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Benutzer:Snackroeg/Kernreaktoren der Generation 5

2015-04-25T18:23:53Z

SilverbackNet: /* Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) */ update PFBR dates

[[File:GenIVRoadmap-en.svg|thumb|480px|Nuclear Energy Systems Deployable no later than 2030 and offering significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, and economics]]

'''Generation IV reactors''' (Gen IV) are a set of mostly theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. Most of these designs, with the exception of the [[BN-1200 reactor]], are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030-40.<ref name="Generation IV">[http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Power-Reactors/Generation-IV-Nuclear-Reactors/]</ref> Most reactors in operation around the world are generally considered [[Generation II reactor|second generation reactor]] systems, with most of the [[Generation I reactor|first-generation]] systems having been retired some time ago while there are only a dozen or so [[Generation III reactors]] in operation(2014). [[Nuclear reactor#Generation V.2B reactors|Generation V reactors]] refer to reactors that may be possible but are not yet considered feasible in the short term, and are therefore not receiving as much [[R&D]] funding.

== Reactor types ==
Many reactor types were considered initially; however, the list was downsized to focus on the most promising technologies and those that could most likely meet the goals of the Gen IV initiative.<ref name="Generation IV"/> Three systems are nominally [[thermal reactor]]s and three are [[fast reactor]]s. The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is also being researched for potentially providing high quality process heat for [[thermochemical cycle|hydrogen production]]. The fast reactors offer the possibility of burning [[actinides]] to further reduce waste and of being able to "[[breeder reactor|breed more fuel]]" than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance (depending on perspective) and physical protection.

=== Thermal reactors ===
A [[Thermal-neutron reactor|thermal reactor]] is a [[nuclear reactor]] that uses slow or [[thermal neutrons]]. A [[neutron moderator]] is used to slow the [[neutron]]s emitted by fission to make them more likely to be captured by the fuel.

==== Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) ====
[[File:Very High Temperature Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR)]]
{{Main|Very high temperature reactor}}
{{see also|Fort St. Vrain Generating Station|HTTR|HTR-10}}
The '''very high temperature reactor''' concept uses a [[graphite]]-moderated core with a once-through [[uranium]] fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt as the [[Very high temperature reactor#Coolant|coolant]]. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000 °C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a [[pebble bed reactor]] design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or [[hydrogen]] production via the thermochemical [[Sulfur-iodine cycle|iodine-sulfur]] process. It would also be [[Passive nuclear safety|passively safe]].

The planned construction of the first VHTR, the South African PBMR ([[pebble bed modular reactor]]), lost government funding in February, 2010.<ref>[http://www.powergenworldwide.com/index/display/articledisplay/6322207443/articles/power-engineering-international/volume-18/Issue_3/regulars/world-news/INTERNATIONAL.html South Africa to stop funding Pebble Bed nuclear reactor]</ref> A pronounced increase of costs and concerns about possible unexpected technical problems had discouraged potential investors and customers.

The [[Peoples Republic of China]] began construction of a 200-MWe High Temperature Pebble bed reactor in 2012 as a successor to its [[HTR-10]].<ref>[http://www.nucnet.org/all-the-news/2013/01/07/china-begins-construction-of-first-generation-iv-htr-pm-unit Nucnet Report: 'China Begins Construction of First Generation IV HTR-PM Unit', 7 January 2013]</ref>

Also in 2012, as part of the [[Next Generation Nuclear Plant]] competition, [[Idaho National Laboratory]] approved a design similar to [[Areva]]'s prismatic block [http://de.areva.com/EN/areva-germany-312/future-reactor-concepts.html Antares reactor] as the chosen [[HTGR]] to be deployed as a prototype by 2021. It was in competition with [[General Atomics]]' [[Gas turbine modular helium reactor]] and [[Westinghouse Electric Company|Westinghouse]]'s [[Pebble Bed Modular Reactor]].<ref name="World nuclear news">{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Areva_modular_reactor_selected_for_NGNP_development-1502124.html|title=INL approves Antares design}}</ref>

==== Molten-salt reactor (MSR) ====
[[File:Molten Salt Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)]]
{{Main|Molten salt reactor}}
{{see also|Liquid fluoride thorium reactor}}
A '''molten salt reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a type of [[nuclear reactor]] where the primary [[coolant]], or even the fuel itself is a molten salt mixture. There have been many designs put forward for this type of reactor and a few prototypes built. The early concepts and many current ones rely on [[nuclear fuel]] dissolved in the molten [[fluoride]] salt as [[uranium tetrafluoride]] (UF4) or [[thorium tetrafluoride]] (ThF4). The fluid would reach [[Nuclear reactor physics#Criticality|criticality]] by flowing into a [[graphite]] core which would also serve as the [[neutron moderator|moderator]]. Many current concepts rely on fuel that is dispersed in a graphite matrix with the molten salt providing low pressure, high temperature cooling.

The Gen IV MSR is more accurately termed an [[epithermal neutron|epithermal reactor]] than a thermal reactor due to the average speed of the neutrons that would cause the fission events within its fuel being faster than [[thermal neutron]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://inlportal.inl.gov/portal/server.pt?open=514&objID=1361&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=10&mode=2&in_hi_userid=200&cached=true |title=Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors}}</ref>

The principle of a MSR can be used for thermal, epithermal and fast reactors. Since 2005 the focus has moved towards a fast spectrum MSR (MSFR).
<ref>H. Boussier, S. Delpech, V. Ghetta et Al. : The Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) in Generation IV: Overview and Perspectives, GIF SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS/2012 ANNUAL REPORT, NEA No. 7141, pp95 [https://www.gen-4.org/gif/jcms/c_44720/annual-reports]
</ref>

==== Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) ====
[[File:Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)]]
{{Main|Supercritical water reactor}}
The '''supercritical water reactor''' (SCWR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a [[reduced moderation water reactor]] concept that, due to the average speed of the neutrons that would cause the fission events within the fuel being faster than [[thermal neutron]]s, it is more accurately termed an [[epithermal neutron|epithermal reactor]] than a thermal reactor. It uses [[supercritical fluid|supercritical water]] as the working fluid. SCWRs are basically [[light water reactor]]s (LWR) operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct, once-through heat exchange cycle. As most commonly envisioned, it would operate on a direct cycle, much like a boiling water reactor ([[BWR]]), but since it uses supercritical water (not to be confused with [[Critical mass (nuclear)|critical mass]]) as the working fluid, it would have only one water phase present, which makes the supercritical heat exchange method more similar to a pressurized water reactor ([[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]]). It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs.

Supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) are promising advanced nuclear systems because of their high [[thermal efficiency]] (i.e., about 45% vs. about 33% efficiency for current LWRs) and considerable plant simplification.

The main mission of the SCWR is generation of low-cost [[electricity]]. It is built upon two proven technologies, LWRs, which are the most commonly deployed power generating reactors in the world, and supercritical [[fossil fuel]] fired [[boiler]]s, a large number of which are also in use around the world. The SCWR concept is being investigated by 32 organizations in 13 countries.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

A SCWR Design under development is the [[VVER]]-1700/393 (VVER-SCWR or VVER-SKD) — a Russian Supercritical-water-cooled reactor with double-inlet-core and a [[breeder reactor|breeding ratio]] of 0.95.<ref name="powertecrussia.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.powertecrussia.com/blog/tag/nuclear-power/ |title=Technology Developments & Plant Efficiency for the Russian Nuclear Power Generation Market Wednesday |date=March 24, 2010}}</ref>

=== Fast reactors ===
A [[Fast-neutron reactor|fast reactor]] directly uses the fast neutrons emitted by fission, without moderation. Unlike thermal neutron reactors, fast neutron reactors can be configured to "burn", or fission, all [[actinides]], and given enough time, therefore drastically reduce the actinides fraction in [[spent nuclear fuel]] produced by the present world fleet of thermal neutron [[light water reactor]]s, thus closing the [[nuclear fuel cycle]]. Alternatively, if configured differently, they can also [[breeder reactor|breed]] more actinide fuel than they consume.

==== Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) ====
[[File:Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)]]
{{Main|Gas-cooled fast reactor}}
The '''gas-cooled fast reactor''' (GFR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> system features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and management of actinides. The reactor is [[helium]]-cooled and with an outlet temperature of 850 °C it is an evolution of the [[very-high-temperature reactor]] (VHTR) to a more sustainable fuel cycle. It will use a direct [[Brayton cycle]] [[Closed-cycle gas turbine|gas turbine]] for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to operate at very high temperatures and to ensure an excellent retention of [[Nuclear fission|fission]] products: composite [[ceramic]] fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic clad elements of actinide compounds. Core configurations are being considered based on pin- or plate-based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks.

