelson Frye | last=Frye | first=R.N | title=The Golden Age of Persia | year=1975 | isbn=1-84212-011-5 | page=62}}</ref><ref>[[Tabari]]. Series I. pp. 2778–9.</ref><ref name=boyce>Boyce, Mary (1979), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-23903-6 pg.150</ref> Caliph Umar had liberal policies towards dhimmis, these policies were adopted to make the conquered less prone to up-rise against their new masters and thus making them more receptive to Arab colonization, as it for the time being gave them release from the intolerable social inferiority system of the old Sassanid regime.<ref>''Landlord and peasant in Persia: a study of land tenure and land revenue''. By Ann K. S. Lambton, pg.17.</ref>
Umar is reported to have issued the following instructions about the protected people:
{{cquote|''Make it easy for him, who can not pay tribute; help him who is weak, let them keep their titles, but do not give them our [[kuniyat]] (''Arabic traditional nicknames or titles'').<ref name="Their Non-Muslim Subjects pg.138">''The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects''.By A. S. Tritton, pg.138.</ref> Humiliate them but do them no injustice, if you meet them on road make them to go on sides.''}}
Umar's liberal policies were continued by at least his immediate successors. In his dying charge to his successor he is reported to have said:
{{cquote|''I charge the caliph after me to be kind to the dhimmis, to keep their covenant, to protect them and not to burden them over their strength.''<ref name="Their Non-Muslim Subjects pg.138"/>}}
Practically Jizya replaced poll taxes imposed by the Sassanids, which tended to be much higher than the Jizya, in addition to jizya the old Sassanid ''land tax'' (Known in Arabic as ''Kharaj'') were also adopted. Caliph Umar is said to have occasionally setup a commission to survey the taxes, that if they are not more than the land could bear.<ref>''The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects''.By A. S. Tritton, pg.139.</ref> It is narrated that Zoroastrians were subjected to humiliation and ridicule when paying the [[Jizya]] in order to make them feel inferior,<ref name='mboyce'>{{cite book|last=Boyce|first= Mary|title=Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices|publisher=Routledge, 2001|pages=146|isbn=0415239028, 9780415239028|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&lpg=PP1&dq=Zoroastrians,%20their%20religious%20beliefs%20and%20practices&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=inferior&f=false}}</ref>
and during late [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid rule]] they eventually lost their status as dhimmi, which forced many of them to flee to India.

For at least under Rashiduns and early Ummayads, the administrative system of the late Sassanid period was largely retained.
This was a pyramidal system where each quarter of the state was divided into provinces, the provinces into districts, and the districts into sub-districts.
Provinces were called ''ustan'' (Middle Persian ''ostan''), the districts ''shahrs'', centered upon a district capital known as ''shahristan''. The subdistricts were called ''tasok'' in Middle Persian, which was adopted as ''tassuj'' (plural ''tasasij'') into Arabic.

===Religion===
{{Copyedit-section|date=January 2010}}

{{See also|Islamization in Iran|Persecution of Zoroastrians}}
Having effectively been recognized as dhimmis under the Rashidun Caliphs, on the terms of annual payment of Jizya, Zoroastrians were sometimes left largely to themselves, but that this pattern was patchy and varied from area to area. Due to their financial interests, Ummayads generally discourage the conversion of non-Arabs, as dhimmis provided them with valuable revenues (Jizya). With the course of time [[Persecution of Zoroastrians|religious persecution of Zoroastrians]] increased<ref name="iranica">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v13f3/v13f3001a.html|title=Iran in the Islamic Period (651-1980s)-Encyclopedia Iranica|accessdate=17 December 2009}}</ref><ref name='ayear'>{{cite book|last=BROWNE|first=EDWARD GRANVILLE |title=. A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS|publisher=Adam and Charles Black, 1893|pages=594}}</ref>, and social humiliations were implemented to make life difficult for them and to persuade them to eventually convert to Islam.<ref name='bbc'>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/history/persia_1.shtml#h4|title=BBC - Religions - Zoroastrian: Under Persian rule|accessdate=17 December 2009}}</ref>

Before the conquest, the Persians had been mainly [[Zoroastrian]]. The historian [[Al-Masudi]], a Baghdad-born Arab, who wrote a comprehensive treatise on history and geography in about 956, records that after the conquest: {{bquote|Zorastrianism, for the time being, continued to exist in many parts of Iran, not only in countries which came relatively late under Muslim sway (e.g Tabaristan) but also in those regions which early had become provinces of the Muslim empire. In almost all the Iranian provinces, according to Al Masudi, fire temples were to be found - the Madjus he says, venerate many fire temples in [[Iraq]], [[Fars]], [[Kirman]], [[Sistan]], [[Khurasan]], [[Tabaristan]], al Djibal, [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Arran (Caucasus)|Arran]].}}
He also added [[Sindh]] and Sin of the [[Indian subcontinent]] (Al-Hind) to the list. This general statement of al Masudi is fully supported by the medieval geographers who make mention of fire temples in most of the Iranian towns .<ref>E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam 1913-1936 By M. Th. Houtsma Page 100</ref>

There were also large and thriving [[Christian]] and [[Jewish]] communities, along with smaller numbers of [[Buddhist]]s and other groups. However, there was a slow but steady movement of the population towards [[Islam]]. The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert, Islam spread more slowly among the peasantry and the ''dihqans'', or landed gentry. By the late 10th century, the majority of Persians had become Muslim.
Until the 15th century, most Persian Muslims were [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]], though today Iran is known as a stronghold of the Shi'a Muslim faith. The Iranian Muslims projected many of their own Persian moral and ethical values{{Citation needed| May 2009 such as?|date=May 2009}} that predates Islam into the religion, while recognizing Islam as their religion and the prophet's son in law, [[Ali]] as an enduring symbol of justice.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

===Ancient Zorastrian Fire Temples===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Place
! Description
! Other Information
|-
| Isthakar
|
| Recorded in the Bam nama -a history of Kirman <ref>Acta Iranica Encyclopedie Permente Des Etudes Iraniennes .Papers in honour of Professor Mary Boyce,Mehrdad Shokoohy, Volume 1 By Mary Boyce Page 545</ref>
|-
|
|
|

|}

==Language==
During the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], the official language of Persia remained [[Old Persian|Persian]], just as the official languages of [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] remained [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. However, during the [[Ummayad Caliphate]], the Ummayads imposed [[Arabic]] as the primary language of their subjected people throughout their empire, displacing their indigenous languages. Although an area from Iraq to [[Morocco]] speaks Arabic to this day, [[Middle Persian]] proved to be much more enduring. Most of its structure and vocabulary survived, evolving into the modern [[Persian language]]. However, Persian did incorporate a certain amount of Arabic vocabulary, especially words pertaining to religion, and it switched from the [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] [[Aramaic alphabet]] to a modified version of the [[Arabic alphabet]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.languages.umd.edu/persian/persianlanguage1.php | title=What is Persian? | publisher = The center for Persian studies}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Islamicization in post-conquest Iran]]
* [[History of Arabs in Afghanistan]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[Military history of Iran]]
* [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty]]
* [[Muslim conquests]]
* [[Spread of Islam]]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

==Literature==
* Bashear, Suliman — ''Arabs and Others in Early Islam'', Darwin Press, 1997
* Daniel, Elton — ''The History of Iran'', Greenwood Press, 2001
* Donner, Fred — ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', Princeton, 1981
* M. Ismail Marcinkowski, ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971-77-488-7.
* Sicker, Martin — ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna'', Praeger, 2000
* [[Abdolhossein Zarinkoob|Zarrin’kub, Abd al-Husayn]] — ''Ruzgaran : tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi'', Sukhan, 1999. ISBN 964-6961-11-8
* [http://www.iranica.com/articles/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v2_articles/arab/arab_conquest_iran&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Arab Conquest of Iran], pp. 203–10, [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]].
*[http://books.google.co.in/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&dq=Zoroastrians:+their+religious+beliefs+and+practices+By+Mary+Boyce&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=UQ72FValrp&sig=Q36BLsomBlnxzptuKomb8C4OlmU&hl=en&ei=ENAtS8X5Kc2HkQWH8eWCCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices By Mary Boyce Rutledge Taylor and Francis group]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rashidun Conquest Of The Sassanid Empire}}
[[Category:Muslim conquest of Persia| ]]

[[ar:الفتح الإسلامي لفارس]]
[[es:Conquista musulmana de Persia]]
[[fa:حمله اعراب به ایران]]
[[fr:Conquête musulmane de la Perse]]
[[it:Conquista islamica della Persia]]
[[mk:Исламско освојување на Персија]]
[[ja:イスラーム教徒のペルシア征服]]
[[no:Den islamske erobringen av Iran]]
[[ta:பாரசீகம் மீதான இசுலாமியப் படையெடுப்பு]]
[[th:การพิชิตจักรวรรดิเปอร์เซียของมุสลิม]]
[[tr:İran'da İslam]]
[[zh:伊斯兰对波斯的征服]]

Benutzer:Autokrator/Spielwiese

2009-12-17T14:54:21Z

Slatersteven: Undid revision 332292727 by Mohammad adil (talk)I thoouhht we were not going to mention latter eras

{{Infobox Military Conflict|
image=[[File:Knight-Iran.JPG|200px]]|
caption=Mounted Persian knight, [[Taq-e Bostan]], Iran.|
conflict=Muslim conquest of Persia|
partof=the [[Muslim conquest]]s|
date=633-644|
place=[[Mesopotamia]], [[Caucasus]], [[Persia]], and [[Bactria]]|
result=[[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] victory|
territory=[[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Sassanid Empire]] annexed by Muslims|
combatant1=[[Sassanid Empire]], [[Arab Christians]]|
combatant2=[[Rashidun Caliphate]]|
commander1=[[Yazdgerd III|Emperor Yazdegerd III]] † [[Rostam Farrokhzād]] † Mahbuzan Huzail ibn Imran Hormuz † Anushjan Andarzaghar † Bahman Pirouzan † 
Jaban †
 
Mihran †
 
Hormuzan
 
Mardan Shah †
 
Bahram
 
Isandir
 
Karinz ibn Karianz
 
Wahman Mardanshah
 
Jalinus†
 
[[Beerzan]]† |
commander2=[[Abu Bakr|Caliph Abu Bakr]] 
[[Khalid ibn Walid]]
 
Muthana ibn Haris †
 
[[Umar|Caliph Umar]]
 
Abu Ubaid †
 
[[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]]
 
Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya †
 
Hashim ibn Uthba
 
Qa’qa ibn Amr
 
[[Abu Musa Ashaari]]
 
[[Ammar ibn Yasir]]
 
[[Nouman ibn Muqarrin]] †
 
Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman
 
[[Mugheera ibn Shuba]]
 
Usman ibn Abi al-Aas
 
Asim ibn Amr
 
[[Ahnaf ibn Qais]]
 
[[Abdullah ibn Aamir]]|
strength1=|
strength2=|
casualties1=|
casualties2=|
}}
{{Campaignbox Muslim Conquest Persia}}
{{History of ICC}}
The '''Muslim conquest of Persia''' led to the end of the [[Sassanid Empire]] in 644, of the [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid dynasty]] in 651 and the eventual extirpation of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion in [[Persia]]. The Sassanian Empire was first invaded by Muslims in present day [[Iraq]] in 633 under general [[Khalid ibn Walid]], which resulted in the Muslim conquest of Iraq. Following the transfer of Khalid to the Roman front in the [[Levant]], the Muslims eventually lost Iraq to Persian counterattacks. The second invasion of Iraq began in 636 under [[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]] when after a key victory at the [[Battle of Qadisiyyah]] Sassanid control west of Persia was permanently ended. The [[Zagros mountains]] became a natural barrier and border between the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] and the Sassanid empire. Owing to continuous raids by Persians in Iraq, [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] ordered a wholesale invasion of the Sassanid Persian empire in 642 which came to an end with the complete conquest of the Sassanids empire by mid 644.
The quick conquest of Persia in a series of well coordinated multi-pronged attacks, operated by Caliph Umar from [[Madinah]] several thousand miles from the battlefields in Persia, became his greatest triumph, marking his reputation among the greatest strategists and political geniuses of history.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 1 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref>
Most [[Muslim historians]] have long offered the idea that Persia, on the verge of the Arab invasion, was a society in decline and decay and that it consequently embraced the invading Arab armies with open arms. However some other authors have for example used exclusively Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of Muslim apologists, Iranians in fact fought long and hard against the invading Arabs."<ref>Milani A. ''Lost Wisdom''. 2004 ISBN 0934211906 p.15</ref> This view furthermore holds that, once politically conquered, the Persians began to resist the Arabs culturally and succeeded in forcing their own ways on the Arabs.<ref>Mohammad Mohammadi Malayeri, ''Tarikh-i Farhang-i Iran'' (Iran's Cultural History). 4 volumes. Tehran. 1982.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=ʻAbd al-Ḥusayn Zarrīnʹkūb|authorlink=Abdolhossein Zarinkoob|title=Dū qarn-i sukūt : sarguz̲asht-i ḥavādis̲ va awz̤āʻ-i tārīkhī dar dū qarn-i avval-i Islām (Two Centuries of Silence)|location=Tihrān|publisher=Sukhan|year=1379 (2000)|id={{OCLC|46632917}}, {{Listed Invalid ISBN|964-5983-33-6}} }}</ref>

