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The Next Decade (George Friedman)

2012-02-27T15:49:22Z

Skomorokh: rv unsourced, cleanup

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{{Infobox book
| name = The Next Decade
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| author = [[George Friedman]]
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| country = USA
| language = English
| series =
| subject =
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| pub_date = 2010
| english_pub_date =
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| isbn = 0-385-53294-6
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}}

'''The Next Decade''', by [[George Friedman]], is primarily about the United States' relationships with other countries. The book also discusses the paradox of "the empire and the republic", and addresses some demographic, technological, and economic issues, primarily those that will affect the [[2010s]].

The main theme of the book is how the American administrations of the next ten years will need to create regional power balances, some of which have been disturbed. Friedman conceptualizes America's successful management of world affairs not by directly enforcing countries, but by creating competing relationships, which offset one another, in the world's different regions. For example, in the past, Iraq balanced Iran, and currently Japan balances China and crucially important, Poland balances Germany and Russia. Friedman asserts this is the decade where the US as a power must mature to manage its power and balance as an unintended empire and republic.

{{poli-book-stub}}

{{George Friedman}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Next Decade, The}}
[[Category:2010 books]]
[[Category:Books about politics of the United States]]
[[Category:Books by George Friedman]]

William Cronon

2012-02-06T10:57:53Z

Skomorokh: tinker

[[File:William Cronon, 2007.jpg|thumb|right|William Cronon, photographed in the Madison, Wisconsin Arboretum in 2007.]]
'''William 'Bill' Cronon''' (born September 11, 1954) is the Frederick Jackson Turner and Vilas Research Professor of History, Geography, and Environmental Studies at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]]. As of March 2011 he is the President-Elect of the [[American Historical Association]].<ref>[[Paul Krugman]], ''[[New York Times]]'', 27 March 2011, [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/28/opinion/28krugman.html?ref=opinion American Thought Police]</ref>

==Education and recognition==
Born in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], he obtained a D.Phil from [[Jesus College, Oxford]] as a [[Rhodes Scholar]]. (1976–1978).<ref name=Jesus>{{cite journal|journal=The Jesus College Record|year=1993/4|title=Old Members News and Notes|pages=48}}</ref> Cronon holds a B.A. (1976) from the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] and an M.A. (1979), M.Phil. (1980), and Ph.D. (1990) from [[Yale University]].

In July, 1985, Cronon was awarded a [[MacArthur Fellowship]].<ref name="nyt" /> Cronon was [[Wayne Pacelle]]'s advisor at Yale in the 1980's.

Cronon serves on the board of directors for [[The Trust for Public Land]], a national land conservation group. He also sits on the governing council of the [[The Wilderness Society (United States)|Wilderness Society]].

==Scholarship==
A noted [[environmental history|environmental historian]],<ref name="nyt">{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E4DB1239F930A35757C0A96F958260&scp=3&sq=%22william+Cronon%22&st=nyt |author=Janny Scott|title=An Environmentalist on a Different Path; A Fresh View of the Supposed 'Wilderness' and Even the Indians' Place in It|date=April 3, 1999|publisher=''New York Times''|accessdate=2009-07-23}}</ref> Cronon is probably best known as the author of ''[[Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England]]'' (1983), a work based on a seminar paper he wrote for [[Edmund Morgan (historian)|Edmund Morgan]] at Yale. Two insights in that book have reshaped the way historians think: The first is that the way cultures conceptualize property and ownership is a major factor that affects economies and ecosystems. The second is that the Indians were active interveners in and shapers of the ecosystems in which they lived.<ref name="nyt" />

''Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West'' (1991), which won the [[Bancroft Prize]] in 1992,<ref name=Jesus/> "is credited with having radically widened many environmental historians' gaze beyond such things as forests and public lands to include cities and what Cronon calls the 'elaborate and intimate linkages' between city and country."<ref name="nyt" /> Cronon shows how Chicago and capitalism fundamentally transformed the midwestern countryside. In one memorable chapter, for instance, he details how grain became a standardized commodity: how it went from being something sold in sacks with the farm's family name stamped on it to a standardized good, stored in silos according to grade.

In his essay, "The Trouble with Wilderness", published in the ''[[New York Times]]'', and in ''Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature'' (1995), Cronon traced the idea of wilderness throughout American history. Cronon argues that this history allows us to see how fantasies of untouched, pristine wilderness, are only fantasies. Even wilderness is indelibly shaped by human history and labor, and we mislead ourselves when we conceive of wilderness otherwise (as many environmentalists did). Cronon does not argue that we should therefore dispense with wilderness or fail to protect it. The trouble with our fantasy of untouched wilderness is that it distracts us from the nature everywhere about us by fixating instead on the allegedly untouched nature out there, in the wild. The task Cronon gives us is to form a responsible relationship with both the nature of the wilderness, where we play, and the nature where we live and work.

Cronon was also featured prominently in [[Ken Burns]]' 2009 documentary, [[The National Parks: America's Best Idea]].

==Scholar as citizen: Tension between transparency and academic freedom==
Amid [[2011 Wisconsin protests|protests]] over the Wisconsin state budget in March 2011, Cronon began a personal blog called "Scholar as Citizen." His first blog post dated March 15, 2011 was a tutorial on the [[American Legislative Exchange Council]], a conservative organization that provides model legislation to Republican state legislators. According to Anthony Grafton of The New Yorker, "Cronon argued from indirect evidence that ALEC had played a major role behind the scenes in Governor Walker's attack on public employee unions in Wisconsin. He also argued that this sort of political work, though legitimate, should be done in the open."<ref>{{cite web|last=Grafton|first=Anthony|title=Wisconsin: The Cronon Affair|url=http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2011/03/wisconsin-the-cronon-affair.html|work=[[The New Yorker|The New Yorker, News Desk]]|date=28 March 2011|accessdate=4 April 2011}}</ref> Cronon's first post went [[Viral phenomenon|viral]] and received approximately 800,000 hits in less than 10 days.

On March 17, 2011 (two days after Cronon's post about ALEC went live), Stephan Thompson of the Wisconsin Republican Party filed a [[freedom of information legislation|freedom of information]] request for any emails sent from and received by Cronon's University of Wisconsin-Madison email account that contained any on a list of 20 keywords related to the ongoing political events. (The terms were: Republican, Scott Walker, recall, collective bargaining, AFSCME, WEAC, rally, union, Alberta Darling, Randy Hopper, Dan Kapanke, Rob Cowles, Scott Fitzgerald, Sheila Harsdorf, Luther Olsen, Glenn Grothman, Mary Lazich, Jeff Fitzgerald, Marty Beil, or Mary Bell.)<ref name="guardian">{{cite web|last=Gardner|first=John|title=William Cronon and academic freedom|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/apr/01/wisconsin-republicans|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=1 April 2011|accessdate=4 April 2011}}</ref>

In the midst of this, Cronon also wrote an [[op-ed]] for ''[[The New York Times]]'' which was published on March 21, 2011 that criticized Republican Governor [[Scott Walker (politician)|Scott Walker]].<ref name="Salon">Leonard, Andrew (2011-03-25) [http://www.salon.com/news/wisconsin/index.html?story=/tech/htww/2011/03/25/wisconsins_most_dangerous_professor Wisconsin's most dangerous professor], ''[[Salon.com]]''</ref>

On March 24, Cronon released his second blog entry. The post announced the Wisconsin Republican Party's [[freedom of information legislation|freedom of information]] request for his emails. In the piece, Cronon commented that the party's action had "the nakedly political purpose of trying to embarrass, harass, or silence a university professor".<ref name="Salon" /><ref>{{cite web|last=Shafer|first=Jack|title=There's No Such Thing as a Bad FOIA Request|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2289482/|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=25 March 2011|accessdate=26 March 2011}}</ref> Citing Wisconsin's long history of protecting the right to academic freedom, Cronon also asked the Republican Party of Wisconsin to withdraw its request for the contents of his email.<ref name="guardian" /> Between the release of Cronon's second blog entry on March 24 and April 1, when the university turned over a selection of Cronon's emails, the party did not withdraw the request.

On April 1, 2011, attorney John Dowling, acting as senior legal counsel for the University of Wisconsin-Madison, formally responded to Thompson's request for Cronon's emails. Dowling included a statement with the documents that explained the university's decision to continue to withhold some of Cronon's emails.<ref>{{cite web|last=Grafton|first=Anthony|title=The Cronon Affair: Wisconsin Answers|url=http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2011/04/the-cronon-affair-wisconsin-answers.html|work=[[The New Yorker|The New Yorker, News Desk]]|date=3 April 2011|accessdate=4 April 2011}}</ref>

University of Wisconsin-Madison Chancellor [[Carolyn Martin|Carolyn 'Biddy' Martin]] further expounded upon this decision in an email to the UW-Madison campus community on the same day: "We are excluding student because they are protected under [[Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act|FERPA]]. We are excluding exchanges that fall outside the realm of the faculty member's job responsibilities and that could be considered personal pursuant to [[Wisconsin Supreme Court]] case law. We are also excluding what we consider to be the private email exchanges among scholars that fall within the orbit of academic freedom and all that is entailed by it." Martin went on to describe the idea of [[academic freedom]] and the university's firm commitment to protecting the right of all academics to engage in the "open intellectual exchange" of ideas.<ref>{{cite web|last=Martin|first=Carolyn 'Biddy'|title=Chancellor's message on academic freedom and open records|url=http://www.news.wisc.edu/19190|work=[[University of Wisconsin-Madison|University of Wisconsin-Madison, News]]|date=1 Apri 2011|accessdate=4 April 2011}}</ref>

On April 4, 2011, the Faculty Senate of the University of Wisconsin-Madison passed a resolution to protect academic freedom. The body decided, according to University Committee Chair Judith Burstyn, that the university needed to take a public position to defend academic freedom in the wake of the FOIA records request directed at Cronon. Political scientist Howard Schweber, who was involved in writing the resolution alongside colleague Donald Downs, commented: "The university can't change the law, but the university can take a leading position on behalf of public employees everywhere and make a statement that we think this is wrong. What was begun as a classic notion of sunshine being the best disinfectant has turned into a law that's used as a weapon to target not government officials and offices but individual public employees."<ref>{{cite web|last=Forster|first=Stacy|title=Faculty Senate approves resolution protecting academic freedom|url=http://www.news.wisc.edu/19210|work=[[University of Wisconsin-Madison|University of Wisconsin-Madison, News]]|date=5 April 2011|accessdate=5 April 2011}}</ref>

Despite having months to report on any improprieties discovered in the email, the Wisconsin Republican Party has made no report on the contents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wisgop.org/news|title=WISGOP.ORG News|accessdate=August 5, 2011|unused_data=WISGOP.org}}</ref> The Wisconsin Republican Party has similarly targeted other teachers by filing open records requests for e-mails, including public school teacher Shelly Moore<ref>{{cite web|last=McCallum|first=Katie|title=Shelly Moore Caught Campaigning on Taxpayer Dime, RPW Requests Investigation|url=http://www.wisgop.org/news/shelly-moore-caught-campaigning-taxpayer-dime-rpw-requests-investigation|work=WISGOP.ORG News|date=June 22, 2011|accessdate=August 5, 2011}}</ref> and UW-Oshkosh Professor Stephen Richards.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wisconsin GOP Files Open Records Request on Campaigning UW Oshkosh Prof|url=http://www.wisgop.org/news/wisconsin-gop-files-open-records-request-campaigning-uw-oshkosh-prof|work=WISGOP.ORG NEWS|date=May 5, 2011|accessdate=August 5, 2011|unused_data=WISGOP.org}}</ref> The [[American Association of University Professors]] concludes that "this action by the Wisconsin Republican Party is an "obvious assault on academic freedom"."<ref>{{cite web|title=Obvious Assault on Academic Freedom|url=http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/newsroom/2011+Web+Highlights/Madison.htm|date=March 28, 2011|accessdate=August 5, 2011}}</ref>

==News coverage of Cronon's "Scholar As Citizen" blog==
*[http://scholarcitizen.williamcronon.net/ "Scholar as Citizen." William Cronon's blog.]
*[http://althouse.blogspot.com/2011/03/wisconsin-republican-party-uses-open.html Althouse, Ann. "The Wisconsin Republican Party uses Open Records Law to get emails written by the Wisconsin professor William Cronon." Althouse. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2011/03/ta033111.html Alterman, Eric. "Think Again: Conservative Class Warfare Against Free Speech." Center for American Progress. 31 March 2011.]
*[http://bigthink.com/ideas/31765 Beyerstein, Lindsay. "Yes, Prof. Cronon, Let's Talk About ALEC." Big Think. 28 March 2011.]
*[http://www.miller-mccune.com/politics/can-transparency-academic-freedom-coexist-29594/ Badger, Emily. "Can Transparency, Academic Freedom Coexist?" Miller-McCune. 29 March 2011.]
*[http://host.madison.com/ct/news/opinion/column/article_dbcf48ed-7df2-5336-8ba6-e1ad45213cc5.html Bond, Greg. "Greg Bond: GOP should debate Cronon on merits of his arguments." The Capital Times. 29 March 2011.]
*[http://www.browndailyherald.com/editorial-academics-trump-politics-1.2531863 Brown Daily Herald Editorial Board. "Editorial: Academics trump politics." Brown Daily Herald. 5 April 2011.]
*[http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20110401185757464 Bouet, Noemi. "Academic freedom reports from around the world." University World News. 3 April 2011.]
*[http://www.dailykos.com/story/2011/03/25/960042/-Wisconsin-GOP:-Youre-friggin-right-we-want-that-one-friggin-college-professors-friggin-emails Bowers, Chris. "Wisconsin GOP: You're friggin' right we want that one friggin' college professor's friggin' emails." Daily Kos. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=26&storycode=415623&c=1 Cunnane, Sarah. "Republican Party demands access to Wisconsin academic's emails." Times Higher Education. 26 March 2011.]
*[http://crookedtimber.org/2011/03/25/wi-republican-party-uses-open-records-law-to-intimidate-its-most-moderate-critic/ Brighouse, Harry. "WI Republican Party uses open records law to intimidate its most moderate critic." Crooked Timber. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://host.madison.com/wsj/news/opinion/column/article_ddcb5d49-f3c6-548e-933a-5ffb41b90d3d.html Brinkman, Phil. "Phil Brinkman: Why request for Bill Cronon’s email isn’t news." Wisconsin State Journal. 30 March 2011.]
*[http://www.ecampusnews.com/technologies/will-gop-scrutiny-change-the-way-professors-use-email/ Carter, Dennis. "Will GOP scrutiny change the way professors use eMail?" eCampus News. 4 April 2011.]
*[http://www.econbrowser.com/archives/2011/03/bloggers_beware.html Chinn, Menzie. "Bloggers Beware! (If You Work at a State University in Wisconsin)." Econbrowser. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://thefire.org/article/12998.html Creeley, William. "Demand for Emails of Wisconsin Professor Raises Legal Questions." FIRE (Foundation for Individual Rights in Education). 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/22/opinion/22cronon.html?src=twrhp Cronon, William. "Wisconsin's Radical Break." New York Times. 21 March 2011.]
*[http://www.newsworks.org/index.php/off-mic/item/16521-rifling-your-inbox Davies, Dave. "Rifling your inbox." Newsworks, Dave Davies Off Mic. 5 April 2011.]
*[http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/03/have-you-no-sense-of-decency-the-wm-cronon-story/73010/ Fallows, James. "'Have You No Sense of Decency?' The Wm. Cronon Story." The Atlantic. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://host.madison.com/news/local/education/university/article_474631d2-6068-11e0-b25d-001cc4c002e0.html Finkelmeyer, Todd. "The big chill? UW's Cronon sees 'intimidation' in GOP records request." The Capital Times. 7 April 2011.]
*[http://www.news.wisc.edu/19210 Forster, Stacy. "Faculty Senate approves resolution protecting academic freedom." News, University of Wisconsin-Madison. 5 April 2011.]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/apr/01/wisconsin-republicans Gardner, John. "William Cronon and academic freedom: The attempt by Wisconsin Republicans to bully a moderate history professor into silence is shocking. Have they no shame?." The Guardian. 1 April 2011.]
*[http://news.yahoo.com/s/yblog_thelookout/20110325/ts_yblog_thelookout/wisc-gop-defends-request-for-professors-emails Goodwin, Liz. "Wisc. GOP defends request for professor’s emails." Yahoo, The Lookout: Yahoo News Blog. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2011/04/the-cronon-affair-wisconsin-answers.html Grafton, Anthony. "The Cronon Affair: Wisconsin Answers." The New Yorker. 3 April 2011.]
*[http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2011/03/wisconsin-the-cronon-affair.html Grafton, Anthony. "Wisconsin: The Cronon Affair." The New Yorker. 28 March 2011.]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/30/education/30professors.html?scp=1&sq=michigan%20cronon&st=cse Greenhouse, Steven. "Group Seeks Labor E-Mails by Michigan Professors." New York Times. 29 March 2011.]
*[http://blogs.forbes.com/erikkain/2011/03/25/scott-walkers-office-seeks-access-to-critical-professors-email/ Kain, E. D. "Scott Walker’s Office Seeks Access to Critical Professor’s Email." Forbes, E. D. Kain: American Times. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://tpmdc.talkingpointsmemo.com/wisconsin-protests/2011/04/ Kleefeld, Eric. "Univ. of Wisconsin Responds To GOP's Open-Records Request Against Professor." Talking Points Memo. 1 April 2011.]
*[http://tpmdc.talkingpointsmemo.com/2011/03/uw-prof-cronon-i-wish-gop-could-have-spelled-my-name-correctly.php Kleefeld, Eric. "UW Prof. Cronon: I Wish GOP 'Could Have Spelled My Name Correctly.'" Talking Points Memo. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://tpmdc.talkingpointsmemo.com/2011/03/wis-gop-attacks-on-our-open-records-request-against-professor-are-chilling.php#more Kleefeld, Eric. "Wis. GOP: Attacks On Our Open-Records Request Against Professor Are 'Chilling.'" Talking Points Memo. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://tpmdc.talkingpointsmemo.com/2011/03/wi-gop-foias-emails-of-state-university-prof-critical-of-gov-walker.php Kleefeld, Eric. "Wis. GOP FOIAs Emails of State University Prof Critical Of Gov. Walker." Talking Points Memo. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/28/opinion/28krugman.html Krugman, Paul. "American Thought Police." New York Times. 27 March 2011.]
*[http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/03/25/academic-intimidation/ Krugman, Paul. "Academic Intimidation." New York Times, Paul Krugman: The Conscience of a Liberal. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.salon.com/news/wisconsin/?story=/tech/htww/2011/04/01/william_cronon_emails_release Leonard, Andrew. "GOP smacked down on Wisconsin emails: University shields a portion of professor's communications, asserts no smoking gun in the rest." Salon. 1 April 2011.]
*[http://www.salon.com/technology/how_the_world_works/2011/03/25/wisconsins_most_dangerous_professor Leonard, Andrew. "Wisconsin's most dangerous professor: Why are Republicans desperate to see Bill Cronon's emails? Because ideas and history matter." Salon. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://host.madison.com/wsj/news/opinion/mailbag/article_8e2cf78c-5d72-11e0-9699-001cc4c03286.html Litweiler, Chuck. "GOP: Beware of email fishing expeditions." Wisconsin State Journal. 4 April 2011.]
*[http://www.talkingpointsmemo.com/archives/2011/03/my_worlds_collide.php?ref=fpi Marshall, Josh. "My Worlds Collide." Talking Points Memo Editor's Blog. 24 March 2011.]
*[http://www.news.wisc.edu/19163 Martin, Biddy. "Chancellor Martin's statement on open records, academic freedom." News, University of Wisconsin-Madison. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://thehill.com/opinion/columnists/markos-moulitas/152559-mccarthyism-in-wisconsin Moulitsas, Markos. "McCarthyism in Wisconsin." The Hill. 29 March 2011.]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/28/opinion/28mon3.html?_r=1&ref=opinion New York Times Editorial. "A Shabby Crusade in Wisconsin." New York Times. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.thenation.com/blog/159489/mccarthyism-wisconsin-its-back-state-gop-seeks-silence-distinguished-dissenter Nichols, John. "Wisconsin GOP Seeks to Silence a Distinguished Dissenter. McCarthyism is Back." The Nation. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://badgerherald.com/oped/2011/03/31/republican_party_wro.php Ramirez, Cruz. "Republican party wrongly attacks UW professor." The Badger Herald. 31 March 2011.]
*[http://scholarcitizen.williamcronon.net/2011/03/25/republican-party-response/ Republican Party of Wisconsin. "Republican Party Response to Cronon Critique of Open Records Request." William Cronon: Scholar as Citizen. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://host.madison.com/wsj/news/local/chris_rickert/article_31b4ecfe-5f15-11e0-a100-001cc4c002e0.html Rickert, Chris. "Political records requests part of the price of having open government." Wisconsin State Journal. 5 April 2011.]
*[http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/conlaw/2011/03/professors-emails-open-records-first-amendment-wisconsin-professor-william-cronon.html Robson, Ruthann. "Professor's Emails, Open Records, First Amendment: Wisconsin Professor William Cronon." Constitutional Law Prof Blog. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/post/wisconsin-gop-youre-damn-right-we-requested-walker-critics-emails/2011/03/03/AFytRNWB_blog.html Sargent, Greg. "Wisconsin GOP: You’re damn right we requested Walker critic’s emails." Washington Post, Greg Sargent: The Plum Line. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://chronicle.com/article/Wisconsin-GOP-Seeks-E-Mails-of/126911/ Schmidt, Peter. "Wisconsin GOP Seeks E-Mails of a Madison Professor Who Criticized the Governor." The Chronicle of Higher Education. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://host.madison.com/wsj/news/opinion/column/article_891c738a-5c00-11e0-8177-001cc4c03286.html Schweber, Howard and Donald A. Downs. "Howard Schweber and Donald A. Downs: Stop poisonous record requests." Wisconsin State Journal. 1 April 2011.]
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2289482/ Shafer, Jack. "There's No Such Thing as a Bad FOIA Request: The Wisconsin GOP's quest to obtain a professor's emails isn't 'McCarthyesque.'" Slate. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/us/politics/26professor.html?scp=3&sq=cronon&st=cse Sulzberger, A. G. "Wisconsin Professor’s E-Mails Are Target of G.O.P. Records Request." New York Times. 26 March 2011.]
*[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2011/03/28/krugman%E2%80%99s-fantasy-liberals-are-being-persecuted-on-campus/ Tobin, Jonathan S. "Krugman's Fantasy: Liberals Are Being Persecuted on Campus." Commentary Magazine. 28 March 2011.]
*[http://host.madison.com/ct/news/local/education/blog/article_d41ece78-573c-11e0-9f20-001cc4c002e0.html Troller, Susan. "Chalkboard: GOP won't withdraw records request." The Capital Times. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://host.madison.com/ct/news/local/govt-and-politics/article_54c271b2-56e6-11e0-b524-001cc4c002e0.html Troller, Susan. "Chalkboard: UW history prof targeted for records request by Republican Party." The Capital Times. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.jsonline.com/blogs/news/119071099.html Walker, Don. "UW's Martin says some Cronon emails won't be released." Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, All Politics Blog. 1 April 2011.]
*[http://www.jsonline.com/news/statepolitics/119103214.html Walker, Don. "GOP fails to get all of professor's email." Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. 1 April 2011.]
*[http://www.jsonline.com/blogs/news/118654904.html Walker, Don. "GOP seeks e-mails of UW-Madison professor." Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, All Politics Blog. 25 March 2011.]
*[http://www.slate.com/blogs/blogs/weigel/archive/2011/03/25/wisconsin-gop-blasts-concerted-effort-to-intimidate-over-request-for-professor-s-e-mails.aspx Weigel, David. "Wisconsin GOP Blasts "Concerted Effort to Intimidate" Over Request for Professor's E-mails." Slate, Weigel: Reporting About Politics and Policy. 25 March 2011.]

==Published works==
*"The Riddle of the Apostle Islands: How Do You Manage a Wilderness Full of Human Stories?" Orion (May–June 2003), 36-42.
*[[Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England]], 20th anniversary edition, Hill & Wang, 2003.
*"Why the Past Matters," Wisconsin Magazine of History, 84:1 (Autumn 2000), p. 2-13. Awarded the William Best Hesseltine Award for the best article published in the Wisconsin Magazine of History in 2000-2001.
*"Only Connect...: The Goals of a Liberal Education," The American Scholar, (Autumn, 1998), p. 73-80.
*"The Uses of Environmental History" (Presidential Address, American Society for Environmental History), Environmental History Review, 17:3 (Fall 1993), p. 1-22.
*Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, W. W. Norton, 1995.
*"Telling Tales on Canvas: Landscapes of Frontier Change," In: Discovered Lands, Invented Pasts: Transforming Visions of the American West (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).
*"A Place for Stories: Nature, History, and Narrative," Journal of American History 78:4 (March, 1992), p. 1347-1376.
*Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West, W. W. Norton, 1991.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.williamcronon.net William Cronon's homepage.]
*[http://scholarcitizen.williamcronon.net/ "Scholar as Citizen." William Cronon's blog.]
*[http://www.ecoarttech.net/wildernesstrouble/index.htm Experimental Art Video, "Wilderness Trouble," inspired by Cronon's groundbreaking "The Trouble with Wilderness"]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Cronon, William
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Frederick Jackson Turner and Vilas Research Professor of History, Geography, and Environmental Studies at University of Wisconsin-Madison; President-Elect of the American Historical Association
| DATE OF BIRTH = 11 September 1954
| PLACE OF BIRTH = New Haven, CT
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cronon, William}}
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Alumni of Jesus College, Oxford]]
[[Category:American academics]]
[[Category:Environmental historians]]
[[Category:American geographers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Rhodes scholars]]
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows]]
[[Category:Historians of the American West]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni]]
[[Category:People from New Haven, Connecticut]]
[[Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty]]

Timothy Cain

2011-06-05T22:23:23Z

Skomorokh: Filling in 8 references using Reflinks

{{About|the game producer|other people by the name of Tim Cain|Tim Cain (disambiguation) }}

{{Infobox person | name = Timothy Cain | image = Replace this image male.svg | alt = Tim Cain | caption = | birth_name = | birth_date =  | birth_place = | death_date =  | death_place = | nationality = American | other_names = Tim Cain| known_for = | occupation = programmer, designer, producer }}

'''Timothy Cain''' was the [[game producer|producer]], [[lead programmer|lead]] [[game programmer|programmer]] and one of the main [[game designer|designers]] of the [[1997 video games|1997's]] [[computer game]] ''[[Fallout (computer game)|Fallout]]''. In 2009 he was chosen by [[IGN]] as one of the top 100 game creators of all time.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://games.ign.com/top-100-game-creators/85.html |title=IGN - 85. Tim Cain |publisher=Games.ign.com |date= |accessdate=2011-06-05}}</ref> Is currently working on a fantasy [[Massively multiplayer online game|MMO]] at [[Carbine Studio]].

==Early life==
Went to college at the [[University of Virginia]] and to graduate school in California. During this time he helped out a friend programming a card game named ''[[Grand Slam Bridge]]'' for [[CYBRON Corporation]] which was released in 1986.<ref name="youtube1">{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xgjd4i1o4UY |title=‪Matt Chat 66: Fallout with Tim Cain, Pt. 1‬‏ |publisher=YouTube |date=2010-06-27 |accessdate=2011-06-05}}</ref> In 1989 he received a Master’s Degree in Computer Science at the [[University of California, Irvine|University of California]] at Irvine.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

==Interplay Entertainment (August 1991 – January 1998)==
Began as a freelance programmer for [[Interplay Entertainment|Interplay]] where he worked on the fantasy role-play editor ''[[The Bard Tale Construction Set]]''. After finishing the game in 1991, he was fulltime employed at Interplay. For the first time he worked with [[Leonard Boyarsky]], who was a freelance artist at the time, as designer and programmer on the business simulator ''Rags to Riches: The Financial Market Simulation'' which was released in 1993.

In 1994 he started for a couple of months as the only employee working on a game which would later become the post-apocalyptic [[Role-playing video game|CRPG]] game ''[[Fallout (video game)|Fallout]]''.<ref name="youtube1"/> He lay out the basic concept based on the [[GURPS]] system and began programming the isometric game engine. He also took over the producer role from [[Thomas R. Decker]] who had to supervise multiple other projects at the time. <ref>{{cite web|author=Odin |url=http://www.nma-fallout.com/article.php?id=7219 |title=No Mutants Allowed - Your Post Nuclear News Center! |publisher=Nma-fallout.com |date= |accessdate=2011-06-05}}</ref> With a development cycle of three and a half years ''Fallout'' was released in 1997. During this time he was also a programming consultant on ''[[Stonekeep]]'' (1995) and helped out coding ''[[Star Trek: Starfleet Academy (video game)|Star Trek: Starfleet Academy]]'' (1997).

Before leaving Interplay to form his own company in January 1998, he wrote the main story arc as well helping designing the [http://fallout.wikia.com/wiki/Den Den] area of ''[[Fallout 2]]''.

==Troika Games (April 1998 – February 2005)==
After forming [[Troika Games]] with fellow Interplay workers [[Leonard Boyarsky]] and [[Jason D. Anderson]] in 1998, he worked as a project leader and lead programmer on ''[[Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura]]'' a [[steampunk]]/[[fantasy]] an RPG game for [[Sierra On-Line, Inc.]] which was released in 2001.

His next game reunited him with [[Thomas R. Decker]], the original ''Fallout'' producer. As project leader and lead designer he produces within 20 months the [[Dungeons & Dragons]] game ''[[The Temple of Elemental Evil (video game)|The Temple of Elemental Evil]]'' for publisher [[Atari]] in 2003. While he loved making the game he was dissapointed it didn't turn out what he want it to be.<ref name="youtube2">{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4XVW6qcuzM |title=‪Matt Chat 68: Arcanum and More with Tim Cain‬‏ |publisher=YouTube |date=2010-07-11 |accessdate=2011-06-05}}</ref>

He helped out programming the last game Troika game ''[[Vampire: The Masquerade – Bloodlines]]'' a horror RPG for [[Activision]] in 2004. He also worked on a post-apocalyptic roleplay game for which he couldn't convince any publisher to fund. As consequence he had to lay off most employees in late 2004 and shut down ''Troika Games'' in February 2005.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hoffman |first=Erin |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue_77/440-The-Rise-and-Fall-of-Troika.4 |title=The Escapist : The Rise and Fall of Troika |publisher=Escapistmagazine.com |date=2006-12-26 |accessdate=2011-06-05}}</ref>

==Carbine Studios (August 2005 – present)==
He joined as the programming director at [[Carbine Studio]] working on a fantasy MMO game for [[NCSoft]]. He was promoted to design director in October 2007.<ref>[http://www.carbinestudios.com/news/ncsofts_carbine_studios_names_tim_cain_design_director.htm</ref>

==Quotes==
{{cquote|There is more of me in Fallout and Arcanum than in any other game I made<ref name="youtube2"/>}}

In an interview he criticized the bigger influence from sales/marketing department during [[Fallout 2]] development:

{{cquote|We were losing part of the game to a larger group who had bigger plans for it<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=laq9ua5VjTs |title=‪Matt Chat 67: Fallout with Tim Cain Pt. 2‬‏ |publisher=YouTube |date=2010-07-04 |accessdate=2011-06-05}}</ref>}}

Initial reactions after [[Bethesda Game Studios|Bethesda]] bought the Fallout licence from [[Interplay Entertainment|Interplay]] in 2004:

{{cquote|I was surprised and a little disappointed. I was hoping that Troika would get the license, but we were massively outbid. But in the end, they made a good game.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.duckandcover.cx/forums/viewtopic.php?t=23766 |title=Duck and Cover :: View topic - DAC Interview with Tim Cain |publisher=Duckandcover.cx |date= |accessdate=2011-06-05}}</ref>}}

After closing [[Troika Games]] in 2005 regarding his future he said:

{{cquote|
I am staying in the industry but keeping a much lower profile than I did at Troika. Instead of talking about making games or trying to convince people to play (or publish) my games, I am doing what makes me very happy - making games.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hoffman |first=Erin |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/issue/77/13 |title=The Escapist: The Rise and Fall of Troika |publisher=Escapistmagazine.com |date=2006-12-26 |accessdate=2011-06-05}}</ref>}}

On [[Bethesda Game Studios|Bethesda's]] ''[[Fallout 3]]'':

He enjoyed playing the game, but was critical about the humor and the reuse of too many story elements from the earlier Fallout's which he would have done differently. He lauded the adaptation of "S. P. E. C. I. A. L. " system into a [[First-person shooter|FPS]]-[[Role-playing video game|RPG]] and their understanding of the lore of the game. <ref name="youtube2"/>.

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{moby developer|id=2720}}
* [http://www.terra-arcanum.com/troikapedia/index.php?title=Tim_Cain Entry] at Terra Arcanum
* {{Facebook|timothycain}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cain, Timothy}}

[[Category:Dungeons & Dragons video game designers]]
[[Category:Fallout series developers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Video game designers]]
[[Category:Video game programmers]]

[[fr:Tim Cain]]
[[hr:Timothy Cain]]
[[pl:Timothy Cain]]

The Next Decade (George Friedman)

2011-05-29T10:41:07Z

Skomorokh: Added {{unreferenced}} tag to article using TW

Partei der Gerechtigkeit

2011-05-11T16:52:43Z

Skomorokh: decline per WP:A7; association with notable people and coverage in major newspaper are credible indicators of significance

{{notability|date=May 2011}}
{{unreferenced|date=May 2011}}
{{Infobox political party
|country = Egypt
|name_english = ElAdl Party (Justice Party)
|name_native =حزب العدل
|logo = [[File:Justice_Party_(Egypt).svg|230px]]
|headquarters = [[Garden City (Cairo)|Garden City]], [[Cairo]]
|foundation = 2011
|ideology = [[Social justice]] and [[Democracy]]
|colours = [[Red]], [[White]] and [[Black]]
|website = [http://eladl.org/ www.eladl.org]
}}
'''''Hizb ElAdl''''' ({{Lang-ar|حزب العدل}}), translated in [[English language|English]] as the '''Justice Party''' is a political party in [[Egypt]]. It was founded after the [[2011 Egyptian revolution]] by a group of people from different movements that lead to the revolution including the [[April 6 Movement]], the [[National Association for Change]] and [[Kefaya]].<ref>{{cite news|title=العدل أول حزب وسط يستند إلي قاعدة من شباب الثورة ElAdl Party, the first party to include youth of the revolution|url=http://www.ahram.org.eg/Al-Mashhad-Al-Syiassy/News/76522.aspx|accessdate=11 May 2011|newspaper=Al-Ahram|date=6 May 2011}}</ref>

== History ==
After the [[2011 Egyptian revolution]], a group of youth taking part in the revolution announced they would be founding their own party. The founding committee for the party includes democracy activists such as [[Mostafa el-Naggar]], Egyptian economist [[Mona ElBaradei]], sister of presidential candidate [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], television host [[Moez Massoud]], as well as [[Abdelgelil Mostafa]], the general coordinator of [[Egyptian Movement for Change]], also known as Kefaya.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

A Game of Thrones

2011-04-27T13:51:02Z

Skomorokh: specificity, Eames.

{{about|the novel|derivative works of the same name}}
{{Infobox Book 
| name = A Game of Thrones
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:AGameOfThrones.jpg|200px]] 
| image_caption = US Hardcover (2002 Bantam Reissue)
| author = [[George R. R. Martin]]
| cover_artist = [[Steve Youll]]
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series = [[A Song of Ice and Fire]]
| genre = [[Fantasy]]
| publisher = [[Bantam Spectra]] (US) & [[Voyager Books]] (UK)
| release_date = 6 August 1996
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages = 694 pp (US Hardback), 672 pp (UK Hardcover), 835 pp (US Paperback)
| isbn = ISBN 0-553-10354-7 (US Hardback), ISBN 0-00-224584-1 (UK Hardback), ISBN 0-553-57340-3 (US Paperback)
| dewey= 813/.54 20
| congress= PS3563.A7239 G36 1996
| oclc= 33360758
| preceded_by =
| followed_by = [[A Clash of Kings]]
}}

'''''A Game of Thrones''''' is the first book in '''''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]''''', a series of [[epic fantasy]] [[novel]]s by American author [[George R. R. Martin]]. It was first published on 6 August 1996. The novel won the 1997 [[Locus Award]],<ref name="WWE-1997">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1997
| title = 1997 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-07-25
}}</ref> and was nominated for both the 1998 [[Nebula Award]]<ref name="WWE-1998">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1998
| title = 1998 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-07-25
}}</ref> and the 1997<ref name="WWE-1997"/> [[World Fantasy Award]]. The [[novella]] ''Blood of the Dragon'', comprising the Daenerys Targaryen chapters from the novel, won the 1997 [[Hugo Award]] for Best Novella.

The novel lends its name to several [[spin-off (media)|spin-off]] items based on the novels, including a [[A Game of Thrones (card game)|trading card game]], [[A Game of Thrones (board game)|board game]], and [[A Game of Thrones (RPG)|roleplaying game]]. In November 2009 [[HBO]] completed filming of a [[pilot episode]] for the [[Game of Thrones (TV series)|television adaptation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kansascity.com/entertainment/books/v-print/story/1611344.html |publisher=KansasCity.com |title=''City of Thieves'' author tells how the novel came to be|first=Edward M. |last=Eveld|work=[[The Kansas City Star]]|date=December 4, 2009|accessdate=January 28, 2010}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> This was followed by a ten-episode full season, which premiered in April 2011.<ref>[http://watching-tv.ew.com/2011/01/01/2011-tv-fringe-oscars-kennedy-franco-game-of-thrones/ Entertainment Weekly]</ref><ref>[http://tunedin.blogs.time.com/2010/12/30/vacation-robo-post-tv-to-look-forward-to-in-2011/ Time Magazine]</ref>

On 2 January 2011 the novel finally became a ''[[New York Times]]'' bestseller, hitting the paperback list at #25.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/best-sellers-books/2011-01-02/mass-market-paperback/list.html New York Times bestseller list, 2 January 2011]</ref>

==Plot summary==
''A Game of Thrones'' follows three principal storylines simultaneously.

===In the Seven Kingdoms===
Lord [[Eddard Stark]] is the patriarch of [[House Stark]], one of the major noble houses of the [[World of A Song of Ice and Fire#Westeros|Seven Kingdoms of Westeros]] and ancestral rulers of [[World of A Song of Ice and Fire#The North|the North]]. Near the castle of [[Winterfell]], Eddard's children discover a dead [[direwolf]] and five of its pups still alive. As the direwolf is the symbol of the Starks, Eddard allows each of his five children to keep one of the pups as pet. A sixth pup is discovered a short distance away from the others. It is a mute albino, and this one is given to [[Jon_Snow_(A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire)#Jon_Snow|Jon Snow]], the bastard son of Lord Eddard Stark.

King [[Robert Baratheon]], Eddard's childhood friend, journeys to Winterfell with his family to ask Eddard to become Hand of the King, the top advisor and military commander in the realm, due to the death of the previous Hand, Lord [[Jon Arryn]]. Eddard's wife, [[Catelyn Stark]], receives a letter from her sister [[Lysa Arryn]], stating that Jon Arryn's death was a murder plotted by Queen [[Cersei Lannister|Cersei]] and her powerful family, the [[House Lannister|Lannisters]]. Though reluctant to leave his duties and family, Eddard is convinced by his wife to accept the position in order to investigate Jon Arryn's death.

Eddard's middle son [[Bran Stark]] is engaging in his favorite activity, climbing Winterfell castle's walls and towers, when he accidentally sees Queen Cersei and her twin brother [[Jaime Lannister]] having incestuous relations. To protect their secret affair, Jaime throws the boy out of a tower window. Bran unexpectedly survives, yet he is comatose and crippled from the waist down. Since Bran's penchant for climbing was well-known, it is assumed that his fall was accidental.

Lord Eddard travels with the King's entourage south toward [[King's Landing (A Song of Ice and Fire)|King's Landing]] the capital, taking his daughters [[Sansa Stark|Sansa]] and [[Arya Stark|Arya]] and their pet direwolves. Eleven year-old Sansa strives to be a proper lady, as she is betrothed to King Robert's twelve year-old son [[Joffrey Baratheon|Joffrey]], the [[heir apparent]]. The younger Arya is a tomboy who prefers the company of servants and guards. An incident between Arya and Joffrey leads unjustly to the execution of Sansa's direwolf; a bereaved Sansa is now aware of Joffrey's cruelty, but unfairly blames Arya for the wolf's death. Arya must reluctantly chase her direwolf away lest it suffer the same fate. In King's Landing, Eddard discovers that Arya has smuggled along a [[rapier]] called Needle. Resigned to the conclusion that she will never be a proper lady, he hires a sword master to train her.

Catelyn foils an assassination attempt on her still-comatose son Bran, revealing to her that Bran's fall was no accident. She travels to King's Landing covertly to tell her husband and to show him the unique dagger used by the assassin. Once there, her childhood friend and admirer [[Petyr Baelish]], known as Littlefinger, identifies the dagger as belonging to Cersei's brother [[Tyrion Lannister]], derisively known as "The Imp" due to his [[dwarfism]]. On her way home she encounters Tyrion on the road and orders him taken captive to the Eyrie, where her sister Lysa places him on trial and is eager to execute him. Out of options, Tyrion demands [[trial by combat]] and regains his freedom when his unlikely champion wins the duel.

At King's Landing, Eddard is focused on duty and justice, and immediately starts investigating the previous Hand's death. King Robert is interested only in drink and distraction, and throws a tourney in honor of his new Hand. Eddard's research leads him to the secret that got Jon killed: that Robert and Cersei's three children were secretly fathered by Jaime Lannister. Eddard mercifully offers Cersei the chance to flee, but she refuses. Before he can be informed, King Robert is mauled to death by a boar in what appears to be a hunting accident exacerbated by drunkenness. Robert's youngest brother [[House Baratheon#Renly|Renly]] suggests that Eddard should use their combined household guardsmen to detain Cersei and her children and take control of the throne before the Lannisters can act. Eddard refuses on the grounds that it would be dishonorable. He instead recruits Littlefinger to have the city guards legitimately arrest and charge Cersei, but Littlefinger betrays Eddard suborning the captain of the guards for Cersei, who has Eddard imprisoned before he can make her crimes public. Lannister guardsmen round up or kill Eddard's entourage. Sansa is taken captive, but Arya escapes the castle with the aid of her sword instructor. Arya's unconventional traits, which were out of place at the royal court, are aptly suited to hiding and surviving in the city's ghetto.

Joffrey is crowned king. Cersei convinces Eddard to sign a false confession of treason in return for his daughters' lives, and promises to stay his execution and exile him to the Night's Watch. King Joffrey, eager to demonstrate his new power, defies his mother and proceeds with the public execution. Sansa is forced to watch her father's beheading, and Arya secretly witnesses it from the crowd. Before she can react rashly, Arya is smuggled out of the city by Yoren, a member of the Night's Watch who has been collecting recruits from the dungeons.

A [[civil war]], later dubbed the [[War of the Five Kings]], erupts. On the pretext of seeking retribution for the capture of his son Tyrion, Lord [[Tywin Lannister]] wages war against House Tully, the family of Catelyn Stark and Lysa Arryn. Robb Stark leads an army of northmen into the Riverlands to support his maternal grandfather Lord [[Major houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Hoster_Tully|Hoster Tully]] and also to seek revenge for the death of his father. Jaime Lannister leads the siege of Riverrun, while Lord Tywin holds a large army south of the river Trident to prevent Robb from advancing to King's Landing. In a bold move, Robb covertly detaches his cavalry toward Riverrun while his infantry carries on toward Tywin's army. Tywin, joined by the liberated Tyrion, repulses the Stark footmen but discovers too late that they were a decoy. Shortly afterward Robb's forces surprise and destroy the Lannister camp besieging Riverrun, capturing Jaime in the process. Tywin falls back to castle Harrenhal. With Jaime's life in the hands of the grieving Stark family, Tywin is enraged that his daughter Cersei failed to prevent her son from executing Eddard Stark, who might otherwise have been exchanged for Jaime. Demonstrating the power he wields over his children, Lord Tywin orders Tyrion to go to King's Landing to act as Hand of the King and enforce House Lannister's interests.

Renly Baratheon proclaims Joffrey's illegitimacy and declares himself King of Westeros, becoming the second of the war's five kings. Robb Stark becomes the third when bannermen of Stark and Tully proclaim him King in the North.

===On the Wall===
The northern border of the Seven Kingdoms is fortified by the Wall, an ancient barrier of ice 700 feet tall and 300 miles long, manned by the brotherhood of the Night's Watch. In the "lawless lands" north of the Wall, a small patrol of Rangers from the Night's Watch encounter the fabled [[Others_(A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire)#Sentient_species|Others]] of legend, and are slain except for one. Driven to madness, the survivor flees south of the Wall, where he is captured and executed as a deserter.

[[Jon_Snow_(A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire)#Jon_Snow|Jon Snow]], the bastard son of Lord Eddard Stark, feels increasingly awkward about his future in House Stark. With encouragement from his uncle [[House Stark#Benjen|Benjen Stark]], the First Ranger of the Night's Watch, Jon decides to join the brotherhood permanently.

At the Wall, Jon initially feels contempt for his fellow recruits, most of whom are lowborn criminals who chose exile at the Wall in lieu of imprisonment or execution. Eventually he puts aside his prejudices, unites the recruits against their sadistic instructor, and protects cowardly but good-natured [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Samwell Tarly|Samwell Tarly]]. Jon hopes that his superior combat skills will earn him assignment to the Rangers, the military arm of the brotherhood. To his dismay, he is assigned as steward to the Lord Commander of the Watch, [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Jeor Mormont|Jeor Mormont]], but comes to realize that this post means he is being groomed for command. He arranges for his friend Sam to be made steward to elderly [[Major houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Maester Aemon|Maester Aemon]], a job suited to Sam's superior education and lack of physical ability.

Benjen Stark leads a small party of Rangers on a patrol beyond the Wall but fails to return. Nearly six months later, the dead bodies of two of the rangers from Benjen's party are recovered from beyond the Wall, and their corpses re-animate as [[wight]]s in the night. Undeterred by sword wounds, they kill six men. One wight is finally hacked to pieces by a dozen brothers, while Jon single-handedly saves Lord Commander Mormont by destroying the second with fire. For saving his life, Mormont presents Jon with the Valyrian-steel [[bastard sword]] "Longclaw", an heirloom of the Lord Commander's house. Jon's friends then give him a pommel for the sword in the shape of a white direwolf's head, representing both House Stark and Jon's direwolf, Ghost.

When word of his father's execution reaches Jon, he attempts to desert the Night's Watch, a capital crime, and seeks to join his half-brother Robb's war against the Lannisters. His friends among the brotherhood catch him and convince him to return before his desertion is noticed. Mormont later reveals that he knew of Jon's attempted desertion and convinces Jon that his place is with his new brothers, and that the war for the throne does not compare to the evil that winter is about to bring upon them from the north.

===In the East===
Across the sea in the Free City of Pentos, [[Viserys Targaryen]] lives in exile with his fourteen year-old sister [[Daenerys Targaryen|Daenerys]]. He is the son and sole-surviving male heir of King Aerys II, who was usurped by King Robert. Viserys arranges to sell his sister in marriage to [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Khal Drogo|Khal Drogo]], warlord of a horde of nomadic Dothraki horse warriors, planning to use Drogo's army to reclaim the Iron Throne of Westeros for House Targaryen. Among the wedding gifts are three petrified dragon eggs, rare artifacts that are regarded as valuable but useless, since dragons have been extinct for centuries. A knight exiled from Westeros, [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Jorah Mormont|Ser Jorah Mormont]], joins Viserys as an advisor.

Unexpectedly, Daenerys finds trust and love with her barbaric husband, and they conceive a child who is prophesied to unite and rule the Dothraki. Drogo shows little interest in conquering Westeros, which provokes the temperamental Viserys to lash out at his sister. Initially, Drogo endures Viserys and punishes his outbursts with public humiliation. But when Viserys publicly threatens Daenerys, Drogo executes him by pouring a pot of molten gold on his head, symbolically giving him the "crown" he desired. As the last Targaryen, Daenerys takes up her brother's quest to reclaim the throne of Westeros.

An assassin seeking favor from King Robert unsuccessfully attempts to poison Daenerys and her unborn child. Enraged, Drogo agrees to invade Westeros to seek revenge. While sacking villages to fund the invasion, Drogo is wounded. The wound festers, and Daenerys commands a captive maegi to use blood magic to save him. However, the treacherous maegi sacrifices Daenerys' unborn child to power the spell, which keeps Drogo alive in a vegetative state. As the leaderless Dothraki horde disbands, Danaerys takes pity on her once-proud husband and fatally smothers him. Eager for revenge, she orders the maegi tied to Drogo's funeral pyre and places her three dragon eggs on the pyre with Drogo. While she watches it burn, Daenerys is seduced by the beauty of the flames and walks into the inferno. Instead of perishing in the flames, she emerges unscathed and with three newly-hatched dragons draped around her. Awestruck, the few remaining Dothraki and Ser Jorah swear their allegiance to her. As the first female khal and mother to the world's only known dragons, Daenerys becomes determined to build an army to reclaim the throne of Westeros.

==Viewpoint characters==
Each chapter concentrates on one character in a [[point of view (literature)|third person limited point of view]]. Each chapter bears the name of the current point of view character (ex. "Bran," "Catelyn," "Daenerys").

The tale of ''A Game of Thrones'' is told through the eyes of 8 POV characters and a one-off prologue POV.

*Prologue: Will, a man of the [[Night's Watch]].
*Lord [[Eddard Stark]], Warden of the North and Lord of [[Winterfell]], Hand of the King.
*Lady [[Catelyn Stark]], of [[House Tully]], wife of Eddard Stark.
*[[Sansa Stark]], elder daughter of Eddard and Catelyn Stark.
*[[Arya Stark]], younger daughter of Eddard and Catelyn Stark.
*[[Bran Stark]], middle of three sons of Eddard and Catelyn Stark.
*[[Jon Snow (A Song of Ice and Fire)|Jon Snow]], bastard son of Eddard Stark.
*[[Tyrion Lannister]], a dwarf, [[Cersei Lannister|Queen Cersei]]'s brother and son of Lord [[Tywin Lannister]].
*Princess [[Daenerys Targaryen]], Stormborn, the Princess of Dragonstone and heiress to the [[House Targaryen|Targaryen]] throne after her older brother [[Viserys Targaryen]].

==Editions==

In June 2000 [[Meisha Merlin]] released a limited edition of the book, fully illustrated by Jeffrey Jones.

===Foreign language editions===
* [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: "''Игра на тронове''"
* [[FYROM language|Macedonian]]: "''Игра на тронови''"
* [[Catalan language|Catalan]]: Devir Contenidos (2006): ''"{{lang|ca|La mà del rei}}"''
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 重庆出版社(2005): ''"权力的游戏"''.
* [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''"{{lang|hr|Igra prijestolja}}"''
* [[Czech language|Czech]]: ''"{{lang|cs|Hra o trůny}}"''
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: [[Luitingh-Sijthoff]] (1997): ''"{{lang|nl|Het spel der tronen}}"''
* [[Estonian language|Estonian]]: Two volumes, Varrak (2006): ''"{{lang|et|Troonide mäng}}"''
* [[Finnish language|Finnish]]: ''"{{lang|fi|Valtaistuinpeli}}"'' (2003)
* [[French language|French]]: Two volumes (hardcover: Pygmalion (1998, 1999); paperback: J'ai Lu (2001)) ''"{{lang|fr|Le trône de fer}}"'', ''"{{lang|fr|Le donjon rouge}}"''.
* [[German language|German]]: Single volume, Fantasy Productions (2004): ''"{{lang|de|Eisenthron}}"''. Two volumes, Goldmann (1997, 1998): ''"{{lang|de|Die Herren von Winterfell}}"'', ''"{{lang|de|Das Erbe von Winterfell}}"''
* [[Greek language|Greek]]: Two volumes, Anubis (2004): ''"{{lang|el|Παιχνίδι του στέμματος}}"''
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{lang|he|משחקי הכס}}
* [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: Single volume, Alexandra: ''"{{lang|hu|Trónok harca}}"''
* [[Italian language|Italian]]: Two volumes, Mondadori (hardcover: 1999, 2000; paperback: 2001): ''"{{lang|it|Il trono di spade}}"'', ''"{{lang|it|Il grande inverno}}"''; as a single volume titled ''"{{lang|it|Il gioco del trono}}"'' in the collection ''[[Urania (magazine)|Urania Fantasy - Le grandi saghe]]'' (July 2007)
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''"{{lang|ja|七王国の玉座}}"'' (The Seven Kingdom's Throne) Hayakawa Publishing Corporation 2002 Hardcover, 2 volumes; 2006 Softcover, 5 volumes.
* [[Korean language|Korean]]: "왕좌의 게임"
* [[Polish language|Polish]]: Zysk (1998): ''"{{lang|pl|Gra o tron}}"''
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: Two volumes: Saída de Emergência (2007): ''"{{lang|pt|A Guerra dos Tronos}}"'', ''"{{lang|pt|A Muralha de Gelo}}"''. Partial and pirate edition: Entre Letras Editora (2002): ''"{{lang|pt|A Muralha}}"'' (1st part only). In [[Brazil]], Editora Leya (2010): ''"{{lang|pt|A Guerra dos Tronos: As Crônicas de Gelo e Fogo, Livro Um}}"'', ''"{{lang|pt|A Fúria dos Reis: As Crônicas de Gelo e Fogo, Livro Dois}}"''.
* [[Romanian language|Romanian]]: : Two volumes: ''"{{lang|ro|Urzeala tronurilor}}"'' (2007)
* [[Russian language|Russian]]: Single volume, AST (2001, 2004, 2007): ''"{{lang|ru|Игра престолов}}"''. Two volumes, AST (1999): ''"{{lang|ru|Игра престолов. Книга 1}}"'', ''"{{lang|ru|Игра престолов. Книга 2}}"''.
* [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: Laguna (2003): ''"{{lang|sr|Igra Prestola}}"''
* [[Slovene language|Slovene]]: ''"{{lang|sl|Igra prestolov}}"'' (2007)
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: Gigamesh (2002): ''"{{lang|es|Juego de tronos}}"''
* [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: Two volumes, Forum: ''"{{lang|sv|I vargens tid}}"'', ''"{{lang|sv|Kampen om järntronen}}"''. Single volume, Forum (2005): ''"{{lang|sv|Kampen om järntronen}}"''
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: {{lang|tr|Buz ve Ateşin Şarkısı Serisi}}: ''"{{lang|tr|Taht Oyunları}}"'' (2005)

==TV Series==
''A Game of Thrones'' has been made into a ten part [[HBO]] series, called ''[[Game of Thrones (TV series)|Game of Thrones]]'', which premiered on April 17, 2011.

==Literary significance and criticism==
*{{cite web | title=FantasyBookNews.com | author=Pelletier, J. K | url=http://www.fantasybooknews.com/2009/review-a-game-of-thrones-by-george-rr-martin/ }}
*{{cite web | title=SF Reviews.Net | author=Wagner, T. M. | url=http://www.sfreviews.net/gameofthrones.html }}
*{{cite web | title=SF Site | author=Seidman, James | url=http://www.sfsite.com/09a/game16.htm }}
*{{cite web | title=SFF World | author=Silver, Steven H. | url=http://www.sfsite.com/~silverag/martin.html }}

==Awards and nominations==
*[[Locus Award]] – Best Novel (Fantasy) (Won) – (1997)
*[[World Fantasy Award]] – Best Novel (Nominated) – (1997)
*[[Hugo Award]] – Best Novella for ''Blood of the Dragon'' (Won) – (1997)
*[[Nebula Award]] – Best Novel (Nominated) – (1997)
*[[Ignotus Award]] – Best Novel (Foreign) (Won) – (2003)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://screenrant.com/song-of-fire-and-ice-brusimm-6547/ George R.R. Martin’s ‘Game Of Thrones’ Greenlit By HBO]

{{ASOIAF}}
{{GRRM}}
{{Locus Award Best Fantasy Novel}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Game Of Thrones, A}}
[[Category:1996 novels]]
[[Category:A Song of Ice and Fire books]]
[[Category:American fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Novels by George R. R. Martin]]
[[Category:1990s fantasy novels]]

[[ca:A Game of Thrones]]
[[es:Juego de tronos]]
[[fr:A Game of Thrones]]
[[hr:Igra prijestolja]]
[[it:Il trono di spade]]
[[nl:Het Spel der Tronen]]
[[no:A Game of Thrones]]
[[pl:Gra o tron]]
[[pt:A Game of Thrones]]
[[ro:Urzeala tronurilor]]
[[ru:Игра престолов (роман)]]
[[simple:A Game of Thrones]]
[[sl:Igra prestolov]]
[[fi:Valtaistuinpeli]]
[[uk:Гра Престолів]]

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2011-04-16T22:38:59Z

Skomorokh: revert: "free" carries no implication of "ad-supported", it simply means that there is no access charge.

{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = {{Wiki favicon}} English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2-en.svg|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = [[en.wikipedia.org]]
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = {{URL|http://en.wikipedia.org}}
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = {{nobr|[[Creative Commons licenses|Creative Commons Attribution/ Share-Alike]] 3.0}} (most text also dual-licensed under [[GFDL]]) Media licensing varies
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{Cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{Cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>
}}

The '''English Wikipedia''' (enwiki) is the [[English language|English-language]] edition of the free online encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on January 15, 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news
| first=Bobbie | last=Johnson | date=2009-08-17
| title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles
|url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million
| publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] | accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with almost three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. As of {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}, nearly {{#expr:({{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|en}} * 100 / {{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}) round 1}}% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition. This share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778
| title=List of Wikipedias | author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki
| date=2008-09-21 | accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site (live count).<ref>
The number of articles on the English Wikipedia is shown by
the [[MediaWiki]] variable {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}
, with all Wikipedias as total
{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}} =
{{formatnum:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}}}.</ref>
[[File:English Wikipedia contributors by country (2).png|thumb|left|English Wikipedia contributors by country<ref>[[:m:Edits by project and country of origin]]</ref> as of December 2007]]
The [[Simple English Wikipedia]] is a variation, with most of the articles using a simplified level of English sentences and vocabulary.

== Pioneering edition ==

The English Wikipedia was the first Wikipedia edition and has remained the largest. It has pioneered many ideas as conventions, policies or features which were later adopted by some of the other-language Wikipedia editions. These ideas include "featured articles",<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Featured_articles&oldid=104207677
| title=Featured articles | author=English Wikipedia
| date=2007-01-30 | accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref>
the neutral-point-of-view policy,<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view&oldid=103033132
| title=Neutral point of view | author=English Wikipedia
| date=2007-01-25 | accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref>
navigation templates,<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Template&oldid=520481
| title=Help:Template | author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki
| date=2007-01-29 | accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref>
the sorting of short "stub" articles into sub-categories,<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Stub_sorting&oldid=101829026
| title=WikiProject Stub sorting | author=English Wikipedia
| date=2007-01-19 | accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> [[dispute resolution]] mechanisms such as mediation and arbitration,<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Resolving_disputes&oldid=103577785
| title=Resolving disputes | author=English Wikipedia
| date=2007-01-27 | accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref>
and weekly collaborations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Article_Creation_and_Improvement_Drive&oldid=104243512|title=Article Creation and Improvement Drive|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref>
[[File:Languages in Wikipedia.jpg|thumb|left|Percentages of articles written in various language families. English highlighted has 22% of articles (2009-09-06).]]

In turn, the English Wikipedia has adopted features from the [[German Wikipedia]], and from smaller editions. These features include verified revisions from the German Wikipedia (dewiki), and town population-lookup templates from the Dutch Wikipedia (nlwiki).

Although the English Wikipedia stores images plus audio files, as well as text files, many of the images have been moved to [[Wikimedia Commons]] with the same name, as passed-through files. However, the English Wikipedia also has [[fair-use]] images and audio/video files (with copyright restrictions), most of which are not allowed on Commons.

Many of the most active participants in the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], and the developers of the [[MediaWiki]] software that powers Wikipedia, are English Wikipedia users.

== Users and editors ==
[[File:Wiki feel stupid v2.ogv|thumb|right|In April 2009, the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] conducted a usability study on the English Wikipedia, questioning users about the editing mechanism<ref>http://usability.wikimedia.org/wiki/UX_and_Usability_Study</ref>]]
<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ '''English Wikipedia statistics'''
|-
! Number of users !! Number of articles !! Number of files !!Number of administrators
|-
| {{NUMBEROFUSERS}} || {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} || {{NUMBEROFFILES}} || {{NUMBEROFADMINS}}
|}
</center>
The English Wikipedia reached 4,000,000 registered user accounts on 1 April 2007,<ref name="4,564,000">[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2007-04-02/News and notes]]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref> just a little over a year since it had crossed a threshold of 1,000,000 registered user accounts in late February 2006.<ref name="1,000,000">[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-02-27/News and notes]]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref>

About 250,000 new accounts are created every month, and these numbers are growing. About 300,000 editors have edited Wikipedia more than 10 times. Approximately the same number, 300,000 editors, edit Wikipedia every month; out of those, about 50,000 do more than 5 edits and 5,000, more than 100 edits.

A 2008 survey has provided some basic information on demographics and motivations of Wikipedia editors.<ref>[http://blog.wikimedia.org/blog/2010/04/02/new-reports-from-november-2008-survey-released/ New Reports from November 2008 Survey Released], Wikimedia Blog, April 2nd, 2010</ref>

As the largest Wikipedia edition, and because [[English language|English]] is such a widely used language, the English Wikipedia draws many users and editors whose [[native language]] is not English. Such users seek information from the English Wikipedia rather than the Wikipedia of their native language because the English Wikipedia tends to contain more information. Successful collaborations have developed between non-native English speakers who add content to English Wikipedia and native English speakers who act as copyeditors for them.

=== Arbitration Committee ===
{{Main|Arbitration Committee (English Wikipedia)}}
The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'>{{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'>{{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|year=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref>
[[File:Enwiki-map.png|thumb|right|Main sizeable countries from which [[Wikipedians]] contribute. Countries in which the majority of the population are native English speakers are in dark green; countries with English as a mostly second language are in light green. However, people in many other nations also contribute the English WP.]]

When initially founded, the Committee consisted of 12 [[arbitrators]] divided into three groups of four members each.<ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'>{{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Since then, the Committee has gradually expanded to its membership to 18 arbitrators.<ref name='Wales2'>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Jimbo_Wales&oldid=259248025 |title=ArbCom Appointments |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2008-12-20 |work=Wikipedia }}</ref>

Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Controversies ==
{{See also|Wikipedia biography controversy|Essjay controversy}}
Among the controversies in the English Wikipedia is a debate over which national variety of the English language is to be preferred, with the most commonly advocated candidates being [[American English]] and [[British English]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_%28spelling%29|title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style (spelling)|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2006-02-25}}</ref> Many suggestions have been proposed by editors, ranging from standardizing upon a single form of English to [[fork (software)|forking]] the English Wikipedia project. A style guideline states, "the English Wikipedia has no general preference for a major national variety of the language" and "an article on a topic that has strong ties to a particular English-speaking nation uses the appropriate variety of English for that nation."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English|title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2007-10-10}}</ref> An article should use spelling and grammar variants consistently; for example, ''color'' and ''colour'' are not to be used in the same article, since they represent American and British English, respectively. The guide also states that an article must remain in the same national variant in which it was first created, or which first became discernible in the article's history.