The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding three Generation IV reactor systems, one of which is a gas-cooled fast reactor, called ''Allegro'', 100 MW(t), which will be built in a central or eastern European country with construction expected to begin in 2018.<ref name="euronuclear.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.euronuclear.org/1-information/news/Gen-IV.htm |title=The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative (ESNII) will support three Generation IV reactor systems: a sodium-cooled fast reactor, or SFR, called ''Astrid'' that is proposed by France; a gas-cooled fast reactor, GFR, called ''Allegro'' supported by central and eastern Europe; and a lead-cooled fast reactor, LFR, technology pilot called ''Myrrha'' that is proposed by Belgium.}}</ref> The central European [[Visegrád Group]] are committed to pursuing the technology.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alphagalileo.org/ViewItem.aspx?ItemId=133111&CultureCode=en |title=The V4G4 Centre of Excellence for performing joint research, development and innovation in the field of Generation-4 (G4) nuclear reactors have been established. 20 July 2013 National Center for Nuclear Research (NCBJ]}}</ref> In 2013 German, British, and French institutes finished a 3 year collaboration study on the follow on industrial scale design, known as ''GoFastR''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ist-world.org/ProjectDetails.aspx?ProjectId=5cb8f3f283574cc6b2bdbf72533172d8 |title=the European Gas cooled Fast Reactor.}}</ref> They were funded by the EU's 7th FWP framework programme, with the goal of making a sustainable VHTR.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.2020-horizon.com/GOFASTR-European-Gas-Cooled-Fast-Reactor%28GOFASTR%29-s312.html |title=The GOFASTR research program}}</ref>

==== Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) ====
[[File:Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Pool design Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)]]
{{Main|Sodium-cooled fast reactor}}
{{see also|Experimental Breeder Reactor II|S-PRISM|BN-800 reactor|Toshiba 4S}}
The SFR<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a project that builds on two closely related existing projects, the liquid metal [[Breeder reactor#Fast breeder reactor|fast breeder reactor]] and the [[integral fast reactor]].

The goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by [[breeder reactor|breeding]] plutonium and eliminating the need for [[transuranic]] isotopes ever to leave the site. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on [[fast neutron]]s, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). In addition to the benefits of removing the long [[half-life]] transuranics from the waste cycle, the SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats, and the chain reaction automatically slows down. In this manner, it is passively safe.

The SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid [[sodium]] and fueled by a metallic alloy of uranium and [[plutonium]] or [[spent nuclear fuel]], the "nuclear waste" of [[light water reactor]]s. The SFR fuel is contained in steel cladding with liquid sodium filling in the space between the clad elements which make up the fuel assembly. One of the design challenges of an SFR is the risks of handling sodium, which reacts explosively if it comes into contact with water. However, the use of liquid metal instead of water as coolant allows the system to work at atmospheric pressure, reducing the risk of leakage.

The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding three Generation IV reactor systems, one of which is a sodium-cooled fast reactor, called ''[[ASTRID (reactor)|ASTRID]]'', Advanced Sodium Technical Reactor for Industrial Demonstration, [[Areva]], [[Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives|CEA]] and [[Électricité de France|EDF]] are leading the design with British collaboration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.power-eng.com/articles/2010/11/areva--cea-secure.html |title=Areva, CEA secure EUR650m funding to develop ASTRID sodium-cooled Generation IV reactor 11/11/2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powermag.com/uk-and-france-sign-landmark-civil-nuclear-cooperation-agreement/ |title=UK and France Sign Landmark Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement 02/22/2012 . POWERnews}}</ref> Astrid will be rated about 600 MWe and is proposed to be built in France, near to the [[Phénix]] reactor. A final decision in construction is to be made in 2019<ref name="euronuclear.org"/>

The [[China|PRC]]'s first commercial-scale, 800 MWe, fast neutron reactor, to be situated near [[Sanming]] in [[Fujian province]] will be a SFR. In 2009 an agreement was signed that would entail the Russian [[BN-800 reactor]] design to be sold to the PRC once it is completed, this would be the first time commercial-scale fast neutron reactors have ever been exported.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-Joint_venture_launched_for_Chinese_fast_reactor-3004104.html |title=Joint venture launched for Chinese fast reactor}}</ref> The BN-800 reactor became operational in 2014.

In India, the [[Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor]], a 500MWe Sodium cooled fast reactor is under construction, with initial startup in 2015 and completion in 2016.

The 400MWe [[Fast Flux Test Facility]] operated successfully for ten years at the Hanford site in Washington State.

==== Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) ====
[[File:Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)]]
{{Main|Lead-cooled fast reactor}}
{{See also|MYRRHA}}
The '''lead-cooled fast reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap">{{cite journal| year=2002 | title=A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems | last=US DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee |volume=GIF-002-00|url=http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/documents/gen_iv_roadmap.pdf}}</ref> features a fast-neutron-spectrum [[lead]] or [[lead]]/[[bismuth]] [[eutectic]] ([[Lead-bismuth eutectic|LBE]]) liquid-metal-cooled reactor with a closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]]. Options include a range of plant ratings, including a "battery" of 50 to 150 MW of electricity that features a very long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW, and a large monolithic plant option at 1,200 MW. (The term ''battery'' refers to the long-life, factory-fabricated core, not to any provision for electrochemical energy conversion.) The fuel is metal or nitride-based containing [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and [[transuranic]]s. The LFR is cooled by natural [[convection]] with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 °C, possibly ranging up to 800 °C with advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the production of [[Thermochemical cycle|hydrogen by thermochemical processes]].

The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding three Generation IV reactor systems, one of which is a lead-cooled fast reactor that is also an [[Subcritical reactor|accelerator-driven sub-critical]] reactor, called ''Myrrha'', 100 MW(t), which will be built in [[Belgium]] with construction expected to begin after 2014 and the industrial scale version, known as ''Alfred'', slated to be constructed sometime after 2017. A reduced-power model of Myrrha called ''Guinevere'' was started up at [[Mol, Belgium|Mol]] in March 2009.<ref name="euronuclear.org"/> In 2012 the research team reported that Guinevere was operational.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hellemans|first1=Alexander|title=Reactor-Accelerator Hybrid Achieves Successful Test Run|url=http://news.sciencemag.org/physics/2012/01/reactor-accelerator-hybrid-achieves-successful-test-run|accessdate=29 December 2014|work=Science Insider|date=12 January 2012}}</ref>

Two other lead-cooled fast reactors under development are the SVBR-100, a modular 100MWe lead-bismuth cooled fast neutron reactor concept designed by OKB [[Gidropress]] in Russia and the BREST-OD-300 (Lead-cooled fast reactor) 300 MWe, to be developed after the SVBR-100, and built over 2016-20, it will dispense with the [[Uranium-238|fertile blanket]] around the core and will supersede the sodium cooled [[BN-600 reactor]] design, to purportedly give enhanced proliferation resistance.<ref name="powertecrussia.com"/>

== Advantages and disadvantages==
Relative to current nuclear power plant technology, the claimed benefits for 4th generation reactors include:
* Nuclear waste that remains radioactive for a few centuries instead of millennia <ref>{{cite web |title=Strategies to Address Global Warming |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/mailings/2009/20090713_Strategies.pdf}}</ref>
* 100-300 times more energy yield from the same amount of nuclear fuel <ref>{{cite web |title=4th Generation Nuclear Power |url=http://www.ossfoundation.us/projects/energy/nuclear}}</ref>
* Broader range of fuels, and even unencapsulated raw fuels (non-pebble [[Molten Salt Reactor|MSR]], [[LFTR]]).
* In some reactors, the ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the production of electricity, that is, a Closed [[nuclear fuel cycle]]. This strengthens the argument to deem [[nuclear power as renewable energy]].
* Improved operating safety features, such as (depending on design) avoidance of pressurized operation, automatic passive (unpowered, uncommanded) reactor shutdown, avoidance of water cooling and the associated risks of loss of water (leaks or boiling) and hydrogen generation/explosion and contamination of coolant water.