==Persia Before the Conquest==
Since the 1st century BC, the border between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] (later [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]) and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] (later [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]]) empires had been the [[Euphrates]] river. The border was constantly contested. Most battles, and thus most fortifications, were concentrated in the hilly regions of the north, as the vast Arabian or [[Syrian Desert]] (Roman Arabia) separated the rival empires in the south. The only dangers expected from the south were occasional raids by nomadic [[Arab]] tribesmen. Both empires therefore allied themselves with small, semi-independent Arab principalities, which served as buffer states and protected Byzantium and Persia from [[Bedouin]] attacks. The Byzantine clients were the [[Ghassanid]]s; the Persian clients were the [[Lakhmid]]s. The Ghassanids and Lakhmids feuded constantly — which kept them occupied, but that did not greatly affect the Byzantines or the Persians.
In the 6th and 7th centuries, various factors destroyed the balance of power that had held for so many centuries.

===Revolt of the Arab Client States (602)===
[[Image:Sassanid Music Plate 7thcentury.jpg|thumb|Ancient Iranians attached great importance to music and poetry, as they still do today. This 7th century plate depicts [[Sassanid]] era musicians.]]
The Byzantine clients, the Arab [[Ghassanids]], converted to the [[Monophysite]] form of [[Christianity]], which was regarded as [[Heresy|heretical]] by the established Byzantine [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]]. The Byzantines attempted to suppress the heresy, alienating the Ghassanids and sparking rebellions on their desert frontiers. The [[Lakhmids]] also revolted against the Persian king Khusrau II. [[Na'aman|Nu'man III]] (son of Al-Monder IV), the first Christian Lakhmid king, was deposed and killed by [[Khusrau II]] in 602, because of his attempt to throw off the Persian tutelage. After Khusrau's assassination, the Persian Empire fractured and the [[Lakhmids]] were effectively semi-independent. It is now widely believed that annexation of Lakhmid kingdom was one of the main factors behind the [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty]] to the Muslim Arabs and the Islamic conquest of Persia, as the [[Lakhmid]]s agreed to act as spies for the [[Muslims]] after being defeated in the [[Battle of Hira]] by [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]].<ref>Iraq After the Muslim Conquest By [[Michael G. Morony]], pg. 233</ref>

===Byzantine–Sassanid War (612 - 629)===
{{Main|Byzantine–Sassanid Wars}}
''See also: [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty]]''

The Persian ruler [[Khosrau II|Khosrau II (Parviz)]] defeated a dangerous rebellion within his own empire (the [[Bahram Chobin]]'s rebellion). He afterwards turned his energies outwards, upon the traditional Byzantine enemies in the [[Roman-Persian Wars]]. For a few years, he succeeded gloriously. From 612 to 622, he extended the Persian borders almost to the same extent that they were under the [[Achaemenids|Achaemenid dynasty]] (550–330 BC), capturing the cities [[Antioch]], [[Damascus]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Jerusalem]].

The Byzantines regrouped and pushed back in 622 under [[Heraclius]]. Khosrau was defeated at the [[Battle of Nineveh]] in 627, and the Byzantines recaptured all of [[Syria]] and penetrated far into the Persian provinces of [[Mesopotamia]]. In 629, Khosrau's son agreed to peace, and the border between the two empires was once again the same as it was in 602.

====Assassination of Khosrau II====
[[Image:Cherub plaque Louvre MRR245 n2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sassanid King [[Khosrau II]] submitting to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, from a plaque on a 12th century French cross.]]
Khosrau II was assassinated in 628 and as a result, there were numerous claimants to the throne; from 628 to 632 there were ten kings and queens of Persia. The last, [[Yazdegerd III of Persia|Yazdegerd III]], was a grandson of Khosrau II and was said to be a mere child. However, no date of birth is known.

===During Prophet Muhammad's Life===
After the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] in 628, [[Muhammad]] sent many letters to the princes, kings and chiefs of the various tribes and kingdoms of the time inviting them to convert to Islam. These letters were carried by ambassadors to [[Iran]], [[Byzantium]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Egypt]], [[Yemen]], and [[Hira (disambiguation)|Hira]] (Iraq) on the same day.<ref name="seventhyear">{{cite web | url=http://www.al-islam.org/message/43.htm | title=The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration | publisher=[[Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project]] | accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref> This assertion has been cast into scrutiny by some modern historians of Islam—notably Grimme and Caetani.<ref>Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 4, p. 74</ref> Particularly in dispute is the assertion that Khosrau II received a letter from Muhammad, as the Sassanid court ceremony was notoriously intricate, and it is unlikely that a letter from what at the time was a minor regional power would have reached the hands of the Shahanshah.<ref>Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 2, chapter 1, paragraph 45-46</ref>

With regards to Iran, Muslim histories further recount that at the beginning of the seventh year of migration, Muhammad appointed one of his officers, Abdullah Huzafah Sahmi Qarashi, to carry his letter to [[Khosrau II]] inviting him to Islam:

<blockquote>''"In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful.

From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to the great Kisra of Iran. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in God and in His Prophet and testifies that there is no god but God and that He has no partner, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of God, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe. And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi."''<ref>''Tabaqat-i Kubra, vol. I, page 360; Tarikh-i Tabari, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; Tarikh-i Kamil, vol. II, page 81 and Biharul Anwar, vol. XX, page 389''</ref></blockquote>

There are differing accounts of the reaction of [[Khosrau II]]. Nearly all assert that he destroyed the letter in anger; the variations concentrate on the extent and detail of his response.

==Rise of the Caliphate==
Mohammad died in June 632, and [[Abu Bakr]] was appointed [[Caliph]] and political successor at [[Medina]]. Soon after [[Abu Bakr]]'s succession, several Arab tribes revolted against in the ''[[Ridda wars]]'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.
Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]], the [[Caliphate]], beginning with a confrontation with the Sassanid Empire under the general [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]].

==First conquest of Mesopotamia (633)==
[[File:Mohammad adil-Khalid's conquest of Iraq.PNG|thumb|right|240px|Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's conquest of Iraq.]]

After the Ridda Wars, a tribal chief of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, raided the Persian towns in Iraq. With the success of the raids, a considerable amount of booty was collected. Misnah ibn Haris went to Medina to inform Caliph Abu Bakr about his success and was appointed commander of his people, after which he began to raid deeper into Iraq. Using the mobility of his [[light cavalry]] he could easily raid any town near the [[desert]] and disappear again into the desert, into which the [[Sassanid army]] was unable to chase them. Misnah’s acts made Abu Bakr think about the expansion of the [[Rashidun Empire]].<ref name="Tabari">Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 554.</ref>

Abu Bakr started with the invasion of Iraq. The problems faced by Abu Bakr were that the Arabs feared the Persians with a deep, unreasoning fear which ran in the tribal consciousness as a racial complex and was the result of centuries of Persian power and glory. In return, the Persians regarded the Arabs with contempt. It was important not to suffer a defeat, for that would confirm and strengthen this instinctive fear. To be certain of victory, Abu Bakr made two decisions concerning the attack on Persia: first, the invading army would consist entirely of volunteers; and second, to put in command of the army his best general: Khalid ibn al-Walid. After defeating the self-proclaimed prophet Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama, Khalid was still at [[Al-Yamama]] when Abu Bakr sent him orders to invade the Sassanid Empire. Making [[Al-Hirah]] the objective of Khalid, Abu Bakr sent reinforcements and ordered the tribal chiefs of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, Mazhur bin Adi, Harmala and Sulma to operate under the command of Khalid along with their men. Around the third week of March 633 (first week of [[Muharram]] 12th Hijrah) Khalid set out from Al-Yamama with an army of 10,000.<ref name="Tabari"/> The tribal chiefs, with 2,000 warriors each, joined Khalid; so Khalid entered the Persian Empire with 18,000 troops.

After entering [[Iraq]] with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the [[Battle of Chains]], fought in April 633 A.D; the [[Battle of River]], fought in the 3rd week of April 633 A.D; the [[Battle of Walaja]], fought in May 633 A.D (where he successfully used a [[Pincer movement|double envelopment]] manoeuvre), and the [[Battle of Ullais]], fought in the mid of May, 633 A.D. By now the Persian court, already disturbed by internal problems, was down and out. In the last week of May 633 A.D, [[Hira]], the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after their victory in the [[Battle of Hira|Siege of Hira]]. After resting his armies, in June 633 A.D Khalid laid siege to the city of [[Al Anbar]], which resisted and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633 A.D after the [[Battle of Al-Anbar|Siege of Al-Anbar]].
Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr after the [[Battle of ein-ul-tamr|Battle of Ein ut Tamr]] in the last week of July, 633 A.D. By now, almost the whole of Iraq (Euphrates region) was under Islamic control.
Khalid got a call of help from northern Arabia at Daumat-ul-Jandal, where another Muslim Arab general, Ayaz bin Ghanam, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid went to Daumat-ul-jandal and defeated the rebels in the [[Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal]] in the last week of August, 633 A.D. Returning from Arabia, he got news of the assembling of a large Persian army. He decided to defeat them all separately to avoid the risk of being defeated by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and [[Christian]] Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh. Khalid devised a brilliant plan to destroy the Persian forces. He divided his army in three units, and attacked the Persian forces in well coordinated attacks from three different sides at night, starting from the [[Battle of Muzieh]], then the [[Battle of Sanni]], and finally the [[Battle of Zumail]] during November 633 A.D. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq, and left the Persian capital [[Ctesiphon]] unguarded and vulnerable to Muslim attack. Before attacking the Persian capital, Khalid decided to eliminate all Persian forces in the south and and west. He accordingly marched against the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the [[Sassanid army|Sassanid Persians]], the [[Byzantine army|Byzantine]] [[Roman army|Romans]] and Christian Arabs in the [[Battle of Firaz]] in December 633 A.D. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. While Khalid was on his way to attack Qadissiyah (a key fort in the way to the Persian capital Ctesiphon), he received a letter from Caliph Abu Bakr and was sent to the Roman front in Syria to assume the command of the Muslim armies to conquer Roman Syria.<ref>Akram, chapters 19-26.</ref>

==Second invasion of Mesopotamia (636)==
{{Main|Battle of Qadisiyyah}}
According to the will of Abu Bakr, Umar was to continue the conquest of Syria and Iraq. On the north eastern borders of the Empire, in Iraq, the situation was deteriorating day by day. During [[Abu Bakr]]’s era, [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] who had conquered Iraq, was sent to the Syrian front to command the Islamic armies there. As soon as Khalid had left Iraq with half his army of 9000 soldiers, the Persians decided to take back their lost territory. The Muslim army in Iraq was forced to leave the conquered areas and concentrate on the border areas. Umar immediately sent reinforcements to aid Misna ibn Haris in Iraq under the command of Abu Ubaid al Saqafi.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The Persian forces defeated Abu Ubaid in the [[Battle of Bridge]]. However, later Persian forces were defeated by Misnah bin harisah in the [[Battle of Baiyoub]]. In 635 [[Yazdgerd III]] sought alliance with Emperor [[Heraclius]] of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. Heraclius married his daughter (''according to traditions, his grand daughter'') to Yazdegerd III, an old Roman tradition to show alliance. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd, meanwhile, ordered the concentration of massive armies to pull back the Muslims from Iraq for good. The goal was well coordinated attacks by both emperors, Heraclius in the Levant and Yazdegerd in Iraq, to annihilate the power of their common enemy Caliph Umar. Fate, however, had decided otherwise.<ref name="ReferenceB">Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, By Kaveh Farrokh, Published by Osprey Publishing, 2007 ISBN 1846031087</ref>