There has been a [[Chinese Wikipedia#Automatic conversion between traditional and simplified Chinese|similar issue in the Chinese language Wikipedia]] concerning regional differences in how the language is written, as well as in the [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] between [[European Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}

== See also ==
* [[Reliability of Wikipedia]]
* [[Community of Wikipedia]]
* [[History of Wikipedia]]
* [[Simple English Wikipedia]]

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|English Wikipedia}}
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [http://en.m.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia mobile]
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]

{{Wikipedia}}
{{Wikipedias}}



[[Category:Internet properties established in 2001]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias|Wikipedia]]
[[Category:Wikipedias by language]]

[[af:Engelse Wikipedia]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]
[[az:İngiliscə Vikipediya]]
[[bn:ইংরেজি উইকিপিডিয়া]]
[[be:Англійская Вікіпедыя]]
[[be-x-old:Ангельская Вікіпэдыя]]
[[bg:Уикипедия на английски език]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia en anglès]]
[[cv:Акăлчан Википедийĕ]]
[[cs:Anglická Wikipedie]]
[[cy:Wicipedia Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[et:Ingliskeelne Vikipeedia]]
[[el:Αγγλική Βικιπαίδεια]]
[[es:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[eo:Anglalingva Vikipedio]]
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipedia]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی]]
[[fr:Wikipédia en anglais]]
[[ga:Vicipéid an Bhéarla]]
[[gl:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[ko:영어 위키백과]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी विकिपीडिया]]
[[hr:Wikipedija na engleskom jeziku]]
[[ig:Wikipedia nke ndị bekee]]
[[id:Wikipedia bahasa Inggris]]
[[it:Wikipedia in inglese]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה האנגלית]]
[[sw:Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]]
[[la:Vicipaedia Anglica]]
[[lt:Angliškoji Vikipedija]]
[[hu:Angol Wikipédia]]
[[mk:Википедија на англиски јазик]]
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ]]
[[arz:ويكيبيديا انجليزى]]
[[ms:Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nl:Engelstalige Wikipedia]]
[[ja:英語版ウィキペディア]]
[[no:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[uz:Ingliz Vikipediyasi]]
[[km:វិគីភីឌាភាសាអង់គ្លេស]]
[[pl:Anglojęzyczna Wikipedia]]
[[pt:Wikipédia em inglês]]
[[ru:Англоязычная Википедия]]
[[sah:Ааҥллыы Бикипиэдьийэ]]
[[simple:English Wikipedia]]
[[sr:Википедија на енглеском језику]]
[[sh:Engleska Wikipedija]]
[[fi:Wikipedia:Englanninkielinen Wikipedia]]
[[sv:Engelskspråkiga Wikipedia]]
[[ta:ஆங்கில விக்கிப்பீடியா]]
[[tt:Инглиз Википедиясе]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดียภาษาอังกฤษ]]
[[tr:İngilizce Vikipedi]]
[[uk:Англійська Вікіпедія]]
[[vi:Wikipedia tiếng Anh]]
[[wuu:英语维基百科]]
[[yi:ענגלישע וויקיפעדיע]]
[[zh-yue:英文維基百科]]
[[bat-smg:Onglėška Vikipedėjė]]
[[zh:英語維基百科]]

Arbitration Committee

2011-03-15T13:45:40Z

Skomorokh: Broad and inappropriate use of primary sources to advance novel conclusions not developed in reliable independent literature.

{{Infobox
| above = Arbitration Committee
| image = [[File:EnArbJune2009.png|250px]]
| caption = Screenshot of the Arbitration Committee description page
| label1 = Established in
| data1 = 2003<ref name='Wales1'/>
| label10 = Website
| data10 = [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Arbitration_Committee Wikipedia:Arbitration Committee]
}}
The '''Arbitration Committee''' (also known as '''ArbCom''') of the [[English Wikipedia]] website is a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'>{{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'>{{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|year=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref> Acting as the [[court of last resort]] for disputes among editors, the Committee has decided several hundred cases in its history.<ref name='NYT-2009'>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/08/technology/internet/08link.html?hpw |title=The Wars of Words on Wikipedia’s Outskirts |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Cohen |first=Noam |date=2009-06-07 |publisher=[[New York Times]] }}</ref> Because of its activities, the Committee has been examined by academics researching [[dispute resolution]], and also reported in public media in connection with various case decisions and Wikipedia-related controversies.<ref name='SSRN'/><ref name='NZ-2009'>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/technology/news/article.cfm?c_id=5&objectid=10577178 |title=Wikipedia sentinel quits after 'sock-puppeting' scandal |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Welham |first=Jamie |coauthors=Nina Lakhan |date=2009-06-08 |work=New Zealand Herald |publisher=APN Holdings NZ Limited }}</ref><ref name='T-2009'>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/scienceandtechnology/technology/wikipedia/5408761/Church-of-Scientology-members-banned-from-editing-Wikipedia.html |title=Church of Scientology members banned from editing Wikipedia |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Moore |first=Matthew |date=2009-05-30 |work=Telegraph.co.uk |publisher=Telegraph Media Group Ltd }}</ref>

== History ==
In October 2003, as part of an etiquette discussion on Wikipedia, Alex T. Roshuk, then legal adviser to the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], drafted a 1,300 word outline of mediation and arbitration. This outline evolved into the twin Mediation Committee and Arbitration Committee, formally announced by Jimmy Wales on December 4, 2003.<ref name='SSRN'/><ref name='AR'>{{cite web|url=http://www.roshuklaw.com/ |title=Law office of Alex T. Roshuk |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Roshuk |first=Alex T. |year=2008 }}</ref> Over time the concept of an "Arbitration Committee" was adopted by other communities within the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]'s hosted projects.

When initially founded, the Committee consisted of 12 [[arbitrators]] divided into three groups of four members each.<ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'>{{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=Time Warner }}</ref> {{As of|2008}} it had decided around 371 conduct cases, with remedies varying from warnings to bans.<ref name='CSM'>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0105/p13s02-stct.html |title=Online Wikipedia is not Britannica - but it's close |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Lamb |first=Gregory M. |date=2006-01-05 |work=The Christian Science Monitor }}</ref><ref name='S-2004'>{{cite web|url=http://dir.salon.com/story/tech/feature/2004/04/27/wikipedia |title=Everyone is an editor |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Williams |first=Sam |date=2004-04-27 |work=Salon.com |publisher=Salon Media Group }}</ref>

==Attention and controversies==
{{See also|Essjay controversy}}
A statistical study published in the [[Emory Law Journal]] indicated that the Committee has generally adhered to the principles of ignoring the content of user disputes and focusing on user conduct.<ref name='SSRN'/> The same study also found that despite every case being assessed on its own merits, a correlation emerged between the types of conduct found to have occurred and the remedies and decisions imposed by the Committee.

In 2009 the Committee was brought to media attention as a result of its decision to ban "all I.P. addresses owned or operated by the [[Church of Scientology]] and its associates, broadly interpreted", as part of the fourth Scientology-related case.<ref name='NYT-2009'/><ref name='TG'/> Such an action had "little precedent"<ref name='NYT-2009'/> in the eight-year history of Wikipedia and was reported on several major news services such as ''The New York Times'', ''[[ABC News]]'', and ''[[The Guardian]]''.<ref name='NYT-2009'/><ref name='TG'>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/may/29/wikipedia-scientology |title=Wikipedia bans Church of Scientology from editing |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Fitzsimmons |first=Caitlin |date=2009-05-29 |publisher=[[Guardian News]] }}</ref><ref name='ABC'>{{cite web|url=http://www.abcnews.go.com/Technology/AheadoftheCurve/story?id=7708616&page=1 |title=Wikipedia Blocks Church of Scientology From Editing Entries |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Heussner |first=Ki Mae |coauthors=Ned Potter |date=2009-05-29 |publisher=[[ABC News]] }}</ref> [[News satire|Satirical news]] [[Presenter|show host]] [[Stephen Colbert]] ran a segment on [[The Colbert Report]] parodying the ban.<ref name='SC'>{{cite web|url=http://www.colbertnation.com/the-colbert-report-videos/229645/june-04-2009/wikipedia-bans-scientologists |title=Wikipedia Bans Scientologists |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Colbert |first=Stephen |date=2009-06-04 |format=Flash Player |work=Comedy Central |publisher=[[MTV Networks]] }}</ref>

In 2007, an arbitrator using the username Essjay resigned from the Committee after it was found that he had made false claims about his academic qualifications and professional experiences in a New York Times interview.<ref name='NYT-E'>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/12/technology/12wiki.html?ex=1331352000&en=668e67bce73bf6c6&ei=5089&partner=rssyahoo&emc=rss |title=After False Claim, Wikipedia to Check Degrees |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Cohen |first=Noam |date=2007-03-12 |work=New York Times }}</ref><ref name='NYT-2006'>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/17/technology/17wiki.html?scp=3&sq=Arbitration%20Committee%20Wikipedia&st=cse |title=Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Hafner |first=Katie |date=2006-06-17 |publisher=[[New York Times]] }}</ref><ref name='NYT-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/05/technology/05wikipedia.html?scp=1&sq=Essjay&st=cse |title=A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Cohen |first=Noam |date=2007-03-05 |publisher=[[New York Times]] }}</ref> In June 2009, an arbitrator who edited under the username Sam Blacketer resigned from the Committee after it became known that he had concealed his past editing in obtaining the role.<ref name='NZ-2009'/>

== Arbitration committees on sister projects ==
In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]]. Based on the model used on the English Wikipedia, the {{srlink|:de:Wikipedia:Schiedsgericht|German ''Schiedsgericht''}} consists of ten individuals elected by the editing community to resolve disputes by imposing final decisions.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Internal links ==
* {{srlink|Wikipedia:Arbitration Committee|Arbitration Committee Page on Wikipedia}}

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

{{Wikipedia}}

[[Category:Wikipedia]]
[[Category:Arbitration organizations]]
[[Category:Quasi-judicial bodies]]

Gay Nigger Association of America

2010-09-01T23:18:22Z

Skomorokh: mfd closed as keep.

{{NOINDEX}}
{{Infobox Organization
|name = Gay Nigger Association of America
|image = gnaa_logo.svg
|image_border =
|size = 300px
|caption = Gay Nigger Association of America
|abbreviation = GNAA
|type = [[Internet Trolls]]
|website = [http://www.gnaa.eu/ GNAA Corporate Website]
}}

The '''Gay Nigger Association of America''', (more commonly known by the acronym '''GNAA''') are a loosely afilliated group of anti-blogging trolls<ref name="GLS">{{cite conference
| first = Jodi
| last = Dean
| authorlink = Jodi Dean
| title = Blog Theory: Feedback and Capture in the Circuits of Drive.
| publisher = {{nowrap|[http://www.polity.co.uk/ Polity Press]}}
| date = 2010
| location = [[Cambridge, UK]]
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3wWGIvVS8JAC&lpg=PR5&ots=k3M2mFeTUh&dq=%22gay%20nigger%20association%22&lr&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q=%22gay%20nigger%20association%22&f=false
| accessdate = 2010-08-27}}
</ref> responsible for several high profile [[internet troll]]s<ref>[http://techcrunch.com/2007/02/11/very-bad-bug-a-barackobamacom/ Very Ugly Bug at BarackObama.com]. [[TechCrunch|TechCrunch]]. Accessed 2010-08-27.</ref><ref>[http://www.macrumors.com/2004/06/26/mac-os-x-10-4-tiger-screenshots/ Mac OS X 10.4 (Tiger) Screenshots?]. [[Macrumors|MacRumors]]. Accessed 2010-08-27.</ref><ref>[http://gizmodo.com/gadgets/laptops-pcs/macindell-part-quatre-the-ruby-goldmine-107940.php MacInDell Part Quatre - The Ruby Goldmine]. [[Gizmodo|Gizmodo]]. Accessed 2010-08-27.</ref><ref>[http://twit.tv/44 TWiT 44: Hacked] TWiT. Accessed 2010-08-27</ref><ref>[http://adterrasperaspera.com/blog/2006/06/28/the-liberation-of-freenode-part-13/ The Liberation of Freenode, Part 13] Accessed 2010-08-27.</ref>, as well as software products<ref name="lm"> [http://lastmeasure.com Last Measure]. Last Measure. Accessed 2010-08-27 </ref> and security releases<ref name="IRC">[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/01/30/firefox_interprotocol_attack/ Firefox-based attack wreaks havoc on IRC users] [[The Register|The Register]]. Accessed 2010-08-27</ref>. The group maintains a wiki-based site<ref>[http://www.gnaa.eu/wiki/pr/2010-03-14-gnaa-website GNAA unveils new wiki-based corporate website] GNAA. Accessed 2010-08-27.</ref> dedicated to commenting on notable internet events and parodying slashdot posts, as well as offering a [[Subversion|SVN]]-based repository known as "Trollforge" for GNAA coding projects<ref> [http://www.gnaa.eu/browser/trollforge Trollforge] GNAA. Accessed 2010-08-27.</ref>

Members engage in such activities as flooding weblogs<ref>[http://gawker.com/380138/julia-allisons-blog-is-hacked Julia Allison's Blog Is Hacked]. [[Gawker|Gawker]]. Accessed 2010-08-27.</ref>, producing shock sites<ref name="lm" />, prank-calling technical support telephone lines<ref> [http://www.sepiamutiny.com/sepia/archives/001725.html Extreme Humor]. [[Sepia Mutiny|Sepia Mutiny]] Accessed 2010-08-27.</ref>, protesting <ref>[http://www.asylum.com/2010/01/29/westboro-baptist-church-protests-gets-protested-outside-twitter/ Twitter Protest]. [[Asylum|Asylum]]. Access 2010-08-28</ref>, and IRC channel disruption<ref name="IRC" /><ref>[http://news.softpedia.com/news/Firefox-Bug-Used-to-Harass-an-Entire-IRC-Network-133613.shtml Firefox Bug Used to Harass Entire IRC Network]. [[Softpedia|Softpedia]]. Accessed 2010-08-27</ref><ref>[http://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&sl=nl&u=http://techworld.nl/technologie/16665/bug-in-firefox-gebruikt-tegen-irc-netwerk.html&ei=NxN-TPq_DY2X4gaW-cH_BQ&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBwQ7gEwAQ&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dhttp://techworld.nl/technologie/16665/bug-in-firefox-gebruikt-tegen-irc-netwerk.html%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26hs%3Ddgj%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-GB:official Bug in Firefox used by IRC network]. Techworld. Accessed 2010-08-31.</ref>. These actions have occasionally interrupted the normal operation of popular websites such as [[Slashdot]], even forcing some websites to shut down temporarily. As such, targeted communities generally consider GNAA members a nuisance<ref>[http://www.boingboing.net/2007/03/08/second_lifes_patriot.html Second Life's "Patriotic Nigras" deconstructed]. [[BoingBoing|BoingBoing]]. Accessed 2010-08-27.</ref> and frequently respond with technological and social anti-trolling measures such as moderation systems to limit future disruption.

== Goatse Security ==
Goatse Security are a group of [[white hat]] information security professionals founded by the GNAA<ref>[http://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&sl=pt&u=http://tek.sapo.pt/noticias/computadores/falha_de_seguranca_que_expoe_donos_do_ipad_in_1070542.html&ei=kxV-TO-JLMqG4ga7heiPBg&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBsQ7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dhttp://tek.sapo.pt/noticias/computadores/falha_de_seguranca_que_expoe_donos_do_ipad_in_1070542.html%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26hs%3DgV4%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-GB:official Security flaw that exposes owners ipad investigated by the FBI]. [[Sapo.pt|SAPO]]. Accessed 2010-08-31.</ref><ref>[http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=pt&u=http://g1.globo.com/tecnologia/noticia/2010/06/entenda-como-foi-falha-que-expos-e-mails-de-114-mil-usuarios-do-ipad.html&ei=AoF9TJjEKNOS4gbwgumMBg&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dhttp://g1.globo.com/tecnologia/noticia/2010/06/entenda-como-foi-falha-que-expos-e-mails-de-114-mil-usuarios-do-ipad.html%26hl%3Den Ao entrar em site de operadora, era possível obter e-mails de usuários.]. [[Rede Globo|Rede Globo]]. Accessed 2010-08-31.</ref> and made up of GNAA members<ref>[http://security.goatse.fr/members Goatse Security Members]. Goatsec. Accessed 2010-08-31.</ref>. Goatse Security attracted mainstream media attention for their disclosure of 114,000 email addresses<ref>[http://gawker.com/5559346/apples-worst-security-breach-114000-ipad-owners-exposed Apple's Worst Security Breach: 114,000 iPad Owners Exposed]. [[Gawker|Gawker]]. Accessed 2010-08-31.</ref> <ref> [http://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2010/06/meet-one-of-the-hackers-who-exposed-the-ipad-security-leak/57969/ Meet One of the Hackers Who Exposed the iPad Security Leak]. [[The Atlantic|The Atlantic]]. Accessed 2010-08-31. </ref> registered to Apple [[iPad]] devices for early adopters of Apple's 3G iPad service. The data was aggregated from AT&T's servers by feeding a publicly available script with HTTP requests containing randomly generated [[ICC-ID|ICC-IDs]], which would then return the associated email address.

This incident culminated in the arrest of GNAA President Andrew '[[weev]]' Auernheimer on unrelated drug charges found during an [[FBI]] search.<ref>[http://news.cnet.com/8301-27080_3-20007827-245.html Hacker in AT&T-iPad security case arrested on drug charges]. CNET. Accessed 2010-09-01.</ref>

== See Also ==
* [http://www.gnaa.eu/ GNAA Corporate Website]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2010-08-17T17:21:18Z

Skomorokh: undo good-faith edit; the topic of this article is the English Wikipedia

{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = {{Wiki favicon}} English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2-en.svg|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = [[en.wikipedia.org]]
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = http://en.wikipedia.org/
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = [[Creative Commons]] [[ShareAlike]] License 3.0
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two or three co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>}}
The '''English Wikipedia''' is the [[English language]] edition of the free online encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on January 15, 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news |first=Bobbie |last=Johnson |title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million |publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] |date=2009-08-17 |accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with more than three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. {{As of|{{CURRENTYEAR}}}}, {{#expr:({{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|en}} * 100 / {{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}) round 1}}% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition; this share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778|title=List of Wikipedias|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2008-09-21|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site.

== Pioneering edition ==
{|
|[[File:English Wikipedia contributors by country (2).png|thumb|200px|English Wikipedia contributors by country<ref>[[:m:Edits by project and country of origin]]</ref> as of December 2007]] || [[File:Languages in Wikipedia.jpg|thumb|210px|Article number of different language families. English highlighted has 22% of articles (06/09/09).]]
|-
|colspan="2" | [[File:Enwiki-map.png|thumb|460px|Main sizeable countries from which [[Wikipedians]] contribute]]
|}

The English Wikipedia was the first Wikipedia edition and has remained the largest. It has pioneered many conventions, policies and features that have been adopted by other Wikipedia editions. These include "featured articles",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Featured_articles&oldid=104207677|title=Featured articles|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the neutral point of view policy,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view&oldid=103033132|title=Neutral point of view|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-25|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> navigation templates,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Template&oldid=520481|title=Help:Template|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2007-01-29|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the sorting of short "stub" articles into sub-categories,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Stub_sorting&oldid=101829026|title=WikiProject Stub sorting|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-19|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> dispute resolution mechanisms such as mediation and arbitration,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Resolving_disputes&oldid=103577785|title=Resolving disputes|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-27|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> and weekly collaborations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Article_Creation_and_Improvement_Drive&oldid=104243512|title=Article Creation and Improvement Drive|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> In turn, the English Wikipedia has adopted features from the [[German Wikipedia]], and from smaller editions.

Many of the most active participants in the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], and developers of the [[MediaWiki]] software that powers Wikipedia, are English Wikipedia users.

== Users and editors ==
[[File:Wiki feel stupid v2.ogv|thumb|right|In April 2009, the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] conducted a usability study on the English Wikipedia, questioning users about the editing mechanism<ref>http://usability.wikimedia.org/wiki/UX_and_Usability_Study</ref>]]
<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ '''English Wikipedia statistics'''
|-
! Number of users !! Number of articles !! Number of files !!Number of administrators
|-
| {{NUMBEROFUSERS}} || {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} || {{NUMBEROFFILES}} || {{NUMBEROFADMINS}}
|}
</center>
The English Wikipedia reached 4,000,000 registered user accounts on 1 April 2007,<ref name="4,564,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2007-04-02/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2007-04-02/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref> just a little over a year since it had crossed a threshold of 1,000,000 registered user accounts in late February 2006.<ref name="1,000,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2006-02-27/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-02-27/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref>

As the largest Wikipedia edition, and because [[English language|English]] is such a widely used language, the English Wikipedia draws many users and editors whose [[native language]] is not English. Such users seek information from the English Wikipedia rather than the Wikipedia of their native language because the English Wikipedia tends to contain more information. Successful collaborations have developed between non-native English speakers who add content to English Wikipedia and native English speakers who act as copyeditors for them.

=== Arbitration Committee ===
{{main|Arbitration Committee (English Wikipedia)}}
The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'>{{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'>{{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|year=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref>

When initially founded, the Committee consisted of 12 [[arbitrators]] divided into three groups of four members each.<ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'>{{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Since then, the Committee has gradually expanded to its membership to 18 arbitrators.<ref name='Wales2'>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Jimbo_Wales&oldid=259248025 |title=ArbCom Appointments |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2008-12-20 |work=Wikipedia }}</ref>

Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Controversies ==
{{seealso|Wikipedia biography controversy|Essjay controversy}}
Among the controversies in the English Wikipedia is a debate over which national variety of the English language is to be preferred, with the most commonly advocated candidates being [[American English]] and [[British English]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_%28spelling%29|title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style (spelling)|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2006-02-25}}</ref> Many suggestions have been proposed by editors, ranging from standardizing upon a single form of English to [[fork (software)|forking]] the English Wikipedia project. A style guideline states, "the English Wikipedia has no general preference for a major national variety of the language" and "an article on a topic that has strong ties to a particular English-speaking nation uses the appropriate variety of English for that nation."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English|title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2007-10-10}}</ref> An article should use spelling and grammar variants consistently; for example, ''color'' and ''colour'' are not to be used in the same article, since they represent American and British English, respectively. The guide also states that an article must remain in the same [[dialect]] in which it was first created, or which first became discernible in the article's history.

There has been a [[Chinese Wikipedia#Automatic conversion between Traditional and Simplified Chinese|similar issue in the Chinese language Wikipedia]] concerning regional differences in how the language is written, as well as in the [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] between [[European Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]].

== See also ==
* [[Criticism of Wikipedia]]
* [[History of Wikipedia]]
* [[Simple English Wikipedia]]

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commonscat|English Wikipedia}}
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]

{{Wikipedia}}
{{Wikipedias}}



[[Category:Internet properties established in 2001]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias]]
[[Category:Wikipedias by language]]

[[af:Engelse Wikipedia]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]
[[bn:ইংরেজি উইকিপিডিয়া]]
[[be:Англійская Вікіпедыя]]
[[be-x-old:Ангельская Вікіпэдыя]]
[[bg:Уикипедия на английски език]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia en anglès]]
[[cv:Акăлчан Википедийĕ]]
[[cs:Anglická Wikipedie]]
[[cy:Wicipedia Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[et:Ingliskeelne Vikipeedia]]
[[el:Αγγλική Βικιπαίδεια]]
[[es:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[eo:Anglalingva Vikipedio]]
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipedia]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی]]
[[fr:Wikipédia en anglais]]
[[ga:Vicipéid an Bhéarla]]
[[gl:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[ko:영어 위키백과]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी विकिपीडिया]]
[[hr:Wikipedija na engleskom jeziku]]
[[ig:Wikipedia nke ndị bekee]]
[[id:Wikipedia bahasa Inggris]]
[[it:Wikipedia in inglese]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה האנגלית]]
[[sw:Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]]
[[la:Vicipaedia Anglica]]
[[lt:Angliškoji Vikipedija]]
[[hu:Angol Wikipédia]]
[[mk:Википедија на англиски јазик]]
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ]]
[[ms:Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nl:Engelstalige Wikipedia]]
[[ja:英語版ウィキペディア]]
[[no:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[uz:Ingliz Vikipediyasi]]
[[km:វិគីភីឌាភាសាអង់គ្លេស]]
[[pl:Anglojęzyczna Wikipedia]]
[[pt:Wikipédia em inglês]]
[[ru:Англоязычная Википедия]]
[[sah:Ааҥллыы Бикипиэдьийэ]]
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Lucy Parsons

2010-08-10T18:38:17Z

Skomorokh: /* Conflict with Emma Goldman */ link

{{Infobox person
|name = Lucy Eldine Gonzalez Parsons
|image = 1886 Photo Lucy Parsons.jpg
|image_size = 180px
|caption =Lucy Parsons, 1886
|birth_date = 1853 (?), Texas
|death_date = {{death date|1942|03|07|mf=y}}, [[Chicago, Illinois]]
|occupation = [[labor movement|Labor]] organizer
|spouse =[[Albert Parsons]]}}

{{Inappropriate tone|date=April 2010}}

'''Lucy Eldine Gonzalez Parsons''' (died March 7, 1942) was a [[Radicalization|radical]] [[United States|American]] [[labor movement|labor]] organizer and [[anarchist communist]]. She is remembered as a powerful orator.

==Life==
Lucy (or Lucia) Eldine Gonzalez was born around 1853 in [[Texas]], likely as a slave, to parents of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]], [[Black American]] and [[Mexican]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lucyparsonsproject.org/about_lucyparsons.html |title=About Lucy Parsons |publisher=The Lucy Parsons Project |accessdate=August 10, 2010|quote=Born in Texas, 1853, probably as a slave, Lucy Parsons was an African-, Native- and Mexican-American anarchist labor activist who fought against the injustices of poverty, racism, capitalism and the state her entire life.}}</ref>

In 1871 she married [[Albert Parsons]], a former [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] soldier, and both were forced to flee from Texas north to [[Chicago]] by intolerant reactions to their interracial marriage.

Described by the [[Chicago Police Department]] as "more dangerous than a thousand rioters" in the 1920s, Parsons and her husband had become highly effective [[anarchist]] organizers primarily involved in the [[labor movement]] in the late 19th century, but also participating in [[revolutionary]] [[activism]] on behalf of [[political prisoner]]s, people of color, the homeless and women. She began writing for ''The Socialist'' and ''The Alarm'', the journal of the [[International Working People's Association]] (IWPA) which she and Parsons, among others, founded in 1883. In 1886 her husband, who had been heavily involved in campaigning for the [[eight hour day]], was arrested, tried and executed on November 11, 1887, by the state of [[Illinois]] on charges that he had conspired in the [[Haymarket Riot]]{{ndash}} an event which was widely regarded as a political [[frame-up]], and which marked the beginning of [[May Day]] labor rallies in protest.<ref>{{cite book |last=Trachtenberg |first=Alexander |title=The History of May Day |origyear=1932 |url=http://www.marxists.org/subject/mayday/articles/tracht.html |accessdate=2008-01-19 |year=2002 |month=March |publisher=[[Marxists Internet Archive|Marxists.org]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Foner |first=Philip S. |authorlink=Philip Foner |title=May Day: A Short History of the International Workers' Holiday, 1886-1986 |year=1986 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |isbn=0717806243 |pages=27–39 |chapter=The First May Day and the Haymarket Affair}}</ref>

In 1892 she briefly published ''Freedom: A Revolutionary Anarchist-Communist Monthly'', and was often arrested for giving public speeches or distributing anarchist literature. While she continued championing the anarchist cause, she came into ideological conflict with some of her contemporaries, including [[Emma Goldman]], over her focus on class politics over gender and sexual struggles. {{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

[[File:Lucy Parsons.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait of Parsons]]

In 1905 she participated in the founding of the [[Industrial Workers of the World]], and began editing the ''Liberator'', an anarchist newspaper that supported the IWW in Chicago. Lucy's focus shifted somewhat to class struggles around poverty and unemployment, and she organized the Chicago Hunger Demonstrations in January 1915, which pushed the American Federation of Labor, the Socialist Party, and [[Jane Addams]]' Hull House to participate in a huge demonstration on February 12. Parsons was also quoted as saying, "My conception of the strike of the future is not to strike and go out and starve, but to strike and remain in and take possession of the necessary property of production." (''Wobblies!'' 14) Parsons anticipated the sit-down strikes in the US and, later, workers' [[Recovered factory|factory takeovers]] in [[Argentina]].

In 1925 she began working with the National Committee of the [[International Labor Defense]] in 1927, a [[communist]]-led organization that defended labor activists and unjustly-accused African Americans such as the [[Scottsboro Boys|Scottsboro Nine]] and [[Angelo Herndon]]. While it is commonly accepted by nearly all biographical accounts (including those of the [[Lucy Parsons Center]], the IWW, and Joe Knowles) that Parsons joined the [[Communist Party]] in 1939, there is some dispute, notably in Gale Ahrens' essay "Lucy Parsons: Mystery Revolutionist, More Dangerous Than A Thousand Rioters", which can be found in the anthology ''Lucy Parsons: Freedom, Equality, Solidarity''. Ahrens also points out, in "Lucy Parsons: Freedom, Equality and Solidarity: Writings and Speeches, 1878 - 1937", that the obituary which the Communist Party had published on her death made no claim that she had been a member.

Parsons continued to give fiery speeches in Chicago's Bughouse Square into her 80s, where she inspired [[Studs Terkel]].<ref name="tribmag">{{cite news|last=Watkins|first=Nancy|title=Who Loves Lucy?|work=Chicago Tribune Magazine|pages=23|publisher=Tribune Co.|date=2008-11-09|accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>

One of her last major appearances was at the International Harvester in February 1941. She died on March 7, 1942, in a house fire. Her lover, George Markstall, {{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} died the next day from wounds he received while trying to save her. She was believed to be 89 years old.<ref>[http://www.lucyparsons.org/biography-iww.php Lucy Parsons Center - Biography Of Lucy Parsons - by IWW]</ref> After her death, police seized her library of over 1500 books and all of her personal papers.

She is buried near her husband, near the [[Haymarket Monument]], at the [[German Waldheim Cemetery|Waldheim Cemetery]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.findagrave.com/php/famous.php?page=city&FScityid=41672|title=Browse by City: Forest Park|accessdate=2008-05-05|format=|work=Findagrave.com}}</ref> (now Forest Home Cemetery), in [[Forest Park, Illinois]] (then part of the city of Chicago).

In 2004, the City of Chicago named a park for her.<ref name="tribmag" /> On July 16, 2007, a book that purportedly belonged to Lucy Parsons was featured on a segment of the American [[Public Broadcasting Service]] television show, ''[[History Detectives]]''. During the segment it was determined that the book, which was a biography of co-defendant August Spies' life and trial, was most likely a copy published and sold by Parsons as a way to raise money to prevent her husband's execution. The segment also provided background on Parsons' life and the Haymarket affair.

==Conflict with Emma Goldman==
{{Anarchism sidebar}}
[[Emma Goldman]] and Lucy Parsons represented different generations of anarchism. This resulted in ideological and personal conflict. Carolyn Ashbaugh has explained their disagreements in depth:{{bquote|Lucy Parsons' feminism, which analyzed women's oppression as a function of capitalism, was founded on working class values. Emma Goldman’s feminism took on an abstract character of freedom for women in all things, in all times, and in all places; her feminism became separate from its working class origins. Goldman represented the feminism being advocated in the anarchist movement of the 1890s [and after]. The intellectual anarchists questioned Lucy Parsons about her attitudes on the women's question.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ashbaugh|first=Carolyn|title=Lucy Parsons: American Revolutionary|publisher=Charles H. Kerr Publishing, Chicago|year=1976}}</ref>}}

In 1908, after Captain Mahoney (of the New York Police Department) crashed one of Goldman’s lectures in Chicago, newspaper headlines read that every popular anarchist had been present for the spectacle, “with the single exception of Lucy Parsons, with whom Emma Goldman is not on the best of terms.”<ref>''Daily Tribune'' (March 17, 1908); quoted in Falk, Love…, p. 65</ref> Goldman reciprocated Parsons’s absence by endorsing Frank Harris' book ''The Bomb'', which was a largely fictional account of the Haymarket Affair and its martyrs road to death.<ref name=falk>{{Cite book|last=Falk|first=Candace|title=Anarchy, Love, and Emma Goldman|page=66}}</ref> (Parsons had published ''The Famous Speeches of the Haymarket Martyrs'', a non-fictional, first-hand recounting of the Haymarket martyrs' final speeches in court.)

Parsons was solely dedicated to working class liberation, condemning Goldman for “addressing large middle-class audiences”; Goldman accused Parsons of riding upon the cape of her husband’s martyrdom.<ref name=falk/> “[N]o doubt,” Candace Falk wrote (''Love, Anarchy, and Emma Goldman''), “there was an undercurrent of competitiveness between the two women. Emma generally preferred center stage.” Goldman planned on preserving her place in the spotlight as an American anarchist laureate by shoving risqué sexual and kinship discourse into “the center of a perennial debate among anarchists about the relative importance of such personal issues”.

In ''The Firebrand'', she wrote, “Mr. [[Oscar Rotter|[Oscar] Rotter]] [a free love advocate] attempts to dig up the hideous ‘Variety’ grub and bind it to the beautiful unfolding blossom of labor's emancipation from wage-slavery and call them one and the same. Variety in sex relations and economic freedom have nothing in common.”<ref>Lucy Parsons, “On Variety”, ''The Firebrand'', September 27, 1896, Free Society; also in Ashbaugh, 204.</ref> Goldman responded: {{bquote|The success of the meeting was unfortunately weakened by Lucy Parsons who, instead of condemning the unjustified [Comstock attacks and arrest of anarchists]…took a stand against the editor of the Firebrand, [Henry] Addis, because he tolerated articles about free love… Apart from the fact that anarchism not only teaches freedom from the economic and political areas, but also in social and sexual life, L. Parsons has the least cause to object to treatises on free love… I spoke after Parsons and had a hard time changing the unpleasant mood that her remarks elicited, and I also succeeded in gaining the sympathy and the material support of the people present…<ref>Emma Goldman in Emma Goldman: A Documentary…, pp. 312-313; originally featured in Part IV, “Letters from A Tour”, Sturmvogel, November 15, 1897</ref>}}

Parsons responded: ''"The line will be drawn sharply at personalities as we know these enlighten no one and do infinitely more harm than good."''<ref>Lucy Parsons, "Salutation to the Friends of Liberty", ''The Liberator Chicago'', September 3, 1905; Lucy Parsons, Ahrens, ed., p. 88</ref>

Goldman, in her autobiography, ''[[Living My Life]]'', briefly mentioned the presence of "Mrs. Lucy Parsons, widow of our martyred Albert Parsons", at a Chicago labor convention, noting that she ''"took an active part in the proceedings"''. Goldman later would acknowledge Albert Parsons for becoming a socialist and anarchist, proceeding to praise him for having "married a young mulatto"; there was no further mention of Lucy Parsons. {{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |title=Wobblies! A Graphic History of the Industrial Workers of the World|last=Buhle|first=Paul|coauthors=Nicole Schulman|publisher=Verso|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=9781844675258|oclc=57506712}}
* {{cite journal|title=Lucy Parsons Is Burned to Death in Chicago; Husband Was Hanged After Haymarket Riot|journal=[[The New York Times]]|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]] |date=March 8, 1942|p=36|quote=Chicago, March 7, 1942. Lucy Parsons, 83 [sic] years old, noted anarchist whose husband was hanged for his part in the Chicago Haymarket riot in 1886, was burned to death late today when a fire broke out in her frame residence…}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Organized labour}}
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Commons category|Lucy Parsons|''Lucy Parsons''}}
* [http://www.lucyparsonsproject.org/ The Lucy Parsons Project]
* [http://www.lucyparsons.org/ The Lucy Parsons Center], a radical bookstore in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]
*{{worldcat|id=lccn-n86-26206|Works by or about Lucy Parsons}}
* {{anarchives|bright/lparsons/lparsonsarchive.html}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parsons, Lucy}}
[[Category:1850s births]]
[[Category:1942 deaths]]
[[Category:Accidental deaths in Illinois]]
[[Category:American anarchists]]
[[Category:American communists]]
[[Category:American labor leaders]]
[[Category:Anarcha-feminists]]
[[Category:Burials at Forest Home Cemetery, Chicago]]
[[Category:Industrial Workers of the World leaders]]
[[Category:People from Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:People associated with the Dil Pickle Club]]
[[Category:19th-century African-American activists]]
[[Category:20th-century African-American activists]]

[[es:Lucy Parsons]]
[[fr:Lucy Parsons]]
[[pt:Lucy Parsons]]
[[tr:Lucy Parsons]]

Piero Scaruffi

2010-02-09T23:30:48Z

Skomorokh: rm inaccurate tag; article is densely referenced

'''Piero Scaruffi''' (born in [[Trivero]], [[Italy]], in 1955), is an Italian-American music writer. He has also published poetry books in Italy.

He has published books on the history of [[rock music]], [[avant garde music]], [[jazz]], and modern [[popular music]]. His ''A History of Rock Music'' (2003) spans 50 years of the genre. Since 2003 all his books are self-published. His writings on music are hosted online <ref>[http://www.scaruffi.com/music.html Scaruffi's music reviews, ''Musica'']</ref> on his website, scaruffi.com, and include a history of [[jazz]] and a history of modern [[European classical music|classical music]]. The website, especially its music section, was the subject of an article in the ''[[New York Times]]'' on October 15, 2006.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/15/arts/15morr.html
|title=The Greatest Web Site of All Time
|last=Morrell
|first=Dan
|authorlink=Dan Morrell
|date=2006-10-15
|work=The New York Times: Arts
|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]
}}</ref>

He chaired the Big Bang conference of June 2008 at UC-Berkeley.<ref>[http://www.leonardo.info/isast/announcements/UCB-NewMedia-June08.html Leonardo/ISAST: Leonardo Day at Berkeley Big Bang 2008]</ref>

==Books==
* Scaruffi, Piero. (1998). ''Dialogo Degli Amanti/ Dialogue of the Lovers''. Lacaita, Italy. Poetry
* Scaruffi, Piero. (1996). ''Il Terzo Secolo/ The Third Century''. Feltrinelli, Italy. Essays on the USA
* Scaruffi, Piero. (1991). ''La Fabbrica del Pensiero/ The Factory of Thought''. La Stampa, Italy. Non-fiction
* Scaruffi, Piero. (1991). ''L'Ultimo/ The Last One''. Il Salice, Italy. Poetry
* Scaruffi, Piero. (1991). ''A Guide to Avantgarde Music''. Arcana, Italy.
* Scaruffi, Piero. (1991). ''La Mente Artificiale/ The Artificial Mind''. Angeli, Italy.

==References==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references />
</div>

==External links==
*[http://www.scaruffi.com/ Piero Scaruffi's knowledge base]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/15/arts/15morr.html?_r=2&oref=slogin&oref=slogin New York Times article on Piero Scaruffi]
*[http://www-ksl.stanford.edu/people/scaruffi Stanford University Piero Scaruffi page]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Scaruffi, Piero}}
[[Category:Italian poets]]
[[Category:Music journalists]]
[[Category:Italian music critics]]
[[Category:Italian Americans]]
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

[[es:Piero Scaruffi]]
[[it:Piero Scaruffi]]

Benutzer:Autokrator/Spielwiese

2009-12-27T08:52:46Z

Skomorokh: moved Muslim conquest of Persia to Rashidun conquest of Persia: per requested move on article talkpage

{{Copyedit|date=December 2009}}

{{Infobox Military Conflict|
image=[[File:Knight-Iran.JPG|200px]]|
caption=Mounted Persian knight, [[Taq-e Bostan]], Iran.|
conflict=Muslim conquest of Persia|
partof=the [[Muslim conquest]]s|
date=633-644|
place=[[Mesopotamia]], [[Caucasus]], [[Persia]], and [[Bactria]]|
result=[[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] victory|
territory=[[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Sassanid Empire]] annexed by Muslims|
combatant1=[[Sassanid Empire]], [[Arab Christians]] [[Byzantine Empire]]|
combatant2=[[Rashidun Caliphate]]|
commander1=[[Yazdgerd III|Emperor Yazdegerd III]] † [[Rostam Farrokhzād]] † Mahbuzan Huzail ibn Imran Hormuz † Anushjan Andarzaghar † Bahman Pirouzan † 
Jaban †
 
Mihran †
 
Hormuzan
 
Mardan Shah †
 
Bahram
 
Isandir
 
Karinz ibn Karianz
 
Wahman Mardanshah
 
Jalinus†
 
[[Beerzan]]† |
commander2=[[Abu Bakr|Caliph Abu Bakr]] 
[[Khalid ibn Walid]]
 
Muthana ibn Haris †
 
[[Umar|Caliph Umar]]
 
Abu Ubaid †
 
[[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]]
 
Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya †
 
Hashim ibn Uthba
 
Qa’qa ibn Amr
 
[[Abu Musa Ashaari]]
 
[[Ammar ibn Yasir]]
 
[[Nouman ibn Muqarrin]] †
 
Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman
 
[[Mugheera ibn Shuba]]
 
Usman ibn Abi al-Aas
 
Asim ibn Amr
 
[[Ahnaf ibn Qais]]
 
[[Abdullah ibn Aamir]]|
strength1=|
strength2=|
casualties1=|
casualties2=|
}}
{{Campaignbox Muslim Conquest Persia}}
{{History of ICC}}
The '''Muslim conquest of Persia''' led to the end of the [[Sassanid Empire]] in 644, of the [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid dynasty]] in 651 and the eventual extirpation of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion in [[Persia]]. The Sassanian Empire was first invaded by the Muslims in present day [[Iraq]] in 633 under general [[Khalid ibn Walid]], which resulted in the Muslim conquest of Iraq. Following the transfer of Khalid to the Roman front in the [[Levant]], the Muslims eventually lost Iraq to Persian counterattacks. The second invasion of Iraq began in 636 under [[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]] when after a key victory at the [[Battle of Qadisiyyah]] Sassanid control west of Persia was permanently ended. The [[Zagros mountains]] became a natural barrier and border between the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] and the Sassanid empire. Owing to continuous raids by Persians in Iraq, [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] ordered a wholesale invasion of the Sassanid Persian empire in 642 which came to an end with the complete conquest of the Sassanids empire by mid 644.
The quick conquest of Persia in a series of well coordinated multi-pronged attacks, operated by Caliph Umar from [[Madinah]] several thousand miles from the battlefields in Persia, became his greatest triumph, marking his reputation among the greatest strategists and political geniuses of history.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 1 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref>
Most [[Muslim historians]] have long offered the idea that Persia, on the verge of the Arab invasion, was a society in decline and decay and that it consequently embraced the invading Arab armies with open arms. However some other authors have for example used exclusively Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of Muslim apologists, Iranians in fact fought long and hard against the invading Arabs."<ref>Milani A. ''Lost Wisdom''. 2004 ISBN 0934211906 p.15</ref> This view furthermore holds that, once politically conquered, the Persians began to resist the Arabs culturally and succeeded in forcing their own ways on the Arabs.<ref>Mohammad Mohammadi Malayeri, ''Tarikh-i Farhang-i Iran'' (Iran's Cultural History). 4 volumes. Tehran. 1982.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=ʻAbd al-Ḥusayn Zarrīnʹkūb|authorlink=Abdolhossein Zarinkoob|title=Dū qarn-i sukūt : sarguz̲asht-i ḥavādis̲ va awz̤āʻ-i tārīkhī dar dū qarn-i avval-i Islām (Two Centuries of Silence)|location=Tihrān|publisher=Sukhan|year=1379 (2000)|id={{OCLC|46632917}}, {{Listed Invalid ISBN|964-5983-33-6}} }}</ref>

==Persia Before the Conquest==
Since the 1st century BC, the border between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] (later [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]) and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] (later [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]]) empires had been the [[Euphrates]] river. The border was constantly contested. Most battles, and thus most fortifications, were concentrated in the hilly regions of the north, as the vast Arabian or [[Syrian Desert]] (Roman Arabia) separated the rival empires in the south. The only dangers expected from the south were occasional raids by nomadic [[Arab]] tribesmen. Both empires therefore allied themselves with small, semi-independent Arab principalities, which served as buffer states and protected Byzantium and Persia from [[Bedouin]] attacks. The Byzantine clients were the [[Ghassanid]]s; the Persian clients were the [[Lakhmid]]s. The Ghassanids and Lakhmids feuded constantly — which kept them occupied, but that did not greatly affect the Byzantines or the Persians.
In the 6th and 7th centuries, various factors destroyed the balance of power that had held for so many centuries.

===Revolt of the Arab Client States (602)===
[[Image:Sassanid Music Plate 7thcentury.jpg|thumb|Ancient Iranians attached great importance to music and poetry, as they still do today. This 7th century plate depicts [[Sassanid]] era musicians.]]
The Byzantine clients, the Arab [[Ghassanids]], converted to the [[Monophysite]] form of [[Christianity]], which was regarded as [[Heresy|heretical]] by the established Byzantine [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]]. The Byzantines attempted to suppress the heresy, alienating the Ghassanids and sparking rebellions on their desert frontiers. The [[Lakhmids]] also revolted against the Persian king Khusrau II. [[Na'aman|Nu'man III]] (son of Al-Monder IV), the first Christian Lakhmid king, was deposed and killed by [[Khusrau II]] in 602, because of his attempt to throw off the Persian tutelage. After Khusrau's assassination, the Persian Empire fractured and the [[Lakhmids]] were effectively semi-independent. It is now widely believed that annexation of Lakhmid kingdom was one of the main factors behind the [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty]] to the Muslim Arabs and the Islamic conquest of Persia, as the [[Lakhmid]]s agreed to act as spies for the [[Muslims]] after being defeated in the [[Battle of Hira]] by [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]].<ref>Iraq After the Muslim Conquest By [[Michael G. Morony]], pg. 233</ref>

===Byzantine–Sassanid War (612 - 629)===
{{Main|Byzantine–Sassanid Wars}}
''See also: [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty]]''

The Persian ruler [[Khosrau II|Khosrau II (Parviz)]] defeated a dangerous rebellion within his own empire (the [[Bahram Chobin]]'s rebellion). He afterwards turned his energies outwards, upon the traditional Byzantine enemies in the [[Roman-Persian Wars]]. For a few years, he succeeded gloriously. From 612 to 622, he extended the Persian borders almost to the same extent that they were under the [[Achaemenids|Achaemenid dynasty]] (550–330 BC), capturing the cities [[Antioch]], [[Damascus]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Jerusalem]].

The Byzantines regrouped and pushed back in 622 under [[Heraclius]]. Khosrau was defeated at the [[Battle of Nineveh]] in 627, and the Byzantines recaptured all of [[Syria]] and penetrated far into the Persian provinces of [[Mesopotamia]]. In 629, Khosrau's son agreed to peace, and the border between the two empires was once again the same as it was in 602.

====Assassination of Khosrau II====
[[Image:Cherub plaque Louvre MRR245 n2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sassanid King [[Khosrau II]] submitting to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, from a plaque on a 12th century French cross.]]
Khosrau II was assassinated in 628 and as a result, there were numerous claimants to the throne; from 628 to 632 there were ten kings and queens of Persia. The last, [[Yazdegerd III of Persia|Yazdegerd III]], was a grandson of Khosrau II and was said to be a mere child. However, no date of birth is known.

===During Prophet Muhammad's Life===
After the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] in 628, [[Muhammad]] sent many letters to the princes, kings and chiefs of the various tribes and kingdoms of the time inviting them to convert to Islam. These letters were carried by ambassadors to [[Iran]], [[Byzantium]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Egypt]], [[Yemen]], and [[Hira (disambiguation)|Hira]] (Iraq) on the same day.<ref name="seventhyear">{{cite web | url=http://www.al-islam.org/message/43.htm | title=The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration | publisher=[[Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project]] | accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref> This assertion has been cast into scrutiny by some modern historians of Islam—notably Grimme and Caetani.<ref>Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 4, p. 74</ref> Particularly in dispute is the assertion that Khosrau II received a letter from Muhammad, as the Sassanid court ceremony was notoriously intricate, and it is unlikely that a letter from what at the time was a minor regional power would have reached the hands of the Shahanshah.<ref>Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 2, chapter 1, paragraph 45-46</ref>

With regards to Iran, Muslim histories further recount that at the beginning of the seventh year of migration, Muhammad appointed one of his officers, Abdullah Huzafah Sahmi Qarashi, to carry his letter to [[Khosrau II]] inviting him to Islam:

<blockquote>''"In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful.

From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to the great Kisra of Iran. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in God and in His Prophet and testifies that there is no god but God and that He has no partner, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of God, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe. And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi."''<ref>''Tabaqat-i Kubra, vol. I, page 360; Tarikh-i Tabari, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; Tarikh-i Kamil, vol. II, page 81 and Biharul Anwar, vol. XX, page 389''</ref></blockquote>

There are differing accounts of the reaction of [[Khosrau II]]. Nearly all assert that he destroyed the letter in anger; the variations concentrate on the extent and detail of his response.

==Rise of the Caliphate==
Mohammad died in June 632, and [[Abu Bakr]] was appointed [[Caliph]] and political successor at [[Medina]]. Soon after [[Abu Bakr]]'s succession, several Arab tribes revolted against in the ''[[Ridda wars]]'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.
Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]], the [[Caliphate]], beginning with a confrontation with the Sassanid Empire under the general [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]].

==First conquest of Mesopotamia (633)==
[[File:Mohammad adil-Khalid's conquest of Iraq.PNG|thumb|right|240px|Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's conquest of Iraq.]]

After the Ridda Wars, a tribal chief of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, raided the Persian towns in Iraq. With the success of the raids, a considerable amount of booty was collected. Misnah ibn Haris went to Medina to inform Caliph Abu Bakr about his success and was appointed commander of his people, after which he began to raid deeper into Iraq. Using the mobility of his [[light cavalry]] he could easily raid any town near the [[desert]] and disappear again into the desert, into which the [[Sassanid army]] was unable to chase them. Misnah’s acts made Abu Bakr think about the expansion of the [[Rashidun Empire]].<ref name="Tabari">Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 554.</ref>

Abu Bakr started with the invasion of Iraq. The problems faced by Abu Bakr were that the Arabs feared the Persians with a deep, unreasoning fear which ran in the tribal consciousness as a racial complex and was the result of centuries of Persian power and glory. In return, the Persians regarded the Arabs with contempt. It was important not to suffer a defeat, for that would confirm and strengthen this instinctive fear. To be certain of victory, Abu Bakr made two decisions concerning the attack on Persia: first, the invading army would consist entirely of volunteers; and second, to put in command of the army his best general: Khalid ibn al-Walid. After defeating the self-proclaimed prophet Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama, Khalid was still at [[Al-Yamama]] when Abu Bakr sent him orders to invade the Sassanid Empire. Making [[Al-Hirah]] the objective of Khalid, Abu Bakr sent reinforcements and ordered the tribal chiefs of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, Mazhur bin Adi, Harmala and Sulma to operate under the command of Khalid along with their men. Around the third week of March 633 (first week of [[Muharram]] 12th Hijrah) Khalid set out from Al-Yamama with an army of 10,000.<ref name="Tabari"/> The tribal chiefs, with 2,000 warriors each, joined Khalid; so Khalid entered the Persian Empire with 18,000 troops.

After entering [[Iraq]] with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the [[Battle of Chains]], fought in April 633 A.D; the [[Battle of River]], fought in the 3rd week of April 633 A.D; the [[Battle of Walaja]], fought in May 633 A.D (where he successfully used a [[Pincer movement|double envelopment]] manoeuvre), and the [[Battle of Ullais]], fought in the mid of May, 633 A.D. By now the Persian court, already disturbed by internal problems, was down and out. In the last week of May 633 A.D, [[Hira]], the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after their victory in the [[Battle of Hira|Siege of Hira]]. After resting his armies, in June 633 A.D Khalid laid siege to the city of [[Al Anbar]], which resisted and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633 A.D after the [[Battle of Al-Anbar|Siege of Al-Anbar]].
Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr after the [[Battle of ein-ul-tamr|Battle of Ein ut Tamr]] in the last week of July, 633 A.D. By now, almost the whole of Iraq (Euphrates region) was under Islamic control.
Khalid got a call of help from northern Arabia at Daumat-ul-Jandal, where another Muslim Arab general, Ayaz bin Ghanam, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid went to Daumat-ul-jandal and defeated the rebels in the [[Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal]] in the last week of August, 633 A.D. Returning from Arabia, he got news of the assembling of a large Persian army. He decided to defeat them all separately to avoid the risk of being defeated by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and [[Christian]] Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh. Khalid devised a brilliant plan to destroy the Persian forces. He divided his army in three units, and attacked the Persian forces in well coordinated attacks from three different sides at night, starting from the [[Battle of Muzieh]], then the [[Battle of Sanni]], and finally the [[Battle of Zumail]] during November 633 A.D. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq, and left the Persian capital [[Ctesiphon]] unguarded and vulnerable to Muslim attack. Before attacking the Persian capital, Khalid decided to eliminate all Persian forces in the south and west. He accordingly marched against the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the [[Sassanid army|Sassanid Persians]], the [[Byzantine army|Byzantine]] [[Roman army|Romans]] and Christian Arabs in the [[Battle of Firaz]] in December 633 A.D. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. While Khalid was on his way to attack Qadissiyah (a key fort in the way to the Persian capital Ctesiphon), he received a letter from Caliph Abu Bakr and was sent to the Roman front in Syria to assume the command of the Muslim armies to conquer Roman Syria.<ref>Akram, chapters 19-26.</ref>

==Second invasion of Mesopotamia (636)==
{{Main|Battle of Qadisiyyah}}
According to the will of Abu Bakr, Umar was to continue the conquest of Syria and Iraq. On the north eastern borders of the Empire, in Iraq, the situation was deteriorating day by day. During [[Abu Bakr]]’s era, [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] who had conquered Iraq, was sent to the Syrian front to command the Islamic armies there. As soon as Khalid had left Iraq with half his army of 9000 soldiers, the Persians decided to take back their lost territory. The Muslim army in Iraq was forced to leave the conquered areas and concentrate on the border areas. Umar immediately sent reinforcements to aid Misna ibn Haris in Iraq under the command of Abu Ubaid al Saqafi.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The Persian forces defeated Abu Ubaid in the [[Battle of Bridge]]. However, later Persian forces were defeated by Misnah bin harisah in the [[Battle of Baiyoub]]. In 635 [[Yazdgerd III]] sought alliance with Emperor [[Heraclius]] of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. Heraclius married his daughter (''according to traditions, his grand daughter'') to Yazdegerd III, an old Roman tradition to show alliance. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd, meanwhile, ordered the concentration of massive armies to pull back the Muslims from Iraq for good. The goal was well coordinated attacks by both emperors, Heraclius in the Levant and Yazdegerd in Iraq, to annihilate the power of their common enemy Caliph Umar. Fate, however, had decided otherwise.<ref name="ReferenceB">Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, By Kaveh Farrokh, Published by Osprey Publishing, 2007 ISBN 1846031087</ref>

===Battle of Qadisiyyah===
{{Main|Battle of Qadisiyyah}}
[[File:Mohammad adil rais-battlefield of qadisiyyah.PNG|thumb|right|290px|The site of the Battle of Qadisiyyah, showing Muslim army (in red) and Sassanid army (in blue).]]
Umar ordered his army to retreat to the bordering areas of Iraq near the Arabian desert and started raising armies to for the Persian campaign. Iraq was to be conquered once again, from the beginning. Armies were concentrated near [[Madinah]] and owning to the critical situation Umar decided to command the army in person. The idea was discouraged by the members of [[Majlis al Shura]] at [[Madinah]]. The Muslims were engaged on both fronts and Umar's presence in Madinah was necessary, as it was the only way he could handle the critical situation. Umar appointed [[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]] as commander for campaign in Iraq who left Madinah with his army in May 636 and camped at [[Qadisiyyah]] in June.
While Heraclius launched his offense in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owning to exhausted conditions of his government, could not coordinate with Heraclius in that offense and a would be decisive plan missed the mark. Umar, having alleged intelligence of this alliance, devised his own plan. As battle was imminent with the Byzantines in Syria, Umar did not want to risk a decisive battle with two great powers simultaneously; in the case of defeat on either front the Muslim empire (which had already employed all of its available man power), could be paralyzed for this crucial moment of history. He wanted to finish with the Byzantines first, and thus reinforced the Muslim army at [[Yarmouk]], sending 6000 soldiers as a reinforcement in small bands. This was done to give the impression of a continuous stream of reinforcement. Meanwhile, Umar engaged [[Yazdegerd III]] using deception tactics, ordering Saad to enter into peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III and invite him to [[Islam]]. Heraclius had instructed his general [[Vahan]] not to engage in battle with the Muslims until he received the orders. However, fearing more reinforcement for Muslims from [[Madinah]], the Byzantines were left with no choice but to attack the Muslim forces before they became stronger. Heraclius's imperial army was annihilated at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in August 636 (three months before Qadisiyyah), ending the power of the Roman Emperor for good. Nevertheless, Yazdegerd III continued to execute his offensive plan and concentrated armies near his capital [[Ctesiphon]].<ref> Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:67</ref>.
With situations at ease at Syrian front, on Umar's instruction negotiations were halted as an open signal to Persians for battle. Saad defeated the powerful Persian army in the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] fought in 636 A.D the battle proved to be a key to Iraq. It marked the end of Sassanid rule west of Persia proper.<ref> The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 5 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref> The battle is regarded as one of the most decisive battle of Islamic and world history. The battle also achieved the death of the famed Persian general [[Rostam Farrokhzād]]. Saad later conquered [[Babylon]], Koosie, Bahrahsher and Madein, and the capital city of Sassanid Empire [[Siege of Ctesiphon 637|Ctesiphon fell]] in March 637 after a siege of three months.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
[[Iran]]ian historian ''Kaveh Farrokh'', in his book ''Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War'', describes the event of fall of Ctesiphon as:

{{Cquote| The local inhabitants made a desperate last stand at Veh Ardashir against the Arabs who finally broke into all of Ctesiphon in 637. For the first time the Arabs witnessed the riches, luxuries, arts, architecture and sophistication of one of the world’s greatest empires. Looting reached epic proportions. One fifth of the looted goods were sent from Ctesiphon to [[Umar|Caliph Omar]] at [[Medina]]. So great was the haul of booty that every [[Arab]] soldier was able to appropriate 12000 [[Dirham]]s worth of goods roughly the equivalent of 250,000 [[US Dollar]]s at the time of writing. Nearly 40,000 captured Sassanian noblemen were taken to Arabia and sold as [[slave]]s .<ref> Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War By Kaveh Farrokh Edition: illustrated Published by Osprey Publishing, 2007 Page 270 ISBN 1846031087, 9781846031083</ref>}}

==Conquest of Mesopotamia (636 - 638)==
[[Image:Ctesiphon, Iraq (2117465493).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Remains of [[Taq-i Kisra]], palace of the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid Kings]], [[Ctesiphon]], Iraq.]]
After the conquest of [[Ctesiphon]], several detachments were immediately sent west to capture Qarqeesia and [[Heet]] the forts at the border of the Byzantine Empire. Several fortified Persian armies were still active north-east of Ctesiphon at Jalula and north of the [[Tigris]] at [[Tikrit]] and [[Mosul]].
After withdrawal from Ctesiphon, the Persian armies gathered at Jalaula north-east of Ctesiphon. Jalaula was a place of strategically importance from where routes led to Iraq, Khurasan and [[Azerbaijan]]. The Persian forces at Jalula were commanded by General Mihran. His deputy was General Khurrazad a brother of General Rustam, who commanded Persian forced at the [[Battle of al-Qadisiyyah]]. As instructed by the Caliph Umar, Saad reported all the matter to Umar. Caliph decided to deal with Jalula first, his plan was first to clear the way to north before any decisive action against Tikrit and Mosul. Umar appointed Hashim ibn Uthba to the expedition of Jalula and Abdullah ibn Mutaam to conquer [[Tikrit]] and [[Mosul]]. In April 637, Hashim led 12,000 troops from Ctesiphon to win a victory over the Persians at the [[Battle of Jalula]], he then laid siege to Jalula for seven months. After seizing a victory at Jalula, Abdullah ibn Mutaam marched against Tikrit and captured the city after fierce resistance and with the help of [[Christian Arab]]s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} He next sent an army to [[Mosul]] which surrendered on the terms of [[Jizya]]. With victory at Jalula and occupation of the Tikrit-Mosul region, Muslim rule in Iraq was established.

