Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

David E. H. Jones

2017-07-23T15:44:50Z

Seglea: Kleinigkeiten wegen seine Tod.

'''David E. H. Jones''' (* [[20. April]] [[1938]], † [[19. Juli]] [[2017]]), auch bekannt als ''Daedalus'') war ein britischer [[Chemiker]], [[Journalist]] und [[Autor]]. Er war Erfinder in der fiktiven Firma DREADCO. Die Kolumne des ''Daedalus'' begann Mitte der 1960er Jahre und wurde wöchentlich im Magazin [[New Scientist]] veröffentlicht. Später wechselte er zum Journal [[Nature]] und setzte seine Arbeit dort für mehrere Jahre fort. Jones' Beiträge unter dem Pseudonym Daedalus sind verwandt mit der [[Pataphysik]]. Ähnlichkeiten zu den Glossen des Historikers [[Cyril Northcote Parkinson]] sind ebenfalls offenkundig. Die „Erfindungen“, die Daedalus in seiner Kolumne vorstellt, sind häufig nutzlos. Aber selbst für ein naturwissenschaftlich gebildetes Publikum ist nicht immer auf den ersten Blick erkennbar, ob die Skurrilitäten in der von Jones beschriebenen Art funktionieren würden.

1962 promovierte Jones zum Doktor ([[Ph. D.]]) in [[Organische Chemie|organischer Chemie]] am [[Imperial College London]]. 1974 arbeitete er an der britischen [[Universität Newcastle]]. Danach wurde er unabhängiger wissenschaftlicher Unternehmensberater in der Industrie, lieferte Ideen und führte wissenschaftliche Demonstrationen für das Fernsehen durch. Er setzte aber auch als Gast seine Arbeit an der Universität Newcastle fort.

In wissenschaftlichen Kreisen ist er hauptsächlich für seine wegweisenden Theorien zur Stabilität beim [[Fahrradfahren#Experimente und Theorien zur Bedeutung der Kreiselkräfte|Fahrradfahren]] bekannt, weiterhin für die Entdeckung von [[Arsen]] in Tapeten von [[Napoléon Bonaparte]] und seine scheinbar als [[Perpetuum Mobile]] funktionierenden Konstruktionen, von denen eine im [[Technisches Museum Wien|Technischen Museum in Wien]] steht.

In Deutschland kennt man David Jones vor allem durch seine Mitwirkung in der TV-Sendung [[Kopf um Kopf]].

== Werke (Auswahl) ==
* 1970 – ''The Stability of the Bicycle''. In: ''Physics Today'' 23 (April 1970) S. 34–40. [http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~fajans/Teaching/MoreBikeFiles/JonesBikeBW.pdf (Download 9MB PDF englisch)]
Jones publizierte außerdem unter anderem Bücher mit ausgewählten Beiträgen aus seiner Kolumne, begleitet von zusätzlichen Zeichnungen und Skizzen.
* 1982 – The Inventions of Daedalus: A Compendium of Plausible Schemes
* 1985 – [[Zittergas und schräges Wasser]] (deutsche Ausgabe von ''The Inventions of Daedalus'', ISBN 3-87144-768-4, mehrfach neu aufgelegt.)
* 2000 – The Further Inventions of Daedalus

== Quellen, Weblinks ==
* {{cite web
|url=http://www.grand-illusions.com/articles/napoleons_wallpaper/page03.shtml
|title=Artikel über die Napoleon-Tapete mit Foto von David Jones (Grand Illusions - Articles - The Strange Story of Napoleon's Wallpaper - Page 3)
|publisher=www.grand-illusions.com
|accessdate=2009-04-02
|last=
|first=
|language=englisch
}}
*[http://socrates.berkeley.edu/%7Efajans/Teaching/MoreBikeFiles/JonesBikeBW.pdf David Jones: ''The stability of the bicycle''] (PDF-Download). Physics Today. 23 (4): 34–40.

{{Normdaten|TYP=p|GND=172171091|LCCN=n/81/148030|VIAF=94793667}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Jones, David E H}}
[[Kategorie:Autor]]
[[Kategorie:Chemiker (20. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Journalist (Vereinigtes Königreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Brite]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1938]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 2017]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Jones, David E. H.
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Jones, David Edward Hugh (vollständiger Name); Daedalus (Pseudonym)
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=britischer Chemiker, Journalist und Autor
|GEBURTSDATUM=20. April 1938
|GEBURTSORT=
|STERBEDATUM=19. Juli 2017
|STERBEORT=Newcastle-upon-Tyne, VK
}}

Kathleen Richardson, Baroness Richardson of Calow

2007-07-16T14:41:27Z

Seglea: minor tweaks

{{Otheruses4|the cross-bench member of the House of Lords|the Canadian philanthropist|Kathleen M. Richardson}}

'''The Rev'd Kathleen Margaret Richardson, Baroness Richardson of Calow''' (born [[24 February]], [[1938]]) is a cross-bench member of the [[House of Lords]].