===Battle of Qadisiyyah===
{{Main|Battle of Qadisiyyah}}
[[File:Mohammad adil rais-battlefield of qadisiyyah.PNG|thumb|right|290px|The site of the Battle of Qadisiyyah, showing Muslim army (in red) and Sassanid army (in blue).]]
Umar ordered his army to retreat to the bordering areas of Iraq near Arabian desert and started raising armies to for the Persian campaign. Iraq was to be conquer once again from the beginning. Armies were concentrated near [[Madinah]] and owning to critical situation Umar decided to command the army in person. The idea was discouraged by the members of [[Majlis al Shura]] at [[Madinah]]. Muslims were engaged on both fronts and Umar's presence in Madinah was necessary, and only this way he could handle the critical situation. Umar appointed [[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]] as commander for campaign in Iraq who left Madinah with his army in May 636 and camped at [[Qadisiyyah]] in June.
While Heraclius launched his offense in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owning to exhausted conditions of his government, could not coordinate with Heraclius in that offense and a would be decisive plan missed the mark. Umar having alleged intelligence of this alliance, devised his own genius plan. As battle was imminent with Byzantines in Syria, and Umar did not wanted to risk a decisive battle at a time with two great power, as in case of defeat on either front, Muslim empire could be paralyzed, which had already employed all of its available men power for this crucial moment of history. He wanted to finish off business first with Byzantines and thus reinforced Muslim army at [[Yarmouk]] sending 6000 soldiers as a reinforcement in small bands, thus giving impression of a continuous stream of reinforcement. Meanwhile Umar engaged [[Yazdegerd III]] in deception tactics, ordering Saad to enter in peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III apprantly inviting him to [[Islam]]. Heraclius had instructed his general [[Vahan]], about not to engage in battle with Muslims until he orders. But fearing more reinforcement for Muslims from [[Madinah]] and their growing strength, Byzantines were left with no choice but to attack the Muslim forces before they get more stronger. Heraclius's imperial army was annihilated at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in August 636 three months before Qadisiyyah, ending the power of the Roman Emperor for good. Yazdegerd III nevertheless continued to execute his offensive plan and concentrated armies near his capital [[Ctesiphon]].<ref> Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:67</ref>.
With situations at ease at Syrian front, on Umar's instruction negotiations were halt as an open signal to Persians for Battle. Saad defeated the powerful Persian army in the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] fought in 636 A.D the battle proved to be a key to Iraq. It marked the end of Sassanid rule west of Persia proper.<ref> The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 5 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref> The battle is regarded as one of the most decisive battle of Islamic and world history. The battle also achieved the achieved death of the famed Persian general [[Rostam Farrokhzād]]. Later Saad conquered [[Babylon]], Koosie, Bahrahsher and Madein and the capital city of Sassanid Empire [[Siege of Ctesiphon 637|Ctesiphon fell]] in March 637 after a siege of three months.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
[[Iran]]ian historian ''Kaveh Farrokh'', in his book ''Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War'', describes the event of fall of Ctesiphon as:

{{Cquote| The local inhabitants made a desperate last stand at Veh Ardashir against the Arabs who finally broke into all of Ctesiphon in 637. For the first time the Arabs witnessed the riches, luxuries, arts, architecture and sophistication of one of the world’s greatest empires. Looting reached epic proportions. One fifth of the looted goods were sent from Ctesiphon to [[Umar|Caliph Omar]] at [[Medina]]. So great was the haul of booty that every [[Arab]] soldier was able to appropriate 12000 [[Dirham]]s worth of goods roughly the equivalent of 250,000 [[US Dollar]]s at the time of writing. Nearly 40,000 captured Sassanian noblemen were taken to Arabia and sold as [[slave]]s .<ref> Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War By Kaveh Farrokh Edition: illustrated Published by Osprey Publishing, 2007 Page 270 ISBN 1846031087, 9781846031083</ref>}}

==Conquest of Mesopotamia (636 - 638)==
[[Image:Ctesiphon, Iraq (2117465493).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Remains of [[Taq-i Kisra]], palace of the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid Kings]], [[Ctesiphon]], Iraq.]]
After the conquest of [[Ctesiphon]], several detachments were immediately sent west to capture Qarqeesia and [[Heet]] the forts at the border of the Byzantine Empire. Several fortified Persian armies were still active north-east of Ctesiphon at Jalula and north of the [[Tigris]] at [[Tikrit]] and [[Mosul]].
After withdrawal from Ctesiphon, the Persian armies gathered at Jalaula north-east of Ctesiphon. Jalaula was a place of strategically importance from where routes led to Iraq, Khurasan and [[Azerbaijan]]. The Persian forces at Jalula were commanded by General Mihran. His deputy was General Khurrazad a brother of General Rustam, who commanded Persian forced at the [[Battle of al-Qadisiyyah]]. As instructed by the Caliph Umar, Saad reported all the matter to Umar. Caliph decided to deal with Jalula first, his plan was first to clear the way to north before any decisive action against Tikrit and Mosul. Umar appointed Hashim ibn Uthba to the expedition of Jalula and Abdullah ibn Mutaam to conquer [[Tikrit]] and [[Mosul]]. In April 637, Hashim led 12,000 troops from Ctesiphon to win a victory over the Persians at the [[Battle of Jalula]], he then laid siege to Jalula for seven months. After seizing a victory at Jalula, Abdullah ibn Mutaam marched against Tikrit and captured the city after fierce resistance and with the help of [[Christian Arab]]s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} He next sent an army to [[Mosul]] which surrendered on the terms of [[Jizya]]. With victory at Jalula and occupation of the Tikrit-Mosul region, Muslim rule in Iraq was established.

After the conquest of Jalula, a Muslim force under Qa'qa marched in pursuit of the Persians. The Persian army that escaped from Jalaula took its position at Khaniqeen fifteen miles from Jalula on the road to Iran, under the command of General Mihran. Qa’qa defeated the Persian forces in the Battle of Khaniqeen and captured the city of Khaniqeen. Persians withdrew to [[Hulwan, Iran|Hulwan]]. Qaqa moved to Hulwan and laid siege to the city which was captured in January 638.<ref> The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 6 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref> Qa’qa sought permission for operating deeper into Persian land, the main land Iran, but Caliph Umar didn’t approved the proposal and wrote a historic letter to Saad saying:
{{cquote|''"I wish that between the Suwad and the Persian hills there were walls which would prevent them from getting to us, and prevent us from getting to them.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:5 page no:130</ref> The fertile Suwad is sufficient for us; and I prefer the safety of the Muslims to the spoils of war."''}}

===Raids of Persians in Mesopotamia (638 - 641)===
[[Image:Sphinx Darius Louvre.jpg|thumb|200px|Winged [[sphinx]] from the palace of [[Darius the Great]] at [[Susa]], captured by [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] general [[Abu Musa Ashaari|Abu Musa]] in 641.]]
By February 638 there was a lull in fighting on the Persian front. The Suwad, the [[Tigris]] valley, and the [[Euphrates]] valley were now under the complete control of the Muslims. The Persians had withdrawn to [[Iran|Persia proper]], east of [[Zagros mountains]]. Persians kept on raiding Iraq, which remained politically unstable. Nevertheless it appeared as if this was going to be the dividing line between the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] and the Sassanids. In later part of the year 638 [[Hormuzan]], who commanded one of the Persian corps at the [[Battle of Qadisiyyah]] and was one of the seven great chiefs of Persia, intensified his raids in Iraq, Saad according to Umar’s instructions took offensive against Hormuzan and Utbah ibn Ghazwan aided by Nouman ibn Muqarin attacked [[Ahwaz]] and forced Hormuzan to enter into a peace treaty with Muslims according to which Ahwaz will remain Hormuzan’s estate and he will rule it as a vassal of Muslims and will pay tritube.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Hormuzan broke the treaty and revolted against the Muslims, Umar sent [[Abu Musa Ashaari]], governor of [[Busra]] to deal with Hormuzan. Hormuzan was defeated and sought once again for peace, Umar accepted the offer and Hormuzan was again made vassal of Muslims. This peace also proved short termed and once Hormuzan was reinforced by the fresh Persian troops sent by Emperor [[Yazdgerd III]] in late 640. The troops concentrated at Tuster north of Ahwaz, Umar sent Governor of [[Kufa]], [[Ammar ibn Yasir]], governor of [[Busra]] Abu Musa, and Nouman ibn Muqarin towards Tustar where Hormuzan was defeated, captured and sent to Madinah to Caliph Umar, where he apparently converted to Islam. He remained a useful adviser of Umar through out the campaign of conquest of Persia. He is also considered to be master mind behind the assassination of Caliph Umar in 644. After victory at [[Tustar]], Abu Musa marched against [[Susa]], a place of military importance, in January 641, which was captured after a siege of couple of months. Next [[Abu Musa Ashaari|Abu Musa]] marched against Junde Sabur, the only place left of military importance in the Persian province of [[Khuzistan]] which surrender to Muslims after the siege of few weeks.<ref> The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 7 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref>

==Battle of Nihawand (641)==
{{Main|Battle of Nahavand}}
[[File:Sassanid army helmet by Nickmard Khoey.jpg|thumb|<center>A Sassanid army helmet<center>]]
After the conquest of Khuzistan, the Caliph Umar wanted peace. They wanted to leave rest of Persia to the Persians. Umar said:
{{cquote|"''I wish there were a mountain of fire between us and the Persians, so that neither could they get to us, nor we to them.<ref name="ReferenceC">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 8 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>''"}}
But the Persians thought differently. The pride of the imperial Persians had been hurt by the conquest of their land by the Arabs. They could not acquiesce in the occupation of their lands by the Arabs.<ref>Dictionary of Islamic Architecture By Anderew Petersen pg.120</ref>

After defeat of Persian forces at the [[Battle of Jalula]] in 637, Emperor Yazdgerd III went to [[Rayy]] and from there moved to [[Merv]] where he set up his capital. From Merv, he directed his chiefs to conduct continuous raids in Iraq to destabilize the Muslim rule. Within the next four years, Yazdgerd III felt powerful enough to challenge Muslims once again for the throne of Iraq. The Emperor sent a call to his people to drive away the Muslims from their lands. In response to the call, hardened veterans and young volunteers from all parts of Persia marched in large numbers to join the imperial standard and marched to [[Nihawand]] for the last titanic struggle for the between the forces of Caliphate and Sassanid Persia. 60,000 fighters assembled, commanded by Mardan Shah.

