Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Scott Sumner

2011-10-14T19:49:55Z

Sketch051:

'''Scott B. Sumner''' is an [[economist]] and currently Professor of Economics at [[Bentley University]]. Sumner received a [[PhD]] in economics from the [[University of Chicago]] in 1985. His published research focuses on [[prediction market]]s and [[monetary policy]].<ref> {{cite web | url = https://faculty.bentley.edu/details.asp?uname=ssumner | title = Scott B. Sumner | accessdate = 2011-01-18 | publisher = [[Bentley University]]}}</ref> In the wake of the [[2008 financial crisis]], he was a vocal critic of the view that the [[United States]] economy was stuck in a [[liquidity trap]].<ref> {{cite web | url = http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/03/02/a-quick-response-to-scott-sumner/ | title = A quick response to Scott Sumner | accessdate = 2011-01-18 | last = Krugman | first = Paul | date = 2009-03-02 | work = The New York Times}}</ref> He advocates that [[central bank]]s such as the [[Federal Reserve]] create a futures market for the level of nominal [[gross domestic product]] (NGDP). Monetary authorities otherwise choose targets such as [[inflation targeting|inflation]], [[unemployment]], the [[money supply]] or hybrids of these.<ref> {{cite news | first = Scott | last = Sumner | title = Money Rules | date = 2010-12-14 | url = http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/255093/money-rules-scott-sumner | work = The National Review | accessdate = 2011-01-18}}</ref> Sumner's contends that inflation is "measured inaccurately and doesn’t discriminate between demand versus [[supply shock]]s," and that "Inflation often changes with a lag ... but nominal GDP growth falls very, very quickly, so it'll give you a more timely signal stimulus is needed."<ref name="bloomberg"> {{cite news | first = Scott | last = Hamilton | title = Bank of England Should Replace Inflation Targeting, Sumner Says | date = 2011-04-10 | url = http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-04-10/bank-of-england-should-replace-inflation-targeting-sumner-says.html | work = Bloomberg | accessdate = 2011-04-13}}</ref> He argued that [[monetary policy]] can offset [[fiscal austerity]] policies such as those pursued by the [[United Kingdom|British]] government in the wake of the [[Late-2000s financial crisis|2007 economic crisis]].<ref name="bloomberg"/>

In 2011, the [[Reserve Bank of New Zealand|Reserve Bank]] of [[New Zealand]] responded to Sumner's critique of inflation targeting, arguing that a nominal GDP target would be too technically complicated, and make monetary policy difficult to communicate.<ref> {{cite news | title = Reserve Bank rejects report on system flaws | date = 2011-04-13 | publisher = stuff.co.nz | url = http://www.stuff.co.nz/business/money/4883125/Reserve-Bank-rejects-report-on-system-flaws | work = NZPA | accessdate = 2011-04-15}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Market monetarism|Market Monetarism]]

==References==
<div class='references-small'>
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
* [https://faculty.bentley.edu/details.asp?uname=ssumner Faculty webpage at Bentley University]
* [http://www.themoneyillusion.com/ Blog]

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[[Category:American economists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Monetarists]]
[[Category:Monetary economists]]
[[Category:Bentley University]]
[[Category:University of Chicago alumni]]

Benutzer:Elrond/Britisches Einheitensystem

2009-03-10T16:11:08Z

Sketch051: /* United States */ "United States" is a compound singular, not plural; thus the singular "uses" is more correct than the plural "use".

: ''This article is about the post-1824 measures used in the British Empire and countries in the British sphere of influence. For information about the units used in England before 1824, see [[English units]]. For information about the units used in the USA, see [[United States customary units]]. For information about the system of weight, see [[Avoirdupois]].''

'''Imperial units''' or the '''imperial system''' is a [[system of units]], first defined in the British [[Weights and Measures Act]] of 1824, later refined (until 1959) and reduced. Systems of imperial units are sometimes referred to as '''foot-pound-second''', after the base units of length, mass and time. The units were introduced in the [[British Empire]], excluding the then already independent [[United States]]. As of 2008, all countries that used the imperial system have become officially [[metric system|metric]] (except for [[Burma]] and [[Liberia]]), but imperial units continue to be used alongside metric units.

[[Image:Weights and Measures office.jpg|thumb|250px|The former Weights and Measures office in [[Seven Sisters, London]].]]

== Relation to other systems ==
{{seemain|Comparison of the imperial and US customary measurement systems}}
The distinction between the imperial system and the [[U.S. customary unit]]s (also called standard or English units) or older British/English units/systems and newer additions is often not drawn precisely. Most length units are shared between the imperial and U.S. systems, albeit partially and temporally defined differently. Capacity measures differ the most due to the introduction of the imperial [[gallon]] and the unification of wet and dry measures. The [[avoirdupois]] system applies only to weights; it has a ''long'' designation and a ''short'' designation for the hundredweight and ton.
The term ''imperial'' should not be applied to English units that were outlawed in [[Weights and Measures Act]] of 1824 or earlier, or which had fallen out of use by that time, nor to post-imperial inventions such as the [[slug (mass)|slug]] or [[poundal]].

Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one area rather than the other.

==Units==
=== Length ===
[[Image:ImperialStandardsOfLength1876TrafalgarSquare Copyright2005KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|Imperial standards of length 1876 in [[Trafalgar Square]], [[London]].]]

After the 1 July 1959 deadline, agreed upon in 1958, the US and the British yard were defined identically, at 0.9144 metres to match the ''international yard''. Metric equivalents in this article usually assume this latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the Imperial Standard Yard was 0.914398416 metres.<ref>Sears et al. 1928. ''Phil Trans A'' 227:281</ref>
{{-}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table of length equivalent units
! Unit
! Relative to previous
! Feet
! Millimetres
! [[Metre]]s
! Notes
|-
|align=center| ''[[thou (unit of length)|thou]]''
|
|align=right| {{frac|12000}}
|align=right| 0.0254
|align=right|
|align=right| 25.4 μm The unit is known as a ''mil'' in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Publications/upload/h4402_appenc.pdf |format=PDF|title=General Tables of Units of Measurement |accessdate=2008-01-30 |date= |work=online pdf |publisher=NIST, United States Government}}</ref>
|-
|align=center| ''[[inch]]''
| 1000 thou
|align=right| {{frac|12}}
|align=right| 25.4
|align=right|
|align=right|
|-
|align=center| ''[[foot (length)|foot]]''
| 12 inches
|align=right| 1
|align=right| 304.8
|align=right| 0.3048
|align=right|
|-
|align=center| ''[[yard]]''
| 3 feet
|align=right| 3
|align=right| 914.4
|align=right| 0.9144
|align=right| Defined as exactly 0.9144 metres since 1956.
|-
|align=center| ''[[furlong]]''
| 220 yards
|align=right| 660
|align=right|
|align=right| 201.168
|align=right|
|-
|align=center| ''[[mile]]''
| 8 furlongs
|align=right| 5280
|align=right|
|align=right| 1609.344
|align=right|
|-
|align=center| ''[[league (unit)|league]]''
| 3 miles
|align=right| 15,840
|align=right|
|align=right| 4828.032
|align=right| No longer an official unit in any nation.
|-
|align=center colspan=6| '''Maritime units'''
|-
|align=center| ''[[fathom]]''
|
|align=right| 6.08 or 6<ref>The exact figure was 6.08 feet but 6 feet was in use in practice.</ref>
|align=right| 1,853.184
|align=right| {{val|1.853184}}
|align=right|
The British [[Admiralty]] in practice used a fathom as 6 feet. This was despite its being {{frac|1000}} of a nautical mile (i.e. 6.08 feet) until 1970, when the international nautical mile of exactly 1852 metres was adopted. The commonly accepted definition of a fathom was always 6 feet. The conflict was inconsequential in determining depth as Admiralty nautical charts used feet as depths below 5 fathoms on older imperial charts. Today all charts worldwide are metric, except for USA Hydrographic Office charts, which use feet for all depth ranges.
|-
|align=center| ''[[cable length|cable]]''
| ~100 fathoms
|align=right| 608
|align=right|
|align=right| 185.3184
|align=right| One tenth of a nautical mile. When in use it was approximated colloquially as 100 fathoms.
|-
|align=center| ''[[nautical mile]]''
| 10 cables
|align=right| 6,080
|align=right|
|align=right| 1,853.184
|align=right| Used to measure distances at sea. This value referred to the British nautical (Admiralty) mile of 6,080 ft; the modern international mile is slightly different.
|-
|align=center colspan=6| '''Gunter's survey units (17th century onwards)'''
|-
|align=center| ''[[link (unit)|link]]''
|
|align=right| {{frac|66|100}}
|align=right| 201.168
|align=right| {{val|0.201168}}
|align=right|
|-
|align=center| ''[[pole (unit of length)|pole]]''
| 25 links
|align=right| {{frac|66|4}} 
|align=right| 5029.2
|align=right| 5.0292
|align=right| The pole is also called ''rod'' or ''perch''.
|-
|align=center| ''[[chain (unit)|chain]]''
| 4 poles
|align=right| 66
|align=right|
|align=right| 20.1168
|align=right| {{frac|10}} furlong
|}

Until the adoption of the international definition of 1852 metres in 1970, the British [[nautical mile]] was defined as 6,080 feet. It was not readily expressible in terms of any of the intermediate units, because it was derived from the circumference of the Earth (like the original [[metre]]).