Nuclear reactors do not emit CO2 during operation, although like all [[low carbon power]] sources, the mining and construction phase can result in CO2 emissions, if energy sources which are not carbon neutral (such as fossil fuels), or CO2 emitting cements are used during the construction process.
A 2012 [[Yale University]] review published in the Journal of Industrial Ecology analyzing {{CO2}} [[life cycle assessment]] (LCA) emissions from [[nuclear power]] determined that:<ref name="Warner + Heath, JoIE">Warner, Ethan S.; Heath, Garvin A. [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00472.x/full Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Nuclear Electricity Generation: Systematic Review and Harmonization], ''Journal of Industrial Ecology'', [[Yale University]], published online April 17, 2012, doi: 10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00472.x.</ref>
{{Quote|''"The collective LCA literature indicates that life cycle [[Greenhouse gas|GHG]] [ greenhouse gas ] emissions from nuclear power are only a fraction of traditional fossil sources and comparable to renewable technologies."''}}
Although the paper primarily dealt with data from [[Generation II reactor]]s, and did not analyze the {{CO2}} emissions by 2050 of the presently under construction [[Generation III reactor]]s, it did summarize the Life Cycle Assessment findings of in development reactor technologies.''{{Quote|FBRs ''[ [[Fast Breeder Reactor]]s ]'' have been evaluated in the LCA literature. The limited literature that evaluates this potential future technology reports [[median]] life cycle GHG emissions... similar to or lower than LWRs[ Gen II [[light water reactor]]s ] and purports to consume little or no [[uranium market|uranium ore]].}}

A specific risk of the sodium-cooled fast reactor is related to using metallic sodium as a coolant. In case of a breach, sodium explosively reacts with water. Fixing breaches may also prove dangerous, as the cheapest noble gas [[argon]] is also used to prevent sodium oxidation. Argon, like helium, can displace oxygen in the air and can pose [[hypoxia (environmental)|hypoxia]] concerns, so workers may be exposed to this additional risk. This is a pertinent problem as can be testified by the events at the [[LMFBR|loop type]] [[Monju Nuclear Power Plant|Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Monju]] at Tsuruga, Japan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Japan Strains to Fix a Reactor Damaged Before Quake |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/18/world/asia/18japan.html | work=The New York Times | first=Hiroko |last=Tabuchi |date=17 June 2011}}</ref>
Using lead or molten salts mitigates this problem by making the coolant less reactive and allowing a high freezing temperature and low pressure in case of a leak.

In many cases, there is already a large amount of experience built up with numerous proof of concept Gen IV designs. For example, the reactors at [[Fort St. Vrain Generating Station]] and [[HTR-10]] are similar to the proposed Gen IV [[VHTR]] designs, and the [[LMFBR|pool type]] [[EBR-II]], [[Phénix]] and [[BN-600]] reactor are similar to the proposed pool type Gen IV Sodium Cooled Fast reactors being designed.

== Generation IV International Forum ==
There are currently ten active members of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF): [[Canada]], [[China]], the [[European Atomic Energy Community]] (Euratom), [[France]], [[Japan]], [[Russia]], [[South Africa]], [[South Korea]], [[Switzerland]], and the [[United States]]. The non-active members are [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], and the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="gen-4">{{cite web|title=GIF Membership|url=https://www.gen-4.org/gif/jcms/c_9492/members|website=gen-4.org|accessdate=28 October 2014}}</ref>

The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) was founded in 2001. Switzerland joined in 2002, Euratom in 2003, and China and Russia in 2006. The remaining countries were founding members.<ref name="gen-4"/>

The 36th GIF meeting in [[Brussels]] was held in November 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/generation-iv-international-forum-updates-technology-roadmap-and-builds-future |title=generation IV international forum updates technology roadmap and builds future. DOE}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://events.r20.constantcontact.com/register/event?llr=mscrkjkab&oeidk=a07e7melf609716b2c6 |title=The Generation IV international forum holds their 36th meeting on Monday 18th Nov 2013 in Brussels.}}</ref> The ''Technology Roadmap Update for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems'' was published in January 2014 which details R&D objectives for the next decade.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140625102915/https://www.gen-4.org/gif/upload/docs/application/pdf/2014-03/gif-tru2014.pdf Technology Roadmap Update for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems]</ref> A breakdown of the reactor designs being researched by each forum member has been made available.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140708023538/https://www.gen-4.org/gif/upload/docs/application/pdf/2014-03/gif_overview_presentation_v9_final3_web.pdf Generation IV International Forum, overview, John E. Kelly, page 15]</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Nuclear reactor]]
* [[Nuclear material]]
* [[Nuclear physics]]
* [[List of reactor types#Reactor types|List of reactor types]]
* [[Generation II reactor]]
* [[Generation III reactor]]
* [[Integral Fast Reactor]]
* [[Liquid fluoride thorium reactor]]
* [[Breeder reactor]]
* [[Small modular reactor]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://inlportal.inl.gov/portal/server.pt?open=514&objID=1361&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=10&mode=2&in_hi_userid=200&cached=true Article from Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors.]
* [http://www.gen-4.org/ Generation IV International Forum (GIF)]
* [http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology]
* [http://www.engr.utk.edu/nuclear/colloquia/slides/Gen%20IV%20U-Tenn%20Presentation.pdf Gen IV presentation]
* [http://www.ecology.at/ecology/files/pr577_1.pdf Science or Fiction - Is there a Future for Nuclear?] (Nov. 2007) - A publication from the Austrian [[Ecology Institute (Austria)|Ecology Institute]] about 'Generation IV' and Fusion reactors.
* {{cite web |url=http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2011/December/Nuclear_Power_After_Fukushima.cfm |title=Nuclear Power After Fukushima |author=Gail H. Marcus |date=December 2011 |work=Mechanical Engineering (the magazine of [[ASME]]) |accessdate=23 January 2012}} "In the wake of a severe plant accident, advanced reactor designs are getting renewed attention."
*[http://www.itheo.org/ International Thorium Energy Organisation - www.IThEO.org]
*[http://www.ithec.org/ International Thorium Energy Committee - iThEC]

{{Nuclear fission reactors}}

[[Category:Nuclear power reactor types]]
[[Category:Idaho National Laboratory]]

Belagerung von Godesberg

2013-02-21T09:36:08Z

SilverbackNet: translate names

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{{Infobox Military Conflict
| conflict = Godesberg Siege – 1583
| partof = The [[Cologne War]]
| image = [[File:Inname van Godesberg - Capture and destruction of Godesburg in 1583 (Frans Hogenberg) Edit 3.jpg|300px|alt= A castle stands at the top of a steep hill, and its walls are being blown away in explosion and fire. The fortress is surrounded by mounted and foot soldiers, and several units of mounted soldiers are racing up the hill toward the castle on its peak.]]
| caption = Destruction of the fortress on [[Godesberg]] during the [[Cologne War]] in 1583; {{convert|1,500|lb|sp=us}} of powder were used to breach the walls and blow part of the castle up; almost all its defenders were put to death.♦
| date = mid-November – 17 December 1583
| place = [[Godesberg]] (present-day Bad Godesberg), [[Electorate of Cologne]]
| coordinates =
| map_type =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_caption = Electorate of Cologne
| territory =
| result = Catholic victory
| status =
| combatant1 = [[File:D'argent croix de sable.svg|20px|alt=Black cross on a silver background, in a coat of arms]] [[Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg|Gebhard, Truchsess of Waldburg]] Prince-Elector, Cologne 1578–1588 (Calvinist)
| combatant2 = [[File:D'argent croix de sable.svg|20px|alt=Black cross on a silver background, in a coat of arms]] [[Ernest of Bavaria]] Prince-Elector, Cologne, 1583–1612 (Catholic) [[File:Wittelsbach Arms.svg|20px|alt=Coat of arms, two fields featuring blue and white rhombuses, the other two a yellow lion on black background]] [[House of Wittelsbach]]
| commander1 = Felix Buchner, Lt. Colonel, Eduard Sudermann, Captain of the Guard
| commander2 = [[Ferdinand of Bavaria (Wittelsbach)|Ferdinand of Bavaria]] [[Charles de Ligne, 2nd Prince of Arenberg|Charles, Count of Arenberg]]
| strength1 = "... a strong force of Dutch" mercenaries (approx. 180 troops from the Netherlands)♦♦
| strength2 = Over 400 foot soldiers, 5 squadrons of cavalry
| strength3 =
| casualties1 = 178
| casualties2 = not stated in sources.
| casualties3 =
| notes =
♦ Engraving by Frans Hogenberg (1535–1590). Hogenberg and Georg Braun,'' Civitates orbis terrarum'', Cologne, 1572–1617. 
♦♦ {{de icon}} Ernst Weyden. ''Godesberg, das Siebengebirge, und ihre Umgebungen''. Bonn: T. Habicht Verlag, 1864, p. 43. 
♦♦♦ {{de icon}} Tanja Potthoff. [http://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/10278/1/Potthoff_Tanja.pdf ''Die Godesburg – Archäologie und Baugeschichte einer kurkölnischen Burg'']. Inaugural Dissertation, University of Munich, 2009, p. 15.
| campaignbox =
{{Campaignbox Cologne War}}
}}

The '''Siege of Godesberg''', 18 November – 17 December 1583, was the first major siege of the [[Cologne War]] (1583–1589). Seeking to wrest control of an important fortification, Bavarian and mercenary soldiers surrounded the Godesberg ("''Wotan's Mountain''"<ref>Eckart Stiehl. ''Die Stadt Bonn und ihr Umland: ein geographischer Exkursionsführer''. Ferd. Dümmlers Verlag. ISBN 978-3-427-71661-7, 1997.</ref>), and the village then of the same name, now [[Bad Godesberg]] ("''Wotan's Mountain Spa''"), located at its foot. On top of the mountain sat a formidable fortress, similarly named [[Godesburg]] ("''Wotan's Castle''"), built in the early 13th century during a contest over the election of two competing archbishops.