Governor of [[Kufa]], [[Ammar ibn Yasir]], received intelligence of the Persian movements and concentration at Nihawand. He reported the matter to Umar. Although Umar had expressed a desire for Iraq to be his eastern most frontier, he felt compelled to act given the concentration of Persian army at Nihawand.<ref>Rome's Enemies 3: Parthians and Sassanids By Peter Wilcox, pg 4</ref> He believed that so long as Persia proper remained under Sassanid rule, persian forces would continue raiding Iraq with a view to one day re-capture the country. Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman was appointed commander of the forces of Kufa, and was ordered to march to Nihawand. Governor of Busra Abu Musa, was to march to Nihawand commanding his forces of [[Busra]] [[Nouman ibn Muqarrin]] marched from Ctesiphon to Nihawand while Umar decided to lead the army concentrated at [[Madinah]] in person and command Muslims at the battle. Umar’s decision of commanding the army in person was not popularly accepted by the members of [[Majlis al Shura]] at Madinah. It was suggested that Umar should command the campaign from Madinah, and should appoint an astute military commander to lead the muslims at Nihawand. Umar appointed [[Mugheera ibn Shuba]], commander of the forces concentrated at Madinah and appointed Nouman ibn Muqarrin as commander in chief of the muslims at Nihawand. The muslim army left for Nihawand and first concentrated at Tazar, and then moved to Nihawand and defeated the Persian forces at the [[Battle of Nihawand]] in December 641. Nouman died in action, and as per Umar’s instructions Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman became new commander in chief. After the victory at Nihawand, the muslim army captured the whole district of [[Hamadan]] after feeble resistance by Persians.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

==Conquest of Persia (642 - 644)==

After years of non-offensive policy Umar now adopted a new offensive policy.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:18 page no:130</ref> The whole scale invasion of the Sassanid Empire was to begin. The Battle of Nihawand, one of the most decisive battle in Islamic history and certainly the most decisive battle in the history of Persia, more decisive then [[Alexander the great|Alexander]]’s fatal blow at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]], in terms that after Gaugamela, Persians recovered with in few decades and built an other Persian empire, but after Umar blow to Persians at Nihawind, Persians would never raise an other empire.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The battle proved to be a key to Persia. After a devastating defeat at Nihawand, last Sassanid emperor Yazdgerd III, a man with iron nerves, was never to be able again to raise more troops to resist the mighty onslaught of Umar, it had now became a war between two rulers, Umar will follow Yazdgerd III to every corner of his empire either will kill him or will capture him, like he did with Hormuzan. Yazdgerd III would have a narrow escape at [[Marv]] when Umar’s lieutenant was to capture him, he would save his life only by fleeing to [[China]], far enough from reach of Umar, thus effectively ending the 400 years old Sassanid dynasty.<ref>Iranian History and Politics: The Dialectic of State and Society By Homa Katouzian, pg. 25</ref> The conquest of the Sassanid Empire, by commanding the operations, sitting about 1000 kilometer away from the battlefields, will become the greatest triumph of Umar and his strategic marvel, and marked his reputation as one of the greatest military and political genius of all time, like his late cousin [[Khalid ibn Walid]] (590 – 642).<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Strategic planning for the conquest of Persia===
Umar decided to strike Persians immediately after their defeat at Nihawand to have psychological advantage on them. The main strategic problem before Umar was from where to start the offensive. There were three alternatives, [[Fars Province|Fars]] in south, [[Azerbaijan]] in north or [[Isfahan]] in center. Umar closed Isfahan to be the first target. His strategy was to strike heart of Persian Empire this will cut off supply line and communication of Sassanid garrisons from of rest of Persian provinces, thus will isolate Fars, Azerbaijan, from Khurasan. The next attacks will launched against Fars, after capturing the heart land of Persia, that is [[Fars Province|Fars]] and [[Isfahan]] simultaneously attacks will be launched against [[Azerbaijan]], the north western province and [[Sistan]], the eastern most province of Persian Empire.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Conquest of these provinces will leave [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]], the stronghold of [[Yazdegerd III|Emperor Yazdegerd III]] isolated and vulnerable.
In the last phase of this grand campaign Khurasan was to be attacked. This will be a last nail in the coffin of Sassanid dynasty. The plan was formulated and preparations were completed by January 642. The success of plan depended upon how brilliantly Umar will co-ordinate these attacks from Madinah, about 1000 miles from the battlefields in Persia and upon skills and abilities of his field commanders. Umar would appoint his best field commanders to conquer the Sassanid Empire and bring down his most formidable foe [[Yazdegerd III|Emperor Yazdegerd III]]. The campaign saw a different pattern in command structure. Umar will not appoint a single field commander to campaign across the Persian lands, he would rather appoint several commanders each with his own objectives, and once the mission was over he will be acting as an ordinary sub-ordinate under the new field commander for the next mission. This was done by Umar to prevent any of his commanders to gain prominence and power that would in future, threaten his own authority, as in 638 he feared Khalid’s growing power and popularity and dismissed him from military services when he was at zenith of his military career, though at his dismissal, Khalid was more than able to rebel against Umar but never rebelled and made a soft corner in Umar’s heart. In 642 at the eve of conquest of Persia, Umar in order to give a moral boost to his troops decided to reinstall Khalid as new field commander against Persia.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Already well reputed as invincible military commander and conqueror of eastern provinces of Roman, Khalid’s presence in Persia would strike terror in Persian commanders, most of whom had already faced Khalid in 633 during his lightning conquest of Iraq.
Umar wanted a sure victory in early campaigns, which would increase confidence of his troops and meanwhile demoralize Persians. Unfortunately before Umar could issue orders of re-appointment, Khalid, residing in [[Emesa]], died. In various campaigns of Persia, Umar even himself appointed the commanders of wings, center and [[cavalry]] of the army. Umar strictly instructed his commanders to consult him before making any decisive move in Persia. All the commanders, before starting their assigned campaigns were instructed to send a detail report of the geography and terrain of the region and position of Persian [[garrison]]s, [[fort]]s, cities and troops in it. Then Umar will sent them a detail plan of how he want this region to be capture, only the tactical issues were left to the field commander to be tackled in accordance with the situation they are facing at their front.<ref>The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires, Translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, ISBN 0791408523,</ref> Umar appointed the best available and well reputed commanders for the campaign.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref><ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref>

===Conquest of central Persia (Isfahan & Tabaristan)===
[[Image:Choghazanbil2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ziggurat of [[Choqa Zanbil]] in Khuzestan.]]
The preparation and planning of conquest of Persian Empire was completed by early 642. Umar appointed [[Abdullah ibn Uthban]], commander of Muslim forces to invade [[Isfahan]]. From Nihawand Abdullah marched to [[Hamadan]], which was already in Muslim hand. From Hamadan, Abdullah marched to North East to [[Rayy]], about 200 miles from Hamadan and laid siege to the city which surrendered after fierce resistance. Once Rayy was captured Abdullah marched 230 miles south east against [[Isfahan]] city and laid siege to it, here Muslim army was reinforced by the fresh troops from Busra and Kufa under the command of [[Abu Musa Ashaari]] and [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:11 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The siege continued for few months and finally city surrendered. From Isfahan Abdullah again marched 150 miles north-east towards [[Qom]], which was captured with out much resistance. This was the outer most boundary of [[Isfahan]] region. Further north east of it laid [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]], and south east of it lay [[Sistan]]. Meanwhile Hamadan and Rayy had rebelled, Umar sent [[Naiem ibn Muqarrin]], brother of late [[Nauman ibn Muqarrin]], who was Muslim commander at Nihawand, to crush the rebellion and clear the western most boundaries of Isfahan. Naiem marched towards Hamadan from Isfahan, a bloody battle was fought and Hamadan was recaptured by Muslims, Naiem next moved to Rayy, here too Persians resisted and were defeated out side the fort, and city was recaptured by Muslims.<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993">The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires, Translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, ISBN 0791408523</ref> Persian citizen sought for peace and agreed to pay [[Jizya]]. From Rayy, Naiem moved north towards [[Tabaristan]], which laied south of [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993"/> The ruler of Tabaristan surrendered and a peace treaty was signed according to which he will govern Tabaristan on behalf of Caliph and will pay annual Jizya. This was all done in April 642. Naiem’s brother advanced further north and captured Qumas, Jarjan and [[Amol]]. He too signed a peace treaty with locals according to which they will accept the Muslim rule over area and will pay Jizya. With this campaign that ended some time 643, Muslims were master of [[Tabaristan]]. Further North West of the region laid [[Azerbaijan]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:11 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of southern Persia (Fars)===

With [[Isfahan]] firmly in Muslim hand, conquest of [[Fars Province|Fars]] begun about the same time when conquest of [[Tabaristan]] was started. The first army that will penetrate Fars, was under the command of [[Maja’a ibn Masood]], his objective was [[Sabur]]. Maja’a marched from [[Busra]] to [[Tawwaj]], where Persian forces halt his way and were defeated in a quick battle thus fought. From Tawwaj Maja’a moved to Sabur, which was a fortified town.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:12 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The siege continued for few weeks after which city surrendered and usual terms of Jizya were enforced on it. With the conquest of Sabur Maja’a ibn Masood’s mission was over. Reinforcement came under the command of [[Usman ibn Abi al-Aas]], who took over the command of Majaa’s army. Usman’s objective was ancient Persian capital city of [[Persepolis]]. Usman marched from Tawwaj to [[Shiraz]], which surrendered peacefully. From Shiraz, Usman moved 35 miles north to Persepolis and laid siege to the historic Persian city. Siege lasted for several weeks before the city surrendered. Usman’s mission was over at Persepolis. Here again a change of command occurred. The mission to captured eastern districts of [[Fasa]] and [[Darab]] was given to [[Sariyah ibn Zuneim]], who moved 80 miles south east to capture Fasa and then Darab, 60 miles from Fasa after resistance from local Persian garrisons. With this last successful expedition, conquest of Fars was completed by late [[642]]. Further east of Fars laid [[Kerman]] and [[Sistan]]. A simultaneous campaign was launched against eastern (sistan and Balochistan), southern (Kerman and Makran) and north western (Azerbaijan) Persia.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

===Conquest of south eastern Persia (Kerman & Makran)===
[[Image:Head horse Kerman Louvre MAO132.jpg|150px|thumb|Sassanid era horse head Found in Kerman.]]
Expedition to [[Kerman]] was sent roughly at the same time when expedition to [[Sistan]] and [[Azerbaijan]] were sent. [[Suhail ibn adi]] was given command of this expedition. Suhail marched from Busra in 643, passing from [[Shiraz]] and [[Persepolis]] he join with other Muslim armies and marched against Kerman, which was subdued after a pitch battle with local garrisons. Further east of Kerman laid [[Makran]] what is now a part of present day [[Pakistan]]. It was domain of [[Hindu]] king of Rasil (sindh), who acted as a vassal of Sassanid Persians. [[Raja]] of Rasil concentrated huge armies from Sindh and [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] to halt the advance of Muslims. Suhail was reinforced by Usman ibn Abi Al Aas from Persepolis, and Hakam ibn Amr from Busra, the combined forces defeated Raja Rasil at the [[Battle of Rasil]], who retreated to the eastern bank of [[Indus|River Indus]]. Further east from Indus River laid [[Sindh]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:13 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Umar, after knowing that sindh was a poor and relatively barran land, disapproved Suhail’s proposal to cross Indus River.<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993"/> For the time being, Umar declared the Indus River, a natural barrier, to be the eastern most frontier of his domain. This campaign came to an end in mid 644.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref>