=== Area ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Area
! Unit
! Relation to units of length
! Square feet
! Square rods
! Square miles
! Square metres
! [[Hectare]]s
! Notes
|-
| ''[[Rod (length)|perch]]''
|align=center| 1 rod × 1 rod
|align=right|272.25
|align=right|1
|align=right|{{frac|10240}}
|align=right|{{val|25.29285264}}
|align=right| 0.002529
|The rood is also called a ''rod''.<ref>http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD%2FGBR%2F0272%2FKC%2FKCAR%2F6%2F2;recurse=1</ref><ref>http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD%2FGBR%2F0272%2FKC%2FKCAR%2FMON%2F38</ref>
|-
| ''[[rood#Measurement of area or length|rood]]''
|align=center| 1 furlong × 1 rod<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Publications/upload/h4402_appenc.pdf |title= Appendix C: General Tables of Units of Measurements|accessdate=4 January 2007|format=pdf |work=|publisher=NIST}}</ref>
|align=right|10,890
|align=right|40
|align=right|{{frac|2560}}
|align=right|{{val|1011.7141056}}
|align=right|0.1012
|Although the proper term is ''square rod'', for centuries this unit has been called a ''pole'' or ''perch'' or, more properly ''square pole'' or ''square perch''.
|-
| ''[[acre]]''
|align=center| {{nowrap|1 furlong × 1 chain}}
|align=right|43,560
|align=right|160
|align=right|{{frac|640}}
|align=right| {{val|4046.8564224}}
|align=right|0.4047
|
|-
|colspan=8|'''Note:''' All equivalences are exact except the hectares, which are accurate to four significant figures.
|}

=== Volume ===
In 1824, Britain adopted a close approximation to the ale gallon known as the imperial gallon. The imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 [[Pound (mass)|lb]] of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 [[inch of mercury|in Hg]] at a temperature of 62 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]. In 1963 this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 lb of distilled water of density 0.998 859 [[gram|g]]/[[millilitre|ml]] weighed in air of density 0.001 217 g/ml against weights of density 8.136 g/ml. This works out to 4.545 964 591 L, or 277.420 cu in. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 switched to a gallon of exactly 4.546 09 L (approximately 277.4 cu in).<ref>[http://www.sizes.com/units/gallon_imperial.htm Sizes.com]</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table of volume units
! Unit
! Imperial ounce
! Imperial pint
! [[Millilitre]]s
! Cubic inches
! US ounces
! US pints
|-
|align=center| ''[[fluid ounce]]'' (fl oz)
|align=right| 1
|align=right| {{frac|20}}
| {{convert|28.4130625|ml|cuin USoz USpt|disp=table|sigfig=5}}
|-
|align=center| ''gill''
|align=right| 5
|align=right| {{frac|4}}
| {{convert|142.0653125|ml|cuin USoz USpt|disp=table|sigfig=5}}
|-
|align=center| ''[[pint]]'' (pt)
|align=right| 20
|align=right| 1
| {{convert|568.26125|ml|cuin USoz USpt|disp=table|sigfig=5}}
|-
|align=center| ''[[quart]]'' (qt)
|align=right| 40
|align=right| 2
| {{convert|1136.5225|ml|cuin USoz USpt|disp=table|sigfig=5}}
|-
|align=center| ''[[gallon]]'' (gal)
|align=right| 160
|align=right| 8
| {{convert|4546.09|ml|cuin USoz USpt|disp=table|sigfig=5}}
|-
|colspan=7|'''Note:''' The millilitre equivalences are exact whereas the conversions to cubic-inch and US measures are correct to five significant figures.
|}

For a comparison to the US customary system see the article on [[Comparison of the imperial and US customary measurement systems]].

=== Mass ===
In the 19th and 20th centuries Britain has used three different systems for mass and weight:<ref>The [[mass versus weight|distinction between mass and weight]] is not always clearly drawn. In certain contexts the term ''[[pound-force|pound]]'' may refer to a unit of force rather than mass.</ref>
*[[troy weight]], used for precious metals;
*[[avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes; and
*[[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.

The troy pound ({{val|373.2417216|u=g}}) was made the primary unit of mass by the 1824 Act， however, its use was abolished in Britain on 6 January 1879, making the Avoirdupois pound the primary unit of mass with only the troy ounce ({{val|31.1034768|u=g}}) and its [[decimal]] subdivisions retained. In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[Pound (mass)|pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table of mass units
! Unit
! Pounds
! Grams
! [[Kilogram]]s
! Notes
|-
|align=center| ''[[Grain (mass)|grain]]''
|align=right| {{frac|7000}}
|align=right| {{val|0.06479891}}
|align=right|
|align=right| Exactly {{val|64.79891}} milligrams.
|-
|align=center| ''[[Dram (unit)|drachm]]''
|align=right| {{frac|256}}
|align=right| 1.7718451953125
|align=right|
|align=right|
|-
|align=center| ''[[ounce]]'' (oz)
|align=right| {{frac|16}}
|align=right| {{val|28.349523125}}
|align=right|
|align=right|
|-
|align=center| ''[[Pound (mass)|pound]]'' (lb)
|align=right| 1
|align=right| {{val|453.59237}}
|align=right| {{val|0.45359237}}
|align=right| Exactly {{val|453.59237}} grams by definition.
|-
|align=center| ''[[Stone (mass)|stone]]'' (st)
|align=right| 14
|align=right| {{val|6350.29318}}
|align=right| {{val|6.35029318}}
|align=right| A person's weight is often quoted in stone and pounds in English-speaking countries, with the exception of the United States and Canada, where it is usually quoted in pounds.
|-
|align=center| ''quarter''
|align=right| 28
|align=right|
|align=right| {{val|12.70058636}}
|align=right| A "quarter" was also commonly used to refer to a quarter of a pound in a retail context.
|-
|align=center| ''[[hundredweight]]'' (cwt)
|align=right| 112
|align=right|
|align=right| {{val|50.80234544}}
|align=right|
|-
|align=center| ''[[ton]]'' (t)
|align=right| 2240
|align=right|
|align=right| {{val|1016.0469088}}
|align=right| 20 hundredweights in both systems, US hundredweight being lighter.
|}

The British [[ton]] (the [[long ton]]), is 2240 pounds, which is very close to a metric [[tonne]], whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds (907.184 74 kg). Each is divided into 20 hundredweights (cwt), the British hundredweight of 112 pounds being 12% heavier than the American hundredweight.

{{see|Comparison of the imperial and US customary measurement systems}}

== Current use of imperial units ==
[[Image:MetricImperialUSCustomaryUnits.jpg|thumb|175px|A baby bottle that measures in three measurement systems—imperial (UK), US customary, and metric.]]

=== United Kingdom ===
{{main|Metrication in the United Kingdom}}

British law now defines each imperial unit in terms of the metric equivalent.

The [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm Units of Measurement Regulations 1995] require that all measuring devices used in trade or retail be capable of measuring and displaying metric quantities. This has now been proved in court against the so-called "[[Metric Martyrs]]", a small group of market traders who insisted on trading in imperial units only. Contrary to the impression given by some press reports, these regulations have never placed any obstacle in the way of using imperial units alongside metric units. Almost all traders in the UK will accept requests from customers specified in imperial units, and scales which display in both unit systems are commonplace in the retail trade. Metric price signs may currently be accompanied by imperial price signs (known as supplementary indicators) provided that the imperial signs are no larger and no more prominent than the official metric ones. The EU's deadline of 31 December 2009 to enforce metric-only labels and ban any ''supplementary indicators'' (imperial measurements) on goods after the deadline has been abolished. On 9 May 2007 the European Commission agreed to allow ''supplementary indications'' alongside the statutory metric indications beyond 2009. <ref name=EUreverseban>{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uklatest/story/0,,-6620117,00.html |title=EU shelves ban on imperial measures |accessdate=15 May 2007|date=9 May 2007 |year= |month= |format=online |work= |publisher= Press Association/Guardian Unlimited }}</ref>

The United Kingdom completed its legal transition to SI units in 1995, but a few imperial units are still in official use: draught beer ''must'' be sold in pints, road-sign distances ''must'' be in yards and miles, road-sign clearance heights ''must'' be in feet and inches (although an equivalent in metres may be shown as well) and road speed limits ''must'' be in [[miles per hour]], therefore instruments in vehicles sold in Britain must be capable of displaying miles per hour. (Foreign vehicles, such as all post-2005 Irish vehicles, may legally have instruments displayed only in kilometres per hour.) Even though the [[troy weight|troy pound]] was outlawed in Great Britain in the Weights and Measures Act of 1878, the ''troy ounce'' still ''may'' be used for the weight of precious stones and metals. The railways are also a big user of imperial units, with distances officially measured in miles and yards or miles and [[chain (length)|chain]]s, and also feet and inches, and speeds are in miles per hour, although many modern metro and tram systems are entirely metric, and [[London Underground]] uses both metric (for distances) and imperial (for speeds). Metric is also used for the [[Channel Tunnel]] and on [[High Speed 1]]. Adjacent to [[Ashford International railway station]] and [[Dollands Moor Freight Yard]], railway speeds are given in both metric and imperial units.

The use of SI units is mandated by law for the retail sale of food and other commodities, but most British people still use imperial units in colloquial discussion of distance (miles) and speed (miles per hour). Milk is available in both half-litre and pint containers. Most people still measure their weight in [[stone (weight)|stone]] and pounds, and height in feet and inches—but these must be converted to metric if recorded officially, for example in medical records. [[Petrol]] is sometimes quoted as being so much per gallon, despite having been sold exclusively in litres for two decades. Likewise, fuel consumption for cars is still usually in miles per gallon, though official figures always include litres per 100 km equivalents. Fahrenheit equivalents are occasionally given after Celsius in weather forecasts. Threads on non metric nuts and bolts etc are sometimes referred to as Imperial, especially in the UK.

=== Canada ===
{{main|Canadian units}}
{{seealso|Metrication in Canada}}

In the 1970s the metric system and SI units were introduced in Canada to replace the imperial system. Within the government, efforts to implement the metric system were extensive; almost any agency, institution, or function provided by the government uses SI units exclusively. Imperial units were eliminated from all road signs, although both systems of measurement will still be found on privately-owned signs, such as the height warnings at the entrance of a [[Multi-storey car park|multi-storey parking facility]]. In the 1980s, momentum to fully convert to the metric system stalled when the government of [[Brian Mulroney]] was elected. There was heavy opposition to metrication and as a compromise the government maintains legal definitions for and allows use of imperial units as long as metric units are shown as well.<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/W-6/sc:2//en#anchorsc:2 |title=Weights and Measures Act: Canadian units of measure |publisher=Justice Canada |accessdate=2007-11-14
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/guide/ch11e.shtml#11.2 |title=Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising |chapter=11 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=[[Canadian Food Inspection Agency]] |accessdate=2007-12-01
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/ShowTdm/cr/C.R.C.-c.417///en |title=Consumer Packaging and Labelling Regulations |accessdate=2007-12-01 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=Justice Canada, Legislative Services Branch}}</ref><ref name="Canadiancompromise">
{{cite web |url=http://archives.cbc.ca/clip.asp?page=1&IDLan=1&IDClip=10620&IDCat=345&IDCatPa=261 |title=A Canadian compromise |accessdate=2008-03-12 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=CBC |quote=
}}</ref> The law requires that measured products (such as fuel and meat) be priced in metric units, although an imperial price can be shown if a metric price is present.<ref name="Canadian compromise">
{{cite web |url=http://archives.cbc.ca/clip.asp?page=1&IDLan=1&IDClip=10620&IDCat=345&IDCatPa=261 |title=A Canadian compromise |accessdate=2008-03-11 |date= |work= |publisher=CBC |quote=
}}</ref><ref name="Livre">
{{cite web |url=http://archives.radio-canada.ca/clip.asp?page=1&IDLan=0&IDClip=9378&IDCat=216&IDCatPa=151 |title=Les livres et les pieds, toujours présents (eng:The pounds and feet, always present) |accessdate=2008-03-11 |date= |work= |publisher=5 sur 5, Société [[Radio-Canada]] |quote= |langage=French
}}</ref> However, there tends to be leniency in regards to fruits and vegetables being priced in imperial units only.<ref name="Livre"/> [[Environment Canada]] still offers an imperial unit option beside metric units, even though weather is typically measured and reported in metric units in the Canadian media. However, some radio stations near the United States border (such as [[CIMX]] and [[CIDR-FM|CIDR]]) primarily use imperial units to report the weather.