After the conquest of Jalula, a Muslim force under Qa'qa marched in pursuit of the Persians. The Persian army that escaped from Jalaula took its position at Khaniqeen fifteen miles from Jalula on the road to Iran, under the command of General Mihran. Qa’qa defeated the Persian forces in the Battle of Khaniqeen and captured the city of Khaniqeen. Persians withdrew to [[Hulwan, Iran|Hulwan]]. Qaqa moved to Hulwan and laid siege to the city which was captured in January 638.<ref> The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 6 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref> Qa’qa sought permission for operating deeper into Persian land, the main land Iran, but Caliph Umar didn’t approved the proposal and wrote a historic letter to Saad saying:
{{cquote|''"I wish that between the Suwad and the Persian hills there were walls which would prevent them from getting to us, and prevent us from getting to them.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:5 page no:130</ref> The fertile Suwad is sufficient for us; and I prefer the safety of the Muslims to the spoils of war."''}}

===Raids of Persians in Mesopotamia (638 - 641)===
[[Image:Sphinx Darius Louvre.jpg|thumb|200px|Winged [[sphinx]] from the palace of [[Darius the Great]] at [[Susa]], captured by [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] general [[Abu Musa Ashaari|Abu Musa]] in 641.]]
By February 638 there was a lull in fighting on the Persian front. The Suwad, the [[Tigris]] valley, and the [[Euphrates]] valley were now under the complete control of the Muslims. The Persians had withdrawn to [[Iran|Persia proper]], east of [[Zagros mountains]]. Persians kept on raiding Iraq, which remained politically unstable. Nevertheless it appeared as if this was going to be the dividing line between the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] and the Sassanids. In later part of the year 638 [[Hormuzan]], who commanded one of the Persian corps at the [[Battle of Qadisiyyah]] and was one of the seven great chiefs of Persia, intensified his raids in Iraq, Saad according to Umar’s instructions took offensive against Hormuzan and Utbah ibn Ghazwan aided by Nouman ibn Muqarin attacked [[Ahwaz]] and forced Hormuzan to enter into a peace treaty with the Muslims according to which Ahwaz will remain Hormuzan’s estate and he will rule it as a vassal of the Muslims and will pay tritube.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Hormuzan broke the treaty and revolted against the Muslims, Umar sent [[Abu Musa Ashaari]], governor of [[Busra]] to deal with Hormuzan. Hormuzan was defeated and sought once again for peace, Umar accepted the offer and Hormuzan was again made vassal of the Muslims. This peace also proved short termed and once Hormuzan was reinforced by the fresh Persian troops sent by Emperor [[Yazdgerd III]] in late 640. The troops concentrated at Tuster north of Ahwaz, Umar sent Governor of [[Kufa]], [[Ammar ibn Yasir]], governor of [[Busra]] Abu Musa, and Nouman ibn Muqarin towards Tustar where Hormuzan was defeated, captured and sent to Madinah to Caliph Umar, where he apparently converted to Islam. He remained a useful adviser of Umar through out the campaign of conquest of Persia. He is also considered to be master mind behind the assassination of Caliph Umar in 644. After victory at [[Tustar]], Abu Musa marched against [[Susa]], a place of military importance, in January 641, which was captured after a siege of couple of months. Next [[Abu Musa Ashaari|Abu Musa]] marched against Junde Sabur, the only place left of military importance in the Persian province of [[Khuzistan]] which surrender to the Muslims after the siege of few weeks.<ref> The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 7 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134</ref>

==Battle of Nihawand (641)==
{{Main|Battle of Nahavand}}
[[File:Sassanid army helmet by Nickmard Khoey.jpg|thumb|<center>A Sassanid army helmet<center>]]
After the conquest of Khuzistan, the Caliph Umar wanted peace. They wanted to leave rest of Persia to the Persians. Umar said:
{{cquote|"''I wish there were a mountain of fire between us and the Persians, so that neither could they get to us, nor we to them.<ref name="ReferenceC">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 8 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>''"}}
But the Persians thought differently. The pride of the imperial Persians had been hurt by the conquest of their land by the Arabs. They could not acquiesce in the occupation of their lands by the Arabs.<ref>Dictionary of Islamic Architecture By Anderew Petersen pg.120</ref>

After defeat of Persian forces at the [[Battle of Jalula]] in 637, Emperor Yazdgerd III went to [[Rayy]] and from there moved to [[Merv]] where he set up his capital. From Merv, he directed his chiefs to conduct continuous raids in Iraq to destabilize the Muslim rule. Within the next four years, Yazdgerd III felt powerful enough to challenge the Muslims once again for the throne of Iraq. The Emperor sent a call to his people to drive away the Muslims from their lands. In response to the call, hardened veterans and young volunteers from all parts of Persia marched in large numbers to join the imperial standard and marched to [[Nihawand]] for the last titanic struggle for the between the forces of Caliphate and Sassanid Persia. 60,000 fighters assembled, commanded by Mardan Shah.

Governor of [[Kufa]], [[Ammar ibn Yasir]], received intelligence of the Persian movements and concentration at Nihawand. He reported the matter to Umar. Although Umar had expressed a desire for Iraq to be his eastern most frontier, he felt compelled to act given the concentration of Persian army at Nihawand.<ref>Rome's Enemies 3: Parthians and Sassanids By Peter Wilcox, pg 4</ref> He believed that so long as Persia proper remained under Sassanid rule, Persian forces would continue raiding Iraq with a view to one day re-capture the country. Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman was appointed commander of the forces of Kufa, and was ordered to march to Nihawand. Governor of Busra Abu Musa, was to march to Nihawand commanding his forces of [[Busra]] [[Nouman ibn Muqarrin]] marched from Ctesiphon to Nihawand while Umar decided to lead the army concentrated at [[Madinah]] in person and command the Muslims at the battle. Umar’s decision of commanding the army in person was not popularly accepted by the members of [[Majlis al Shura]] at Madinah. It was suggested that Umar should command the campaign from Madinah, and should appoint an astute military commander to lead the Muslims at Nihawand. Umar appointed [[Mugheera ibn Shuba]], commander of the forces concentrated at Madinah and appointed Nouman ibn Muqarrin as commander in chief of the Muslims at Nihawand. The Muslim army left for Nihawand and first concentrated at Tazar, and then moved to Nihawand and defeated the Persian forces at the [[Battle of Nihawand]] in December 641. Nouman died in action, and as per Umar’s instructions Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman became new commander in chief. After the victory at Nihawand, the Muslim army captured the whole district of [[Hamadan]] after feeble resistance by Persians.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

==Conquest of Persia (642 - 644)==

After years of non-offensive policy Umar now adopted a new offensive policy.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:18 page no:130</ref> The whole scale invasion of the Sassanid Empire was to begin. The Battle of Nihawand, one of the most decisive battle in Islamic history and certainly the most decisive battle in the history of Persia, more decisive then [[Alexander the great|Alexander]]’s fatal blow at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]], in terms that after Gaugamela, Persians recovered with in few decades and built an other Persian empire, but after Umar blow to Persians at Nihawind, Persians would never raise an other empire.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The battle proved to be a key to Persia. After a devastating defeat at Nihawand, last Sassanid emperor Yazdgerd III, a man with iron nerves, was never to be able again to raise more troops to resist the mighty onslaught of Umar, it had now became a war between two rulers, Umar will follow Yazdgerd III to every corner of his empire either will kill him or will capture him, like he did with Hormuzan. Yazdgerd III would have a narrow escape at [[Marv]] when Umar’s lieutenant was to capture him, he would save his life only by fleeing to [[China]], far enough from reach of Umar, thus effectively ending the 400 years old Sassanid dynasty.<ref>Iranian History and Politics: The Dialectic of State and Society By Homa Katouzian, pg. 25</ref> The conquest of the Sassanid Empire, by commanding the operations, sitting about 1000 kilometer away from the battlefields, will become the greatest triumph of Umar and his strategic marvel, and marked his reputation as one of the greatest military and political genius of all time, like his late cousin [[Khalid ibn Walid]] (590 – 642).<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Strategic planning for the conquest of Persia===
Umar decided to strike Persians immediately after their defeat at Nihawand to have psychological advantage on them. The main strategic problem before Umar was from where to start the offensive. There were three alternatives, [[Fars Province|Fars]] in south, [[Azerbaijan]] in north or [[Isfahan]] in center. Umar closed Isfahan to be the first target. His strategy was to strike heart of Persian Empire this will cut off supply line and communication of Sassanid garrisons from of rest of Persian provinces, thus will isolate Fars, Azerbaijan, from Khurasan. The next attacks will launched against Fars, after capturing the heart land of Persia, that is [[Fars Province|Fars]] and [[Isfahan]] simultaneously attacks will be launched against [[Azerbaijan]], the north western province and [[Sistan]], the eastern most province of Persian Empire.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Conquest of these provinces will leave [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]], the stronghold of [[Yazdegerd III|Emperor Yazdegerd III]] isolated and vulnerable.
In the last phase of this grand campaign Khurasan was to be attacked. This will be a last nail in the coffin of Sassanid dynasty. The plan was formulated and preparations were completed by January 642. The success of plan depended upon how brilliantly Umar will co-ordinate these attacks from Madinah, about 1000 miles from the battlefields in Persia and upon skills and abilities of his field commanders. Umar would appoint his best field commanders to conquer the Sassanid Empire and bring down his most formidable foe [[Yazdegerd III|Emperor Yazdegerd III]]. The campaign saw a different pattern in command structure. Umar will not appoint a single field commander to campaign across the Persian lands, he would rather appoint several commanders each with his own objectives, and once the mission was over he will be acting as an ordinary sub-ordinate under the new field commander for the next mission. This was done by Umar to prevent any of his commanders to gain prominence and power that would in future, threaten his own authority, as in 638 he feared Khalid’s growing power and popularity and dismissed him from military services when he was at zenith of his military career, though at his dismissal, Khalid was more than able to rebel against Umar but never rebelled and made a soft corner in Umar’s heart. In 642 at the eve of conquest of Persia, Umar in order to give a moral boost to his troops decided to reinstall Khalid as new field commander against Persia.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Already well reputed as invincible military commander and conqueror of eastern provinces of Roman, Khalid’s presence in Persia would strike terror in Persian commanders, most of whom had already faced Khalid in 633 during his lightning conquest of Iraq.
Umar wanted a sure victory in early campaigns, which would increase confidence of his troops and meanwhile demoralize Persians. Unfortunately before Umar could issue orders of re-appointment, Khalid, residing in [[Emesa]], died. In various campaigns of Persia, Umar even himself appointed the commanders of wings, center and [[cavalry]] of the army. Umar strictly instructed his commanders to consult him before making any decisive move in Persia. All the commanders, before starting their assigned campaigns were instructed to send a detail report of the geography and terrain of the region and position of Persian [[garrison]]s, [[fort]]s, cities and troops in it. Then Umar will sent them a detail plan of how he want this region to be capture, only the tactical issues were left to the field commander to be tackled in accordance with the situation they are facing at their front.<ref>The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires, Translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, ISBN 0791408523,</ref> Umar appointed the best available and well reputed commanders for the campaign.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:10 ISBN 0195977130,</ref><ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref>

===Conquest of central Persia (Isfahan & Tabaristan)===
[[Image:Choghazanbil2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ziggurat of [[Choqa Zanbil]] in Khuzestan.]]
The preparation and planning of conquest of Persian Empire was completed by early 642. Umar appointed [[Abdullah ibn Uthban]], commander of the Muslim forces to invade [[Isfahan]]. From Nihawand Abdullah marched to [[Hamadan]], which was already in Muslim hand. From Hamadan, Abdullah marched to North East to [[Rayy]], about 200 miles from Hamadan and laid siege to the city which surrendered after fierce resistance. Once Rayy was captured Abdullah marched 230 miles south east against [[Isfahan]] city and laid siege to it, here the Muslim army was reinforced by the fresh troops from Busra and Kufa under the command of [[Abu Musa Ashaari]] and [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:11 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The siege continued for few months and finally city surrendered. From Isfahan Abdullah again marched 150 miles north-east towards [[Qom]], which was captured with out much resistance. This was the outer most boundary of [[Isfahan]] region. Further north east of it laid [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]], and south east of it lay [[Sistan]]. Meanwhile Hamadan and Rayy had rebelled, Umar sent [[Naiem ibn Muqarrin]], brother of late [[Nauman ibn Muqarrin]], who was Muslim commander at Nihawand, to crush the rebellion and clear the western most boundaries of Isfahan. Naiem marched towards Hamadan from Isfahan, a bloody battle was fought and Hamadan was recaptured by the Muslims, Naiem next moved to Rayy, here too Persians resisted and were defeated out side the fort, and city was recaptured by Muslims.<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993">The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires, Translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, ISBN 0791408523</ref> Persian citizen sought for peace and agreed to pay [[Jizya]]. From Rayy, Naiem moved north towards [[Tabaristan]], which laied south of [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993"/> The ruler of Tabaristan surrendered and a peace treaty was signed according to which he will govern Tabaristan on behalf of Caliph and will pay annual Jizya. This was all done in April 642. Naiem’s brother advanced further north and captured Qumas, Jarjan and [[Amol]]. He too signed a peace treaty with locals according to which they will accept the Muslim rule over area and will pay Jizya. With this campaign that ended some time 643, the Muslims were master of [[Tabaristan]]. Further North West of the region laid [[Azerbaijan]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:11 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of southern Persia (Fars)===

With [[Isfahan]] firmly in Muslim hand, conquest of [[Fars Province|Fars]] begun about the same time when conquest of [[Tabaristan]] was started. The first army that will penetrate Fars, was under the command of [[Maja’a ibn Masood]], his objective was [[Sabur]]. Maja’a marched from [[Busra]] to [[Tawwaj]], where Persian forces halt his way and were defeated in a quick battle thus fought. From Tawwaj Maja’a moved to Sabur, which was a fortified town.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:12 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> The siege continued for few weeks after which city surrendered and usual terms of Jizya were enforced on it. With the conquest of Sabur Maja’a ibn Masood’s mission was over. Reinforcement came under the command of [[Usman ibn Abi al-Aas]], who took over the command of Majaa’s army. Usman’s objective was ancient Persian capital city of [[Persepolis]]. Usman marched from Tawwaj to [[Shiraz]], which surrendered peacefully. From Shiraz, Usman moved 35 miles north to Persepolis and laid siege to the historic Persian city. Siege lasted for several weeks before the city surrendered. Usman’s mission was over at Persepolis. Here again a change of command occurred. The mission to captured eastern districts of [[Fasa]] and [[Darab]] was given to [[Sariyah ibn Zuneim]], who moved 80 miles south east to capture Fasa and then Darab, 60 miles from Fasa after resistance from local Persian garrisons. With this last successful expedition, conquest of Fars was completed by late [[642]]. Further east of Fars laid [[Kerman]] and [[Sistan]]. A simultaneous campaign was launched against eastern (sistan and Balochistan), southern (Kerman and Makran) and north western (Azerbaijan) Persia.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

===Conquest of south eastern Persia (Kerman & Makran)===
[[Image:Head horse Kerman Louvre MAO132.jpg|150px|thumb|Sassanid era horse head Found in Kerman.]]
Expedition to [[Kerman]] was sent roughly at the same time when expedition to [[Sistan]] and [[Azerbaijan]] were sent. [[Suhail ibn adi]] was given command of this expedition. Suhail marched from Busra in 643, passing from [[Shiraz]] and [[Persepolis]] he join with other Muslim armies and marched against Kerman, which was subdued after a pitch battle with local garrisons. Further east of Kerman laid [[Makran]] what is now a part of present day [[Pakistan]]. It was domain of [[Hindu]] king of Rasil (sindh), who acted as a vassal of Sassanid Persians. [[Raja]] of Rasil concentrated huge armies from Sindh and [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] to halt the advance of the Muslims. Suhail was reinforced by Usman ibn Abi Al Aas from Persepolis, and Hakam ibn Amr from Busra, the combined forces defeated Raja Rasil at the [[Battle of Rasil]], who retreated to the eastern bank of [[Indus|River Indus]]. Further east from Indus River laid [[Sindh]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:13 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Umar, after knowing that sindh was a poor and relatively barran land, disapproved Suhail’s proposal to cross Indus River.<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993"/> For the time being, Umar declared the Indus River, a natural barrier, to be the eastern most frontier of his domain. This campaign came to an end in mid 644.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref>

===Conquest of eastern Persia (Sistan)===
{{Main|History of Arabs in Afghanistan}}
[[Sistan]] was believed to be the largest province of Sassanid Empire. In south it bordered with Kerman and in North with Khurasan. It stretches from what is now [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan, Pakistan]] in east and southern [[Afghanistan]] in north. [[Asim ibn Amr]], veteran of the great battles of [[Battle of Qadisiyyah|Qadisiyyah]] and [[Battle of Nihawand|Nihawand]] was appointed to conquer Sistan. Asim marched from [[Busra]], and passing through Fars and taking under his command the Muslim troops already present in fars entered Sistan. No resistance was offered and cities surrendered. Asim reached [[Zaranj]], 250 miles from [[Kandahar]], a small town in present day southern Afghanistan, then a bustling capital of Sistan. Asim laid siege to the city which lasted several months. A pitch battle was fought out side the city and Persians were defeated and routed. With the surrender of Zaranj, Sistan submitted to Muslim rule. Further east of sistan was northern [[Sindh]] which was beyond the scope of the mission assigned to Asim. Caliph for the time bring, didn’t approved of any incursion in the land east of Persian Empire and ordered his men to consolidate power in newly conquered land.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:14 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Azerbaijan===
[[Image:Derbent winter.jpg|thumb|left|275px|Sassanian fortress in [[Derbent]]. It fell to the Muslims in 643.]]
Conquest of [[Azerbaijan]] started in 643. It was part of simultaneous attack launched against north, south and east of Persia, after capturing Isfahan and Fars. These brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks by Caliph Umar, paralyzed whole of what then remained of Persian Empire. Expeditions were sent against Kerman and Makran in south east, against Sistan in north east and against Azerbaijan in North West. [[Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman]] was appointed commander to conquer Azerbaijan. Hudheifa marched from [[Rayy]] in central Persia to [[Zanjan]], a stronghold of Persians in north. Zanjan was a well defended fortified town, Persians came out of the city and gave a battle, Hudheifa defeated the Persian garrison and captured the city, as per Caliph Umar’s order, the civilians who sought for peace were given peace on the usual terms of [[Jizya]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:15 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> From Zanjan, Hudheifa marched to [[Ardabil]] which surrendered peacefully and Hudheifa continued his march north along with the western coast of [[Caspian Sea]] and captured [[Bab]] by force.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref> At this point Hudheifa was recalled by Caliph umar. [[Bukair ibn Abdullah]] and [[Utba ibn Farqad]] succeeded him. They were sent to carry out a two prong attack against Azerbaijan. Bukair was to march north along western coast of Caspian Sea while Uthba will march direct in the heart of Azerbaijan. On his way north Bukair was halt by a large Persian force under Isandir. A pitch battle was fought and Isandir was defeated and captured. Isandir in return of safety of his life agreed to surrender his estates in Azerbaijan and persuade others for submission to Muslim rule.<ref name="Al-Tabari 1993"/> Uthba ibn Farqad defeated Bahram, brother of Isandir. He too sought for peace. A pact was drawn according to which Azerbaijan was surrendered to Caliph Umar on usual terms of paying annual [[Jizya]]. The espedition commenced some time in late 643.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:15 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Armenia===
[[File:Tbilisi (20).jpg|thumb|right|200px|View of Tbilisi, which fell to the Rashidun Caliphate in 644.]]
[[Byzantine]] [[Armenia]] was already conquered in 638-639. Persian Armenia lay north of Azerbaijan. By now except for [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] and [[Armenia]], whole of Persian Empire was under Umar’s control and Emperor Yazdegred III was on run. Umar never wanted to take a chance, he never perceived Persian as weak and weary. In Umar’s this sense of perception laid his secret of brilliant and speedy conquest of Persian Empire. This time again Umar decided to send simultaneous expeditions to far north east and north west of Persian Empire. An expedition was sent to [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] in late 643 and at the same time an expedition was launched against [[Armenia]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
[[Bukair ibn Abdullah]], who had recently subdued Azerbaijan, assigned mission to Capture [[Tiflis]], present day capital of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], then a Capital of Persian Armenia. From [[Bab]] at western coast of Caspian Sea, Bukair continued his march north. Umar decided to practice his traditional and successful strategy of multi-prong attacks. While Bukair was still miles away from [[Tiflis]], Umar instructed him to divide his army into three corps. Umar appointed [[Habib ibn Muslaima]] to capture Tiflis, [[Abdulrehman]] to march north against the mountains and [[Hudheifa]] to march against southern mountains. Habib captured Tiflis and region up to eastern coast of [[Black Sea]]. Abdulrehman marched north to [[Caucasus|Caucasus Mountains]] and subdued the tribes. Hudheifa marched south west to the mountainous region and subdued the local tribes. The advance in Armenia came to an end with the death of Caliph umar in November 644. By then almost whole of [[Caucasus]] was captured.<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:16 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

===Conquest of Khurasan===
{{Main|History of Arabs in Afghanistan}}
[[Image:Afghanistan 14.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Shah-Do Shamshira Mosque]] in [[Kabul]].]]
[[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] was second largest province of Sassanid Persian Empire. It stretches from what is present day north eastern [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]. Its capital was [[Balkh]], now in present day northern Afghanistan. In late 643 the mission of conquering Khurasan was assigned to [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]].<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref> Ahnaf marched from [[Kufa]] and took a short and less frequent route via [[Rayy]] and [[Nishapur]]. Rayy was already in Muslim hand and Nishapur surrendered with out resistance. From Nishapur Ahnaf marched to [[Herat]] which in now in present day southern Afghanistan. Herat was a fortified town, [[Siege of Herat]] lasted for few months before Herat surrendered. With the surrender of Heart, whole of the southern Khurasan came under Muslim control. With Herat under his firm control, Ahnaf marched north direct to [[Merv]], in present [[Turkmenistan]].<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:17 ISBN 0195977130,</ref> Merv was the capital of Khurasan and here Yazdegred III held his court. On hearing of the Muslim advance, Yazdegred III left for Balkh. No resistance was offered at Merv, and the Muslims occupied the capital of Khurasan without firing a shot. Ahnaf stayed at Merv and waited for reinforcement from Kufa.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Meanwhile Yazdgird had also gathered considerable power at Balkh and also sought alliance with the Khan of [[Farghana]], who personally led the Turkish contingent to help Yazdegred III. Umar ordered that Yazdgird’s allied forces should be weaken by breaking up the alliance with Turks. Ahnaf successfully break up the alliance and Khan of Farghana pulled back his forces realizing that fighting with the Muslims is not a good idea and it might endanger his own kingdom. Yazdgird's army was defeated at the [[Battle of Oxus River]] and retreated across the [[Oxus]] to [[Transoxiana]]. Yazdegred III had a narrow escape and fled to [[China]]. Balkh was occupied by the Muslims, and with this occupation the Persian war was over. The Muslims had now reached the outermost frontiers of Persia. Beyond that lay the lands of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and still further lay China. The old mighty empire of the Sassanids had ceased to exist. Ahnaf returned to Marv and sent a detail report of operations to Umar and a historic letter that Umar was anxiously waiting for, subject of which was that Persian Empire has been conquered and a permission was sought whether Oxus should be crossed to invade Transoxiana or not. Umar ordered Ahnaf to consolidate his power south of Oxus.

==Persian rebellion==
Caliph Umar was assassinated in November 644, by a Persian Slave. The assassination is often seen by various historians as a Persian conspiracy against Umar.<ref>''Al Farooq, Umar'' By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter 19 page no:130</ref> [[Hormuzan]] is said to have master minded this plot. Caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan]] (644-656) succeeded Umar. During his reign almost whole of the former Sassanid empire's territory rebelled time to time until 651, when the last Sassanid emperor was assassinated near [[Merv]] ending the Sassanid dynasty and Persian resistance to the Muslims. Caliph Uthman thus directed several military expeditions to crush rebellion and re-capture the Persia and their vassal states. The Empire expanded beyond the borders of Sassanid Empire in [[Transoxiana]], [[Balochistan (region)|Baluchistan]] and [[Caucasus]]. The main rebellion was in the Persian provinces of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Fars, Sistan ( in 649), Tabaristan, Khorasan (651), and Makran (650).<ref>The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:19 ISBN 0195977130,</ref>

==End of the Sassanid dynasty==
[[Yazdegerd III]] after being defeated at the [[Battle of Oxus river]] was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive.
Following the battle he fled to [[central asia]] at the court of Khan of Farghana. From there Yazdegerd went to China.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Nevertheless Yazdegerd III kept on intruding in Persia, using his influence over the notables and chiefs of Persia, thus remained a motivating force behind the Persian rebellion. During Caliph Uthman's reign Yadegerd III came back to [[Bactria]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] rebelled against Caliphate. [[Abdullah ibn Aamir]] crushed the rebellion and defeated Yazdegerd's forces. He fled from one district to another until a local miller killed him for his purse at [[Merv]] in 651.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324 | title=Iran | publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> For many decades to come, this was the easternmost limit of complete Muslim rule.

==Persia under Muslim rule==

{{See also|Islamization in Iran|Islam in Iran}}
[[Image:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb|right|300px|Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654 {{legend|#009900|Strongholds of Rashidun Caliphate}}.]]
[[File:Naghsh-e-jahan masjed-e-shah esfahan.jpg|thumb|300px|View of [[Naqsh-e Jahan Square]] and [[Shah Mosque]], Iran.]]

According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:
<blockquote>"''Arab Muslims conquests have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision… Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna.''"<ref name="lewis">{{cite web | url=http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html | title=Iran in history | first=Bernard | last=Lewis | publisher=[[Tel Aviv University]] | accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref></blockquote>

===Administration===

Under Umar and his immediate successors, the Arab conquerors attempted to maintain their political and cultural cohesion despite the attractions of the civilizations they had conquered. The Arabs initially settled in the garrison towns rather than on scattered estates.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
The new non-Muslim subjects were protected by the state and known as ''[[dhimmi]]'' (meaning protected), were to pay a special tax, the [[jizya]] (''tribute''), which was calculated per individual at varying rates, usually two [[dirham]]s for able bodied men of military age, in return for their exemption from military services. Women and Children were exempted from Jizya.<ref>{{cite book
| author = [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Kennedy, Hugh]]
| title = The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates
| publisher = Longman
| date = 2004
| page = 68
}}</ref>.
Mass conversions were neither desired nor allowed, at least in the first few centuries of Arab rule<ref>{{cite book | authorlink=Richard Nelson Frye | last=Frye | first=R.N | title=The Golden Age of Persia | year=1975 | isbn=1-84212-011-5 | page=62}}</ref><ref>[[Tabari]]. Series I. pp. 2778–9.</ref><ref name=boyce>Boyce, Mary (1979), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-23903-6 pg.150</ref> Caliph Umar had liberal policies towards dhimmis, these policies were adopted to make the conquered less prone to up-rise against their new masters and thus making them more receptive to Arab colonization, as it for the time being gave them release from the intolerable social inferiority system of the old Sassanian regime.<ref>''Landlord and peasant in Persia: a study of land tenure and land revenue''. By Ann K. S. Lambton, pg.17.</ref>
Umar is reported to have issued the following instructions about the protected people:
{{cquote|''Make it easy for him, who can not pay tribute; help him who is weak, let them keep their titles, but do not give them our [[kuniyat]] (''Arabic traditional nicknames or titles'').<ref name="Their Non-Muslim Subjects pg.138">''The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects''.By A. S. Tritton, pg.138.</ref> Humiliate them but do them no injustice, if you meat them on road make them to go on sides.''}}
Umar's liberal policies were continued by at least his immediate successors. In his dying charge to his successor he is reported to have said:
{{cquote|''I charge the caliph after me to be kind to the dhimmis, to keep their covenant, to protect them and not to burden them over their strength.''<ref name="Their Non-Muslim Subjects pg.138"/>}}
Practically Jizya replaced poll taxes imposed by the Sassanids, which tended to be much higher than the Jizya, in addition to jizya the old Sassanid ''land tax'' (Known in Arabic as ''Kharaj'') were also adopted. Caliph Umar is said to have occasionally setup a commission to survey the taxes, that if they are not more than the land could bear.<ref>''The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects''.By A. S. Tritton, pg.139.</ref> It is narrated that Zoroastrians were subjected to humiliation and ridicule when paying the [[Jizya]] in order to make them feel inferior,<ref name='mboyce'>{{cite book|last=Boyce|first= Mary|title=Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices|publisher=Routledge, 2001|pages=146|isbn=0415239028, 9780415239028|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&lpg=PP1&dq=Zoroastrians,%20their%20religious%20beliefs%20and%20practices&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=inferior&f=false}}</ref>
and during late [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] they eventually lost their status as dhimmi, which forced many of them to flee to India.

For at least under Rashiduns and early Ummayads, the administrative system of the late Sassanid period was largely retained.
This was a pyramidal system where each quarter of the state was divided into provinces, the provinces into districts, and the districts into sub-districts.
Provinces were called ''ustan'' (Middle Persian ''ostan''), the districts ''shahrs'', centered upon a district capital known as ''shahristan''. The subdistricts were called ''tasok'' in Middle Persian, which was adopted as ''tassuj'' (plural ''tasasij'') into Arabic.

===Religion===
{{See also|Islamization in Iran|Persecution of Zoroastrians}}
Having effectively been recognized as dhimmis under the Rashidun Caliphs, on the terms of annual payment of Jizya, Zoroastrians were sometimes left largely to themselves, but that this pattern was patchy and varied from area to area. Due to their financial interests, Ummayads generally discourage the conversion of non-Arabs, as dhimmis provided them with valuable revenues (Jizya). With the course of time [[Persecution of Zoroastrians|religious persecution of Zoroastrians]] increased<ref name="iranica">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v13f3/v13f3001a.html|title=Iran in the Islamic Period (651-1980s)-Encyclopedia Iranica|accessdate=17 December 2009}}</ref><ref name='ayear'>{{cite book|last=BROWNE|first=EDWARD GRANVILLE |title=. A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS|publisher=Adam and Charles Black, 1893|pages=594}}</ref>, and social humiliations were implemented to make life difficult for the them and to persuade them to eventually convert to Islam.<ref name='bbc'>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/history/persia_1.shtml#h4|title=BBC - Religions - Zoroastrian: Under Persian rule|accessdate=17 December 2009}}</ref>

Before the conquest, the Persians had been mainly [[Zoroastrian]]; there were also large and thriving [[Christian]] and [[Jewish]] communities, along with smaller numbers of [[Buddhist]]s and other groups. However, there was a slow but steady movement of the population toward [[Islam]]. The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert, Islam spread more slowly among the peasantry and the ''dihqans'', or landed gentry. By the late 10th century, the majority of Persians had become Muslim.

Until the 15th century, most Persian Muslims were [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]], though today Iran is known as a stronghold of the Shi'a Muslim faith. The Iranian Muslims projected many of their own Persian moral and ethical values{{Citation needed| May 2009 such as?|date=May 2009}} that predates Islam into the religion, while recognizing Islam as their religion and the prophet's son in law, [[Ali]] as an enduring symbol of justice.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

==Language==
During the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], the official language of Persia remained [[Old Persian|Persian]]. Likewise, the official languages of [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] remained [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. However, during the [[Ummayad Caliphate]], the Ummayads imposed [[Arabic]] as the primary language of their subjected people throughout their empire, displacing their indigenous languages. Although an area from Iraq to Morocco speaks Arabic to this day, [[Middle Persian]] proved to be much more enduring. Most of its structure and vocabulary survived, evolving into the modern [[Persian language]]. However, Persian did incorporate a certain amount of Arabic vocabulary, especially words pertaining to religion, and it switched from the [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] [[Aramaic alphabet]] to a modified version of the [[Arabic alphabet]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.languages.umd.edu/persian/persianlanguage1.php | title=What is Persian? | publisher = The center for Persian studies}}</ref>

==Ancient Zorastrian Fire Temples==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Place
! Description
! Other Information
|-
| Isthakar
|
| Recorded in the Bam nama -a history of Kirman <ref>Acta Iranica Encyclopedie Permente Des Etudes Iraniennes .Papers in honour of Professor Mary Boyce,Mehrdad Shokoohy, Volume 1 By Mary Boyce Page 545</ref>
|-
|
|
|

|}

==See also==
* [[Islamicization in post-conquest Iran]]
* [[History of Arabs in Afghanistan]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[Military history of Iran]]
* [[Fall of Sassanid dynasty]]
* [[Muslim conquests]]
* [[Spread of Islam]]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=daDZyBSlicQ Response from the last Persian King Yazdgird III To: Omar, Khalifat of Islam Army]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

==Literature==
* Bashear, Suliman — ''Arabs and Others in Early Islam'', Darwin Press, 1997
* Daniel, Elton — ''The History of Iran'', Greenwood Press, 2001
* Donner, Fred — ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', Princeton, 1981
* M. Ismail Marcinkowski, ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971-77-488-7.
* Sicker, Martin — ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna'', Praeger, 2000
* [[Abdolhossein Zarinkoob|Zarrin’kub, Abd al-Husayn]] — ''Ruzgaran : tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi'', Sukhan, 1999. ISBN 964-6961-11-8
* [http://www.iranica.com/articles/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v2_articles/arab/arab_conquest_iran&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Arab Conquest of Iran], pp. 203–10, [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]].
*[http://books.google.co.in/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&dq=Zoroastrians:+their+religious+beliefs+and+practices+By+Mary+Boyce&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=UQ72FValrp&sig=Q36BLsomBlnxzptuKomb8C4OlmU&hl=en&ei=ENAtS8X5Kc2HkQWH8eWCCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices By Mary Boyce Rutledge Taylor and Francis group]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muslim Conquest Of Persia}}
[[Category:7th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]
[[Category:Wars involving Persia]]
[[Category:Sassanid dynasty]]
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]
[[Category:Islam in Iran]]

[[ar:الفتح الإسلامي لفارس]]
[[es:Conquista musulmana de Persia]]
[[fa:حمله اعراب به ایران]]
[[fr:Conquête musulmane de la Perse]]
[[mk:Исламско освојување на Персија]]
[[ja:イスラーム教徒のペルシア征服]]
[[no:Den islamske erobringen av Iran]]
[[th:การพิชิตจักรวรรดิเปอร์เซียของมุสลิม]]
[[tr:İran'da İslam]]
[[zh:伊斯兰对波斯的征服]]

Jeff Cooper

2009-12-27T08:44:50Z

Skomorokh: moved Jeff Cooper (Marine) to Jeff Cooper: per requested move on article talkpage

{{Article issues|peacock =January 2009|refimprove =January 2009|tooshort =January 2009}}

[[File:Coljeffcooper.jpg|thumb|Lieutenant Colonel Jeff Cooper]]
'''John Dean "Jeff" Cooper''' (May 10, 1920 - September 25, 2006) was recognized as the father of what is commonly known as "the [[Modern Technique of the Pistol|Modern Technique]]" of handgun shooting, and was considered by many to be one of the 20th century's foremost international experts on the use and history of small arms.

==History==
Born John Dean Cooper, but known to his friends as "Jeff", Cooper was a [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] [[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|Lieutenant Colonel]] who served in both [[World War II]] and the [[Korean War]] resigning his commission in 1956.{{citation needed|date=January 2009}} He received a bachelor's degree in political science from Stanford University and, in the mid-1960s, a master's degree in history from the University of California, Riverside.

In 1976, Cooper founded the ''American Pistol Institute'' (API) in [[Paulden, Arizona]] (later the [[Gunsite Training Center]]). Cooper also began teaching shotgun and rifle classes to train law enforcement and military personnel as well as civilians and did on-site training for individuals and groups around the Free World. He sold the firm in 1992 but continued living on the Paulden ranch. He was known for his advocacy of large caliber handguns, especially the [[M1911 Colt pistol|Colt 1911]] and the .[[45 ACP]] cartridge.

Jeff Cooper conceived and designed the [[Bren Ten]] pistol around the [[10 mm Auto]],<ref>http://www.bren-ten.com/website/id85.html</ref> based on the Czech [[CZ 75]] design and the cartridge was more powerful than both the 9 mm [[Luger]] and the .45 ACP round.

His second major contribution to firearms design was what he termed a [[Scout Rifle]]. These bolt action carbines are typically .30 caliber (7.62 mm), less than 1 meter in length and less than 3 kilograms in weight, with [[iron sight|iron]] and optical sights, and fitted with practical slings (such as [[Ching sling|Ching slings]]) for shooting and carrying and capable of hitting man-sized targets out to 450 meters without scopes. Typically they employ forward-mounted low-power long eye relief scopes or sights to afford easy access to the top of the rifle action for rapid reloading. Steyr, Ruger, Savage, and several other gun makers now manufacture Scout rifles that roughly match Cooper's specifications, but most lack auxiliary iron sights.

Cooper defined his goal: "... a general-purpose rifle is a conveniently portable, individually operated firearm, capable of striking a single decisive blow, on a live target of up to 200 kilos in weight, at any distance at which the operator can shoot with the precision necessary to place a shot in a vital area of the target."

Cooper died peacefully at his home on the afternoon of Monday, September 25, 2006.<ref>"[http://prescottdailycourier.com/main.asp?SectionID=1&SubSectionID=1&ArticleID=41279&TM=25504.83 Cooper, firearms expert, dead at 86]" in ''Prescott Daily Courier'', September 26, 2006</ref>

==The Modern Technique==

Cooper's [[The Modern Technique of the Pistol|modern technique]] defines pragmatic use of the [[pistol]] for personal protection. The modern technique emphasizes two-handed shooting using the [[Weaver stance]], replacing the once-prevalent one-handed shooting. The five elements of the modern technique are:

*A large caliber pistol, preferably a semi-auto
*The [[Weaver stance]]
*The Flash Sight Picture
*The Compressed Breath
*Surprise Trigger Break

Cooper favored the [[M1911|Colt M1911]] and its variants. There are several conditions of readiness in which such a weapon can be carried. Cooper promulgated most of the following terms:

*Condition Four: Chamber empty, no magazine, hammer down.
*Condition Three: Chamber empty, full magazine in place, hammer down.
*Condition Two: A round chambered, full magazine in place, hammer down.
*Condition One: A round chambered, full magazine in place, hammer cocked, safety on.
*Condition Zero: A round chambered, full magazine in place, hammer cocked, safety off.

Some of these configurations are safer than others (for instance, a single action pistol without a firing pin safety should never be carried in Condition 2), while others are quicker to fire the gun (Condition 1). In the interest of consistent training, most agencies that issue the 1911 specify the condition in which it is to be carried as a matter of local doctrine.

This firearm condition system can also be used to refer to other firearm actions, particularly when illustrating the differences between carry modes considered to be safe for various actions. For example, DA/SA is designed to be carried in Condition 2, which is not safe for 1911s without firing pin safeties.

==Combat Mindset - The Cooper Color Code==
The most important means of surviving a lethal confrontation is, according to Cooper, neither the weapon nor the martial skills. The primary tool is the combat mindset, set forth in his book, ''Principles of Personal Defense''.<ref name="principle">Cooper, Jeff, Principles of Personal Defense, Paladin Press, ISBN 978-0873644976</ref> In the chapter on awareness, Cooper presents an adaptation of the Marine Corps system to differentiate states of readiness:

The color code as originally introduced by Jeff Cooper, had nothing to do with tactical situations or alertness levels, but rather with one's state of mind. As taught by Cooper, it relates to the degree of peril you are willing to do something about and which allows you to move from one level of mindset to another to enable you to properly handle a given situation. Cooper didn't claim to have invented anything in particular with the color code, but he was apparently the first to use it as an indication of mental state. <ref>Taken from Gunsite course material and private correspondence with Jeff Cooper</ref>

*'''White''' - Unaware and unprepared. If attacked in Condition White, the only thing that may save you is the inadequacy or ineptitude of your attacker. When confronted by something nasty, your reaction will probably be "Oh my God! This can't be happening to me."

*'''Yellow''' - Relaxed alert. No specific threat situation. Your mindset is that "today could be the day I may have to defend myself." You are simply aware that the world is a potentially unfriendly place and that you are prepared to defend yourself, if necessary. You use your eyes and ears, and realize that "I may have to SHOOT today." You don't have to be armed in this state, but if you are armed you should be in Condition Yellow. You should always be in Yellow whenever you are in unfamiliar surroundings or among people you don't know. You can remain in Yellow for long periods, as long as you are able to "Watch your six." (In aviation 12 o'clock refers to the direction in front of the aircraft's nose. Six o'clock is the [[blind spot]] behind the pilot.) In Yellow, you are "taking in" surrounding information in a relaxed but alert manner, like a continuous 360 degree radar sweep. As Cooper put it, "I might have to shoot."

*'''Orange''' - Specific alert. Something is not quite right and has gotten your attention. Your radar has picked up a specific alert. You shift your primary focus to determine if there is a threat (but you do not drop your six). Your mindset shifts to "I may have to shoot HIM today," focusing on the specific target which has caused the escalation in alert status. In Condition Orange, you set a mental trigger: "If that goblin does 'x', I will need to stop him." Your pistol usually remains holstered in this state. Staying in Orange can be a bit of a mental strain, but you can stay in it for as long as you need to. If the threat proves to be nothing, you shift back to Condition Yellow.

*'''Red''' - Condition Red is fight. Your mental trigger (established back in Condition Orange) has been tripped. If "X" happens I will shoot that person.

The USMC also uses "Condition Black" as actively engaged in combat, as do some of Cooper's successors, but Cooper always felt this was an unnecessary step and not in keeping with the mindset definition of the color code since it is a state of action.

In short, the Color Code helps you "think" in a fight. As the level of danger increases, your willingness to take certain actions increases. If you ever do go to Condition Red, the decision to use lethal force has already been made (your "mental trigger" has been tripped).

The following are some of Cooper's additional comments on the subject.

"Considering the principles of personal defense, we have long since come up with the Color Code. This has met with surprising success in debriefings throughout the world. The Color Code, as we preach it, runs white, yellow, orange, and red, and is a means of setting one’s mind into the proper condition when exercising lethal violence, and is not as easy as I had thought at first.

There is a problem in that some students insist upon confusing the appropriate color with the amount of danger evident in the situation. As I have long taught, you are not in any color state because of the specific amount of danger you may be in, but rather in a mental state which enables you to take a difficult psychological step."Now, however, the government has gone into this and is handing out color codes nationwide based upon the apparent nature of a peril. It has always been difficult to teach the Gunsite Color Code, and now it is more so.

We cannot say that the government’s ideas about colors are wrong, but that they are different from what we have long taught here."The problem is this: your combat mind-set is not dictated by the amount of danger to which you are exposed at the time. Your combat mind-set is properly dictated by the state of mind you think appropriate to the situation. You may be in deadly danger at all times, regardless of what the Defense Department tells you. The color code which influences you does depend upon the willingness you have to jump a psychological barrier against taking irrevocable action. That decision is less hard to make since the jihadis have already made it."

He further simplified things in Vol 13 #7 of his Commentaries.

"In White you are unprepared and unready to take lethal action. If you are attacked in White you will probably die unless your adversary is totally inept.

In Yellow you bring yourself to the understanding that your life may be in danger and that you may have to do something about it.

In Orange you have determined upon a specific adversary and are prepared to take action which may result in his death, but you are not in a lethal mode.

In Red you are in a lethal mode and will shoot if circumstances warrant."<ref>Gunsite course notes, Gunsite Gossip/Coopers Commentaries Newsletters, and personal correspondence</ref>

==Firearms safety==
Cooper advocated four basic rules of [[gun safety]]:<ref>"[http://harris.dvc.org.uk/jeff/jeff11_4.html Jeff Cooper's Commentaries]" by Jeff Cooper, Vol. 11, No. 4, April 2003</ref>

#'''All guns are always loaded.''' Even if they are not, treat them as if they are.
#'''Never let the muzzle cover anything you are not willing to destroy.''' (For those who insist that this particular gun is unloaded, see ''Rule 1''.)
#'''Keep your finger off the trigger till your sights are on the target.''' This is the ''Golden Rule''. Its violation is directly responsible for about 60 percent of inadvertent discharges.
#'''Identify your target, and what is behind it.''' Never shoot at anything that you have not positively identified.

==The queen of personal weapons==
Cooper is best known for his revolutionary work in pistol training, but he favored the rifle for tactical shooting. He often described the handgun as a convenient-to-carry stopgap weapon, allowing someone the opportunity to get to a rifle.

:"Personal weapons are what raised mankind out of the mud, and the rifle is the queen of personal weapons."

:"The rifle is a weapon. Let there be no mistake about that. It is a tool of power, and thus dependent completely upon the moral stature of its user. It is equally useful in securing meat for the table, destroying group enemies on the battlefield, and resisting tyranny. In fact, it is the only means of resisting tyranny, since a citizenry armed with rifles simply cannot be tyrannized."

:"The rifle itself has no moral stature, since it has no will of its own. Naturally, it may be used by evil men for evil purposes, but there are more good men than evil, and while the latter cannot be persuaded to the path of righteousness by propaganda, they can certainly be corrected by good men with rifles."

:—Jeff Cooper, ''The Art of the Rifle''

In the early 1980s, Cooper published an article describing his ideal of a general-purpose [[rifle]], which he dubbed a [[Scout Rifle]]. In late 1997, [[Steyr-Mannlicher]] produced a rifle to his "Scout" specifications, with Cooper's oversight during the engineering and manufacturing process. While not a particularly spectacular sales success, these rifles nevertheless sold quite well and are still being produced. Cooper considered the [[Steyr Scout]] "perfect" and often made the point that "I've got mine!" Riflemen regard Cooper's development of the Scout Rifle concept, and his subsequent work on the evolution of the Steyr-Mannlicher Scout rifle, as his most significant and enduring contributions to riflecraft.

==Other contributions==
In the 1960s he coined the term [[hoplophobia]], an irrational fear of weapons.

In addition to his books on firearms and self defense, Cooper wrote several books recounting his life adventures plus essays and short stories, including ''Fire Works'' (1980), ''Another Country: Personal Adventures of the Twentieth Century'' (1992); ''To Ride, Shoot Straight and Speak the Truth'' (1998); and ''C Stories'' (2004). His daughter Lindy Wisdom published a biography, ''Jeff Cooper: the Soul and the Spirit'' (1996).

Cooper was also regarded as one of the world's foremost authorities on [[big game hunting]].

Some of the comments from his "Gunsite Gossip" newsletter were printed in gun magazines as "Cooper's Corner" and later were compiled into ''The Gargantuan Gunsite Gossip.'' These were his thoughts on firearms interleavened with his wide-ranging musings on many other subjects, and acquired a large US and international following from the 1980s up to his death.

A complete bibliography of Jeff Cooper's writings from 1947 onwards is available at the Jeff Cooper Bibliography Project.<ref>[http://www.frfrogspad.com/cooperma.htm The Jeff Cooper Bibliography Project]</ref>

Cooper was the Founding President and Honorary Lifetime Chairman of the [[International Practical Shooting Confederation]]. However, he was critical of the way the IPSC departed from the original focus on practical weapons toward what he called ''rooney guns'' -- highly-modified pistols which were not appropriate for practical daily service, and which were tuned to fire only ammunition with small propellant charges. Numerous of his "Gunsite Gossip / Cooper's Corner" articles dealt with this issue and the "gamesmen" who had caused the IPSC to deteriorate.

==Quotes==
{{copy section to Wikiquote}}
*We are steadily asked about the age at which to teach young people to shoot. The answer to this obviously depends upon the particular individual; not only his physical maturity but his desire. Apart from these considerations, however, I think it important to understand that it is the duty of the father to teach the son to shoot. Before the young man leaves home, there are certain things he should know and certain skills he should acquire, apart from any state-sponsored activity. Certainly the youngster should be taught to swim, strongly and safely, at distance. And young people of either sex should be taught to drive a motor vehicle, and if at all possible, how to fly a light airplane. I believe a youngster should be taught the rudiments of hand-to-hand combat, unarmed, together with basic survival skills. The list is long, but it is a parent's duty to make sure that the child does not go forth into the world helpless in the face of its perils. Shooting, of course, is our business, and shooting should not be left up to the state.

*It is interesting to hear certain kinds of people insist that the citizen cannot fight the government. This would have been news to the men of Lexington and Concord, as well as the Mujahedeen in Afghanistan. The citizen most certainly can fight the government, and usually wins when he tries. Organized national armies are useful primarily for fighting against other organized national armies. When they try to fight against the people, they find themselves at a very serious disadvantage. If you will just look around at the state of the world today, you will see that the guerillero has the upper hand. Irregulars usually defeat regulars, providing they have the will. Such fighting is horrible to contemplate, but will continue to dominate brute strength.

*It has never been clear to me why increased magazine capacity in a defensive pistol is particularly choice. The bigger the magazine the bigger the gun, and the bigger the gun the harder it is to get hold of for people with small hands. And what, pray, does one need all those rounds for? How many lethal antagonists do you think you are going to be able to handle? Once when Bruce Nelson was asked by a suspect if the thirteen-round magazine in the P35 was not a big advantage, Bruce's answer was, "Well, yes, if you plan to miss a lot." The highest score I know of at this time achieved by one man against a group of armed adversaries was recorded in (of all places) the Ivory Coast! There, some years ago, a graduate student of mine laid out five goblins, with four dead and one totaled for the hospital. Of course there is the episode of Alvin York and his eight, but there is some dispute about that tale. (If you read it over very carefully you will see what I mean.) Be that as it may, I see no real need for a double column magazine. It is all the rage, of course, and like dual air bags, it is a popular current sales gimmick.

*One cannot legislate the maniacs off the street... these maniacs can only be shut down by an armed citizenry. Indeed bad things can happen in nations where the citizenry is armed, but not as bad as those which seem to be threatening our disarmed citizenry in this country at this time.

*Owning a handgun doesn't make you armed any more than owning a guitar makes you a musician.

*Remember the first rule of gunfighting... ‘have a gun.’

*The police cannot protect the citizen at this stage of our development, and they cannot even protect themselves in many cases. It is up to the private citizen to protect himself and his family, and this is not only acceptable, but mandatory.

*The will to survive is not as important as the will to prevail... the answer to criminal aggression is retaliation.

*Safety is something that happens between your ears, not something you hold in your hands.

*All the people constitute the militia — according to the Founding Fathers. Therefore every able-bodied man has a duty under the Constitution to become part of the "well-regulated" militia, specifically to understand and perform well with the individual weapon currently issued to the regular establishment. . . . Thus one who has not qualified himself with the M16 may not be considered to be a responsible citizen.

*Already a couple of the faithful have sent in checks for a foundation memorial to the innocents who perished at the hands of the ninja at Waco. ... I have been criticized by referring to our federal masked men as "ninja" … Let us reflect upon the fact that a man who covers his face shows reason to be ashamed of what he is doing. A man who takes it upon himself to shed blood while concealing his identity is a revolting perversion of the warrior ethic. It has long been my conviction that a masked man with a gun is a target. I see no reason to change that view.

*One bleeding-heart type asked me in a recent interview if I did not agree that ‘violence begets violence.’ I told him that it is my earnest endeavor to see that it does. I would like very much to ensure—and in some cases I have—that any man who offers violence to his fellow citizen begets a whole lot more in return than he can enjoy. – Cooper vs. Terrorism

*The purpose of the pistol is to stop a fight that somebody else has started, almost always at very short range.

*Bushido is all very well in its way, but it is no match for a 30-06.

*A free man must not be told how to think, either by the government or by social activists. He may certainly be shown the right way, but he must not accept being forced into it.

*The conclusions seem inescapable that in certain circles a tendency has arisen to fear people who fear government. Government, as the Father of Our Country put it so well, is a dangerous servant and a fearful master. People who understand history, especially the history of government, do well to fear it. For a people to express openly their fear of those of us who are afraid of tyranny is alarming. Fear of the state is in no sense subversive. It is, to the contrary, the healthiest political philosophy for a free people. – Jeff Cooper's Commentaries, vol. 4, no. 16, December, 1996

*Hoplophobia is a mental disturbance characterized by irrational aversion to weapons, as opposed to justified apprehension about those who may wield them. – To Ride, Shoot Straight, and Speak the Truth

*The media insist that crime is the major concern of the American public today. In this connection they generally push the point that a disarmed society would be a crime-free society. They will not accept the truth that if you take all the guns off the street you still will have a crime problem, whereas if you take the criminals off the street you cannot have a gun problem.

*That is why our masters in Washington are so anxious to disarm us. They are not afraid of criminals. They are afraid of a populace which cannot be subdued by tyrants. – Jeff Cooper's Commentaries, Vol. 2, No. 5, May 1994

*The 1911 pistol remains the service pistol of choice in the eyes of those who understand the problem. Back when we audited the FBI academy in 1947, I was told that I ought not to use my pistol in their training program because it was not fair. Maybe the first thing one should demand of his sidearm is that it be unfair. - ''Guns & Ammo'' magazine, January 2002

==See also==
{{portal|World War II}}
*[[Defensive weapon]]
*[[Handgun]]
*[[Retreat (survivalism)]]
*[[Mel Tappan]]
{{USMCportallink}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
"Shooting to Kill", Peter A. Lake, Esquire, February 1983
{{Nofootnotes|date=September 2007}}

==External links==
*[http://www.jeffcooperfoundation.org Official Website of The Jeff Cooper Legacy Foundation]
*[http://dvc.org.uk/jeff/aboutjff.html Jeff Cooper's Commentaries page "About Jeff Cooper"]
*[http://www.frfrogspad.com/cooper.htm Fr. Frog's page on Jeff Cooper]
*[http://dvc.org.uk/jeff/ Jeff Cooper's Commentaries]
*[http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1253664 Handgun conditions of readiness]
*[http://www.jeffcooperbooks.com Jeff Cooper books]
*[http://www.mouseguns.com/cooper.htm A Daily Dose of Jeff Cooper]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cooper, Jeff}}
[[Category:1920 births]]
[[Category:2006 deaths]]
[[Category:American military personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:American military personnel of the Korean War]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps officers]]
[[Category:Stanford University alumni]]
[[Category:Survivalists]]
[[Category:Gun writers]]
[[Category:American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:American journalists]]
[[Category:American columnists]]
[[Category:American magazine staff writers]]
[[Category:People associated with firearms]]
[[Category:IPSC shooters]]

[[sl:Jeff Cooper]]

There are known knowns

2009-12-04T12:04:59Z

Skomorokh: Quick-adding category Epistemology (using HotCat)

{{Inappropriate tone|date=November 2008}}
The term '''unknown unknown''' refers to circumstances or outcomes that were not conceived of by an observer at a given point in time. The meaning of the term becomes more clear when it is contrasted with the '''known unknown''', which refers to circumstances or outcomes that are known to be possible, but it is unknown whether or not they will be realized. The term is used in project planning and decision analysis to explain that any model of the future can only be informed by information that is currently available to the observer and, as such, faces substantial limitations and unknown risk.

== Usage ==

{{cquote|There are known knowns. These are things we know that we know. There are known unknowns. That is to say, there are things that we now know we don’t know. But there are also unknown unknowns. These are things we do not know we don’t know.}}
-United States Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]]

This seems to be a skewed take on [[Confucius|Confucius]], as quoted in [[Henry David Thoreau|Thoreau]]'s [[Walden]]: "To know that we know what we know, and that we do not know what we do not know, that is true knowledge."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://books.google.it/books?id=h7xlkPqJ9DwC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&dq=%22To+know+that+we+know+what+we+know,+and+that+we+do+not+know+what+we+do+not+know,+that+is+true+knowledge.%22&source=bl&ots=Kh9zLOV3PV&sig=EeKwYJ8GYDll0xoRH2nb7MrV5po&hl=en&ei=UUTTSqOoN5Dh-QauhtCRAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CBgQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=%22To%20know%20that%20we%20know%20what%20we%20know%2C%20and%20that%20we%20do%20not%20know%20what%20we%20do%20not%20know%2C%20that%20is%20true%20knowledge.%22&f=false |title=Walden |accessdate=2009-10-11|format=book |work= }}</ref>

During the 1970's and 1980's Werner Erhard's est Training Program used this quote (or a variant thereof that covers all four possibilities, known knowns, known unknowns, unknown knowns, unknown unknowns) as a part of the course material. Landmark Education's The Landmark Forum course also uses it. One point of using it is to help people see the limits of their knowledge and the edges of the metaphorical box they live in. Learning to think for yourself means, in part, exploring the limits of your knowledge and the very nature of your knowledge itself. Where are our blind spots when it comes to our knowledge or lack there of? What are the risks of ignorance? The exploration of these four domains would be extensive and take many hours of these courses.

"It's to give people an opportunity to think for themselves... what happens is that most of us think that our very strongly held beliefs, you know those things we hold, our opinions, that are very strong, we think that that is thinking for ourselves but it isn't really. The ability to think for yourself really means the ability to think something that you haven't thought before. To think outside the allowable range of thoughts rather than just inside the allowable range of thoughts." - Werner Erhard, TV Interview<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZZhpJFYrM4 | title=Werner Erhard on thinking outside the allowable range of thoughts, TV Interview part 2}}</ref>

Erhard's dogma on this point is apparently based on the [[Johari window]] which predates his ideas by many years.

The "there are known knowns..." statement was made at a press briefing given by former US Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on February 12, 2002. Mr Rumsfeld's statement relating to the increasingly unstable situation in post-invasion Afghanistan was widely viewed as elusive and indicative of arrogance, whilst at the same time reflecting a profound, almost philosophical truth. The statement won the 2003 [[Foot in Mouth award]] from the [[Plain English Campaign]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plainenglish.co.uk/foot_in_mouth_award/past_winners.html |title=Foot in Mouth |accessdate=2007-12-17|format= |work= }}</ref> and is also hailed as an example of [[found poetry]] by the GOP Ministry of Official Poetry.

Rumsfeld's defenders have included Canadian columnist [[Mark Steyn]], who called it 'in fact a brilliant distillation of quite a complex matter',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2003/12/09/do0902.xml&sSheet=/opinion/2003/12/09/ixopinion.html |title=Rummy speaks the truth, not gobbledygook, ''Daily Telegraph'', December 9, 2003
|accessdate=2008-10-30|format= |work= }}</ref> and Australian economist and [[blogger]] [[John Quiggin]], who wrote that, 'Although the language may be tortured, the basic point is both valid and important ... Having defended Rumsfeld, I’d point out that the considerations he refers to provide the case for being very cautious in going to war.'<ref>{{cite web |url=http://johnquiggin.com/index.php/archives/2004/02/10/in-defense-of-rumsfeld/ |title=In Defense of Rumsfeld, johnquiggin.com, February 10, 2004
|accessdate=2008-10-30|format= |work= }}</ref>

Italian economists Salvatore Modica and Aldo Rustichini provide an introduction to the economic literature on awareness and unawareness

{{cquote|A subject is certain of something when he knows that thing; he is uncertain when he does not know it, but he knows he does not: he is consciously uncertain. On the other hand, he is unaware of something when he does not know it, and he ''does not know he does not know'' [emphasis added], and so on ad infinitum: he does not perceive, does not have in mind, the object of knowledge. The opposite of unawareness is awareness.<ref name="urlSpringerLink - Journal Article">{{cite web |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/l32r06103403mv1v/ |title=Salvatore Modica and Aldo Rustichini, Awareness and partitional information structures, Theory and Decision, Volume 37, Number 1 / July, 1994 |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>}}

The term was in use within the United States military establishment long before Rumsfeld's quote to the press in 2002. An early use of the term comes from a paper entitled ''Clausewitz and Modern War Gaming: losing can be better than winning'' by Raymond B. Furlong, Lieutenant General, USAF (Ret.) in the Air University Review, July-August 1984:

{{cquote|To those things Clausewitz wrote about uncertainty and chance, I would add a few comments on unknown unknowns--those things that a commander doesn't even know he doesn't know. Participants in a war game would describe an unknown unknown as unfair, beyond the ground rules of the game. But real war does not follow ground rules, and I would urge that games be "unfair" by introducing unknown unknowns.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1984/jul-aug/furlong.html |title=Air University Review Archive at Air & Space Power Journal |accessdate=2008-08-14|format= |work= }}</ref>}}

{{cquote|NASA space exploration should largely address a problem class in reliability and risk management stemming primarily from human error, system risk and multi-objective trade-off analysis, by conducting research into system complexity, risk characterization and modeling, and system reasoning. In general, in every mission we can distinguish risk in three possible ways: a) known-known, b) known-unknown, and c)unknown-unknown. It is probable, almost certain, that space exploration will partially experience similar known or unknown risks embedded in the Apollo missions, Shuttle or Station unless something alters how NASA will perceive and manage safety and reliability. <ref> {{cite web |url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20060016368_2006006769.pdf |title=Maluf, Gawdiak, and Bell, ON SPACE EXPLORATION AND HUMAN ERROR: A paper on reliability and safety, Hawaii International Conference on Systems Science, 3-6 Jan. 2005, Hilton Waikoloa Village, HI, United States |accessdate=2008-08-14|format= |work= }} </ref> }}

From the same time, conservative lawyer [[Richard Epstein]] wrote a well known article in the [[University of Chicago Law Review]] about the American [[labour law]] doctrine of [[employment at will]] (the idea that workers can be fired without warning or reason, unless their contract states terms that are better). In giving some of his reasons in defense of the contract at will, he wrote this.

{{Cquote|The contract at will is also a sensible private adaptation to the problem of imperfect information over time. In sharp contrast to the purchase of standard goods, an inspection of the job before acceptance is far less likely to guarantee its quality thereafter. The future is not clearly known. More important, employees, like employers, know what they ''do not'' know. They are not faced with a bolt from the blue, with an "unknown unknown." Rather they face a known unknown for which they can plan. The at-will contract is an essential part of that planning because it allows both sides to take a wait-and-see attitude to their relationship so that new and more accurate choices can be made on the strength of improved information.<ref>R Epstein, 'In defense of the contract at will' (1984) 51 University of Chicago Law Review 947, 975</ref>}}

==Rumsfeld quote in popular culture==

Rumsfeld's famous explanation of the unknown unknown has been variously skewered by his critics in popular media.

*In ''[[The Boondocks (TV series)|The Boondocks]]'' [[animated series]], the character [[Ed Wuncler III and Gin Rummy|Gin Rummy]], a representation of [[Donald Rumsfeld]], makes several references to unknown unknowns.
*The band [[No Use for a Name]] used the entire aforementioned quote in their song Fields of Agony (Acoustic) on the record ''[[Rock Against Bush, Vol. 2]]''.
*In "Lil' George and Lil' Tony Blair", an episode of ''[[Lil' Bush]]'', Lil' Rummy makes a reference to the unknown unknowns.
*The [[Joan Jett]] song "Riddles" features the full unknown unknowns quote.
*The title of ''The Unknown Knowns: A Novel'' by [[Jeffrey Rotter]] is an allusion to the quote, and the full quote appears in the book's inscription.

== See also ==
*[[List of cognitive biases]]
*[[Ignoramus et ignorabimus]]
*[[Ignotum per ignotius]]
*[[I know that I know nothing]]
*[[Johari window]]
*[[List of political catch phrases]]
*[[Outside Context Problem]]
*[[Black swan theory]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=2636 Transcript of Defense Department Briefing, February 12, 2002]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_RpSv3HjpEw Video of "Unknown unknown" talk on YouTube]

[[Category:Decision theory]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]

[[zh-classical:不知之不知]]

Michael Swanwick

2009-11-23T10:21:23Z

Skomorokh: add links to Dogfight (short story)|

{{Infobox Writer 
| name = Michael Swanwick
| image = Michael Swanwick.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| caption = Swanwick in 2009
| pseudonym =
| birthdate = {{birth-date|November 18, 1950}}
| birthplace = [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]
| deathdate =
| deathplace =
| occupation = Novelist, short story writer
| nationality = American
| period = 1980's-Present
| genre = Science fiction, fantasy
| subject =
| movement =
| influences = [[Terry Bisson]], [[Jack Vance]], [[Cordwainer Smith]], [[Samuel R. Delany]], [[Brian Aldiss]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Howard Waldrop]], [[Walter M. Miller]], [[Roger Zelazny]]
| influenced =
| signature =
| website = http://www.michaelswanwick.com
| publisher =
}}
'''Michael Swanwick''' (born [[November 18]], [[1950]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[science fiction]] author. Based in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], he began publishing in the early 1980s.