She was the first woman President of the [[Methodist Church of Great Britain|Methodist Conference]] from [[1992]] to [[1993]]. She was the moderator of the [[Free Churches Council]] from [[1995]] to [[1999]].

In 1998 she was made a [[Life peer]] as '''Baroness Richardson of Calow''', of [[Calow]] in the County of [[Derbyshire]].

Richardson is currently sitting on public inquiry into the death of [[Robert Hammill]].

Baroness Richardson holds an [[OBE]]. She was made an honorary member of the Rotary Club of Southgate in 2007.

==External link==
*[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199798/minutes/981012/ldminute.htm Announcement of her introduction at the House of Lords] House of Lords minutes of proceedings, 12 October 1998

{{UK-baron-stub}}
{{christian-clergy-stub}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Richardson, Kathleen}}

[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:English Methodist clergy]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Methodist Conference]]
[[Category:Female life peers|Richardson of Calow, Kathleen Richardson, Baroness]]
[[Category:Life peers|Richardson of Calow, Kathleen Richardson, Baroness]]
[[Category:Ordained peers|Richardson of Calow, Kathleen Richardson, Baroness]]

Julia Morgan

2007-06-10T23:15:04Z

Seglea: tidyng up

[[Image:Juliatrans.gif|right|170px|Julia Morgan]]

'''Julia Morgan''' ([[January 20]], [[1872]]–[[February 2]], [[1957]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[architect]]. She is best known for her work on [[Hearst Castle]] in [[San Simeon, California]]. Born in [[San Francisco, California]], she was raised in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] and graduated from [[Oakland High School (California)|Oakland High School]] in 1890. She graduated from the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1894 with a degree in [[civil engineering]]. At the urging of her friend and mentor [[Bernard Maybeck]], whom she met in her final year in undergraduate school, she headed to [[Paris]] to apply to the famous [[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]. Denied at first because the school was not accepting women, and a second time because she failed the entrance exam (she claimed in a letter that she had been failed deliberately because she was a woman<ref>[http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2006-09/BeyondSanSimeon.html Reichers, M. (2006). Beyond San Simeon. ''Humanities'', September/October 2006, Volume 27/Number 5]</ref>), after two years she finally passed the entrance exams in the architecture program, placing 13th out of 376 applicants<ref>[http://www.capitolmuseum.ca.gov/english/remarkable/panel4.html Julia Morgan: Early Architect. California State Capitol website]</ref>, and was duly admitted. She was the first woman to graduate with a degree in architecture from the school.

Upon her return from Paris she took employment with the San Francisco architect [[John Galen Howard]] who was at that time supervising the [[University of California]] [[University of California, Berkeley Campus Architecture|Master Plan]]. Morgan worked on several buildings on the UC Berkeley campus, most notably providing the decorative elements for the [[Hearst Mining Building]], and designs for the [[Hearst Greek Theatre]].

In 1904 she opened her own office in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. One of her earliest works from this period was North Star House in [[Grass Valley, California]], commissioned in 1906 by mining engineer [[Arthur DeWint Foote]] and his wife, the author and illustrator, [[Mary Hallock Foote]]. Naturally, many commissions followed the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], ensuring her financial success.

The most famous of Morgan's patrons was the newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]], who had been introduced to Morgan by his mother [[Phoebe Apperson Hearst]], the chief patroness of the University of California at Berkeley. It is believed that this introduction led to Morgan's first downstate commission by Hearst, ca 1914, for the design of the [[Los Angeles Herald-Examiner|Los Angeles Examiner]] Building, [[Image:Postcard-ca-los-angeles-examiner-building.png |thumb|left|350px|Postcard of the Los Angeles Examiner building]] a project that included contributions by Los Angeles architects [[William J. Dodd]] and J. Martyn Haenke. In 1919 Hearst selected Morgan as the architect for the [[Hearst Castle]], which was built atop the family campsite overlooking [[San Simeon]] harbor. From this point forward, Morgan became Hearst's principal architect, producing the designs for dozens of buildings, such as Wyntoon (a "Bavarian village" located on 50,000 forested acres on the [[McCloud River]] near [[Mount Shasta]]), Jolon (a "hunting lodge" built in a [[Mission Revival Style architecture|Mission Style]] about thirty miles from the Castle), and Babicore, Hearst's Mexican rancho.