Imperial units are still used in ordinary conversation. Few older Canadians would exclusively use SI units to describe their weight and height. Although drivers' licences in some provinces like British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland and Labrador use SI units, other provinces like Saskatchewan use imperial units.<ref>[http://www.sgi.sk.ca/sgi_pub/drivers_licences/photo_id.htm Driver’s Licences: Photo ID]</ref> In livestock auction markets, cattle are sold in dollars per [[hundredweight]] (short), whereas hogs are sold in dollars per hundred kilograms. Imperial units still dominate in recipes, construction, house renovation and gardening, although often informally. Land is now surveyed and registered in metric units, although initial surveys used imperial units. For example, partitioning of farm land on the prairies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was done in imperial units; this accounts for imperial units of distance and area retaining wide use in the prairie provinces. The size of most apartments, condominiums and houses continues to be described in [[square feet]] rather than square metres, and carpet or flooring tile is purchased by the square foot. Motor-vehicle fuel consumption is reported in both litres per 100 km and statute miles per imperial gallon,<ref>http://www.oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/tools/fuelratings/ratings-search.cfm?attr=8</ref> leading to the erroneous impression that Canadian vehicles are 20% more fuel-efficient than their apparently-identical American counterparts, their fuel economy being reported in statute miles per US gallon. (neither country specifies which gallon is used)

Imperial units also retain common use in firearms and ammunition. Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even when the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g. 0.204 [[Sturm, Ruger|Ruger]], 0.17 HMR, where the calibre is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). However, ammunition which is classified in metric already is still kept metric (e.g. [[9x19mm Parabellum|9 mm]], [[7.62 mm calibre|7.62 mm]]). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are expressed in terms of [[grain (measure)|grains]] for both metric and imperial cartridges.

As in most of the [[western world]], air navigation is based on ''nautical'' units, e.g. the [[nautical mile]], which is neither imperial nor metric.

===Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Africa and Hong Kong===
{{main|Metrication in Australia|Metrication in India|Metrication in New Zealand}}

Some imperial measurements remain in limited use in Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Africa and Hong Kong. Real estate agents continue to use acres and square feet to describe area in conjunction with hectares and square metres. Measurements in feet and inches, especially for a person's height, are frequently met in conversation and non-governmental publications.

===Republic of Ireland===
{{main|Metrication in Ireland}}
The Republic of Ireland has officially changed over to the metric system since entering the [[European Union]], with distances on new road signs being metric since 1977 and speed limits being metric since 2005. However the imperial system remains in limited use, particularly for sales of [[beer]] in [[pubs]] (traditionally sold by the [[pint]]) and some other commodities (such as [[milk]]). A minority of old road signs with distances in miles still remain, and the majority of cars sold pre-2005 feature speedometers with miles per hour. The imperial system is still often used in everyday conversation, particularly by the elder generation.

===United States===
{{main|United States customary units}}
The United States uses a hodgepodge of metric and customary units. The customary units in use there are historically derived from units which were in use in England at the time of settlement. The measurements of most of these units in England itself were subsequently changed. In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are expressed in grains. In commercial [[HVAC]] practice, (heating, cooling & air-conditioning) humidity is expressed in grains per pound.

=== Other countries ===
Petrol/gasoline is still sold by the imperial gallon in [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Belize]], [[Burma]], [[Grenada]], [[Guyana]], [[Sierra Leone]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="gas1">{{cite web |url=http://www.international-fuel-prices.com/downloads/FuelPrices1999.pdf |title=FuelPrices1999 |accessdate=2008-01-15 |format=pdf |pages=9|work=|publisher=German Technical Cooperation}}</ref><ref name="gas6">{{cite web |url=http://www.grenadavisitorforum.com/forum/showthread.php?t=345 |title=GRENADA VISITOR FORUM - Cost Of Living - Grocery Prices |accessdate=2008-01-15 |format= |work=|quote= }}</ref><ref name="gas7">{{cite web |url=http://agriculture.gov.gd/newsitem.aspx?nid=375 |title=The Government of Grenada - The Ministry of Agriculture |accessdate=2008-01-15 |format= |work=|quote=he price of gasoline at the pumps was fixed at EC$7.50 per imperial gallon... }}</ref><ref name="gas3">{{cite web |url=http://mof.gov.bz/faqresults.asp?category=SUPPLIES+CONTROL&question=39 |title=Belize Ministry of Finance::FAQ |accessdate=2008-01-15 |format= |work= |publisher=Belize Ministry of Finance|quote=#Kerosene per US Gallon (per Imperial gallon)#Gasoline (Regular)(per Imperial Gallon)#
Gasoline (Premium) (per Imperial Gallon)#Diesel (per Imperial Gallon) }}</ref><ref name="gas4">{{cite web |url=http://www.virtualtourist.com/travel/Caribbean_and_Central_America/Belize/Shopping-Belize-BR-1.html |title=Belize shopping |accessdate=2008-01-15 |format= |work= |quote=Although the Belize $ is pegged at two for every US$, they use Imperial gallons rather than the smaller US gallons (0.83 of an Imperial) when dealing with gasoline. The cheapest grade of gasoline was US$4.69/Imperial gallon}}</ref><ref name="gas5">{{cite web |url=http://www.antigua-barbuda.com/business_politics/budget_speeches/budget_speech_2001.asp |title=The High Commission Antigua and Barbuda |accessdate=2008-01-15 |format= |work= }}</ref><ref name="gas2">{{cite web |url=http://www.international-fuel-prices.com/downloads/FuelPrices2005.pdf |title=FuelPrices2005 |accessdate=2008-01-15 |format=pdf |work= |pages=96|publisher=German Technical Cooperation}}</ref><ref name="gas8">{{cite web |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE4DF113DF936A1575BC0A966958260 |title=500 Are Detained in Burmese Capital |accessdate=2008-01-16 |format= |work=|quote=... the Government cut the ration of subsidized gasoline from six to four imperial gallons a week}}</ref><ref name="gas9">{{cite web |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=8286 |title=Burma's Activists March against Fuel Price |publisher+HikeThe Irrawaddy News Magazine Online Edition Covering Burma |accessdate=2008-01-16 |format= |work=|quote=The government, which holds a monopoly on fuel sales and subsidizes them, raised prices of fuel from 1,500 kyats (US $1.16) to 3,000 kyats ($2.33) per imperial gallon for diesel and to 2,500 kyats ($1.94) for gasoline.|date=20 August 2007}}</ref><ref name="gas10">{{cite web |url=http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:K96Q9Q58hD4J:news.corporate.findlaw.com/ap/i/626/08-22-2007/73ae00161f8c1f54.html+Burma+gasoline+imperial+gallon+price&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=8&gl=us&client=firefox-a|title=Fuel Hike Protest Begins in Myanmar|accessdate=2008-01-16 |author=Win, Aye Aye |date=22 August 2007 |work= |publisher=Associated Press|quote=The government, which holds a monopoly on fuel sales and subsidizes them, raised prices of fuel from $1.16 to $2.33 per imperial gallon for diesel and to $1.94 for gasoline. A canister of natural gas containing 17 gallons was raised from 39 cents to $1.94.}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Board foot]]
*[[Cooking weights and measures]]
*[[Conversion of units]]
*[[Cord (unit of volume)]]
*[[History of measurement]]
*[[Metrication]]
*[[Unit of measurement]]

{{systems of measurement}}

== References ==
<references/>
*Appendices B and C of [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h442003.htm NIST Handbook 44]
*Barry N. Taylor's [http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/ NIST Special Publication 811], also available as [http://physics.nist.gov/Document/sp811.pdf a PDF file]
*6 George IV chapter 12, 1825 (statute)

== External links ==
*[http://users.aol.com/jackproot/met/spvolas.html Anglo-Saxon weights & measures]
*[http://www.bwmaonline.com/ British Weights And Measures Association]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/ShowFullDoc/cs/W-6///en Canada Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72]
*[http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Publications/upload/h4402_appenc.pdf General table of units of measure - NIST - pdf]
*[http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/ How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement]

[[Category:Customary units of measure]]
[[Category:Imperial units|*]]
[[Category:Systems of units]]

[[ast:Sistema Anglosaxón d'Unidaes]]
[[be-x-old:Ангельская сыстэма мер]]
[[bg:Имперска единица]]
[[cs:Imperiální jednotka]]
[[cy:Unedau imperial]]
[[de:Angloamerikanisches Maßsystem]]
[[es:Sistema Anglosajón de Unidades]]
[[fr:Unités de mesure anglo-saxonnes]]
[[ko:야드파운드법]]
[[hr:Imperijalni sustav mjera]]
[[it:Sistema imperiale britannico]]
[[he:מערכת היחידות הבריטית]]
[[ms:Sistem Imperial]]
[[nl:Brits-Amerikaans maatsysteem]]
[[ja:ヤード・ポンド法]]
[[pl:Anglosaski układ jednostek miar]]
[[ro:Sistemul anglo-saxon de unităţi]]
[[ru:Английская система мер]]
[[simple:Imperial unit]]
[[sk:Angloamerická sústava mier]]
[[sl:Imperialna enota]]
[[fi:Brittiläinen yksikköjärjestelmä]]
[[zh:英制单位]]

Benutzer:Distelfinck/Freitag (Roman)

2008-11-17T22:08:54Z

Sketch051: /* The Shipstone Complex */ Correction of <space>-<comma>

{{infobox Book | 
| name = Friday
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Friday82.jpg|200px]]
| image_caption = First Edition cover of ''Friday''
| author = [[Robert A. Heinlein]]
| cover_artist = [[Richard Powers]]
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Science fiction]] [[novel]]
| publisher = [[Holt, Rinehart and Winston]]
| release_date = April 1982
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages =
| isbn = ISBN 0-03-061516-X (first edition, hardback)
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}

'''''Friday''''' is a [[1982]] [[science fiction]] novel by [[Robert A. Heinlein]]. It is the story of a female "artificial person", the titular character, genetically engineered to be stronger, faster, smarter, and generally better than normal humans. Artificial humans are widely resented, and much of the story deals with Friday's struggle both against prejudice and to conceal her enhanced attributes from other humans. The story occurs against a backdrop of general social collapse, in a [[balkanization|balkanized]] world in which the United States has been split up into a number of smaller nations.