== Biography ==
His published novels are: ''[[In the Drift]]'' (an [[Ace Special]], 1985), a look at the results of a more catastrophic [[Three Mile Island]] incident; ''[[Vacuum Flowers]]'' (1987), an adventurous tour of an inhabited Solar System, where the people of Earth have been subsumed by a cybernetic mass-mind; ''[[Stations of the Tide]]'' (1991), the story of a bureaucrat's pursuit of a magician on a world soon to be altered by its 50 year tide swell; ''[[The Iron Dragon's Daughter]]'' (1993), a fantasy with elves in Armani suits and dragons as jet fighters; ''[[Jack Faust]]'' (1997), a retelling of the [[Faust]] legend with modern science and technology; ''[[Bones of the Earth]]'' (2002), a [[time travel|time-travel]] story involving [[dinosaur]]s; and ''[[The Dragons of Babel]]'' (2008), which is set in the same fantasy world as ''The Iron Dragon's Daughter''.

His short fiction has been collected in ''[[Gravity's Angels]]'' (1991), ''[[Moon Dogs]]'' (2000), ''[[Tales of Old Earth]]'' (2000), ''[[Cigar-Box Faust and Other Miniatures]]'' (2003), ''[[The Dog Said Bow-Wow]]'' (2007), and [[The Best of Michael Swanwick]] (2008). A novella, ''Griffin's Egg'', was published in book form in 1991 and is also collected in ''Moon Dogs''. He has collaborated with other authors on several short works, including [[Gardner Dozois]] ("Ancestral Voices", "City of God", "Snow Job") and [[William Gibson]] ("[[Dogfight (short story)|Dogfight]]").

''Stations of the Tide'' won the [[Nebula Award|Nebula]] for [[Nebula Award for Best Novel|best novel]] in 1991,<ref name="WWE-1991">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1991
| title = 1991 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref> and several of his shorter works have won awards as well: the Theodore Sturgeon Memorial Award for "The Edge of the World" in 1989, the World Fantasy Award for "Radio Waves" in 1996, and [[Hugo Award|Hugos]] for "[[The Very Pulse of the Machine]]" in 1999, "[[Scherzo with Tyrannosaur]]" in 2000, "[[The Dog Said Bow-Wow]]" in 2002, "[[Slow Life (novelette)|Slow Life]]" in 2003, and "Legions in Time" in 2004.

Swanwick has written about the field as well. He published two long essays on the state of the science fiction ([[The User's Guide to the Postmoderns]], 1986) and fantasy ("In the Tradition...", 1994), the former of which was controversial for its categorization of new SF writers into "cyberpunk" and "literary humanist" camps. Both essays were collected together in ''[[The Postmodern Archipelago]]'' 1997. A book-length interview with Gardner Dozois, ''[[Being Gardner Dozois]]'', was published in 2001. He is a prolific contributor to the [[New York Review of Science Fiction]]. Swanwick wrote a monograph on James Branch Cabell, "What Can Be Saved From the Wreckage?" which was published in 2007, and a short literary biography of [[Hope Mirrlees]], ''Hope-in-the-Mist'', which was published in 2009.
[[file:Michael Swanwick 2005.JPG|thumb|At the [[63rd World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[Glasgow]], August 2005]]
== Selected bibliography ==
(a complete bibliography may be found at the author's website)

=== Novels ===
* ''[[In the Drift]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Vacuum Flowers]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Stations of the Tide]]'' (1991) - [[Nebula Award]] '''winner''', 1991<ref name="WWE-1991">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1991
| title = 1991 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>; Hugo and Campbell Awards nominee, 1992<ref name="WWE-1992">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1992
| title = 1992 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>; Clarke Award nominee, 1993<ref name="WWE-1993">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1993
| title = 1993 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>
* ''[[The Iron Dragon's Daughter]]'' (1993) - Clarke, Locus Fantasy, and World Fantasy Awards nominee, 1994<ref name="WWE-1994">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1994
| title = 1994 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>
* ''[[Jack Faust]]'' (1997) - BSFA nominee, 1997<ref name="WWE-1997">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1997
| title = 1997 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>; Hugo and Locus Fantasy Awards nominee, 1998<ref name="WWE-1998">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1998
| title = 1998 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>
* ''[[Bones of the Earth]]'' (2002) - Nebula Award nominee, 2002<ref name="WWE-2002">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2002
| title = 2002 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>; Hugo, Locus SF, and Campbell Awards nominee, 2003<ref name="WWE-2003">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2003
| title = 2003 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>
* ''[[The Dragons of Babel]]'' (2008) - Locus Fantasy Award nominee, 2009<ref name="WWE-2009">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2009
| title = 2009 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>

=== Collections ===
* ''[[Gravity's Angels]]'' (1991)
* ''[[A Geography of Unknown Lands]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Moon Dogs]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Puck Aleshire's Abecedary]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Tales of Old Earth]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Cigar-Box Faust and Other Miniatures]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Michael Swanwick's Field Guide to the Mesozoic Megafauna]]'' (2004)
* ''[[The Periodic Table of Science Fiction]]'' (2005)
* ''[[The Dog Said Bow-Wow]]'' (2007)
* ''[[The Best of Michael Swanwick]]'' (2008)

=== Selected short stories ===

* "The Gods of Mars" (1985) (with [[Gardner Dozois]] and [[Jack Dann]])
* "[[Dogfight (short story)|Dogfight]]" (1985) (with [[William Gibson]])
* "The Edge of the World" (1989)
* "Griffin's Egg" (1991)
* "[[The Dead (story)|The Dead]]" (1996)
* "[[The Very Pulse of the Machine]]" (1998) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "[[Radiant Doors]]" (1999) ([[Nebula Award]] nominee)
* "[[Ancient Engines]]" (1999) ([[Nebula Award]] nominee)
* "[[Scherzo with Tyrannosaur]]" (1999) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "[[The Dog Said Bow-Wow]]" (2001) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "[[Slow Life (novelette)|Slow Life]]" (2002) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "[['Hello,' Said the Stick]]" (2002) ([[Hugo Award]] nominee)
* "Legions in Time" (2003) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "Tin Marsh" (2006)
* "Urdumheim" (2007)

=== Essays ===
* [[User's Guide to the Postmoderns]], Asimov's, 1986
* [[The Postmodern Archipelago]] (1997)

== External links ==
* [http://www.michaelswanwick.com/ Michael Swanwick Online] (official home page)
* [http://floggingbabel.blogspot.com/ Flogging Babel] (weblog)
* {{isfdb name|id=Michael_Swanwick|name=Michael Swanwick}}
* [http://www.freesfonline.de/authors/Michael_Swanwick.html Michael Swanwick's online fiction] at [http://freesfonline.de/ Free Speculative Fiction Online]
* [http://www.worldswithoutend.com/author.asp?ID=59#books Complete list of sci-fi award wins and nominations by novel]
==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Swanwick, Michael}}
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors]]
[[Category:Nebula Award winning authors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Science fiction critics]]
[[Category:People from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]

[[bg:Майкъл Суонуик]]
[[es:Michael Swanwick]]
[[fr:Michael Swanwick]]
[[it:Michael Swanwick]]
[[ja:マイクル・スワンウィック]]
[[nl:Michael Swanwick]]
[[pl:Michael Swanwick]]
[[ru:Суэнвик, Майкл]]
[[fi:Michael Swanwick]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2009-11-08T19:17:02Z

Skomorokh: moved Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere to Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere: per requested move on article talkpage

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumbnail|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

'''[[Carbon dioxide]]''' (CO2) forms approximately 0.04% of the '''[[Earth's atmosphere]]'''. It is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]].

==Concentration==
As of November 2007, the CO2 concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0384% by volume, or 384 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]]. This is 100 ppmv (35%) above the 1832 ice core levels of 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref><ref>http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/maunaloa.co2</ref>
There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

Despite its relatively small concentration overall in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> ''See also "[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]"''.
 
[[File:co2 vib modes.svg|thumb|200px|The three vibrational modes of carbon dioxide: (a) symmetric, (b) asymmetric stretching; (c) bending. In (a), there is no change in [[dipole moment]], thus interaction with [[photon]]s is impossible, while in (b) and (c) there is optical activity.]]

The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. This was essential for a warm and stable climate conducive to life.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (145 million to 255 million [[short ton]]s) of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html</ref>

[[File:Global Carbon Emission by Type to Y2004.png|thumb|left|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2004.]]

Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. {{As of|2004}}, around 27 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2 are released from fossil fuels per year worldwide, equivalent to about 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]); in 2006 8.4 gigatonnes carbon were emitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf]. Simple calculations based on the surface area of the Earth, normal atmospheric pressure, and an estimate of roughly 400ppmv atmospheric CO2 content show that the atmospheric CO2 content is currently approximately 3 teratonnes.

Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere by a variety of natural sources, and over 95% of total CO2 emissions would occur even if humans were not present on Earth. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. This carbon dioxide alone is over 8 times the amount emitted by humans. Although natural sources represent most CO2 emissions, they do not contribute to the recent observed increase in concentrations because natural sources are balanced by natural sinks that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "Common Questions about Climate Change" http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html</ref> The increase in carbon dioxide concentration arises because the increase from human activity is not completely balanced by a corresponding sink.

[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires may have released 13% – 40% as much carbon as fossil fuel burning does in a single year.<ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Increased amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the [[greenhouse effect]]. It is currently the [[Scientific opinion of global warming|predominant scientific opinion]] that carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of [[global warming]] observed since the mid-20th century. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is occasionally called the [[Callendar effect]], after engineer and inventor [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] who proposed this association in 1938.

==Origins==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They produce the energy needed for this reaction through the [[photolysis]] of water. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

During the 100,000 year ice age cycle, CO2 varies between a low of approximately 200 ppm during cold periods and a high of 280 ppm during interglacials. Recent human influences have increased this to above 380 ppm. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans; without this effect CO2 levels would be even higher.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract</ref>

==Historical variation==
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[kyr]]).

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 kyr [[before present|BP]] (Before Present).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Deep ice tells long climate story]</ref> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 kyr. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011 – 12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26 | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1 – 4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref> On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, when the [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice sheets]] of Antartica started to take their current form near the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]], CO2 has been found to be about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma. Present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 Ma<ref name="Grida" /> and certainly higher than in the last 800,000.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

The vast majority of CO2 added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion. The process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

As the oceans warm, carbon dioxide solubility in the surface waters decreases markedly. However, the overall system is quite complex, as indicated above, and further details may be found in the article on the [[Solubility pump|carbon solubility pump]].

An unknown, though probably large, quantity of CO2 is in the ocean sediments as a methane-carbon dioxide-water clathrates, one of the family of gas hydrates.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2009-10-29T21:08:49Z

Skomorokh: wikify

{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = [[File:Wikipedia's W.svg|16px|Favicon of Wikipedia]] English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = The homepage of the English Wikipedia.
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = http://en.wikipedia.org/
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = [[Creative Commons]] [[ShareAlike]] License 3.0
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two or three co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>}}
The '''English Wikipedia''' is the [[English language]] edition of the free online encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on 15 January 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news |first=Bobbie |last=Johnson |title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million |publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] |date=2009-08-17 |accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with more than three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. {{As of|2009}}, 22.3% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition; this share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778|title=List of Wikipedias|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2008-09-21|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site.

The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee of 12 [[arbitrators]] was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'> {{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'> {{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|date=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref><ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'> {{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]
{{Wikipedia}}
{{Wikipedias}}

[[Category:Wikipedias by language]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2001]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias]]



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[[cy:Wicipedia Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[et:Ingliskeelne Vikipeedia]]
[[el:Αγγλική Βικιπαίδεια]]
[[es:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipedia]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی]]
[[fr:Wikipédia en anglais]]
[[ga:Vicipéid an Bhéarla]]
[[gl:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[ko:영어 위키백과]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी विकिपीडिया.]]
[[hr:Wikipedija na engleskom jeziku]]
[[ig:Wikipedia nke ndị bekee]]
[[it:Wikipedia in inglese]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה האנגלית]]
[[sw:Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]]
[[la:Vicipaedia Anglica]]
[[lt:Angliška Vikipedija]]
[[hu:Angol Wikipédia]]
[[mk:Википедија на англиски јазик]]
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ]]
[[ms:Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nl:Engelstalige Wikipedia]]
[[ja:英語版ウィキペディア]]
[[no:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[uz:Ingliz Vikipediyasi]]
[[km:វិគីភីឌាភាសាអង់គ្លេស]]
[[pl:Anglojęzyczna Wikipedia]]
[[pt:Wikipédia em inglês]]
[[ru:Англоязычная Википедия]]
[[simple:English Wikipedia]]
[[sr:Википедија на енглеском језику]]
[[sh:Engleska Wikipedija]]
[[fi:Wikipedia:Englanninkielinen Wikipedia]]
[[sv:Engelskspråkiga Wikipedia]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดียภาษาอังกฤษ]]
[[tr:İngilizce Vikipedi]]
[[uk:Англійська Вікіпедія]]
[[vi:Wikipedia tiếng Anh]]
[[wuu:英语维基百科]]
[[yi:ענגלישע וויקיפעדיע]]
[[zh-yue:英文維基百科]]
[[bat-smg:Onglėška Vikipedėjė]]
[[zh:英語維基百科]]

{{web-stub}}
{{wikipedia-stub}}

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2009-10-29T21:08:05Z

Skomorokh: why???

{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = [[File:Wikipedia's W.svg|16px|Favicon of Wikipedia]] English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = The homepage of the English Wikipedia.
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = http://en.wikipedia.org/
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = [[Creative Commons]] [[ShareAlike]] License 3.0
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two or three co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>}}
The '''English Wikipedia''' is the [[English language]] edition of the free online encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on 15 January 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news |first=Bobbie |last=Johnson |title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million |publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] |date=2009-08-17 |accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with more than three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. As of 2009, 22.3% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition; this share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778|title=List of Wikipedias|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2008-09-21|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site.

The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee of 12 [[arbitrators]] was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'> {{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'> {{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|date=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref><ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'> {{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]
{{Wikipedia}}
{{Wikipedias}}

[[Category:Wikipedias by language]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2001]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias]]



[[af:Engelse Wikipedia]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]
[[be:Англійская Вікіпедыя]]
[[be-x-old:Ангельская Вікіпэдыя]]
[[bg:Уикипедия на английски език]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia en anglès]]
[[cs:Anglická Wikipedie]]
[[cy:Wicipedia Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[et:Ingliskeelne Vikipeedia]]
[[el:Αγγλική Βικιπαίδεια]]
[[es:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipedia]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی]]
[[fr:Wikipédia en anglais]]
[[ga:Vicipéid an Bhéarla]]
[[gl:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[ko:영어 위키백과]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी विकिपीडिया.]]
[[hr:Wikipedija na engleskom jeziku]]
[[ig:Wikipedia nke ndị bekee]]
[[it:Wikipedia in inglese]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה האנגלית]]
[[sw:Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]]
[[la:Vicipaedia Anglica]]
[[lt:Angliška Vikipedija]]
[[hu:Angol Wikipédia]]
[[mk:Википедија на англиски јазик]]
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ]]
[[ms:Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nl:Engelstalige Wikipedia]]
[[ja:英語版ウィキペディア]]
[[no:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[uz:Ingliz Vikipediyasi]]
[[km:វិគីភីឌាភាសាអង់គ្លេស]]
[[pl:Anglojęzyczna Wikipedia]]
[[pt:Wikipédia em inglês]]
[[ru:Англоязычная Википедия]]
[[simple:English Wikipedia]]
[[sr:Википедија на енглеском језику]]
[[sh:Engleska Wikipedija]]
[[fi:Wikipedia:Englanninkielinen Wikipedia]]
[[sv:Engelskspråkiga Wikipedia]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดียภาษาอังกฤษ]]
[[tr:İngilizce Vikipedi]]
[[uk:Англійська Вікіпедія]]
[[vi:Wikipedia tiếng Anh]]
[[wuu:英语维基百科]]
[[yi:ענגלישע וויקיפעדיע]]
[[zh-yue:英文維基百科]]
[[bat-smg:Onglėška Vikipedėjė]]
[[zh:英語維基百科]]

{{web-stub}}
{{wikipedia-stub}}

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2009-10-29T21:07:22Z

Skomorokh: use footer instead

{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = [[File:Wikipedia's W.svg|16px|Favicon of Wikipedia]] English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = The homepage of the English Wikipedia.
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = http://en.wikipedia.org/
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = [[Creative Commons]] [[ShareAlike]] License 3.0
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two or three co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>}}
The '''English Wikipedia''' is the [[English language]] edition of the free online Encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on 15 January 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news |first=Bobbie |last=Johnson |title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million |publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] |date=2009-08-17 |accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with more than three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. As of 2009, 22.3% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition; this share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778|title=List of Wikipedias|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2008-09-21|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site.

The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee of 12 [[arbitrators]] was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'> {{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'> {{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|date=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref><ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'> {{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]
{{Wikipedia}}
{{Wikipedias}}

[[Category:Wikipedias by language]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2001]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias]]



[[af:Engelse Wikipedia]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]
[[be:Англійская Вікіпедыя]]
[[be-x-old:Ангельская Вікіпэдыя]]
[[bg:Уикипедия на английски език]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia en anglès]]
[[cs:Anglická Wikipedie]]
[[cy:Wicipedia Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[et:Ingliskeelne Vikipeedia]]
[[el:Αγγλική Βικιπαίδεια]]
[[es:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipedia]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی]]
[[fr:Wikipédia en anglais]]
[[ga:Vicipéid an Bhéarla]]
[[gl:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[ko:영어 위키백과]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी विकिपीडिया.]]
[[hr:Wikipedija na engleskom jeziku]]
[[ig:Wikipedia nke ndị bekee]]
[[it:Wikipedia in inglese]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה האנגלית]]
[[sw:Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]]
[[la:Vicipaedia Anglica]]
[[lt:Angliška Vikipedija]]
[[hu:Angol Wikipédia]]
[[mk:Википедија на англиски јазик]]
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ]]
[[ms:Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nl:Engelstalige Wikipedia]]
[[ja:英語版ウィキペディア]]
[[no:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[uz:Ingliz Vikipediyasi]]
[[km:វិគីភីឌាភាសាអង់គ្លេស]]
[[pl:Anglojęzyczna Wikipedia]]
[[pt:Wikipédia em inglês]]
[[ru:Англоязычная Википедия]]
[[simple:English Wikipedia]]
[[sr:Википедија на енглеском језику]]
[[sh:Engleska Wikipedija]]
[[fi:Wikipedia:Englanninkielinen Wikipedia]]
[[sv:Engelskspråkiga Wikipedia]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดียภาษาอังกฤษ]]
[[tr:İngilizce Vikipedi]]
[[uk:Англійська Вікіпедія]]
[[vi:Wikipedia tiếng Anh]]
[[wuu:英语维基百科]]
[[yi:ענגלישע וויקיפעדיע]]
[[zh-yue:英文維基百科]]
[[bat-smg:Onglėška Vikipedėjė]]
[[zh:英語維基百科]]

{{web-stub}}
{{wikipedia-stub}}

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2009-10-29T21:01:25Z

Skomorokh: removed majority of content not supported by independent references; do not restore unless backed by reliable sources

{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = [[File:Wikipedia's W.svg|16px|Favicon of Wikipedia]] English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = The homepage of the English Wikipedia.
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = http://en.wikipedia.org/
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = [[Creative Commons]] [[ShareAlike]] License 3.0
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two or three co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>}}
The '''English Wikipedia''' is the [[English language]] edition of the free online Encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on 15 January 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news |first=Bobbie |last=Johnson |title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million |publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] |date=2009-08-17 |accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with more than three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. As of 2009, 22.3% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition; this share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778|title=List of Wikipedias|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2008-09-21|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site.

The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee of 12 [[arbitrators]] was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'> {{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'> {{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|date=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref><ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'> {{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Criticism of Wikipedia]]
* [[History of Wikipedia]]
* [[Simple English Wikipedia]]

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]

{{Wikipedias}}

[[Category:Wikipedias by language]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2001]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias]]



[[af:Engelse Wikipedia]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]
[[be:Англійская Вікіпедыя]]
[[be-x-old:Ангельская Вікіпэдыя]]
[[bg:Уикипедия на английски език]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia en anglès]]
[[cs:Anglická Wikipedie]]
[[cy:Wicipedia Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[et:Ingliskeelne Vikipeedia]]
[[el:Αγγλική Βικιπαίδεια]]
[[es:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipedia]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی]]
[[fr:Wikipédia en anglais]]
[[ga:Vicipéid an Bhéarla]]
[[gl:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[ko:영어 위키백과]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी विकिपीडिया.]]
[[hr:Wikipedija na engleskom jeziku]]
[[ig:Wikipedia nke ndị bekee]]
[[it:Wikipedia in inglese]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה האנגלית]]
[[sw:Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]]
[[la:Vicipaedia Anglica]]
[[lt:Angliška Vikipedija]]
[[hu:Angol Wikipédia]]
[[mk:Википедија на англиски јазик]]
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ]]
[[ms:Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nl:Engelstalige Wikipedia]]
[[ja:英語版ウィキペディア]]
[[no:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[uz:Ingliz Vikipediyasi]]
[[km:វិគីភីឌាភាសាអង់គ្លេស]]
[[pl:Anglojęzyczna Wikipedia]]
[[pt:Wikipédia em inglês]]
[[ru:Англоязычная Википедия]]
[[simple:English Wikipedia]]
[[sr:Википедија на енглеском језику]]
[[sh:Engleska Wikipedija]]
[[fi:Wikipedia:Englanninkielinen Wikipedia]]
[[sv:Engelskspråkiga Wikipedia]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดียภาษาอังกฤษ]]
[[tr:İngilizce Vikipedi]]
[[uk:Англійська Вікіпедія]]
[[vi:Wikipedia tiếng Anh]]
[[wuu:英语维基百科]]
[[yi:ענגלישע וויקיפעדיע]]
[[zh-yue:英文維基百科]]
[[bat-smg:Onglėška Vikipedėjė]]
[[zh:英語維基百科]]

{{web-stub}}
{{wikipedia-stub}}

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2009-10-29T20:52:49Z

Skomorokh: /* Editors */ substituting template

{{Self-published|date=July 2009}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = [[File:Wikipedia's W.svg|16px|Favicon of Wikipedia]] English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia.
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = http://en.wikipedia.org/
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = [[Creative Commons]] [[ShareAlike]] License 3.0
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two or three co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>}}
The '''English Wikipedia''' is the [[English language]] edition of the free online Encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on 15 January 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news |first=Bobbie |last=Johnson |title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million |publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] |date=2009-08-17 |accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with more than three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. As of 2009, 22.3% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition; this share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778|title=List of Wikipedias|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2008-09-21|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site, average adding ???? articles last month.

== Pioneering edition ==
The English Wikipedia was the first Wikipedia edition and has remained the largest. It has pioneered many conventions, policies and features that have been adopted by other Wikipedia editions. These include "featured articles",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Featured_articles&oldid=104207677|title=Featured articles|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the neutral point of view policy,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view&oldid=103033132|title=Neutral point of view|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-25|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> navigation templates,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Template&oldid=520481|title=Help:Template|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2007-01-29|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the sorting of short "stub" articles into sub-categories,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Stub_sorting&oldid=101829026|title=WikiProject Stub sorting|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-19|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> dispute resolution mechanisms such as mediation and arbitration,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Resolving_disputes&oldid=103577785|title=Resolving disputes|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-27|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> and weekly collaborations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Article_Creation_and_Improvement_Drive&oldid=104243512|title=Article Creation and Improvement Drive|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> In turn, the English Wikipedia has adopted features from the [[German Wikipedia]], and from smaller editions.

Many of the most active participants in the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], and developers of the [[MediaWiki]] software that powers Wikipedia, are English Wikipedia users.

== Editors ==
[[File:Wiki feel stupid v2.ogv|thumb|right|In April 2009, the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] conducted a usability study on the English Wikipedia, questioning users about the editing mechanism<ref>http://usability.wikimedia.org/wiki/UX_and_Usability_Study</ref>]]
<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ '''English Wikipedia statistics'''
|-
! Number of users !! Number of articles !! Number of files !!Number of administrators
|-
| {{NUMBEROFUSERS}} || {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} || {{NUMBEROFFILES}} || {{NUMBEROFADMINS}}
|}
</center>
The English Wikipedia reached 4,000,000 registered user accounts on 1 April 2007,<ref name="4,000,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2007-04-02/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2007-04-02/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref> just a little over a year since it had crossed a threshold of 1,000,000 registered user accounts in late February 2006.<ref name="1,000,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2006-02-27/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-02-27/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref>

As the largest Wikipedia edition, and because [[English language|English]] is such a widely used language, the English Wikipedia draws many users and editors whose [[native language]] is not English. Such users seek information from the English Wikipedia rather than the Wikipedia of their native language because the English Wikipedia tends to contain more information.

=== Arbitration Committee ===
The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'> {{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'> {{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|date=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref>

When initially founded, the Committee consisted of 12 [[arbitrators]] divided into three groups of four members each.<ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'> {{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Since then, the Committee has gradually expanded to its membership to 18 arbitrators.<ref name='Wales2'> {{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Jimbo_Wales&oldid=259248025 |title=ArbCom Appointments |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2008-12-20 |work=Wikipedia }}</ref>

Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Controversies ==
{{seealso|Wikipedia biography controversy|Essjay controversy}}
Among the controversies in the English Wikipedia is a debate over which national variety of the English language is to be preferred, with the most commonly advocated candidates being [[American English]] and [[British English]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_%28spelling%29||title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style (spelling)|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2006-02-25}}</ref> Many suggestions have been proposed by editors, ranging from standardizing upon a single form of English to [[fork (software)|forking]] the English Wikipedia project. A style guideline states, "the English Wikipedia has no general preference for a major national variety of the language" and "an article on a topic that has strong ties to a particular English-speaking nation uses the appropriate variety of English for that nation."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English|title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2007-10-10}}</ref> An article should use spelling and grammar variants consistently; for example, ''color'' and ''colour'' are not to be used in the same article, since they represent American and British English, respectively. The guide also states that an article must remain in the same [[dialect]] in which it was first created, or which first became discernible in the article's history.

There has been a [[Chinese Wikipedia#Automatic conversion between Traditional and Simplified Chinese|similar issue in the Chinese language Wikipedia]] concerning regional differences in how the language is written, as well as in the [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] between [[European Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]].

== See also ==
* [[Criticism of Wikipedia]]
* [[History of Wikipedia]]
* [[Simple English Wikipedia]]

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]

{{Wikipedias}}

[[Category:Wikipedias by language]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2001]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias]]



[[af:Engelse Wikipedia]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]
[[be:Англійская Вікіпедыя]]
[[be-x-old:Ангельская Вікіпэдыя]]
[[bg:Уикипедия на английски език]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia en anglès]]
[[cs:Anglická Wikipedie]]
[[cy:Wicipedia Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[et:Ingliskeelne Vikipeedia]]
[[el:Αγγλική Βικιπαίδεια]]
[[es:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipedia]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی]]
[[fr:Wikipédia en anglais]]
[[ga:Vicipéid an Bhéarla]]
[[gl:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[ko:영어 위키백과]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी विकिपीडिया.]]
[[hr:Wikipedija na engleskom jeziku]]
[[ig:Wikipedia nke ndị bekee]]
[[it:Wikipedia in inglese]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה האנגלית]]
[[sw:Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]]
[[la:Vicipaedia Anglica]]
[[lt:Angliška Vikipedija]]
[[hu:Angol Wikipédia]]
[[mk:Википедија на англиски јазик]]
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ]]
[[ms:Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nl:Engelstalige Wikipedia]]
[[ja:英語版ウィキペディア]]
[[no:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[uz:Ingliz Vikipediyasi]]
[[km:វិគីភីឌាភាសាអង់គ្លេស]]
[[pl:Anglojęzyczna Wikipedia]]
[[pt:Wikipédia em inglês]]
[[ru:Англоязычная Википедия]]
[[simple:English Wikipedia]]
[[sr:Википедија на енглеском језику]]
[[sh:Engleska Wikipedija]]
[[fi:Wikipedia:Englanninkielinen Wikipedia]]
[[sv:Engelskspråkiga Wikipedia]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดียภาษาอังกฤษ]]
[[tr:İngilizce Vikipedi]]
[[uk:Англійська Вікіпедія]]
[[vi:Wikipedia tiếng Anh]]
[[wuu:英语维基百科]]
[[yi:ענגלישע וויקיפעדיע]]
[[zh-yue:英文維基百科]]
[[bat-smg:Onglėška Vikipedėjė]]
[[zh:英語維基百科]]

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2009-10-29T20:50:09Z

Skomorokh: /* Users and editors */ redundancy

{{Self-published|date=July 2009}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = [[File:Wikipedia's W.svg|16px|Favicon of Wikipedia]] English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia.
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = http://en.wikipedia.org/
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = [[Creative Commons]] [[ShareAlike]] License 3.0
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two or three co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>}}
The '''English Wikipedia''' is the [[English language]] edition of the free online Encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on 15 January 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news |first=Bobbie |last=Johnson |title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million |publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] |date=2009-08-17 |accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with more than three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. As of 2009, 22.3% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition; this share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778|title=List of Wikipedias|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2008-09-21|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site, average adding ???? articles last month.

== Pioneering edition ==
The English Wikipedia was the first Wikipedia edition and has remained the largest. It has pioneered many conventions, policies and features that have been adopted by other Wikipedia editions. These include "featured articles",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Featured_articles&oldid=104207677|title=Featured articles|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the neutral point of view policy,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view&oldid=103033132|title=Neutral point of view|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-25|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> navigation templates,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Template&oldid=520481|title=Help:Template|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2007-01-29|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the sorting of short "stub" articles into sub-categories,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Stub_sorting&oldid=101829026|title=WikiProject Stub sorting|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-19|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> dispute resolution mechanisms such as mediation and arbitration,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Resolving_disputes&oldid=103577785|title=Resolving disputes|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-27|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> and weekly collaborations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Article_Creation_and_Improvement_Drive&oldid=104243512|title=Article Creation and Improvement Drive|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> In turn, the English Wikipedia has adopted features from the [[German Wikipedia]], and from smaller editions.

Many of the most active participants in the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], and developers of the [[MediaWiki]] software that powers Wikipedia, are English Wikipedia users.

== Editors ==
[[File:Wiki feel stupid v2.ogv|thumb|right|In April 2009, the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] conducted a usability study on the English Wikipedia, questioning users about the editing mechanism<ref>http://usability.wikimedia.org/wiki/UX_and_Usability_Study</ref>]]
{{english wikipedia statistics}}
The English Wikipedia reached 4,000,000 registered user accounts on 1 April 2007,<ref name="4,000,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2007-04-02/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2007-04-02/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref> just a little over a year since it had crossed a threshold of 1,000,000 registered user accounts in late February 2006.<ref name="1,000,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2006-02-27/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-02-27/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref>

As the largest Wikipedia edition, and because [[English language|English]] is such a widely used language, the English Wikipedia draws many users and editors whose [[native language]] is not English. Such users seek information from the English Wikipedia rather than the Wikipedia of their native language because the English Wikipedia tends to contain more information.

=== Arbitration Committee ===
The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'> {{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'> {{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|date=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref>

When initially founded, the Committee consisted of 12 [[arbitrators]] divided into three groups of four members each.<ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'> {{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Since then, the Committee has gradually expanded to its membership to 18 arbitrators.<ref name='Wales2'> {{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Jimbo_Wales&oldid=259248025 |title=ArbCom Appointments |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2008-12-20 |work=Wikipedia }}</ref>

Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Controversies ==
{{seealso|Wikipedia biography controversy|Essjay controversy}}
Among the controversies in the English Wikipedia is a debate over which national variety of the English language is to be preferred, with the most commonly advocated candidates being [[American English]] and [[British English]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_%28spelling%29||title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style (spelling)|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2006-02-25}}</ref> Many suggestions have been proposed by editors, ranging from standardizing upon a single form of English to [[fork (software)|forking]] the English Wikipedia project. A style guideline states, "the English Wikipedia has no general preference for a major national variety of the language" and "an article on a topic that has strong ties to a particular English-speaking nation uses the appropriate variety of English for that nation."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English|title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2007-10-10}}</ref> An article should use spelling and grammar variants consistently; for example, ''color'' and ''colour'' are not to be used in the same article, since they represent American and British English, respectively. The guide also states that an article must remain in the same [[dialect]] in which it was first created, or which first became discernible in the article's history.

There has been a [[Chinese Wikipedia#Automatic conversion between Traditional and Simplified Chinese|similar issue in the Chinese language Wikipedia]] concerning regional differences in how the language is written, as well as in the [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] between [[European Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]].

== See also ==
* [[Criticism of Wikipedia]]
* [[History of Wikipedia]]
* [[Simple English Wikipedia]]

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]

{{Wikipedias}}

[[Category:Wikipedias by language]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2001]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias]]



[[af:Engelse Wikipedia]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]
[[be:Англійская Вікіпедыя]]
[[be-x-old:Ангельская Вікіпэдыя]]
[[bg:Уикипедия на английски език]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia en anglès]]
[[cs:Anglická Wikipedie]]
[[cy:Wicipedia Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[et:Ingliskeelne Vikipeedia]]
[[el:Αγγλική Βικιπαίδεια]]
[[es:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipedia]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی]]
[[fr:Wikipédia en anglais]]
[[ga:Vicipéid an Bhéarla]]
[[gl:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[ko:영어 위키백과]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी विकिपीडिया.]]
[[hr:Wikipedija na engleskom jeziku]]
[[ig:Wikipedia nke ndị bekee]]
[[it:Wikipedia in inglese]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה האנגלית]]
[[sw:Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]]
[[la:Vicipaedia Anglica]]
[[lt:Angliška Vikipedija]]
[[hu:Angol Wikipédia]]
[[mk:Википедија на англиски јазик]]
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ]]
[[ms:Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nl:Engelstalige Wikipedia]]
[[ja:英語版ウィキペディア]]
[[no:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[uz:Ingliz Vikipediyasi]]
[[km:វិគីភីឌាភាសាអង់គ្លេស]]
[[pl:Anglojęzyczna Wikipedia]]
[[pt:Wikipédia em inglês]]
[[ru:Англоязычная Википедия]]
[[simple:English Wikipedia]]
[[sr:Википедија на енглеском језику]]
[[sh:Engleska Wikipedija]]
[[fi:Wikipedia:Englanninkielinen Wikipedia]]
[[sv:Engelskspråkiga Wikipedia]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดียภาษาอังกฤษ]]
[[tr:İngilizce Vikipedi]]
[[uk:Англійська Вікіпедія]]
[[vi:Wikipedia tiếng Anh]]
[[wuu:英语维基百科]]
[[yi:ענגלישע וויקיפעדיע]]
[[zh-yue:英文維基百科]]
[[bat-smg:Onglėška Vikipedėjė]]
[[zh:英語維基百科]]

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2009-10-29T20:49:41Z

Skomorokh: /* Users and editors */ removed more original research, dated statement

{{Self-published|date=July 2009}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = [[File:Wikipedia's W.svg|16px|Favicon of Wikipedia]] English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia.
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = http://en.wikipedia.org/
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = [[Creative Commons]] [[ShareAlike]] License 3.0
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two or three co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>}}
The '''English Wikipedia''' is the [[English language]] edition of the free online Encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on 15 January 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news |first=Bobbie |last=Johnson |title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million |publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] |date=2009-08-17 |accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with more than three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. As of 2009, 22.3% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition; this share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778|title=List of Wikipedias|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2008-09-21|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site, average adding ???? articles last month.

== Pioneering edition ==
The English Wikipedia was the first Wikipedia edition and has remained the largest. It has pioneered many conventions, policies and features that have been adopted by other Wikipedia editions. These include "featured articles",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Featured_articles&oldid=104207677|title=Featured articles|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the neutral point of view policy,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view&oldid=103033132|title=Neutral point of view|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-25|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> navigation templates,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Template&oldid=520481|title=Help:Template|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2007-01-29|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the sorting of short "stub" articles into sub-categories,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Stub_sorting&oldid=101829026|title=WikiProject Stub sorting|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-19|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> dispute resolution mechanisms such as mediation and arbitration,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Resolving_disputes&oldid=103577785|title=Resolving disputes|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-27|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> and weekly collaborations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Article_Creation_and_Improvement_Drive&oldid=104243512|title=Article Creation and Improvement Drive|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> In turn, the English Wikipedia has adopted features from the [[German Wikipedia]], and from smaller editions.

Many of the most active participants in the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], and developers of the [[MediaWiki]] software that powers Wikipedia, are English Wikipedia users.

== Users and editors ==
[[File:Wiki feel stupid v2.ogv|thumb|right|In April 2009, the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] conducted a usability study on the English Wikipedia, questioning users about the editing mechanism<ref>http://usability.wikimedia.org/wiki/UX_and_Usability_Study</ref>]]
{{english wikipedia statistics}}
The English Wikipedia reached 4,000,000 registered user accounts on 1 April 2007,<ref name="4,000,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2007-04-02/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2007-04-02/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref> just a little over a year since it had crossed a threshold of 1,000,000 registered user accounts in late February 2006.<ref name="1,000,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2006-02-27/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-02-27/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref>

As the largest Wikipedia edition, and because [[English language|English]] is such a widely used language, the English Wikipedia draws many users and editors whose [[native language]] is not English. Such users seek information from the English Wikipedia rather than the Wikipedia of their native language because the English Wikipedia tends to contain more information.

=== Arbitration Committee ===
The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'> {{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'> {{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|date=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref>

When initially founded, the Committee consisted of 12 [[arbitrators]] divided into three groups of four members each.<ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'> {{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Since then, the Committee has gradually expanded to its membership to 18 arbitrators.<ref name='Wales2'> {{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Jimbo_Wales&oldid=259248025 |title=ArbCom Appointments |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2008-12-20 |work=Wikipedia }}</ref>

Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Controversies ==
{{seealso|Wikipedia biography controversy|Essjay controversy}}
Among the controversies in the English Wikipedia is a debate over which national variety of the English language is to be preferred, with the most commonly advocated candidates being [[American English]] and [[British English]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_%28spelling%29||title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style (spelling)|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2006-02-25}}</ref> Many suggestions have been proposed by editors, ranging from standardizing upon a single form of English to [[fork (software)|forking]] the English Wikipedia project. A style guideline states, "the English Wikipedia has no general preference for a major national variety of the language" and "an article on a topic that has strong ties to a particular English-speaking nation uses the appropriate variety of English for that nation."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English|title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2007-10-10}}</ref> An article should use spelling and grammar variants consistently; for example, ''color'' and ''colour'' are not to be used in the same article, since they represent American and British English, respectively. The guide also states that an article must remain in the same [[dialect]] in which it was first created, or which first became discernible in the article's history.

There has been a [[Chinese Wikipedia#Automatic conversion between Traditional and Simplified Chinese|similar issue in the Chinese language Wikipedia]] concerning regional differences in how the language is written, as well as in the [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] between [[European Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]].

== See also ==
* [[Criticism of Wikipedia]]
* [[History of Wikipedia]]
* [[Simple English Wikipedia]]

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]

{{Wikipedias}}

[[Category:Wikipedias by language]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2001]]
[[Category:English-language encyclopedias]]



[[af:Engelse Wikipedia]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]
[[be:Англійская Вікіпедыя]]
[[be-x-old:Ангельская Вікіпэдыя]]
[[bg:Уикипедия на английски език]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia en anglès]]
[[cs:Anglická Wikipedie]]
[[cy:Wicipedia Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[et:Ingliskeelne Vikipeedia]]
[[el:Αγγλική Βικιπαίδεια]]
[[es:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipedia]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی]]
[[fr:Wikipédia en anglais]]
[[ga:Vicipéid an Bhéarla]]
[[gl:Wikipedia en inglés]]
[[ko:영어 위키백과]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी विकिपीडिया.]]
[[hr:Wikipedija na engleskom jeziku]]
[[ig:Wikipedia nke ndị bekee]]
[[it:Wikipedia in inglese]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה האנגלית]]
[[sw:Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]]
[[la:Vicipaedia Anglica]]
[[lt:Angliška Vikipedija]]
[[hu:Angol Wikipédia]]
[[mk:Википедија на англиски јазик]]
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ]]
[[ms:Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nl:Engelstalige Wikipedia]]
[[ja:英語版ウィキペディア]]
[[no:Engelsk Wikipedia]]
[[uz:Ingliz Vikipediyasi]]
[[km:វិគីភីឌាភាសាអង់គ្លេស]]
[[pl:Anglojęzyczna Wikipedia]]
[[pt:Wikipédia em inglês]]
[[ru:Англоязычная Википедия]]
[[simple:English Wikipedia]]
[[sr:Википедија на енглеском језику]]
[[sh:Engleska Wikipedija]]
[[fi:Wikipedia:Englanninkielinen Wikipedia]]
[[sv:Engelskspråkiga Wikipedia]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดียภาษาอังกฤษ]]
[[tr:İngilizce Vikipedi]]
[[uk:Англійська Вікіпедія]]
[[vi:Wikipedia tiếng Anh]]
[[wuu:英语维基百科]]
[[yi:ענגלישע וויקיפעדיע]]
[[zh-yue:英文維基百科]]
[[bat-smg:Onglėška Vikipedėjė]]
[[zh:英語維基百科]]

Englischsprachige Wikipedia

2009-10-29T20:47:21Z

Skomorokh: /* Pioneering edition */ rm outdated original research

{{Self-published|date=July 2009}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox website
| name = [[File:Wikipedia's W.svg|16px|Favicon of Wikipedia]] English Wikipedia
| logo = [[File:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|Logo of the English Wikipedia]]
| screenshot = [[File:Wikipedia screenshot.png|280px|The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia on 31 January 2009]]
| collapsible = yes
| caption = The [[Main Page]] of the English Wikipedia.
| slogan = The Free Encyclopedia
| url = http://en.wikipedia.org/
| commercial = [[Charity (practice)|Charitable]]
| launch date = 15 January 2001
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| registration = Optional
| content license = [[Creative Commons]] [[ShareAlike]] License 3.0
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| author = [[Jimmy Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]]<ref name=foundercontroversy>There is some controversy over who founded Wikipedia. Wikipedia's official [http://web.archive.org/web/20011104094947/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Wikipedia personnel page from September 2001] states Wales and Sanger were the two or three co-founders, and that there was no editor-in-chief. Wales considers himself to be the sole founder of Wikipedia and has told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that "it's preposterous" to call Sanger the co-founder. However, Sanger strongly contests that description. He was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 and referred to himself that way as early as January 2002.
* {{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html|author =Jonathan Sidener|title =Everyone's Encyclopedia|accessdate = 2006-10-15|publisher=San Diego Union Tribune|date = 6 December 2004}}
* {{cite news|author=Peter Meyers|title=Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software|publisher =[[New York Times]]|accessdate = 2006-10-15|date=2001-09-20}}
* {{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_and_why_it_matters&oldid=149626|author=[[Larry Sanger|Sanger, Larry]]|title=What Wikipedia is and why it matters|accessdate = 2006-04-12}}</ref>}}
The '''English Wikipedia''' is the [[English language]] edition of the free online Encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]]. Founded on 15 January 2001 and reaching three million articles by August 2009,<ref>{{cite news |first=Bobbie |last=Johnson |title=English Wikipedia hits three million articles |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/aug/17/wikipedia-three-million |publisher=[[guardian.co.uk]] |date=2009-08-17 |accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> it was the first edition of Wikipedia and remains the largest, with more than three times as many articles as the next largest, the [[German Wikipedia]]. As of 2009, 22.3% of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English language edition; this share has gradually declined from more than 50% in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Wikipedias&oldid=520778|title=List of Wikipedias|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2008-09-21|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> There are currently [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles on the site, average adding ???? articles last month.

== Pioneering edition ==
The English Wikipedia was the first Wikipedia edition and has remained the largest. It has pioneered many conventions, policies and features that have been adopted by other Wikipedia editions. These include "featured articles",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Featured_articles&oldid=104207677|title=Featured articles|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the neutral point of view policy,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view&oldid=103033132|title=Neutral point of view|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-25|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> navigation templates,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Template&oldid=520481|title=Help:Template|author=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki|date=2007-01-29|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> the sorting of short "stub" articles into sub-categories,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Stub_sorting&oldid=101829026|title=WikiProject Stub sorting|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-19|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> dispute resolution mechanisms such as mediation and arbitration,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Resolving_disputes&oldid=103577785|title=Resolving disputes|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-27|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> and weekly collaborations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Article_Creation_and_Improvement_Drive&oldid=104243512|title=Article Creation and Improvement Drive|author=English Wikipedia|date=2007-01-30|accessdate=2007-01-30}}</ref> In turn, the English Wikipedia has adopted features from the [[German Wikipedia]], and from smaller editions.

Many of the most active participants in the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], and developers of the [[MediaWiki]] software that powers Wikipedia, are English Wikipedia users.

== Users and editors ==
[[File:Wiki feel stupid v2.ogv|thumb|right|In April 2009, the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] conducted a usability study on the English Wikipedia, questioning users about the editing mechanism<ref>http://usability.wikimedia.org/wiki/UX_and_Usability_Study</ref>]]
{{english wikipedia statistics}}
The English Wikipedia reached 4,000,000 registered user accounts on 1 April 2007,<ref name="4,000,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2007-04-02/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2007-04-02/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref> just a little over a year since it had crossed a threshold of 1,000,000 registered user accounts in late February 2006.<ref name="1,000,000">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2006-02-27/News_and_notes Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-02-27/News and notes]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007</ref> However, the number of individuals who are active editors (either registered or anonymous) on any given month is much less.

As the largest Wikipedia edition, and because [[English language|English]] is such a widely used language, the English Wikipedia draws many users and editors whose [[native language]] is not English. Such users seek information from the English Wikipedia rather than the Wikipedia of their native language because the English Wikipedia tends to contain more information. Many successful collaborations have developed between non-native English speakers who add content to English Wikipedia and native English speakers who act as copy-editors for them.

=== Arbitration Committee ===
The English Wikipedia has an Arbitration Committee (also known as ArbCom) that consists of a panel of editors that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between other editors of the online encyclopedia.<ref name='AU'> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/democracy-for-knowalls/2006/11/30/1164777721624.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 |title=Know-alls |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |date=2006-12-02 |work=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Digital Network }}</ref> The Committee was created by [[Jimmy Wales]] on December 4, 2003 as an extension of the decision-making power he had formerly held as owner of the site.<ref name='Wales1'> {{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/komcldyapats43xj#query:+page:1+mid:komcldyapats43xj+state:results |title= WikiEN-l Wikiquette committee appointments |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2003-12-04 |work=Wikipedia |publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name='SSRN'> {{cite journal|title=Wikitruth Through Wikiorder |journal=Emory Law Journal|date=2010|first=David A.|last=Hoffman|coauthors=Salil Mehra |volume=59|issue=2010|pages=|id= |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1354424|format=|accessdate=2009-06-09 }}</ref>

When initially founded, the Committee consisted of 12 [[arbitrators]] divided into three groups of four members each.<ref name='Wales1'/><ref name='Fortune'> {{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/mysql_greatteams_fortune/index.htm |title=Secrets of Greatness: Great Teams |accessdate=2009-06-15 |last=Hyatt |first=Josh |date=2006-06-01 |work=Fortune |publisher=[[Time Warner]] }}</ref> Since then, the Committee has gradually expanded to its current size of 18 seats.<ref name='Wales2'> {{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Jimbo_Wales&oldid=259248025 |title=ArbCom Appointments |accessdate=2009-06-14 |last=Wales |first=Jimmy |date=2008-12-20 |work=Wikipedia }}</ref>

Like other aspects of the English Wikipedia, Wikipedia's sister projects have emulated the Arbitration Committee with their own similar versions. In 2007, an Arbitration Committee was founded on the [[German Wikipedia]] called the Schiedsrichter.<ref name='dewiki-2007'>{{cite web|url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Wikipedia-sucht-Schiedsrichter--/meldung/89083 |title=Wikipedia sucht Schiedsrichter |accessdate=2009-06-09 |last=Kleinz |first=Torsten |date=2007-04-30 |publisher=heise online |language=German }}</ref>

== Controversies ==
{{seealso|Wikipedia biography controversy|Essjay controversy}}
Among the controversies in the English Wikipedia is a debate over which national variety of the English language is to be preferred, with the most commonly advocated candidates being [[American English]] and [[British English]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_%28spelling%29||title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style (spelling)|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2006-02-25}}</ref> Many suggestions have been proposed by editors, ranging from standardizing upon a single form of English to [[fork (software)|forking]] the English Wikipedia project. A style guideline states, "the English Wikipedia has no general preference for a major national variety of the language" and "an article on a topic that has strong ties to a particular English-speaking nation uses the appropriate variety of English for that nation."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English|title=Wikipedia:Manual of Style|author=English Wikipedia|accessdate=2007-10-10}}</ref> An article should use spelling and grammar variants consistently; for example, ''color'' and ''colour'' are not to be used in the same article, since they represent American and British English, respectively. The guide also states that an article must remain in the same [[dialect]] in which it was first created, or which first became discernible in the article's history.

There has been a [[Chinese Wikipedia#Automatic conversion between Traditional and Simplified Chinese|similar issue in the Chinese language Wikipedia]] concerning regional differences in how the language is written, as well as in the [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] between [[European Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]].

== See also ==
* [[Criticism of Wikipedia]]
* [[History of Wikipedia]]
* [[Simple English Wikipedia]]

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org English Wikipedia] 
* [[:meta:English Wikipedia|Meta: English Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.org multilingual portal]
* [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation]

{{Wikipedias}}

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Irish National Invincibles

2009-10-20T14:49:59Z

Skomorokh: Reverted edits by 93.107.22.126 (talk) to last version by Atif.t2

The '''Irish National Invincibles''' ({{lang-ga|Dosháraithe Náisiúnta na hÉireann}}{{Fact|date=May 2009}}), usually known as '''"the Invincibles"''' were a radical splinter group of the [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]], active in Dublin during the 1880s.<ref name= "hist">{{cite book |last =McCracken |first =J. L.|year= 2001|title =The Fate of an Infamous Informer |pages= all|publisher= History Ireland|location= Dublin}}</ref>

==Murder in Phoenix Park==
The group hatched a plan to kill the [[Permanent Under Secretary]] at the Irish Office [[Thomas Henry Burke (Irish Politician)|Thomas Henry Burke]]. It was [[Chief Secretary for Ireland]] [[Lord Frederick Cavendish]]'s misfortune that he was walking with Burke when the [[assassin]]s struck in [[Phoenix Park]], in [[Dublin]], at 17:30 Saturday, [[May 6]], [[1882]], in what was to become known as the [[Phoenix Park Murders]].
[[Image:Grave of Skin the Goat.jpg|thumb|Grave of James Fitzharris (Skin the Goat)]]

The assassinations in the park were initiated by Joe Brady knifing Burke, followed in short order by Tim Kelly, who knifed Lord Frederick. Both men used surgical knives. The British press expressed the outrage felt by many and demanded that the "Phoenix Park Murderers" be brought to justice.

A large number of suspects were arrested. By playing off one suspect against another, Superintendent Mallon of "G" Division of the Dublin Metropolitan Police got several of them to reveal what they knew.<ref name= "molx4">{{cite book |last =Moloney |first =Senan|year= 2006|title =The Phoenix Murders: Conspiracy, Betrayal and Retribution |pages= 146 et passim|publisher= Mercier Press|location= Dublin|isbn = 1-85635-511-X }}</ref> The Invincibles' leader, [[James Carey]], and Michael Kavanagh agreed to testify against the others. Joe Brady, Michael Fagan, Thomas Caffrey, Dan Curley and Tim Kelly were [[hanging|hanged]] by [[William Marwood]] in [[Kilmainham Gaol]] in [[Dublin]] between [[May 14]] and [[June 4]], [[1883]]. Others were sentenced to serve long prison terms.

==Retaliation==
Carey was shot dead on board the 'Melrose Castle' off [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]], on [[July 29]], 1883, by [[County Donegal|Donegal]] man [[Patrick O'Donnell (Invincible)|Patrick O Donnell]], for giving evidence against his former comrades. O'Donnell was apprehended and escorted back to [[London]], where he was convicted of murder at the [[Old Bailey]] and [[hanged]] on [[December 17]] [[1883]].<ref name= "molx5">{{cite book |last =Moloney |first =Senan|year= 2006|title =The Phoenix Murders: Conspiracy, Betrayal and Retribution |pages= 250 et passim|publisher= Mercier Press|location= Dublin|isbn = 1-85635-511-X }}</ref>

==In song==

The Invincibles and Carey are mentioned in the folk song "[[Monto (Take Her Up To Monto)]]":

''When [[James Carey|Carey]] told on [[James Fitzharris|Skin-the-goat]], 
''[[Patrick O'Donnell (Invincible)|O'Donnell]] caught him on the boat 
''He wished he'd never been afloat, the filthy skite. 
''Twasn't very sensible 
''To tell on the Invincibles 
''They stood up for their principles, day and night.

== External links ==
* [http://lark.phoblacht.net/shadowgunman.html The Shadow of the Gunman]
* [http://ca.geocities.com/radfordr@rogers.com/1875d.html The Phoenix Park Murders ]
== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Irish Republican Brotherhood]]
[[Category:People executed by hanging]]

[[ca:Irish National Invincibles]]

Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski

2009-10-20T12:24:31Z

Skomorokh: /* See also */ rm some already linked, one redirect fixed

{{For|the cruise ship|MS Feodor Dostoevskiy}}
{{Infobox Writer 
| name = Fyodor Dostoyevsky
| image = Dostoevskij 1872.jpg
| birthdate = {{birth date|1821|11|11|mf=y}}
| birthplace = [[Moscow]], [[Russian Empire]]
| deathdate = {{Death date and age|1881|2|9|1821|11|11}}
| deathplace = [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire]]
| occupation = [[Novelist]]
| nationality =
| period=
| genre= [[suspense]], [[literary fiction]]
| subject=
| movement=
| religion = [Russian Orthodox]
| notableworks= ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'' ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''
| spouse=
| children=
| relatives=
| influences= Writers: [[Miguel de Cervantes]]<ref>[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5055894/Dostoevsky-s-other-Quixote-influence.html Dostoevsky's other Quixote.(influence of Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote on Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Idiot)] Fambrough, Preston</ref>, [[Charles Dickens]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Nikolai Gogol]], [[Victor Hugo]], [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]], [[Mikhail Lermontov]], [[Adam Mickiewicz]], [[Alexander Pushkin]], Philosophers: [[Mikhail Bakunin]], [[Vissarion Belinsky]], [[Nikolai Chernyshevsky]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], [[Aleksandr Herzen]], [[Konstantin Leontyev]], [[Sergei Nechaev]], [[Mikhail Petrashevsky]], [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir Solovyov]], [[Tikhon of Zadonsk]]
| influenced = [[Knut Hamsun]], [[Richard Brautigan]], [[Charles Bukowski]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Orhan Pamuk]]<ref>{{cite book
| first = Orhan
| last = Pamuk
| authorlink = Orhan Pamuk
| title = [[Istanbul: Memories of a City]]
| publisher = [[Vintage Books]]
| year = 2006
| isbn = 978-1400033881
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| first = Orhan
| last = Pamuk
| authorlink = Orhan Pamuk
| title = [[Other Colors: Essays and a Story]]
| publisher = [[Vintage Books]]
| year = 2008
| isbn = 978-0307386236
}}</ref>, [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Witold Gombrowicz]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Jack Kerouac]], [[James Joyce]], [[Czesław Miłosz]], [[Yukio Mishima]], [[Alberto Moravia]], [[Iris Murdoch]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[Ayn Rand]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], [[Wisława Szymborska]], [[Irvine Welsh]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Cormac McCarthy]], [[Ken Kesey]], [[Albert Einstein]]
| signature = Dostsignature.jpg
}}
'''Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky''' ({{lang-ru|Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский}}, ''Fёdor Mihajlovič Dosto'evskij,'' {{IPA-ru|ˈfʲodər mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ dəstɐˈjɛfskʲɪj|pron|ru-Dostoevsky.ogg}},<ref>loose phonetic pronunciation: fyo-der mi-(k)hail-a-vitch das-ta-yef-skee)</ref> sometimes [[Transliteration of Russian into English|transliterated]] '''Dostoevsky''', '''Dostoievsky''', '''Dostojevskij''', '''Dostoevski''', '''Dostojevski''' or '''Dostoevskii''' ({{OldStyleDate|November 11,|1821|October 30}} – {{OldStyleDate|February 9,|1881|January 28}}) was a [[Russian people|Russian]] [[writer]], [[essayist]] and [[philosopher]], known for his novels ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' and ''[[The Brothers Karamazov (novel)|The Brothers Karamazov]]''.

Dostoyevsky's literary output explores human [[psychology]] in the troubled [[political]], [[social]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]] context of 19th-century Russian society. Considered by many as a founder or precursor of 20th-century [[existentialism]], his ''[[Notes from Underground]]'' (1864), written in the embittered voice of the anonymous "underground man", was called by [[Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)|Walter Kaufmann]] the "best overture for existentialism ever written."<ref>Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre Walter Kaufmann ISBN 0452009308 page 12</ref> A prominent figure in [[world literature]], Dostoyevsky is often acknowledged by critics as one of the greatest psychologists in world literature. <ref name="BritannicaRussianLit">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513793/Russian-literature|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-04-11|title=Russian literature|quote=Dostoyevsky, who is generally regarded as one of the supreme psychologists in world literature, sought to demonstrate the compatibility of Christianity with the deepest truths of the psyche.}}</ref>

==Biography==
===Family origins===
[[Image:Wki Dostoyevsky Street 2 Moscow Mariinsky Hospital.jpg|thumb|Mariinsky Hospital in [[Moscow]], Dostoyevsky's birthplace.]]
Dostoyevsky's mother was Russian. His paternal ancestors were from a village called Dostoyev in [[Belarus]], in the [[guberniya]] (province) of [[Minsk]], not far from [[Pinsk]]; the stress on the family name was originally on the second syllable, matching that of the town (Dostóev), but in the nineteenth century was shifted to the third syllable.<ref>B.O. Unbegaun, ''Russkie familii'' (Moscow: "Univers"), pp. 28, 345.</ref> According to one account, Dostoyevsky's paternal ancestors were Polonized nobles ([[szlachta]]) of Russian origin and went to war bearing Polish [[Radwan Coat of Arms]]. Dostoyevsky (Polish "Dostojewski") Radwan armorial bearings were drawn for the Dostoyevsky Museum in [[Moscow]].<ref>{{citation
| last=Dostoyevsky
| first=Aimée
| title=FYODOR DOSTOYEVSKY: A STUDY
| place=Honolulu, HAWAII
| publisher=[http://www.universitypressofthepacific.com/ University Press of the Pacific]
| year=2001
| url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/61397936
| isbn=0898751659
| pages=1, 6–7}}</ref>

===Early life===
Dostoyevsky was the second of six children born to Mikhail and Maria Dostoyevsky.<ref>The Best Short Stories of Dostoevsky: Translated with an Introduction by David Magarshack. New York: The Modern Library, Random House; 1971.</ref> Dostoyevsky's father Mikhail was a retired military surgeon and a violent [[alcoholic]], who had practiced at the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor in [[Moscow]]. The hospital was located in one of the city's worst areas; local landmarks included a cemetery for criminals, a lunatic asylum, and an orphanage for abandoned infants. This urban landscape made a lasting impression on the young Dostoyevsky, whose interest in and compassion for the poor, oppressed and tormented was apparent. Though his parents forbade it, Dostoyevsky liked to wander out to the hospital garden, where the suffering patients sat to catch a glimpse of sun. The young Dostoyevsky loved to spend time with these patients and hear their stories.

There are many stories of Dostoyevsky's father's despotic treatment of his children. After returning home from work, he would take a nap while his children, ordered to keep absolutely silent, stood by their slumbering father in shifts and swatted at any flies that came near his head. However, it is the opinion of Joseph Frank, a biographer of Dostoyevsky, that the father figure in ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' is not based on Dostoyevsky's own father. Letters and personal accounts demonstrate that they had a fairly loving relationship.

[[Image:Dostoevskij 1847.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The young Dostoyevsky, in a portrait by [[Konstiantyn Trutovsky|Trutovsky]], 1847]]
Shortly after his mother died of [[tuberculosis]] in 1837, Dostoyevsky and his brother were sent to the Military Engineering Academy at [[Saint Petersburg]]. Fyodor's father died in 1839. Though it has never been proven, it is believed by some that he was murdered by his own [[serf]]s.<ref>[http://worldebooklibrary.com/eBooks/Coradella_Collegiate_Bookshelf_Collection/Dostoevsky-notesfromtheunderground.pdf Notes from the Underground] Coradella Collegita Bookshelf edition, ''About the Author''.</ref> According to one account, they became enraged during one of his drunken fits of violence, restrained him, and poured [[vodka]] into his mouth until he drowned. A similar account appears in ''Notes from Underground''. Another story holds that Mikhail died of natural causes, and a neighboring landowner invented the story of his murder so that he might buy the estate inexpensively. Some{{Who|date=June 2009}} have argued that his father's personality had influenced the character of Fyodor Pavlovich Karamazov, the "wicked and sentimental buffoon", father of the main characters in his 1880 novel ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'', but such claims fail to withstand the scrutiny of many critics{{Who|date=June 2009}}.

Dostoyevsky had [[epilepsy]] and his first seizure occurred when he was nine years old.<ref>[http://www.epilepsy.com/epilepsy/famous_writers.html epilepsy.com] Famous authors with epilepsy.</ref> Epileptic seizures recurred sporadically throughout his life, and Dostoyevsky's experiences are thought{{Who|date=June 2009}} to have formed the basis for his description of Prince Myshkin's epilepsy in his novel ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'' and that of Smerdyakov in ''The Brothers Karamazov'', among others.

At the [[Saint Petersburg Academy of Military Engineering]], Dostoyevsky was taught [[mathematics]], a subject he despised. However, he also studied literature by [[Shakespeare]], [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]], [[Victor Hugo]] and [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]]. Though he focused on areas different from mathematics, he did well on the exams and received a commission in 1841. That year, he wrote two romantic plays, influenced by the German Romantic poet/playwright [[Friedrich Schiller]]: ''[[Maria Stuart (play)|Mary Stuart]]'' and ''[[Boris Godunov]]''. The plays have not been preserved. Dostoyevsky described himself as a "dreamer" when he was a young man, and at that time revered [[Schiller]]. However, in the years during which he yielded his great masterpieces, his opinions changed and he sometimes poked fun at Schiller.

===Beginnings of a literary career===
Dostoyevsky was made a [[lieutenant]] in 1842, and left the Engineering Academy the following year. He completed a translation into Russian of [[Balzac]]'s novel ''[[Eugénie Grandet]]'' in 1843, but it brought him little or no attention. Dostoyevsky started to write his own fiction in late 1844 after leaving the army. In 1845, his first work, the epistolary short novel, ''[[Poor Folk]]'', published in the periodical ''The Contemporary'' ([[Sovremennik]]), was met with great acclaim. As legend has it, the editor of the magazine, poet [[Nikolai Nekrasov]], walked into the office of liberal critic [[Vissarion Belinsky]] and announced, "A new [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]] has arisen!" Belinsky, his followers, and many others agreed. After the novel was fully published in book form at the beginning of the next year, Dostoyevsky became a literary celebrity at the age of 24.