Towering over the [[Rhine]] valley, the Godesburg's strategic position commanded the roads leading to and from [[Bonn]], the [[Electorate of Cologne|Elector of Cologne's]] capital city, and [[Cologne]], the region's economic powerhouse. Over time, the Electors strengthened its walls and heightened its towers. They added a small residence in the 14th century and the ''[[donjon]]'' (also called a ''Bergfried'' or keep) developed as a stronghold of the Electoral archives and valuables. By the mid-16th century, the Godesburg was considered nearly impregnable and had become a symbol of the dual power of the [[Prince-elector]]s and [[Archbishop of Cologne|Archbishops]] of Cologne, one of the wealthiest ecclesiastical territories in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The Cologne War, a feud between the Protestant Elector, [[Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg|Gebhard, Truchsess of Waldburg]], and the Catholic Elector, [[Ernst of Bavaria]], was yet another schismatic episode in the Electoral and archdiocesan history.

The Godesburg came under attack from Bavarian forces in November 1583. It resisted a lengthy cannonade by the attacking army; finally, [[sapper]]s tunneled into the [[basalt]] core of the mountain, placed {{convert|1,500|lb|sp=us}} of powder into the tunnel and blew up a significant part of the fortifications. The explosion killed many of the defending troops, but the resulting rubble impeded the attackers' progress, and the remaining defenders continued to offer staunch resistance. Only when some of the attackers entered the castle's inner courtyard through the [[latrine]] system were the Bavarians able to overcome their opponents. The Godesburg's commander and a number of surviving defenders took refuge in the [[keep]]; using prisoners held in the dungeons as hostages, the commander negotiated safe passage for himself, his wife and his lieutenant. The others who were left in the keep—men, women and children—were killed. Nearby [[Bonn]] fell to the Bavarians the following month.

==Background==
{{seealso|Cologne War}}
[[File:Cologne War (English captions).svg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|alt=Outline map shows a long narrow territory on a blue line (river). Several dots represent key cities and towns of the territory; additional dots show a few important cities outside of the outlined area.|The secular possessions of the Elector of Cologne stretched for about {{convert|60|km|sp=us}} along the Rhine River. The gray lines show the contemporary boundaries of Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands; the rivers are also shown on their contemporary course. Cologne, the imperial city, was not a part of the Electorate's secular domains, although it was part of the episcopal diocese. [[Venlo]], [[Duisburg]], [[Dortmund]] and [[Nijmegen]] were also not in the Electorate, but were important locations in the Cologne War.]]
The Cologne War, 1583–1589, was triggered by the 1582 conversion of the [[Electorate of Cologne|Archbishop-Prince Elector of Cologne]], [[Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg|Gebhard, Truchsess of Waldburg]], to [[Calvinism]], and his subsequent marriage to [[Agnes von Mansfeld-Eisleben|Agnes of Mansfeld-Eisleben]] in 1583. When he refused to relinquish the [[Episcopal see|Electorate]], a faction of [[clerics]] in the Cologne [[Cathedral chapter]] elected another archbishop, [[Ernst of Bavaria]], of the [[House of Wittelsbach]].<ref>{{de icon}} Johann Heinrich Hennes. ''Der Kampf um das Erzstift Köln zur Zeit der Kurfürsten.'' Köln: DuMont-Schauberg, 1878, pp. 5–10.</ref>

Initially, troops of the competing [[archbishop of Cologne|Archbishops of Cologne]] fought for control of the Electorate; within a few months, the local feud between the two parties expanded to include supporters from the [[Electorate of the Palatinate]] on the Protestant side, and the Duchy of Bavaria on the Catholic side. Italian mercenaries hired with papal gold augmented the Catholic force. In 1586, the conflict expanded further, with direct involvement of the [[Southern Netherlands|Spanish Netherlands]] for the Catholic side, and tertiary involvement from [[Henry III of France]] and [[Elizabeth I of England]] on the Protestant side.<ref name=Holborn>[[Hajo Holborn]]. ''A History of Modern Germany, The Reformation''. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959. For a general discussion of the impact of the Reformation on the Holy Roman Empire, see Holborn, chapters 6–9 (pp. 123–248).</ref>

At its most fundamental, it was a local feud between two competing dynastic interests—the [[Seneschal]]s (''Truchsess'') of the [[House of Waldburg]] and the dukes of the House of Wittelsbach—that acquired religious overtones. The dispute had broad implications in the political, social, and dynastic balance of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. It tested the principle of [[ecclesiastical reservation]] established in the religious [[Peace of Augsburg]] (1555). The 1555 agreement settled religious problems in the Empire with the principle ''[[Cuius regio, eius religio]]'': the subjects of a secular prince followed the religion of their sovereign. Ecclesiastical reservation excluded the territories of the imperial prelates (bishops, archbishops, abbots or abbesses) from ''cuius regio, eius religio''. In an ecclesiastical territory, if the prelate changed his religion, his subjects did not have to do so. Instead, the prelate was expected to resign from his post. Problematically, the 1555 agreement did not specify this detail.<ref name=Holborn/>

===Controversy of conversion===

{{double image|right|AgnesvonMansfeld.jpg|129|Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg.jpg|124|Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg (right) converted to Protestantism and married a Protestant canoness, Agnes von Mansfeld-Eisleben (left); when he refused to resign from his ecclesiastical dignities, the Cathedral chapter elected another archbishop.||Portrait of a young woman: She is very composed, discreetly dressed with a jeweled cap, white collar trimmed in lace, and richly embroidered dress.|Portrait of a middle-aged man, holding in his right hand a bishop's miter: he is well-dressed, but not ostentatiously. He has blond hair and a neatly trimmed pointed beard.}}
Agnes of Mansfeld-Eisleben was a Protestant [[Canon (priest)|canon]]ess (meaning that she was a woman living in a religious community, but not bound by a perpetual vow) at a [[convent]] in [[Düsseldorf-Gerresheim|Gerresheim]], today a district of [[Düsseldorf]]. After 1579, she maintained a lengthy liaison with the Archbishop of Cologne, Gebhard of Waldburg-Trauchburg, Truchsess of Waldburg. In defense of her honor, two of her brothers convinced Gebhard to marry her, and Gebhard considered converting to Calvinism for her.<ref>{{de icon}} Hennes, pp. 6–7.</ref> Rumors spread throughout the Electorate of his possible conversion, and that he might refuse to relinquish his position. The Electorate had overcome similar problems. [[Hermann of Wied]] had converted to Protestantism and resigned in 1547. [[Salentin IX of Isenburg-Grenzau|Salentin of Isenburg-Grenzau]], Gebhard's immediate predecessor, had resigned upon his marriage. In December 1582, Gebhard announced his conversion and extended equal religious rights to Protestants in the Electorate. In February, he married Agnes. At the end of March 1583, the Pope excommunicated him. The Cathedral chapter promptly elected a new archbishop, Ernst of Bavaria.<ref name=Sutherland606>N.M. Sutherland. "Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics." ''The English Historical Review''. Vol. 107, No. 424 (Jul., 1992), pp. 587–625, 606.</ref>

With two competing archbishops, both claiming the see and the Electorate, the contenders and their supporters gathered the troops. In numbers, Ernst had the advantage. The Pope hired 5,000 mercenaries from the [[Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma|Farnese]] family to support the new Elector.<ref name=Sutherland606/> Ernst's brother, the Duke of Bavaria, provided an army and Ernst arranged for his brother [[Ferdinand of Bavaria (soldier)|Ferdinand's]] army to take possession of the so-called ''[[destruction of the Oberstift (Linz and Ahrweiler)|Oberstift]]'', the southern territory of the Electorate; his troops plundered many of its villages and towns.<ref name=umgebung>{{de icon}} Hennes, pp. 118–121; {{de icon}} Dr. F. Schmidtz, "Heisterbach." In A. Minon and C. Koenen. ''Rheinische Geschichtsblätter''. Bonn: Hansteins Verlag, 1897, v. 3, pp. 128–224, p. 173 cited; Alfred Wiedemann. ''Geschichte Godesbergs und seiner Umgebung''. Frankfurt am Main: Mohnkopf Reprints, 1920, [1979]. ISBN 978-3-8128-0025-9 p. 393.</ref>