''Friday'' was nominated for the [[Nebula Award]] for [[Nebula Award for Best Novel|Best Novel]] in 1982 and the [[Hugo Award]] for [[Hugo Award for Best Novel|Best Novel]] in 1983.

==Plot summary==

The book deals with Friday, an artificial person superior in many ways to an ordinary human, but subject to great prejudice when she is discovered. Employed as a courier who is highly self-sufficient in a complex, [[Balkanization|Balkanized]] world, she is forced to journey all over North America where she is caught up in several civil disturbances. She reaches safety, but is soon displaced by her boss's death. Sent on a space journey as a courier, she realizes that the journey is likely to end with her death, and evades the ship's authorities to settle on a pioneer world with friends made earlier in the narrative.

==A new future history==
Friday's world appears (as noted below) to be derived from the short-story 'Gulf', and the world of Gulf itself appears to have split away from the history of Heinlein's own Future History series shortly after 'The Black Pits of Luna', so that Luna City founded by Harriman, Strong and Dixon rather than the USAF and NASA is the point of departure. Through the novel, we are introduced to a number of salient features of recent history

* The Second Atlantic Rebellion - concluded July 4th 2076, under the assumption that the American Revolution was the First Atlantic Rebellion. During this time, the United States ceased to exist as a single coherent entity, and balkanised into regionally coherent territories under different forms of government. the effects of the rebellion were widespread, as other North American countries also underwent upheaval at this time, to change their political forms and relationships. [[NATO]] is dissolved by this action, which results in a long-standing grudge to be finished between:
* The Russian-Prussian War - Russia is attacked by a Prussian-dominated German state a decade after the Second Atlantic Rebellion, so ca 2086-2087. Presumably the dissolution of NATO paved the way for both [[German reunification]] and the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]]. Friday remarks that the Prussians "got their hides nailed to the wall" even though [[conventional wisdom]] had assumed that they would win. Dr. Baldwin uses this war as an example of how judicious [[assassination]] can change the course of history.
* The Seattle earthquake - At some point between the time of Friday's birth and the events of the story, the city of [[Seattle]] is completely destroyed by what seems to have been one of the most powerful [[earthquake|earthquakes]] in recorded history. Many people who wish to conceal their true identities in Friday's time claim to have been born in Seattle.
* The invention of the Shipstone - Daniel Shipstone is supposed to have invented his 'improved power battery', which might be more accurately likened to a direct-conversion system whose action potential is set-up by accumulation of solar quanta. Shipstone is supposed to have invented it before the Second Atlantic Rebellion, and it is highly probable given events in the novel that the wealth inherent in his discovery may even have been a motivating factor. By Friday's time, the Shipstone Complex is extremely massive and powerful.
* The Imprisonment of Dr. Hartley Baldwin - In 'Gulf' Dr. Baldwin and the Greenes successfully prevent the launch of nuclear weapons by a group of politically motivated would-be tyrants from the moon. While the Greenes' actions are successful, and they die in the attempt, Dr. Baldwin is held accountable by the Lunar Government, who have him serve sentence on Earth. The ensuing Rebellion frees Baldwin, but by which time Friday is several years old, and cannot be rescued from her Creche.
* The Fall of the Quito Skyhook - In the decade after star-travel and system space travel, Clarke-Space Elevators become a common method of commerce and motion of material have become a lifeline between Earth and the Interstellar Colonies. 5 years before the novel begins, 'Terrorist' activity results in the fall of the Quito Skyhook in Ecuador, resulting in much loss of life and destruction as the monofilament diamond cable fell to earth.
* Red Thursday - a set of assassinations which Friday is a periphery witness to, in her travels. The first strike, ostensibly by a group calling themselves 'the Stimulators' sees the assassination or attempted assassination of most of the major territorial leaders of Earth (in commercially important locations) on one night in 2093. There is a second wave 14 days later, but the assassinations end with leaders surviving, and assassins killed. This is an interesting method of political hierarchy change, but Heinlein depends (some reviewers have felt too strongly) on the reader's intelligence to work out the meaning behind the attacks. Results include Friday's later river excursions, and thwarting an assassination in the California Confederacy
* The Bombay Plague - a planetary re-occurrence of the Black Plague, beginning in a highly overpopulated India at the end of the book, and predicted by Friday after a change of career objective.

==The Dominions of North America==
North America is the setting for the majority of actions on Earth, and the following Balkanised states exist, whose interactions with others vary.

* The Chicago Imperium - encompassing the Northern Midwest, as far as Colorado, Illinois, and surrounding states. Economically prosperous, and ruled from Chicago by a Chairman. The Imperium is a [[corporate state]] in the style of [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]], and equally riddled with corruption. The Chairman's ruling style may be likened to a combination of [[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Al Capone]]. The Imperial Police, or "Greenies" (for the color of their uniform), are reputed to be quite merciless when capturing suspects, and to "Burning out a victim's brain". After the events of Red Thursday, the Imperium's government rounds up and executes suspected "Democrats".
*The California Confederacy - Includes the former American states of [[California]], [[Oregon]], and [[Washington]]. Its form of government is a [[democracy]] taken to its illogical extreme. Instead of having a fixed [[constitution]], all law in California seems to be subject to change by a majority [[plebiscite]] vote. The tendency of voters is to pass laws that encourage "democracy" and "equality" on a superficial level. For example, when it was noted that Californians with college degrees earned more than those with high school diplomas alone, the California voters passed a law granting all citizens a bachelor's degree upon graduation from high school.
California's head of state is John 'Chief Warwhoop' Tumbril, whom Friday saves from assassination in one of the follow-ups to Red Thursday. A later, successful assassination is noted in the news. Law is all important in California - the Chief depends on his legal aides more than anything else, though 'The Law' is all too fluid given Californians' litigious and democratic nature.
*The Atlantic Union - not much mention is made of these states, but it can be presumed these are Eastern Seaboard of the USA (and possibly Atlantic Canada as well).
*Delaware Free State - mentioned only once, as the place in which Dr. Baldwin's organization is incorporated. Presumably this state serves as an address of convenience and tax haven for many large North American corporations, as the state of [[Delaware]] does in the modern United States.
*Las Vegas - Independent city with extremely [[libertarian]] laws. It is noted that the currency of Las Vegas, the "Buck", is the only currency in North America backed by the [[gold standard]].
*Texas - An independent country. Vicksburg is a central part of events - Vicksburg Old Town and Low Town are the two parts of the city, including the Civil War Battlefields 'Forgotten to Everybody - but not to Vicksburg ! these fields are sacred and nothing may be built on them'. Vicksburg Low Town is described by Friday as 'Being by the river, and reachable with a funicular car system. In daylight cops patrol in pairs, at night they leave the place alone.... All in all , Vicksburg low town is the liveliest, most exciting and dangerous place you can visit, and be sure to get a blood test afterwards!'
*Alaska Free State - Autonomous territory.
*Hawaii is presumably independent, as is Puerto Rico. Hawaii has a spaceport and Semi-Ballistic Field.
* The Kingdom of Mexico - Now no longer a republic, possibly ruled from Spain, or by expatriate Spanish Royalty, but either possibility is conjecture.

Canada has become split into

* British Canada - This territory appears includes the [[Anglophone]] provinces of Canada from [[Ontario]] west through to [[British Columbia]]. Sporting Mounties, and other features of traditional Canadian culture. No mention is made of the [[Atlantic Provinces]]; they may have become part of the Atlantic Union.
*Quebec - the [[Quebec|former Canadian province]] has finally achieved its [[Quebec_independence|dream of independence]]. [[Montreal]] is its most important city and possibly its capital. Political parties include ''revanchiste'' (dedicated to conquering the rest of the former Canadian provinces) and ''reunioniste'' (dedicated to a peaceful reunion of Quebec with British Canada). The current [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] is ''revanchiste''.
*Prince Edward Island is mentioned as independent, but no details are given.

==Rest of Earth==

*Prussia - a unified Germany, possibly encompassing Czechoslovakia and Austria in a renewed [[Anschluss]] after the conclusion of the Russian-Prussian War of 2086 AD.
*Great Russia - the USSR after the defeat of the Communists by the Germans, a large independent state.
*Canton - a province of Great China.
*Great China - During the dissolution of NATO, it may be possible that the territorial sovereignty of [[Taiwan]] would no longer be guaranteed, resulting in China conquering Formosa at last.
*India - appears to have absorbed Pakistan, but even more overpopulated than today.
*South Africa - the commercial location of Ceres & South Africa Acceptances. Presumably still an Apartheid state (see below)
*Swaziland - Mentioned in passing, most likely still supported by being a tax haven and legal gambling location (which implies that Heinlein assumed that the Republic of South Africa in its old Apartheid form would still have political cohesiveness at this time)

==Solar System Locales==

*L3, L4 and L5 - Ell Three, Ell Four and Ell Five are giant space stations, acting as way stations at the [[Lagrange points]] in Earth orbit. Centres of commerce and known for wild feminine fashion.

*Luna City - As described in other Heinlein novels, particularly ''[[The Moon is a Harsh Mistress]]''.

*Ceres - Neutral planetoid. Home, together with Luna City, of Ceres and South Africa Acceptances Ltd. (Ceres and Johannesburg), also known as C and S.A.A. Ltd.

*Mars - New colony

*Venus - New Colony, scientific terraforming.