In 1846, Belinsky and many others reacted negatively to his novella, ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem|The Double]]'', a psychological study of a bureaucrat whose alter ego overtakes his life. Dostoyevsky's fame began to fade. Much of his work after ''[[Poor Folk]]'' received ambivalent reviews and it seemed that Belinsky's prediction that Dostoyevsky would be one of the greatest writers of Russia was mistaken.

[[Image:Omsk Dostoyevskiy Monument.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Statue of Dostoyevsky in [[Omsk]]]]

===Exile in Siberia===
Dostoyevsky was incarcerated on April 23, 1849, for being part of the [[Liberalism|liberal]] intellectual group, the [[Petrashevsky Circle]]. [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] after seeing the [[Revolutions of 1848]] in [[Europe]] was harsh on any sort of underground organization which he felt could put [[autocracy]] into jeopardy. On [[November 16]] that year Dostoyevsky, along with the other members of the Petrashevsky Circle, was [[death sentence|sentenced to death]]. After a [[mock execution]], in which he and other members of the group stood outside in freezing weather waiting to be shot by a [[firing squad]], Dostoyevsky's sentence was commuted to four years of [[exile]] with hard labor at a [[katorga]] prison camp in [[Omsk]], [[Siberia]]. Dostoyevsky described later to his brother the sufferings he went through as the years in which he was "shut up in a coffin." Describing the dilapidated barracks which, as his view, "should have been torn down years ago," he wrote:
{{quote|In summer, intolerable closeness; in winter, unendurable cold. All the floors were rotten. Filth on the floors an inch thick; one could slip and fall...We were packed like herrings in a barrel...There was no room to turn around. From dusk to dawn it was impossible not to behave like pigs...Fleas, lice, and black beetles by the bushel...<ref>Frank 76. Quoted from Pisma, I: 135-137.</ref>}}

He was released from prison in 1854, and was required to serve in the [[Siberian Regiment]]. Dostoyevsky spent the following five years as a private (and later lieutenant) in the Regiment's Seventh Line Battalion, stationed at the fortress of [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]], now in [[Kazakhstan]]. While there, he began a relationship with [[Maria Dmitrievna Isayeva]], the wife of an acquaintance in Siberia. They married in February 1857, after her husband's death.

===Post-prison maturation as a writer===
[[Image:Valikhanov.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky (right) and the [[Kazakhstan]]i scholar [[Shokan Walikhanuli]] in 1859]]
Dostoyevsky's experiences in prison and the army resulted in major changes in his political and religious convictions. First, his ordeal somehow caused him to become disillusioned with "Western" ideas; he repudiated the contemporary Western [[Europe]]an philosophical movements, and instead paid greater tribute in his writing to traditional, rustic Russian values exemplified in the [[Slavophile]] concept of [[sobornost]]. But even more significantly, he had what his biographer Joseph Frank describes as a [[Religious conversion|conversion]] experience in prison,{{Page number}} which greatly strengthened his [[Christian]], and specifically [[Russian Orthodox|Orthodox]], faith (Dostoyevsky would later depict his conversion experience in the short story, ''[[The Peasant Marey]]'' (1876)).

In his writings, Dostoyevsky started to extol the virtues of [[humility]], [[submission]], and [[suffering]].<ref name="Nab81Censors">[[Vladimir Nabokov]] (1981) ''[[Lectures on Russian Literature]]'', lecture on ''Russian Writers, Censors, and Readers'', p.14</ref> He now displayed a much more critical stance on contemporary European philosophy and turned with intellectual rigour against the [[Nihilist movement|Nihilist]] and [[Socialism|Socialist]] movements; and much of his post-prison work—particularly the novel, ''[[The Possessed (novel)|The Possessed]]'', and the essays, ''[[A Writer's Diary|The Diary of a Writer]]''—contains both criticism of socialist and nihilist ideas, as well as thinly-veiled parodies of contemporary Western-influenced Russian intellectuals ([[Timofey Granovsky]]), revolutionaries ([[Sergey Nechayev]]), and even fellow novelists ([[Ivan Turgenev]]).<ref>Dostoevsky the Thinker James P. Scanlan. Dostoevsky the Thinker. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002. xiii, pp. 251</ref><ref>[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jim_forest/pevear.htm Dostoevsky's View of Evil] Reprinted from ''In Communion'', April 1998.</ref> In social circles, Dostoyevsky allied himself with well-known conservatives, such as the statesman [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]]. His post-prison essays praised the tenets of the [[Pochvennichestvo]] movement, a late-19th century Russian nativist ideology closely aligned with [[Slavophile|Slavophilism]].

Dostoyevsky's post-prison fiction abandoned the European-style domestic melodramas and quaint character studies of his youthful work in favor of dark, more complex story-lines and situations, played-out by brooding, tortured characters—often styled partly on Dostoyevsky himself—who agonized over [[existentialism|existential]] themes of spiritual torment, religious awakening, and the psychological confusion caused by the conflict between traditional Russian culture and the influx of modern, Western philosophy. This, nonetheless, does not take from the debt which Dostoyevsky owed to earlier Western influenced writers such as [[Gogol]] whose work grew from out of the irrational and anti-authoritarian spiritualist ideas contained within the [[Romantic movement]] which had immediately preceded Dostoyevsky in Europe. However, Dostoyevsky's major novels focused on the idea that [[utopias]] and [[positivist]] ideas being [[utilitarian]] were unrealistic and unobtainable.<ref>{{cite book | last = Sirotkina | first = Irina | title = Diagnosing Literary Genius: A Cultural History of Psychiatry in Russia, 1880 | year = 1996 | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | page = 55 | isbn = 0801867827}}</ref>

===Later literary career===
[[Image:Dostoevskij 1863.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky in 1863]]
In December 1859, Dostoyevsky returned to [[Saint Petersburg]], where he ran a series of unsuccessful literary journals, ''Vremya'' (Time) and ''Epokha'' (Epoch), with his older brother Mikhail. The latter was shut down as a consequence of its coverage of the [[January Uprising|Polish Uprising of 1863]]. That year Dostoyevsky traveled to Europe and frequented the gambling casinos. There he met [[Apollinaria Suslova]], the model for Dostoyevsky's "proud women", such as the two characters named Katerina Ivanovna, in ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' and ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''.

Dostoyevsky was devastated by his wife's death in 1864, which was followed shortly thereafter by his brother's death. He was financially crippled by business debts; furthermore, he decided to assume the responsibility of his deceased brother's outstanding debts, and he also provided for his wife's son from her earlier marriage and his brother's widow and children. Dostoyevsky sank into a deep [[depression (mood)|depression]], frequenting gambling parlors and accumulating massive losses at the tables.

Dostoyevsky suffered from an acute [[Problem gambling|gambling compulsion]] and its consequences. By one account{{Who|date=June 2009}} he completed ''Crime and Punishment'', possibly his best known novel, in a mad hurry because he was in urgent need of an advance from his publisher. He had been left practically penniless after a gambling spree. Dostoyevsky wrote ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]'' simultaneously in order to satisfy an agreement with his publisher [[Stellovsky]] who, if he did not receive a new work, would have claimed the copyrights to all of Dostoyevsky's writings.

Motivated by the dual wish to escape his creditors at home and to visit the casinos abroad, Dostoyevsky traveled to [[Western Europe]]. There, he attempted to rekindle a love affair with Suslova, but she refused his marriage proposal. Dostoyevsky was heartbroken, but soon met [[Anna Grigorevna Snitkina]], a twenty-year-old [[stenographer]]. Shortly before marrying her in 1867, he dictated ''The Gambler'' to her. From 1873 to 1881 he published the ''Writer's Diary'', a monthly journal of short stories, sketches, and articles on current events. The journal was an enormous success.

Dostoyevsky influenced and was influenced by the philosopher [[Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov]]. Solovyov was the inspiration for the characters [[Ivan Karamazov]] and [[Alyosha Karamazov]].<ref>Zouboff, Peter, Solovyov on Godmanhood: Solovyov’s Lectures on Godmanhood Harmon Printing House: Poughkeepsie, New York, 1944; see Czeslaw Milosz’s introduction to Solovyov’s War, Progress and the End of History. Lindisfarne Press: Hudson, New York 1990.</ref>

In 1877, Dostoyevsky gave the keynote [[eulogy]] at the funeral of his friend, the poet [[Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov|Nekrasov]], to much controversy{{Who|date=June 2009}}. On [[June 8]], [[1880]], shortly before he died, he gave his famous [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]] speech at the unveiling of the Pushkin monument in Moscow.<ref>[http://az.lib.ru/d/dostoewskij_f_m/text_0340.shtml az.lib.ru]</ref>

In his later years, Fyodor Dostoyevsky lived for a long time at the resort of [[Staraya Russa]] in northwestern Russia, which was closer to [[Saint Petersburg]] and less expensive than German resorts. He died on {{OldStyleDate|February 9,|1881|January 28}} of a lung hemorrhage associated with [[emphysema]] and an [[epileptic seizure]]. He was interred in [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]] in [[Saint Petersburg]]. Forty thousand mourners attended his funeral.<ref>Dostoevsky, Fyodor; Introduction to The Idiot, Wordsworth Ed. Ltd, 1996.</ref> His tombstone reads "Verily, Verily, I say unto you, Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit." from [[Gospel of John|John]] 12:24, which is also the [[Epigraph (literature)|epigraph]] of his final novel, ''The Brothers Karamazov''.

==Works and influence==
[[Image:Dostoevsky.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky in 1879]]
Some like journalist [[Otto Friedrich]],<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Time Magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,943893,00.html?promoid=googlep|accessdate=2008-04-10|title=Freaking-Out with Fyodor|author=Otto Friedrich}}</ref> consider Dostoyevsky to be one of Europe's major novelists, while others like [[Vladimir Nabokov]] maintain that from point of view of enduring art and individual genius, he is a rather mediocre writer who produced wastelands of literary [[platitude]]s.<ref name="NabokovOnDostoyevsky">[[Vladimir Nabokov]] (1981) ''[[Lectures on Russian Literature]]'', lecture on ''Fyodor Dostoyevsky'', p.68. Quote: "he is not a great writer, but a rather mediocre one—with flashes of excellent humor, but, alas, with wastelands of literary platitudes in between."</ref> Dostoyevsky promoted in his novels religious moralities, particularly those of [[Orthodox Christianity]].<ref name="BritannicaRussianLit"/> Nabokov argued in his University courses at [[Cornell University|Cornell]], that such religious propaganda, rather than artistic qualities, was the main reason Dostoyevsky was praised and regarded as a 'Prophet' in Soviet{{Verify source|date=September 2009}} Russia.<ref name="NabokovOnDostoyevsky"/>

Dostoyevsky influenced American novelist [[Ernest Hemingway]], and [[James Joyce]] and [[Virginia Woolf]] praised his prose. Hemingway cited Dostoyevsky as a major influence on his work, in his posthumous collection of sketches ''[[A Moveable Feast]]''. In a book of interviews with Arthur Power (''Conversations with James Joyce''), Joyce praised Dostoyevsky's prose:

{{quote|...he is the man more than any other who has created modern prose, and intensified it to its present-day pitch. It was his explosive power which shattered the Victorian novel with its simpering maidens and ordered commonplaces; books which were without imagination or violence.}}

In her essay ''The Russian Point of View'', Virginia Woolf said:

{{quote|The novels of Dostoevsky are seething whirlpools, gyrating sandstorms, waterspouts which hiss and boil and suck us in. They are composed purely and wholly of the stuff of the soul. Against our wills we are drawn in, whirled round, blinded, suffocated, and at the same time filled with a giddy rapture. Out of [[Shakespeare]] there is no more exciting reading.<ref>[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91c/chapter16.html The Russian Point of View] Virginia Woolf.</ref>}}
[[Image:Dostoevsky-Library Moscow Russia.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Dostoyevsky beside the Library Moscow]]

Dostoyevsky displayed a nuanced understanding of human psychology in his major works. He created an opus of vitality and almost hypnotic power, characterized by feverishly dramatized scenes where his characters are frequently in scandalous and explosive atmospheres, passionately engaged in [[Socratic dialogue]]s. The quest for God, the [[problem of Evil]] and suffering of the innocents haunt the majority of his novels.

His characters fall into a few distinct categories: humble and self-effacing [[Christianity|Christians]] ([[Prince Myshkin]], [[Sonya Marmeladova]], [[Alyosha Karamazov]], [[Saint Ambrose of Optina|Starets Zosima]]), self-destructive [[nihilism|nihilists]] ([[Svidrigailov]], [[Smerdyakov]], [[Stavrogin]], [[Notes from Underground|the underground man]]){{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}, cynical debauchees ([[Fyodor Karamazov]], [[Dmitri Karamazov]]), and rebellious intellectuals ([[Raskolnikov]], [[Ivan Karamazov]], [[Ippolit]]); also, his characters are driven by ideas rather than by ordinary biological or social imperatives. In comparison with [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], whose characters are [[Literary realism|realistic]], the characters of Dostoyevsky are usually more symbolic of the ideas they represent, thus Dostoyevsky is often cited as one of the forerunners of [[Symbolism|Literary Symbolism]], especially [[Russian Symbolism]] (see [[Alexander Blok]]).
[[Image:Dostoevsky MR280908.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky beside the birthplace Moscow]]

Dostoyevsky's novels are compressed in time (many cover only a few days) and this enables him to get rid of one of the dominant traits of [[realism (arts)|realist]] prose, the corrosion of human life in the process of the time flux; his characters primarily embody spiritual values, and these are, by definition, timeless. Other themes include [[suicide]], wounded pride, collapsed family values, spiritual regeneration through suffering, rejection of the West and affirmation of [[Russian Orthodoxy]] and [[Tsarism]]. Literary scholars such as [[Mikhail Bakhtin|Bakhtin]] have characterized his work as "[[Polyphony (literature)|polyphonic]]": Dostoyevsky does not appear to aim for a "single vision", and beyond simply describing situations from various angles, Dostoyevsky engendered fully dramatic novels of ideas where conflicting views and characters are left to develop unevenly into unbearable crescendo.

Dostoyevsky and the other giant of late 19th century [[Russian literature]], [[Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy]], never met in person, even though each praised, criticized, and influenced the other (Dostoyevsky remarked of Tolstoy's ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' that it was a "flawless work of art"; [[Henri Troyat]] reports that Tolstoy once remarked of ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' that, "Once you read the first few chapters you know pretty much how the novel will end up").{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} There was a meeting arranged, but there was a confusion about where the meeting place was to take place and they never rescheduled. Tolstoy reportedly{{Who|date=June 2009}} burst into tears when he learned of Dostoyevsky's death. A copy of ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' was found on the nightstand next to Tolstoy's deathbed at the [[Lev Tolstoy (settlement)|Astapovo]] railway station.
[[Image:450px-Grab-dostojewsky.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky's tomb at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]]]]

===Dostoyevsky on Jews in Russia===

Notable writers, e.g. [[Joseph N. Frank]], Stephen Cassady, David I. Goldstein, Gary Saul Morson, and Felix Dreizin, have offered various insights and unique suppositions regarding Dostoyevsky’s views on Jews and organized Jewry in Russia – specifically, that Dostoyevsky perceived Jewish ethnocentrism and Jewish influence to be directly threatening the Russian peasantry in the border regions. For example, in [[A Writer's Diary]], Dostoyevsky wrote:

"Thus, Jewry is thriving precisely there where the people are still ignorant, or not free, or economically backward. It is there that Jewry has a champ libre. And instead of raising, by its influence, the level of education, instead of increasing knowledge, generating economic fitness in the native population -- instead of this the Jew, wherever he has settled, has still more humiliated and debauched the people; there humaneness was still more debased and the educational level fell still lower; there inescapable, inhuman misery, and with it despair, spread still more disgustingly. Ask the native population in our border regions: What is propelling the Jew -- and has been propelling him for centuries? You will receive a unanimous answer: mercilessness. He has been prompted so many centuries only by pitilessness to us, only by the thirst for our sweat and blood."<ref>F. M. Dostoevsky, The Diary of a Writer, trans. Boris Brasol (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)</ref>

"And, in truth, the whole activity of the Jews in these border regions of ours consisted of rendering the native population as much as possible inescapably dependent on them, taking advantage of the local laws. They have always managed to be on friendly terms with those upon whom the people were dependent. Point to any other tribe from among Russian aliens which could rival the Jew by his dreadful influence in this connection! You will find no such tribe. In this respect the Jew preserves all his originality as compared with other Russian aliens, and of course, the reason therefore is that status of status of his, that spirit of which specifically breathes pitilessness for everything that is not Jew, with disrespect for any people and tribe, for every human creature who is not a Jew...."<ref>F. M. Dostoevsky, The Diary of a Writer, trans. Boris Brasol (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949)</ref>

Dostoyevsky has been noted as having expressed anti-Semitic sentiments. In the recent biography by [[Joseph Frank (academic)|Joseph Frank]], ''The Mantle of the Prophet,'' Frank spent much time on ''A Writer's Diary'' — a regular column which Dostoyevsky wrote in the periodical ''The Citizen'' from 1873 to the year before his death in 1881. Frank notes that the ''Diary'' is "filled with politics, literary criticism, and pan-Slav diatribes about the virtues of the Russian Empire, [and] represents a major challenge to the Dostoyevsky fan, not least on account of its frequent expressions of antisemitism."<ref>''Dostoevsky's leap of faith This volume concludes a magnificent biography which is also a cultural history.'' Orlando Figes. ''Sunday Telegraph'' (London). Pg. 13. September 29, 2002.</ref> Frank, in his foreword for the book ''Dostoevsky and the Jews'', attempts to place Dostoyevsky as a product of his time. Frank notes that Dostoyevsky ''did'' make antisemitic remarks, but that Dostoyevsky's writing and stance by and large was one where Dostoyevsky held a great deal of guilt for his comments and positions that were antisemitic.<ref>Dostoevsky and the Jews (University of Texas Press Slavic series) (Hardcover) 2 Joseph Frank, "Foreword" pg. xiv. by David I. Goldstein ISBN 0292715285</ref> Steven Cassedy, for example, alleges in his book, ''Dostoevsky's Religion'', that much of the depiction of Dostoyevsky’s views as anti-Semitic omits that Dostoyevsky expressed support for the equal rights of the Russian Jewish population, a position that was not widely supported in Russia at the time.<ref name="Cassedy1">{{cite book |title= Dostoevsky's Religion |last= Cassedy |first= Steven |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2005 |publisher= [[Stanford University Press]] |isbn= 0804751374 |pages= 67–80}}</ref> Cassedy also notes that this criticism of Dostoyevsky also appears to deny his sincerity when he said that he was for equal rights for the Russian Jewish populace and the [[Russian serfdom|Serf]]s of his own country (since neither group at that point in history had equal rights).<ref name=Cassedy1/> Cassidy again notes when Dostoevsky stated that he did not hate Jewish people and was not an Anti-Semite.<ref name=Cassedy1/> Even though Dostoevsky spoke of the potential negative influence of Jewish people, Dostoevsky advised Czar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] to give them rights to positions of influence in Russian society. For example allowing them access to Professorships at Universities. According to Cassedy, labeling Dostoevsky anti-semitic does not take into consideration Dostoyevsky's expressed desire to peacefully reconcile Jews and Christians into a single universal brotherhood of all mankind.<ref name=Cassedy1 />

==Dostoyevsky and Existentialism==
With the publication of ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' in 1866, Dostoyevsky became one of Russia's most prominent authors. [[Will Durant]], in ''[[The Pleasures of Philosophy]]'', called Dostoyevsky one of the founding fathers of the philosophical movement known as [[existentialism]], and cited ''[[Notes from Underground]]'' in particular as a founding work of existentialism. For Dostoyevsky, [[war]] is the people's rebellion against the idea that [[reason]] guides everything, and thus, reason is the ultimate guiding principle for neither [[history]] nor [[human|mankind]]. After his 1849 exile to the city of [[Omsk]], Siberia, Dostoyevsky focused heavily on notions of [[suffering]] and [[wiktionary:despair|despair]] in many of his works.

[[Nietzsche]] referred to Dostoyevsky as "the only psychologist from whom I have something to learn: he belongs to the happiest windfalls of my life, happier even than the discovery of [[Stendhal]]." He said that ''Notes from Underground'' "cried truth from the blood." According to [[Kontinent|Mihajlo Mihajlov]]'s "The Great Catalyzer: Nietzsche and Russian Neo-Idealism", [[Nietzsche]] constantly refers to Dostoyevsky in his notes and drafts throughout the winter of 1886–1887. Nietzsche also wrote abstracts of several Dostoyevsky works.

[[Freud]] wrote an article titled "[[Dostoevsky and Parricide]]", asserting that the greatest works in world literature are all about [[parricide]]; though he is critical of Dostoyevsky's work overall, his inclusion of ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' among the three greatest works of literature is remarkable.

==List of works==
===Novels===
*(1846) ''Bednye lyudi'' (Бедные люди); English translation: ''[[Poor Folk]]''
*(1846) ''Dvojnik'' (Двойник. Петербургская поэма); English translation: ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem]]''
*(1849) ''Netochka Nezvanova'' (Неточка Незванова); a proper feminine name, English transliteration: ''[[Netochka Nezvanova (novel)|Netochka Nezvanova]]'' (Unfinished)
*(1859) ''Dyadyushkin son'' (Дядюшкин сон); English translation: ''[[The Uncle's Dream]]''
*(1859) ''Selo Stepanchikovo i ego obitateli'' (Село Степанчиково и его обитатели); English translation: ''[[The Village of Stepanchikovo]]''
*(1861) ''Unizhennye i oskorblennye'' (Униженные и оскорбленные); English translation: ''[[The Insulted and Humiliated]]''
*(1862) ''Zapiski iz mertvogo doma'' (Записки из мертвого дома); English translation: ''[[The House of the Dead (novel)|Notes from the House of the Dead]]''
*(1864) ''Zapiski iz podpolya'' (Записки из подполья); English translation: ''[[Notes from Underground]]''
*(1866) ''Prestuplenie i nakazanie'' (Преступление и наказание); English translation: ''[[Crime and Punishment]]''
*(1867) ''Igrok'' (Игрок); English translation: ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]''
*(1869) ''Idiot'' (Идиот); English translation: ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]''
*(1870) ''Vechnyj muzh'' (Вечный муж); English translation: ''[[The Eternal Husband]]''
*(1872) ''Besy'' (Бесы); English translation: ''[[The Possessed (novel)|The Possessed]]''
*(1875) ''Podrostok'' (Подросток); English translation: ''[[The Raw Youth]]''
*(1881) ''Brat'ya Karamazovy'' (Братья Карамазовы); English translation: ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''

===Novellas and short stories===
*(1846) ''Gospodin Prokharchin'' (Господин Прохарчин); English translation: ''[[Mr. Prokharchin]]''
*(1847) ''Roman v devyati pis'mah'' (Роман в девяти письмах); English translation: ''[[Novel in Nine Letters]]''
*(1847) ''Hozyajka'' (Хозяйка); English translation: ''[[The Landlady]]''
*(1848) ''Polzunkov'' (Ползунков); English translation: ''[[Polzunkov]]''
*(1848) ''Slaboe serdze'' (Слабое сердце); English translation: ''[[A Weak Heart]]''
*(1848) ''Chestnyj vor'' (Честный вор); English translation:) ''[[An Honest Thief]]''
*(1848) ''Elka i svad'ba'' (Елка и свадьба); English translation: ''[[A Christmas Tree and a Wedding]]''
*(1848) ''Chuzhaya zhena i muzh pod krovat'yu'' (Чужая жена и муж под кроватью); English translation: ''[[The Jealous Husband]]''
*(1848) ''Belye nochi'' (Белые ночи); English translation: ''[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]''
*(1849) ''Malen'kij geroj'' (Маленький герой); English translation: ''[[A Little Hero]]''
*(1862) ''Skvernyj anekdot'' (Скверный анекдот); English translation: ''[[A Nasty Story]]''
*(1865) ''Krokodil'' (Крокодил); English translation: ''[[The Crocodile (short story)|The Crocodile]]''
*(1873) ''Bobok'' (Бобок); English translation: ''[[Bobok]]''
*(1876) ''Krotkaja'' (Кроткая); English translation: ''[[A Gentle Creature]]''
*(1876) ''Muzhik Marej'' (Мужик Марей); English translation: ''[[The Peasant Marey]]''
*(1876) ''Mal'chik u Hrista na elke'' (Мальчик у Христа на ёлке); English translation: ''[[The Heavenly Christmas Tree]]''
*(1877) ''Son smeshnogo cheloveka'' (Сон смешного человека); English translation: ''[[The Dream of a Ridiculous Man]]''
The last five stories (1873-1877) are included in ''[[A Writer's Diary]]''.

===Non-fiction===
* ''[[Winter Notes on Summer Impressions]]'' (1863)
* ''[[A Writer's Diary]]'' (Дневник писателя) (1873–1881)
* Letters

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Albert Camus]]
* [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]
* [[Anti-Catholicism]]
* [[Determinism]]
* [[Free will]]
* [[Hesychasm]]
* [[History of Eastern Christianity]]
* [[History of the Eastern Orthodox Church]]
* [[History of the Russian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Ivan Ilyin]]
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
* [[List of Russian philosophers]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Lev Shestov]]
* [[Mikhail Epstein]]
* [[Negative theology]]
* [[Nikolai Berdyaev]]
* [[Nikolai Lossky]]
* [[Nikolay Strakhov]]
* [[Philokalia]]
* [[Russian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Søren Kierkegaard]]
* [[Voluntarism (philosophy)|Voluntarism]]
* [[Vasily Rozanov]]
{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{wikisource|Author:Fyodor Dostoevsky|Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Fyodor+Dostoyevsky | name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://www.FyodorDostoevsky.com FyodorDostoevsky.com] - Fan site: discussion forum, essays, e-texts, photos, biography, quotes, and links
* [http://Dostoyevsky.thefreelibrary.com/ Fyodor Dostoevsky's brief biography and works]
* [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Dostoyevsky%2c+ Selected Dostoevsky e-texts from Penn Librarys digital library project]
*[http://ilibrary.ru/author/dostoevski/ Full texts of some Dostoevsky's works in the original Russian]
* [http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/dostoevs/ Another site with full texts of Dostoevsky's works in Russian]
*[http://www.fmdostoyevsky.com Fyodor Dostoyevsky] - Biography, ebooks, quotations, and other resources
* [http://www.kiosek.com/dostoevsky/contents.html Dostoevsky Research Station]
* [http://people.emich.edu/wmoss/publications/ Alexander II and his times: A Narrative History of Russia in the Age of Alexander II, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky]
* ''Dostoevsky,'' Joseph Frank. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1979-2003 (5 volumes).
* {{IBList |type=author|id=96|name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://www.the-ledge.com/flash/ledge.php?book=75&lan=UK Dostoyevsky 'Bookweb' on literary website The Ledge, with suggestions for further reading.]
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-29930}}
* [http://www.mootnotes.com/literature/dostoevsky/index.html Dostoevsky works (HTML/PDF), media gallery & interactive timeline]
* [http://forums.toketastic.com/User/Discussion.aspx?id=186088 Crime and Punishment Review]
* [http://www.tanais.info/art/en/inquisitor.html Legend of the Grand Inquisitor] from ''Brothers Karamazov'' by Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky.
* [http://www.telegram.com/article/20080409/NEWS/804090488/1008/NEWS02 Recent Dostoevsky exhibit]
*[http://www.russianart.dk/exhibition.asp?e=346 Illustrations to Dostoyevsky tales [["Netochka Nezvanova"]] and [["A Gentle Creature"]] by Soviet artist [[Mikhail Rojter]]]
{{Fyodor Dostoevsky}}

{{Persondata
|NAME= Dostoevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich; Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский (Russian)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Russian novelist
|DATE OF BIRTH= {{birth date|1821|11|11|mf=y}}
|PLACE OF BIRTH= Moscow
|DATE OF DEATH= {{death date|1881|2|9|mf=y}}
|PLACE OF DEATH= Saint Petersburg
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dostoevsky, Fyodor}}
[[Category:1821 births]]
[[Category:1881 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Moscow]]
[[Category:Russian essayists]]
[[Category:Russian novelists]]
[[Category:Russian writers]]
[[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:Russian Eastern Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:Russian short story writers]]
[[Category:Christian novelists]]
[[Category:Deaths from emphysema]]
[[Category:Deaths from epilepsy]]
[[Category:People with epilepsy]]
[[Category:Russians of Belarusian descent]]
[[Category:Russians of Ukrainian descent]]
[[Category:Polish nobility]]
[[Category:Russian monarchists]]
[[Category:Christian Existentialists]]

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Blabbermouth.net

2009-10-18T23:53:56Z

Skomorokh: Reverted edits by 69.248.197.185 (talk) to last version by Cst17

{{Infobox Website
| name = Blabbermouth.net
| favicon =
| logo = [[Image:Blabbermouth.png|220px]]
| screenshot =
| caption =
| url = [http://www.blabbermouth.net blabbermouth.net]
| commercial =
| type = News and reviews
| registration = Optional
| owner = Borivoj Krgin
| author = Borivoj Krgin
| launch date = [[March 3]], [[2001]]
| current status = Active
| revenue =
}}
'''Blabbermouth.net''' is a [[website]] dedicated to [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] and [[hard rock]] news, as well as [[album]] and music [[DVD]] reviews. Blabbermouth.net was founded and run by Borivoj Krgin in March 2000, although the website was officially launched in October 2001, and the record label [[Roadrunner Records]] began hosting it in December 2001. Users can post comments to selected [[news article]]s and album reviews, either in response to other user comments or in response to the article itself. Blabbermouth.net, described by the ''[[London Free Press]]'' as a "reliable industry and fan site",<ref name="london-2008" /> has been widely cited as a source on heavy metal and hard rock.

==History==
Founder Borivoj Krgin came up with the concept of Blabbermouth in January 2000. Robert Kampf, a friend of Krgin who runs [[Century Media Records]], was staying with Krgin in New York and set up a meeting with Gunter Ford of World Management. During the meeting, Ford suggested an idea for a "heavy metal portal," a site which would offer news, [[merchandise]] and CD reviews to get record labels to sell their products through the site — Ford wanted Kampf to be involved. Krgin disliked the idea and wished for a site that offered around-the-clock news as he thought that no good news sites existed.<ref name="13 QUESTIONS WITH...Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin">{{cite web
|title=13 QUESTIONS WITH... Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin
|author=
|publisher=[[Metal Sludge]]
|date=[[2004-02-24]]
|url=http://www.metalsludge.tv/home/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=739&Itemid=37
|accessdate=2007-04-29}}</ref>

Krgin began researching how to develop and [[Web hosting service|host]] his own website two months after the meeting. After a year Krgin felt comfortable going "live." The initial "primitive" version of the site was launched on [[March 3]], [[2001]]. In October of the same year [[Monte Conner]], a friend of Krgin, and a [[Roadrunner Records]] [[artist and repertoire]] approached Krgin for the idea to host the site on Roadrunner servers. This way, Krgin could focus on the content rather than the technical aspects. In October 2001, Blabbermouth.net was officially launched.<ref name="13 QUESTIONS WITH...Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin"/>

==Sources==
According to his own words, Krgin spends most of his time operating the site, supposedly missing out on sleep and other life essentials.<ref name="13 QUESTIONS WITH...Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin"/> When finding information relating to bands Krgin claims to search bands official websites, which are usually reported on immediately, and band message boards where members of the band post. However, Krgin relies on the contacts he has made over the years ranging from band members, metal [[journalists]], [[Talent manager|managers]] and other people in the [[music industry]], stating this is where the "best" information comes from.<ref name="13 QUESTIONS WITH...Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin"/>

Krgin supposedly sends [[e-mails]] and makes telephone calls daily to obtain new information. Blabbermouth.net has a 'submit news' feature which has proved to be helpful to Krgin. When receiving a rumour he deems worthy of posting, Krgin will first research and contact people related to the band and question them about the rumour. It's claimed that 90% of the information posted is either found online or is submitted directly to the website by bands, managers, labels or associated persons.<ref name="13 QUESTIONS WITH...Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin"/>

==Criticism==
Blabbermouth.net has been criticized by musicians and music industry persons for [[Troll (internet)|internet trolls]] (users that make derogatory comments) and news posts that are unrelated to heavy metal or hard rock.<ref name="13 QUESTIONS WITH...Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin"/> This has included news articles about [[Gene Simmons]] ([[Kiss (band)|Kiss]]), [[Tommy Lee]] ([[Mötley Crüe]]), and [[Fred Durst]] of [[Limp Bizkit]].<ref name="Board to Death"/> Krgin said he posts these articles to attract humorous comments from users, and as relief from the constant [[monotony]] of album news.<ref name="13 QUESTIONS WITH...Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin"/> In particular, articles relating to Durst appeared after he apparently lied about the number of female celebrities he slept with; "he was doing a good job of keeping himself in the press all the time. Ultimately, the media overexposure contributed to his band's diminished record sales with their most recent album, and the downward spiral is sure to carry over into the next album cycle. In the end, no one will give a shit about Fred is sleeping with or not sleeping with, and that fate, for someone like Fred Durst, will be worse than death."<ref name="13 QUESTIONS WITH...Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin"/>

However, Simmons responded by calling Blabbermouth.net "the reason I get out of my bed in the morning; and yes, I sleep on a mattress stuffed with $100 bills."<ref name="13 QUESTIONS WITH...Blabbermouth's Borivoj Krgin"/> Lee responded on his blog: "If you go to the postings you will see moronic statements by many who have never had a child drown in their swimming pool," calling users "wicked pissah."<ref name="Tommys Journal">{{cite web
|title=Tommys Journal
|author=Lee, Tommy
|publisher=Joysmayhem.com
|date=[[2003-06-28]]
|url=http://www.joysmayhem.com/html/show_tommysjournal.php3
|accessdate=2007-04-29}}</ref>

In September 2006, Krgin claims to have performed a cleanup of Blabbermouth.net's user comments and to have adopted a moderation policy. Prior to this, in his own words, "countless abusive, obscene, defamatory, racist, homophobic and threatening comments" had been posted on the site since the "comments" feature was implemented in early 2002.<ref>[http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=59399 BLABBERMOUTH.NET: Cleaning Up The Crap - Sep. 28, 2006]</ref>

==Traffic==
Blabbermouth.net is visited by more than a million unique users each month, and it has an average of 80,000 unique visitors per day, based on WebTrends.<ref name="Board to Death"/> The busiest day of traffic was more than 150,000 unique visitors in a single 24-hour period, which occurred the day after the murder of [[Pantera]] guitarist [[Dimebag Darrell]].<ref name="Board to Death">{{cite web
|title=Board to Death"
|author=Green, Nick|publisher=''[[Decibel magazine]]''
|url=http://www.decibelmagazine.com/features/oct2005/board_to_death.aspx
|accessdate=2007-04-29}}</ref> Blabbermouth.net is ranked as the 29,897 most trafficked Web sites according to [[Alexa Internet|Alexa]].<ref name="Alexa details for Blabbermouth.net">{{cite web |title=Alexa - Blabbermouth.net |author= |publisher=Alexa.com |date=2008-08-02|url=http://www.alexa.com/data/details/traffic_details/blabbermouth.net?q=blabbermouth.net|accessdate=2008-08-02}}</ref>. However, this number only covers the visits to www.blabbermouth.net, which is a small portion of the website's traffic (since the actual web site is located at www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net, which is not included separately in the Alexa rankings). Blabbermouth has 75,000 registered users.<ref name="Board to Death"/>

==Legacy==
Blabbermouth.net, described by the ''[[London Free Press]]'' as a "reliable industry and fan site",<ref name="london-2008" /> is widely recognized as an authority on heavy metal and hard rock. It has been cited as a source by the ''London Free Press'',<ref name="london-2008">Reaney, James (April 15, 2008). "Motley Crue set to rock Sarnia, sources say." ''[[London Free Press]]''.</ref> ''[[New Musical Express]]'',<ref>"Killing Joke reform and tour." ''[[New Musical Express]]''. March 3, 2008.</ref><ref>"Led Zeppelin singer hopeful 'grateful' for audition." ''[[New Musical Express]]''. January 21, 2009.</ref> ''[[MTV.com]]''<ref>O'Donnell, Jane (May 7, 2007). "[http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1558882/20070507/lohan_lindsay.jhtml A.M. Surf Report]." ''[[MTV.com]]''. Retrieved June 10, 2009.</ref><ref>Harris, Chris (April 1, 2008). "[http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1584599/20080401/velvet_revolver.jhtml?rsspartner=rssYahooNewscrawler Scott Weiland Parts Ways With Velvet Revolver]." ''[[MTV.com]]''. Retrieved June 10, 2009.</ref> the ''[[Toronto Sun]]'',<ref>"Nails Set Date." ''[[Toronto Sun]]''. January 21, 2005.</ref><ref>"In case you were on Mars the past week ..." ''[[Toronto Sun]]''. June 24, 2007.</ref> the ''[[Baltic News Service]]'',<ref>"Ozzy Osbourne to come to Lithuania in summer." ''[[Baltic News Service]]''. January 26, 2007.</ref> the ''[[St. Petersburg Times]]'',<ref>"Loud & fast." ''[[St. Petersburg Times]]''. March 20, 2009.</ref> ''[[News Limited|News.com.au]]'',<ref>"[http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/story/0,25585,24570660-7484,00.html AC/DC's new hit ''Black Ice'' No. 1 in 29 countries]." ''[[News Limited|News.com.au]]''. October 29, 2008. Retrieved June 10, 2009.</ref> and ''[[OC Weekly]]''<ref>Kane, Rich (December 26, 2002). "[http://www.ocweekly.com/2002-12-26/music/steaming-malmsteen/ Steaming Malmsteen]." ''[[OC Weekly]]''. Retrieved June 10, 2009.</ref>.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.blabbermouth.net/ Blabbermouth.net]

[[Category:Heavy metal publications]]
[[Category:News websites]]

[[da:Blabbermouth.net]]
[[pt:Blabbermouth.net]]
[[simple:Blabbermouth.net]]
[[sv:Blabbermouth.net]]

Earl William Muntz

2009-10-13T15:42:01Z

Skomorokh: copyedit for inappropriate capitalisation and abbreviation

{{Infobox Celebrity
|name = Earl William Muntz
|image = Earlmuntz.jpg
|imagesize =
|caption = "Madman" Muntz in one of his many television advertisement performances
|birth_date = {{birth date|1914|1|3}}
|birth_place = {{city-state|Elgin|Illinois}}, United States
|death_date = {{death date and age|mf=yes|1987|6|21|1914|1|3}}
|death_place = {{city-state|Rancho Mirage|California}}, United States
|occupation = [[Electrical engineer]] [[Businessman]] [[Entrepreneur]] Television commercial actor
|salary =
|networth =
|spouse =
|children = James Muntz Tee Vee "Teena" Muntz
|website =
|footnotes =
}}

'''Earl William "Madman" Muntz''' (January 3, 1914 – June 21, 1987)<ref name="nyt900">{{cite news
| author = The Associated Press
| title = "Earl Muntz is dead; as radio 'Madman,' he sold used cars"
| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE2D91E39F932A15755C0A961948260
| publisher = ''The New York Times''
| date = 1987-06-21
| accessdate = 2008-04-11
}}</ref> was an American [[businessman]] and [[engineer]] who sold and promoted cars and [[consumer electronics]] in the United States from the 1930s until his death in 1987. He was a pioneer in [[television commercial]]s with his oddball "Madman" [[persona]] – an [[alter ego]] who generated publicity with his unusual costumes, stunts, and outrageous claims. Muntz also pioneered car stereos<ref name="nyt900" /> by creating the Muntz [[Stereo-Pak]], better known as the 4-track cartridge, a predecessor to the [[Stereo 8|8-track cartridge]] developed by [[Bill Lear|Lear Industries]].<ref name="goldmine">{{cite news
| first = Dave
| last = Thompson
| title = Whatever happened to 8-track's 'four'runner?
| publisher = ''Goldmine''
| date = 2008-04-11
}}</ref>

He invented the practice that came to be known as [[Muntzing]], which involved simplifying otherwise complicated electronic devices. Muntz produced and marketed the first black-and-white television receivers to sell for less than $100, and created one of the earliest functional [[widescreen]] [[projection TV]]s.<ref name="jhup">{{cite journal
| author= Robert C. Post
| year = 2005
| month = October
| title = Henry Kaiser, Troy Ruttman, and Madman Muntz: three originals
| journal = Technology and Culture
| volume= 46
| issue= 4
| publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press
| issn= 0040-165X
}}</ref> He was credited with coining the abbreviation "TV" for ''television'',<ref name="lat001">{{cite news
| first = Chris
| last = Erskine
| title = And the pitch is ... wild
| url = http://www.latimes.com/classified/automotive/highway1/cars/la-hy-125sales21jun21,0,7373526.story
| publisher = ''Los Angeles Times''
| date = 2006-06-21
| accessdate = 2008-04-09
}}</ref> although the term had earlier been in use in call letters for stations such as [[WCBS-TV]]. A high school [[Dropping out|dropout]],<ref name="dht999">{{cite news
| first = Mark
| last = Zaloudek
| title = Madcap millionaire Muntz
| url = http://www.heraldtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050313/FEATURES/503130373/1022
| publisher = ''Sarasota Herald-Tribune''
| date = 2005-03-13
| accessdate = 2008-05-17
}}</ref>
Muntz made fortunes by selling automobiles, TV receivers, and car stereos and tapes.<ref name="cn090">{{cite news
| first = Janelle
| last = Walker
| title = First 'crazy' car dealer focus of movie
| publisher = Sun-Times News Group, (Illinois ''Courier News'')
| date = 2005-02-07
}}</ref> A 1968 ''Los Angeles Times'' article noted that in one year he sold $72 million worth of cars, that five years later he sold $55 million worth of TV receivers, and that in 1967 he sold $30 million worth of car stereos and tapes.<ref name="nyt900" />

After his success as a used car salesman and with [[Kaiser-Frazer]] dealerships in [[Los Angeles]] and [[New York City]],<ref name="nyt900" /><ref name="Grahampaige">{{cite news
| author = Staff
| title = Muntz Car Co. to handle Graham-Paige products
| publisher = ''New York Times''
| date = 1946-10-10
}}</ref> Muntz founded the [[Muntz Car Company]], which made the "[[#Muntz Jet|Muntz Jet]]", a [[sports car]] with jet-like contours. The car was manufactured between 1951 and 1953, although fewer than 400 were produced.

Muntz married seven times.<ref name="dh001">{{cite news
| first = Jerry
| last = Turnquist
| title = A one-in-a-million 'Madman' movie spotlights Elgin's Earl Muntz, quintessential entrepreneur
| publisher = ''Daily Herald''
| date = 2005-07-17
}}</ref> His wives included actress Joan Barton (who appeared in ''[[Angel and the Badman]]'' with [[John Wayne]]) and Patricia Stevens of the Patricia Stevens [[Finishing school|Finishing Schools]].<ref name="lat876">{{cite news
| title = Mad Man Muntz weds model agency director
| publisher = ''Los Angeles Times''
| date = January 29, 1956
| accessdate = 2008-05-19
}}</ref> [[Phyllis Diller]] was among his many girlfriends. He was friends with celebrities such as singer [[Rudy Vallee]], comedian [[Jerry Colonna (entertainer)|Jerry Colonna]], actor [[Bert Lahr]],<ref name="cn090" /> television presenter [[Dick Clark]], and actor [[Gene Autry]].<ref name="dh001" />

==Early career: 1922-1953==
Muntz was fascinated by electronics from an early age. He built his first radio at age 8 and built another for his parents' car at age 14.<ref name="dht999" /> During the [[Great Depression]], at age 15, he dropped out of [[Elgin High School (Illinois)|Elgin High School]] to work in his parents' hardware store in Elgin, Illinois.<ref name="dht999" />

===Car sales===
[[Image:Muntzmatchbook.JPG|thumb|upright|An example of a matchbook ad for Muntz car lots in the 1950s]]

In 1934, Muntz opened his first used car lot, in Elgin, with a $500 line of credit.<ref name="cn090" /> He was only 20 years old, and his mother had to sign the car-sale papers because legally he was too young to close his own deals.<ref name="dht999" /> During a vacation in [[California]], Muntz discovered that used cars sold there for far higher prices; so he moved to California at age 26 to open a used car lot in [[Glendale, California|Glendale]].<ref name="cn090" /> On a hunch, he purchased 13 brand-new right-hand-drive vehicles to resell. These vehicles had been built for customers in Asia, but could not be delivered due to [[World War II]]. One vehicle was a custom-made [[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln]] built for [[Chiang Kai-shek]].<ref name="time01">{{cite news
| title = Dig that crazy man
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806735,00.htm
| publisher = ''Time''
| date = July 13, 1953
| accessdate = 2008-04-11
}}</ref> Local newspapers ran stories about the unusual cars, and Muntz sold them all within two weeks, still in their original shipping crates.<ref name="time01" /> Muntz soon opened a second lot in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and closed his lot in Elgin.<ref name="time01" />

Muntz rejected the then common opinion that used car salesmen should project a staid image.<ref name="nyt900" /> He realized the possibilities of generating publicity with odd stunts, and developed a "Madman" persona as a result.<ref name="time01" /> His flamboyant billboards and oddball television and radio commercials soon made him famous. In his used auto commercials, he marketed one model as the "daily special"; Muntz claimed that if the car did not sell that day, he would smash it to pieces on camera with a [[sledgehammer]].<ref name="pease" /> Another infamous Muntz used-car TV pitch was "I buy 'em retail and sell 'em wholesale ... it's more fun that way!"<ref name="lat001" /> His commercials generated so much publicity that comedians such as [[Bob Hope]], [[Jack Benny]], and [[Steve Allen]] often tried to outdo each other during television appearances by telling "Madman" Muntz jokes.<ref name="nyt900" /> [[University of Southern California]] fans would spell out Muntz's name during halftime as a prank.<ref name="time01" />

Muntz's car lots became tourist attractions due to the widespread publicity from his television commercial appearances. A 1946 survey by ''Panner Motor Tours'' revealed that they ranked seventh among tourist attractions in Southern California.<ref name="nyt900" /> Muntz was willing to take large risks in his attempts to generate publicity. During the era of [[McCarthyism]], he asked one of his advisers, "Do you think I'd make the front pages if I joined the Communist Party?"<ref name="wp100">{{cite news
| first = Robert
| last = Rosenblatt
| title = 'Madman' Muntz, the master of hard sell, is still at it
| publisher = ''Washington Post''
| date = 1976-01-04
| accessdate = 2008-05-19
}}</ref>

===Muntz Jet===
{{main|Muntz Car Company}}
[[Image:Muntzjetblack.jpg|thumb|left|A mint-condition 1953 Muntz Jet at a Monterey, California, classic car auction]]

In 1948, race car designer and [[Kurtis-Kraft]] founder [[Frank Kurtis]] attempted to market a new [[sports car]], the two-seater Kurtis Kraft Sport. Only 36 units had been sold by 1950.<ref name="kkraft">{{cite book
| last = Hitze
| first = Ed
| title = The Kurtis-Kraft story: History of Frank P. Kurtis whose Racing Cars Dominated American Auto Racing for Three Decades
| location= Danville, IL
| publisher = Interstate
| year = 1974
| oclc = 7670426
}}</ref> In 1951, for just $200,000,<ref name="stone">{{cite book
| last = Stone
| first = Matt
| title = 365 cars you must drive
| publisher = Motorbooks
| year = 2006
| isbn = 978-0760324141
}}</ref> Kurtis sold the cars' manufacturing license to Muntz, who quickly [[badge engineering|rebadged]] them as the "Muntz Jet".<ref name="bookz01">{{cite book
| editor = David Lillywhite
| title = The encyclopedia of classic cars
| year = 2003
| publisher = Thunder Bay
| isbn = 978-1571459909
}}</ref> Initial production of the Jet took place in Glendale, where Muntz extended the two-seater Kurtis Kraft Sport's body by {{convert|13|in|cm}}, making it a four-seater, and exchanged the [[Ford Flathead engine|Ford V8]] engine for a larger [[Cadillac]] [[V8 engine|V8]].<ref name="stone" /> Later, after making just 28 Jets in California, Muntz moved production to a new factory in [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Illinois]], extended the body further by {{convert|3|in|cm|0}}, and replaced the Cadillac V8 with a less expensive Lincoln [[Flathead engine|sidevalve]] V8.

The Jet was featured on the cover of the September 1951 issue of ''[[Popular Science]]'' along with a [[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]] and an [[MG Cars|MG]].<ref name="popsci001">{{cite news
| title = Cover
| publisher = ''Popular Science''
| date = September 1951
}}</ref> It featured its own design, with [[aluminum]] body panels and a removable [[fiberglass]] top.<ref name="bookz01" /> Paint schemes were extravagant, with names like "Mars Red", "Stratosphere Blue", and "Lime Mist", and interior options included alligator or Spanish [[leatherette]]. The backseat armrests contained a full cocktail bar.<ref name="flortimes001">{{cite news
| first = Dan
| last = Scanlan
| title = Purple passion: '52 Muntz Jet a simply cool classic
| url = http://www.jacksonville.com/autos/stories/120205.shtml
| publisher = ''Florida Times-Union''
| date = 2005-12-02
| accessdate = 2008-05-21
}}</ref>

The Jet was capable of a top speed of {{convert|125|mph|km/h}} and acceleration of 0–50 mph (0–80 km/h) in 6 seconds, a significant achievement for a road car at the time.<ref name="flortimes001" /> The fastest production car in 1953 was the [[Pegaso Z-102|Pegaso Z-102 Supercharged]] sports car at {{convert|155|mph|km/h}}.<ref name="candriv001">{{cite news
| first = Bill
| last = Vance
| title = Motoring memories: Pegaso, 1951 - 1958
| url = http://www.canadiandriver.com/articles/bv/pegaso.htm
| publisher = ''Canadian Driver''
| date = 2006-06-30
| accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref> Famous Jet owners included then-CEO of [[CBS]] [[Frank Stanton]],<ref name="Salant">{{cite book
|editor = Susan Buzenberg, Bill Buzenberg
|title = Salant, CBS, and the battle for the soul of broadcast journalism: the memoirs of Richard S. Salant
|edition = Paperback
|year = 1999
|publisher = Basic Books
|isbn = 978-0813337036
}}</ref> and actors [[Mickey Rooney]]<ref name="dht999" /> and [[Lash La Rue]].<ref name="flortimes001" />

The labor and materials required to produce the Jet resulted in a higher price for the end product, and in 1954, after selling about 400 cars and losing about $1,000 on each, Muntz closed the company.<ref name="bookz01" /> Today, Muntz Jets are highly prized collector cars and are recognized as predecessors to the [[Chevrolet Corvette]] and [[Ford Thunderbird]].<ref name="flortimes001" />

===Muntz TV===
Muntz started plans to sell television receivers in 1946,<ref name="pease" /> and sales began in 1947.<ref>{{cite news
| title = The Muntz Jet: A life too short
| url = http://searchchicago.suntimes.com/autos/research/jedlicka/430311,Clas18_061807.article
| publisher = ''Chicago Sun-Times''
| date = June 18, 2007
| accessdate = 2008-05-27
}}</ref> Muntz played the madman in his unorthodox television commercials, but in fact he was a shrewd businessman and a self-taught [[electrical engineer]]. By trial and error, taking apart and studying [[Philco]], [[RCA]], and [[DuMont Laboratories|DuMont]] televisions, he figured out how to reduce the devices' electrical components to their minimum functional number.<ref name="sickels">{{cite book
| last = Sickels
| first = Robert
| title = The 1940s (American popular culture through history)
| publisher = Greenwood Press
| year = 2004
| isbn = 978-0313312991
}}</ref> This practice became known as "[[Muntzing]]".<ref name="pease" />

In the 1940s and 1950s, most brands of television receivers were complicated pieces of equipment, commonly containing about 30 [[vacuum tube]]s, as well as [[rheostat]]s, [[transformer]]s, and other heavy components. As a result, they were usually very expensive: the cheapest U.S.-manufactured receiver made before World War II used a {{convert|3|in|cm|0|adj=on}} screen and cost $125, the equivalent of $1,863 in 2007; the cheapest model with a {{convert|12|in|cm|0|adj=on}} screen cost $445, equivalent to $6,633 in 2007.<ref name="abramson">{{cite book
| last = Abramson
| first = Albert
| title = The history of television, 1880 to 1941
| publisher = McFarland & Co
| year = 1987
| isbn = 0-89950-284-9
}}</ref> By 1954, although television had existed in various forms for more than 40 years, only 55 percent of U.S. households owned a receiver.<ref name="abramson2">{{cite book
| last = Abramson
| first = Albert
| title = The history of television, 1942 to 2000
| publisher = McFarland & Co
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0-78641-220-8}}</ref> By contrast, eight years later, 90 percent of U.S. households had one.<ref name="abramson2" />

[[Image:MuntzTV 1951.jpg|thumb|right|A 1951 Muntz TV model 17A3A]]

Muntz developed a television chassis that produced an acceptable [[monochrome]] picture with 17 tubes. He often carried a pair of wire clippers, and when he thought that one of his employees was "over-engineering" a circuit, he would begin snipping components out until the picture or sound stopped working. At that point, he would tell the engineer "Well, I guess you have to put that last part back in" and walk away.<ref name="pease"/>

Marketed under the name "Muntz" by his company Muntz TV, Inc.,<ref name="time01" /> the simplified units were the first black and white TV receivers to retail in the U.S. for less than $100.<ref name="dht999" /> Muntz was also the first retailer to measure his screens from corner to corner rather than by width.<ref name="sickels" /> The receivers sold well and were reliable partly because fewer tubes created less heat. The sets worked well in metropolitan areas that were close to television transmission towers where signals were strong. They worked poorly with weaker signals, as most of the components that Muntz had removed were intended to boost performance in fringe areas. This was a calculated decision: Muntz preferred to leave the low-volume, high-performance television receiver market to firms such as RCA and [[Zenith Electronics]], as his intended customers were primarily urban dwellers with limited funds.<ref name="pease" /> Additionally, many urban apartment buildings had rules prohibiting external television aerials, and installation of an aerial, even if allowed, cost as much as $150. Muntz solved this problem by adding a built-in aerial to his receivers.<ref name="timeonthebeam">{{cite news
| title = On the beam
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,794948,00.html
| publisher = ''Time''
| date = August 1, 1949
| accessdate = 2008-05-21
}}</ref> In 1952, Muntz TV Inc. grossed $49.9 million.<ref name="time01" />

Muntz continued with his "Madman" persona in many of his advertisements. In one TV commercial that normally aired after the [[Ed Sullivan Show]],<ref name="pease">{{cite news
| first = Robert
| last = Pease
| title = What's all this Muntzing stuff, anyhow?
| publisher = ''Electronic Design''
| date = 1992-07-23
}}</ref> Muntz, dressed in red [[Long underwear|long johns]] and a [[Napoleon]] hat, promoted his new {{convert|14|in|cm|0|adj=on}} televisions by saying, "I wanna give 'em away, but Mrs. Muntz won't let me. She's crazy!"<ref name="pease" /> Another TV commercial presented a marching-band song with lyrics about Muntz TVs and incorporated animations by [[Oskar Fischinger]]. His radio commercials, which Muntz ran up to 170 times a day, initially followed a classical music theme built around the spelling of Muntz's name.<ref name="nyt900" /> However, he soon convinced radio stations to run ads more in line with his persona. In one advert, Muntz screamed "Stop staring at your radio!"<ref name="lynn">{{cite news
| first = Lynn
| last = O'Shaughnessy
| title = Earl Muntz, `Madman' of zany ads, dies
| publisher = ''Los Angeles Times''
| date = 1987-06-21
}}</ref> He followed up his radio ads with a direct mail campaign, collecting thousands of TV knobs and mailing them to prospective customers with a note saying, "Call us and we'll show up with the rest of the set!"<ref name="lynn" />

Some sources credit Muntz with inventing the abbreviation "TV."<ref name="dht999" /><ref name="tdnews001">{{cite news
| first = Richard
| last = Wright
| title = Sarasota museum instills a passion for cars in its visitors
| url = http://info.detnews.com/joyrides/story/index.cfm?id=539
| publisher = ''Detroit News''
| date = 2005-04-05
| accessdate = 2008-08-20
}}</ref><ref name="lat001" /> Muntz used [[skywriting]] as one of his marketing tactics, but, after watching one of his ads being created, he noted that the letters began to blur and dissipate before the pilot could finish spelling out "Muntz Televisions". So Muntz came up with the abbreviation "TV".<ref name="dht999" /> However, "TV" had earlier been used in the call letters of television stations, such as [[WCBS-TV]], which adopted those call letters in 1946.<ref>[[Fred R. Shapiro]], [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0808D&L=ADS-L&P=R4855 Antedating of TV] (quoting ''[[New York Times]]'', Aug. 31, 1946) (accessed Aug. 27, 2008).</ref> Muntz also named his daughter "Tee Vee", although she normally went by "Teena" and, later, "Tee".<ref name="dh001" />

==Audio and video: 1954-1985==
With the advent of [[History of television#Color television in North America|color television]] by the mid-1950s, the market for black-and-white receivers shrank. Muntz's creditors refused to provide further financing in 1954.<ref name="time1954xx">{{cite news
| title = Time clock
| url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,857428,00.html
| publisher = ''Time''
| date= March 15, 1954
| accessdate = 2008-05-21
}}</ref> Muntz admitted his business lost $1,457,000 from April to August 1953,<ref name="time1954xx" /> and although he tried to reorganize, Muntz TV filed bankruptcy and went out of business in 1959.<ref name="sound001">{{cite book
|author = David Morton
|title = Sound recording: the life story of a technology
|year = 2004
|month = September
|publisher = Greenwood Press
|isbn = 978-0313330902
}}</ref> However, Muntz's success continued in the sale of cars and general consumer electronics.

===4-track cartridge===
{{main|Stereo-Pak}}
Attempting to combine his two main product lines, cars and stereos, Muntz invented the Muntz Stereo-Pak [[4-track cartridge|4-track]] tape cartridge.<ref name="klein">{{cite news
| first = Howard
| last= Klein
| title= Highway stereo: Sprechen vous Italiano, Senor?
| publisher = ''New York Times''
| date = 1967-05-28
}}</ref> 4-track was the direct predecessor of the [[Stereo 8]] cartridge, also known as the "8-track", later developed by American inventor [[Bill Lear]].<ref name="nyt900" /> The Stereo-Pak cartridge was based on the endless-loop [[Fidelipac]] cartridge, which was being used by radio stations, designed by inventor [[George Eash]]. Muntz chose [[stereophonic|stereo]] recording as a standard feature because of its wide availability.<ref name="sound001" /> Before Muntz developed the Stereo-Pak, the only in-car units capable of recorded playback were gramophone-based players, such as the [[Highway Hi-Fi]] invented by [[Peter Carl Goldmark|Peter Goldmark]].<ref name="goldmark">{{cite book
| last = Goldmark
| first = Peter
| title = Maverick inventor: my turbulent years at CBS
| year = 1973
| publisher = Saturday Review Press
| isbn = 0841500460
}}</ref> These units played special 16 2/3 rpm records or [[Gramophone record|45 rpm]] records, however they tended to skip whenever the vehicle hit a bump in the road, and attempts to alleviate this by increasing the pressure on the arm caused discs to wear out prematurely.<ref name="sound001" />

Muntz designed a stereo tape player called the Autostereo for cars and had it inexpensively manufactured in Japan.<ref name="sound001" /> The Autostereo could play a complete album without changing tracks or turning the tape over, did not suffer from skipping or premature wear as the gramophone-based players did, and its number of knobs and controls were minimized to allow the driver to concentrate on the road.<ref name="sound001" /> The tape player gave customers greater control over their listening experiences, because the tapes never ran advertisements or public service announcements, unlike radio broadcasts.<ref name="sound001" /> Muntz sold the players and cartridges from his own stores and through [[Franchising|franchise]]s in Florida and Texas.<ref name="sound001" />

Muntz audio products were so profitable by 1962 that he cancelled his agreements with tape-duplicating companies and founded his own company to manufacture prerecorded Stereo-Pak cartridges.<ref name="goldmine" /><ref name="sound001" /> Most record companies did not manufacture Stereo-Pak cartridges themselves; however, the [[Muntz Electronics Corporation]] licensed music from all the major record labels and issued hundreds of different tapes in the mid to late 1960s. Muntz exhibited his Autostereo players and Stereo-Pak cartridges under the trade name ''Stereo-Pak'' at the 1967 [[Consumer Electronics Show]].<ref name="ceguide">{{cite news
| author = Consumer Electronics Association
| title = 40 years of CES
| url = http://www.cesweb.org/shared_files/edm/MediaReports/dealerscope_ces40.pdf
| format = PDF
| work = Consumer Electronics Show 2007 Brochure
| year = 2007
| accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref>
[[Image:Stereo-pak advertisement.jpg|thumb|right|Muntz Stereo-Pak ads tended to feature attractive young models and suggestive tag lines.]]