The [[Julia Morgan School for Girls]] in Oakland is named after her. The school is the only middle school for girls in the [[East Bay, California|East Bay]].<ref>[http://www.juliamorganschool.org/ julia morgan school.org]</ref> They occupy Alderwood Hall at Mills College, a 1924 building designed by Morgan.<ref>[http://www.mills.edu/alumnae/publications/backissues/W2004_01.pdf Mills Quarterly, Winter 2004]</ref>

Her best-known works not commissioned by Hearst include the [[YWCA]]s in [[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco's Chinatown]] and in Oakland, the [[Mills College]] Bell Tower, St. John's Presbyterian Church in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], the Chapel of the Chimes in Oakland, and the [[Asilomar State Beach|Asilomar Conference Grounds]] in [[Pacific Grove]] near [[Monterey, California]]. Some of her residential projects, most of them located in the San Francisco Bay Area, may be categorized as [[ultimate bungalows]], a term often associated with the work of [[Greene and Greene]] and some of Morgan's other contemporaries and teachers.

Morgan is buried in [[Mountain View Cemetery (Oakland, California)|Mountain View Cemetery]] in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]].

==References==
<references />

==External links==

*[http://www.lib.calpoly.edu/spec_coll/morgan/ The Julia Morgan Collection at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo]
*[http://www.hearstcastle.org/history/julia_morgan.asp Julia Morgan at Hearst Castle]
*[http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/jmindex/genericindex.html Index of Buildings by Julia Morgan]
*[http://www.northstarhouse.org/history.htm North Star House Foundation]
*[http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Wyntoon.html Wyntoon at Great Buildings Online]
*[http://www2.arch.uiuc.edu/organizations/wia/archtspotl/morganjulia.html Women in Architecture]
*[http://www.edhat.com/site/tidbit.cfm?id=1034 Carrillo Rec Center in Santa Barbara]
*[http://www.home.earthlink.net/~hdrctw34 William J. Dodd: American Architect & Designer ~ Los Angeles]
*[http://www.juliamorgan.org/ Julia Morgan Center for the Arts ~ Berkeley, CA]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Morgan, Julia}}
{{commons|category:Julia Morgan|Julia Morgan}}

[[Category:1872 births]]
[[Category:1957 deaths]]
[[Category:American architects]]
[[Category:People from Oakland, California]]
[[Category:Women architects]]
[[Category:History of the San Francisco Bay Area]]

[[fr:Julia Morgan]]

Julia Morgan

2007-06-10T23:09:15Z

Seglea: trying to sort out the Ecole des Beaux-Arts entry issue and reference it

[[Image:Juliatrans.gif|right|170px|Julia Morgan]]

'''Julia Morgan''' ([[January 20]], [[1872]]–[[February 2]], [[1957]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[architect]]. She is best known for her work on [[Hearst Castle]] in [[San Simeon, California]]. Born in [[San Francisco, California]], she was raised in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] and graduated from [[Oakland High School (California)|Oakland High School]] in 1890. She graduated from the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1894 with a degree in [[civil engineering]]. At the urging of her friend and mentor [[Bernard Maybeck]], whom she met in her final year in undergraduate school, she headed to [[Paris]] to apply to the famous [[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]. Denied the first because the school was not accepting women, and a second time because she failed the entrance exam (she claimed in a letter that she had been failed deliberately because she was a woman<ref>[http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2006-09/BeyondSanSimeon.html Reichers, M. (2006). Beyond San Simeon. ''Humanities'', September/October 2006, Volume 27/Number 5]</ref>), after two years she finally passed the entrance exams in the architecture program, placing 13th out of 296 applicants. She was the first woman to graduate with a degree in architecture from the school.

Upon her return from Paris she took employment with the San Francisco architect [[John Galen Howard]] who was at that time supervising the [[University of California]] [[University of California, Berkeley Campus Architecture|Master Plan]]. Morgan worked on several buildings on the UC Berkeley campus, most notably providing the decorative elements for the [[Hearst Mining Building]], and designs for the [[Hearst Greek Theatre]].

In 1904 she opened her own office in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. One of her earliest works from this period was North Star House in [[Grass Valley, California]], commissioned in 1906 by mining engineer [[Arthur DeWint Foote]] and his wife, the author and illustrator, [[Mary Hallock Foote]]. Naturally, many commissions followed the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], ensuring her financial success.