==The Interstellar Colonies==

Heinlein lists the following :

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Light Years
! Name
! Cat.
! HR Spectrum
! Surface Temp
! Abslt Mag
! RA/Dec
! Notes
|-
| align="center"| 40.7
| Outpost
| DM-545466
| align="center"| G8
| align="center"| 5300
| align="center"| 5.5
| 13h53m/-44.46
| Cold, Bleak
|-
| align="center"| 67.9
| Botany Bay
| DM-445466
| align="center"| G4
| align="center"| 5900
| align="center"| 4.7
| 14h12m/-44.46
| Earthlike, Australian
|-
| align="center"| 98.7
| The Realm
| DM-518206
| align="center"| G5
| align="center"| 5700
| align="center"| 5.4
| 14h24m/-53.43
| Rich Empire
|-
| align="center"| 4.38
| Proxima
| α-Cen A
| align="center"| G2
| align="center"| 5600
| align="center"| 4.35
| 14h55m/-60.38
| Oldest Colony
|-
| align="center"| 57.5
| Forest
| DM-489494
| align="center"| G5
| align="center"| 5500
| align="center"| 5.1
| 15h18m/-48.08
| New, Primitive, Restricted
|-
| align="center"| 50.1
| Fiddler's Green
| Nu(2)Lupi
| align="center"| G2
| align="center"| 5800
| align="center"| 4.7
| 15h18m/-48.08
| Restricted
|-
| align="center"| 90.5
| Midway
| DM-479266
| align="center"| G5
| align="center"| 5600
| align="center"| 6.1
| 15h20m/-47.44
| Theocracy (Christian)
|-
| align="center"| 81.45
| Halcyon
| DM-496953
| align="center"| G5
| align="center"| 5300
| align="center"| 5.7
| 15h26m/-49.47
| Restricted (Plutocrat Retirement)
|-
| align="center"| 0.00
| Sol
|
| align="center"| G2
| align="center"| 5800
| align="center"| 4.85
|
| For Comparison / Home of Man.
|}

Planets are rated on a T scale, Earth being a T-8. some planets are very difficult, for instance "T-13 is an exotic route to sucicide", other like the plutocracy retirement planets like Halcyon being T-2.

On Halcyon, the young wait on the old hand and foot - the planet has a lower gravity than Earth, higher oxygen content in the air, and gentle temperature changes as well as longer year. Landowners have to be over 50, and wealthy.

Fiddler's Green is restricted, as the colonists have reverted to polyamorous nudist hedonism in a safe environment, which is rich in natural foods.

Outpost is cold and scrabbling, and the home to many involuntary transportees.

Midway is a Baptist Fundamentalist colony, where every day is a Sunday. The planet is ruled by Theocracy. Not much else is known about it - it is not a suitable planet for an AP like Friday, for this reason.

The Realm is controlled by System Enterprises and Interworld corporations (see below), through proxies in the form of the First Citizen and his wife, the Dauphiness, implying Bourbon royalty and excesses are the form of regime there.

Botany Bay is a British Colonial possession, ruled from England by the King. Colonization requirements include the English Language, and scientific skills are prized, allowing a colonist to enter without fee.

==Technology==

*The Shipstone - The cornerstone of energy dispersal and chanelling, the Shipstone power cell stores energy gathered by [[photovoltaic]] panels, at an order of magnitude and efficiency previously unheard of. Use is restricted, though purchase and lease is not. Centerpiece of an enormous terrestrial, Solar System and Interstellar power structure.

*Anti-grav - practical [[antigravity]] was achieved sometime in the late 20th or early 21st century, when "[[Robert L. Forward|Dr. Forward]] showed us how". Antigravity generators small enough to fit in vehicles the size of cars and trucks are mass-produced, but their use seems to be strictly regulated, since antigravity vehicles are referred to as "Authorized Power Vehicles" or APV's. Antigravity is used in space travel within the [[Solar system]], as well as interstellar travel.

*Semi-Ballistic - SB's are commercial trans-atmospheric passenger flights with vehicles resembling the [[NASP]] and [[HOTOL]], able to cross the Pacific Ocean in 45 minutes.

*Beanstalk/Skyhook - Diamond monofilament Clarke [[Space Elevator]]s dotted around the world for system and inerstellar mass transfer and commerce. Subject of terrorism.

*Horse and Traps - with the demise of fossil fuels, car manufacturers have taken to building horsed rather than horseless carriages. Manufacturers like Honda, Chevrolet and Buick are mentioned as being carriage manufacturers.

==The Shipstone Complex==
Ubiquitous technology, the Shipstone has applications from the very mundane (e.g. emergency torches) through to the very sublime (e.g. Interstellar Starships). As a technology, the Shipstone is unmatched in its density of energy, safe delivery, and non-polluting nature.

The growth of the Shipstone Complex started with the family of the original inventor, and has grown in the century since its deployment as an energy source. Shipstone as a company owns many others - within the Solar System it crops the world's major deserts for solar energy (the Gobi, and the Karoo). Shipstone has expanded its operations into the worlds of Finance - Friday makes note that all four of the financial companies she has had dealings with, such as Mastercharge (a thinly disguised [[Mastercard]]), [[Visa]], C & SAA, and [[American Express]] are all part of Shipstone at some level. Similar observations are made about virtually all parts of Solar System, and even interstellar businesses.

The Shipstone Complex, after due consideration by Friday (at the behest of one of its directors, no less than Dr. Baldwin himself), is one complex, and one company. Its scale and scope make it a system wide equivalent of Government. When one pauses for a [[Coke]], the deal is with Shipstone.

The Events of Red Thursday have an ulterior Corporate Motive within the Shipstone Complex - lesser companies such as IBM may field armies, but not on the scale of Shipstone. Shipstone also owns Hyperspace Lines, and thus controls interstellar transport and trade.

The magnitude and scale of the Shipstone Complex naturally unnerves Friday, but Dr. Baldwin assures her that she will never learn the full scale of the Shipstone Complex - possibly because it has itself passed a point of no-return in terms of comprehensibility - and having assumed the scope of system-wide government, is as susceptible to the forces of human affairs as a government - i.e. the the Events of Red Thursday - and therefore its fall is ultimately assured.

The natural tendencies of the Shipstone Complex have come to fruition on their private planet, Halcyon. The government there is in the form of a Laissez-faire Monarchy in the style of the Bourbon Dynasty immediately before the [[French Revolution]], and Friday's assessment of the political situation (both before and after her interstellar adventure) summarize the power induced corruption of the Shipstone Complex is going to result in its ultimate demise as a coherent entity.

==Genetic technology==

With mastery of the genetic language, life science companies, such as

*The University of Berkeley, Davis
*McGill University (Dept. of Teratology)
*The University of Auckland School of Medicine (Dept. Teratology)
*Mendelian Associates, Zurich

produce two classes of new beings :

*Living Artifacts - modified animals and humans able to help men, e.g. Kobolds for mining (who resemble [[dwarves]]), and talking super-dogs, such as one in New Zealand called Lord Nelson.
*Artificial People - Friday (Marjorie Friday Baldwin) is one - enhanced [[superhuman]]s with strength, speed, stamina, and sense far superior to normal humans. Present in society in small numbers, often slaves to free people (indenture), and shunned by ordinary human beings both for their acknowledged superiority and their artificial origins. Most of the World religions and laws label AP's as non-human, not subject to human laws, and unable to marry, own property, and without souls. Friday is often sorrowful about her status as an AP, despite having a high status in her own organization and much respect, love and awe from her human colleagues.

==Religious References==
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] has apparently gone underground and is now, apparently, illegal. One of the characters. Jim Prufit, is alleged (although incorrectly) to be a Catholic Priest, though in secret, also demonstrating the discredited and illegal nature of the Catholic church at this time in history. However, there is still a Pope-in-Exile, who apparently lives in the hope of the second coming of Christ. There is reference to a planet where the Catholic Mass can be performed openly, and this is regarded as a novelty.

The Southern Baptist Fundamentalists have a planet of their own, Midway, where every day is a Sunday.

Biblical arguments are raised to support the suggestion that Artificial Persons and Living Artifacts cannot have souls.
==Awards and nominations==
''Friday'' received nominations for the following awards
*1983 [[Hugo Award for Best Novel]]
*1983 [[Nebula Award for Best Novel]]
*1983 Locus award for Science Fiction Novel<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/Locus1983.html#nvls|title=The Locus Index to SF Awards: 1983 Locus Awards|accessdate=2008-05-15}}</ref>
*1983 Prometheus award for Best Novel<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lfs.org/novel_nominees.htm|title=Prometheus Award for Best Novel -- Nominees|accessdate=2008-05-15}}</ref>

==Literary significance and reception==
The 1982 [[Library Journal]] review said that Heinlein "returns to an earlier style of brisk adventure mixed with [[polemic]] in the saga of special courier Friday Jones."<ref>{{cite journal|date=1982-05-15|title=Friday (Book)|journal=Library Journal|volume=Vol. 107|issue=Issue 10|pages=p1013|issn=0363-0277}}</ref>
==Allusions/references to other works==
''Friday'' is loosely tied to the novelette "[[Gulf (Heinlein)|Gulf]]", which appeared in ''[[Assignment in Eternity]]'', since both works share characters — "Kettle Belly" Baldwin and "Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Greene". (The latter two do not appear in ''Friday'', but are mentioned as two of the title character's genetic progenitors.) The motif of a secret superman society in the latter work, however, is not mentioned in ''Friday'', where the heroine is an artificial person, and is not part of a secret society (the principal reason to be secret about her artificialness is to avoid discrimination). However, at his death, Baldwin leaves Friday a subsidy to finance her emigration to any planet of her choice, except Olympia, where the "supermen" went at some indeterminate point in the past.

The Shipstone, the extra-solar colonies Fiddler's Green, Proxima and Botany Bay, and the start of the [[balkanization]] of North America are mentioned in ''[[The Cat Who Walks Through Walls]]''. It is stated that Roger and Edith Stone from ''[[The Rolling Stones (novel)|The Rolling Stones]]'' are now living in Fiddler's Green.

==Homages/refererences from other works==
In Charles Stross' "[[Saturn's_Children_(Stross_novel)|Saturn's Children]]", the courier Freya uses the pseudonym "Friday Baldwin" as she smuggles an item to Mars.

==External links==
*{{isfdb title|id=1899|title=Friday}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

{{Heinlein (Novel)}}
[[Category:1982 novels]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Fictional genetically engineered characters]]
[[Category:Novels by Robert A. Heinlein|Friday]]

[[fr:Vendredi (roman)]]

Benutzer:Distelfinck/Freitag (Roman)

2008-11-17T22:07:54Z

Sketch051: /* The Shipstone Complex */ Spelling corrections

{{infobox Book | 
| name = Friday
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Friday82.jpg|200px]]
| image_caption = First Edition cover of ''Friday''
| author = [[Robert A. Heinlein]]
| cover_artist = [[Richard Powers]]
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Science fiction]] [[novel]]
| publisher = [[Holt, Rinehart and Winston]]
| release_date = April 1982
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages =
| isbn = ISBN 0-03-061516-X (first edition, hardback)
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}

'''''Friday''''' is a [[1982]] [[science fiction]] novel by [[Robert A. Heinlein]]. It is the story of a female "artificial person", the titular character, genetically engineered to be stronger, faster, smarter, and generally better than normal humans. Artificial humans are widely resented, and much of the story deals with Friday's struggle both against prejudice and to conceal her enhanced attributes from other humans. The story occurs against a backdrop of general social collapse, in a [[balkanization|balkanized]] world in which the United States has been split up into a number of smaller nations.