===Conquest of eastern Persia (Sistan)===
{{Main|History of Arabs in Afghanistan}}
[[Sistan]] was believed to be the largest province of Sassanid Empire. In south it bordered with Kerman and in North with Khurasan. It stretches from what is now [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan, Pakistan]] in east and southern [[Afghanistan]] in north. [[Asim ibn Amr]], veteran of great battles of [[Battle of Qadisiyyah|Qadisiyyah]] and [[Battle of Nihawand|Nihawand]] was appointed to conquer Sistan. Asim marched from [[Busra]], and passing through Fars and taking under his command the Muslim troops already present in fars entered Sistan. No resistance was offered and cities surrendered. Asim reached [[Zaranj]], 250 miles from [[Kandahar]], a small town in present day southern Afghanistan, then a bustling capital of Sistan. Asim laid siege to the city which lasted several months. A pitch battle was fought out side the city and Persians were defeated and routed. With the surrender of Zaranj, Sistan submitted to Muslim rule. Further east of sistan was northern [[Sindh]] which was beyond the scope of the mission assigned to Asim. Caliph for the time bring, didn’t approved of any incursion in the land east of Persian Empire and ordered his men to consolidate power in newly conquered land.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:14 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Azerbaijan===
[[Image:Derbent winter.jpg|thumb|left|275px|Sassanian fortress in [[Derbent]]. It fell to the Muslims in 643.]]
Conquest of [[Azerbaijan]] started in 643. It was part of simultaneous attack launched against north, south and east of Persia, after capturing Isfahan and Fars. These brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks by Caliph Umar, paralyzed whole of what then remained of Persian Empire. Expeditions were sent against Kerman and Makran in south east, against Sistan in north east and against Azerbaijan in North West. [[Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman]] was appointed commander to conquer Azerbaijan. Hudheifa marched from [[Rayy]] in central Persia to [[Zanjan]], a stronghold of Persians in north. Zanjan was a well defended fortified town, Persians came out of the city and gave a battle, Hudheifa defeated the Persian garrison and captured the city, as per Caliph Umar’s order, the civilians who sought for peace were given peace on the usual terms of [[Jizya]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:15 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> From Zanjan, Hudheifa marched to [[Ardabil]] which surrendered peacefully and Hudheifa continued his march north along with the western coast of [[Caspian Sea]] and captured [[Bab]] by force.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref> At this point Hudheifa was recalled by Caliph umar. [[Bukair ibn Abdullah]] and [[Utba ibn Farqad]] succeeded him. They were sent to carry out a two prong attack against Azerbaijan. Bukair was to march north along western coast of Caspian Sea while Uthba will march direct in the heart of Azerbaijan. On his way north Bukair was halt by a large Persian force under Isandir. A pitch battle was fought and Isandir was defeated and captured. Isandir in return of safety of his life agreed to surrender his estates in Azerbaijan and persuade others for submission to the Muslim rule.<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993"/> Uthba ibn Farqad defeated Bahram, brother of Isandir. He too sought for peace. A pact was drawn according to which Azerbaijan was surrendered to Caliph Umar on usual terms of paying annual [[Jizya]]. The espedition commenced some time in late 643.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:15 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Armenia===
[[File:Tbilisi (20).jpg|thumb|right|200px|View of Tbilisi, which fell to the Rashidun Caliphate in 644.]]
[[Byzantine]] [[Armenia]] was already conquered in 638-639. Persian Armenia lay north of Azerbaijan. By now except for [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] and [[Armenia]], whole of Persian Empire was under Umar’s control and Emperor Yazdegred III was on run. Umar never wanted to take a chance, he never perceived Persian as weak and weary. In Umar’s this sense of perception laid his secret of brilliant and speedy conquest of Persian Empire. This time again Umar decided to send simultaneous expeditions to far north east and north west of Persian Empire. An expedition was sent to [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] in late 643 and at the same time an expedition was launched against [[Armenia]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
[[Bukair ibn Abdullah]], who had recently subdued Azerbaijan, assigned mission to Capture [[Tiflis]], present day capital of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], then a Capital of Persian Armenia. From [[Bab]] at western coast of Caspian Sea, Bukair continued his march north. Umar decided to practice his traditional and successful strategy of multi-prong attacks. While Bukair was still miles away from [[Tiflis]], Umar instructed him to divide his army into three corps. Umar appointed [[Habib ibn Muslaima]] to capture Tiflis, [[Abdulrehman]] to march north against the mountains and [[Hudheifa]] to march against southern mountains. Habib captured Tiflis and region up to eastern coast of [[Black Sea]]. Abdulrehman marched north to [[Caucasus|Caucasus Mountains]] and subdued the tribes. Hudheifa marched south west to the mountainous region and subdued the local tribes. The advance in Armenia came to an end with the death of Caliph umar in November 644. By then almost whole of [[Caucasus]] was captured.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:16 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Khurasan===
{{Main|History of Arabs in Afghanistan}}
[[Image:Afghanistan 14.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Shah-Do Shamshira Mosque]] in [[Kabul]].]]
[[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] was second largest province of Sassanid Persian Empire. It stretches from what is present day north eastern [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]. Its capital was [[Balkh]], now in present day northern Afghanistan. In late 643 the mission of conquering Khurasan was assigned to [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]].<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref> Ahnaf marched from [[Kufa]] and took a short and less frequent route via [[Rayy]] and [[Nishapur]]. Rayy was already in Muslim hand and Nishapur surrendered with out resistance. From Nishapur Ahnaf marched to [[Herat]] which in now in present day southern Afghanistan. Herat was a fortified town, [[Siege of Herat]] lasted for few months before Herat surrendered. With the surrender of Heart, whole of the southern Khurasan came under Muslim control. With Herat under his firm control, Ahnaf marched north direct to [[Merv]], in present [[Turkmenistan]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:17 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Merv was the capital of Khurasan and here Yazdegred III held his court. On hearing of the Muslim advance, Yazdegred III left for Balkh. No resistance was offered at Merv, and the Muslims occupied the capital of Khurasan without firing a shot. Ahnaf stayed at Merv and waited for reinforcement from Kufa.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Meanwhile Yazdgird had also gathered considerable power at Balkh and also sought alliance with the Khan of [[Farghana]], who personally led the Turkish contingent to help Yazdegred III. Umar ordered that Yazdgird’s allied forces should be weaken by breaking up the alliance with Turks. Ahnaf successfully break up the alliance and Khan of Farghana pulled back his forces realizing that fighting with Muslims is not a good idea and it might endanger his own kingdom. Yazdgird's army was defeated at the [[Battle of Oxus River]] and retreated across the [[Oxus]] to [[Transoxiana]]. Yazdegred III had a narrow escape and fled to [[China]]. Balkh was occupied by the Muslims, and with this occupation the Persian war was over. The Muslims had now reached the outermost frontiers of Persia. Beyond that lay the lands of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and still further lay China. The old mighty empire of the Sassanids had ceased to exist. Ahnaf returned to Marv and sent a detail report of operations to Umar and a historic letter that Umar was anxiously waiting for, subject of which was that Persian Empire has been conquered and a permission was sought whether Oxus should be crossed to invade Transoxiana or not. Umar ordered Ahnaf to consolidate his power south of Oxus.

==Persian rebellion==
Caliph Umar was assassinated in November 644, by a Persian Slave. The assassination is often seen by various historians as a Persian conspiracy against Umar.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref> [[Hormuzan]] is said to have master minded this plot. Caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan]] (644-656) succeeded Umar. During his reign almost whole of the former Sassanid empire's territory rebelled time to time until 651, when the last Sassanid emperor was assassinated near [[Merv]] ending the Sassanid dynasty and Persian resistance to Muslims. Caliph Uthman thus directed several military expeditions to crush rebellion and re-capture the Persia and their vassal states. The Empire expanded beyond the borders of Sassanid Empire in [[Transoxiana]], [[Balochistan (region)|Baluchistan]] and [[Caucasus]]. The main rebellion was in the Persian provinces of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Fars, Sistan ( in 649), Tabaristan, Khorasan (651), and Makran (650).<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:19 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

==End of the Sassanid dynasty==
[[Yazdegerd III]] after being defeated at the [[Battle of Oxus river]] was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive.
Following the battle he fled to [[central asia]] at the court of Khan of Farghana. From there Yazdegerd went to China.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Nevertheless Yazdegerd III kept on intruding in Persia, using his influence over the notables and chiefs of Persia, thus remained a motivating force behind the Persian rebellion. During Caliph Uthman's reign Yadegerd III came back to [[Bactria]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] rebelled against Caliphate. [[Abdullah ibn Aamir]] crushed the rebellion and defeated Yazdegerd's forces. He fled from one district to another until a local miller killed him for his purse at [[Merv]] in 651.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324 | title=Iran | publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> For many decades to come, this was the easternmost limit of complete Muslim rule.

==Persia under Muslim rule==

{{See also|Islamization in Iran|Islam in Iran}}
[[Image:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb|right|300px|Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654 {{legend|#009900|Strongholds of Rashidun Caliphate}}.]]
[[File:Naghsh-e-jahan masjed-e-shah esfahan.jpg|thumb|300px|View of [[Naqsh-e Jahan Square]] and [[Shah Mosque]], Iran.]]

According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:
<blockquote>"''Arab Muslims conquests have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision… Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna.''"<ref name="lewis">{{cite web | url=http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html | title=Iran in history | first=Bernard | last=Lewis | publisher=[[Tel Aviv University]] | accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref></blockquote>

===Administration===

Under Umar and his immediate successors, the Arab conquerors attempted to maintain their political and cultural cohesion despite the attractions of the civilizations they had conquered. The Arabs initially settled in the garrison towns rather than on scattered estates.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

The new non-Muslim subjects were protected by the state and known as ''[[dhimmi]]'' (meaning protected), were to pay a special tax, the ''[[jizya]]'' or poll tax, which was calculated per individual at varying rates, usually two [[dirham]]s for able bodied men of military age, in return for their exemption from military services. Women and Children were exempted from Jizya.<ref>{{cite book
| author = [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Kennedy, Hugh]]
| title = The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates
| publisher = Longman
| date = 2004
| page = 68
}}</ref>. The Jizya replaced taxes imposed by the Sassanids, which tended to be much higher than the Jizya. Zoroastrians were subject to humiliation and ridicule when paying the Jizya, which was done to make them feel inferior. <ref name='mboyce'>{{cite book|last=Boyce|first= Mary|title=Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices|publisher=Routledge, 2001|pages=146|isbn=0415239028, 9780415239028|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&lpg=PP1&dq=Zoroastrians,%20their%20religious%20beliefs%20and%20practices&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=inferior&f=false}}</ref>

The administrative system of the late Sassanid period was largely retained.
This was a pyramidal system where each quarter of the state was divided into provinces, the provinces into districts, and the districts into sub-districts.
Provinces were called ''ustan'' (Middle Persian ''ostan''), the districts ''shahrs'', centered upon a district capital known as ''shahristan''. The subdistricts were called ''tasok'' in Middle Persian, which was adopted as ''tassuj'' (plural ''tasasij'') into Arabic.

===Religion===
{{See also|Islamization in Iran|Persecution of Zoroastrians}}
Having effectively been recognized as dhimmis under the Rashidun Caliphs, on the terms of annual payment of Jizya, Zoroastrians were sometimes left largely to themselves, but that this pattern was patchy and varied from area to area. Due to their financial interests, Ummayads generally discourage the conversion of non-Arabs, as dhimmis provided them with valuable revenues (Jizya). With the course of time [[Persecution of Zoroastrians|religious persecution of Zoroastrians]] increased<ref name="iranica">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v13f3/v13f3001a.html|title=Iran in the Islamic Period (651-1980s)-Encyclopedia Iranica|accessdate=17 December 2009}}</ref> <ref name='ayear'>{{cite book|last=BROWNE|first=EDWARD GRANVILLE |title=. A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS|publisher=Adam and Charles Black, 1893|pages=594}}</ref>, and social humiliations were implemented to make life difficult for the them and to persuade them to eventually convert to Islam.<ref name='bbc'>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/history/persia_1.shtml#h4|title=BBC - Religions - Zoroastrian: Under Persian rule|accessdate=17 December 2009}}</ref>

Before the conquest, the Persians had been mainly [[Zoroastrian]]; there were also large and thriving [[Christian]] and [[Jewish]] communities, along with smaller numbers of [[Buddhist]]s and other groups. However, there was a slow but steady movement of the population toward [[Islam]]. The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert, Islam spread more slowly among the peasantry and the ''dihqans'', or landed gentry. By the late 10th century, the majority of Persians had become Muslim.