The most famous of Morgan's patrons was the newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]], who had been introduced to Morgan by his mother [[Phoebe Apperson Hearst]], the chief patroness of the University of California at Berkeley. It is believed that this introduction led to Morgan's first downstate commission by Hearst, ca 1914, for the design of the [[Los Angeles Herald-Examiner|Los Angeles Examiner]] Building, [[Image:Postcard-ca-los-angeles-examiner-building.png |thumb|left|350px|Postcard of the Los Angeles Examiner building]] a project that included contributions by Los Angeles architects [[William J. Dodd]] and J. Martyn Haenke. In 1919 Hearst selected Morgan as the architect for the [[Hearst Castle]], which was built atop the family campsite overlooking [[San Simeon]] harbor. From this point forward, Morgan became Hearst's principal architect, producing the designs for dozens of buildings, such as Wyntoon (a "Bavarian village" located on 50,000 forested acres on the [[McCloud River]] near [[Mount Shasta]]), Jolon (a "hunting lodge" built in a [[Mission Revival Style architecture|Mission Style]] about thirty miles from the Castle), and Babicore, Hearst's Mexican rancho.

The [[Julia Morgan School for Girls]] in Oakland is named after her. The school is the only middle school for girls in the [[East Bay, California|East Bay]].<ref>[http://www.juliamorganschool.org/ julia morgan school.org]</ref> They occupy Alderwood Hall at Mills College, a 1924 building designed by Morgan.<ref>[http://www.mills.edu/alumnae/publications/backissues/W2004_01.pdf Mills Quarterly, Winter 2004]</ref>

Her best-known works not commissioned by Hearst include the [[YWCA]]s in [[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco's Chinatown]] and in Oakland, the [[Mills College]] Bell Tower, St. John's Presbyterian Church in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], the Chapel of the Chimes in Oakland, and the [[Asilomar State Beach|Asilomar Conference Grounds]] in [[Pacific Grove]] near [[Monterey, California]]. Some of her residential projects, most of them located in the San Francisco Bay Area, may be categorized as [[ultimate bungalows]], a term often associated with the work of [[Greene and Greene]] and some of Morgan's other contemporaries and teachers.

Morgan is buried in [[Mountain View Cemetery (Oakland, California)|Mountain View Cemetery]] in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]].

==References==
<references />

==External links==

*[http://www.lib.calpoly.edu/spec_coll/morgan/ The Julia Morgan Collection at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo]
*[http://www.hearstcastle.org/history/julia_morgan.asp Julia Morgan at Hearst Castle]
*[http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/jmindex/genericindex.html Index of Buildings by Julia Morgan]
*[http://www.northstarhouse.org/history.htm North Star House Foundation]
*[http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Wyntoon.html Wyntoon at Great Buildings Online]
*[http://www2.arch.uiuc.edu/organizations/wia/archtspotl/morganjulia.html Women in Architecture]
*[http://www.edhat.com/site/tidbit.cfm?id=1034 Carrillo Rec Center in Santa Barbara]
*[http://www.home.earthlink.net/~hdrctw34 William J. Dodd: American Architect & Designer ~ Los Angeles]
*[http://www.juliamorgan.org/ Julia Morgan Center for the Arts ~ Berkeley, CA]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Morgan, Julia}}
{{commons|category:Julia Morgan|Julia Morgan}}

[[Category:1872 births]]
[[Category:1957 deaths]]
[[Category:American architects]]
[[Category:People from Oakland, California]]
[[Category:Women architects]]
[[Category:History of the San Francisco Bay Area]]

[[fr:Julia Morgan]]

Julia Morgan

2007-01-15T22:34:15Z

Seglea: include image and make a link

[[Image:Juliatrans.gif|right|170px|Julia Morgan]]

'''Julia Morgan''' ([[January 20]], [[1872]]–[[February 2]], [[1957]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[architect]]. She is best known for her work on [[Hearst Castle]] in [[San Simeon, California]]. Born in [[San Francisco, California]], she was raised in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] and graduated from [[Oakland High School (California)|Oakland High School]] in 1890. She graduated from the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1894 with a degree in civil engineering. At the urging of her friend and mentor [[Bernard Maybeck]], whom she met in her final year in undergraduate school, she headed to Paris to apply to the famous [[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]. Denied at first because she was a woman, she would wait two years before being permitted to study in the architecture program. She would be the first woman to graduate with a degree in architecture from the school.