The Autostereo player, which retailed from $129 in 1963, was a popular [[aftermarket (automotive)|aftermarket]] addition to cars among the [[Beverly Hills]] rich and famous.<ref name="time1963x">{{cite news
| title = A tape for the road
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,870410,00.html
| publisher = ''Time''
| date = August 9, 1963
| accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref> [[Frank Sinatra]] used one in his [[Buick Riviera]], [[Dean Martin]] in his Corvette, and [[Peter Lawford]] in his [[Carrozzeria Ghia|Ghia]]. [[James Garner]], [[Red Skelton]], and [[Lawrence Welk]] also used Autostereo players in their cars. [[Barry Goldwater]] purchased one for his son, and [[Jerry Lewis]] recorded his scripts onto Stereo-Pak cartridges to learn his lines while driving.<ref name="time1963x" />

Muntz attempted to establish a modern, trendy image for his players and cartridges. His print advertisements often showed the player installed in an appealing sports car and usually incorporated a young, attractive model with a suggestive tagline. Most of his employees in his California shops were attractive young women dressed in overbright clothing.<ref name="sanjek">{{cite book
| last = Sanjek
| first = Russell
| title = American popular music and its business: the first four hundred years volume III: from 1900 to 1984
| year = 1988
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| isbn = 978-0195043112
}}</ref>

Bill Lear distributed the Stereo-Pak in 1963, intending to install units in his [[Learjet]] aircraft. However, he soon decided to re-engineer and customize the units to suit his own wishes, the result of which became the Stereo 8 system.<ref name="sound001" /> The market for Muntz's 4-track system had faded by 1970 due to competition from Stereo 8, which reduced costs by using less magnetic tape and a less-complex cartridge mechanism. Although the 4-track system had higher fidelity since the tape speed was double the speed of the Stereo 8 system (and the 4-track had wider heads for better bandwidth), the Stereo 8 quickly became the dominant format for car stereo systems during the late 1960s. [[Ford Motor Company]] began featuring Stereo 8 players in their 1965 automobiles, and it became a standard option by 1966.<ref name="daniel001">{{cite book
|editor = Eric D. Daniel, C. Denis Mee, and Mark H. Clark
|title = Magnetic recording: the first 100 years
|year = 1998
|month = August
|publisher = Wiley-IEEE Press
|isbn = 978-0780347090
}}</ref>

In a 1979 interview in ''The Videophile'' newsletter, Muntz revealed the biggest problem for the Stereo-Pak business was returned merchandise.<ref name="vid001">{{cite news
| title = Earl Muntz interview
| publisher = ''The Videophile''
| year = 1979
}}</ref> He explained that when reproducing the work of major artists like [[The Beatles]], the Stereo-Pak plant had to make hundreds of thousands of cartridges. But once a popular album became less popular, retailers would return the unsold cartridges, expecting credit towards new titles. Muntz was unprepared for the returns and said the huge cost of unsold merchandise eventually made his Stereo-Pak business unprofitable.<ref name="vid001" />

===Home video===
In late 1970, Muntz closed his Stereo-Pak audio business after a fire severely damaged his main offices. He then entered the growing home-video market. During the mid-1970s, Muntz thought of taking a {{convert|15|in|cm|0|adj=on}} [[Sony]] color [[cathode ray tube]] (CRT) television receiver, fitting it with a special lens and reflecting mirror, then projecting the magnified image onto a larger screen. He housed these primitive units in a large wooden [[entertainment center|console]], making it one of the first successful widescreen projection TV receivers marketed for home use.<ref name="jhup" /><ref name="lamnmn">{{cite news
| first = Robert
| last = Rosenblatt
| title = 'Madman' Muntz rides again
| publisher = ''Los Angeles Times''
| date = 1975-10-26
}}</ref>

The receivers were built in Muntz's headquarters in [[Van Nuys]], California. Sony's U.S. sales division was unaware that Muntz was dealing directly with Sony's Tokyo [[original equipment manufacturer]] (OEM) department, which shipped him the TV chassis directly.<ref name="jhup" /> Thanks to Muntz's talent for mass-market advertising and self-promotion, by 1977 the projection receivers were a multi-million-dollar business.<ref name="jhup" /> Muntz was quick to feature [[Sony]]'s [[Betamax]] as well as [[JVC]]'s and [[RCA]]'s [[VHS]] recorders in his store, setting up a showroom to demonstrate the potential for a "theater experience in the home".<ref name="jhup" />

In 1979, Muntz decided to sell blank tapes and VCRs as [[loss leader]]s to attract customers to his showroom, where he would then try to sell them his projection TV systems. His success continued through the early 1980s<ref name="jhup" /> until he invested heavily in the [[Technicolor]] [[Compact Video Cassette]] (CVC), a 1/4 in (0.6 cm) system designed to compete with Betamax, VHS, and the [[Super 8 mm film|Super 8]] film home-movie system. The CVC format failed in the marketplace, sales quickly eroded, and Muntz's store closed soon after.<ref name="jhup" />

==Later years==
Shortly before dying of lung cancer in 1987, Muntz centered his retail business on [[cellular phone]]s, [[satellite dish]]es, a [[motorhome]] rental company dubbed "Muntz Motor Mansions",<ref name="lat333xx">{{cite news
| first = Fisher
| last = Dan
| title = Recycled Madman Muntz rides again
| publisher = ''Los Angeles Times''
| date = 1971-07-18
}}</ref> and prefabricated aluminum houses.<ref name="dh001" /> He made headlines in February 1985 as the first retailer to offer a [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]] cellular phone for less than $1,000, when just two years earlier most cellular phones had cost about $3,000.<ref name="murray">{{cite book
|last = Murray
|first = James
|title = Wireless nation: the frenzied launch of the cellular revolution
|year = 2002
|publisher = Basic Books
|isbn = 978-0738206882
}}</ref> At the time of his death, he was the leading retailer of cellular phones in Los Angeles.<ref name="dh001" /> During his final years, Muntz drove a customized [[Lincoln Continental]] with a television installed in the dashboard: Muntz claimed it helped him "drive better".<ref name="cn090" />

After he died, his children, James and Tee, continued to operate two Muntz stores in [[Van Nuys, California|Van Nuys]] and [[Newhall, Santa Clarita, California|Newhall]]; the remainder of the stores were [[Chain store|franchise]]d businesses. James employed his father's advertising techniques to create splashy ads featuring prices that annoyed his competitors so much that they referred to them as "[[Cut-throat competition|cutthroat]]".<ref name="lat334231">{{cite news
| first = James
| last = Bates
| title = Philosophy's same, but pitch for car phones in some ways 'more sedate' Madman Muntz's heirs keep the volume up
| publisher = ''Los Angeles Times''
| date = 1988-09-13
}}</ref>

==Legacy==
The "Madman" method pioneered by Muntz was later copied by other retailers, including California car salesman [[Cal Worthington]]<ref name="nyt90901">{{cite news
| first = Robert
| last = Lindsey
| title = For that big model, try a used car
| publisher = ''The New York Times''
| date = 1977-10-16
}}</ref> and New York area electronics chain [[Crazy Eddie]].<ref name="nyt100">{{cite news
| first = Stuart
| last = Elliott
| title = Fake products and the movies that loved them
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/business/media/09adcol.html
| publisher = ''The New York Times''
| date = 2006-01-08
| accessdate = 2008-04-11
}}</ref> In Crazy Eddie TV commercials, radio personality [[Jerry Carroll]] leapt at the camera and jumped around while jabbering at high speed, always ending with the line, "Crazy Eddie: Our prices are insaaaaaane!".<ref name="nyt123">{{cite news
| first = Anthony
| last = Ramirez
| title = The media business: advertising; the man folks thought was Crazy Eddie is back. He seems saner.
| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE4DF1638F93BA2575BC0A963958260
| publisher = ''The New York Times''
| date = 1995-08-18
| accessdate = 2008-05-19
}}</ref> As a result of his Crazy Eddie commercials, Carroll became a significant 80s icon, even appearing in the film ''[[Splash (film)|Splash]]''.<ref name="nyt123" />

Muntz' cultural impact was such that he was mentioned in novels, including [[Children's literature|children's book]] ''The Neddiad: How Neddie Took The Train, Went To Hollywood, And Saved Civilization'' by [[Daniel Manus Pinkwater]],<ref name="pinkwater">{{cite book
| last = Pinkwater
| first = Daniel
| title = The Neddiad: How Neddie Took The Train, Went To Hollywood, And Saved Civilization
| publisher = Houghton Mifflin
| year = 2007
| isbn = 978-0618594443}}</ref> ''The Lost Get-Back Boogie'' by [[James Lee Burke]],<ref name="burke">{{cite book
| last = Burke
| first = James
| title = The lost get-back boogie
| publisher = Pocket Star
| year = 2006
| isbn = 978-1416517061}}</ref> and Franklin Mason's ''Four Roses in Three Acts ''.<ref name="mason">{{cite book
| last = Mason
| first = Franklin
| title = Four roses in three acts
| publisher = Fiction Collective 2
| year = 1981
| isbn = 978-0914590651
}}</ref>

A production called ''Madman Muntz: American Maverick'' was screened at film festivals through 2007.<ref name="dh001" /> Directed by Dan Bunker and Judy ver Mehr, it was produced by Jim Castoro, an owner of an original Muntz Jet. The film was an official 2005 selection at the San Fernando Valley International Film Festival and the Ole Muddy Film Festival.<ref name="dh001" /> The film documents Muntz's life, paying particular attention to his colorful career, and includes interviews with people who knew him and home movie footage contributed by his children.<ref name="dh001" />

In 2001, Madman Muntz was posthumously inducted into the [[Consumer Electronics Hall of Fame]].<ref name="lat333">{{cite news
| first = Cecilia
| last = Rasmussen
| title = An L.A. legend you've never seen or heard
| publisher = ''Los Angeles Times''
| date = 2007-12-16
}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ce.org/Events/Awards/438.htm Earl Muntz Biography], a short biography from the Consumer Electronics Association website
*[http://www.madmanmuntzmovie.com/index.php?m=2 Madman Muntz: American Maverick], a biography from the website of a biopic about him
*[http://www.8trackheaven.com/muntz.html Earl Muntz, the 4-Track Madman], from a website maintained by fans of 8-track tapes

{{featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muntz, Madman}}
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1987 deaths]]

{{Persondata
|NAME = Earl William Muntz
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Madman Muntz
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = Advertising pioneer, inventor, businessman, electrical engineer
|DATE OF BIRTH = January 3, 1914
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Elgin, Illinois|Elgin]], [[Illinois]], United States
|DATE OF DEATH = June 21, 1987
|PLACE OF DEATH = [[Rancho Mirage, California|Rancho Mirage]], [[California]], United States
}}
[[Category:American businesspeople]]
[[Category:Consumer electronics]]
[[Category:People from Elgin, Illinois]]
[[Category:People from Glendale, California]]
[[Category:Consumer electronics retailers]]
[[Category:American electrical engineers]]
[[Category:Advertising characters]]
[[Category:American inventors]]

[[ru:Мюнц, Эрл]]

Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan

2009-10-09T10:30:10Z

Skomorokh: adjust refs

'''''Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan''''' is a short work by [[dystopian]] English author [[J.G. Ballard]], first published as a [[pamphlet]] by the Unicorn Bookshop, [[Brighton]], in 1968.<ref name=kauffman/>

It is written in the style of a scientific paper and catalogues an apocryphal series of bizarre experiments intended to measure the [[Psychosexual disorder|psychosexual]] appeal of [[Ronald Reagan]], then the [[Governor of California]] and candidate for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] [[United States presidential nominating convention|nomination]] for the [[United States presidential election, 1968|1968 United States presidential election]].

==History==
Ballard himself was inspired by the then-new phenomenon of "media politicians" and in his preface to the 1990 edition of ''[[The Atrocity Exhibition]]'', explained:

{{bquote|In his commercials Reagan used the smooth, [[teleprompter]]-perfect tones of the TV auto-salesman to project a political message that was absolutely the reverse of bland and reassuring. A complete discontinuity existed between Reagan's manner and body language, on the one hand, and his scarily simplistic far-right message on the other. Above all, it struck me that Reagan was the first politician to exploit the fact that his TV audience would not be listening too closely, if at all, to what he was saying, and indeed might well assume from his manner and presentation that he was saying the exact opposite of the words actually emerging from his mouth.<ref name=info/>}}

In 1970, the pamphlet was added as an appendix to ''The Atrocity Exhibition'', leading [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] to pulp its first American edition of that work.<ref name=info/>

At the 1980 Republican Convention in [[San Francisco]] a copy of ''Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan'', furnished with the seal of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], was distributed by ex-[[Situationist International|Situationists]] to the RNC delegates. According to Ballard, it was accepted for what it resembled: a psychological position paper on the candidate's subliminal appeal, commissioned by a think-tank.<ref name=kauffman/>

==Quotes==
* "Slow-motion film of Reagan's speeches produced a marked erotic effect in an audience of spastic children"
* "Faces were seen as either circumcised (JFK, Khrushchev) or uncircumcised (LBJ, Adenauer). In assembly-kit tests Reagan’s face was uniformly perceived as a penile erection. Patients were encouraged to devise the optimum sex-death of Ronald Reagan."

==See also==
*''[[Crash (novel)|Crash]]'', a Ballard novel which focuses on similar themes

== References ==
{{Refs|refs=
<ref name=kauffman>{{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kzX20HNc2iAC&pg=PA169&lpg=PA169 |last = Kauffman | first = Linda | title = Bad Girls and Sick Boys | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 1998 | isbn = 0520210328 |pages=169–171}}</ref>
<ref name=info>[http://info.interactivist.net/node/3244 Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan]</ref>
}}

{{J. G. Ballard}}

[[Category:1968 short stories]]
[[Category:Pamphlets]]
[[Category:Political books]]
[[Category:Psychology books]]
[[Category:Ronald Reagan]]
[[Category:Short stories by J. G. Ballard]]

[[es:Por qué quiero joder a Ronald Reagan]]

Nura – Herr der Yokai

2009-10-08T06:13:21Z

Skomorokh: afd closed

{{Notability|Books|date=September 2009}}
{{Refimprove|date=September 2009}}
{{Infobox animanga/Header
| name = Grandchild of Nurarihyon
| image = [[File:Nurarihyon Cover.jpg|thumb]]
| caption =
| ja_kanji = ぬらりひょんの孫
| ja_romaji = Nurarihyon no Mago
| genre = [[Action (genre)|Action]], [[Supernatural]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Manga
| author = [[Hiroshi Shiibashi]]
| publisher = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Shueisha]]
| demographic = [[Shōnen]]
| magazine = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Weekly Shōnen Jump]]
|publisher_en = {{flagicon|China}} {{flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Tong Li Publishing Co., Ltd.]] 
| first = March, 2008
| last = ongoing
| volumes = 6
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}

{{Nihongo|'''''Nurarihyon no Mago'''''|ぬらりひょんの孫|}} is a [[manga]] series written and illustrated by [[Hiroshi Shiibashi]]. Rikuo Nura, a kid that is part human and a quarter youkai (demon), lives in a house full of spirits along with his grandfather. Trying to escape his fate of acting like a demon, he does good deeds in order to avoid becoming one. Despite his grandfather's wish to succeed him as master of the Nurari youkai clan.

The series was first published in Shueisha as a oneshot in 2007. ''Nurarihyon no Mago'' has been continuously serialized in the Japanese manga anthology ''[[Weekly Shōnen Jump]]'' since March 2008 and has been collected in 6 ''[[tankōbon]]'' volumes as of July 2009. Double issue 37-38{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} announced there is currently a Drama CD in production and will be released in December<ref>http://www.shueisha.co.jp/drama_cd/nurari/index.html</ref>.

==Plot==
Rikuo Nura, is part human and a quarter [[Youkai]] (demon), lives in a house full of spirits along with his grandfather. Trying to escape his fate of acting like a demon, he does good deeds in order to avoid becoming one. Despite his grandfather's wish to succeed him as master of the Nurari youkai clan. He eventually comes to terms with his demon blood and decides to once again take up the position of Young head of the Nura house. Multiple factions aim to stop him or overtake his position. He plans to gather a new [[Hyakki Yakō]] under his banner of "Fear".

==Terminology==
;Osore:
:Also known as "Fear" it's the power that all Youkai possess. It's activated by exerting a wall of pressure making your presence bigger than normal and you dominate the air flow. Normally used against humans to scare them, Youkai use this for battle as well. The type of "Fear" and Skill depends on the type of Youkai, like water for Kappa and Ice for Yukionna, severing "Fear" is a key part of battle.

;Hatsu:
:The process of activating "Fear"

;Hyoui:
:The process of materializing "Fear" into an attack that can sever "Fear" and harm the opponent

==Characters==

{{See also|List of Nurarihyon no Mago characters}}

;Rikuo Nura (奴良リクオ)
*{{anime voices|[[Jun Fukuyama]]}} (drama CD)
:Rikuo is an average 13-year old boy, his mother is Nura Wakana and he inherited 1/4 of his grandfather's youkai blood. In times of impending danger his youkai blood awakens and he switches into his night form to become the the Master of the Youkai(The master of all spirits). Destined to take over as The Third Master of Youkai from his grandfather. As a Rikuo once embraced the idea and played pranks on the other Youkai, but after realizing the evil nature of the youkai deeds he rejects the idea of becoming their master. He attempts to become more like a normal human by doing all sorts of good deeds, but he still appreciates his youkai underlings.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} After being tested by Gyūgi he decides to take the position of Young Head and saves both humans and Youkai. He is voiced by [[Jun Fukuyama]] in the up-coming drama CD.<ref>http://www.amazon.co.jp/exec/obidos/ASIN/4089011701/ref=nosim/accessuporg-22</ref>
:He is seemingly weak but very clever, easily manipulating one of the council members into isolating himself during a meeting and rationalizing against the dissolvement of the Gyūgi Group.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} He can only transform at night or in darkness and reverts to normal in sunlight. Originally he couldn't remember things he did as his "Night" form, but he later is able to see and communicate with him.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} Together they plan to form a "Hyakki Yakō" of their own.

;Night Rikuo (ぬらりひょんの孫)
*{{anime voices|Jun Fukuyama}} (drama CD)
:His night(Youkai) form is confident, strong and inspires "Fear" amongst his allies leading many to join him. He decides to leave the human side of things to his "Day" form and handle the Youkai-side of things.

;Yuki Onna (雪女)/Oikawa Tsurara (及川氷麗)
*{{anime voices|[[Yui Horie]]}} (drama CD)
:Yuki Onna is Rikuo's trusted attendant who follows him to school disguised as a normal school girl, known as Tsurara Oikawa. She is affectionate towards Rikou, since she was jealous when Genjourou was embracing Rikou as she was assigned to be one of the extra escorts, and when she saw Kana together with Rikou (the day after her birthday).{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} She also admires Rikou's youkai form, because she finds him very reliable and magnificent.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} She is overprotective of Rikou when at his "day" or human form and expresses great concern for his well being, which is the reason why she is always around him at school (which causes a misunderstanding and concern for Kana). She also acts as the cook, though her food is delicious, most of the time it is chilled or cold.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} As her name states she is a [[Yuki-onna]].
:She has served the Nura household for at least 400 years and was in love with Nurarihyon but lost out to Rikou's grandmother; her current affections for Rikou may stem from that.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} She also has a fear of Yura, since she's a Onmyouji and a rivalry with Kana(going so far as to nearly freeze her)

;Ienaga Kana (家長可奈)
*{{anime voices|[[Aya Hirano]]}} (drama CD)
:Kana is the childhood friend and neighbor of Rikuo. She is hinted to have some affection for him, since she got jealous when she saw Yuki Onna/Tsurara alone together.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} Rikuo made a promise to help her if she is ever in need. After being kidnapped by a Youkai on her 13th birthday, she was saved by "Night" Rikuo and was taken to a Youkai party. In the next morning Kana asked Rikuo if he was friends with his youkai form and blushed when Rikuo asked why. She has fallen for Rikou's Night form.

;Keikain Yura (花開院ゆら)
*{{anime voices|[[Ai Maeda]]}} (drama CD)
:An Onmyouji of the Keikan House who specializes in shikigami, she can manage four at once impressing even Nurarihyon. She was raised to see Youkai as evil and seeks to complete her training by defeating Nurarihyon and then inheriting the Household.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} After her brother reveals Rikuo as a Youkai and as Nurarihyon's grandson, she says she can accept it if it's him. She has returned to Kyoto to deal with the Hagoromo-[[Kitsune|Gitsune]].

== Reception ==

The first tankōbon ranked 9th on Tohan manga charts,<ref name="vol01-rank">{{cite web|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2008-08-13/japanese-comic-ranking-august-5-11|title=Japanese Comic Ranking, August 5–11|date=August 13, 2008|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]|accessdate=October 2, 2009}}</ref> the third ranked 5th,<ref name="vol03-rank">{{cite web|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2009-01-14/japanese-comic-ranking-january-6-12|title=Japanese Comic Ranking, January 6-12|date=January 14, 2009|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]|accessdate=October 2, 2009}}</ref> the fourth ranked 10th,<ref name="vol04-rank">{{cite web|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2009-04-15/japanese-comic-ranking-april-7-13|title=Japanese Comic Ranking, April 7-13|date=April 15, 2009|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]|accessdate=October 2, 2009}}</ref>, the fifth ranked 9th,<ref name="vol05-rank">{{cite web|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2009-06-10/japanese-comic-ranking-june-1-7|title=Japanese Comic Ranking, June 1-7 (Updated)|date=June 10, 2009|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]|accessdate=October 2, 2009}}</ref> and the sixth ranked 8th,<ref name="vol06-rank">{{cite web|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2009-08-12/japanese-comic-ranking-august-3-9|title=Japanese Comic Ranking, August 3-9|date=August 12, 2009|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]|accessdate=October 2, 2009}}</ref> and each volume starting from the third sold over 100,000 copies.<ref name="vol03-rank"/><ref name="vol04-rank"/><ref name="vol06-rank"/><ref name="vol05-rank-2">{{cite web|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2009-06-17/japanese-comic-ranking-june-8-14|title=Japanese Comic Ranking, June 8-14 (Updated)|date=June 17, 2009|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]|accessdate=October 2, 2009}}</ref>

Weekly Shonen Jump allows its readers to vote on their favorite manga, giving out the Future Gold Cup(Gorudofyuchakappu) award each year to the most popular manga it publishes. In 2007, Nurarihyon no Mago ranked number one in the Future Gold Cup.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*{{ann|manga|10739}}

{{Series in Weekly Shōnen Jump}}
{{Weekly Shōnen Jump - 2000-2009}}

[[es:Nurarihyon no Mago]]
[[ja:ぬらりひょんの孫]]
[[ru:Nurarihyon no Mago]]
[[zh:百鬼小當家]]

Benutzer:Matthiasb/Citation

2009-09-26T07:28:02Z

Skomorokh: per request at Template talk:Citation/core

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Benutzer:Matthiasb/Citation

2009-09-26T07:26:01Z

Skomorokh: reverting as I may have broken something

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Benutzer:Matthiasb/Citation

2009-09-26T07:18:49Z

Skomorokh: syncing with sandbox per request; version http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Citation/sandbox&oldid=315570344

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John N. Gray

2009-09-15T15:37:07Z

Skomorokh: /* External links */ tag linkfarm

{{Infobox Philosopher

|region = [[Western Philosophy]]
|era = [[20th-century philosophy]] [[21st-century philosophy]]
|color = #B0C4DE

|name = John N. Gray
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1948|04|17|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[South Shields]], [[Tyne & Wear]]
|death_date =
|school_tradition = [[Political philosophy]]
|main_interests =
|notable_ideas =
|influences = [[Thomas Hobbes]]; [[Schopenhauer]]
|influenced =
}}
'''John N. Gray''' (born 17 April 1948, in [[South Shields]], [[Tyne & Wear]]) is a British [[political philosopher]] and author, formerly School Professor of European Thought at the [[London School of Economics]].

Gray contributes regularly to ''[[The Guardian]]'', ''[[New Statesman]]'', and ''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'', and has written several influential books on political theory, including ''[[Straw Dogs: Thoughts on Humans and Other Animals]]'' (2003), an attack on [[humanism]], a worldview which he sees as originating in [[Religion|religious]] ideologies. Gray sees [[volition (psychology)|volition]], and hence [[morality]], as an illusion, and portrays [[human]]ity as a ravenous species engaged in wiping out other forms of life. Gray writes that ''"humans ... cannot destroy the Earth, but they can easily wreck the environment that sustains them."''<ref>John Gray, Straw Dogs: Thoughts on Humans and Other Animals, (Granta Books 2002), p. 12. ISBN 1862075123</ref>

==Academic career==
Gray studied at [[Exeter College, Oxford]], where he read [[Philosophy, Politics and Economics]] (PPE) and completed his B.A., M.Phil., and D.Phil.

He formerly held posts as lecturer in political theory at the [[University of Essex]], fellow and tutor in politics at [[Jesus College, Oxford]], and lecturer and then professor of politics at the [[University of Oxford]]. He has served as a visiting professor at [[Harvard University]] (1985-86), Stranahan Fellow at the [[Social Philosophy and Policy Center]], [[Bowling Green State University]] (1990-1994), and has also held visiting professorships at [[Tulane University]]’s Murphy Institute (1991), and [[Yale University]] (1994). He was Professor of European Thought at the [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]] until his retirement from academic life in early 2008.

==Academic work==
An advocate for the [[New Right]] in the 1980s, and then of [[New Labour]] in the 1990s, Gray now sees the conventional ([[left-wing]]/[[right-wing]]) political spectrum of [[conservatism]] and [[social democracy]] as no longer viable.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Gray has perhaps become best known for his work, since the 1990s, on the uneasy relationship between the [[value-pluralism]] and [[liberalism]] of [[Isaiah Berlin]],<ref>{{Citation
| last1 = Cherniss | first1 = Joshua
| last2 = Hardy | first2 = Henry
| editor-last = Zalta | editor-first = Edward N.
| contribution = Isaiah Berlin
| title = The [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] (Summer 2007 Edition)
| url = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2007/entries/berlin/#4
| pages = section 4
| accessdate = [[2007-07-04]]
}}</ref> which has ignited considerable controversy, and for his strong criticism of [[neoliberalism]] and of the global [[free market]]. More recently, he has criticised some of the central currents in [[Western culture|Western]] thinking, such as [[humanism]], and has tended towards [[Green movement|Green]] thought. He has drawn from the "[[Gaia theory]]" of [[James Lovelock]], among others, but he is very pessimistic about human behaviour changing to prevent environmental decay, and he predicts that the 21st century will be full of wars as natural resources become increasingly scarce.



==Quotations==
{{Quotefarm|date=September 2009}}
{{cquote2|To affirm that humans thrive in many different ways is not to deny that there are universal human values. Nor is it to reject the claim that there should be universal human rights. It is to deny that universal values can only be fully realized in a universal regime. Human rights can be respected in a variety of regimes, liberal and otherwise. Universal human rights are not an ideal constitution for a single regime throughout the world, but a set of minimum standards for peaceful coexistence among regimes that will always remain different.|John Gray|''Two Faces of Liberalism''}}

{{cquote2|The core of the belief in progress is that human values and goals converge in parallel with our increasing knowledge. The twentieth century shows the contrary. Human beings use the power of scientific knowledge to assert and defend the values and goals they already have. New technologies can be used to alleviate suffering and enhance freedom. They can, and will, also be used to wage war and strengthen tyranny. Science made possible the technologies that powered the [[industrial revolution]]. In the twentieth century, these technologies were used to implement state terror and [[genocide]] on an unprecedented scale. [[Ethics]] and [[politics]] do not advance in line with the growth of knowledge — not even in the long run.|John Gray|essay "[[Joseph Conrad]], Our Contemporary" in ''Heresies''}}

{{cquote2|"I should liken [[Kant]] to a man at a ball, who all evening has been carrying on a love affair with a masked beauty in the vain hope of making a conquest, when at last she throws off her mask and reveals herself to be his wife." In [[Schopenhauer]]'s fable the wife masquerading as an unknown beauty was [[Christianity]]. Today it is [[humanism]].

What [[Schopenhauer]] wrote of [[Kant]] is no less true today. As commonly practised, [[philosophy]] is the attempt to find good reasons for conventional beliefs. In [[Kant]]'s time the creed of conventional people was Christian, now it is humanist. Nor are these two faiths so different from one another.

Over the past 200 years, philosophy has shaken off Christian faith. It has not given up [[Christianity]]'s cardinal error – the belief that humans are radically different from all other animals.

[[Philosophy]] has been a masked ball in which a religious image of humankind is renewed in the guise of humanist ideas of progress and enlightenment. Even philosophy's greatest unmaskers have ended up as figures in the masquerade. Removing the masks from our animal faces is a task that has hardly begun.

Other animals are born, seek mates, forage for food and die. That is all. But we humans – we think – are different. We are persons, whose actions are the results of their choices. Other animals pass their lives unawares, but we are conscious. Our image of ourselves is formed from our ingrained belief that consciousness, selfhood and free will are what define us as human beings, and raise us above all other creatures.

In our more detached moments, we admit that this view of ourselves is flawed. Our lives are more like fragmentary dreams than the enactments of conscious selves. We control very little of what we most care about; many of our most fateful decisions are made unbeknownst to ourselves. Yet we insist that mankind can achieve what we cannot: conscious mastery of its existence. This is the creed of those who have given up an irrational belief in [[God]] for an irrational faith in mankind.

But what if we give up the empty hopes of [[Christianity]] and [[humanism]]? Once we switch off the soundtrack – the babble of [[God]] and immortality, progress and humanity – what sense can we make of our lives?
|John Gray|''Straw Dogs''}}

{{cquote2|The most pitiless warriors against drugs have always been militant progressives. In China, the most savage attack on drug use occurred when the country was convulsed by a modern western doctrine of universal emancipation- Maoism. It is no accident that the crusade against drugs is led today by a country wedded to the pursuit of happiness- the United States. For the corollary of that improbable quest is a puritan war on pleasure.
|John Gray|''Straw Dogs''}}

{{cquote2|What could be more natural for a species that has exterminated its animal kin than to look into a mirror and find that it is not alone?
|John Gray|''Straw Dogs''}}

==Bibliography==
*''Mill on Liberty: A Defence'' (1983). ISBN 0710092709.
*''Conceptions of Liberty in Political Philosophy'' (ed. with [[Zbigniew Pelczynski]]) (1984)
*''Hayek on Liberty'' (1984)
*''Liberalism'' (1986). ISBN 0816615217.
*''Liberalisms: Essays in Political Philosophy'' (1989). ISBN 0415007445.
*''J.S. Mill, "On Liberty": In Focus'' (ed. with G.W. Smith) (1991). ISBN 0415010012.
*''Beyond the New Right: Markets, Government and the Common Environment'' (1993). ISBN 0415092973.
*''Postliberalism: Studies in Political Thought'' (1993). ISBN 0415135532.
*''Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age'' (1995). ISBN 0415163358.
*''Isaiah Berlin'' (1995). ISBN 069104824X.
*''Liberalism'' (2nd ed.) (1995). ISBN 0816628017.
*''After Social Democracy: Politics, Capitalism and the Common Life'' (1996)
*''Mill on Liberty: A Defence'' (2nd ed.) (1996)
*''Endgames: Questions in Late Modern Political Thought'' (1997). ISBN 0745618820.
*''Hayek on Liberty'' (3rd ed.) (1998)
*''[[False Dawn: The Delusions of Global Capitalism]]'' (1998). ISBN 1565845927.
*''Voltaire'' (1998). ISBN 0415923948.
*''Two Faces of Liberalism'' (2000). ISBN 1565845897.
*''[[Straw Dogs: Thoughts on Humans and Other Animals]]'' (2002). ISBN 1862075123.
*''Al Qaeda and What it Means to be Modern'' (2003). ISBN 1565848055.
*''Heresies: Against Progress and Other Illusions'' (2004). ISBN 1862077185.
*''[[Black Mass: Apocalyptic Religion and the Death of Utopia]]'' (2007). ISBN 0713999152.
*''Gray's Anatomy: Selected Writings'' (2009). ISBN 978-0385667883

==Books about Gray==
* Horton, John and Glen Newey, eds. ''The Political Theory of John Gray''. London: Routledge, 2007. ISBN 041536647X.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{linkfarm}}
===Articles===
*[http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/aftersocialdemocracy "After Social Democracy"], by John Gray, January 1 1996, ''[[Demos]]'', www.demos.co.uk
*[http://www.tls.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,25344-2648345,00.html "The disorders of faith and the death of utopia"]: an article in the [http://www.the-tls.co.uk TLS] by David Martin, August 8 2007
*[http://www.ru.nl/soeterbeeckprogramma/publicaties/teksten/2005/john_gray/ "Enlightenment and Terror"], The Thomas More Lecture, Amsterdam, 2004
*[http://www.newstatesman.com/writers/john_gray A collection of articles written by John Gray for the New Statesman magazine], ''[[New Statesman]]''
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/johngray A collection of articles written by John Gray for the Guardian and the Observer], ''[[The Guardian]]''
*[http://www.bedeutung.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=29:after-secularism&catid=7:contents&Itemid=19 After Secularism] - from [[Bedeutung]] Magazine Vol I No.2

====The Guardian====
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/politicsphilosophyandsociety/story/0,,2265446,00.html "The atheist delusion"], ''[[The Guardian]]'', by John Gray, March 15, 2008
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2007/sep/15/politics "Review: The Shock Doctrine"], ''[[The Guardian]]'', by John Gray, September 15, 2007
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,2138064,00.html "The death of this crackpot creed is nothing to mourn"], ''[[The Guardian]]'' July 2007
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/attackonlondon/comment/story/0,16141,1525462,00.html "Look out for the enemy within"], ''[[The Guardian]]'' July 2005
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/sep/09/russia "Folly of the progressive fairytale"], ''[[The Guardian]]'' 9 September 2008

====The Independent====
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/politics/article2694594.ece Neoconned!: How Blair took New Labour for a ride], ''[[The Independent]]'' June 2007

====The Observer====
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/gordonbrown/comment/0,,2137120,00.html Monarchy is the Key to Our Liberty], ''[[The Observer]]'' July 2007
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/feb/10/britishidentity.health We trusted this country. Look how it treats us], ''[[The Observer]]'' February 2008

===Profiles===
*''[[The Guardian]]'', [http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/johngray]
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/people/profiles/article175755.ece Profile, by Will Self], ''[[The Independent]]'' September 2002
*[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article1961492.ece Profile, by Bryan Appleyard], ''[[The Sunday Times]]'' June 2007

===Interviews===
*[http://www.abc.net.au/rn/philosopherszone/stories/2008/2284016.htm John Gray radio interview on the 'Philosopher's Zone'], June 28, 2008
*[http://www.thecommentary.ca/ontheline/20071116a.html Interview regarding Black Mass]
*[http://www.psa.ac.uk/psanews/0406/Gray.htm 'Gray on Gray'] ([[American Political Science Association]])
*[http://current.com/items/89611673/john_gray_on_life.htm John Gray 'On Life' Current TV]
*[http://current.com/items/89611674/john_gray_on_religion.htm John Gray 'On Religion' Current TV]
*[http://current.com/items/89671153/john_gray_on_environment.htm John Gray 'On Environment' Current TV]
*[http://current.com/items/89657962/john_gray_on_fuel_war.htm John Gray 'On Fuel War' Current TV]
*[http://current.com/items/89856953/john_gray_on_hubris.htm John Gray 'On Hubris' Current TV]
*[http://www.barcelonametropolis.cat/en/page.asp?id=22&ui=85 John Gray interviewed in Barcelona Metropolis "When utopia takes over power, it leads to catastrophe”]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/rn/philosopherszone/stories/2009/2586694.htm John Gray talks to the 'Philosopher's Zone' about Isaiah Berlin]

===Reviews of His Work===
*[http://newhumanist.org.uk/1423 AC Grayling reviews ''Black Mass''], ''[[New Humanist]]'' July/August 2007
*[http://newhumanist.org.uk/536 Ian Hargearves, Professor of Journalism at Cardiff University] reviews "Straw Dogs".
*[[Terry Eagleton]] [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,786573,00.html reviews ''Straw Dogs''], ''[[The Guardian]]'' September 2002
*"[http://www.econlib.org/library/Essays/LtrLbrty/gryHRCtoc.html F. A. Hayek and the Rebirth of Classical Liberalism]", ''Literature of Liberty'' 5.4 (Winter 1982).
*[http://shopping.guardian.co.uk/books/story/0,1587,794945,00.html Jason Cowley reviews ''Straw Dogs'']
*[http://www.logosjournal.com/judd.htm Diana Judd reviews ''Straw Dogs'']
*[http://www.mises.org/story/2767 Has John Gray Returned to Classical Liberalism?]

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[[Category:Fellows of Jesus College, Oxford]]

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Russells Teekanne

2009-09-03T14:07:56Z

Skomorokh: small

{{pp-dispute|expiry=September 10, 2009|small=yes}}
{{Infobox Bertrand Russell}}
'''Russell's teapot''', sometimes called the '''Celestial Teapot''', was an analogy first coined by the philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970), intended to refute the idea that the [[burden of proof]] lies upon the [[Scepticism|sceptic]] to disprove [[Falsifiability|unfalsifiable]] claims of [[religion]]s. In an article entitled "Is There a God?"<ref>[http://www.cfpf.org.uk/articles/religion/br/br_god.html Bertrand Russell: Is There a God?] </ref> commissioned (but never published) by ''Illustrated'' magazine in [[1952]], Russell wrote:

{{quote|If I were to suggest that between the Earth and Mars there is a china teapot revolving about the sun in an elliptical orbit, nobody would be able to disprove my assertion provided I were careful to add that the teapot is too small to be revealed even by our most powerful telescopes. But if I were to go on to say that, since my assertion cannot be disproved, it is an intolerable presumption on the part of human reason to doubt it, I should rightly be thought to be talking nonsense. If, however, the existence of such a teapot were affirmed in ancient books, taught as the sacred truth every Sunday, and instilled into the minds of children at school, hesitation to believe in its existence would become a mark of eccentricity and entitle the doubter to the attentions of the psychiatrist in an enlightened age or of the Inquisitor in an earlier time.<ref>{{cite book | contribution=Is There a God? | title=The collected papers of Bertrand Russell | volume=11 | author=Bertrand Russell | editor=John Slater & Peter Köllner | isbn=978-0-415-09409-2 | year=1997 | publisher=Routledge | pages=542–548 }}</ref>
}}

__TOC__

== Contemporary forms ==

Russell's teapot analogy is still used in the debate over religious belief. [[Richard Dawkins]] used it in his [[2003]] book ''[[A Devil's Chaplain]]'':

{{quote|The reason organized religion merits outright hostility is that, unlike belief in Russell's teapot, religion is powerful, influential, tax-exempt and systematically passed on to children too young to defend themselves. Children are not compelled to spend their formative years memorizing loony books about teapots. Government-subsidized schools don't exclude children whose parents prefer the wrong shape of teapot. Teapot-believers don't stone teapot-unbelievers, teapot-apostates, teapot-heretics and teapot-blasphemers to death. Mothers don't warn their sons off  marrying teapot-shiksas whose parents believe in three teapots rather than one. People who put the milk in first don't kneecap those who put the tea in first.<ref>{{cite book
| title = [[A Devil's Chaplain]]
| author = [[Richard Dawkins]]
| publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin]]
| release_date = 2003
| media_type =
| pages =
| isbn = ISBN 0-618-33540-4
}}</ref>
}}

The concept of Russell's teapot has been extrapolated into more explicitly religion-parodying forms such as the [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]],<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Richard Dawkins]]|title=[[The God Delusion]]|publisher=Houghton-Mifflin|year=2006|isbn=978-0618680009}}</ref> the [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]]<ref>{{cite news | title=The Church of the Non-Believers | first=Gary | last=Wolf | date=[[November 14]], [[2006]] | publisher=[[Wired News]] | url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.11/atheism.html}}</ref> and [[The Demon-Haunted World|The Dragon in My Garage]].<ref>{{cite news | title=The Dragon in My Garage | first=Carl | last=Sagan| date=[[June 21]], [[2007]] | publisher=[[RichardDawkins.Net]] | url=http://richarddawkins.net/social/index.php?mode=article&id=35}}</ref>

== Criticism ==

Russell's Teapot continues to be viewed skeptically by some.

In one counter argument, a modern perspective holds that a teapot in orbit is verifiable by means other than telescopes. As the Teapot is now conceptually verifiable, the whole Russell's Teapot argument is rendered an incomprehensible fallacy.<ref name=Reitan>{{cite book | title = [[Is God a Delusion?]]|author = [[Eric Reitan]]|publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwelln]] | release_date = 2008 | media_type = | pages = 78-79 | isbn = ISBN 1405183616}}</ref>

Others are offended that the analogy compares belief in God to belief in a Teapot. They argue that belief in a Teapot (or Unicorn, Spaghetti Monster, etc.) is a superstition, distinct from religion<ref name=Reitan/>. And so, showing the fallacy of superstitions does not undermine religion.

==See also==
*[[Parody religion]]
*''[[The Root of All Evil?]]'', a television documentary written and presented by Richard Dawkins

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{irreligion}}
{{philosophy of religion}}

[[Category:Bertrand Russell]]
[[Category:Atheism]]
[[Category:Criticism of religion]]
[[Category:Philosophical arguments]]
[[Category:Parodies]]
[[Category:Skepticism]]

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[[tr:Russell'in Çaydanlığı]]

Russells Teekanne

2009-09-03T14:07:24Z

Skomorokh: adding {{pp-dispute|expiry={{subst:#time:F j, Y|+1 week}}}} (TW)

{{pp-dispute|expiry=September 10, 2009}}
{{Infobox Bertrand Russell}}
'''Russell's teapot''', sometimes called the '''Celestial Teapot''', was an analogy first coined by the philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970), intended to refute the idea that the [[burden of proof]] lies upon the [[Scepticism|sceptic]] to disprove [[Falsifiability|unfalsifiable]] claims of [[religion]]s. In an article entitled "Is There a God?"<ref>[http://www.cfpf.org.uk/articles/religion/br/br_god.html Bertrand Russell: Is There a God?] </ref> commissioned (but never published) by ''Illustrated'' magazine in [[1952]], Russell wrote:

{{quote|If I were to suggest that between the Earth and Mars there is a china teapot revolving about the sun in an elliptical orbit, nobody would be able to disprove my assertion provided I were careful to add that the teapot is too small to be revealed even by our most powerful telescopes. But if I were to go on to say that, since my assertion cannot be disproved, it is an intolerable presumption on the part of human reason to doubt it, I should rightly be thought to be talking nonsense. If, however, the existence of such a teapot were affirmed in ancient books, taught as the sacred truth every Sunday, and instilled into the minds of children at school, hesitation to believe in its existence would become a mark of eccentricity and entitle the doubter to the attentions of the psychiatrist in an enlightened age or of the Inquisitor in an earlier time.<ref>{{cite book | contribution=Is There a God? | title=The collected papers of Bertrand Russell | volume=11 | author=Bertrand Russell | editor=John Slater & Peter Köllner | isbn=978-0-415-09409-2 | year=1997 | publisher=Routledge | pages=542–548 }}</ref>
}}

__TOC__
== Contemporary forms ==

Russell's teapot analogy is still used in the debate over religious belief. [[Richard Dawkins]] used it in his [[2003]] book ''[[A Devil's Chaplain]]'':

{{quote|The reason organized religion merits outright hostility is that, unlike belief in Russell's teapot, religion is powerful, influential, tax-exempt and systematically passed on to children too young to defend themselves. Children are not compelled to spend their formative years memorizing loony books about teapots. Government-subsidized schools don't exclude children whose parents prefer the wrong shape of teapot. Teapot-believers don't stone teapot-unbelievers, teapot-apostates, teapot-heretics and teapot-blasphemers to death. Mothers don't warn their sons off  marrying teapot-shiksas whose parents believe in three teapots rather than one. People who put the milk in first don't kneecap those who put the tea in first.<ref>{{cite book
| title = [[A Devil's Chaplain]]
| author = [[Richard Dawkins]]
| publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin]]
| release_date = 2003
| media_type =
| pages =
| isbn = ISBN 0-618-33540-4
}}</ref>
}}

The concept of Russell's teapot has been extrapolated into more explicitly religion-parodying forms such as the [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]],<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Richard Dawkins]]|title=[[The God Delusion]]|publisher=Houghton-Mifflin|year=2006|isbn=978-0618680009}}</ref> the [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]]<ref>{{cite news | title=The Church of the Non-Believers | first=Gary | last=Wolf | date=[[November 14]], [[2006]] | publisher=[[Wired News]] | url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.11/atheism.html}}</ref> and [[The Demon-Haunted World|The Dragon in My Garage]].<ref>{{cite news | title=The Dragon in My Garage | first=Carl | last=Sagan| date=[[June 21]], [[2007]] | publisher=[[RichardDawkins.Net]] | url=http://richarddawkins.net/social/index.php?mode=article&id=35}}</ref>

== Criticism ==

Russell's Teapot continues to be viewed skeptically by some.

In one counter argument, a modern perspective holds that a teapot in orbit is verifiable by means other than telescopes. As the Teapot is now conceptually verifiable, the whole Russell's Teapot argument is rendered an incomprehensible fallacy.<ref name=Reitan>{{cite book | title = [[Is God a Delusion?]]|author = [[Eric Reitan]]|publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwelln]] | release_date = 2008 | media_type = | pages = 78-79 | isbn = ISBN 1405183616}}</ref>

Others are offended that the analogy compares belief in God to belief in a Teapot. They argue that belief in a Teapot (or Unicorn, Spaghetti Monster, etc.) is a superstition, distinct from religion<ref name=Reitan/>. And so, showing the fallacy of superstitions does not undermine religion.

==See also==
*[[Parody religion]]
*''[[The Root of All Evil?]]'', a television documentary written and presented by Richard Dawkins

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{irreligion}}
{{philosophy of religion}}

[[Category:Bertrand Russell]]
[[Category:Atheism]]
[[Category:Criticism of religion]]
[[Category:Philosophical arguments]]
[[Category:Parodies]]
[[Category:Skepticism]]

[[de:Russells Teekanne]]
[[es:Tetera de Russell]]
[[eo:Tepoto de Russell]]
[[fr:Théière de Russell]]
[[is:Teketill Russells]]
[[it:Teiera di Russell]]
[[he:קנקן התה של ראסל]]
[[lt:Raselo arbatinukas]]
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[[nl:Russells theepot]]
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[[pt:Bule de chá de Russell]]
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[[fi:Russellin teekannu]]
[[sv:Russells tekanna]]
[[ta:ரஸ்சலின் தேனீர் கேத்தல்]]
[[tr:Russell'in Çaydanlığı]]

Russells Teekanne

2009-09-03T14:07:18Z

Skomorokh: Protected Russell's teapot: Full protection: dispute, Edit-warring continued after warning. using TW ([edit=sysop] (expires 14:07, 10 September 2009 (UTC)) [move=sysop] (expires 14:07, 10 September 2009 (UTC)))

{{Infobox Bertrand Russell}}
'''Russell's teapot''', sometimes called the '''Celestial Teapot''', was an analogy first coined by the philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970), intended to refute the idea that the [[burden of proof]] lies upon the [[Scepticism|sceptic]] to disprove [[Falsifiability|unfalsifiable]] claims of [[religion]]s. In an article entitled "Is There a God?"<ref>[http://www.cfpf.org.uk/articles/religion/br/br_god.html Bertrand Russell: Is There a God?] </ref> commissioned (but never published) by ''Illustrated'' magazine in [[1952]], Russell wrote:

{{quote|If I were to suggest that between the Earth and Mars there is a china teapot revolving about the sun in an elliptical orbit, nobody would be able to disprove my assertion provided I were careful to add that the teapot is too small to be revealed even by our most powerful telescopes. But if I were to go on to say that, since my assertion cannot be disproved, it is an intolerable presumption on the part of human reason to doubt it, I should rightly be thought to be talking nonsense. If, however, the existence of such a teapot were affirmed in ancient books, taught as the sacred truth every Sunday, and instilled into the minds of children at school, hesitation to believe in its existence would become a mark of eccentricity and entitle the doubter to the attentions of the psychiatrist in an enlightened age or of the Inquisitor in an earlier time.<ref>{{cite book | contribution=Is There a God? | title=The collected papers of Bertrand Russell | volume=11 | author=Bertrand Russell | editor=John Slater & Peter Köllner | isbn=978-0-415-09409-2 | year=1997 | publisher=Routledge | pages=542–548 }}</ref>
}}

__TOC__
== Contemporary forms ==

Russell's teapot analogy is still used in the debate over religious belief. [[Richard Dawkins]] used it in his [[2003]] book ''[[A Devil's Chaplain]]'':

{{quote|The reason organized religion merits outright hostility is that, unlike belief in Russell's teapot, religion is powerful, influential, tax-exempt and systematically passed on to children too young to defend themselves. Children are not compelled to spend their formative years memorizing loony books about teapots. Government-subsidized schools don't exclude children whose parents prefer the wrong shape of teapot. Teapot-believers don't stone teapot-unbelievers, teapot-apostates, teapot-heretics and teapot-blasphemers to death. Mothers don't warn their sons off  marrying teapot-shiksas whose parents believe in three teapots rather than one. People who put the milk in first don't kneecap those who put the tea in first.<ref>{{cite book
| title = [[A Devil's Chaplain]]
| author = [[Richard Dawkins]]
| publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin]]
| release_date = 2003
| media_type =
| pages =
| isbn = ISBN 0-618-33540-4
}}</ref>
}}

The concept of Russell's teapot has been extrapolated into more explicitly religion-parodying forms such as the [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]],<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Richard Dawkins]]|title=[[The God Delusion]]|publisher=Houghton-Mifflin|year=2006|isbn=978-0618680009}}</ref> the [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]]<ref>{{cite news | title=The Church of the Non-Believers | first=Gary | last=Wolf | date=[[November 14]], [[2006]] | publisher=[[Wired News]] | url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.11/atheism.html}}</ref> and [[The Demon-Haunted World|The Dragon in My Garage]].<ref>{{cite news | title=The Dragon in My Garage | first=Carl | last=Sagan| date=[[June 21]], [[2007]] | publisher=[[RichardDawkins.Net]] | url=http://richarddawkins.net/social/index.php?mode=article&id=35}}</ref>

== Criticism ==

Russell's Teapot continues to be viewed skeptically by some.

In one counter argument, a modern perspective holds that a teapot in orbit is verifiable by means other than telescopes. As the Teapot is now conceptually verifiable, the whole Russell's Teapot argument is rendered an incomprehensible fallacy.<ref name=Reitan>{{cite book | title = [[Is God a Delusion?]]|author = [[Eric Reitan]]|publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwelln]] | release_date = 2008 | media_type = | pages = 78-79 | isbn = ISBN 1405183616}}</ref>

Others are offended that the analogy compares belief in God to belief in a Teapot. They argue that belief in a Teapot (or Unicorn, Spaghetti Monster, etc.) is a superstition, distinct from religion<ref name=Reitan/>. And so, showing the fallacy of superstitions does not undermine religion.

==See also==
*[[Parody religion]]
*''[[The Root of All Evil?]]'', a television documentary written and presented by Richard Dawkins

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{irreligion}}
{{philosophy of religion}}

[[Category:Bertrand Russell]]
[[Category:Atheism]]
[[Category:Criticism of religion]]
[[Category:Philosophical arguments]]
[[Category:Parodies]]
[[Category:Skepticism]]

[[de:Russells Teekanne]]
[[es:Tetera de Russell]]
[[eo:Tepoto de Russell]]
[[fr:Théière de Russell]]
[[is:Teketill Russells]]
[[it:Teiera di Russell]]
[[he:קנקן התה של ראסל]]
[[lt:Raselo arbatinukas]]
[[hu:Russell teáskannája]]
[[nl:Russells theepot]]
[[uz:Russell choynagi]]
[[pl:Czajniczek Russella]]
[[pt:Bule de chá de Russell]]
[[ru:Чайник Рассела]]
[[sq:Russells Teekanne]]
[[fi:Russellin teekannu]]
[[sv:Russells tekanna]]
[[ta:ரஸ்சலின் தேனீர் கேத்தல்]]
[[tr:Russell'in Çaydanlığı]]

William Connolley

2009-07-03T18:50:55Z

Skomorokh: /* Wikipedia activity */ ce

{{otherpersons|William Connelly|William Connelly}}
{{otherpeople|William Connolly}}

[[Image:William Connolley.jpg|thumb|right|2000/06 near [[Lescun]]]]
'''William Michael Connolley ''' (born [[April 12]], [[1964]]) is a [[software engineer]] in [[Cambridge]], England. Connolley was, until December 2007, Senior Scientific Officer in the Physical Sciences Division in the [[Antarctic Climate and the Earth System]] project at the [[British Antarctic Survey]], where he worked as a [[climate modeller]].

== Biography ==
Connolley holds a [[Bachelor of Arts]] in mathematics and [[Doctor of Philosophy]] from the [[University of Oxford]] for his work on [[numerical analysis]].<ref>W.M. Connolley, ''Preconditioning of iterative methods for linearised or linear systems'' (diss. Oxford, 1989).</ref> Connolley has authored and co-authored many articles in the field of [[Climatology|climatological research]]. It is his view that there is a [[Scientific opinion on climate change|consensus]] in the scientific community about [[climate change]] topics such as [[global warming]], and that the various reports from the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) summarise this consensus.<ref>[http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=86 "Just what is this Consensus anyway?", 22 December 2004 (Real Climate.org)]</ref>

Connolley served as a parish councillor in the village of [[Coton, Cambridgeshire|Coton]] (near Cambridge, England) until May 2007.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20070829055218/http://www.cotonpc.org.uk/ Internet Archive copy of Coton Parish Website]</ref> He stood as a [[Green Party of England and Wales|Green Party]] candidate for either [[South Cambridgeshire]] District Council or [[Cambridgeshire]] County Council every year from 2001 to 2005.<ref>[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/jonqin/Cambsgreen/PEOPLE/People.htm The Green Party South Cambs]</ref>

====Scientific work====
Connolley has long had an interest in confronting the notion that "all scientists were predicting an ice age in the 1970s" (known as [[global cooling]]).<ref>[http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=94 The global cooling myth]</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Was an imminent Ice Age predicted in the '70's? No|author=William M. Connolley|url=http://www.wmconnolley.org.uk/sci/iceage/|accessdate=2007-12-16|year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Thomas C.|coauthors=William M. Connolley, and John Fleck|title=The Myth of the 1970s Global Cooling Scientific Consensus|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|volume=89|issue=9|pages=1325–1337|url=http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2F2008BAMS2370.1|doi=10.1175/2008BAMS2370.1|year=2008}}</ref> Connolley maintains a webpage analysing papers relevant to this issue.

One of Connolley's principal research interests was [[sea ice]], its observations and modelling, in [[global climate model]]s (GCM), especially the [[HadCM3]] GCM. Around Antarctica, direct observations of sea ice are sparse, and even the most easily observable quantity, ice fraction, is not directly available; satellite [[SSMI|Special Sensor Microwave/Imager]] (SSMI) based observations are used instead. However, different [[algorithm]]s produce somewhat different results, sufficiently so that verification of GCM output becomes difficult. Hence Connolley has studied the validation of the SSMI products against more direct observations from [[upward looking sonar]] observations in the [[Weddell Sea]] area. In his investigation, the results indicate the Bootstrap product appears to "''fit better''" than the [[NASA]] Team product, and it is believed by Connolley that the GCM results are more realistic than previous results.<ref>[http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/wmc/papers/ULS-grl-2005.pdf Connolley, William M. "Sea ice concentrations in the Weddell Sea: A comparison of SSM/I, ULS, and GCM data", ''Geophysical Research Letters'', VOL. 32, 2 April, 2005]</ref>

===Wikipedia activity===
In 2005, the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' wrote a comparison of the relative reliability of Wikipedia and the print-based ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'',<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jim Giles|journal=Nature|title=Special Report: Internet encyclopaedias go head to head|year=2005|volume=438|pages=900–901|doi=10.1038/438900a}}</ref> in which Connolley was discussed as an example of an expert who regularly contributes to Wikipedia.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jim Giles|journal=Nature|title=Challenges of Being a Wikipedian|year=2005|volume=438|pages=900–901|doi=10.1038/438900a}}</ref>

A July 2006 ''[[New Yorker magazine|New Yorker]]'' explains that Connolley briefly became "a victim of an edit war over the entry on global warming," in which a skeptic repeatedly watered down the article's explanation of the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref name=Schiff/> The skeptic later brought the case before Wikipedia's arbitration committee, insisting that Connolley was pushing his own [[point of view]] into the article by removing points of view with which he disagreed.<ref name=Schiff/> The arbitration committee eventually placed Connolley on parole, although this was later revoked and Connolley went on to become an administrator.<ref name=Schiff/> [[Jimmy Wales]] cited the sanctions against Connolley as a failure of the system.<ref name=Schiff/> The article explains that Connolley believes "that Wikipedia 'gives no privilege to those who know what they’re talking about'".<ref name=Schiff>{{cite news|first=Stacy|last=Schiff|title=Know It All: Can Wikipedia conquer expertise?|url=http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/060731fa_fact|work=[[The New Yorker]]|date=[[2006-07-31]]| accessdate=2007-01-05}}</ref>

An October 2006 ''Nature'' article on the "rival" [[Citizendium]] project quoted Connolley as saying that "some scientists have become frustrated with Wikipedia" but adds that he believes that "conflict can sometimes result in better articles."<ref>{{cite journal|title=Wikipedia rival calls in the experts|author=Jim Giles|year=2006|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=443|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v443/n7111/full/443493a.html}}</ref>

== Publications ==
* W. M. Connolley and S. A. Harangozo, A comparison of five numerical weather prediction analysis climatologies in southern high latitudes, ''J. Climate'', v14, [[1 January]] [[2001]], pp 30–44.
* Turner, J, W Connolley, D Cresswell and S A Harangozo (2001). The simulation of Antarctic sea ice in the Hadley Centre climate model (HadCM3). ''Ann. Glaciol.'', 33, 585-591.
* Vaughan, D.G., G.J. Marshall, W.M. Connolley, J.C. King and R. Mulvaney. 2001. Climate change - devil in the detail. ''Science'', 293, 1777-1779. Abstract: [[7 September]] [[2001]]
* Tom A. Lachlan-Cope, William M. Connolley, and John Turner, The Role of the Non-Axisymmetric Antarctic Orography in Forcing the Observed Pattern of Variability of the Antarctic Climate, ''Geophysical Research Letters'', 2001, v28 no 21, pp 4111–4114.
* Connolley, W. M., 2002, Long-term variation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Wave, Connolley, W. M., doi:10.1029/2000JC000380, JGR 108(C4)
* J. Turner, S. A. Harangozo, J. C. King, W. Connolley, T. Lachlan-Cope, and G. J. Marshall. 2003. An exceptional winter sea ice retreat/advance in the Bellingshausen Sea, Antarctica. ''Atmos. Ocean'' 41 (2) 2003, 171-185.
* D. G. Vaughan, G. J. Marshall, W. M. Connolley, C. L. Parkinson, R. Mulvaney, D. A. Hodgson, J. C. King, C. J. Pudsey, and J. Turner. Recent rapid regional climate warming on the Antarctic Peninsula. ''Climatic Change'', 60 (3): 243-274 October 2003
* Translation of ''Fourier 1827: MEMOIRE sur les temperatures du globe terrestre et des espaces planetaires'' [http://www.wmconnolley.org.uk/sci/fourier_1827/]
* Connolley, W.M., J.M. Gregory, E. Hunke and A.J. Mclaren (2004), On The Consistent Scaling Of Terms In The Sea - Ice Dynamics Equation, ''J . Phys . Oceangr.'' 34 (7): 1776-1780 July 2004
* Marshall, G.J., P.A. Stott, J. Turner, W.M. Connolley, J.C. King and T.A. Lachlancope (2004), Causes Of Exceptional Atmospheric Circulation Changes In The Southern Hemisphere, ''Geophys. Res. Lett.'' 31(14): Art . No. L14205 [[July 30]] [[2004]]
* J. C. King, J. Turner, G. J. Marshall, W. M. Connolley, and T. A. Lachlan-Cope. Antarctic Peninsula climate variability and its causes as revealed by instrumental records. ''Antarctic Research Series'' v79, pp17–30.
* Connolley, W. M. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/wmc/papers/ULS-grl-2005.pdf Sea ice concentrations in the Weddell Sea: A comparison of SSM/I, ULS, and GCM data]. GRL 32 (7): art. no. L07501 [[2 April]] [[2005]]; see also [http://mustelid.blogspot.com/2005/05/sea-ice-what-i-do-in-my-spare-time.html Sea ice: What I do in my spare time] for a popular exposition

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.wmconnolley.org.uk/ William Connolley] (Personal website)
* [http://www.wmconnolley.org.uk/sci/iceage/ Connolley's webpage analysing papers relevant to a modern Ice Age]
* "''[http://scienceblogs.com/stoat Stoat Taking science by the throat...]''" (Connolley's personal blog)
* [http://www.realclimate.org RealClimate website] [[RealClimate]]
* [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/wmc/ Connolley's British Antarctic Survey website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Connolley, William}}
[[Category:1964 births]]
[[Category:British bloggers]]
[[Category:Climatologists]]
[[Category:Green Party of England and Wales politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Ivan Aguéli

2009-06-28T15:35:19Z

Skomorokh: Quick-adding category Swedish anarchists (using HotCat)

{{Infobox Muslim scholars
|notability = [[Muslim scholar]]
|era = [[14th century AH]]
|color = #cef2e0
|image_name = Ivan Aguéli.gif
|image_caption = Ivan Aguéli in Cairo.

|name = Ivan Aguéli ('Abd al-Hadi Aqhili)
|title = [[Sheikh]], "Muqaddim of Europe"
|birth = {{Birth date|1869|5|24}} [[Sala, Sweden|Sala]], [[Västmanland]], [[Sweden]]
|death = {{Death date and age|1917|10|1|1869|5|24}} [[L'Hospitalet de Llobregat]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]
|Ethnicity = [[Swedish people|Swedish]]
|Region = [[Europe]], [[Egypt]]
|Maddhab = [[Maliki]]<ref>No document stating Aguéli as a [[Maliki]] is known. It's unlikely this wasn't the case though, as his [[Sheikh]], Ilaysh al-Kabir, was himself a Maliki,{{Fact|date=June 2008}} and al-Kabir's father, Mohammad Ilaysh, was the head of the Maliki college at [[Al-Azhar University]], receiving the title "Restorer of the Maliki Faith".{{Fact|date=June 2008}}</ref>
|school tradition = [[Shadhili]], [[Malamatiyya]]
|main_interests = [[Sufism]], [[Impressionism]], [[Symbolism]], [[Comparative religion]], [[Animal rights]], [[Anarchism]]
|notable idea = Non-syncretic metaphysical comparative analysis of orthodox religious esotericisms, the core of the [[Traditionalist School|traditionalist]] method.
|works = ''Écrits pour La Gnose'' (French)
|influences = [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], [[Ibn Arabi]]
|influenced = [[René Guénon]]
}}
'''Ivan Aguéli''' (born ''John Gustaf Agelii'') (May 24, 1869 - October 1, 1917) also named '''Sheikh 'Abd al-Hadi Aqhili''' ({{lang-ar|'''شيخ عبد الهادی عقیلی'''}}) upon his acceptance of Islam, was a [[Sweden|Swedish-born]] wandering [[Sufi]], painter and author. As a devotee of [[Ibn Arabi]], his metaphysics applied to the study of Islamic esoterism and its similarities with other esoteric traditions of the world. He was the initiator of [[René Guénon]] into [[Sufism]]<ref>Waterfield, p.29</ref> and founder of the Parisian [[Al Akbariyya]] society. His art was a unique form of [[miniature]] [[Post-Impressionism]] where he used the blend of colours to create a sense of depth and distance. His unique style of art made him one of the founders of the Swedish contemporary art movement.

==Childhood and Youth==
[[Image:Sala vapen.svg|thumb|right|Coat of arms of the municipality of [[Sala, Sweden|Sala]], Sweden (the so called "Silver City" where '''Ivan Aguéli''' was born and raised).]]Ivan Aguéli was born ''John Gustaf Agelii'' in the small [[Sweden|Swedish]] town of [[Sala, Sweden|Sala]] in 1869, the son of [[veterinary|veterinarian]] ''Johan Gabriel Agelii''.