With the support of [[Adolf von Neuenahr]] and the Count [[Solms]], Gebhard secured some of the northern and eastern portions of the Electorate, where he held a geographical advantage in his proximity to the rebellious Dutch provinces. In the south, however, Ferdinand's troops hunted the soldiers Gebhard had left in possession of such ''Oberstift'' villages as [[Ahrweiler]] and [[Linz am Rhein|Linz]]; Gebhard's troops were forced out of their strongholds, hunted through the countryside, and eventually captured. By the fall of 1583, most of the ''Oberstift'' had fallen to Ferdinand's army and many of Gebhard's erstwhile supporters—including his own brother—had returned home. In some cases, they honored parole agreements made after their capture. A strong supporter, [[Johann Casimir of Simmern]], brother of the powerful [[Louis VI, Elector Palatine]], returned to the Palatine when his brother died. Other supporters were frustrated by Gebhard's chronic inability to pay his troops, or intimidated by threats of [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]]. By late October 1583, most of the ''Oberstift'' had fallen, although he still held the Godesburg, located near the villages of Godesberg and Friesdorf, the formidable fortress at Bonn, and the fortified village of Poppelsdorf.<ref name=umgebung/>

==Fortress==
{{main|Godesburg}}
The Godesburg foundation stone was laid on 15 October 1210 upon the order of [[Dietrich I von Hengebach|Dietrich of Hengebach]], the Archbishop of Cologne, who was himself in disputed possession of the Electorate and fighting to keep his position.<ref>Tourism & Congress GmbH, [http://www.bonn-region.de/english/sightseeing/fortresses-and-castles/fortress-godesburg-with-st-michael-chapel.html Fortress Godesburg] 2002–2008. Accessed 31 October 2009. {{de icon}} Tanja Potthoff. [http://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/10278/1/Potthoff_Tanja.pdf ''Die Godesburg – Archäologie und Baugeschichte einer kurkölnischen Burg'']. Inaugural Dissertation, University of Munich, 2009, p. 10; {{de icon}} Untermann, Matthias. ''[http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:gUooDgQiqP8J:archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/volltexte/2006/118/pdf/Grundstein.pdf+gudensberg+fundatum+est&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESimnV1l88xzuY4jNOnKyfAlt2K1lnc7MWbziaoWSufF0h7bJBb-FQz32MdjjvCLiGi8trK2TsEvkDSoRBErTfnnI4xFuK9d9NhQJF0a0FxHr9xitlXeM3TFkdjv_XDuy-ngfMd3&sig=AHIEtbSGKpTln1c0xdynWS5E6T0O7kVYmg "primus lapis in fundamentum deponitur" Kunsthistorische Überlegungen zur Funktion der Grundsteinlegung im Mittelalter]'', [[Heidelberg University]] archive, p. 6. Originally published in: ''Cistercienser. Brandenburgische Zeitschrift rund um das cisterciensische Erbe'' 6, 2003, issue 23. Potthoff gives 5 October as the date; Untermann, Glaser (1980) and other authors give 15 October.</ref> Although his competitors deposed Dietrich in 1212, his successors finished and enlarged the fortress;<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2009, p. 11.</ref> it featured in chronicles of the subsequent centuries as both a symbolic and physical embodiment of the power of the archbishop of Cologne in his many struggles for regional authority in secular and ecclesiastical matters. Furthermore, by the late 14th century, the fortress had become the repository of the Elector's valuables and archives. By the mid-16th century, with the inclusion of residential facilities, the castle was popularly considered the ''Lieblingssitz'', or the favorite seat (home), of the Electors.<ref>{{de icon}} Weyden, pp. 36–42, specifically p. 42.</ref>

[[File:Godesburg Kirchenfenster Kloster Ehrenstein-Wied (colour) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|350px|alt=Drawing of the castle and its walls, showing the chapel between the inner and outer wall.|The Godesburg before its destruction, as depicted on a church stained-glass window circa 1500. This drawing is believed to be the only surviving detailed picture of the castle as it looked before its destruction. The image shows the structure as seen from the north; St. Michael's Chapel is visible on the right, in the foreground.]]
The fortification originally had been constructed in the medieval style. In the reign of [[Siegfried II of Westerburg]] (1275–1295), it successfully resisted a five-week siege by the [[Dukes of Cleves|Count of Cleves]].<ref>{{de icon}} Weyden, p. 40.</ref> Successive archbishops continued to improve the defenses with stronger walls, adding levels to the central ''[[Keep|Bergfried]]'', which was cylindrical, not square like many medieval ''donjons''. In addition to the construction of the small residence, these archbishops also expanded the inner works to include dungeons and a chapel; they fortified the walls with towers and [[crenelation]]s, added a [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]], and improved the roads that led to the entrance in a series of [[Hairpin turn|switchbacks]]. By the 1580s, the Godesburg was not only the favorite residence of the Elector, but also an elaborate stone fortress. Although it retained some of its medieval character, it had been enhanced partially in the style made popular by Italian military architects. The physical location on the mountain did not permit the star-shaped ''[[trace italienne]]''; nevertheless, the Godesburg's cordons of thick, rounded walls and massive iron-studded gates made its defenders formidable adversaries. Its height, some {{convert|400|ft|sp=us}} above the Rhine on the peak of a steep hill, made artillery assault difficult. The approach road, with its hairpin turns, made battering rams impractical. The turns, overlooked by the castle wall, made foot assault dangerous and slow. Defenders could fire down on attackers from many angles.<ref>{{de icon}} Weyden, pp. 38–43.</ref>

Fortifications such as this, and the star-shaped fortresses more commonly found in the flatter lands of the Dutch Provinces, increasingly made 16th-century warfare both difficult and expensive; victory was not simply a matter of winning a battle over the enemy's army. Victory required traveling from one fortified and armed city to another and investing time and money in one of two outcomes. Ideally, a show of extraordinary force convinced city leaders to surrender. If the show of force did not intimidate a city, the alternative was an expensive siege that reduced the city to rubble and ended with storming the ruins.<ref>[[Geoffrey Parker (historian)|Geoffrey Parker]]. ''The Flanders Army and the Spanish Road''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-521-54392-7, pp. 11–19.</ref> In the case of the former, when a city capitulated, it would have to quarter troops at its own expense, called ''execution'', but the soldiers would not be permitted to plunder. In the case of the latter, [[no quarter]] would be given to the defenders and the victorious soldiers were released to [[pillaging|pillage]], plunder, and sack.<ref>Parker, p. 19.</ref>

==Investment of the Godesburg==
[[File:Hogenberg Poppesdorf 1583.jpg|thumb|alt=A fortified country home, surrounded by gardens and moats. Armed men have swarmed over the bridges and through the gates, and cannons fire on the walls; one of the buildings is on fire and other portions are damaged.|Poppelsdorf, Gebhard's country home where he first brought his bride in February, was taken by Ernst's supporters in mid-November, 1583. After they finished at Poppelsdorf, they moved to Godesberg.]]
On 13–14 November, Ferdinand of Bavaria (Ernst's brother) and the Count of Arenberg took the Elector's castle at Poppelsdorf; on 18 November, they moved to attack the Godesburg. This fortress was considerably stronger than the one at Poppelsdorf and of supreme strategic importance for the projected attack on Bonn, the capital city of the Electorate.<ref>{{de icon}} Joseph Vochezer. ''Geschichte des fürstlichen Hauses Waldburg in Schwaben'', v. 3 (1907), Kempten: Kösel, 1888–1907, p. 70; {{de icon}} Tanja Potthoff. ''Die Belagerung und Zerstörung der Burg Godesberg im Jahre 1583.'' In Wagener, Olaf and Laß, Heiko (eds.). ''... wurfen hin in steine/grôze und niht kleine ... Belagerungen und Belagerungsanlagen im Mittelalter.'' Beihefte zur Mediaevistik, Band 7, Peter Lang Europäischer Verlag der Wissenschaften, 2006, ISBN 3-631-55467-2, p. 195.</ref>