Upon her return from Paris she took employment with the San Francisco architect [[John Galen Howard]] who was at that time supersiving the [[University of California]] [[University of California, Berkeley Campus Architecture|Master Plan]]. Morgan worked on several buildings on the UC Berkeley campus, most notably providing the decorative elements for the [[Hearst Mining Building]], and designs for the [[Hearst Greek Theatre]].

In 1904 she opened her own office in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. One of her earliest works from this period was North Star House in [[Grass Valley, California]], commissioned in 1905 by mining engineer [[Arthur DeWint Foote]] and his wife, the author and illustrator, [[Mary Hallock Foote]]. Naturally, many commissions followed the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], ensuring her financial success.

The most famous of Morgan's patrons was the newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]], who had been introduced to Morgan by his mother [[Phoebe Apperson Hearst]], the chief patroness of the University of California at Berkeley. It is believed that this introduction led to Morgan's first downstate commission by Hearst, ca 1914, for the design of the [[Los Angeles Herald-Examiner|Los Angeles Examiner]] Building, [[Image:Postcard-ca-los-angeles-examiner-building.png |thumb|left|350px|Postcard of the Los Angeles Examiner building]] a project that included contributions by Los Angeles architects [[William J. Dodd]] and J. Martyn Haenke. In 1919 Hearst selected Morgan as the architect for the [[Hearst Castle]], which was built atop the family campsite overlooking [[San Simeon]] harbor. From this point forward, Morgan became Hearst's principal architect, producing the designs for dozens of buildings, such as Wyntoon (a "Bavarian village" located on 50,000 forested acres on the [[McCloud River]] near [[Mount Shasta]]), Jolon (a "hunting lodge" built in a [[Mission Revival Style architecture|Mission Style]] about thirty miles from the Castle), and Babicore, Hearst's Mexican rancho.

The [[Julia Morgan School for Girls]] in Oakland is named after her. The school is the only middle school for girls in the [[East Bay, California|East Bay]].<ref>[http://www.juliamorganschool.org/ julia morgan school.org]</ref> They occupy Alderwood Hall at Mills College, a 1924 building designed by Morgan.<ref>[http://www.mills.edu/alumnae/publications/backissues/W2004_01.pdf Mills Quarterly, Winter 2004]</ref>

Her best-known works not commissioned by Hearst include the [[YWCA]]s in [[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco's Chinatown]] and in Oakland, the [[Mills College]] Bell Tower, St. John's Presbyterian Church in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], the Chapel of the Chimes in Oakland, and the [[Asilomar State Beach|Asilomar Conference Grounds]] in [[Pacific Grove]] near [[Monterey, California]]. Some of her residential projects, most of them located in the San Francisco Bay Area, may be categorized as [[ultimate bungalows]], a term often associated with the work of [[Greene and Greene]] and some of Morgan's other contemporaries and teachers.

Morgan is buried in [[Mountain View Cemetery]] in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]].

==References==
<references />

==External links==

*[http://www.lib.calpoly.edu/spec_coll/morgan/ The Julia Morgan Collection at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo]
*[http://www.hearstcastle.org/history/julia_morgan.asp Julia Morgan at Hearst Castle]
*[http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/jmindex/genericindex.html Index of Buildings by Julia Morgan]
*[http://www.northstarhouse.org/history.htm North Star House Foundation]
*[http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Wyntoon.html Wyntoon at Great Buildings Online]
*[http://www2.arch.uiuc.edu/organizations/wia/archtspotl/morganjulia.html Women in Architecture]
*[http://www.edhat.com/site/tidbit.cfm?id=1034 Carrillo Rec Center in Santa Barbara]
*[http://www.home.earthlink.net/~hdrctw34 William J. Dodd: American Architect & Designer ~ Los Angeles]

[[Category:1872 births|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:1957 deaths|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:American architects|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:Kappa Alpha Theta sisters|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:People from Oakland, California|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:Women architects|Morgan, Julia]]

[[fr:Julia Morgan]]
{{commons|category:Julia Morgan|Julia Morgan}}

Julia Morgan

2006-12-24T02:29:59Z

Seglea: link to Commons

[[Image:Juliatrans.gif|right|170px|Julia Morgan]]

'''Julia Morgan''' ([[January 20]], [[1872]]–[[February 2]], [[1957]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[architect]]. She is best known for her work on [[Hearst Castle]] in [[San Simeon, California]]. Born in [[San Francisco, California]], she was raised in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] and graduated from [[Oakland High School (California)|Oakland High School]] in 1890. She graduated from the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1894 with a degree in civil engineering. At the urging of her friend and mentor [[Bernard Maybeck]], whom she met in her final year in undergraduate school, she headed to Paris to apply to the famous [[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]. Denied at first because she was a woman, she would wait two years before being permitted to study in the architecture program. She would be the first woman to graduate with a degree in architecture from the school.