Until the 15th century, most Persian Muslims were [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]], though today Iran is known as a stronghold of the Shi'a Muslim faith. The Iranian Muslims projected many of their own Persian moral and ethical values{{Citation needed| May 2009 such as?|date=May 2009}} that predates Islam into the religion, while recognizing Islam as their religion and the prophet's son in law, [[Ali]] as an enduring symbol of justice.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

==Language==
During the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], the official language of Persia remained [[Old Persian|Persian]]. Likewise, the official languages of [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] remained [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. However, during the [[Ummayad Caliphate]], the Ummayads imposed [[Arabic]] as the primary language of their subjected people throughout their empire, displacing their indigenous languages. Although an area from Iraq to Morocco speaks Arabic to this day, [[Middle Persian]] proved to be much more enduring. Most of its structure and vocabulary survived, evolving into the modern [[Persian language]]. However, Persian did incorporate a certain amount of Arabic vocabulary, especially words pertaining to religion, and it switched from the [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] [[Aramaic alphabet]] to a modified version of the [[Arabic alphabet]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.languages.umd.edu/persian/persianlanguage1.php | title=What is Persian? | publisher = The center for Persian studies}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Islamicization in post-conquest Iran]]
* [[History of Arabs in Afghanistan]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[Military history of Iran]]
* [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty]]
* [[Muslim conquests]]
* [[Spread of Islam]]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=daDZyBSlicQ Response from the last Persian King Yazdgird III To: Omar, Khalifat of Islam Army]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

==Literature==
* Bashear, Suliman — ''Arabs and Others in Early Islam'', Darwin Press, 1997
* Daniel, Elton — ''The History of Iran'', Greenwood Press, 2001
* Donner, Fred — ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', Princeton, 1981
* M. Ismail Marcinkowski, ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971-77-488-7.
* Sicker, Martin — ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna'', Praeger, 2000
* [[Abdolhossein Zarinkoob|Zarrin’kub, Abd al-Husayn]] — ''Ruzgaran : tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi'', Sukhan, 1999. ISBN 964-6961-11-8
* [http://www.iranica.com/articles/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v2_articles/arab/arab_conquest_iran&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Arab Conquest of Iran], pp. 203–10, [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muslim Conquest Of Persia}}
[[Category:7th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]
[[Category:Wars involving Persia]]
[[Category:Sassanid dynasty]]
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]
[[Category:Islam in Iran]]

[[ar:الفتح الإسلامي لفارس]]
[[es:Conquista musulmana de Persia]]
[[fa:حمله اعراب به ایران]]
[[fr:Conquête musulmane de la Perse]]
[[mk:Исламско освојување на Персија]]
[[ja:イスラーム教徒のペルシア征服]]
[[no:Den islamske erobringen av Iran]]
[[th:การพิชิตจักรวรรดิเปอร์เซียของมุสลิม]]
[[tr:İran'da İslam]]
[[zh:伊斯兰对波斯的征服]]

Electronic Intifada

2009-09-14T16:52:17Z

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{{Infobox Website
| name = Electronic Intifada
| logo = [[Image:Eilogo.jpg]]
| screenshot =
| caption =
| url = http://www.electronicintifada.net/
| commercial = No
| type = Pro-Palestinian, Human Rights
| language = [[English language|English]]
| registration =
| owner =
| author =
| launch date =
| current status =
| revenue =
}}
'''The Electronic Intifada (ei)''' is a not-for-profit, independent online publication which covers the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] from a [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] perspective, "aimed at combating the pro-Israeli, pro-American spin" its editors believe exists in [[mainstream media]] accounts.<ref name="brown"/> ''EI'' was founded by [[Ali Abunimah]], Arjan El Fassed, Laurie King, and Nigel Parry.<ref>[http://electronicintifada.net/bytopic/faqs/93.shtml EI FAQ: What is the Electronic Intifada?]</ref>

==Readership==
EI sees over one quarter of a million visits a month, with surges during crisis periods. Following Israel's [[Operation Summer Rains]] in Gaza on June 27, 2006 and its war in Lebanon launched on July 12, 2006, EI saw one million visits in one month. During [[Operation Defensive Shield]] in March/April 2002, EI saw over three-quarters of a million visitors in one month.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

==Bassaleh News Network (BNN)==
The Bassaleh News Network is an online magazine by EI publishing satirical material about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and Middle East in general. The name means "[[The Onion]]" in Arabic{{Fact|date=September 2009}}. BNN has not been updated since late 2006.<ref>[http://electronicintifada.net/v2/bassaleh.shtml Electronic Intifada: Bassaleh News Network]</ref>

==Reception==
Hannah Brown of the ''[[Jerusalem Post]]'' described ''EI'' as "very professional, user-friendly and well written," and added that "it is mainly a compilation of news from publications all over the Internet."<ref name="brown">Hannah Brown, "[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/208068391.html?dids=208068391:208068391&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Sep+27%2C+2002&author=Hannah+Brown&pub=Jerusalem+Post&edition=&startpage=24&desc=Virtual+war Virtual war]", ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'', [[September 27]] [[2002]]</ref> Gil Sedan, a [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] reporter, described ''EI'' as a "cyberpropaganda" site which "may contribute to a better understanding of the Palestinian cause," but also said that it "is too biased to be of much use to mainstream publications."<ref>Gil Sedan, [http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/16379/edition_id/321/format/html/displaystory.html "Mideast cease-fire doesn't extend into cyberspace"], June 29, 2001</ref>

Political journalist and editor of left-wing Counterpunch [[Alexander Cockburn]] stated "there are a number of excellent news outlets for those who want unjaundiced reporting.... The Electronic Intifada...is trusted."<ref>[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20001211/cockburn Alexander Cockburn, "Torture Them", ''[[The Nation]]'', [[December 11]] [[2000]]]</ref>
[[Gerald M. Steinberg]], the Director of the ''Program on Conflict Resolution'' at
[[Bar Ilan University]] and head of [[NGO Monitor]], described Electronic Intifada as "an explicitly pro-Palestinian political and ideological Web site"<ref>[http://www.thejewishweek.com/top/editletcontent.php3?artid=4055&print=yes "Human Rights Watch needs watching"], Gerald M. Steinberg, ''The Jewish Week'', [[March 25]] [[2005]]</ref> that hosts "anti-Israel propaganda."<ref>[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1154525949034&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull "Ken Roth's blood libel], ''Jerusalem Post'', August 26, 2006</ref>

==CAMERA and Wikipedia==
In an April 2008 article on Electronic Intifada, e-mails purported to have been sent between [[Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America|CAMERA]] members were published, which laid out a plan to cooperate with prominent Wikipedia editors to promote a [[neo-Zionism|neo-Zionist]] viewpoint and oppose pro-Arab viewpoints on Wikipedia. A Wikipedia user reportedly advised the group that "One or more of you who want to take this route should stay away from any Israel realted [sic] articles for one month until they [sic] interact in a positive way with 100 wikipedia [sic] editors who would be used later to vote you as an administrator."<ref>"Pro-Israel group's plan to re-write history on Wikipedia." [http://electronicintifada.net/v2/article9474.shtml]. ''Electronic Initifada.'' 21 April 2008.</ref><ref>http://www.elmundo.es/navegante/2008/04/23/tecnologia/1208961786.html</ref>

[[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting]], a left-wing media criticism organization based in New York City, writes "CAMERA's emails are particularly insidious in that stealth and misrepresentation are presented as the keys to success."<ref name=FAIR>[http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=22&media_view_id=10092 ''FAIR'': "Electronic Intifada: A Pro-Israel Group's Plan to Rewrite History on Wikipedia"]</ref> Five editors involved in the campaign were sanctioned by Wikipedia administrators.<ref name=Telegraph>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1934857/Israeli-battles-rage-on-Wikipedia.html|title=Israeli battles rage on Wikipedia|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=Telegraph Media Group Limited|accessdate=2008-05-08|date=2008-05-08|last=McElroy|first=Damien}}</ref><ref name=elmundo>Monica G. Prieto, [http://www.elmundo.es/navegante/2008/04/23/tecnologia/1208961786.html "¿Se puede reescribir la historia? (Is it possible to re-write history?)"], ''El Mundo'', April 23, 2008, accessed 2008-04-29</ref> Gilead Ini, a "CAMERA Senior Research Analyst" who reportedly organized the campaign, refused to say if the purported messages were genuine but maintains that there was a CAMERA email campaign which adhered to Wikipedia's rules.<ref name=Register>[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/04/29/wikipedia_blocked_doj_ip/ ''The Register'':US Department of Justice banned from Wikipedia - CAMERA and The Electronic Intifada]</ref> Ini further asserted in a May 2008 article on the CAMERA website that "Wikipedia, though a fascinating experiment, is broken."<ref>[http://www.camera.org/index.asp?x_context=2&x_outlet=118&x_article=1485 CAMERA: How and Why to Edit Wikipedia]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Palestine News Network]]
*[[International Middle East Media Center]]
*[[Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America#Wikipedia|Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America ('''Wikipedia''' subheading)]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.electronicintifada.net/ Electronic Intifada] ''Official Website''

[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:Asian political websites]]
[[Category:Palestinian media]]

Brasilianisches Expeditionskorps in Europa

2008-11-16T14:06:03Z

Slatersteven: /* The campaign */

{{TOC-right}}
The '''Brazilian [[Expeditionary warfare|Expeditionary Force]]''' or '''BEF''' ({{lang-pt|'''Força Expedicionária Brasileira'''}}, or '''FEB''') was the 25,300-man force formed by the [[Brazil]]ian [[Brazilian Navy|Navy]], [[Brazilian Army|Army]] and [[Brazilian Air Force|Air Force]] that fought alongside the [[Allied]] forces in the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Campaign]] of [[World War II]].

==Overview==
It was by no means a foregone conclusion that [[Brazil]] would join the [[Allied powers]] in [[World War II]]. Initially Brazil maintained a position of neutrality, trading with both the Allies and the [[Axis Powers]], while Brazilian president [[Getúlio Vargas]]'s quasi-[[Fascist]] policies indicated a leaning toward the Axis powers. However, as the war progressed, trade with the Axis countries became almost impossible and the US began forceful diplomatic efforts to bring Brazil and other Latin American states onto the Allied side.

At the beginning of 1942, Brazil permitted the US to set up air bases in the states of [[Bahia]], [[Pernambuco]] and [[Rio Grande do Norte]], where the city of [[Natal, Rio Grande do Norte|Natal]] hosted part of the U.S. Navy's [[VP-52]] patrol squadron. In addition, US Task Force 3 established itself in Brazil, and this included a squadron equipped to attack submarines and merchant vessels attempting to trade with [[Japan]].

Although Brazil was technically neutral, this increasing cooperation with the Allies led the Brazilian government to announce, at the Pan American States Conference in Rio on [[28 January]] [[1942]], the decision to sever diplomatic relations with [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and [[Italy]]. As a result, from the end of January to July 1942, around thirteen Brazilian merchant vessels were sunk by German [[U-Boat]]s. In August 1942, one single German submarine, the [[U-507]], sank five Brazilian vessels in two days, causing more than six hundred deaths:

:*On [[August 15]], the ''Baependy,'' traveling from [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]] to [[Recife]], was [[torpedo]]ed at 19:12. Its 215 passengers and 55 crew members were lost.
:*At 21:03, the U-507 torpedoed the ''Araraquara,'' also traveling from Salvador towards the north of the country. Of the 142 people on board, 131 died.
:*Seven hours after the second attack, the U-507 attacked the ''Aníbal Benévolo.'' All 83 passengers died; of a crew of 71, only four survived.
:*On [[August 17]], close to the city of [[Vitória]], the ''Itagiba'' was hit at 10:45, with a death toll of 36.
:*Another Brazilian ship, the ''Arará '', traveling from [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]] to [[Santos (São Paulo)|Santos]], stopped to help the crippled ''Itagiba'', but ended up being the fifth Brazilian victim of the German submarine, with a death toll of 20.

Berlin Radio pronouncements led to increasing nervousness among the Brazilian population. So unlike [[History of Brazil (1889–1930)#Brazil_in_World_War_I|1917]], in 1942 it seemed that Brazilian government did not want war. In the then capital, [[Rio de Janeiro]], the people started to retaliate against German businesses, such as restaurants.<ref>Hélio Silva, "1942 Guerra no Continente"</ref> The passive position of the Vargas government was untenable in the face of [[public opinion]]. Ultimately, the government found itself with no other choice but to [[declare war]] on [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] on [[August 22]], [[1942]].

==Command==
The Brazilian 1st Division of the BEF was under the command of [[15th Army Group]] of Field Marshal [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Harold Alexander]] (later succeeded by General [[Mark Wayne Clark|Mark Clark]]), via the [[U.S. Fifth Army]] of Lieutenant General Mark Clark (later succeeded by Lieutenant General [[Lucian Truscott]]) and the [[U.S. IV Corps]] of Major General [[Willis D. Crittenberger]]. The overall organisation of the Allied and German armies in Italy at the time can be found on the [[Gothic Line order of battle]] entry.

The Brazilian Air Force component was under the command of XXII Tactical Air Command, which was itself under the Mediterranean Allied Tactical Air Force.

The BEF headquarters functioned as an administrative headquarters and link to the Brazilian [[high command]] and War Minister General [[Eurico Gaspar Dutra]] in Rio de Janeiro.

General [[Mascarenhas de Moraes]] (later Marshal) was the commander of the FEB with General Zenóbio da Costa as commander of the division's three [[Regimental combat team|regimental Combat Teams ("RCT")]] and General Cordeiro de Farias as commander of the Artillery.

The BEF was (theoretically) organized as a standard American [[infantry]] [[division (military)|division]], complete in all aspects, down to its [[Logistics|logistical]] tail, including [[mail|postal]] and [[bank]]ing services. It comprised the 1st, 6th and 11th RCTs, each one equivalent to 5,000 men having three [[battalion]]s, composed of four [[Company (military unit)|companies]] each.