The so called "Silver City" Sala is best known for its historical silver [[Mining|mine]], which dates back to at least [[Medieval]] times and still was in operation until 1908. Sala's [[coat of arms]] depicts crossed mining tools under a crescent moon, all in silver on blue background. The crescent moon is not only the [[alchemical symbol]] for [[silver]] but also the symbol for [[al-Insān al-Kāmil]] ("the Universal man") in [[Islam]]'s [[esoteric]] application of the ancient symbolism of [[star and crescent]]. Curiously the [[Sufi]] concept "Universal man" and its [[Taoist]] counterpart [[Chen jen]] ("Realized man") would more than anything else come to be decisive in Aguéli's life. And his main precursor in Sweden, [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] (Aguéli often called himself a "Swedenborgianist"), descended from a wealthy mining family and through [[mineralogy]], [[metallurgy]] and [[alchemical]] studies bloomed into a full-fledged [[Theosophy (history of philosophy)|thesophist]] in the lines of [[Jacob Boehme]].

Between the years 1879-1889 Aguéli conducted his studies in [[Gotland]] and [[Stockholm]]. Early on in his youth he began showing an exceptional artistic talent and a keen interest in religious [[mysticism]].

In 1889/1890 he adopted the first name [[Ivan]], the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] first name that etymologically corresponds to [[John (first name)|John]]. When first writing it, he uses Russian [[orthography]], which underscores the possibility that this adoption was done under the influence of Russian novelists as [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]] and [[Ivan Turgenev]], whose books he read these days amongst other Russian literature and thinkers which he studied and sympathized with.<ref>Gauffin, p.38</ref>. According to [[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Ananda K. Coomaraswamy]]'s studies in [[symbolism]] and [[comparative mythology]]<ref>Coomaraswamy, p.195, note 31</ref> the hero Ivan in the Russian [[folk-tales]] is synonymous with the mystical knight and the first [[Grail]]-keeper [[Gawain]]-[[Iwain]], and hence described as Prince Ivan who through a perilous quest finds the way to [[the Water of Life]]<ref>Ralston, p.235ff</ref>.

In 1890 Aguéli travelled to [[Paris]]. There he came to adopt Aguéli as a [[French language|French]] spelling of his surname Agelii, and, as some have claimed, possibly as an analogy to "water"{{Fact|date=August 2008}}. In Paris Aguéli became the student of the [[Symbolism|Symbolist]] painter [[Émile Bernard]], who was a close friend of [[Vincent van Gogh]] and [[Paul Gauguin]]. Before returning to Sweden in 1890 he made a detour to [[London]], where he met the [[Russia]]n [[anarchist]] scholar [[Kropotkin|Prince Kropotkin]].<ref>Gauffin I, p.67</ref>

Attending art school in [[Stockholm]], he was taught by the Swedish artists [[Anders Zorn]] and Richard Bergh.

==Ibn Arabi and the Koran==
Records kept at the [[Swedish Royal Library|Royal Library]] in [[Stockholm]] indicate that he first borrowed a Swedish translation of the [[Qur'an|Koran]] on 11 March 1892.<ref>Gauffin I, p.73</ref>
Not only did he start reading about Islam, but Aguéli also began openly displaying Oriental character traits. At one famous occasion when visiting the exclusive café ''Du Nord'' in Stockholm he persuaded all his friends to settle down on the floor, to the great surprise of the waiters.<ref>Gauffin I, p.75</ref>

By the end of 1892 he left Stockholm to return to Paris where he was drawn into the city's political turmoil.

==Paris and Anarchism==
During this period he was also active in [[French anarchist]] circles. In 1894 he was arrested for association with French [[anarchism|anarchists]] such as [[Maximilien Luce]] and [[Félix Fénéon]] and although acquitted in the famous "[[Trial of the thirty]]", he spent 4 months in detention at the [[Mazas Prison|Mazas prison]].<ref>Gauffin I, p.180</ref> During his detention, Aguéli used his time to study the [[Qur'an|Koran]] and [[Oriental languages]].

Within months of his release in 1895 he left France for Egypt, where he lived until he returned to Paris in 1896.<ref>Gauffin I, pp.131</ref>
It was later on in Paris, between 1898 and 1899, that Aguéli finally converted to [[Islam]] and adopted the name '''Abd al-Hadi'' (meaning ''the servant of the Guide'').

==Sri Lanka==
In 1899 he moved to [[Colombo]] (in today's [[Sri Lanka]]) where he settled down in its [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] community and enrolled at a local Islamic school "in order to study the influence of Islam on other nations than the Arab..."<ref>Gauffin II, p.44</ref> However, due to monetary difficulties, Aguéli was forced to return to Paris in 1900.<ref>Gauffin II, pp.42</ref>

==Sufism==
{{rquote|left|'''''Amongst the Truths of our religion [Islam] is that the world is as Allah has wished it to be. Hence you should only demand perfection of yourself...''''' — Abd al-Hadi}}

In 1902 Aguéli moved to [[Cairo]] and became one of the first Western Europeans to be officially enrolled at [[Al-Azhar University]], where he studied [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Islamic philosophy]].<ref>Gauffin II, pp.121</ref> Living a life in utmost poverty, adopting Arab dress and learning perfect Arabic, Aguéli soon won many friends among the Egyptians.

In 1902 he was also initiated into the al-'Arabiyya [[Shadhili]]yya Sufi order by the great Egyptian Shaykh 'Abd al-Rahman Ilaysh al-Kabir (1840-1921).<ref>Almqvist, pp.17-19</ref> Considered one of the greatest Sufi masters in Cairo, Shaykh Ilaysh had become a close friend of the Algerian Sufi Emir [[Abdel Qadir|Abd al-Qadir]] during an exile to Damascus at the end of the 19th Century.<ref name="Gauffin II, p.143">Gauffin II, p.143</ref>

Throughout his life, Aguéli was also drawn to the [[Malamatiyya]] Sufi order, which by many historians is deemed to explain his sometimes bizarre and highly unconventional behaviour, such as the [[Deuil]] incident related below.

Shaykh Ilaysh also gave Aguéli the title ''Muqaddim of Europe''. This title would be of utmost importance during his future travels.<ref name="Gauffin II, p.143"/>

==Il Convito==
With the blessing of Shaykh Ilaysh, Aguéli and an [[Italy|Italian]] journalist and fellow-convert named Enrico Insabato (1878-1963) founded and contributed to an Italian magazine published in Cairo (1904-1913) named [[Il Convito]] (Arabic: ''An-Nadi''). To avoid writing in the colonial languages French and English, the magazine was written in [[Italian language|Italian]]. <ref>See article by Hatina, pp.389-409</ref>

The aim of this publication was to help bridge the cultural gap between Christian Europe and the [[Islamic world]]. Aguéli and Insabato, acting on the instructions of Shaykh Ilaysh, wished to counter British and French influence in the Islamic world by gaining Italian support and simultaneously promote the Sufism of [[Ibn Arabi]] in Europe.<ref>Gauffin II, p.191-192</ref>

The greatest achievement of their efforts for an Italian-Islamic dialogue was when Shaykh Ilaysh, in order to spite the [[United Kingdom|British]], dedicated a large mosque in Cairo to the memory of the Italian [[King Umberto I]] in 1906.

The political agenda of the magazine, its pro-Sufi stance and opposition to the British rule of Egypt meant that it was branded as anti-colonial and subsequently closed down by the [[British empire|British administration]] in 1913.

==First World War and Spain==
Aguéli's opinions were clearly against the British colonial administration and thus [[Earl of Cromer|Lord Cromer]], the British Consul-General of Egypt, came to suspect that he was an [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] spy and expelled him to Spain in 1916. Stranded in Spain, Aguéli lacked the funds to continue back to Sweden.

{{rquote|right|'''''Admit, that a landscape can reflect a spiritual state ... Religion is decisive for the sun in the landscape of my within. See, that is why I love monotheism and the Arabian spirit''''' — Abd al-Hadi}}

Aguéli sent numerous letters to friends back in Sweden pleading for money. However, his conversion to Islam and his constant poverty had made most of his Swedish friends distance themselves from him, and none came to his aid. Finally, on October 3, 1917 his friend and patron [[Prince Eugén, Duke of Närke|Prince Eugén Bernadotte of Sweden]] sent a cheque of 1,000 [[Spanish peseta]]s to the Swedish consulate in order to help him back, but it was too late. In the early morning hours of October 1, 1917 Aguéli had tragically been killed by a train at a rail crossing in the village of [[L'Hospitalet de Llobregat]] outside [[Barcelona]].<ref>Brummer, pp.63-64</ref>

Upon learning of Aguéli's death, Prince Eugén ordered the cheque to be given to his impoverished mother, who had spent all her savings supporting her son. The Prince also commanded the [[Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Sweden)|Foreign Ministry]] to under his personal supervision repatriate and preserve all of Aguéli's belongings.

At an exhibition in 1920 nearly 200 of Aguéli's recovered paintings were put on display at Prince Eugén's residence at [[Waldemarsudde]]. After the Prince and his nephew [[Gustav VI Adolf|Crown Prince Gustav Adolf Bernadotte]] (future King Gustav VI Adolf of Sweden) had purchased their favourites, the rest were sold to a fascinated audience.<ref>Brummer, pp.67-73</ref>

==Aguéli, René Guénon and the Al Akbariyya==
[[René Guénon]] and Aguéli began their friendship in 1910 while Guénon was the editor of ''La Gnose'', an esoteric magazine in Paris.<ref>Almqvist, p.19</ref> It was while writing numerous articles on metaphysics, Sufism and Taoism that Aguéli seems to have awakened Guénon’s interest in Islam. As a Moqaddim of the Shadhiliyya order and Shaykh Ilaysh’s personal representative in Europe Aguéli founded the secret Sufi [[Al Akbariyya]] society and then proceeded to initiate Guénon into Sufi Islam sometime in 1912.<ref>Almqvist, p.17-19</ref>

{{rquote|right|'''''Abdul Hadi, as Aguéli was known in the Islamic world and later in Europe, must be given his due as a pioneer in the serious introduction of Sufism to the West''''' — [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]]}}

It is believed that the [[Al Akbariyya]] society founded by Aguéli remained highly secretive. Guénon was not openly Muslim until 1930 when he moved to Cairo, following in Aguéli's footsteps.

It is also worth noting that Guénon's book, ''Orient et Occident'' (1924) deals extensively with the metaphysical similarities between Taoism and Sufism which was the subject Aguéli had already touched upon in La Gnose as early as in January 1911 in an article named ''Pages dedicated to Mercury'', which subsequently became his most famous article.<ref>Waterfield p.30. For the article itself, see ''Écrits pour La Gnose''.</ref> Subsequently, many scholars have chosen to follow Aguéli's lead, such as [[Toshihiko Izutsu]]’s ''Sufism and Taoism'' (published in 1984).

==Aguéli and Swedenborg==
As a teenager in Stockholm, Aguéli was introduced to the teachings of the 18th century Swedish mystic [[Emanuel Swedenborg]].<ref>Gauffin I, p.30</ref> The metaphysical teachings of Swedenborg and his [[Unitarianism|unitarian]] approach to the Christian concept of divinity made a lasting impression on Aguéli and prepared him for his conversion to Islam later on.

It appears that although Aguéli was the first one to explore similarities between Sufi and Swedenborgian metaphysics, this was much later extensively written about by [[Henry Corbin]] in his book ''Swedenborg and Esoteric Islam'' (published in 1995).

==Aguéli the Activist: Animal Rights and Feminism==
As the son of a veterinarian, Aguéli had a very profound love for animals and he also participated in active protests.

In one famous incident in year 1900, outside a [[bull-fighting]] arena in the Parisian suburb of [[Deuil]], he shot and wounded a Spanish [[matador]] with a revolver. During the trial he vehemently defended his rights and refused to apologise. Rallying the entire French animal-rights movement he was only given a suspended sentence.<ref>Gauffin II, pp.93-98</ref>

During his lifetime he also developed a close friendship with the equally eccentric French poet and animal-rights activist [[Marie Huot]] (1846 - 1930).

Aguéli was also outspoken on the issue of women's rights. In a letter to [[Marie Huot]], he even states that Ibn Arabi and Sufism in many ways promote [[feminism]], because of the existence of female Sufi saints. In one of his letters he also calls the Swedish writer [[August Strindberg]] ''"an idiot"'' for claiming that women are inferior to men.

==Aguéli and Art==
{{rquote|right|'''''My art will one day explain the eccentricities of my life...''''' — Abd al-Hadi}}

In 1912, while living in Paris, Aguéli began writing articles on art theory and contemporary art. One of his most exceptional pieces is an article, published in Paris, which deals with the [[Cubism]] of [[Pablo Picasso]].<ref>Gauffin, pp.218-219</ref> The article awakened the interest of the famous Parisian art critic [[Guillaume Appollinaire]], who attempted in vain to get Aguéli to cooperate with him in a series of art publications.<ref>Brummer, pp.124-125</ref>

Later, Aguéli would also attempt to arrange for his patron Prince Eugéne to meet Picasso and [[Matisse]].<ref>Brummer, p.125</ref>

==Aguéli's Heritage==
[[File:Sala fontän bild 3.JPG|thumb| Place of Ivan Aguéli in [[Sala]].]]
In Sweden, Aguéli is admired as one of its most prominent contemporary painters and his paintings are considered to be national treasures. Most of his paintings are found at the [[Swedish National Museum of Fine Arts|Swedish National Museum of Fine arts]], the [[Moderna Museet|Museum of Modern Art]] and the [http://www.sala.se/turism/aguelimuseet Aguéli museum].

Aguélis prominence in Sweden was clearly shown in 1969 when, at the centenary of his birth, six of his paintings were printed as [[Postage stamp|stamps]] by the [[Posten (Sweden)|Swedish Postal Service]].

Aguéli's remains were kept in Barcelona, Spain until 1981, when he was brought back to Sweden and re-buried with Islamic rites in his hometown of Sala alongside the central Church of Kristina, named after Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (known for what was seemed as an eccentric interest in [[alchemy]] and for having abdicated her throne in order to change her name, set off to [[Rome]] and openly practice her previously secret [[Catholicism]]).

[[Image:Ivan agueli's gravestone in sala sweden oct 1st 2006.jpg|thumb|300px|left|'''Ivan Aguéli'''´s grave in the first of October in 2006.]]In Sala there is also the [http://iis.sala.se/turism/aguelimuseet/ ''Aguéli museum''] with the largest collection of his artworks, donated by Sala's well-known [[physician]] Carl Friberg to [[Nationalmuseum]]. Since the 24th of May 2000 there is also the ''Aguéli place'' with the ''Aguéli monument'' by the large ''Aguéli park''. The street where Aguéli lived is called the ''Aguéli street'', also in dedication to his memory.

In 2006, under the patronage of King [[Carl XVI Gustav]] of Sweden the largest ever Aguéli exhibition was once again held at [[Waldemarsudde]] in Stockholm, this time also incorporating his Muslim heritage, with various lectures on Sufism.

After his death, Sufis have referred to Aguéli by the epithet of ''Abd al-Hadi "Noor-u-Shimaal"'' (meaning ''Abd al-Hadi "the Light of the North"'') for being the first ever officially named representative of a Sufi order to bring Sufism to [[Western Europe]] and [[Scandinavia]].

Although it cannot be said that Aguéli himself was a [[perennial philosophy|perennialist]] or a [[traditionalist school|traditionalist]] as such, his ideas constituted a certain proto-traditionalism that was later on clarified and established by Guénon and Schuon. Spiritually, the traditionalist teachings of René Guénon and [[Frithjof Schuon]] have been upheld in Sweden by Swedish Sufi traditionalist scholars such as [[Kurt Almqvist]] and [[Tage Lindbom]].

==Quotes==
*Admit, that a landscape can reflect a spiritual state ... Religion is decisive for the sun in the landscape of my within. See, that is why I love monotheism and the Arabian spirit.
*Amongst the Truths of our religion [Islam] is that the world is as Allah has wished it to be. Hence you should only demand perfection of yourself...<ref>Gauffin II, p.191</ref>
*Give me only bread and water, but let me paint!

==Bibliography==
'''Swedish:'''

* [[Kurt Almqvist|Almqvist, Kurt]]; ''I tjänst hos det enda - ur René Guénons verk'', Natur och Kultur, 1977.
* [[Kurt Almqvist|Almqvist, Kurt]]; ''Ordet är dig nära. Om uppenbarelsen i hjärtat och i religionerna'', Delsbo, 1994.
* Brummer, Hans-Erik (red.); ''Ivan Aguéli'', Stockholm, 2006.
* [[Gunnar Ekelöf|Ekelöf, Gunnar]]; ''Ivan Aguéli'', 1944.
* Gauffin, Axel; ''Ivan Aguéli - Människan, mystikern, målaren'' I-II, Sveriges Allmänna Konstförenings Publikation, 1940-41.
* Wessel, Viveka; ''Ivan Aguéli - Porträtt av en rymd'', 1988.

'''English:'''
*Chacornac, Paul; ''The Simple Life of Réne Guénon'', pp.31-37, Sophia Perennis. (It has to be noted that Chacornac has depended on secondary sources for his information on Aguéli, and that hence his description of Aguéli is deeply flawed.)
*Hatina, Meir; ''Where East Meets West: Sufism as a Lever for Cultural Rapprochement'', pp.389-409, Volume 39, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
*Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; ''Sufism: Love and Wisdom'', page X of foreword, World Wisdom Books, 2006.
*Turner, Jade (ed.); ''The Grove Dictionary of Art'', pp.465-466, Grove, 1996.
*Waterfield, Robin; ''Réne Guénon and the Future of the West'', pp.28-30, Sophia Perennis.

'''French:'''
*Abdul-Hâdi (John Gustav Agelii, dit Ivan Aguéli); ''Écrits pour La Gnose, comprenant la traduction de l'arabe du Traité de l'Unité'', Archè, 1988.

==Related literature==
*[[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Coomaraswamy, Ananda K.]]; "Symplegades" in [[Martin Lings|Lings, Martin]] & Minnaar, Clinton; ''The Underlying Religion: An Introduction to the Perennial Philosophy'', pp.176-199, World Wisdom Books, 2007.
*[[William Shedden Ralston|Ralston, W.R.]]; ''Russian Folk-Tales'', New York, 1873.

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

==See also==

* [[Al Akbariyya]]
* [[Shadhili]]yya
* [[Malamatiyya]]
* [[Perennial philosophy]]
* [[Traditionalist School]]
* [[Kurt Almqvist]]
* [[Titus Burckhardt]]
* [[René Guénon]]
* [[Tage Lindbom]]
* [[Martin Lings]]
* [[Hossein Nasr]]
* [[Frithjof Schuon]]

==External links==
*[http://iis.sala.se/turism/aguelimuseet/ Aguéli Museum]

{{Portal|Islam|Allah.svg|left=yes}}
{{Portal|Biography|Crystal_personal.svg}}
{{Sufism}}



{{Persondata
|NAME = Aguéli, Ivan
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Agelii, John Gustaf (born); Aqhili, 'Abd al-Hadi, Sheikh (Islamic)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = Sufi master and nationally recognized contemporary painter in Sweden
|DATE OF BIRTH = [[May 24]], [[1869]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Sala, Sweden|Sala]], [[Västmanland]], [[Sweden]]
|DATE OF DEATH = [[October 1]], [[1917]]
|PLACE OF DEATH = [[L'Hospitalet de Llobregat]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]
}}
{{Lifetime|1869|1917|Aguéli, Ivan}}
[[Category:Converts to Islam]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters]]
[[Category:Islamic studies scholars]]
[[Category:Swedish painters]]
[[Category:Swedish Sufis]]
[[Category:Sufi art]]
[[Category:Traditionalism]]
[[Category:Imprisoned anarchists]]
[[Category:Swedish anarchists]]

[[fa:ایوان عقیلی]]
[[fr:Ivan Aguéli]]
[[fi:Ivan Aguéli]]
[[sv:Ivan Aguéli]]
[[tr:Ivan Aguéli]]

Ivan Aguéli

2009-06-28T15:34:45Z

Skomorokh: Removed category Anarchists; Quick-adding category Imprisoned anarchists (using HotCat)

{{Infobox Muslim scholars
|notability = [[Muslim scholar]]
|era = [[14th century AH]]
|color = #cef2e0
|image_name = Ivan Aguéli.gif
|image_caption = Ivan Aguéli in Cairo.

|name = Ivan Aguéli ('Abd al-Hadi Aqhili)
|title = [[Sheikh]], "Muqaddim of Europe"
|birth = {{Birth date|1869|5|24}} [[Sala, Sweden|Sala]], [[Västmanland]], [[Sweden]]
|death = {{Death date and age|1917|10|1|1869|5|24}} [[L'Hospitalet de Llobregat]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]
|Ethnicity = [[Swedish people|Swedish]]
|Region = [[Europe]], [[Egypt]]
|Maddhab = [[Maliki]]<ref>No document stating Aguéli as a [[Maliki]] is known. It's unlikely this wasn't the case though, as his [[Sheikh]], Ilaysh al-Kabir, was himself a Maliki,{{Fact|date=June 2008}} and al-Kabir's father, Mohammad Ilaysh, was the head of the Maliki college at [[Al-Azhar University]], receiving the title "Restorer of the Maliki Faith".{{Fact|date=June 2008}}</ref>
|school tradition = [[Shadhili]], [[Malamatiyya]]
|main_interests = [[Sufism]], [[Impressionism]], [[Symbolism]], [[Comparative religion]], [[Animal rights]], [[Anarchism]]
|notable idea = Non-syncretic metaphysical comparative analysis of orthodox religious esotericisms, the core of the [[Traditionalist School|traditionalist]] method.
|works = ''Écrits pour La Gnose'' (French)
|influences = [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], [[Ibn Arabi]]
|influenced = [[René Guénon]]
}}
'''Ivan Aguéli''' (born ''John Gustaf Agelii'') (May 24, 1869 - October 1, 1917) also named '''Sheikh 'Abd al-Hadi Aqhili''' ({{lang-ar|'''شيخ عبد الهادی عقیلی'''}}) upon his acceptance of Islam, was a [[Sweden|Swedish-born]] wandering [[Sufi]], painter and author. As a devotee of [[Ibn Arabi]], his metaphysics applied to the study of Islamic esoterism and its similarities with other esoteric traditions of the world. He was the initiator of [[René Guénon]] into [[Sufism]]<ref>Waterfield, p.29</ref> and founder of the Parisian [[Al Akbariyya]] society. His art was a unique form of [[miniature]] [[Post-Impressionism]] where he used the blend of colours to create a sense of depth and distance. His unique style of art made him one of the founders of the Swedish contemporary art movement.

==Childhood and Youth==
[[Image:Sala vapen.svg|thumb|right|Coat of arms of the municipality of [[Sala, Sweden|Sala]], Sweden (the so called "Silver City" where '''Ivan Aguéli''' was born and raised).]]Ivan Aguéli was born ''John Gustaf Agelii'' in the small [[Sweden|Swedish]] town of [[Sala, Sweden|Sala]] in 1869, the son of [[veterinary|veterinarian]] ''Johan Gabriel Agelii''.

The so called "Silver City" Sala is best known for its historical silver [[Mining|mine]], which dates back to at least [[Medieval]] times and still was in operation until 1908. Sala's [[coat of arms]] depicts crossed mining tools under a crescent moon, all in silver on blue background. The crescent moon is not only the [[alchemical symbol]] for [[silver]] but also the symbol for [[al-Insān al-Kāmil]] ("the Universal man") in [[Islam]]'s [[esoteric]] application of the ancient symbolism of [[star and crescent]]. Curiously the [[Sufi]] concept "Universal man" and its [[Taoist]] counterpart [[Chen jen]] ("Realized man") would more than anything else come to be decisive in Aguéli's life. And his main precursor in Sweden, [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] (Aguéli often called himself a "Swedenborgianist"), descended from a wealthy mining family and through [[mineralogy]], [[metallurgy]] and [[alchemical]] studies bloomed into a full-fledged [[Theosophy (history of philosophy)|thesophist]] in the lines of [[Jacob Boehme]].

Between the years 1879-1889 Aguéli conducted his studies in [[Gotland]] and [[Stockholm]]. Early on in his youth he began showing an exceptional artistic talent and a keen interest in religious [[mysticism]].

In 1889/1890 he adopted the first name [[Ivan]], the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] first name that etymologically corresponds to [[John (first name)|John]]. When first writing it, he uses Russian [[orthography]], which underscores the possibility that this adoption was done under the influence of Russian novelists as [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]] and [[Ivan Turgenev]], whose books he read these days amongst other Russian literature and thinkers which he studied and sympathized with.<ref>Gauffin, p.38</ref>. According to [[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Ananda K. Coomaraswamy]]'s studies in [[symbolism]] and [[comparative mythology]]<ref>Coomaraswamy, p.195, note 31</ref> the hero Ivan in the Russian [[folk-tales]] is synonymous with the mystical knight and the first [[Grail]]-keeper [[Gawain]]-[[Iwain]], and hence described as Prince Ivan who through a perilous quest finds the way to [[the Water of Life]]<ref>Ralston, p.235ff</ref>.

In 1890 Aguéli travelled to [[Paris]]. There he came to adopt Aguéli as a [[French language|French]] spelling of his surname Agelii, and, as some have claimed, possibly as an analogy to "water"{{Fact|date=August 2008}}. In Paris Aguéli became the student of the [[Symbolism|Symbolist]] painter [[Émile Bernard]], who was a close friend of [[Vincent van Gogh]] and [[Paul Gauguin]]. Before returning to Sweden in 1890 he made a detour to [[London]], where he met the [[Russia]]n [[anarchist]] scholar [[Kropotkin|Prince Kropotkin]].<ref>Gauffin I, p.67</ref>

Attending art school in [[Stockholm]], he was taught by the Swedish artists [[Anders Zorn]] and Richard Bergh.

==Ibn Arabi and the Koran==
Records kept at the [[Swedish Royal Library|Royal Library]] in [[Stockholm]] indicate that he first borrowed a Swedish translation of the [[Qur'an|Koran]] on 11 March 1892.<ref>Gauffin I, p.73</ref>
Not only did he start reading about Islam, but Aguéli also began openly displaying Oriental character traits. At one famous occasion when visiting the exclusive café ''Du Nord'' in Stockholm he persuaded all his friends to settle down on the floor, to the great surprise of the waiters.<ref>Gauffin I, p.75</ref>

By the end of 1892 he left Stockholm to return to Paris where he was drawn into the city's political turmoil.

==Paris and Anarchism==
During this period he was also active in [[French anarchist]] circles. In 1894 he was arrested for association with French [[anarchism|anarchists]] such as [[Maximilien Luce]] and [[Félix Fénéon]] and although acquitted in the famous "[[Trial of the thirty]]", he spent 4 months in detention at the [[Mazas Prison|Mazas prison]].<ref>Gauffin I, p.180</ref> During his detention, Aguéli used his time to study the [[Qur'an|Koran]] and [[Oriental languages]].

Within months of his release in 1895 he left France for Egypt, where he lived until he returned to Paris in 1896.<ref>Gauffin I, pp.131</ref>
It was later on in Paris, between 1898 and 1899, that Aguéli finally converted to [[Islam]] and adopted the name '''Abd al-Hadi'' (meaning ''the servant of the Guide'').

==Sri Lanka==
In 1899 he moved to [[Colombo]] (in today's [[Sri Lanka]]) where he settled down in its [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] community and enrolled at a local Islamic school "in order to study the influence of Islam on other nations than the Arab..."<ref>Gauffin II, p.44</ref> However, due to monetary difficulties, Aguéli was forced to return to Paris in 1900.<ref>Gauffin II, pp.42</ref>

==Sufism==
{{rquote|left|'''''Amongst the Truths of our religion [Islam] is that the world is as Allah has wished it to be. Hence you should only demand perfection of yourself...''''' — Abd al-Hadi}}

In 1902 Aguéli moved to [[Cairo]] and became one of the first Western Europeans to be officially enrolled at [[Al-Azhar University]], where he studied [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Islamic philosophy]].<ref>Gauffin II, pp.121</ref> Living a life in utmost poverty, adopting Arab dress and learning perfect Arabic, Aguéli soon won many friends among the Egyptians.

In 1902 he was also initiated into the al-'Arabiyya [[Shadhili]]yya Sufi order by the great Egyptian Shaykh 'Abd al-Rahman Ilaysh al-Kabir (1840-1921).<ref>Almqvist, pp.17-19</ref> Considered one of the greatest Sufi masters in Cairo, Shaykh Ilaysh had become a close friend of the Algerian Sufi Emir [[Abdel Qadir|Abd al-Qadir]] during an exile to Damascus at the end of the 19th Century.<ref name="Gauffin II, p.143">Gauffin II, p.143</ref>

Throughout his life, Aguéli was also drawn to the [[Malamatiyya]] Sufi order, which by many historians is deemed to explain his sometimes bizarre and highly unconventional behaviour, such as the [[Deuil]] incident related below.

Shaykh Ilaysh also gave Aguéli the title ''Muqaddim of Europe''. This title would be of utmost importance during his future travels.<ref name="Gauffin II, p.143"/>

==Il Convito==
With the blessing of Shaykh Ilaysh, Aguéli and an [[Italy|Italian]] journalist and fellow-convert named Enrico Insabato (1878-1963) founded and contributed to an Italian magazine published in Cairo (1904-1913) named [[Il Convito]] (Arabic: ''An-Nadi''). To avoid writing in the colonial languages French and English, the magazine was written in [[Italian language|Italian]]. <ref>See article by Hatina, pp.389-409</ref>

The aim of this publication was to help bridge the cultural gap between Christian Europe and the [[Islamic world]]. Aguéli and Insabato, acting on the instructions of Shaykh Ilaysh, wished to counter British and French influence in the Islamic world by gaining Italian support and simultaneously promote the Sufism of [[Ibn Arabi]] in Europe.<ref>Gauffin II, p.191-192</ref>

The greatest achievement of their efforts for an Italian-Islamic dialogue was when Shaykh Ilaysh, in order to spite the [[United Kingdom|British]], dedicated a large mosque in Cairo to the memory of the Italian [[King Umberto I]] in 1906.

The political agenda of the magazine, its pro-Sufi stance and opposition to the British rule of Egypt meant that it was branded as anti-colonial and subsequently closed down by the [[British empire|British administration]] in 1913.

==First World War and Spain==
Aguéli's opinions were clearly against the British colonial administration and thus [[Earl of Cromer|Lord Cromer]], the British Consul-General of Egypt, came to suspect that he was an [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] spy and expelled him to Spain in 1916. Stranded in Spain, Aguéli lacked the funds to continue back to Sweden.

{{rquote|right|'''''Admit, that a landscape can reflect a spiritual state ... Religion is decisive for the sun in the landscape of my within. See, that is why I love monotheism and the Arabian spirit''''' — Abd al-Hadi}}

Aguéli sent numerous letters to friends back in Sweden pleading for money. However, his conversion to Islam and his constant poverty had made most of his Swedish friends distance themselves from him, and none came to his aid. Finally, on October 3, 1917 his friend and patron [[Prince Eugén, Duke of Närke|Prince Eugén Bernadotte of Sweden]] sent a cheque of 1,000 [[Spanish peseta]]s to the Swedish consulate in order to help him back, but it was too late. In the early morning hours of October 1, 1917 Aguéli had tragically been killed by a train at a rail crossing in the village of [[L'Hospitalet de Llobregat]] outside [[Barcelona]].<ref>Brummer, pp.63-64</ref>

Upon learning of Aguéli's death, Prince Eugén ordered the cheque to be given to his impoverished mother, who had spent all her savings supporting her son. The Prince also commanded the [[Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Sweden)|Foreign Ministry]] to under his personal supervision repatriate and preserve all of Aguéli's belongings.

At an exhibition in 1920 nearly 200 of Aguéli's recovered paintings were put on display at Prince Eugén's residence at [[Waldemarsudde]]. After the Prince and his nephew [[Gustav VI Adolf|Crown Prince Gustav Adolf Bernadotte]] (future King Gustav VI Adolf of Sweden) had purchased their favourites, the rest were sold to a fascinated audience.<ref>Brummer, pp.67-73</ref>

==Aguéli, René Guénon and the Al Akbariyya==
[[René Guénon]] and Aguéli began their friendship in 1910 while Guénon was the editor of ''La Gnose'', an esoteric magazine in Paris.<ref>Almqvist, p.19</ref> It was while writing numerous articles on metaphysics, Sufism and Taoism that Aguéli seems to have awakened Guénon’s interest in Islam. As a Moqaddim of the Shadhiliyya order and Shaykh Ilaysh’s personal representative in Europe Aguéli founded the secret Sufi [[Al Akbariyya]] society and then proceeded to initiate Guénon into Sufi Islam sometime in 1912.<ref>Almqvist, p.17-19</ref>

{{rquote|right|'''''Abdul Hadi, as Aguéli was known in the Islamic world and later in Europe, must be given his due as a pioneer in the serious introduction of Sufism to the West''''' — [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]]}}

It is believed that the [[Al Akbariyya]] society founded by Aguéli remained highly secretive. Guénon was not openly Muslim until 1930 when he moved to Cairo, following in Aguéli's footsteps.

It is also worth noting that Guénon's book, ''Orient et Occident'' (1924) deals extensively with the metaphysical similarities between Taoism and Sufism which was the subject Aguéli had already touched upon in La Gnose as early as in January 1911 in an article named ''Pages dedicated to Mercury'', which subsequently became his most famous article.<ref>Waterfield p.30. For the article itself, see ''Écrits pour La Gnose''.</ref> Subsequently, many scholars have chosen to follow Aguéli's lead, such as [[Toshihiko Izutsu]]’s ''Sufism and Taoism'' (published in 1984).

==Aguéli and Swedenborg==
As a teenager in Stockholm, Aguéli was introduced to the teachings of the 18th century Swedish mystic [[Emanuel Swedenborg]].<ref>Gauffin I, p.30</ref> The metaphysical teachings of Swedenborg and his [[Unitarianism|unitarian]] approach to the Christian concept of divinity made a lasting impression on Aguéli and prepared him for his conversion to Islam later on.

It appears that although Aguéli was the first one to explore similarities between Sufi and Swedenborgian metaphysics, this was much later extensively written about by [[Henry Corbin]] in his book ''Swedenborg and Esoteric Islam'' (published in 1995).

==Aguéli the Activist: Animal Rights and Feminism==
As the son of a veterinarian, Aguéli had a very profound love for animals and he also participated in active protests.

In one famous incident in year 1900, outside a [[bull-fighting]] arena in the Parisian suburb of [[Deuil]], he shot and wounded a Spanish [[matador]] with a revolver. During the trial he vehemently defended his rights and refused to apologise. Rallying the entire French animal-rights movement he was only given a suspended sentence.<ref>Gauffin II, pp.93-98</ref>

During his lifetime he also developed a close friendship with the equally eccentric French poet and animal-rights activist [[Marie Huot]] (1846 - 1930).

Aguéli was also outspoken on the issue of women's rights. In a letter to [[Marie Huot]], he even states that Ibn Arabi and Sufism in many ways promote [[feminism]], because of the existence of female Sufi saints. In one of his letters he also calls the Swedish writer [[August Strindberg]] ''"an idiot"'' for claiming that women are inferior to men.

==Aguéli and Art==
{{rquote|right|'''''My art will one day explain the eccentricities of my life...''''' — Abd al-Hadi}}

In 1912, while living in Paris, Aguéli began writing articles on art theory and contemporary art. One of his most exceptional pieces is an article, published in Paris, which deals with the [[Cubism]] of [[Pablo Picasso]].<ref>Gauffin, pp.218-219</ref> The article awakened the interest of the famous Parisian art critic [[Guillaume Appollinaire]], who attempted in vain to get Aguéli to cooperate with him in a series of art publications.<ref>Brummer, pp.124-125</ref>

Later, Aguéli would also attempt to arrange for his patron Prince Eugéne to meet Picasso and [[Matisse]].<ref>Brummer, p.125</ref>

==Aguéli's Heritage==
[[File:Sala fontän bild 3.JPG|thumb| Place of Ivan Aguéli in [[Sala]].]]
In Sweden, Aguéli is admired as one of its most prominent contemporary painters and his paintings are considered to be national treasures. Most of his paintings are found at the [[Swedish National Museum of Fine Arts|Swedish National Museum of Fine arts]], the [[Moderna Museet|Museum of Modern Art]] and the [http://www.sala.se/turism/aguelimuseet Aguéli museum].

Aguélis prominence in Sweden was clearly shown in 1969 when, at the centenary of his birth, six of his paintings were printed as [[Postage stamp|stamps]] by the [[Posten (Sweden)|Swedish Postal Service]].

Aguéli's remains were kept in Barcelona, Spain until 1981, when he was brought back to Sweden and re-buried with Islamic rites in his hometown of Sala alongside the central Church of Kristina, named after Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (known for what was seemed as an eccentric interest in [[alchemy]] and for having abdicated her throne in order to change her name, set off to [[Rome]] and openly practice her previously secret [[Catholicism]]).

[[Image:Ivan agueli's gravestone in sala sweden oct 1st 2006.jpg|thumb|300px|left|'''Ivan Aguéli'''´s grave in the first of October in 2006.]]In Sala there is also the [http://iis.sala.se/turism/aguelimuseet/ ''Aguéli museum''] with the largest collection of his artworks, donated by Sala's well-known [[physician]] Carl Friberg to [[Nationalmuseum]]. Since the 24th of May 2000 there is also the ''Aguéli place'' with the ''Aguéli monument'' by the large ''Aguéli park''. The street where Aguéli lived is called the ''Aguéli street'', also in dedication to his memory.

In 2006, under the patronage of King [[Carl XVI Gustav]] of Sweden the largest ever Aguéli exhibition was once again held at [[Waldemarsudde]] in Stockholm, this time also incorporating his Muslim heritage, with various lectures on Sufism.

After his death, Sufis have referred to Aguéli by the epithet of ''Abd al-Hadi "Noor-u-Shimaal"'' (meaning ''Abd al-Hadi "the Light of the North"'') for being the first ever officially named representative of a Sufi order to bring Sufism to [[Western Europe]] and [[Scandinavia]].

Although it cannot be said that Aguéli himself was a [[perennial philosophy|perennialist]] or a [[traditionalist school|traditionalist]] as such, his ideas constituted a certain proto-traditionalism that was later on clarified and established by Guénon and Schuon. Spiritually, the traditionalist teachings of René Guénon and [[Frithjof Schuon]] have been upheld in Sweden by Swedish Sufi traditionalist scholars such as [[Kurt Almqvist]] and [[Tage Lindbom]].

==Quotes==
*Admit, that a landscape can reflect a spiritual state ... Religion is decisive for the sun in the landscape of my within. See, that is why I love monotheism and the Arabian spirit.
*Amongst the Truths of our religion [Islam] is that the world is as Allah has wished it to be. Hence you should only demand perfection of yourself...<ref>Gauffin II, p.191</ref>
*Give me only bread and water, but let me paint!

==Bibliography==
'''Swedish:'''

* [[Kurt Almqvist|Almqvist, Kurt]]; ''I tjänst hos det enda - ur René Guénons verk'', Natur och Kultur, 1977.
* [[Kurt Almqvist|Almqvist, Kurt]]; ''Ordet är dig nära. Om uppenbarelsen i hjärtat och i religionerna'', Delsbo, 1994.
* Brummer, Hans-Erik (red.); ''Ivan Aguéli'', Stockholm, 2006.
* [[Gunnar Ekelöf|Ekelöf, Gunnar]]; ''Ivan Aguéli'', 1944.
* Gauffin, Axel; ''Ivan Aguéli - Människan, mystikern, målaren'' I-II, Sveriges Allmänna Konstförenings Publikation, 1940-41.
* Wessel, Viveka; ''Ivan Aguéli - Porträtt av en rymd'', 1988.

'''English:'''
*Chacornac, Paul; ''The Simple Life of Réne Guénon'', pp.31-37, Sophia Perennis. (It has to be noted that Chacornac has depended on secondary sources for his information on Aguéli, and that hence his description of Aguéli is deeply flawed.)
*Hatina, Meir; ''Where East Meets West: Sufism as a Lever for Cultural Rapprochement'', pp.389-409, Volume 39, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
*Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; ''Sufism: Love and Wisdom'', page X of foreword, World Wisdom Books, 2006.
*Turner, Jade (ed.); ''The Grove Dictionary of Art'', pp.465-466, Grove, 1996.
*Waterfield, Robin; ''Réne Guénon and the Future of the West'', pp.28-30, Sophia Perennis.

'''French:'''
*Abdul-Hâdi (John Gustav Agelii, dit Ivan Aguéli); ''Écrits pour La Gnose, comprenant la traduction de l'arabe du Traité de l'Unité'', Archè, 1988.

==Related literature==
*[[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Coomaraswamy, Ananda K.]]; "Symplegades" in [[Martin Lings|Lings, Martin]] & Minnaar, Clinton; ''The Underlying Religion: An Introduction to the Perennial Philosophy'', pp.176-199, World Wisdom Books, 2007.
*[[William Shedden Ralston|Ralston, W.R.]]; ''Russian Folk-Tales'', New York, 1873.

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

==See also==

* [[Al Akbariyya]]
* [[Shadhili]]yya
* [[Malamatiyya]]
* [[Perennial philosophy]]
* [[Traditionalist School]]
* [[Kurt Almqvist]]
* [[Titus Burckhardt]]
* [[René Guénon]]
* [[Tage Lindbom]]
* [[Martin Lings]]
* [[Hossein Nasr]]
* [[Frithjof Schuon]]

==External links==
*[http://iis.sala.se/turism/aguelimuseet/ Aguéli Museum]

{{Portal|Islam|Allah.svg|left=yes}}
{{Portal|Biography|Crystal_personal.svg}}
{{Sufism}}



{{Persondata
|NAME = Aguéli, Ivan
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Agelii, John Gustaf (born); Aqhili, 'Abd al-Hadi, Sheikh (Islamic)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = Sufi master and nationally recognized contemporary painter in Sweden
|DATE OF BIRTH = [[May 24]], [[1869]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Sala, Sweden|Sala]], [[Västmanland]], [[Sweden]]
|DATE OF DEATH = [[October 1]], [[1917]]
|PLACE OF DEATH = [[L'Hospitalet de Llobregat]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]
}}
{{Lifetime|1869|1917|Aguéli, Ivan}}
[[Category:Converts to Islam]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters]]
[[Category:Islamic studies scholars]]
[[Category:Swedish painters]]
[[Category:Swedish Sufis]]
[[Category:Sufi art]]
[[Category:Traditionalism]]
[[Category:Imprisoned anarchists]]

[[fa:ایوان عقیلی]]
[[fr:Ivan Aguéli]]
[[fi:Ivan Aguéli]]
[[sv:Ivan Aguéli]]
[[tr:Ivan Aguéli]]

Black-Power-Protest bei den Olympischen Spielen 1968

2009-06-23T10:48:44Z

Skomorokh: Reverted edits by DorindaVosloo (talk) to last version by 88.106.137.158

[[Image:Carlos-Smith.jpg|thumb|[[Tommie Smith]] (center) and [[John Carlos]] (right) showing the [[raised fist]] in the [[1968 Summer Olympics]], while Silver medallist [[Peter Norman]] from Australia (left) wears an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge to show his support for the two U.S. athletes]]
The '''1968 Olympics Black Power salute''' was a noted black civil rights protest and one of the most overtly political statements<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2094-2393575,00.html | publisher=[[The Sunday Times]] | last=Lewis | first=Richard | date=[[2006-10-08]] | title=Caught in Time: Black Power salute, Mexico, 1968 | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> in the 110 year history of the modern [[Olympic Games]]. [[African American]] athletes [[Tommie Smith]] and [[John Carlos]] performed the [[raised fist|Power to the People salute]] at the [[1968 Summer Olympics]] in [[Mexico City]].

==The protest==
On the morning of [[October 16]], [[1968]],<ref name="SJSU">{{cite web | url=http://www.as.sjsu.edu/legacy/Smith-Carlos.pdf | publisher=[[SJSU]] | title=1968: Black athletes make silent protest | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> U.S. athlete Tommie Smith won the [[Athletics at the 1968 Summer Olympics|200 meter race]] in a then-world-record time of 19.83 seconds, with [[Australia|Australia's]] [[Peter Norman]] second with a time of 20.07 seconds, and the U.S.'s John Carlos in third place with a time of 20.10 seconds. After the race was completed, the three went to collect their medals at the podium. The two U.S athletes received their medals shoeless, but wearing black socks, to represent black poverty.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/17/newsid_3535000/3535348.stm | publisher=[[BBC]] | title=1968: Black athletes make silent protest | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> Smith wore a black scarf around his neck to represent black pride.<ref name="BBC" /> Carlos had his tracksuit top unzipped to show solidarity with all blue collar workers in the U.S. and wore a necklace of beads which he described "were for those individuals that were lynched, or killed and that no-one said a prayer for, that were hung and tarred. It was for those thrown off the side of the boats in the [[Middle Passage|middle passage]]."<ref>{{cite web | last=Lucas | first=Dean | publisher=Famous Pictures: The Magazine | title=Black Power | url= http://www.famouspictures.org/mag/?title=Black_Power | date=[[February 11]], [[2007]] | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> All three athletes wore [[Olympic Project for Human Rights]] (OPHR) badges, after Norman expressed sympathy with their ideals. Sociologist [[Harry Edwards]], the founder of the OPHR, had urged black athletes to boycott the games; reportedly, the actions of Smith and Carlos on [[October 16]], [[1968]]<ref name="SJSU">{{cite web | url=http://www.as.sjsu.edu/legacy/Smith-Carlos.pdf | publisher=[[SJSU]] | title=1968: Black athletes make silent protest | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> were inspired by Edwards' arguments.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.cstv.com/sports/c-track/stories/022406aas.html | publisher=[[CSTV]] | last=Spander | first=Art | title=A Moment In Time: Remembering an Olympic Protest | date=[[2006-02-24]] | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>

Both U.S. athletes intended on bringing black gloves to the event, but Carlos forgot his, leaving them in the Olympic Village. It was the Australian, Peter Norman, who suggested Carlos wear Smith's left-handed glove, this being the reason behind him raising his left hand, as opposed to his right, differing from the traditional Black Power salute.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite web| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7674157.stm | publisher=[[BBC]] | title=The other man on the podium | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> When "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]" played, Smith and Carlos delivered the salute with heads bowed, a gesture which became front page news around the world. As they left the podium they were booed by the crowd.<ref name="Freedom Weekend">{{cite web | url=http://www.freedomweekend.info/downloads/john_carlos.pdf | publisher=Freedom Weekend | title=John Carlos | format=PDF | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> Smith later said "If I win, I am American, not a black American. But if I did something bad, then they would say I am a Negro. We are black and we are proud of being black. Black America will understand what we did tonight."<ref name=BBC/>

==International Olympic Committee response==
[[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] president [[Avery Brundage]] deemed a domestic political statement unfit for the apolitical, international forum the Olympic Games were supposed to be. In an immediate response to their actions, he ordered Smith and Carlos suspended from the U.S. team and banned from the Olympic Village. When the US Olympic Committee refused, Brundage threatened to ban the entire US track team. This threat led to the two athletes being expelled from the Games.

A spokesperson for the organization said it was "a deliberate and violent breach of the fundamental principles of the Olympic spirit."<ref name="BBC" />
Brundage, who was president of the United States Olympic Committee in 1936, had made no objections against Nazi salutes during the Berlin Olympics. The Nazi salute, being a national salute at the time, was accepted in a competition of nations, while the athletes' salute was not of a nation and so was considered unacceptable.<ref>"The Olympic Story", editor James E. Churchill, Jr., published 1983 by Grolier Enterprises Inc.</ref>

In 2008, the official IOC website states that "Over and above winning medals, the black American athletes made names for themselves by an act of racial protest."<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/past/innovations_uk.asp?OLGT=1&OLGY=1968 Mexico 1968] (official [[International Olympic Committee]] website. Accessed 2008-11-09.)</ref>

==Aftermath==
Smith and Carlos were largely ostracized by the U.S. sporting establishment in the following years and in addition were subject to criticism of their actions. [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] showed the five-ring Olympic logo with the words, "Angrier, Nastier, Uglier", instead of "Faster, Higher, Stronger". Back home they were subject to abuse and they and their families received death threats.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tommiesmith.com/ | publisher=Tommie Smith | title=Tommie Smith 1968 Olympic Gold Medallist | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>

Smith continued in athletics, going on to play [[American football]] with the [[Cincinnati Bengals]], before becoming an assistant professor of Physical Education at [[Oberlin College]]. In 1995 he went on to help coach the U.S. team at the World Indoor Championships at [[Barcelona]]. In 1999 he was awarded a Sportsman of the Millennium award. He is now a public speaker.

Carlos' career followed a similar path to Smith. He initially continued in athletics, equaling the 100m world record the following year. Later he played American football with the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] before a knee injury prematurely ended his career. He fell upon hard times in the late 1970s and in 1977 his wife committed suicide. In 1982 Carlos was employed by the Organizing Committee for the [[1984 Summer Olympics]] in [[Los Angeles]] to promote the games and act as liaison with the city's black community. In 1985 he became a track and field coach at Palm Springs High School, a post which he still holds.

Norman, who was sympathetic to his competitors' protest, was reprimanded by his country's Olympic authorities and ostracized by the Australian media.<ref>{{cite news|first=Mike|last=Wise|title=Clenched fists, helping hand|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/04/AR2006100401753_2.html|publisher=[[The Washington Post]]|date=[[2006-10-05]]|accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> He was not picked for the [[1972 Summer Olympics]], despite finishing third in his trials. He kept running, but contracted [[gangrene]] in 1985 after tearing his [[Achilles tendon]], which nearly led to his leg being amputated. Depression and heavy drinking followed. He suffered a heart attack and died on [[October 3]], [[2006]]. Smith and Carlos were pallbearers at his funeral.<ref>{{cite news|first=Martin|last=Flanagan|authorlink=Martin Flanagan|title=Olympic protest heroes praise Norman's courage|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/sport/olympic-protest-heroes-praise-normans-courage/2006/10/09/1160246069969.html|publisher=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=[[2006-10-06]]|accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>

[[Image:2008-0817-SJSU-SJSU-SmithCarlos.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Statue in honor of Smith and Carlos on the campus of San José State University]]
[[San José State University]] honored former students Smith and Carlos with a twenty-two foot high statue of their protest in 2005.<ref>{{cite news|first=Owen|last=Slot|title=America finally honours rebels as clenched fist becomes salute|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/article580095.ece|publisher=[[The Sunday Times]]|date=[[2005-10-19]]|accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> In January 2007, History San José opened a new exhibit called ''Speed City: From Civil Rights to Black Power'', covering the [[San Jose State University]] athletic program "from which many student athletes became globally recognized figures as the Civil Rights and Black Power movements reshaped American society."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://historysanjose.org/exhibits_collections/current_upcoming_exhibits/speedcity.html | publisher=History San José|title=Speed City: From Civil Rights to Black Power | date=[[2005-07-28]] | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>

On [[March 3]] [[2008]], in the ''[[Detroit Free Press]]'' editorial section, an editorial by [[Orin Starn]] entitled "Bottom line turns to hollow gold for today's Olympians" lamented the lack of social engagement of modern sports athletes, in contrast to Smith and Carlos.

Smith and Carlos received an [[Arthur Ashe Courage Award]] at the 2008 [[ESPY Awards]] honoring their action.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/news/story?id=3417048|title=Salute at ESPYs - Smith and Carlos to receive Arthur Ashe Courage Award|date=2008-05-29|publisher=http://espn.go.com/ [[espn.com]]|accessdate=2009-01-17}}</ref>

The [[Sydney Film Festival]] in mid-2008 featured [[Salute (2008 film)|a documentary about the protest]], titled "Salute", and directed and produced by [[Matt Norman]], an Australian actor and film-maker, and Peter Norman's nephew.<ref name="SydneyFilmFestival_2008_ProgramRevealed_MattNorman_Salute">{{cite web|url=http://www.sydneyfilmfestival.org/content.asp?id=21&nid=116&p=20|title=2008 Program Revealed!|date=2008-05-08|accessdate=2009-01-17}}</ref>

On Wednesday, [[July 9]], [[2008]], at 2100, [[BBC Four]] broadcast a documentary, ''Black Power Salute'', by Geoff Small, about the protest and its aftermath. In an article, Small noted that the athletes of the British team attending the [[2008 Summer Olympics|2008 Olympics]] in [[Beijing]] had been asked to sign gagging clauses which would have restricted their right to make political statements, but that they had refused.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jul/09/olympicgames2008.humanrights | publisher=The Guardian | last=Small | first=Geoff | date=[[2008-07-09]] | title=Remembering the Black Power protest | accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>

The Salute was featured in a "Nick News" special on Black History Month, during the "Did You Know?" portion. The special aired on Sunday, February 1st, 2009.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://iviesinchina.com/the-politics-of-hypocrisy/ "The Politics of Hypocrisy"] - includes authorized excerpt from the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] [[The Harvard Crimson|Crimson]] of Wednesday 6 November 1968.
*[http://gdayworld.thepodcastnetwork.com/2008/07/07/gday-world-333-matt-norman-directorproducer-salute "Matt Norman, Director/Producer 'Salute'"] (podcast: nephew of Peter Norman discusses new documentary about Peter's role in the Black Power Salute)
*[http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1056987 "El Black Power de Mexico: 40 años después"] (Diario La Nación of Buenos Aires, 10/11/08)
[[Category:1968 in the United States]]
[[Category:1968 in Mexico]]
[[Category:1968 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1968]]
[[Category:Civil rights protests]]
[[Category:Gestures]]
[[Category:Photographs]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Protests in Mexico]]
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Sport and politics]]
[[Category:Olympic Games controversies]]

[[es:Saludo del Black Power en los Juegos Olímpicos de 1968]]
[[ja:ブラックパワー・サリュート]]
[[no:Black Power-hilsenen under sommer-OL i 1968]]

Golos Truda

2009-06-09T16:14:26Z

Skomorokh: an encyclopaedia does not direct the reader

{{hatnote|The subject of this article is an anarchist periodical, not to be confused with the [[Menshevik]] magazine of the same name published in Samara in 1916}}
{{Infobox Newspaper
| name = ''Golos Truda''
| logo =
| image = [[File:Golos Truda.jpg|200px]]
| caption = Header of the first Russian edition, published August 11, 1917
| type = Monthly/weekly/daily periodical
| format =
| publisher = [[Union of Russian Workers]] (New York) [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]] / ''Golos Truda'' group (Russia)
| editor =
| staff =
| foundation = New York, 1911
| political = [[Anarcho-syndicalist]]
| language = [[Russian language|Russian]]
| ceased publication = 1917, 1919
| headquarters = New York (1911–1917) Petrograd (1917–1918) Moscow (1918)
| circulation =
| sister newspapers =''The Float''
| ISSN =
| oclc =
}}
'''''Golos Truda''''' ({{lang-en|The Voice of Labour}}) was a [[Russian language]] [[Anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]] newspaper.<ref name=iisg>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/m/10760366full.php |title=G.P. Maksimov Papers |accessdate=March 22, 2009 |work=iisg.nl |publisher=[[International Institute of Social History]] }}</ref> Founded by working-class Russian expatriates in [[New York]] in 1911, ''Golos Truda'' shifted to [[Petrograd]] during the during the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] in 1917, when its editors took advantage of the general amnesty and right of return for political dissidents. There, the paper integrated itself into the nascent anarcho-syndicalist movement, pronounced the necessity of a social revolution of and by the workers, and situated itself in opposition to the myriad of other left-wing movements. The rise to power of the [[Bolsheviks]] marked the turning point for the newspaper however, as the new government enacted increasingly repressive measures against the publication of dissident literature and against anarchist agitation in general, and after a few years of low-profile publishing, the ''Golos Truda'' collective was finally expunged by the [[Stalinist regime]] in 1929.

== Background ==
''Golos Truda'' began as a monthly newspaper of the [[Union of Russian Workers in the United States and Canada]] in New York in 1911.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=255}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.ihrc.umn.edu/research/periodicals/russian.php
|title=Russian American Periodicals
|work=Immigration History Research Center
|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
}}
</ref> At the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917, the [[Russian Provisional Government]] declared a general amnesty and offered to fund the return of those Russians exiled for political opponents of the [[Russian Empire]]; the entire staff of ''Golos Truda'' elected to leave for Russia and to move the periodical to Petrograd.<ref name=rocker>[[Rudolf Rocker|Rocker, Rudolf]]. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/voline/biography.html Foreword] to {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> In [[Vancouver]] on May 26, 1917, the editors, along with [[Ferrer Center]] artist [[Manuel Komroff]] and thirteen others, boarded a ship bound for [[Japan]].<ref name=aa>{{cite book | last = Antliff | first = Allan | authorlink=Allan Antliff |title = Anarchist Modernism | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 2001 | isbn = 0226021033 |page=254}}</ref> On board, the anarchists played music, gave lectures, staged plays and even published a revolutionary newspaper, ''The Float''.<ref name=aa/> From Japan, the band made their way to [[Siberia]], and proceeded East to [[European Russia]].<ref name=aa/>

== Publication in Russia ==
In Petrograd, the task of beginning publication was assisted by the nascent [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]],<ref name=rocker/> and the new paper bolstered the city's indigenous anarcho-syndicalist movement.<ref>{{cite book | last = Thorpe | first = Wayne | title = The Workers Themselves | publisher = Kluwer Academic | year = 1989 | isbn = 0792302761 |page=59}}</ref> Its editorial staff included [[Maksim Rayevsky]], [[Vladimir Shatov]] (the [[Linotype machine|linotype]] operator),<ref name=aa/> [[Volin]],<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=137}}</ref> [[Gregori Maksimov]], [[Alexander Schapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/2008/06/28/alexander-schapiro-anarchosyndicalism-and-anarchist-organization/ |authorlink=Robert Graham (historian) |last=Graham |first=Robert |title=Alexander Schapiro - Anarchosyndicalism and Anarchist Organization |work=Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog |date=June 28, 2008 |accessdate=March 20, 2009}}</ref> and [[Vasya Swieda]].<ref name=iisg/><ref>{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul | authorlink=Paul Avrich |title = Anarchist Voices | publisher = [[AK Press]] | location = Stirling | year = 2005 | isbn = 1904859275 |oclc=64098230 |page=369}}</ref>
[[File:Voline.jpg|thumb|left|[[Volin]] described ''Golos Truda'''s procedure of revealing misdeeds of those in power, and suggesting alternatives as, "not only its right, but incontestably its strictest duty."<ref name=volinc4/>]]
The first (weekly) issue was published on August 11, 1917, with an editorial declaring its firm opposition to the tactics and programs of the [[Bolsheviks]], [[Mensheviks]], [[left Social Revolutionaries]], [[right Social Revolutionaries]] and so on, and that the conception of revolutionary action of the anarcho-syndicalists bore no resemblance to those of the socialists.<ref name=volinc4>Chapter 4, "[http://www.ditext.com/voline/271.html The Unknown Anarchist Press in the Russian Revolution]", {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> It declared as its principal goal a revolution that would replace the [[Sovereign state|state]] with a free confederation of autonomous "peasant unions, industrial unions, factory committees, control commissions and the like in locations all over the country".<ref name=uno>{{Cite journal|journal=Golos Truda |issue=1 |date=August 11, 1917 |page=1}}</ref> This revolution would be "anti-statist in its methods of struggle, syndicalist in its economic content, and federal in its political tasks".<ref name=uno/> It placed its greatest hopes in the [[factory committee]]s, which had arisen spontaneously around the country after the [[February Revolution]].<ref name=av40>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=140}}</ref>

Volin described the almost six month gap between the February Revolution and the launch of the paper in Russia as "a long and irreparable delay", and each issue at this time contained what Volin later described as "clear and definite articles on the way in which the Anarcho-Syndicalists conceived the constructive tasks of the Revolution to come", citing as examples "a series of articles on the role of the factory committees; articles on the tasks of the Soviets, and others on how to resolve the agrarian problem, on the new organization of production, and on exchange".<ref name=volinc4/> It published copious articles on the [[general strike]] as well as on the French ''[[bourses du travail]]'' and ''[[syndicats]]''.<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=139}}</ref> The paper shifted to daily publication after the [[October Revolution]] of that same year, for three months.<ref name=rocker/><ref name=volinc4/> In a series of articles, it proclaimed the necessity of immediately abandoning the [[vanguardist]] Bolshevik [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], and of allowing the workers freedom of association and action.<ref name=volinc4/>

''Golos Truda'' faced a difficult task, with the majority of the workers having been won over by the Bolsheviks, whose propaganda efforts dwarfed those of the anarchists.<ref name=volinc4/> Although the ''Golos Truda'' sharply criticized the [[anarchist communists]] of Petrograd as romantics ignorant of the complex social forces of the Revolution, among the city's Bolshevik-supporting factory workers, the ideas of the union and its paper were considered bizarre and met with little initial success.<ref name=volinc4/> In March 1918, the Bolsheviks moved the seat of government from Petrograd to [[Moscow]], and the anarchists swiftly followed, moving the printing of ''Golos Truda'' to the new capital.<ref name=iisg/><ref>{{cite book | last = Woodcock | first = George | title = Anarchism: a History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements | publisher = Broadview Press | location = Peterborough | year = 2004 | isbn = 1551116294 |authorlink=George Woodcock}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=179}}</ref>

== Suppression and legacy ==
[[File:1919 Kremlin Desk of Lenin.jpg|thumb|right|Following [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s 1921 declaration of war against [[petite bourgeoisie]] elements, the Cheka closed the ''Golos Truda'''s publishing, printing, and bookstore locations.]]
On November 17, 1917 the [[Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets]] issued a decree granting to the Bolsheviks control over all newsprint and expansive powers of shutting down dissident newspapers.<ref>{{cite book | last = Schapiro | first = Leonard | title = The Communist Party of the Soviet Union | publisher = Eyre & Spottiswoode | location = London | year = 1970 | isbn = 0413279006 }}{{page number}}</ref> After the suppression by the Bolshevik government of the ''Golos Truda'' in August 1918, Maximov, [[Nikolai Dolenko]] and [[Efim Yartchuk]] established ''Volny Golos Truda'' (''The Free Voice of Labour'').<ref name=iisg/><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://libcom.org/history/maximov-grigori-petrovitch-1893-1950
|title=Maximov, Grigori Petrovitch, 1893-1950
|publisher=Libcom.org
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
|last=Heath
|first=Nick
}}
</ref>
At the [[10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (b)]] in March 1921, Bolshevik leader [[Vladimir Lenin]] declared war against the [[petite bourgeoisie]], and in particular the anarcho-syndicalists, with immediate consequences; the [[Cheka]] closed the publishing and printing premises of ''Golos Truda'' in Petrograd, as well as the paper's bookstore in Moscow, where all but half a dozen anarchists had been arrested.<ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Emma |authorlink=Emma Goldman | title = [[Living My Life]] | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 1930 | isbn = 0486225445 |page=887}}</ref>

Despite the banning of their paper, the ''Golos Truda'' group continued on, however, and issued a final edition, in the form of a journal, in Petrograd and Moscow in December 1919.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=286}}</ref> During the [[New Economic Policy]] period (1921 – 1928), it released a number of works, including the publication of the collected works of pre-eminent anarchist theorist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] from its bookstore and publishing house in Petrograd from 1919 to 1922.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Introduction |title=The Political Philosophy of Bakunin |editor=G. P. Maximoff |location=London |year=1953 |pages=17–27 |separator=, |oclc=213747035 |publisher=Free Press |chapterurl=http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=684}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=237}}</ref> What little anarchist activity the regime tolerated ended in 1929, after the accession of [[Joseph Stalin]], and the bookshops of the ''Golos Truda'' group in Moscow and Petrograd were closed permanently amidst an abrupt and violent wave of repression.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=244}}</ref> The newspaper was also suppressed by the [[Post Office Department]] in the United States, where it was succeeded by the widely-circulated ''[[Khleb i Volya]]'' (''Bread and Freedom''), first published on February 26, 1919, which in turn was banned from the United States and Canada for its anarchist position.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Will Deport Reds as Alien Plotters |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 9, 1919 |publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]}}</ref>

Russian revolutionary anarchist-turned-Bolshevik [[Victor Serge]] described ''Golos Truda'' as the most authoritative anarchist group active in 1917, "in the sense that it was the only one to possess any semblance of doctrine, a valuable collection of militants" who foresaw that the October Revolution "could only end in the formation of a new power".<ref name=serge>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Revolutionary History]] |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=1994 |first=Victor |last=Serge |title=Lenin in 1917}}</ref>

== Related articles ==
{{Anarchism portal}}
{{portalpar|Journalism|Journal.svg}}
*[[Anarchism in Russia]]
*''[[Dielo Truda]]'', an anarchist newspaper set up by Russian exiles in Paris in 1925
*[[List of anarchist periodicals]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book | author=Volin |authorlink=Volin | title = The Unknown Revolution, 1917-1921 | publisher = Free Life Editions | location = New York | year = 1974 | isbn = 0914156071 |oclc=2848033}}
*{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul |authorlink=Paul Avrich | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1904859488 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/1918.html Maurice Brinton's ''The Bolsheviks and Workers Control''], hosted at the [[Spunk Library]]


{{Anarchism}}


[[Category:Anarchist periodicals]]
[[Category:Defunct newspapers of Russia]]
[[Category:Defunct weekly newspapers]]

For You (Bruce-Springsteen-Lied)

2009-05-31T18:12:16Z

Skomorokh: fmt

{{Infobox Song
| Name = For You
| Cover =
| Artist = [[Bruce Springsteen]]
| Album = [[Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.]]
| B-side =
| Released = [[January 5]], [[1973]]
| track_no = 7
| Format =
| Recorded = [[1972]] [[914 Sound Studios]], [[Blauvelt, New York]]
| Genre = [[Rock music|Rock]]
| Length = 4:40
| Label = [[Columbia Records]]
| Writer = Bruce Springsteen
| Producer = [[Mike Appel]], [[Jim Cretecos]]
| prev = "[[The Angel (Bruce Springsteen song)|The Angel]]"
| prev_no = 6
| next = "[[Spirit In The Night]]"
| next_no = 8
}}

"'''For You'''" is a song by [[Bruce Springsteen]] from the album ''[[Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.]]'' in 1973. It was later included on the compilation album ''[[The Essential Bruce Springsteen]]''. It has also been covered by [[Manfred Mann's Earth Band]] and [[Greg Kihn]].