The Godesburg was defended by Lieutenant Colonel Felix Buchner, Captain of the Guard Eduard Sudermann, a garrison of soldiers from the Netherlands, and a few cannons.<ref>{{de icon}} Hennes, p. 118.</ref> Sudermann was a patrician from Cologne, and the son of Cologne's ''Bürgermeister'' (mayor) Dr. Heinrich Sudermann (1520–1591), a jurist and ambassador, and one of the most influential men in the imperial city and throughout the merchant capitals of the northern German states.<ref>{{de icon}} Herman Keussen. "Sudermann, Heinrich". In: ''Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie'' (ADB). Band 37, Leipzig: Duncker & Humbolt, 1894, pp. 121–127; {{de icon}} F. Oediger. ''Hauptstaatsarchiv Düsseldorf und seine Bestände'', Siegburg: Respublica-Verlag, 1957 [1993], v. 7, p. 530.</ref> According to contemporary sources, around 180 people lived in the facility, including a number of peasants, the Dutch soldiers defending it, and an unknown number of women and children.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 198.</ref> The fortress was also home to several of Gebhard's prisoners. The Abbot of Heisterbach, Johann von St. Vith, had been taken prisoner in July 1583 when Sudermann's troops sacked a number of villages in the region and plundered the Heisterbach monastery.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 196.</ref> Other prisoners held in the Godesburg included Gebhard von Bothmer, the suffragan (auxiliary bishop) of Hildesheim, and [[Captain (land)|Captain]] Ranucino from [[Florence]], the captured commander of [[Deutz, Cologne|Deutz]], across the Rhine from Cologne.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 202; {{de icon}} Prof. Dr. Heinrich Joseph Floß. [/media/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Annalen_des_Historischen_Vereins_f%C3%BCr_den_Niederrhein_36_(1881).djvu "Eroberung des Schlosses Poppelsdorf, Sprengung und Erstürmung der Burg Godesberg und Einnahme der kurfürstlichen Residenzstadt Bonn. November 1583 – Februar 1584."] In: ''Annalen des historischen Vereins für den Niederrhein, insbesondere die alte Erzdiözese Köln''. Sechsunddreißigstes Heft. Köln: DuMont-Schauberg. 1881, p. 128; {{de icon}} [[Leonard Ennen]]. Geschichte der Stadt Köln, meist aus den Quellen des Kölner Stadt-Archivs, Vol. 5. Köln/Neuß: L. Schwann'sche Verlagshandlung, 1863–1880, p. 156; {{de icon}} Hennes, p. 120; Hennes maintains the Italian captain's name was Ranuccini.</ref>
To besiege the fortress, Ferdinand brought more than 400 ''Fussvolk'' (foot soldiers) and five squadrons of mounted soldiers, plus a half dozen heavy caliber cannons, called [[culverin]]s.<ref>{{de icon}} Hennes, p. 121.</ref> His soldiers, among them Spanish and Italian mercenaries, took up quarters in neighboring villages, a process accompanied by pillage, [[arson]], murder and rape.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 197.</ref> On 18 November, the first day of the siege, Ferdinand sent a trumpeter and formally asked the fortress to surrender; the defending garrison replied that they had sworn their allegiance to Gebhard and would fight to the death for him.<ref name=Potthoff198>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 198.</ref>

===Cannonade (18–28 November 1583)===
[[File:Beschuss und Sprengung der Godesburg 1583.jpg|thumb|left|350px|alt=An oval castle layout, with a large outer ward attached on the left, and the direction of incoming cannon fire indicated—first from the bottom right of the picture, then from the bottom left. The location of an explosion is also indicated, to the right of the oval. A stylized compass needle indicating north points at the top left corner.|The first cannonade took place from the south-east; the cannons were located in Gosdesberg village at the foot of the mountain. The second cannonade was from a vineyard to the west; it temporarily breached the walls of the outer ward.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, pp. 198–200.</ref>]]
In response, Ferdinand took control of the village at the foot of the mountain and encircled the site. He surveyed the locale for two days to identify the most promising angle of attack.<ref name=Potthoff198 /> The customary equipage of siege warfare—the [[siege tower]], the [[trebuchet]], and the [[crossbow]]<ref>J. E. Kaufmann, et al. ''The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages'', Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books/Capo Press, 2001, ISBN 0-306-81358-0, p. 185.</ref>—would be ineffective. The distance between the curtain wall and the valley floor and the angle of the hill placed the Godesburg out of range. The besiegers had no choice but to use expensive artillery, although the angle would decrease its effectiveness. Ferdinand initially placed three cannons at the foot of the mountain, in Godesberg village.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 198.</ref> Daily, cannonballs and mortar shells smashed against the castle's walls. Nightly, the defenders repaired the damage. At the following sunrise, the assault began anew. Ferdinand's cannons were ineffective against the fortification, as were his mortars; in the course of the cannonade, return fire even managed to destroy a few of his own pieces.<ref>{{de icon}} Weyden, p. 43.</ref> From his place of safety in the north, Gebhard understood well the potential of the loss of the Godesburg, yet he was relatively helpless to help his garrison. In an effort to garner financial support from the Protestant states, in November 1583 he wrote to the Archbishop of Canterbury, in London: "Verily, the Roman Antichrist moves every stone to oppress us and our churches ..."<ref>Calendar of State Papers Foreign, Elizabeth, Volume 18: July 1583 – July 1584 (1914), pp. 250–265. [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=79002 Gebhard to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishop of London], 22 November 1583.</ref>

Although financial help from the English was not forthcoming,<ref>Wallace T. MacCaffrey, ''Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588–1603''. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-691-03651-9, p. 295.</ref> Ferdinand could not break the defenses. On 28 November, ten days after the beginning of the siege, artillery fire had wasted several thousand pounds of powder in the ineffectual bombardment. Ferdinand moved his cannons to an elevated position in a hillside vineyard to the west of the Godesburg.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, pp. 199–200.</ref> The height offered a more advantageous trajectory with which to fire on the walls of the Godesburg's [[outer ward]]. Within a few hours, his cannonade had breached them.<ref name=Potthoff200>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 200.</ref> Ferdinand sent three Italian experts to examine the breach and to advise him on the next step; the Italians, having come under fire during their examination, concluded that storming the castle would incur many casualties. The defenders still had the advantage of height and would be able to shoot at attackers from multiple towers and defensive positions inside the walls.<ref name=Potthoff200 /> Ferdinand decided not to pursue this tactic. Unable to storm the castle, Ferdinand considered two options: abandon the siege, which he could not do, or blow up the fortress.<ref>{{de icon}} Floß, p. 176.</ref> This option of last resort usually made a fortress unusable.<ref>Parker, p. 19.</ref> Furthermore while he considered his options, the defenders repaired the breaches caused by the cannonade and reinforced the walls, making them even stronger than they had been.<ref name=Potthoff200 /> The defenders also removed the roof of the St. Michael's Chapel in the castle's outer ward, filled the chapel with dirt to reinforce its walls, and placed some of their artillery pieces within the walls.<ref>{{de icon}} Weyden, p. 43; {{de icon}} ''Heimatbuch des Landkreises Bonn'', Vol. 2, 1959, p. 17.</ref>

===Sapping (completed 16 December 1583)===
Ferdinand reluctantly ordered [[sapping|saps]] to be dug into the side of the mountain.<ref>{{de icon}} Hennes, pp. 119–120; {{de icon}} Weyden, p. 43.</ref> The sapping was difficult and dangerous and the sappers worked under continuous attack from the castle's defenders, who fired on them with small arms and the castle's artillery and dropped rocks and debris on their heads. The forced labor of local peasants minimized losses among Ferdinand's own troops, but many of the peasants perished in the effort.<ref name=Potthoff201Floss119>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 201; {{de icon}} Floß, p. 119.</ref>

On 6 December, the sappers reached the south-eastern side of the fortress's outermost wall and then spent another ten days undermining the basalt on which the castle stood; they completed their work on 16 December and placed {{convert|1,500|lb|sp=us}} of powder into the mine.<ref name=Potthoff201Floss119 /> Ferdinand reported on the siege's progress in a letter to his older brother, [[Wilhelm V, Duke of Bavaria|Duke Wilhelm]], dated 15 December 1583: "The fortress stands on solid rock. ...[Y]esterday we had reached the outer wall of the castle, and in a day or two we hope to send the fortress into the sky."<ref>{{de icon}} Karl Theodor Dumont & Robert Haass. ''Geschichte der Pfarreien der Erzdiöcese Köln''. Köln: Bachem, 1883–, p. 229; {{de icon}} Floß, p. 176.</ref>

===Destruction of the fortress (17 December 1583)===
[[File:Godesburg Merian 1646.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A medieval fortress stands on the peak of a hill, dominating the valley below it, and the river passing it in the distance; the fortress has a central keep (tower), and an elaborate ring of crenelated walls and narrow windows. A road twists around the mountain to the gate.|This engraving by the Swiss artist [[Matthäus Merian|Matthäus Merian the Elder]] (1593–1650) depicts a view of the fortress prior to its destruction.]]
On 17 December, Ferdinand again asked the castle's defenders to surrender.<ref name=Floss126>{{de icon}} Floß, p. 126.</ref> They replied that they did not know the meaning of the word and would hold the Godesburg to the last man.<ref name=Floss126 /> A newspaper report dated 23 December 1583 relates that, having given Ferdinand a rude reply, the defenders went back to lunch.<ref>{{de icon}} Ennen, p. 156.</ref>