Upon her return from Paris she took employment with the San Francisco architect [[John Galen Howard]] who was at that time supersiving the [[University of California]] [[University of California, Berkeley Campus Architecture|Master Plan]]. Morgan worked on several buildings on the UC Berkeley campus, most notably providing the decorative elements for the [[Hearst Mining Building]], and designs for the [[Hearst Greek Theatre]].

In 1904 she opened her own office in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. One of her earliest works from this period was North Star House in [[Grass Valley, California]], commissioned in 1905 by mining engineer [[Arthur DeWint Foote]] and his wife, the author and illustrator, [[Mary Hallock Foote]]. Naturally, many commissions followed the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], ensuring her financial success.

The most famous of Morgan's patrons was the newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]], who had been introduced to Morgan by his mother [[Phoebe Apperson Hearst]], the chief patroness of the University of California at Berkeley. It is believed that this introduction led to Morgan's first downstate commission by Hearst, ca 1914, for the design of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Postcard-ca-los-angeles-examiner-building.png Los Angeles Examiner Building], a project that included contributions by Los Angeles architects [[William J. Dodd]] and J. Martyn Haenke. In 1919 Hearst selected Morgan as the architect for the [[Hearst Castle]], which was built atop the family campsite overlooking [[San Simeon]] harbor. From this point forward, Morgan became Hearst's principal architect, producing the designs for dozens of buildings, such as Wyntoon (a "Bavarian village" located on 50,000 forested acres on the [[McCloud River]] near [[Mount Shasta]]), Jolon (a "hunting lodge" built in a [[Mission Revival Style architecture|Mission Style]] about thirty miles from the Castle), and Babicore, Hearst's Mexican rancho.

The [[Julia Morgan School for Girls]] in Oakland is named after her. The school is the only middle school for girls in the [[East Bay, California|East Bay]].<ref>[http://www.juliamorganschool.org/ julia morgan school.org]</ref> They occupy Alderwood Hall at Mills College, a 1924 building designed by Morgan.<ref>[http://www.mills.edu/alumnae/publications/backissues/W2004_01.pdf Mills Quarterly, Winter 2004]</ref>

Her best-known works not commissioned by Hearst include the [[YWCA]]s in [[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco's Chinatown]] and in Oakland, the [[Mills College]] Bell Tower, St. John's Presbyterian Church in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], the Chapel of the Chimes in Oakland, and the [[Asilomar State Beach|Asilomar Conference Grounds]] in [[Pacific Grove]] near [[Monterey, California]]. Some of her residential projects, most of them located in the San Francisco Bay Area, may be categorized as [[ultimate bungalows]], a term often associated with the work of [[Greene and Greene]] and some of Morgan's other contemporaries and teachers.

Morgan is buried in [[Mountain View Cemetery]] in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]].

==References==
<references />

==External links==

*[http://www.lib.calpoly.edu/spec_coll/morgan/ The Julia Morgan Collection at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo]
*[http://www.hearstcastle.org/history/julia_morgan.asp Julia Morgan at Hearst Castle]
*[http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/jmindex/genericindex.html Index of Buildings by Julia Morgan]
*[http://www.northstarhouse.org/history.htm North Star House Foundation]
*[http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Wyntoon.html Wyntoon at Great Buildings Online]
*[http://www2.arch.uiuc.edu/organizations/wia/archtspotl/morganjulia.html Women in Architecture]
*[http://www.edhat.com/site/tidbit.cfm?id=1034 Carrillo Rec Center in Santa Barbara]
*[http://www.home.earthlink.net/~hdrctw34 William J. Dodd: American Architect & Designer ~ Los Angeles]

[[Category:1872 births|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:1957 deaths|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:American architects|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:Kappa Alpha Theta sisters|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:People from Oakland, California|Morgan, Julia]]
[[Category:Women architects|Morgan, Julia]]

[[fr:Julia Morgan]]
{{commons|category:Julia Morgan|Julia Morgan}}

Marilynne Robinson

2006-10-30T21:36:31Z

Seglea: avoiding an ambiguity

'''Marilynne Robinson''' (born [[1947]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[author]].

She was born and grew up in [[Sandpoint, Idaho]], and did her undergraduate work at [[Pembroke College (Brown University)|Pembroke College]], the former [[women's college]] at [[Brown University]], receiving her [[B.A.]] in 1966. She received her [[Ph.D.]] from the [[University of Washington]] in 1977.