''Friday'' was nominated for the [[Nebula Award]] for [[Nebula Award for Best Novel|Best Novel]] in 1982 and the [[Hugo Award]] for [[Hugo Award for Best Novel|Best Novel]] in 1983.

==Plot summary==

The book deals with Friday, an artificial person superior in many ways to an ordinary human, but subject to great prejudice when she is discovered. Employed as a courier who is highly self-sufficient in a complex, [[Balkanization|Balkanized]] world, she is forced to journey all over North America where she is caught up in several civil disturbances. She reaches safety, but is soon displaced by her boss's death. Sent on a space journey as a courier, she realizes that the journey is likely to end with her death, and evades the ship's authorities to settle on a pioneer world with friends made earlier in the narrative.

==A new future history==
Friday's world appears (as noted below) to be derived from the short-story 'Gulf', and the world of Gulf itself appears to have split away from the history of Heinlein's own Future History series shortly after 'The Black Pits of Luna', so that Luna City founded by Harriman, Strong and Dixon rather than the USAF and NASA is the point of departure. Through the novel, we are introduced to a number of salient features of recent history

* The Second Atlantic Rebellion - concluded July 4th 2076, under the assumption that the American Revolution was the First Atlantic Rebellion. During this time, the United States ceased to exist as a single coherent entity, and balkanised into regionally coherent territories under different forms of government. the effects of the rebellion were widespread, as other North American countries also underwent upheaval at this time, to change their political forms and relationships. [[NATO]] is dissolved by this action, which results in a long-standing grudge to be finished between:
* The Russian-Prussian War - Russia is attacked by a Prussian-dominated German state a decade after the Second Atlantic Rebellion, so ca 2086-2087. Presumably the dissolution of NATO paved the way for both [[German reunification]] and the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]]. Friday remarks that the Prussians "got their hides nailed to the wall" even though [[conventional wisdom]] had assumed that they would win. Dr. Baldwin uses this war as an example of how judicious [[assassination]] can change the course of history.
* The Seattle earthquake - At some point between the time of Friday's birth and the events of the story, the city of [[Seattle]] is completely destroyed by what seems to have been one of the most powerful [[earthquake|earthquakes]] in recorded history. Many people who wish to conceal their true identities in Friday's time claim to have been born in Seattle.
* The invention of the Shipstone - Daniel Shipstone is supposed to have invented his 'improved power battery', which might be more accurately likened to a direct-conversion system whose action potential is set-up by accumulation of solar quanta. Shipstone is supposed to have invented it before the Second Atlantic Rebellion, and it is highly probable given events in the novel that the wealth inherent in his discovery may even have been a motivating factor. By Friday's time, the Shipstone Complex is extremely massive and powerful.
* The Imprisonment of Dr. Hartley Baldwin - In 'Gulf' Dr. Baldwin and the Greenes successfully prevent the launch of nuclear weapons by a group of politically motivated would-be tyrants from the moon. While the Greenes' actions are successful, and they die in the attempt, Dr. Baldwin is held accountable by the Lunar Government, who have him serve sentence on Earth. The ensuing Rebellion frees Baldwin, but by which time Friday is several years old, and cannot be rescued from her Creche.
* The Fall of the Quito Skyhook - In the decade after star-travel and system space travel, Clarke-Space Elevators become a common method of commerce and motion of material have become a lifeline between Earth and the Interstellar Colonies. 5 years before the novel begins, 'Terrorist' activity results in the fall of the Quito Skyhook in Ecuador, resulting in much loss of life and destruction as the monofilament diamond cable fell to earth.
* Red Thursday - a set of assassinations which Friday is a periphery witness to, in her travels. The first strike, ostensibly by a group calling themselves 'the Stimulators' sees the assassination or attempted assassination of most of the major territorial leaders of Earth (in commercially important locations) on one night in 2093. There is a second wave 14 days later, but the assassinations end with leaders surviving, and assassins killed. This is an interesting method of political hierarchy change, but Heinlein depends (some reviewers have felt too strongly) on the reader's intelligence to work out the meaning behind the attacks. Results include Friday's later river excursions, and thwarting an assassination in the California Confederacy
* The Bombay Plague - a planetary re-occurrence of the Black Plague, beginning in a highly overpopulated India at the end of the book, and predicted by Friday after a change of career objective.

==The Dominions of North America==
North America is the setting for the majority of actions on Earth, and the following Balkanised states exist, whose interactions with others vary.

* The Chicago Imperium - encompassing the Northern Midwest, as far as Colorado, Illinois, and surrounding states. Economically prosperous, and ruled from Chicago by a Chairman. The Imperium is a [[corporate state]] in the style of [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]], and equally riddled with corruption. The Chairman's ruling style may be likened to a combination of [[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Al Capone]]. The Imperial Police, or "Greenies" (for the color of their uniform), are reputed to be quite merciless when capturing suspects, and to "Burning out a victim's brain". After the events of Red Thursday, the Imperium's government rounds up and executes suspected "Democrats".
*The California Confederacy - Includes the former American states of [[California]], [[Oregon]], and [[Washington]]. Its form of government is a [[democracy]] taken to its illogical extreme. Instead of having a fixed [[constitution]], all law in California seems to be subject to change by a majority [[plebiscite]] vote. The tendency of voters is to pass laws that encourage "democracy" and "equality" on a superficial level. For example, when it was noted that Californians with college degrees earned more than those with high school diplomas alone, the California voters passed a law granting all citizens a bachelor's degree upon graduation from high school.
California's head of state is John 'Chief Warwhoop' Tumbril, whom Friday saves from assassination in one of the follow-ups to Red Thursday. A later, successful assassination is noted in the news. Law is all important in California - the Chief depends on his legal aides more than anything else, though 'The Law' is all too fluid given Californians' litigious and democratic nature.
*The Atlantic Union - not much mention is made of these states, but it can be presumed these are Eastern Seaboard of the USA (and possibly Atlantic Canada as well).
*Delaware Free State - mentioned only once, as the place in which Dr. Baldwin's organization is incorporated. Presumably this state serves as an address of convenience and tax haven for many large North American corporations, as the state of [[Delaware]] does in the modern United States.
*Las Vegas - Independent city with extremely [[libertarian]] laws. It is noted that the currency of Las Vegas, the "Buck", is the only currency in North America backed by the [[gold standard]].
*Texas - An independent country. Vicksburg is a central part of events - Vicksburg Old Town and Low Town are the two parts of the city, including the Civil War Battlefields 'Forgotten to Everybody - but not to Vicksburg ! these fields are sacred and nothing may be built on them'. Vicksburg Low Town is described by Friday as 'Being by the river, and reachable with a funicular car system. In daylight cops patrol in pairs, at night they leave the place alone.... All in all , Vicksburg low town is the liveliest, most exciting and dangerous place you can visit, and be sure to get a blood test afterwards!'
*Alaska Free State - Autonomous territory.
*Hawaii is presumably independent, as is Puerto Rico. Hawaii has a spaceport and Semi-Ballistic Field.
* The Kingdom of Mexico - Now no longer a republic, possibly ruled from Spain, or by expatriate Spanish Royalty, but either possibility is conjecture.

Canada has become split into

* British Canada - This territory appears includes the [[Anglophone]] provinces of Canada from [[Ontario]] west through to [[British Columbia]]. Sporting Mounties, and other features of traditional Canadian culture. No mention is made of the [[Atlantic Provinces]]; they may have become part of the Atlantic Union.
*Quebec - the [[Quebec|former Canadian province]] has finally achieved its [[Quebec_independence|dream of independence]]. [[Montreal]] is its most important city and possibly its capital. Political parties include ''revanchiste'' (dedicated to conquering the rest of the former Canadian provinces) and ''reunioniste'' (dedicated to a peaceful reunion of Quebec with British Canada). The current [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] is ''revanchiste''.
*Prince Edward Island is mentioned as independent, but no details are given.

==Rest of Earth==

*Prussia - a unified Germany, possibly encompassing Czechoslovakia and Austria in a renewed [[Anschluss]] after the conclusion of the Russian-Prussian War of 2086 AD.
*Great Russia - the USSR after the defeat of the Communists by the Germans, a large independent state.
*Canton - a province of Great China.
*Great China - During the dissolution of NATO, it may be possible that the territorial sovereignty of [[Taiwan]] would no longer be guaranteed, resulting in China conquering Formosa at last.
*India - appears to have absorbed Pakistan, but even more overpopulated than today.
*South Africa - the commercial location of Ceres & South Africa Acceptances. Presumably still an Apartheid state (see below)
*Swaziland - Mentioned in passing, most likely still supported by being a tax haven and legal gambling location (which implies that Heinlein assumed that the Republic of South Africa in its old Apartheid form would still have political cohesiveness at this time)

==Solar System Locales==

*L3, L4 and L5 - Ell Three, Ell Four and Ell Five are giant space stations, acting as way stations at the [[Lagrange points]] in Earth orbit. Centres of commerce and known for wild feminine fashion.

*Luna City - As described in other Heinlein novels, particularly ''[[The Moon is a Harsh Mistress]]''.

*Ceres - Neutral planetoid. Home, together with Luna City, of Ceres and South Africa Acceptances Ltd. (Ceres and Johannesburg), also known as C and S.A.A. Ltd.

*Mars - New colony

*Venus - New Colony, scientific terraforming.

==The Interstellar Colonies==

Heinlein lists the following :

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Light Years
! Name
! Cat.
! HR Spectrum
! Surface Temp
! Abslt Mag
! RA/Dec
! Notes
|-
| align="center"| 40.7
| Outpost
| DM-545466
| align="center"| G8
| align="center"| 5300
| align="center"| 5.5
| 13h53m/-44.46
| Cold, Bleak
|-
| align="center"| 67.9
| Botany Bay
| DM-445466
| align="center"| G4
| align="center"| 5900
| align="center"| 4.7
| 14h12m/-44.46
| Earthlike, Australian
|-
| align="center"| 98.7
| The Realm
| DM-518206
| align="center"| G5
| align="center"| 5700
| align="center"| 5.4
| 14h24m/-53.43
| Rich Empire
|-
| align="center"| 4.38
| Proxima
| α-Cen A
| align="center"| G2
| align="center"| 5600
| align="center"| 4.35
| 14h55m/-60.38
| Oldest Colony
|-
| align="center"| 57.5
| Forest
| DM-489494
| align="center"| G5
| align="center"| 5500
| align="center"| 5.1
| 15h18m/-48.08
| New, Primitive, Restricted
|-
| align="center"| 50.1
| Fiddler's Green
| Nu(2)Lupi
| align="center"| G2
| align="center"| 5800
| align="center"| 4.7
| 15h18m/-48.08
| Restricted
|-
| align="center"| 90.5
| Midway
| DM-479266
| align="center"| G5
| align="center"| 5600
| align="center"| 6.1
| 15h20m/-47.44
| Theocracy (Christian)
|-
| align="center"| 81.45
| Halcyon
| DM-496953
| align="center"| G5
| align="center"| 5300
| align="center"| 5.7
| 15h26m/-49.47
| Restricted (Plutocrat Retirement)
|-
| align="center"| 0.00
| Sol
|
| align="center"| G2
| align="center"| 5800
| align="center"| 4.85
|
| For Comparison / Home of Man.
|}

Planets are rated on a T scale, Earth being a T-8. some planets are very difficult, for instance "T-13 is an exotic route to sucicide", other like the plutocracy retirement planets like Halcyon being T-2.