== Lyrics and music ==
Like most of the songs on ''Greetings from Asbury Parkm N.J.'', "For You" was recorded at [[914 Sound Studios]] in [[Blauvelt, New York]] between July and September, 1972.<ref name=base>{{cite web|title=BruceBase Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.|url=http://www.brucebase.org.uk/3.htm|accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref> Musicians participating in these sessions included future [[E Street Band]] members [[David Sancious]], [[Garry Tallent]] and [[Vini Lopez]].<ref name=base/> It is a climactic, [[Percussion instrument|percussion]]-driven song. Unlike many other songs on Springsteen's debut album, it takes the time to pace and build.<ref name=humph>{{cite book|title=The Complete Guide to the Music of Bruce Springsteen|author=Humphries, P.|page=6|year=1996|isbn=0-7119-5304-X}}</ref>

The lyrics<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brucespringsteen.net/songs/ForYou.html|title=For You Lyrics|accessdate=2009-05-29}}</ref> are about a woman who has attempted [[suicide]].<ref name=tough>{{cite book|title=Tougher Than the Rest|author=Sawyers, J.|year=2006|page=8-9|isbn=978-0-8256-3470-3}}</ref><ref name=kirk>{{cite book|title=The Words and Music of Bruce Springsteen|author=Rob Kirkpatrick|page=16-17|year=2007|isbn=0-275-98938-0}}</ref> She does not need the singer's "urgency" even though her life is "one long emergency" as Springsteen sings in the chorus (along with "and your cloud line urges me, and my electric surges free"). The singer is committed to doing anything to save her, and admires her ability to hang on.<ref name=tough/> Once again, the lyrics are evocative of images and not details, and little can be said in description.

==Cover versions==
Like "[[Blinded By The Light]]" and "[[Spirit in the Night]]", this song was covered by [[Manfred Mann's Earth Band]] for their album ''[[Chance (album)|Chance]]''.<ref name=mann>{{cite web|title=For You|url=http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=33:dzftxz8jldse|publisher=[[allmusic]]|accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref> Like Manfred Mann Earth Band's previous Springsteen covers, they used a more forceful, rockier sound for "For You" than Springsteen did.<ref name=mann/> The Earth Band version built from a more temperate beginning to an explosion of sound in the [[bridge]], and incorporates five guitars and an impressive keyboard solo by [[Manfred Mann]] 3/4 of the way into the song.<ref name=mann/> The song was also included on the compilation albums ''[[The Best of Manfred Mann's Earth Band Re-Mastered|The Best of Manfred Mann's Earth Band]]'' and ''[[Blinded by the Light & Other Hits]]''.<ref name=mann/> However, the single release did not achieve the success of their other Springsteen covers.

The song was also covered by [[Greg Kihn]] on his 1977 album ''[[Greg Kihn Again]]''.<ref name=kihn>{{cite web|title=Greg Kihn Again|url=http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:0xfexqq5ldje|publisher=[[allmusic]]|accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref> Kihn's cover received favorable comments from Springsteen.<ref name=kihn/> It was also included on the compilation album ''[[Best of Kihn]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Best of Kihn|url=http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:jzftxqealdje|publisher=[[allmusic]]|accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

[[Category:1973 songs]]
[[Category:Bruce Springsteen songs]]
[[Category:Songs written by Bruce Springsteen]]

MetArt

2009-05-30T05:11:43Z

Skomorokh: +logo

{{Distinguish2|the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in New York City.}}
{{ infobox Dotcom company
| company_name = MET ART
| company_logo = [[Image:Met Art.JPG|right|300px|logo|thumb|MET ART logo.]]
| company_type =
| genre =
| foundation =
| founder =
| location_city = Santa Monica
| location_country = California
| location =
| locations =
| area_served =
| key_people =
| industry =
| products =
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| market cap =
| revenue =
| operating_income =
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| url =
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}}
'''MET ART''' is a [[web site]] with post teenager content owned by HLP General Partners Incorporated of [[Santa Monica, California]].<ref>WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center; [http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/domains/decisions/html/2005/d2005-1323.html “Case No. D2005-1323”] § 1 ¶ 2.</ref> The site features erotic photographs of partially or completely nude females, and has been online since 1999.<ref>WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center; [http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/domains/decisions/html/2005/d2005-1323.html “Case No. D2005-1323”] § 4 ¶ 6.</ref>

As of October 2008, it was among the top 700 most visited websites according to [[Alexa Internet]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.alexa.com/data/details/traffic_details?&compare_sites=&y=t&q=&size=medium&range=6m&url=met-art.com | publisher = Alexa | work = Ranking and related information | title = met-art.com }}</ref>

The “MET” in “MET ART” originally stood for “Most Erotic Teens”.<ref>WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center; [http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/domains/decisions/html/2005/d2005-1323.html “Case No. D2005-1323”] § 4 ¶ 7.</ref>
== History ==
=== Trademark Complaint ===
On 21 December 2005, [[Metropolitan Life Insurance Company]], Long Island City, New York, lodged a complaint against Met-Art owner HLP General Partners Inc with the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) Arbitration and Mediation Center claiming that three domain names, including met-art.com, were too similar to its numerous registered MET trademarks. METLIFE was also concerned that “sexually explicit material” on the Met-Art websites would tarnish METLIFE's reputation. In 2006, the complaint was dismissed by the WIPO because it “does not meet the standard for establishing bad-faith registration and use of the [[Domain Name]]s under a Policy designed to provide quick relief against egregious cases of cybersquatting”.<ref>WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center; [http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/domains/decisions/html/2005/d2005-1323.html “Case No. D2005-1323”] § 6 §§ E ¶ 10.</ref>

=== DMCA Complaint ===
On 20 March 2007, Met-Art contacted [[Google Inc]] to ask them to remove a [[blog]] under the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] because "The sole purpose of this blog is to post stolen adult content from us and other sites and distribute it illegally".<ref>anonymous; [http://www.chillingeffects.org/dmca512/notice.cgi?NoticeID=7029 Notice 7029: “Met-Art complains of copying”,] Chilling Effects.</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://met-art.com/ MET ART]
* [http://www.metartgalleries.com/ MET ART GALLERIES]

[[Category:Erotica and pornography websites]]

[[da:Met Art]]
[[et:MET ART]]
[[es:MET Art]]
[[fa:مت آرت]]
[[it:MET ART]]
[[ja:MET ART]]

Golos Truda

2009-05-22T19:48:43Z

Skomorokh: move sidebar

{{hatnote|The subject of this article is an anarchist periodical, not to be confused with the [[Menshevik]] magazine of the same name published in Samara in 1916}}
{{Infobox Newspaper
| name = ''Golos Truda''
| logo =
| image = [[File:Golos Truda.jpg|200px]]
| caption = Header of the first Russian edition, published August 11, 1917
| type = Monthly/weekly/daily periodical
| format =
| publisher = [[Union of Russian Workers]] (New York) [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]] / ''Golos Truda'' group (Russia)
| editor =
| staff =
| foundation = New York, 1911
| political = [[Anarcho-syndicalist]]
| language = [[Russian language|Russian]]
| ceased publication = 1917, 1919
| headquarters = New York (1911–1917) Petrograd (1917–1918) Moscow (1918)
| circulation =
| sister newspapers =''The Float''
| ISSN =
| oclc =
}}
'''''Golos Truda''''' ({{lang-en|The Voice of Labour}}) was a [[Russian language]] [[anarcho-syndicalist]] newspaper.<ref name=iisg>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/m/10760366full.php |title=G.P. Maksimov Papers |accessdate=March 22, 2009 |work=iisg.nl |publisher=[[International Institute of Social History]] }}</ref> Founded by working-class Russian expatriates in [[New York]] in 1911, ''Golos Truda'' shifted to [[Petrograd]] during the during the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] in 1917, when its editors took advantage of the general amnesty and right of return for political dissidents. There, the paper integrated itself into the nascent anarcho-syndicalist movement, pronounced the necessity of a social revolution of and by the workers, and situated itself in opposition to the myriad of other left-wing movements. The rise to power of the [[Bolsheviks]] marked the turning point for the newspaper however, as the new government enacted increasingly repressive measures against the publication of dissident literature and against anarchist agitation in general, and after a few years of low-profile publishing, the ''Golos Truda'' collective was finally expunged by the [[Stalinist regime]] in 1929.

== Background ==
''Golos Truda'' began as a monthly newspaper of the [[Union of Russian Workers in the United States and Canada]] in New York in 1911.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=255}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.ihrc.umn.edu/research/periodicals/russian.php
|title=Russian American Periodicals
|work=Immigration History Research Center
|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
}}
</ref> At the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917, the [[Russian Provisional Government]] declared a general amnesty and offered to fund the return of those Russians exiled for political opponents of the [[Russian Empire]]; the entire staff of ''Golos Truda'' elected to leave for Russia and to move the periodical to Petrograd.<ref name=rocker>[[Rudolf Rocker|Rocker, Rudolf]]. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/voline/biography.html Foreword] to {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> In [[Vancouver]] on May 26, 1917, the editors, along with [[Ferrer Center]] artist [[Manuel Komroff]] and thirteen others, boarded a ship bound for [[Japan]].<ref name=aa>{{cite book | last = Antliff | first = Allan | authorlink=Allan Antliff |title = Anarchist Modernism | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 2001 | isbn = 0226021033 |page=254}}</ref> On board, the anarchists played music, gave lectures, staged plays and even published a revolutionary newspaper, ''The Float''.<ref name=aa/> From Japan, the band made their way to [[Siberia]], and proceeded East to [[European Russia]].<ref name=aa/>

== Publication in Russia ==
In Petrograd, the task of beginning publication was assisted by the nascent [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]],<ref name=rocker/> and the new paper bolstered the city's indigenous anarcho-syndicalist movement.<ref>{{cite book | last = Thorpe | first = Wayne | title = The Workers Themselves | publisher = Kluwer Academic | year = 1989 | isbn = 0792302761 |page=59}}</ref> Its editorial staff included [[Maksim Rayevsky]], [[Vladimir Shatov]] (the [[Linotype machine|linotype]] operator),<ref name=aa/> [[Volin]],<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=137}}</ref> [[Gregori Maksimov]], [[Alexander Schapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/2008/06/28/alexander-schapiro-anarchosyndicalism-and-anarchist-organization/ |authorlink=Robert Graham (historian) |last=Graham |first=Robert |title=Alexander Schapiro - Anarchosyndicalism and Anarchist Organization |work=Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog |date=June 28, 2008 |accessdate=March 20, 2009}}</ref> and [[Vasya Swieda]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul | authorlink=Paul Avrich |title = Anarchist Voices | publisher = [[AK Press]] | location = Stirling | year = 2005 | isbn = 1904859275 |oclc=64098230 |page=369}}</ref><Ref name=iisg/>

The first (weekly) issue was published on August 11, 1917, with an editorial declaring its firm opposition to the tactics and programs of the [[Bolsheviks]], [[Mensheviks]], [[left Social Revolutionaries]], [[right Social Revolutionaries]] and so on, and that the conception of revolutionary action of the anarcho-syndicalists bore no resemblance to those of the socialists.<ref name=volinc4>Chapter 4, "[http://www.ditext.com/voline/271.html The Unknown Anarchist Press in the Russian Revolution]", {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> It declared as its principal goal a revolution that would replace the [[Sovereign state|state]] with a free confederation of autonomous "peasant unions, industrial unions, factory committees, control commissions and the like in locations all over the country".<ref name=uno>{{Cite journal|journal=Golos Truda |issue=1 |date=August 11, 1917 |page=1}}</ref> This revolution would be "anti-statist in its methods of struggle, syndicalist in its economic content, and federal in its political tasks".<ref name=uno/> It placed its greatest hopes in the [[factory committee]]s, which had arisen spontaneously around the country after the [[February Revolution]].<ref name=av40>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=140}}</ref>
{{Anarchism sidebar}}
Volin described the almost six month gap between the February Revolution and the launch of the paper in Russia as "a long and irreparable delay", and each issue at this time contained what Volin later described as "clear and definite articles on the way in which the Anarcho-Syndicalists conceived the constructive tasks of the Revolution to come", citing as examples "a series of articles on the role of the factory committees; articles on the tasks of the Soviets, and others on how to resolve the agrarian problem, on the new organization of production, and on exchange".<ref name=volinc4/> It published copious articles on the [[general strike]] as well as on the French ''[[bourses du travail]]'' and ''[[syndicats]]''.<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=139}}</ref> The paper shifted to daily publication after the [[October Revolution]] of that same year, for three months.<ref name=rocker/><ref name=volinc4/> In a series of articles, it proclaimed the necessity of immediately abandoning the [[vanguardist]] Bolshevik [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], and of allowing the workers freedom of association and action.<ref name=volinc4/>

''Golos Truda'' faced a difficult task, with the majority of the workers having been won over by the Bolsheviks, whose propaganda efforts dwarfed those of the anarchists.<ref name=volinc4/> Although the ''Golos Truda'' sharply criticized the [[anarchist communists]] of Petrograd as romantics ignorant of the complex social forces of the Revolution, among the city's Bolshevik-supporting factory workers, the ideas of the union and its paper were considered bizarre and met with little initial success.<ref name=volinc4/> In March 1918, the Bolsheviks moved the seat of government from Petrograd to [[Moscow]], and the anarchists swiftly followed, moving the printing of ''Golos Truda'' to the new capital.<ref name=iisg/><ref>{{cite book | last = Woodcock | first = George | title = Anarchism: a History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements | publisher = Broadview Press | location = Peterborough | year = 2004 | isbn = 1551116294 |authorlink=George Woodcock}}</ref><Ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=179}}</ref>

== Suppression and legacy ==
On November 17, 1917 the [[Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets]] issued a decree granting to the Bolsheviks control over all newsprint and expansive powers of shutting down dissident newspapers.<ref>{{cite book | last = Schapiro | first = Leonard | title = The Communist Party of the Soviet Union | publisher = Eyre & Spottiswoode | location = London | year = 1970 | isbn = 0413279006 }}{{page number}}</ref> After the suppression by the Bolshevik government of the ''Golos Truda'' in August 1918, Maximov, [[Nikolai Dolenko]] and [[Efim Yartchuk]] established ''Volny Golos Truda'' (''The Free Voice of Labour'').<Ref name=iisg/><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://libcom.org/history/maximov-grigori-petrovitch-1893-1950
|title=Maximov, Grigori Petrovitch, 1893-1950
|publisher=Libcom.org
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
|last=Heath
|first=Nick
}}
</ref>
At the [[10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (b)]] in March 1921, Bolshevik leader [[Vladimir Lenin]] declared war against the [[petite bourgeoisie]], and in particular the anarcho-syndicalists, with immediate consequences; the [[Cheka]] closed the publishing and printing premises of ''Golos Truda'' in Petrograd, as well as the paper's bookstore in Moscow, where all but half a dozen anarchists had been arrested.<ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Emma |authorlink=Emma Goldman | title = [[Living My Life]] | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 1930 | isbn = 0486225445 |page=887}}</ref>

Despite the banning of their paper, the ''Golos Truda'' group continued on, however, and issued a final edition, in the form of a journal, in Petrograd and Moscow in December 1919.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=286}}</ref> During the [[New Economic Policy]] period (1921 – 1928), it released a number of works, including the publication of the collected works of pre-eminent anarchist theorist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] from its bookstore and publishing house in Petrograd from 1919 to 1922.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Introduction |title=The Political Philosophy of Bakunin |editor=G. P. Maximoff |location=London |year=1953 |pages=17–27 |separator=, |oclc=213747035 |publisher=Free Press |chapterurl=http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=684}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=237}}</ref> What little anarchist activity the regime tolerated ended in 1929, after the accession of [[Joseph Stalin]], and the bookshops of the ''Golos Truda'' group in Moscow and Petrograd were closed permanently amidst an abrupt and violent wave of repression.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=244}}</ref> The newspaper was also suppressed by the [[Post Office Department]] in the United States, where it was succeeded by the widely-circulated ''[[Khleb i Volya]]'' (''Bread and Freedom''), first published on February 26, 1919, which in turn was banned from the United States and Canada for its anarchist position.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Will Deport Reds as Alien Plotters |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 9, 1919 |publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]}}</ref>

Russian revolutionary anarchist-turned-Bolshevik [[Victor Serge]] described ''Golos Truda'' as the most authoritative anarchist group active in 1917, "in the sense that it was the only one to possess any semblance of doctrine, a valuable collection of militants" who foresaw that the October Revolution "could only end in the formation of a new power".<ref name=serge>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Revolutionary History]] |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=1994 |first=Victor |last=Serge |title=Lenin in 1917}}</ref>

== Related articles ==
*[[Anarchism in Russia]]
*''[[Dielo Truda]]'', an anarchist newspaper set up by Russian exiles in Paris in 1925
*[[List of anarchist periodicals]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book | author=Volin |authorlink=Volin | title = The Unknown Revolution, 1917-1921 | publisher = Free Life Editions | location = New York | year = 1974 | isbn = 0914156071 |oclc=2848033}}
*{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul |authorlink=Paul Avrich | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1904859488 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/1918.html Maurice Brinton's ''The Bolsheviks and Workers Control''], hosted at the [[Spunk Library]]
[[Category:Anarchist periodicals]]
[[Category:Defunct newspapers of Russia]]
[[Category:Defunct weekly newspapers]]

Golos Truda

2009-05-22T19:47:59Z

Skomorokh: fmt

{{hatnote|The subject of this article is an anarchist periodical, not to be confused with the [[Menshevik]] magazine of the same name published in Samara in 1916}}
{{Infobox Newspaper
| name = ''Golos Truda''
| logo =
| image = [[File:Golos Truda.jpg|200px]]
| caption = Header of the first Russian edition, published August 11, 1917
| type = Monthly/weekly/daily periodical
| format =
| publisher = [[Union of Russian Workers]] (New York) [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]] / ''Golos Truda'' group (Russia)
| editor =
| staff =
| foundation = New York, 1911
| political = [[Anarcho-syndicalist]]
| language = [[Russian language|Russian]]
| ceased publication = 1917, 1919
| headquarters = New York (1911–1917) Petrograd (1917–1918) Moscow (1918)
| circulation =
| sister newspapers =''The Float''
| ISSN =
| oclc =
}}
'''''Golos Truda''''' ({{lang-en|The Voice of Labour}}) was a [[Russian language]] [[anarcho-syndicalist]] newspaper.<ref name=iisg>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/m/10760366full.php |title=G.P. Maksimov Papers |accessdate=March 22, 2009 |work=iisg.nl |publisher=[[International Institute of Social History]] }}</ref> Founded by working-class Russian expatriates in [[New York]] in 1911, ''Golos Truda'' shifted to [[Petrograd]] during the during the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] in 1917, when its editors took advantage of the general amnesty and right of return for political dissidents. There, the paper integrated itself into the nascent anarcho-syndicalist movement, pronounced the necessity of a social revolution of and by the workers, and situated itself in opposition to the myriad of other left-wing movements. The rise to power of the [[Bolsheviks]] marked the turning point for the newspaper however, as the new government enacted increasingly repressive measures against the publication of dissident literature and against anarchist agitation in general, and after a few years of low-profile publishing, the ''Golos Truda'' collective was finally expunged by the [[Stalinist regime]] in 1929.

== Background ==
''Golos Truda'' began as a monthly newspaper of the [[Union of Russian Workers in the United States and Canada]] in New York in 1911.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=255}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.ihrc.umn.edu/research/periodicals/russian.php
|title=Russian American Periodicals
|work=Immigration History Research Center
|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
}}
</ref> At the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917, the [[Russian Provisional Government]] declared a general amnesty and offered to fund the return of those Russians exiled for political opponents of the [[Russian Empire]]; the entire staff of ''Golos Truda'' elected to leave for Russia and to move the periodical to Petrograd.<ref name=rocker>[[Rudolf Rocker|Rocker, Rudolf]]. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/voline/biography.html Foreword] to {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> In [[Vancouver]] on May 26, 1917, the editors, along with [[Ferrer Center]] artist [[Manuel Komroff]] and thirteen others, boarded a ship bound for [[Japan]].<ref name=aa>{{cite book | last = Antliff | first = Allan | authorlink=Allan Antliff |title = Anarchist Modernism | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 2001 | isbn = 0226021033 |page=254}}</ref> On board, the anarchists played music, gave lectures, staged plays and even published a revolutionary newspaper, ''The Float''.<ref name=aa/> From Japan, the band made their way to [[Siberia]], and proceeded East to [[European Russia]].<ref name=aa/>

== Publication in Russia ==
In Petrograd, the task of beginning publication was assisted by the nascent [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]],<ref name=rocker/> and the new paper bolstered the city's indigenous anarcho-syndicalist movement.<ref>{{cite book | last = Thorpe | first = Wayne | title = The Workers Themselves | publisher = Kluwer Academic | year = 1989 | isbn = 0792302761 |page=59}}</ref> Its editorial staff included [[Maksim Rayevsky]], [[Vladimir Shatov]] (the [[Linotype machine|linotype]] operator),<ref name=aa/> [[Volin]],<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=137}}</ref> [[Gregori Maksimov]], [[Alexander Schapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/2008/06/28/alexander-schapiro-anarchosyndicalism-and-anarchist-organization/ |authorlink=Robert Graham (historian) |last=Graham |first=Robert |title=Alexander Schapiro - Anarchosyndicalism and Anarchist Organization |work=Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog |date=June 28, 2008 |accessdate=March 20, 2009}}</ref> and [[Vasya Swieda]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul | authorlink=Paul Avrich |title = Anarchist Voices | publisher = [[AK Press]] | location = Stirling | year = 2005 | isbn = 1904859275 |oclc=64098230 |page=369}}</ref><Ref name=iisg/>

The first (weekly) issue was published on August 11, 1917, with an editorial declaring its firm opposition to the tactics and programs of the [[Bolsheviks]], [[Mensheviks]], [[left Social Revolutionaries]], [[right Social Revolutionaries]] and so on, and that the conception of revolutionary action of the anarcho-syndicalists bore no resemblance to those of the socialists.<ref name=volinc4>Chapter 4, "[http://www.ditext.com/voline/271.html The Unknown Anarchist Press in the Russian Revolution]", {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> It declared as its principal goal a revolution that would replace the [[Sovereign state|state]] with a free confederation of autonomous "peasant unions, industrial unions, factory committees, control commissions and the like in locations all over the country".<ref name=uno>{{Cite journal|journal=Golos Truda |issue=1 |date=August 11, 1917 |page=1}}</ref> This revolution would be "anti-statist in its methods of struggle, syndicalist in its economic content, and federal in its political tasks".<ref name=uno/> It placed its greatest hopes in the [[factory committee]]s, which had arisen spontaneously around the country after the [[February Revolution]].<ref name=av40>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=140}}</ref>

Volin described the almost six month gap between the February Revolution and the launch of the paper in Russia as "a long and irreparable delay", and each issue at this time contained what Volin later described as "clear and definite articles on the way in which the Anarcho-Syndicalists conceived the constructive tasks of the Revolution to come", citing as examples "a series of articles on the role of the factory committees; articles on the tasks of the Soviets, and others on how to resolve the agrarian problem, on the new organization of production, and on exchange".<ref name=volinc4/> It published copious articles on the [[general strike]] as well as on the French ''[[bourses du travail]]'' and ''[[syndicats]]''.<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=139}}</ref> The paper shifted to daily publication after the [[October Revolution]] of that same year, for three months.<ref name=rocker/><ref name=volinc4/> In a series of articles, it proclaimed the necessity of immediately abandoning the [[vanguardist]] Bolshevik [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], and of allowing the workers freedom of association and action.<ref name=volinc4/>

''Golos Truda'' faced a difficult task, with the majority of the workers having been won over by the Bolsheviks, whose propaganda efforts dwarfed those of the anarchists.<ref name=volinc4/> Although the ''Golos Truda'' sharply criticized the [[anarchist communists]] of Petrograd as romantics ignorant of the complex social forces of the Revolution, among the city's Bolshevik-supporting factory workers, the ideas of the union and its paper were considered bizarre and met with little initial success.<ref name=volinc4/> In March 1918, the Bolsheviks moved the seat of government from Petrograd to [[Moscow]], and the anarchists swiftly followed, moving the printing of ''Golos Truda'' to the new capital.<ref name=iisg/><ref>{{cite book | last = Woodcock | first = George | title = Anarchism: a History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements | publisher = Broadview Press | location = Peterborough | year = 2004 | isbn = 1551116294 |authorlink=George Woodcock}}</ref><Ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=179}}</ref>

== Suppression and legacy ==
{{Anarchism sidebar}}
On November 17, 1917 the [[Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets]] issued a decree granting to the Bolsheviks control over all newsprint and expansive powers of shutting down dissident newspapers.<ref>{{cite book | last = Schapiro | first = Leonard | title = The Communist Party of the Soviet Union | publisher = Eyre & Spottiswoode | location = London | year = 1970 | isbn = 0413279006 }}{{page number}}</ref> After the suppression by the Bolshevik government of the ''Golos Truda'' in August 1918, Maximov, [[Nikolai Dolenko]] and [[Efim Yartchuk]] established ''Volny Golos Truda'' (''The Free Voice of Labour'').<Ref name=iisg/><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://libcom.org/history/maximov-grigori-petrovitch-1893-1950
|title=Maximov, Grigori Petrovitch, 1893-1950
|publisher=Libcom.org
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
|last=Heath
|first=Nick
}}
</ref>
At the [[10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (b)]] in March 1921, Bolshevik leader [[Vladimir Lenin]] declared war against the [[petite bourgeoisie]], and in particular the anarcho-syndicalists, with immediate consequences; the [[Cheka]] closed the publishing and printing premises of ''Golos Truda'' in Petrograd, as well as the paper's bookstore in Moscow, where all but half a dozen anarchists had been arrested.<ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Emma |authorlink=Emma Goldman | title = [[Living My Life]] | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 1930 | isbn = 0486225445 |page=887}}</ref>

Despite the banning of their paper, the ''Golos Truda'' group continued on, however, and issued a final edition, in the form of a journal, in Petrograd and Moscow in December 1919.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=286}}</ref> During the [[New Economic Policy]] period (1921 – 1928), it released a number of works, including the publication of the collected works of pre-eminent anarchist theorist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] from its bookstore and publishing house in Petrograd from 1919 to 1922.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Introduction |title=The Political Philosophy of Bakunin |editor=G. P. Maximoff |location=London |year=1953 |pages=17–27 |separator=, |oclc=213747035 |publisher=Free Press |chapterurl=http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=684}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=237}}</ref> What little anarchist activity the regime tolerated ended in 1929, after the accession of [[Joseph Stalin]], and the bookshops of the ''Golos Truda'' group in Moscow and Petrograd were closed permanently amidst an abrupt and violent wave of repression.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=244}}</ref> The newspaper was also suppressed by the [[Post Office Department]] in the United States, where it was succeeded by the widely-circulated ''[[Khleb i Volya]]'' (''Bread and Freedom''), first published on February 26, 1919, which in turn was banned from the United States and Canada for its anarchist position.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Will Deport Reds as Alien Plotters |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 9, 1919 |publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]}}</ref>

Russian revolutionary anarchist-turned-Bolshevik [[Victor Serge]] described ''Golos Truda'' as the most authoritative anarchist group active in 1917, "in the sense that it was the only one to possess any semblance of doctrine, a valuable collection of militants" who foresaw that the October Revolution "could only end in the formation of a new power".<ref name=serge>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Revolutionary History]] |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=1994 |first=Victor |last=Serge |title=Lenin in 1917}}</ref>

== Related articles ==
*[[Anarchism in Russia]]
*''[[Dielo Truda]]'', an anarchist newspaper set up by Russian exiles in Paris in 1925
*[[List of anarchist periodicals]]{{-}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book | author=Volin |authorlink=Volin | title = The Unknown Revolution, 1917-1921 | publisher = Free Life Editions | location = New York | year = 1974 | isbn = 0914156071 |oclc=2848033}}
*{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul |authorlink=Paul Avrich | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1904859488 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/1918.html Maurice Brinton's ''The Bolsheviks and Workers Control''], hosted at the [[Spunk Library]]
[[Category:Anarchist periodicals]]
[[Category:Defunct newspapers of Russia]]
[[Category:Defunct weekly newspapers]]

Golos Truda

2009-05-22T19:47:11Z

Skomorokh: +lede

{{hatnote|The subject of this article is an anarchist periodical, not to be confused with the [[Menshevik]] magazine of the same name published in Samara in 1916}}
{{Infobox Newspaper
| name = ''Golos Truda''
| logo =
| image = [[File:Golos Truda.jpg|200px]]
| caption = Header of the first Russian edition, published August 11, 1917
| type = Monthly/weekly/daily periodical
| format =
| publisher = [[Union of Russian Workers]] (New York) [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]] / ''Golos Truda'' group (Russia)
| editor =
| staff =
| foundation = New York, 1911
| political = [[Anarcho-syndicalist]]
| language = [[Russian language|Russian]]
| ceased publication = 1917, 1919
| headquarters = New York (1911–1917) Petrograd (1917–1918) Moscow (1918)
| circulation =
| sister newspapers =''The Float''
| ISSN =
| oclc =
}}
'''''Golos Truda''''' ({{lang-en|The Voice of Labour}}) was a [[Russian language]] [[anarcho-syndicalist]] newspaper.<ref name=iisg>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/m/10760366full.php |title=G.P. Maksimov Papers |accessdate=March 22, 2009 |work=iisg.nl |publisher=[[International Institute of Social History]] }}</ref> Founded by working-class Russian expatriates in New York in 1911, ''Golos Truda'' shifted to [[Petrograd]] during the during the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] in 1917, when its editors took advantage of the general amnesty and right of return for political dissidents. There, the paper integrated itself into the nascent anarcho-syndicalist movement, pronounced the necessity of a social revolution of and by the workers, and situated itself in opposition to the myriad of other left-wing movements. The rise to power of the [[Bolsheviks]] marked the turning point for the newspaper however, as the new government enacted increasingly repressive measures against the publication of dissident literature and against anarchist agitation in general, and after a few years of low-profile publishing, the ''Golos Truda'' collective was finally expunged by the [[Stalinist regime]] in 1929.

== Background ==
''Golos Truda'' began as a monthly newspaper of the [[Union of Russian Workers in the United States and Canada]] in [[New York]] in 1911.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=255}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.ihrc.umn.edu/research/periodicals/russian.php
|title=Russian American Periodicals
|work=Immigration History Research Center
|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
}}
</ref> At the outbreak of the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] in 1917, the [[Russian Provisional Government]] declared a general amnesty and offered to fund the return of those Russians exiled for political opponents of the [[Russian Empire]]; the entire staff of ''Golos Truda'' elected to leave for Russia and to move the periodical to [[Petrograd]].<ref name=rocker>[[Rudolf Rocker|Rocker, Rudolf]]. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/voline/biography.html Foreword] to {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> In [[Vancouver]] on May 26, 1917, the editors, along with [[Ferrer Center]] artist [[Manuel Komroff]] and thirteen others, boarded a ship bound for [[Japan]].<ref name=aa>{{cite book | last = Antliff | first = Allan | authorlink=Allan Antliff |title = Anarchist Modernism | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 2001 | isbn = 0226021033 |page=254}}</ref> On board, the anarchists played music, gave lectures, staged plays and even published a revolutionary newspaper, ''The Float''.<ref name=aa/> From Japan, the band made their way to [[Siberia]], and proceeded East to [[European Russia]].<ref name=aa/>

== Publication in Russia ==
In Petrograd, the task of beginning publication was assisted by the nascent [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]],<ref name=rocker/> and the new paper bolstered the city's indigenous anarcho-syndicalist movement.<ref>{{cite book | last = Thorpe | first = Wayne | title = The Workers Themselves | publisher = Kluwer Academic | location = City | year = 1989 | isbn = 0792302761 |page=59}}</ref> Its editorial staff included [[Maksim Rayevsky]], [[Vladimir Shatov]] (the [[Linotype machine|linotype]] operator),<ref name=aa/> [[Volin]],<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=137}}</ref> [[Gregori Maksimov]], [[Alexander Schapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/2008/06/28/alexander-schapiro-anarchosyndicalism-and-anarchist-organization/ |authorlink=Robert Graham (historian) |last=Graham |first=Robert |title=Alexander Schapiro - Anarchosyndicalism and Anarchist Organization |work=Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog |date=June 28, 2008 |accessdate=March 20, 2009}}</ref> and [[Vasya Swieda]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul | authorlink=Paul Avrich |title = Anarchist Voices | publisher = [[AK Press]] | location = Stirling | year = 2005 | isbn = 1904859275 |oclc=64098230 |page=369}}</ref><Ref name=iisg/>

The first (weekly) issue was published on August 11, 1917, with an editorial declaring its firm opposition to the tactics and programs of the [[Bolsheviks]], [[Mensheviks]], [[left Social Revolutionaries]], [[right Social Revolutionaries]] and so on, and that the conception of revolutionary action of the anarcho-syndicalists bore no resemblance to those of the socialists.<ref name=volinc4>Chapter 4, "[http://www.ditext.com/voline/271.html The Unknown Anarchist Press in the Russian Revolution]", {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> It declared as its principal goal a revolution that would replace the [[Sovereign state|state]] with a free confederation of autonomous "peasant unions, industrial unions, factory committees, control commissions and the like in locations all over the country".<ref name=uno>{{Cite journal|journal=Golos Truda |issue=1 |date=August 11, 1917 |page=1}}</ref> This revolution would be "anti-statist in its methods of struggle, syndicalist in its economic content, and federal in its political tasks".<ref name=uno/> It placed its greatest hopes in the [[factory committee]]s, which had arisen spontaneously around the country after the [[February Revolution]].<ref name=av40>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=140}}</ref>

Volin described the almost six month gap between the February Revolution and the launch of the paper in Russia as "a long and irreparable delay", and each issue at this time contained what Volin later described as "clear and definite articles on the way in which the Anarcho-Syndicalists conceived the constructive tasks of the Revolution to come", citing as examples "a series of articles on the role of the factory committees; articles on the tasks of the Soviets, and others on how to resolve the agrarian problem, on the new organization of production, and on exchange".<ref name=volinc4/> It published copious articles on the [[general strike]] as well as on the French ''[[bourses du travail]]'' and ''[[syndicats]]''.<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=139}}</ref> The paper shifted to daily publication after the [[October Revolution]] of that same year, for three months.<ref name=rocker/><ref name=volinc4/> In a series of articles, it proclaimed the necessity of immediately abandoning the [[vanguardist]] Bolshevik [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], and of allowing the workers freedom of association and action.<ref name=volinc4/>

''Golos Truda'' faced a difficult task, with the majority of the workers having been won over by the Bolsheviks, whose propaganda efforts dwarfed those of the anarchists.<ref name=volinc4/> Although the ''Golos Truda'' sharply criticized the [[anarchist communists]] of Petrograd as romantics ignorant of the complex social forces of the Revolution, among the city's Bolshevik-supporting factory workers, the ideas of the union and its paper were considered bizarre and met with little initial success.<ref name=volinc4/> In March 1918, the Bolsheviks moved the seat of government from Petrograd to [[Moscow]], and the anarchists swiftly followed, moving the printing of ''Golos Truda'' to the new capital.<ref name=iisg/><ref>{{cite book | last = Woodcock | first = George | title = Anarchism: a History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements | publisher = Broadview Press | location = Peterborough | year = 2004 | isbn = 1551116294 |authorlink=George Woodcock}}</ref><Ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=179}}</ref>

== Suppression and legacy ==
{{Anarchism sidebar}}
On November 17, 1917 the [[Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets]] issued a decree granting to the Bolsheviks control over all newsprint and expansive powers of shutting down dissident newspapers.<ref>{{cite book | last = Schapiro | first = Leonard | title = The Communist Party of the Soviet Union | publisher = Eyre & Spottiswoode | location = London | year = 1970 | isbn = 0413279006 }}{{page number}}</ref> After the suppression by the Bolshevik government of the ''Golos Truda'' in August 1918, Maximov, [[Nikolai Dolenko]] and [[Efim Yartchuk]] established ''Volny Golos Truda'' (''The Free Voice of Labour'').<Ref name=iisg/><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://libcom.org/history/maximov-grigori-petrovitch-1893-1950
|title=Maximov, Grigori Petrovitch, 1893-1950
|publisher=Libcom.org
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
|last=Heath
|first=Nick
}}
</ref>
At the [[10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (b)]] in March 1921, Bolshevik leader [[Vladimir Lenin]] declared war against the [[petite bourgeoisie]], and in particular the anarcho-syndicalists, with immediate consequences; the [[Cheka]] closed the publishing and printing premises of ''Golos Truda'' in Petrograd, as well as the paper's bookstore in Moscow, where all but half a dozen anarchists had been arrested.<ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Emma |authorlink=Emma Goldman | title = [[Living My Life]] | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 1930 | isbn = 0486225445 |page=887}}</ref>

Despite the banning of their paper, the ''Golos Truda'' group continued on, however, and issued a final edition, in the form of a journal, in Petrograd and Moscow in December 1919.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=286}}</ref> During the [[New Economic Policy]] period (1921 – 1928), it released a number of works, including the publication of the collected works of pre-eminent anarchist theorist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] from its bookstore and publishing house in Petrograd from 1919 to 1922.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Introduction |title=The Political Philosophy of Bakunin |editor=G. P. Maximoff |location=London |year=1953 |pages=17–27 |separator=, |oclc=213747035 |publisher=Free Press |chapterurl=http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=684}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=237}}</ref> What little anarchist activity the regime tolerated ended in 1929, after the accession of [[Joseph Stalin]], and the bookshops of the ''Golos Truda'' group in Moscow and Petrograd were closed permanently amidst an abrupt and violent wave of repression.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=244}}</ref> The newspaper was also suppressed by the [[Post Office Department]] in the United States, where it was succeeded by the widely-circulated ''[[Khleb i Volya]]'' (''Bread and Freedom''), first published on February 26, 1919, which in turn was banned from the United States and Canada for its anarchist position.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Will Deport Reds as Alien Plotters |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 9, 1919 |publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]}}</ref>

Russian revolutionary anarchist-turned-Bolshevik [[Victor Serge]] described ''Golos Truda'' as the most authoritative anarchist group active in 1917, "in the sense that it was the only one to possess any semblance of doctrine, a valuable collection of militants" who foresaw that the October Revolution "could only end in the formation of a new power".<ref name=serge>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Revolutionary History]] |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=1994 |first=Victor |last=Serge |title=Lenin in 1917}}</ref>

== Related articles ==
*[[Anarchism in Russia]]
*''[[Dielo Truda]]'', an anarchist newspaper set up by Russian exiles in Paris in 1925
*[[List of anarchist periodicals]]{{-}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book | author=Volin |authorlink=Volin | title = The Unknown Revolution, 1917-1921 | publisher = Free Life Editions | location = New York | year = 1974 | isbn = 0914156071 |oclc=2848033}}
*{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul |authorlink=Paul Avrich | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1904859488 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/1918.html Maurice Brinton's ''The Bolsheviks and Workers Control''], hosted at the [[Spunk Library]]
[[Category:Anarchist periodicals]]
[[Category:Defunct newspapers of Russia]]
[[Category:Defunct weekly newspapers]]

Golos Truda

2009-05-22T19:10:36Z

Skomorokh: +publisher

{{hatnote|The subject of this article is an anarchist periodical, not to be confused with the [[Menshevik]] magazine of the same name published in Samara in 1916}}
{{Infobox Newspaper
| name = ''Golos Truda''
| logo =
| image = [[File:Golos Truda.jpg|200px]]
| caption = Header of the first Russian edition, published August 11, 1917
| type = Monthly/weekly/daily periodical
| format =
| publisher = [[Union of Russian Workers]] (New York) [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]] / ''Golos Truda'' group (Russia)
| editor =
| staff =
| foundation = New York, 1911
| political = [[Anarcho-syndicalist]]
| language = [[Russian language|Russian]]
| ceased publication = 1917, 1919
| headquarters = New York (1911–1917) Petrograd (1917–1918) Moscow (1918)
| circulation =
| sister newspapers =''The Float''
| ISSN =
| oclc =
}}
'''''Golos Truda''''' ({{lang-en|The Voice of Labour}}) was a [[Russian language]] [[anarcho-syndicalist]] newspaper.<ref name=iisg>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/m/10760366full.php |title=G.P. Maksimov Papers |accessdate=March 22, 2009 |work=iisg.nl |publisher=[[International Institute of Social History]] }}</ref>

== Background ==
''Golos Truda'' began as a monthly newspaper of the [[Union of Russian Workers in the United States and Canada]] in [[New York]] in 1911.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=255}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.ihrc.umn.edu/research/periodicals/russian.php
|title=Russian American Periodicals
|work=Immigration History Research Center
|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
}}
</ref> At the outbreak of the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] in 1917, the [[Russian Provisional Government]] declared a general amnesty and offered to fund the return of those Russians exiled for political opponents of the [[Russian Empire]]; the entire staff of ''Golos Truda'' elected to leave for Russia and to move the periodical to [[Petrograd]].<ref name=rocker>[[Rudolf Rocker|Rocker, Rudolf]]. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/voline/biography.html Foreword] to {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> In [[Vancouver]] on May 26, 1917, the editors, along with [[Ferrer Center]] artist [[Manuel Komroff]] and thirteen others, boarded a ship bound for [[Japan]].<ref name=aa>{{cite book | last = Antliff | first = Allan | authorlink=Allan Antliff |title = Anarchist Modernism | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 2001 | isbn = 0226021033 |page=254}}</ref> On board, the anarchists played music, gave lectures, staged plays and even published a revolutionary newspaper, ''The Float''.<ref name=aa/> From Japan, the band made their way to [[Siberia]], and proceeded East to [[European Russia]].<ref name=aa/>

== Publication in Russia ==
In Petrograd, the task of beginning publication was assisted by the nascent [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]],<ref name=rocker/> and the new paper bolstered the city's indigenous anarcho-syndicalist movement.<ref>{{cite book | last = Thorpe | first = Wayne | title = The Workers Themselves | publisher = Kluwer Academic | location = City | year = 1989 | isbn = 0792302761 |page=59}}</ref> Its editorial staff included [[Maksim Rayevsky]], [[Vladimir Shatov]] (the [[Linotype machine|linotype]] operator),<ref name=aa/> [[Volin]],<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=137}}</ref> [[Gregori Maksimov]], [[Alexander Schapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/2008/06/28/alexander-schapiro-anarchosyndicalism-and-anarchist-organization/ |authorlink=Robert Graham (historian) |last=Graham |first=Robert |title=Alexander Schapiro - Anarchosyndicalism and Anarchist Organization |work=Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog |date=June 28, 2008 |accessdate=March 20, 2009}}</ref> and [[Vasya Swieda]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul | authorlink=Paul Avrich |title = Anarchist Voices | publisher = [[AK Press]] | location = Stirling | year = 2005 | isbn = 1904859275 |oclc=64098230 |page=369}}</ref><Ref name=iisg/>

The first (weekly) issue was published on August 11, 1917, with an editorial declaring its firm opposition to the tactics and programs of the [[Bolsheviks]], [[Mensheviks]], [[left Social Revolutionaries]], [[right Social Revolutionaries]] and so on, and that the conception of revolutionary action of the anarcho-syndicalists bore no resemblance to those of the socialists.<ref name=volinc4>Chapter 4, "[http://www.ditext.com/voline/271.html The Unknown Anarchist Press in the Russian Revolution]", {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> It declared as its principal goal a revolution that would replace the [[Sovereign state|state]] with a free confederation of autonomous "peasant unions, industrial unions, factory committees, control commissions and the like in locations all over the country".<ref name=uno>{{Cite journal|journal=Golos Truda |issue=1 |date=August 11, 1917 |page=1}}</ref> This revolution would be "anti-statist in its methods of struggle, syndicalist in its economic content, and federal in its political tasks".<ref name=uno/> It placed its greatest hopes in the [[factory committee]]s, which had arisen spontaneously around the country after the [[February Revolution]].<ref name=av40>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=140}}</ref>

Volin described the almost six month gap between the February Revolution and the launch of the paper in Russia as "a long and irreparable delay", and each issue at this time contained what Volin later described as "clear and definite articles on the way in which the Anarcho-Syndicalists conceived the constructive tasks of the Revolution to come", citing as examples "a series of articles on the role of the factory committees; articles on the tasks of the Soviets, and others on how to resolve the agrarian problem, on the new organization of production, and on exchange".<ref name=volinc4/> It published copious articles on the [[general strike]] as well as on the French ''[[bourses du travail]]'' and ''[[syndicats]]''.<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=139}}</ref> The paper shifted to daily publication after the [[October Revolution]] of that same year, for three months.<ref name=rocker/><ref name=volinc4/> In a series of articles, it proclaimed the necessity of immediately abandoning the [[vanguardist]] Bolshevik [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], and of allowing the workers freedom of association and action.<ref name=volinc4/>

''Golos Truda'' faced a difficult task, with the majority of the workers having been won over by the Bolsheviks, whose propaganda efforts dwarfed those of the anarchists.<ref name=volinc4/> Although the ''Golos Truda'' sharply criticized the [[anarchist communists]] of Petrograd as romantics ignorant of the complex social forces of the Revolution, among the city's Bolshevik-supporting factory workers, the ideas of the union and its paper were considered bizarre and met with little initial success.<ref name=volinc4/> In March 1918, the Bolsheviks moved the seat of government from Petrograd to [[Moscow]], and the anarchists swiftly followed, moving the printing of ''Golos Truda'' to the new capital.<ref name=iisg/><ref>{{cite book | last = Woodcock | first = George | title = Anarchism: a History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements | publisher = Broadview Press | location = Peterborough | year = 2004 | isbn = 1551116294 |authorlink=George Woodcock}}</ref><Ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=179}}</ref>

== Suppression and legacy ==
{{Anarchism sidebar}}
On November 17, 1917 the [[Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets]] issued a decree granting to the Bolsheviks control over all newsprint and expansive powers of shutting down dissident newspapers.<ref>{{cite book | last = Schapiro | first = Leonard | title = The Communist Party of the Soviet Union | publisher = Eyre & Spottiswoode | location = London | year = 1970 | isbn = 0413279006 }}{{page number}}</ref> After the suppression by the Bolshevik government of the ''Golos Truda'' in August 1918, Maximov, [[Nikolai Dolenko]] and [[Efim Yartchuk]] established ''Volny Golos Truda'' (''The Free Voice of Labour'').<Ref name=iisg/><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://libcom.org/history/maximov-grigori-petrovitch-1893-1950
|title=Maximov, Grigori Petrovitch, 1893-1950
|publisher=Libcom.org
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
|last=Heath
|first=Nick
}}
</ref>
At the [[10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (b)]] in March 1921, Bolshevik leader [[Vladimir Lenin]] declared war against the [[petite bourgeoisie]], and in particular the anarcho-syndicalists, with immediate consequences; the [[Cheka]] closed the publishing and printing premises of ''Golos Truda'' in Petrograd, as well as the paper's bookstore in Moscow, where all but half a dozen anarchists had been arrested.<ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Emma |authorlink=Emma Goldman | title = [[Living My Life]] | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 1930 | isbn = 0486225445 |page=887}}</ref>

Despite the banning of their paper, the ''Golos Truda'' group continued on, however, and issued a final edition, in the form of a journal, in Petrograd and Moscow in December 1919.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=286}}</ref> During the [[New Economic Policy]] period (1921 – 1928), it released a number of works, including the publication of the collected works of pre-eminent anarchist theorist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] from its bookstore and publishing house in Petrograd from 1919 to 1922.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Introduction |title=The Political Philosophy of Bakunin |editor=G. P. Maximoff |location=London |year=1953 |pages=17–27 |separator=, |oclc=213747035 |publisher=Free Press |chapterurl=http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=684}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=237}}</ref> What little anarchist activity the regime tolerated ended in 1929, after the accession of [[Joseph Stalin]], and the bookshops of the ''Golos Truda'' group in Moscow and Petrograd were closed permanently amidst an abrupt and violent wave of repression.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=244}}</ref> The newspaper was also suppressed by the [[Post Office Department]] in the United States, where it was succeeded by the widely-circulated ''[[Khleb i Volya]]'' (''Bread and Freedom''), first published on February 26, 1919, which in turn was banned from the United States and Canada for its anarchist position.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Will Deport Reds as Alien Plotters |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 9, 1919 |publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]}}</ref>

Russian revolutionary anarchist-turned-Bolshevik [[Victor Serge]] described ''Golos Truda'' as the most authoritative anarchist group active in 1917, "in the sense that it was the only one to possess any semblance of doctrine, a valuable collection of militants" who foresaw that the October Revolution "could only end in the formation of a new power".<ref name=serge>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Revolutionary History]] |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=1994 |first=Victor |last=Serge |title=Lenin in 1917}}</ref>

== Related articles ==
*[[Anarchism in Russia]]
*''[[Dielo Truda]]'', an anarchist newspaper set up by Russian exiles in Paris in 1925
*[[List of anarchist periodicals]]{{-}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book | author=Volin |authorlink=Volin | title = The Unknown Revolution, 1917-1921 | publisher = Free Life Editions | location = New York | year = 1974 | isbn = 0914156071 |oclc=2848033}}
*{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul |authorlink=Paul Avrich | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1904859488 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/1918.html Maurice Brinton's ''The Bolsheviks and Workers Control''], hosted at the [[Spunk Library]]
[[Category:Anarchist periodicals]]
[[Category:Defunct newspapers of Russia]]
[[Category:Defunct weekly newspapers]]

Golos Truda

2009-05-22T19:02:23Z

Skomorokh: /* Related articles */ break

{{hatnote|The subject of this article is an anarchist periodical, not to be confused with the [[Menshevik]] magazine of the same name published in Samara in 1916}}
{{Infobox Newspaper
| name = ''Golos Truda''
| logo =
| image = [[File:Golos Truda.jpg|200px]]
| caption = Header of the first Russian edition, published August 11, 1917
| type = Monthly/weekly/daily periodical
| format =
| publisher = [[Union of Russian Workers]] (New York) [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]] / ''Golos Truda'' group (Russia)
| editor =
| staff =
| foundation = New York, 1911
| political = [[Anarcho-syndicalist]]
| language = [[Russian language|Russian]]
| ceased publication = 1917, 1919
| headquarters = New York (1911–1917) Petrograd (1917–1918) Moscow (1918)
| circulation =
| sister newspapers =''The Float''
| ISSN =
| oclc =
}}
'''''Golos Truda''''' ({{lang-en|The Voice of Labour}}) was a [[Russian language]] [[anarcho-syndicalist]] newspaper.<ref name=iisg>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/m/10760366full.php |title=G.P. Maksimov Papers |accessdate=March 22, 2009 |work=iisg.nl |publisher=[[International Institute of Social History]] }}</ref>

== Background ==
''Golos Truda'' began as a monthly newspaper of the [[Union of Russian Workers in the United States and Canada]] in [[New York]] in 1911.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=255}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.ihrc.umn.edu/research/periodicals/russian.php
|title=Russian American Periodicals
|work=Immigration History Research Center
|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
}}
</ref> At the outbreak of the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] in 1917, the [[Russian Provisional Government]] declared a general amnesty and offered to fund the return of those Russians exiled for political opponents of the [[Russian Empire]]; the entire staff of ''Golos Truda'' elected to leave for Russia and to move the periodical to [[Petrograd]].<ref name=rocker>[[Rudolf Rocker|Rocker, Rudolf]]. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/voline/biography.html Foreword] to {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> In [[Vancouver]] on May 26, 1917, the editors, along with [[Ferrer Center]] artist [[Manuel Komroff]] and thirteen others, boarded a ship bound for [[Japan]].<ref name=aa>{{cite book | last = Antliff | first = Allan | authorlink=Allan Antliff |title = Anarchist Modernism | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 2001 | isbn = 0226021033 |page=254}}</ref> On board, the anarchists played music, gave lectures, staged plays and even published a revolutionary newspaper, ''The Float''.<ref name=aa/> From Japan, the band made their way to [[Siberia]], and proceeded East to [[European Russia]].<ref name=aa/>

== Publication in Russia ==
In Petrograd, the task of beginning publication was assisted by the nascent [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda Union]],<ref name=rocker/> and the new paper bolstered the city's indigenous anarcho-syndicalist movement.<ref>{{cite book | last = Thorpe | first = Wayne | title = The Workers Themselves | publisher = Kluwer Academic | location = City | year = 1989 | isbn = 0792302761 |page=59}}</ref> Its editorial staff included [[Maksim Rayevsky]], [[Vladimir Shatov]] (the [[Linotype machine|linotype]] operator),<ref name=aa/> [[Volin]],<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=137}}</ref> [[Gregori Maksimov]], [[Alexander Schapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/2008/06/28/alexander-schapiro-anarchosyndicalism-and-anarchist-organization/ |authorlink=Robert Graham (historian) |last=Graham |first=Robert |title=Alexander Schapiro - Anarchosyndicalism and Anarchist Organization |work=Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog |date=June 28, 2008 |accessdate=March 20, 2009}}</ref> and [[Vasya Swieda]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul | authorlink=Paul Avrich |title = Anarchist Voices | publisher = [[AK Press]] | location = Stirling | year = 2005 | isbn = 1904859275 |oclc=64098230 |page=369}}</ref><Ref name=iisg/>

The first (weekly) issue was published on August 11, 1917, with an editorial declaring its firm opposition to the tactics and programs of the [[Bolsheviks]], [[Mensheviks]], [[left Social Revolutionaries]], [[right Social Revolutionaries]] and so on, and that the conception of revolutionary action of the anarcho-syndicalists bore no resemblance to those of the socialists.<ref name=volinc4>Chapter 4, "[http://www.ditext.com/voline/271.html The Unknown Anarchist Press in the Russian Revolution]", {{Harvnb|Volin|1974}}</ref> It declared as its principal goal a revolution that would replace the [[Sovereign state|state]] with a free confederation of autonomous "peasant unions, industrial unions, factory committees, control commissions and the like in locations all over the country".<ref name=uno>{{Cite journal|journal=Golos Truda |issue=1 |date=August 11, 1917 |page=1}}</ref> This revolution would be "anti-statist in its methods of struggle, syndicalist in its economic content, and federal in its political tasks".<ref name=uno/> It placed its greatest hopes in the [[factory committee]]s, which had arisen spontaneously around the country after the [[February Revolution]].<ref name=av40>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=140}}</ref>

Volin described the almost six month gap between the February Revolution and the launch of the paper in Russia as "a long and irreparable delay", and each issue at this time contained what Volin later described as "clear and definite articles on the way in which the Anarcho-Syndicalists conceived the constructive tasks of the Revolution to come", citing as examples "a series of articles on the role of the factory committees; articles on the tasks of the Soviets, and others on how to resolve the agrarian problem, on the new organization of production, and on exchange".<ref name=volinc4/> It published copious articles on the [[general strike]] as well as on the French ''[[bourses du travail]]'' and ''[[syndicats]]''.<ref name=av39>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=139}}</ref> The paper shifted to daily publication after the [[October Revolution]] of that same year, for three months.<ref name=rocker/><ref name=volinc4/> In a series of articles, it proclaimed the necessity of immediately abandoning the [[vanguardist]] Bolshevik [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], and of allowing the workers freedom of association and action.<ref name=volinc4/>

''Golos Truda'' faced a difficult task, with the majority of the workers having been won over by the Bolsheviks, whose propaganda efforts dwarfed those of the anarchists.<ref name=volinc4/> Although the ''Golos Truda'' sharply criticized the [[anarchist communists]] of Petrograd as romantics ignorant of the complex social forces of the Revolution, among the city's Bolshevik-supporting factory workers, the ideas of the union and its paper were considered bizarre and met with little initial success.<ref name=volinc4/> In March 1918, the Bolsheviks moved the seat of government from Petrograd to [[Moscow]], and the anarchists swiftly followed, moving the printing of ''Golos Truda'' to the new capital.<ref name=iisg/><ref>{{cite book | last = Woodcock | first = George | title = Anarchism: a History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements | publisher = Broadview Press | location = Peterborough | year = 2004 | isbn = 1551116294 |authorlink=George Woodcock}}</ref><Ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=179}}</ref>

== Suppression and legacy ==
{{Anarchism sidebar}}
On November 17, 1917 the [[Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets]] issued a decree granting to the Bolsheviks control over all newsprint and expansive powers of shutting down dissident newspapers.<ref>{{cite book | last = Schapiro | first = Leonard | title = The Communist Party of the Soviet Union | publisher = Eyre & Spottiswoode | location = London | year = 1970 | isbn = 0413279006 }}{{page number}}</ref> After the suppression by the Bolshevik government of the ''Golos Truda'' in August 1918, Maximov, [[Nikolai Dolenko]] and [[Efim Yartchuk]] established ''Volny Golos Truda'' (''The Free Voice of Labour'').<Ref name=iisg/><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://libcom.org/history/maximov-grigori-petrovitch-1893-1950
|title=Maximov, Grigori Petrovitch, 1893-1950
|publisher=Libcom.org
|accessdate=March 22, 2009
|last=Heath
|first=Nick
}}
</ref>
At the [[10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (b)]] in March 1921, Bolshevik leader [[Vladimir Lenin]] declared war against the [[petite bourgeoisie]], and in particular the anarcho-syndicalists, with immediate consequences; the [[Cheka]] closed the publishing and printing premises of ''Golos Truda'' in Petrograd, as well as the paper's bookstore in Moscow, where all but half a dozen anarchists had been arrested.<ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Emma |authorlink=Emma Goldman | title = [[Living My Life]] | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 1930 | isbn = 0486225445 |page=887}}</ref>

Despite the banning of their paper, the ''Golos Truda'' group continued on, however, and issued a final edition, in the form of a journal, in Petrograd and Moscow in December 1919.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=286}}</ref> During the [[New Economic Policy]] period (1921 – 1928), it released a number of works, including the publication of the collected works of pre-eminent anarchist theorist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] from its bookstore and publishing house in Petrograd from 1919 to 1922.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Introduction |title=The Political Philosophy of Bakunin |editor=G. P. Maximoff |location=London |year=1953 |pages=17–27 |separator=, |oclc=213747035 |publisher=Free Press |chapterurl=http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=684}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=237}}</ref> What little anarchist activity the regime tolerated ended in 1929, after the accession of [[Joseph Stalin]], and the bookshops of the ''Golos Truda'' group in Moscow and Petrograd were closed permanently amidst an abrupt and violent wave of repression.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avrich|2006|p=244}}</ref> The newspaper was also suppressed by the [[Post Office Department]] in the United States, where it was succeeded by the widely-circulated ''[[Khleb i Volya]]'' (''Bread and Freedom''), first published on February 26, 1919, which in turn was banned from the United States and Canada for its anarchist position.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Will Deport Reds as Alien Plotters |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 9, 1919}}</ref>

Russian revolutionary anarchist-turned-Bolshevik [[Victor Serge]] described ''Golos Truda'' as the most authoritative anarchist group active in 1917, "in the sense that it was the only one to possess any semblance of doctrine, a valuable collection of militants" who foresaw that the October Revolution "could only end in the formation of a new power".<ref name=serge>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Revolutionary History]] |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=1994 |first=Victor |last=Serge |title=Lenin in 1917}}</ref>

== Related articles ==
*[[Anarchism in Russia]]
*''[[Dielo Truda]]'', an anarchist newspaper set up by Russian exiles in Paris in 1925
*[[List of anarchist periodicals]]{{-}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book | author=Volin |authorlink=Volin | title = The Unknown Revolution, 1917-1921 | publisher = Free Life Editions | location = New York | year = 1974 | isbn = 0914156071 |oclc=2848033}}
*{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul |authorlink=Paul Avrich | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1904859488 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/1918.html Maurice Brinton's ''The Bolsheviks and Workers Control''], hosted at the [[Spunk Library]]
[[Category:Anarchist periodicals]]
[[Category:Defunct newspapers of Russia]]
[[Category:Defunct weekly newspapers]]