Her first novel, ''[[Housekeeping (novel)|Housekeeping]]'' ([[1980 in literature|1980]]), won a PEN/Hemingway Award for best first novel, and was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize. Her second novel, ''[[Gilead (novel)|Gilead]]'' ([[2004 in literature|2004]]), was acclaimed by critics, and garnered the 2005 [[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] and [[National Book Critics Circle Award]].

She has also written articles and book reviews for ''[[Harper's Magazine|Harper’s]]'', the ''[[Paris Review]]'', and ''[[The New York Times]] Book Review'', as well as two works of non-fiction.

She has been writer-in-residence or visiting professor at numerous universities, including the [[University of Kent]], [[Amherst College]], and the [[University of Massachusetts]]' [[MFA Program for Poets & Writers]]. She teaches at the [[University of Iowa]] Writers' Workshop.

{{wikiquote}}

==Bibliography==
* ''[[Housekeeping (novel)|Housekeeping]]'' (1980)
* ''Mother Country: Britain, the Welfare State, and Nuclear Pollution'' (1989)
* ''The Death of Adam: Essays on Modern Thought'' (1998)
* ''[[Gilead (novel)|Gilead]]'' (2004)

==External links==
*Reading guide to ''Housekeeping'' [http://www.fsgbooks.com/readersguides/robinson.htm]
*Poets & Writers article on ''Housekeeping'' [http://www.pw.org/mag/articles/a8209-1.htm]
*New York Times book review of ''The Death of Adam'' [http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/02/07/reviews/990207.07kimbalt.html]
*Jeffrey Hart, [http://www.nationalreview.com/books/hart_200505200838.asp ''Now, a Masterpiece''], Book review of ''Gilead'', from the March 28, 2005 issue of ''[[National Review]]'', now on [[National Review|NRO]]
*[http://www.kanuga.org/conferences/2006/literature.shtml ''Christianity & Literature'']

[[Category:1947 births|Robinson, Marilynne]]
[[Category:Alumnae of women's colleges|Robinson, Marilynne]]
[[Category:American novelists|Robinson, Marilynne]]
[[Category:American essayists|Robinson, Marilynne]]
[[Category:Brown University alumni|Robinson, Marilynne]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Kent|Robinson, Marilynne]]
[[Category:Congregationalists|Robinson, Marilynne]]
[[Category:Living people|Robinson, Marilynne]]
[[Category:People from Idaho|Robinson, Marilynne]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Robinson, Marilynne]]

South West Coast Path

2006-10-22T22:55:34Z

Seglea: /* South Devon */ - add Branscombe and Beer

[[image:swcoastpath.ilfracombe.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The South West Coast Path passes along the cliffs (seen in the distance) at [[Ilfracombe]], [[North Devon]]. The highest point in this view is Hillsborough (447 feet, 136 metres). Part of Ilfracombe is seen on the right.]]
[[Image:The_rumps.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Rumps, on [[Pentire Point]], [[North Cornwall]], site of Iron Age cliff fortifications.]]

At 630 miles (1014 km) long, the '''South West Coast Path''' is Britain's longest [[Long-distance footpaths in the UK|national trail]], running from [[Minehead]] in [[Somerset]], along the coasts of [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]], to [[Poole]] in [[Dorset]]. Since it rises and falls with every river mouth, it is also one of the more challenging trails.

The path has been a complete National Trail since 1978.

==Special landscapes==
Many of the landscapes which the South West Coast Path crosses have special status, either as a [[National Park]] or one of the [[Heritage Coast|Heritage Coasts]]:
* Somerset & North Devon
** Exmoor Heritage Coast and [[Exmoor National Park]].
** North Devon Heritage Coast
** [[Hartland]] Heritage Coast
* North Cornwall
** [[Pentire Point]] — [[Widemouth]] Heritage Coast
** [[Trevose Head]] Heritage Coast
** [[Godrevy]] — [[Portreath]] Heritage Coast
** [[Penwith]] Heritage Coast
* South Cornwall
** [[The Lizard|Lizard]] Heritage Coast
** [[Roseland]] Heritage Coast
** [[Gribbin Head]] — [[Polperro]] Heritage Coast
** [[Rame Head]] Heritage Coast
* South Devon and Dorset
** South Devon Heritage Coast
** East Devon Heritage Coast
** [[Jurassic Coast|The Jurassic Coast]], a 95 mile (155km) long [[World Heritage Site]]
** Dorset Heritage Coast