On Halcyon, the young wait on the old hand and foot - the planet has a lower gravity than Earth, higher oxygen content in the air, and gentle temperature changes as well as longer year. Landowners have to be over 50, and wealthy.

Fiddler's Green is restricted, as the colonists have reverted to polyamorous nudist hedonism in a safe environment, which is rich in natural foods.

Outpost is cold and scrabbling, and the home to many involuntary transportees.

Midway is a Baptist Fundamentalist colony, where every day is a Sunday. The planet is ruled by Theocracy. Not much else is known about it - it is not a suitable planet for an AP like Friday, for this reason.

The Realm is controlled by System Enterprises and Interworld corporations (see below), through proxies in the form of the First Citizen and his wife, the Dauphiness, implying Bourbon royalty and excesses are the form of regime there.

Botany Bay is a British Colonial possession, ruled from England by the King. Colonization requirements include the English Language, and scientific skills are prized, allowing a colonist to enter without fee.

==Technology==

*The Shipstone - The cornerstone of energy dispersal and chanelling, the Shipstone power cell stores energy gathered by [[photovoltaic]] panels, at an order of magnitude and efficiency previously unheard of. Use is restricted, though purchase and lease is not. Centerpiece of an enormous terrestrial, Solar System and Interstellar power structure.

*Anti-grav - practical [[antigravity]] was achieved sometime in the late 20th or early 21st century, when "[[Robert L. Forward|Dr. Forward]] showed us how". Antigravity generators small enough to fit in vehicles the size of cars and trucks are mass-produced, but their use seems to be strictly regulated, since antigravity vehicles are referred to as "Authorized Power Vehicles" or APV's. Antigravity is used in space travel within the [[Solar system]], as well as interstellar travel.

*Semi-Ballistic - SB's are commercial trans-atmospheric passenger flights with vehicles resembling the [[NASP]] and [[HOTOL]], able to cross the Pacific Ocean in 45 minutes.

*Beanstalk/Skyhook - Diamond monofilament Clarke [[Space Elevator]]s dotted around the world for system and inerstellar mass transfer and commerce. Subject of terrorism.

*Horse and Traps - with the demise of fossil fuels, car manufacturers have taken to building horsed rather than horseless carriages. Manufacturers like Honda, Chevrolet and Buick are mentioned as being carriage manufacturers.

==The Shipstone Complex==
Ubiquitous technology, the Shipstone has applications from the very mundane (e.g. emergency torches) through to the very sublime (e.g. Interstellar Starships). As a technology, the Shipstone is unmatched in its density of energy, safe delivery, and non-polluting nature.

The growth of the Shipstone Complex started with the family of the original inventor, and has grown in the century since its deployment as an energy source. Shipstone as a company owns many others - within the Solar System it crops the world's major deserts for solar energy (the Gobi, and the Karoo). Shipstone has expanded its operations into the worlds of Finance - Friday makes note that all four of the financial companies she has had dealings with , such as Mastercharge (a thinly disguised [[Mastercard]]), [[Visa]], C & SAA, and [[American Express]] are all part of Shipstone at some level. Similar observations are made about virtually all parts of Solar System, and even interstellar businesses.

The Shipstone Complex , after due consideration by Friday (at the behest of one of its directors, no less than Dr. Baldwin himself), is one complex, and one company. Its scale and scope make it a system wide equivalent of Government. When one pauses for a [[Coke]], the deal is with Shipstone.

The Events of Red Thursday have an ulterior Corporate Motive within the Shipstone Complex - lesser companies such as IBM may field armies, but not on the scale of Shipstone. Shipstone also owns Hyperspace Lines, and thus controls interstellar transport and trade.

The magnitude and scale of the Shipstone Complex naturally unnerves Friday, but Dr. Baldwin assures her that she will never learn the full scale of the Shipstone Complex - possibly because it has itself passed a point of no-return in terms of comprehensibility - and having assumed the scope of system-wide government, is as susceptible to the forces of human affairs as a government - i.e. the the Events of Red Thursday - and therefore its fall is ultimately assured.

The natural tendencies of the Shipstone Complex have come to fruition on their private planet, Halcyon. The government there is in the form of a Laissez-faire Monarchy in the style of the Bourbon Dynasty immediately before the [[French Revolution]], and Friday's assessment of the political situation (both before and after her interstellar adventure) summarize the power induced corruption of the Shipstone Complex is going to result in its ultimate demise as a coherent entity.

==Genetic technology==

With mastery of the genetic language, life science companies, such as

*The University of Berkeley, Davis
*McGill University (Dept. of Teratology)
*The University of Auckland School of Medicine (Dept. Teratology)
*Mendelian Associates, Zurich

produce two classes of new beings :

*Living Artifacts - modified animals and humans able to help men, e.g. Kobolds for mining (who resemble [[dwarves]]), and talking super-dogs, such as one in New Zealand called Lord Nelson.
*Artificial People - Friday (Marjorie Friday Baldwin) is one - enhanced [[superhuman]]s with strength, speed, stamina, and sense far superior to normal humans. Present in society in small numbers, often slaves to free people (indenture), and shunned by ordinary human beings both for their acknowledged superiority and their artificial origins. Most of the World religions and laws label AP's as non-human, not subject to human laws, and unable to marry, own property, and without souls. Friday is often sorrowful about her status as an AP, despite having a high status in her own organization and much respect, love and awe from her human colleagues.

==Religious References==
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] has apparently gone underground and is now, apparently, illegal. One of the characters. Jim Prufit, is alleged (although incorrectly) to be a Catholic Priest, though in secret, also demonstrating the discredited and illegal nature of the Catholic church at this time in history. However, there is still a Pope-in-Exile, who apparently lives in the hope of the second coming of Christ. There is reference to a planet where the Catholic Mass can be performed openly, and this is regarded as a novelty.

The Southern Baptist Fundamentalists have a planet of their own, Midway, where every day is a Sunday.

Biblical arguments are raised to support the suggestion that Artificial Persons and Living Artifacts cannot have souls.
==Awards and nominations==
''Friday'' received nominations for the following awards
*1983 [[Hugo Award for Best Novel]]
*1983 [[Nebula Award for Best Novel]]
*1983 Locus award for Science Fiction Novel<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/Locus1983.html#nvls|title=The Locus Index to SF Awards: 1983 Locus Awards|accessdate=2008-05-15}}</ref>
*1983 Prometheus award for Best Novel<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lfs.org/novel_nominees.htm|title=Prometheus Award for Best Novel -- Nominees|accessdate=2008-05-15}}</ref>

==Literary significance and reception==
The 1982 [[Library Journal]] review said that Heinlein "returns to an earlier style of brisk adventure mixed with [[polemic]] in the saga of special courier Friday Jones."<ref>{{cite journal|date=1982-05-15|title=Friday (Book)|journal=Library Journal|volume=Vol. 107|issue=Issue 10|pages=p1013|issn=0363-0277}}</ref>
==Allusions/references to other works==
''Friday'' is loosely tied to the novelette "[[Gulf (Heinlein)|Gulf]]", which appeared in ''[[Assignment in Eternity]]'', since both works share characters — "Kettle Belly" Baldwin and "Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Greene". (The latter two do not appear in ''Friday'', but are mentioned as two of the title character's genetic progenitors.) The motif of a secret superman society in the latter work, however, is not mentioned in ''Friday'', where the heroine is an artificial person, and is not part of a secret society (the principal reason to be secret about her artificialness is to avoid discrimination). However, at his death, Baldwin leaves Friday a subsidy to finance her emigration to any planet of her choice, except Olympia, where the "supermen" went at some indeterminate point in the past.

The Shipstone, the extra-solar colonies Fiddler's Green, Proxima and Botany Bay, and the start of the [[balkanization]] of North America are mentioned in ''[[The Cat Who Walks Through Walls]]''. It is stated that Roger and Edith Stone from ''[[The Rolling Stones (novel)|The Rolling Stones]]'' are now living in Fiddler's Green.

==Homages/refererences from other works==
In Charles Stross' "[[Saturn's_Children_(Stross_novel)|Saturn's Children]]", the courier Freya uses the pseudonym "Friday Baldwin" as she smuggles an item to Mars.

==External links==
*{{isfdb title|id=1899|title=Friday}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

{{Heinlein (Novel)}}
[[Category:1982 novels]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Fictional genetically engineered characters]]
[[Category:Novels by Robert A. Heinlein|Friday]]

[[fr:Vendredi (roman)]]

TANSTAAFL

2007-11-27T20:31:30Z

Sketch051: /* History and usage */

{{otheruses4|the acronym|the computing principle|No free lunch in search and optimization|the group|No Free Lunch (organization)}}

'''TANSTAAFL''' is an acronym for the adage "'''There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch,'''" popularized by [[science fiction]] [[writer]] [[Robert A. Heinlein]] in his 1966 novel ''[[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]'', which discusses the problems caused by not considering the eventual outcome of an unbalanced economy. This phrase and book are popular with [[libertarian]]s and [[economics]] textbooks. In order to avoid a double negative, the acronym "'''TINSTAAFL'''" is sometimes used instead, meaning "'''There Is No Such Thing As A Free Lunch'''".

==History and usage==
The phrase refers to the once-common tradition of saloons in the United States providing a [[Free lunch|"free" lunch]] to patrons, who were required to buy at least one drink. [[Rudyard Kipling]], writing in 1891, noted how he

<blockquote>came upon a barroom full of bad Salon pictures in which men with hats on the backs of their heads were wolfing food from a counter. It was the institution of the "free lunch" I had struck. You paid for a drink and got as much as you wanted to eat. For something less than a rupee a day a man can feed himself sumptuously in San Francisco, even though he be a bankrupt. Remember this if ever you are stranded in these parts.<ref>{{cite book|first=Rudyard|last=Kipling|title=American Notes|publisher=Standard Book Company|year=1930}} (published in book form in 1930, based on essays which appeared in periodicals in 1891) 
{{Gutenberg|no=977|name=American Notes by Rudyard Kipling}}</ref></blockquote>

TANSTAAFL means that a person or a society cannot get something for nothing. Even if something appears to be free, there is always a cost to the person or to society as a whole even though that cost may be hidden or distributed. <ref>http://www.spectacle.org/0802/leonf.html</ref> For example, you may get complimentary food at a bar during "[[happy hour]]," but the bar owner bears the expense of your meal and will attempt to recover that expense somehow. Some goods may be nearly free, such as fruit picked in the wilderness, but usually some cost such as labor is incurred.