Ferdinand ordered 400 men to enter the saps; these men would storm the castle once the mine had been detonated.<ref name=Potthoff202Floss126>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 202; {{de icon}} Floß, p. 126.</ref> The remainder of his foot soldiers and cavalry was to wait in the fields below.<ref name=Potthoff202Floss126 /> A number of sources assert that the fuse was lit at around 1:00 pm, although the 19th-century local historian [[Heinrich Joseph Floss|Heinrich Joseph Floß]] argued that these sources are mistaken, and that the explosion clearly occurred in the morning.<ref>{{de icon}} Floß, pp. 127–128.</ref> All sources agree that the explosion, with a dreadful crack, propelled chunks of the towers and walls high into the air. Almost half the Godesburg collapsed instantly.<ref>{{de icon}} Floß, p. 126.</ref> According to a newspaper report dated 13 January 1584, debris raining on the valley below damaged a number of houses, destroying some of them completely.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 201.</ref>

Amidst the flames and rubble, Arenberg's and Ferdinand's troops tried to storm the castle, but found their way blocked by masses of debris created by their own explosives.<ref name=Potthoff202Floss126b>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 202; {{de icon}} Floß, p. 126.</ref> Furthermore, although close to half of the garrison had perished in the explosion and subsequent collapse of the fortifications, those who remained offered staunch resistance by throwing rocks on the approaching attackers, causing a large number of casualties.<ref name=Potthoff202Floss126b /> In frustration, 40 or 50 of the attackers tied together two ladders and crawled through the sluice-ways of the [[garderobe]] (latrines) that emptied on the hillside, thus gaining access to the interior of the castle.<ref name=Potthoff202Floss126b /> There they killed around 20 of the defenders in fierce fighting; the remaining defenders, approximately 70 men, among them Buchner and Sudermann, the garrison commander and his lieutenant, sought refuge in the castle's keep.<ref name=Potthoff202Floss126b /> In this way, Ferdinand's infantry at last gained unopposed access to the fortress.<ref>{{de icon}} Floß, p. 126.</ref> Storming the castle had taken about two hours.<ref>{{de icon}} Ennen, p. 156; {{de icon}} Floß, p. 177.</ref>

Out of options, Buchner opened negotiations, using those interred in the castle as hostages. Presenting them at the keep's door, he made clear that they would be killed unless Ferdinand promised to spare his, his wife's and Sudermann's lives.<ref name=P202-203>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, pp. 202–203; {{de icon}} Floß, p. 127.</ref> Ferdinand acceded to Buchner's demand; some sources maintain that the Abbot of Heisterbach, one of the prisoners, had been treated decently by Buchner throughout his imprisonment in the castle and himself asked for Buchner's life to be spared.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, pp. 202–203; {{de icon}} Floß, pp. 127–128; {{de icon}} Ennen, p. 157.</ref> The prisoners were released. With much difficulty, given the state of mind of the besiegers, Ferdinand and Arenberg brought the Buchners and Sudermann out of the castle alive.<ref name=P202-203 /> Once the Buchners, Sudermann, and the hostages were clear of the fortress, Ferdinand released his troops, who were in an ugly mood and hungry for blood and plunder. All those who remained in the keep—soldiers, men, women and children—were killed, some inside the keep, some in the courtyard below; the slaughter lasted well into the night.<ref>{{de icon}} Floß, p. 127.</ref> The castle's 178 dead were buried in two mass graves whose locations remain unknown.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2009, p. 15.</ref> Among those who perished in the destruction and storming of the castle was also one of the prisoners, a vicar from Hildesheim.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2006, p. 203; {{de icon}} Floß, pp. 128–129.</ref> The Hildesheim suffragan, too, was not among the rescued prisoners; he had died during his incarceration, a short while before the castle was stormed.<ref>{{de icon}} Floß, pp. 128–129; {{de icon}} Hennes, p. 120.</ref>

Gebhard lost an important stronghold in the ''Oberstift'' and Ernst's forces had acquired a ruin. The residence was unusable, and the fortifications were mere rubble. The keep had survived the blast and various armies used it as a watch tower in the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref>{{de icon}} Weyden, p. 44.</ref> Ernst's troops, under his brother's command, saturated the region, and the {{convert|7.3|km|sp=us}} between Godesberg and Bonn bore a greater resemblance to a military camp than to a road. [[Walloons|Walloon]] riders and squadrons of Italian cavalry, paid for by the pope, galloped back and forth. Forty companies of infantry trudged toward Bonn, including Walloons and Bavarians. They looked forward to [[1st Siege of Bonn|besieging Bonn]], the Elector's capital city, to which they laid siege on 21 December 1583, and which they took on 28 January 1584.<ref>{{de icon}} Hennes, p. 121.</ref>

==Aftermath==

[[File:Bad Godesberg Burgruine Johann Andreas Ziegler.jpg|thumb|alt=The 18th-century depiction of the Godesburg ruins, as a tourist site, shows crumbled shells of walls, with elegantly dressed men and women walking among them.|This 18th-century depiction shows the effects the explosion had on the thick stone walls.]]
The siege of the Godesburg and its subsequent destruction were a mere taste of things to come. It was the first of many sieges in the Cologne War, and the castle's fall eventually led to the fall not just of Bonn, but of several other principal towns and cities in the [[Electorate of Cologne]]: [[Hülchrath]], [[Neuss]] and [[Werl]]. Several smaller fortified towns such as [[Gelsenkirchen]], [[Unkel]] and [[Brühl, North Rhine-Westphalia|Brühl]] were also either heavily damaged or destroyed before, during and after the siege. In addition to damage to the towns and cities, Ernst's supporters managed to restrict imports and exports to and from the Electorate, not only crippling Gebhard's financial resources but resulting in economic hardship for the inhabitants.<ref>English observers noted that the export of wine from the Palatinate through the Electorate was restricted early in the war. Sophie Crawford Lomas (editor). ''Calendar of State Papers Foreign, Elizabeth''. Volume 18: July 1583 – July 1584 (1914), pp. 278–295. [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=79006&strquery=wine Norreys to Herle], October 8–18, 1583. Institute of Historical Research, ''[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/Default.aspx British History Online],'' University of London & History of Parliament Trust, 2009. Accessed 22 November 2009.</ref>

Advances in military architecture over the previous century had led to the construction or enhancement of fortresses that could withstand the pounding of cannonballs and mortar shells. For both Gebhard and Ernst, winning the war required mobilizing enough men to encircle a seemingly endless array of enemy artillery fortresses. These could be protected with relatively small garrisons, but taking them required both expensive artillery and enough men to storm the battlements. Furthermore, the victor had to maintain and defend all his possessions as they were acquired. Even the ruin of the Godesburg required a garrison and a defensive strategy; as a strategic point on the north-south road from Bonn to Koblenz, it came under siege in 1586 and again in 1588. The Cologne War, similar to the [[Dutch Revolt]], was not a war of assembled armies facing each other on a field, but a war of artillery sieges. It required men who could operate the machinery of war, which meant extensive economic resources for soldiers to build and operate the siege works, and a political and military will to keep the machinery of war operating.<ref>Parker, ''Flanders'', pp. 17–18.</ref>[[File:Wappen-bezirk-badgodesberg.svg|thumb|right|alt=A shield with a red background, an orange castle in ruins, has a second shield of silver with a black cross.| The contemporary ''Wappen'' (or Arms) of [[Bad Godesberg]] depicts the 21st-century ruins of the [[keep]] of a medieval castle, and shows also the simple white shield with the black crusaders' cross of the Electorate of Cologne.]]