==The campaign==
Soon after Brazil declared war, it began popular [[mobilization]] to create an expeditionary force to fight in [[Europe]]<ref>Fernando Morais, "Chatô, o Rei do Brasil"</ref><ref>Silva, Hélio, "1944 o Brasil na Guerra"</ref> It took almost two years to send about 25,000 men (from an initial estimate of 100,000) to join the Allied war effort in the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Campaign]].

On 29th June 1944 the first five thousand FEB/BEF soldiers left Brazil for Europe aboard the USNS ''General Mann''. The first units arrived in Italy on 16th July 1944. They disembarked in [[Naples]] where they waited to join the US Task Force 45. They disembarked without weapons, and as no one had arranged barracks stood around on the docks, at the time this caused contoversy in the Brazilian media<ref> Command Magazine issue 51, page 34</ref>. In late July, two more [[transport]]s with Brazilian troops reached Italy, with three more following in September, November, and February 1945.
The first weeks in Italy were dedicated to acquiring the proper equipment to fight on the Italian terrain and training under American command. The troops moved to [[Tarquinia]], 350 km north of [[Naples]], where Clark's army was based. In November 1944, the BEF was integrated into General Crittenberger's U.S. IV Corps.

In 1944, the Italian Front resembled the multi-national force make up of the French Front in 1918. The forces fighting were constituted by: Americans (including segregated African- and Japanese-Americans), British, French, members of the British Commonwealth and French and British colonies (New Zealanders, Canadians, Indians, Gurkhas, Black Africans, Morrocans, Algerians, Jews and Arabs from the [[British Mandate in Palestine]], South Africans), as well as Brazilians, Poles, Greeks, Czechs and anti-fascist Italians who made one of their main contributions to the Allied war effort.
<ref>Ready, J.Lee, "Forgotten Allies: The Military Contribution of the Colonies, Exiled Governments and Lesser Powers to the Allied Victory in World War II"</ref>.

The Germans made much of the presence of the Brazilian force in Italy. German propaganda included pamphlets<ref>[http://members.home.nl/ww2propaganda/italy/italych07.htm Propaganda leaflets of World War 2: Italian theatre of operations / Po Valley Campaign]</ref> directed to the fighting Brazilians and an hour a day radio broadcast in Portuguese from Berlin Radio called "Radio AuriVerde" (GoldenGreen Hour).

The first missions of the Brazilians were [[reconnaissance]] operations to the end of August; Brazilian troops helped to fill the gap left by divisions of the Fifth Army and [[French Expeditionary Corps (1943-1944)|French Expeditionary Corps]] that left Italy for [[Operation Dragoon]], the invasion of southern [[France]].

On [[September 16]], the 6th RCT took [[Massarosa]]. Two days later it also took [[Camaiore]] and other small towns on the way north. By then, the BEF had already conquered Monte Prano, and controlled the [[Serchio]] valley without any major casualties. After having been in action around [[Barga]] city and after the arrival of the 1st RCT at the end of October, the BEF was directed to the base of the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]] where it would spend the next months facing the harsh winter and the resistance of the [[Gothic Line]].<ref>R.Brooks, ''The War North of Rome'', p.220 to 224</ref>

After the Brazilians and troops of [[U.S. 10th Mountain Division]] took those positions on Apennines from February 18 to March 5, 1945 the German mass [[withdrawal (military)|retreat]] had become unavoidable with the Spring offensive in April. [[Bologna]] was entered on 21 April by the Polish 3rd Carpathian Rifle Division from Eighth Army and U.S. 34th Infantry Division from Fifth Army. On the 25th a general partisan insurrection by the [[Italian resistance movement]] started at the same time as the Brazilians arrived at [[Parma]], the Americans at [[Modena]] and [[Genova]], and as forces of the British VIII Army advanced towards [[Venice]] and [[Trieste]]. After that, the main concern of the Allied forces in Italy was pursuing the enemy. After capturing a large number of Germans at [[Collecchio]], the Brazilian forces were preparing to face fierce resistance at the [[Taro river|Taro]] region from what was left of the retreating German army. The German troops were surrounded near Fornovo and forced to [[Surrender (military)|surrender]]. More than 20 thousand men, including the entire [[148th Infantry Division (Germany)|148th Infantry Division]], elements of the [[90th Light Infantry Division (Germany)]], and the last former Division of the Italian Fascist Army, surrendered to the Brazilian Forces on [[April 28]].

On [[May 2]], the Brazilians reached [[Turin]] and met [[France|French]] troops at the [[border]], in [[Susa (TO)|Susa]]. Meanwhile, on the [[Alps]], the FEB was on the heels of German forces still on the run. On that very day, the news that [[Hitler]] was dead put an end to the fighting in Italy, and all German troops surrendered to the Allies in the following hours.

==The Air Force==
The 1oGAVCA (1st Fighter Group/1º Grupo de Aviação de Caça) was formed on [[December 18]], [[1943]]. Commanding Officer was Ten.-Cel.-Av. (Aviation Lieutenant Colonel) Nero Moura. The group was divided into four flights: Red ("A"), Yellow ("B"), Blue ("C"), and Green ("D"). Each flight consisted of roughly twelve pilots who had been flying together. The CO of the group and some officers were not attached to any specific flight.

The group had 350 men, including 43 pilots. Unlike the FEB's Army component, the 1oGAVCA had personnel who were experienced [[Brazilian Air Force]] (Portuguese: Força Aérea Brasileira, or FAB) pilots. One of them, for example, was Alberto M. Torres, the pilot of a [[PBY Catalina|PBY-5A Catalina]] that had sunk [[German submarine U-199|''U-199'']], which was operating off the Brazilian coast.

The group trained for combat in [[Panama]], where 2o Ten.-Av. Dante (Aviation Second Lieutenant) Isidoro Gastaldoni was killed in a training accident. On [[May 11]], [[1944]], the group was declared operational and became active in the air defense of the Panama Canal Zone. On [[June 22]], the 1oGAVCA was sent to the U.S. to convert to the [[P-47 Thunderbolt|Republic P-47D Thunderbolt]].

On [[September 19]], [[1944]] the 1oGAVCA left for Italy, arriving at Livorno on October 6. It became part of the 350th Fighter Group of the [[United States Army Air Forces|USAAF]], which in turn was part of the 62nd Fighter Wing, XXII Tactical Air Command, of the [[12th Air Force]].

The Brazilian pilots initially flew from [[October 31]], [[1944]], as individual elements of flights attached to 350th FG squadrons, at first in affiliation flights and progressively taking part in more dangerous missions. Less than two weeks later, on [[November 11]], the group started its own operations flying from its base at Tarquinia, using its tactical [[callsign]] ''Jambock''. FAB Thunderbolts were marked by Brazilian Air Force stars, replacing the white U.S. star in the roundel.

The 1oGAVCA started its fighting career as a fighter-bomber unit, its missions being armed [[reconnaissance]] and [[air interdiction|interdiction]], in support of the US Fifth Army, to which the FEB was attached.

On [[April 16]], [[1945]], the [[U.S. Fifth Army]] started its offensive along the [[Po River|Po Valley]]. By then, the Group was reduced to 25 pilots, some having been killed and others shot down and captured; some others had been relieved from operations on medical grounds due to [[combat stress reaction|combat fatigue]]. The Yellow flight was thus disbanded, its remaining pilots being distributed among the other flights. Each pilot flew on average two missions a day.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}

On [[April 22]], [[1945]], the three remaining flights took off at 5-minute intervals, starting at 8:30 AM, destroying bridges, barges, and motorized vehicles in the San Benedetto region. At 10:00 AM, a flight took off for an armed reconnaissance mission south of [[Mantua]]. More than 80 tanks, trucks, and vehicles were destroyed beyond fortified German positions. By the end of the day, the group had flown 44 individual missions, having destroyed hundreds of vehicles and barges. This was the day when more sorties than ever were made by the group; consequently, April 22 is commemorated in Brazil as Brazilian Fighter Arm Day.

The 1oGAVCA flew a total of 445 missions, 2,550 individual sorties, and 5,465 combat flight hours, from [[11 November]] [[1944]] to [[6 May]] [[1945]]. The XXII Tactical Air Command acknowledged the efficiency of the Group by noting that although it flew only 5% of the total of missions carried out by all squadrons under its control, it accomplished a much higher percentage of the total destruction wreaked:
* 85% of the ammunition depots
* 36% of the fuel depots
* 28% of the bridges (19% damaged)
* 15% of motor vehicles (13% damaged)
* 10% of horse-drawn vehicles (10% damaged)<ref>John W. Buyers, "HISTÓRIA DOS 350TH FIGHTER GROUP DA FORÇA AÉREA AMERICANA"</ref>

==The outcome==
During eight months of the [[military campaign|campaign]], the Brazilian Expeditionary Force managed to take 20,573 Axis [[Prisoner of war|prisoners]] (two generals, 892 officers and 19,679 other ranks) and had 443 of its men [[killed in action]].

The soldiers buried in the FEB [[cemetery]] in [[Pistoia]] were later removed to a [[mausoleum]] built in [[Rio de Janeiro]]. The [[mausoleum]] was proposed and promoted by [[Mascarenhas de Moraes]] (then a Marshal). It was inaugurated on [[July 24]], [[1960]] and covers an area of 6,850 square meters. The personnel of the BEF were regarded as a tough bunch, by the Germans and their Allied counterparts alike.

==Nickname==
Due to the Brazilian dictatorship's unwillingness to get more deeply involved in the Allied war effort, by 1942 a popular saying was that "it's more likely for snakes to start to smoke now than for the BEF to set out." (''"Mais fácil uma cobra fumar do que a FEB embarcar"'')<ref>{{pt icon}}[http://www.exercito.gov.br/01inst/Historia/sinopse/cobra.htm FEB's participation in World War II]. [[Brazilian Army]] Retrieved July 31, 2007</ref> As a result, the Brazilian Expeditionaries called themselves ''Cobras Fumantes'' (literally, ''Smoking Snakes'') and wore a divisional shoulder patch which showed a snake smoking a pipe.

Until the BEF entered combat, the expression "a cobra vai fumar" ("snakes will smoke") was often used in Brazil in a context similar to "[[pigs fly|when pigs fly]]." After the war the meaning was reversed, signifying that something will definitively happen and in a furious and aggressive way.

==Photo Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:FEB_Desembarque.jpg|FEB Soldiers arriving in [[Italy]] in 1944.
Image:FEB_Blindado_Montese.jpg|Infantry with an [[M10 Wolverine|M-10]] tank destroyer resting on the region of [[Montese]] in 1945.>
Image:FEB_Engenharia.jpg|[[Military engineer|Engineering]] battalion build a [[bridge]] in the north of [[Italy]] in 1945.
Image:FEB_Artilharia_MonteCastelo.jpg|[[Artillery]] position near [[Battle of Monte Castello|Monte Castelo]] in 1945.
</gallery>
Imagem:FEB Monte Castelo01.jpg

==See also==
* ''[[Brazil at War]]'' – American propaganda film about Brazilian contribution
* [[Max Wolff]] – Brazilian sergeant, an iconic figure of Brazilian army in WWII
* [[Gothic Line]]
* [[Gothic Line order of battle]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist}}
===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* Brooks, Thomas R. ''The War North of Rome (June 1944-May 1945)''. Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0306812569.
* Buyers, John. ''História dos 350th fighter group da Força Aérea Americana'' (in Portuguese). UFAL-Universidade Federal de Alagoas, 2007. ISBN 978-8571773226.
* Castro, Celso with Vitor Izecksohn and Hendrik Kraay. ''Nova História Militar Brasileira'' (in Portuguese). FGV-Fundação Getúlio Vargas, 2004. ISBN 85-2250-496-2.* [[Mark Wayne Clark|Clark, Mark Wayne]]. ''Calculated Risk''. New York: Enigma Books, 1950, republished 2007. ISBN 978-1929631599.
* [[Mascarenhas de Moraes|de Moraes, Mascarenhas]]. ''The Brazilian Expeditionary Force, By Its Commander'' US Government Printing Office, 1966. ASIN B000PIBXCG.* Morais, Fernando. ''Chatô, o Rei do Brasil'' (in Portuguese). Cia das Letras, 1994. ISBN 85-7164-396-2.
* Ready, J. Lee. ''Forgotten Allies: The European Theatre, Volume I''. McFarland & Company, 1985. ISBN 978-0899501291.
* Ready, J. Lee. ''Forgotten Allies: The Military Contribution of the Colonies, Exiled Governments and Lesser Powers to the Allied Victory in World War II''. McFarland & Company, 1985. ISBN 978-0899501178.
* Silva, Hélio. ''1942 Guerra no Continente'' (in Portuguese). Civilização Brasileira, 1972.
* Silva, Hélio. ''1944 o Brasil na Guerra'' (in Portuguese). Civilização Brasileira, 1974.
* ''The 350th Fighter Group in the Mediterranean Campaign, 2 November 1942 to 2 May 1945''. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, . ISBN 0-76430-220-5.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* An article about the formation and the contribution of the FEB by [http://www.tau.ac.il/eial/VI_2/mccann.htm A Frank D. MacCann, "Brazil and World War II: The Forgotten Ally: What did you do in the war, Zé Carioca?"], 'Estudios Interdisciplinarios de America Latina y el Caribe', vol. 6, No. 2, 1995
* http://www.sentandoapua.com.br ( in Portuguese )
* http://www.lapaazul.com ( in Portuguese )
* [http://members.home.nl/ww2propaganda/italy/italych07.htm] WW II propaganda panflets