The idea that there is no free lunch at the societal level applies only when all resources are being used completely and appropriately, i.e., when [[economic efficiency]] prevails. If one individual or group gets something at no cost, somebody else ends up paying for it. If there appears to be no direct cost to any single individual, there is a [[social cost]]. Similarly, someone can benefit for "free" from an [[externality]] or from a [[public good]], but someone has to pay the cost of producing these benefits.

To a scientist, TANSTAAFL means that the system is ultimately closed — there is no magic source of matter, energy, light, or indeed lunch, that cannot be eventually exhausted. Therefore the TANSTAAFL argument may also be applied to natural physical processes. (See [[Thermodynamics]].)

In [[mathematical finance]], the term is also used as an informal synonym for the principle of no-[[arbitrage]]. This principle states that a combination of securities that has the same cash flows as another security must have the same net price.

TANSTAAFL is sometimes used as a response to claims of the virtues of [[free software]]. Supporters of free software often counter that the use of the term "free" in this context is primarily a reference to a lack of constraint ("libre") rather than a lack of cost ("gratis").

TANSTAAFL is the name of a snack bar in the Pierce dormitory of the [[University of Chicago]]. The name references the fact that the use of the term was popularized by [[Milton Friedman]], the Nobel Prize–winning former University of Chicago professor.

== Citations ==

* In 1950, a New York Times columnist ascribed the phrase to economist (and Army General) [[Leonard Porter Ayres|Leonard P. Ayres]] of the Cleveland Trust Company. "It seems that shortly before the General's death [in 1946]... a group of reporters approached the general with the request that perhaps he might give them one of several immutable economic truisms which he had gathered from his long years of economic study... 'It is an immutable economic fact,' said the general, 'that there is no such thing as a free lunch.'"<ref>Fetridge, Robert H, "Along the Highways and Byways of Finance," The New York Times, Nov 12, 1950, p. 135</ref>
* "Oh, 'tanstaafl'. Means 'There ain't no such thing as a free lunch.' And isn't," I added, pointing to a FREE LUNCH sign across room, "or these drinks would cost half as much. Was reminding her that anything free costs twice as much in the long run or turns out worthless."
** Manuel in ''[[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]'' (1966), chapter 11, p. 162, by Robert A. Heinlein<ref name="moon-harsh">Heinlein, Robert A. ''The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress'' (1966). 1st Orb edition, 1997, 382 pp. New York: Tom Doherty Associates. ISBN 0-312-86355-1.</ref>
* "There's no such thing as a free lunch."
** popularized by economist [[Milton Friedman]]<ref>Friedman, Milton, There's No Such Thing as a Free Lunch, Open Court Pub Co (August 1975), 318 pages, ISBN 0-87548-310-0</ref>;
** Contrary to rumor, [[List of mayors of New York City|New York Mayor]] [[Fiorello LaGuardia]] did not say it in Latin in 1934; what he really said, in Italian, was "No more free lunch" (current references: [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0305a&L=ads-l&D=1&P=14371 linguistlist] and a [http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1989/89101202.html speech] by [[George H. W. Bush]]; more references needed).
* The book ''TANSTAAFL, the economic strategy for environmental crisis'', by [[Edwin G. Dolan]] (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971, ISBN 0-03-086315-5) may be the first published use of the term in the economics literature.
* [[Malcolm Fraser]], prime minister of Australia, was a fond user of this phrase {{Fact|date=May 2007}}.
* Spider Robinson's 2001 book '[[The Free Lunch]]' draws its name from the TANSTAAFL concept.

== See also ==

* [[Free lunch]]
* [[No free lunch in search and optimization]]
* [[No-arbitrage bounds]]
* [[Parable of the broken window]]
* [[Tanstagi]]
* [[Regiving]]

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:Adages]]
[[Category:Acronyms]]
[[Category:Robert A. Heinlein]]
[[Category:English phrases|There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch]]
[[Category:Economics aphorisms]]

[[es:TANSTAAFL]]
[[it:TANSTAAFL]]
[[no:TANSTAAFL]]
[[pl:Darmowe piwo]]
[[sv:TANSTAAFL]]

TANSTAAFL

2007-11-27T20:31:01Z

Sketch051: /* History and usage */

{{otheruses4|the acronym|the computing principle|No free lunch in search and optimization|the group|No Free Lunch (organization)}}

'''TANSTAAFL''' is an acronym for the adage "'''There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch,'''" popularized by [[science fiction]] [[writer]] [[Robert A. Heinlein]] in his 1966 novel ''[[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]'', which discusses the problems caused by not considering the eventual outcome of an unbalanced economy. This phrase and book are popular with [[libertarian]]s and [[economics]] textbooks. In order to avoid a double negative, the acronym "'''TINSTAAFL'''" is sometimes used instead, meaning "'''There Is No Such Thing As A Free Lunch'''".

==History and usage==
The phrase refers to the once-common tradition of saloons in the United States providing a [[Free lunch|"free" lunch]] to patrons, who were required to buy at least one drink. [[Rudyard Kipling]], writing in 1891, noted how he

<blockquote>came upon a barroom full of bad Salon pictures in which men with hats on the backs of their heads were wolfing food from a counter. It was the institution of the "free lunch" I had struck. You paid for a drink and got as much as you wanted to eat. For something less than a rupee a day a man can feed himself sumptuously in San Francisco, even though he be a bankrupt. Remember this if ever you are stranded in these parts.<ref>{{cite book|first=Rudyard|last=Kipling|title=American Notes|publisher=Standard Book Company|year=1930}} (published in book form in 1930, based on essays which appeared in periodicals in 1891) 
{{Gutenberg|no=977|name=American Notes by Rudyard Kipling}}</ref></blockquote>

TANSTAAFL means that a person or a society cannot get something for nothing. Even if something appears to be free, there is always a cost to the person or to society as a whole even though that cost may be hidden or distributed. <ref>http://www.spectacle.org/0802/leonf.html</ref> For example, you may get complimentary food at a bar during "[[happy hour]]," but the bar owner bears the expense of your meal and will attempt to recover that expense somehow. Some goods may be nearly free, such as fruit picked in the wilderness, but usually some cost such as labor is incurred.

The idea that there is no free lunch at the societal level applies only when all resources are being used completely and appropriately, i.e., when [[economic efficiency]] prevails. If one individual or group gets something at no cost, somebody else ends up paying for it. If there appears to be no direct cost to any single individual, there is a [[social cost]]. Similarly, someone can benefit for "free" from an [[externality]] or from a [[public good]], but someone has to pay the cost of producing these benefits.

To a scientist, TANSTAAFL means that the system is ultimately closed — there is no magic source of matter, energy, light, or indeed lunch, that cannot be eventually exhausted. Therefore the TANSTAAFL argument may also be applied to natural physical processes. (See [[Thermodynamics]].)

In [[mathematical finance]], the term is also used as an informal synonym for the principle of no-[[arbitrage]]. This principle states that a combination of securities that has the same cash flows as another security must have the same net price.

TANSTAAFL is sometimes used as a response to claims of the virtues of [[free software]]. Supporters of free software often counter that the use of the term "free" in this context is primarily a reference to a lack of constraint (as in free speech) rather than a lack of cost (as in free beer).

TANSTAAFL is the name of a snack bar in the Pierce dormitory of the [[University of Chicago]]. The name references the fact that the use of the term was popularized by [[Milton Friedman]], the Nobel Prize–winning former University of Chicago professor.

== Citations ==

* In 1950, a New York Times columnist ascribed the phrase to economist (and Army General) [[Leonard Porter Ayres|Leonard P. Ayres]] of the Cleveland Trust Company. "It seems that shortly before the General's death [in 1946]... a group of reporters approached the general with the request that perhaps he might give them one of several immutable economic truisms which he had gathered from his long years of economic study... 'It is an immutable economic fact,' said the general, 'that there is no such thing as a free lunch.'"<ref>Fetridge, Robert H, "Along the Highways and Byways of Finance," The New York Times, Nov 12, 1950, p. 135</ref>
* "Oh, 'tanstaafl'. Means 'There ain't no such thing as a free lunch.' And isn't," I added, pointing to a FREE LUNCH sign across room, "or these drinks would cost half as much. Was reminding her that anything free costs twice as much in the long run or turns out worthless."
** Manuel in ''[[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]'' (1966), chapter 11, p. 162, by Robert A. Heinlein<ref name="moon-harsh">Heinlein, Robert A. ''The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress'' (1966). 1st Orb edition, 1997, 382 pp. New York: Tom Doherty Associates. ISBN 0-312-86355-1.</ref>
* "There's no such thing as a free lunch."
** popularized by economist [[Milton Friedman]]<ref>Friedman, Milton, There's No Such Thing as a Free Lunch, Open Court Pub Co (August 1975), 318 pages, ISBN 0-87548-310-0</ref>;
** Contrary to rumor, [[List of mayors of New York City|New York Mayor]] [[Fiorello LaGuardia]] did not say it in Latin in 1934; what he really said, in Italian, was "No more free lunch" (current references: [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0305a&L=ads-l&D=1&P=14371 linguistlist] and a [http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1989/89101202.html speech] by [[George H. W. Bush]]; more references needed).
* The book ''TANSTAAFL, the economic strategy for environmental crisis'', by [[Edwin G. Dolan]] (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971, ISBN 0-03-086315-5) may be the first published use of the term in the economics literature.
* [[Malcolm Fraser]], prime minister of Australia, was a fond user of this phrase {{Fact|date=May 2007}}.
* Spider Robinson's 2001 book '[[The Free Lunch]]' draws its name from the TANSTAAFL concept.

== See also ==

* [[Free lunch]]
* [[No free lunch in search and optimization]]
* [[No-arbitrage bounds]]
* [[Parable of the broken window]]
* [[Tanstagi]]
* [[Regiving]]

== References ==

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[[Category:Adages]]
[[Category:Acronyms]]
[[Category:Robert A. Heinlein]]
[[Category:English phrases|There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch]]
[[Category:Economics aphorisms]]

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