The destruction of so prominent a fortress was also news. When Frans Hogenberg and [[Georg Braun]] compiled their ''Civitates Orbis Terrarum'', a collection of important scenes and locales, they included Hogenberg's engraving of its destruction as not only an important sight, but an important event (see Info Box, top). Hogenberg lived in Bonn and Cologne in 1583, and likely saw the site himself.<ref>{{de icon}} J. J. Merlo: [http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/ADB:Hogenberg,_Franz "Hogenberg, Franz"]. In: ''Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie'' (ADB). Band 12, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1880, pp. 650–652.</ref> After overwhelming the Godesburg, the Bavarians found a large marble slab in the ruins: the castle's foundation stone, which had been displaced by the explosion. The stone is a block of black marble with a Latin inscription commemorating the construction of the fortress by [[Dietrich I von Hengebach]] in 1210: ''ANNO · D(OMI)NI · M·C·C·X · GUDENSBERG · FUNDATUM · E(ST) · A · TEODERICO · EP(ISCOP)O · I(N) · DIE · MAUROR(UM) · M(A)R(TYRUM).''<ref>{{de icon}} Hubert Glaser. ''Um Glauben und Reich: Kurfürst Maximilian I.'', München: Hirmer, 1980, ISBN 978-3-7774-3190-1, p. 69; {{de icon}} Potthoff 2009, p. 10; {{de icon}} Matthias Untermann. ''[http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:gUooDgQiqP8J:archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/volltexte/2006/118/pdf/Grundstein.pdf+gudensberg+fundatum+est&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESimnV1l88xzuY4jNOnKyfAlt2K1lnc7MWbziaoWSufF0h7bJBb-FQz32MdjjvCLiGi8trK2TsEvkDSoRBErTfnnI4xFuK9d9NhQJF0a0FxHr9xitlXeM3TFkdjv_XDuy-ngfMd3&sig=AHIEtbSGKpTln1c0xdynWS5E6T0O7kVYmg "primus lapis in fundamentum deponitur" Kunsthistorische Überlegungen zur Funktion der Grundsteinlegung im Mittelalter]'', [[Heidelberg University]] archive, p. 6. Originally published in: ''Cistercienser. Brandenburgische Zeitschrift rund um das cisterciensische Erbe'' 6, 2003, issue 23., p. 6. Untermann states ''"Maurorum martyrum"'' refers to the day of the Moorish martyrs, the patron saints of nearby Bonn; Potthoff gives 5 October as the date for the day of the Moorish martyrs, while Untermann, Glaser and other authors give 15 October. For an image of the foundation stone, see {{de icon}} [http://www.godesberger-markt.de/rund1-4/godesburg.htm "800 Jahre Godesburg"], godesberger-markt.de, 2010, a subpage of [http://www.bad-godesberg.info/ Bad Godesberg Info], 2002–2010. Accessed 20 July 2010.</ref> A gold inscription was added to the back of the stone, noting that it had been found "on the very top of the blasted wall."<ref>Untermann, p. 6.</ref> Ferdinand took the stone to Munich, where it was kept in a museum beside a fresco painting in an arcade commemorating the siege.<ref>{{de icon}} Weyden, pp. 39, 43–44.</ref> Today, the foundation stone is in the [[Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn|Rheinisches Landesmuseum]] in Bonn.<ref>{{de icon}} Potthoff 2009, pp. 10, 24; {{de icon}} Weyden, p. 44.</ref>

===Long-term consequences===

Gebhard's eventual defeat changed the balance of power in the Electoral College of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1589, Ernst of Bavaria became uncontested Prince-elector of Cologne, the first [[Wittelsbach]] to hold the position. Wittelsbach authority in northwestern German territories endured until the mid-18th century, with the election of a succession of Bavarian princes to the archbishop's throne and to the Prince-Elector's seat. This gave the family two voices in the choice of imperial candidates,<ref>Benians, p. 713.</ref> which had ramifications in the 18th century. In 1740, [[Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles Albert, Duke of Bavaria]], laid [[War of the Austrian Succession|claim]] to the imperial title; his brother [[Klemens August of Bavaria]], then the Archbishop and Prince-elector, cast his vote for Charles and personally crowned him at [[Frankfurt am Main]].<ref>Charles Albert was crowned King of Bohemia in [[Prague]] (9 December 1741) and elected 'King of the Romans' on 24 January 1742, and took the title of ''[[Holy Roman Emperor]]'' upon his coronation on 12 February 1742. See Benians. pp. 230–233; Holborn, pp. 191–247.</ref> The shift of the emperor's orb from the [[House of Habsburg]] to the Wittelsbach family, albeit a brief event, was only resolved by the ascension of [[Maximilian III Joseph]] who, with the [[Treaty of Füssen]], eschewed any imperial pretensions.<ref>Charles Ingrao. "Review of Alois Schmid, ''Max III Joseph und die europaische Macht.'' " ''The American Historical Review,'' Vol. 93, No. 5 (Dec., 1988), p. 1351.</ref>
[[File:Godesburg 2 db.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A very large, massive seven-storey keep on a wooded hilltop, surrounded by ruins. Several visitors are on the keep's roof platform, their heads visible above the parapet.|The Godesburg today]]
Gebhard's defeat also changed the religious balance in the northwestern states. Although the [[Peace of Augsburg]] (1555) had addressed earlier the problem of religious pluralism, the solution potentially converted simple, and usually local, legal disputes into dynastic and religious warfare, as the Cologne War itself demonstrated. The result of the Cologne War gave the [[Counter Reformation]] a foothold in the lower Rhine. Ernst was a product of [[Jesuit]] education. Once his position was secured, he invited Jesuits into the territory to help re-establish Catholicism, a task which the Order approached zealously. They ejected Protestant pastors from parishes, sometimes by force, and re-established catechism education and pastoral visitations. Even when communities appeared to be reconverted, the Jesuits maintained strict supervision to identify recalcitrant Protestants or backsliders.<ref>Robert W. Scribner, "Why Was There No Reformation in Cologne?" ''Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research'', 49(1976): pp. 217–241.</ref> The Jesuit reintroduction of Catholicism postponed the solution of Germany's religious problems for another [[Thirty Years War|half century]].<ref>Holborn, pp. 201–247.</ref>

Finally, the German tradition of local and regional autonomy created structural and cultural differences in the Holy Roman Empire, compared to the increasingly centralized authority of such other European states as France, England, and Spain. The unabashed intervention of Spanish, French, Italian, Dutch, English and Scots mercenaries in the war, as well as the influence of papal gold, changed the dynamic of internal German confessional and dynastic disputes. The great "players" of the Early Modern European political stage realized that they could enhance their own positions ''vis-a-vis'' one another by assisting, promoting or undermining local and regional competition among the German princes, as they did in the feud between Gebhard and Ernst. Conversely, German princes, dukes, and counts realized that they could acquire an edge over their competitors by promoting the interests of powerful neighbors.<ref name=brodek>Theodor V. Brodek. "Socio-Political Realities of the Holy Roman Empire." ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History''. 1971, 1(3), pp. 395–405, cited pp. 400–401.</ref>

The scale of involvement of such external mercenary armies as Spain's Army of Flanders set a precedent that internationalized contests of local autonomy and religious issues in the German states, a problem not settled until the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in 1648.<ref>Geoffrey Parker, ''The Thirty Years Wars'', 1618–1648. New York: Routledge, 1997 (second edition), ISBN 978-0-415-12883-4, Introduction.</ref> Despite that settlement, German states remained vulnerable to both external intervention<ref>Parker, Introduction; Robert W. Scribner, pp. 217–241.</ref> and religious division, as they were in the Cologne War.<ref>Diarmaid MacCulloch. ''The Reformation''. New York: Viking, 2004, ISBN 978-0-670-03296-9, pp. 266, 467–84.</ref>

==Sources==

===Citations and notes===
{{Reflist|2}}

===Bibliography===
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* [[Ernest Alfred Benians|Benians, Ernest Alfred]], et al. ''The Cambridge Modern History''. New York: MacMillan, 1905.
* Brodek, Theodor V. "Socio-Political Realities of the Holy Roman Empire," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'', 1971, 1(3), pp. 395–405.
* {{de icon}} Dumont, Karl Theodor & Robert Haass. ''Geschichte der Pfarreien der Erzdiöcese Köln''. Köln: Bachem, 1883–.
* {{de icon}} [[Leonhard Ennen|Ennen, Leonard]]. ''Geschichte der Stadt Köln, meist aus den Quellen des Kölner Stadt-Archivs'', Vol. 5. Köln/Neuß, L. Schwann'sche Verlagshandlung, 1863–1880.
* {{de icon}} [[Heinrich Joseph Floss|Floß, Heinrich Joseph Prof. Dr.]] [/media/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Annalen_des_Historischen_Vereins_f%C3%BCr_den_Niederrhein_36_(1881).djvu "Eroberung des Schlosses Poppelsdorf, Sprengung und Erstürmung der Burg Godesberg und Einnahme der kurfürstlichen Residenzstadt Bonn. November 1583 – Februar 1584."] In: ''Annalen des historischen Vereins für den Niederrhein, insbesondere die alte Erzdiözese Köln''. Sechsunddreißigstes Heft, pp. 110–178. Köln: DuMont-Schauberg. 1881.
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*[[Hajo Holborn|Holborn, Hajo]], ''A History of Modern Germany, The Reformation''. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959.
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* Lomas, Sophie Crawford (editor). ''Calendar of State Papers Foreign, Elizabeth''. Volume 18: July 1583 – July 1584 (1914), pp. 278–295. [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=79006&strquery=wine Norreys to Herle], October 8–18, 1583. ''Calendar of State Papers Foreign, Elizabeth'', Volume 18: July 1583 – July 1584 (1914), pp. 250–265. [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=79002 Gebhard to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishop of London], 22 November 1583. Institute of Historical Research, [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/Default.aspx British History Online], University of London & History of Parliament Trust, 2009. Accessed 22 November 2009.
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