[[Category:1940s]]
[[Category:Expeditionary units and formations]]
[[Category:Military history of Brazil]]
[[Category:Wars involving Brazil]]
[[Category:Military units and formations of World War II]]

[[es:Fuerza Expedicionaria Brasileña]]
[[fr:Force expéditionnaire brésilienne]]
[[it:Força Expedicionária Brasileira]]
[[he:כוח המשלוח הברזילאי]]
[[pl:Brazylijski Korpus Ekspedycyjny]]
[[pt:Força Expedicionária Brasileira]]

Handstreich auf Granville

2008-03-21T19:35:23Z

Slatersteven: /* History */

The '''Granville Raid''' occurred on the night of [[8 March]]–[[9 March]] [[1945]] when a German raiding force from the [[Channel Islands]] successfully landed and brought back supplies to their base.<ref>Morison, Samuel Eliott ''United States Naval Operations in World War II'' p.306</ref>

==History==
During the [[World War II|Second World War]], [[Granville, Manche]], France was the site of a [[prisoner of war]] camp. In December 1944 four German paratroopers and a Naval cadet escaped from the camp, eventually stole an American [[LCVP]] landing craft and made their way to the German occupied [[Channel Islands]]. They were greeted as heroes and reported that several ships were in the harbour at Granville discharging [[coal]] that was in short supply in the beleaguered Islands. They also reported the disposition of American troops in the area. The former prisoners were shot down by a [[night fighter]] when returning to Germany in early 1945.

The new garrison commander of the Channel Islands, Vice-Admiral [[Friedrich Hüffmeier]], a former captain of the [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst]], used the intelligence to plan a raid against the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] to restore morale to his garrison and obtain needed supplies. An early raid on the night of [[6 February]]–[[7 February]] [[1945]] was called off by a combination of bad weather and when an escorting [[E-Boat]] was detected by United States Navy ship PC-552.<ref>ibid</ref>

The successful raid, led by Kapitãin-Leutnant [[Carl Friedrich Mohr]], occurred on the night of [[8 March]]–[[9 March]] [[1945]]. Hüffmeier's raiding force comprised four large [[minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]]s (M412, M432, M442, M459), three armed barges (artillery lighters) carrying 88mm cannons, three fast motor launches, two small minesweepers, and a seagoing [[tugboat|tug]]. Though the raid was successful in its execution, Allied resistance delayed the time table so only one [[collier (ship type)|collier]], the ''S.S. Eskwood'' containing 112 tonnes of coal, could be taken back to the Channel Islands due to the low [[tide]]. A German minesweeper, the M412 ''De Schelde'', ran aground and was captured. One American ship, PC 564, was grounded escaping from the Germans, with half its crew wounded or killed, the rest were taken prisoner. The Germans sunk the British freighters ''Kyle Castle'', ''Nephrite'', ''Parkwood'' and the Norwegian merchantman ''Heien''. German forces also damaged the locks and harbour and started fires. Several American prisoners were taken (some soures claim 30 allied servicemen were taken, Including the crew of PC 564 mentioned above) and 55 German POW's were liberated (some sources claim 67). Two US marines were killed at the hotel, and with the help of the hotel staff rounded up the nine most senior US personel in the town. One [[RN]] offiver and his men also died during this attack.

Mohr was awarded the [[Knight's Cross]] on [[13 March]] [[1945]] with [[Oberleutnant|Oberleutnant zur See]] Otto Karl in command of Artillery Lighter AF 65 was awarded the Knights Cross on [[21 March]] [[1945]].<ref>http://www.islandfarm.fsnet.co.uk/Vizeadmiral%20Friedrich%20H%FCffmeier.htm</ref>

In a later operation, an eighteen-man German sabotage raid from [[Jersey]] landing from rubber boats on Cape de la Hague on [[5 April]] [[1945]] with a mission to destroy installations were captured.

A further raid was planned for [[7 May]] [[1945]], but Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] ordered Hüffmeier not to carry out any more offensive operations so close to the end of the war.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/52/a4041352.shtml Account from a book with eye-witness commentary]

[[Category:World War II Western European Theatre]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:1945 in France]]
[[Category:Battles involving France]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II]]

Handstreich auf Granville

2008-03-16T19:53:51Z

Slatersteven: /* History */

The '''Granville Raid''' occurred on the night of [[8 March]]–[[9 March]] [[1945]] when a German raiding force from the [[Channel Islands]] successfully landed and brought back supplies to their base.<ref>Morison, Samuel Eliott ''United States Naval Operations in World War II'' p.306</ref>

==History==
During the [[World War II|Second World War]], [[Granville, Manche]], France was the site of a [[prisoner of war]] camp. In December 1944 four German paratroopers and a Naval cadet escaped from the camp, eventually stole an American [[LCVP]] landing craft and made their way to the German occupied [[Channel Islands]]. They were greeted as heroes and reported that several ships were in the harbour at Granville discharging [[coal]] that was in short supply in the beleaguered Islands. They also reported the disposition of American troops in the area. The former prisoners were shot down by a [[night fighter]] when returning to Germany in early 1945.

The new garrison commander of the Channel Islands, Vice-Admiral [[Friedrich Hüffmeier]], a former captain of the [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst]], used the intelligence to plan a raid against the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] to restore morale to his garrison and obtain needed supplies. An early raid on the night of [[6 February]]–[[7 February]] [[1945]] was called off by a combination of bad weather and when an escorting [[E-Boat]] was detected by United States Navy ship PC-552.<ref>ibid</ref>

The successful raid, led by Kapitãin-Leutnant [[Carl Friedrich Mohr]], occurred on the night of [[8 March]]–[[9 March]] [[1945]]. Hüffmeier's raiding force comprised four large [[minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]]s (M412, M432, M442, M459), three armed barges (artillery lighters) carrying 88mm cannons, three fast motor launches, two small minesweepers, and a seagoing [[tugboat|tug]]. Though the raid was successful in its execution, Allied resistance delayed the time table so only one [[collier (ship type)|collier]], the ''S.S. Eskwood'' containing 112 tonnes of coal, could be taken back to the Channel Islands due to the low [[tide]]. A German minesweeper, the M412 ''De Schelde'', ran aground and was captured. One American ship, PC 564, was grounded escaping from the Germans, with half its crew wounded or killed, the rest were taken prisoner. The Germans sunk the British freighters ''Kyle Castle'', ''Nephrite'', ''Parkwood'' and the Norwegian merchantman ''Heien''. German forces also damaged the locks and harbour and started fires. Several American prisoners were taken (some soures claim 30 allied servicemen were taken)and 55 German POW's were liberated (some sources claim 67. Two US marines were killed at the hotel, and with the help of the hotel staff rounded up the nine most senior US personel in the town. One [[RN]] offiver and his men also died during this attack.

Mohr was awarded the [[Knight's Cross]] on [[13 March]] [[1945]] with [[Oberleutnant|Oberleutnant zur See]] Otto Karl in command of Artillery Lighter AF 65 was awarded the Knights Cross on [[21 March]] [[1945]].<ref>http://www.islandfarm.fsnet.co.uk/Vizeadmiral%20Friedrich%20H%FCffmeier.htm</ref>

In a later operation, an eighteen-man German sabotage raid from [[Jersey]] landing from rubber boats on Cape de la Hague on [[5 April]] [[1945]] with a mission to destroy installations were captured.

A further raid was planned for [[7 May]] [[1945]], but Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] ordered Hüffmeier not to carry out any more offensive operations so close to the end of the war.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/52/a4041352.shtml Account from a book with eye-witness commentary]

[[Category:World War II Western European Theatre]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:1945 in France]]
[[Category:Battles involving France]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II]]

Handstreich auf Granville

2008-03-16T17:17:18Z

Slatersteven: /* History */

The '''Granville Raid''' occurred on the night of [[8 March]]–[[9 March]] [[1945]] when a German raiding force from the [[Channel Islands]] successfully landed and brought back supplies to their base.<ref>Morison, Samuel Eliott ''United States Naval Operations in World War II'' p.306</ref>

==History==
During the [[World War II|Second World War]], [[Granville, Manche]], France was the site of a [[prisoner of war]] camp. In December 1944 four German paratroopers and a Naval cadet escaped from the camp, eventually stole an American [[LCVP]] landing craft and made their way to the German occupied [[Channel Islands]]. They were greeted as heroes and reported that several ships were in the harbour at Granville discharging [[coal]] that was in short supply in the beleaguered Islands. They also reported the disposition of American troops in the area. The former prisoners were shot down by a [[night fighter]] when returning to Germany in early 1945.

The new garrison commander of the Channel Islands, Vice-Admiral [[Friedrich Hüffmeier]], a former captain of the [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst]], used the intelligence to plan a raid against the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] to restore morale to his garrison and obtain needed supplies. An early raid on the night of [[6 February]]–[[7 February]] [[1945]] was called off by a combination of bad weather and when an escorting [[E-Boat]] was detected by United States Navy ship PC-552.<ref>ibid</ref>

The successful raid, led by Kapitãin-Leutnant [[Carl Friedrich Mohr]], occurred on the night of [[8 March]]–[[9 March]] [[1945]]. Hüffmeier's raiding force comprised four large [[minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]]s (M412, M432, M442, M459), three armed barges (artillery lighters) carrying 88mm cannons, three fast motor launches, two small minesweepers, and a seagoing [[tugboat|tug]]. Though the raid was successful in its execution, Allied resistance delayed the time table so only one [[collier (ship type)|collier]], the ''S.S. Eskwood'' containing 112 tonnes of coal, could be taken back to the Channel Islands due to the low [[tide]]. A German minesweeper, the M412 ''De Schelde'', ran aground and was captured. One American ship, PC 564, was grounded escaping from the Germans. The Germans sunk the British freighters ''Kyle Castle'', ''Nephrite'', ''Parkwood'' and the Norwegian merchantman ''Heien''. German forces also damaged the locks and harbour and started fires. Several American prisoners were taken and 55 German POW's were liberated (some sources claim 67), and 30 allied prisoners. Two US marines were killed at the hotel, and with the help of the hotel staff ronded up the nie most senior US personel in the town. One [[RN]] offcier and his men also died during this attack.

Mohr was awarded the [[Knight's Cross]] on [[13 March]] [[1945]] with [[Oberleutnant|Oberleutnant zur See]] Otto Karl in command of Artillery Lighter AF 65 was awarded the Knights Cross on [[21 March]] [[1945]].<ref>http://www.islandfarm.fsnet.co.uk/Vizeadmiral%20Friedrich%20H%FCffmeier.htm</ref>

In a later operation, an eighteen-man German sabotage raid from [[Jersey]] landing from rubber boats on Cape de la Hague on [[5 April]] [[1945]] with a mission to destroy installations were captured.

A further raid was planned for [[7 May]] [[1945]], but Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] ordered Hüffmeier not to carry out any more offensive operations so close to the end of the war.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/52/a4041352.shtml Account from a book with eye-witness commentary]

[[Category:World War II Western European Theatre]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:1945 in France]]
[[Category:Battles involving France]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II]]