==Places of interest==
In order from Minehead to Poole Harbour

===Somerset and North Devon===
* [[Exmoor National Park]]
* [[Woody Bay]]
* [[Hartland Point]]

===North Cornwall===
From Bude to Land's End
* [[Widemouth Bay]]
* [[Crackington Haven]]
* [[Tintagel]] — legendary birth place of [[King Arthur]]
* [[Trevose Head]]
* [[Watergate Bay]]
* [[Pentire Point]]
* [[St Agnes Head]]
* [[Godrevy|Godrevy Island]] and [[Lighthouse|lighthouse]]
* [[Hayle#Hayle today|Hayle Towans]] — extensive sand dunes
* [[Carbis Bay]]
* [[Botallack Mine]] — disused tin mine
* [[Cape Cornwall]]
* [[Whitesand Bay]]
* [[Land's End]]

===South Cornwall===
* [[Minack Theatre]] — an open air theatre
* [[St Michael's Mount]]
* [[Loe Bar]] and [[Loe Pool]]
* [[Mullion, Cornwall|Mullion Cove]]
* [[Lizard Point, Cornwall|Lizard Point]]
* [[Cadgwith]]
* [[Helford River]]
* [[Gweek]] — seal sanctuary
* [[Carrick Roads]], overlooked by [[Pendennis Castle]] and [[St Mawes|St Mawes Castle]]
* [[St Anthony Head]]
* [[Zone Point]]
* [[Dodman Point]]
* [[Pentewan]] — silted up dock
* [[Black Head]]
* [[Gribbin Head]]
* Estuary of the [[River Fowey]]
* [[Rame Head]]
* [[Hamoaze]] — the combined estuary of the [[River Tamar]] and other rivers

===South Devon===
* [[Plymouth Sound]] and [[Plymouth Hoe|The Hoe]]
* [[Bolt Tail]]
* [[Salcombe Castle]]
* [[Kingsbridge Estuary]]
* [[Slapton Ley]]
* [[South Devon Railway sea wall]]
* [[Dawlish Warren]] — [[Spit|sand spit]] and estuary of the [[River Exe]]
* [[River Otter]]
* [[Ladram Bay]]
* Jacob's Ladder at [[Sidmouth]]
* [[Beer Caves]]

===Dorset===
* [[Lyme Regis#The Cobb|The Cobb breakwater]] and fossils at [[Lyme Regis]]
* [[Golden Cap]]
* [[Portland Bill]]
* [[Chesil Beach]] and The Fleet — a [[Tombolo|tombolo]] and [[Lagoon|lagoon]]
* [[Isle of Portland]] and [[Portland Harbour]]
* [[Nothe Fort]]
* [[River Wey, Dorset|Wey Estuary]]
* [[Ringstead Bay]]
* [[White Nothe]]
* [[Bat's Head]]
* [[Swyre Head]]
* [[Durdle Door]] — a natural [[Arch|arch]]
* [[Lulworth Cove]]
* [[Tyneham]] — a ghost village
* [[Kimmeridge]] — a [[Wave Cut Platform|wave cut platform]] and rocky shore
* [[St Albans Head]]
* [[Ballard Down]] and [[Old Harry Rocks]]
* [[Durlston Country Park]]
* [[Studland]] Bay, Beach and [[Psammosere|psammosere]]
* [[Poole Harbour]]

==Towns and villages==
In order from Minehead to Poole Harbour

===Somerset and North Devon===
* [[Minehead]]
* [[Porlock]]
* [[Lynmouth]]
* [[Ilfracombe]]
* [[Barnstaple]]
* [[Bideford]]
* [[Westward Ho!]]

===North Cornwall===
* [[Bude]]
* [[Boscastle]]
* [[Port Isaac]]
* [[Polzeath]]
* [[Padstow]]
* [[Newquay]] and [[Fistral Beach]]
* [[Perranporth]]
* [[St Agnes, Cornwall|St Agnes]]
* [[Portreath]]
* [[Hayle]]
* [[St Ives, Cornwall|St Ives]]
* [[St Just in Penwith|St Just]]
* [[Sennen]]

===South Cornwall===
* [[Mousehole]]
* [[Newlyn]]
* [[Penzance]]
* [[Marazion]]
* [[Porthleven]]
* [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]]
* [[St Mawes]]
* [[Mevagissey]]
* [[St Austell]]
* [[Charlestown, Cornwall|Charlestown]]
* [[Par, Cornwall|Par]]
* [[Fowey]]
* [[Polperro]]
* [[Looe]]

===South Devon===
* [[Plymouth]]
* [[Wembury]]
* [[Salcombe]]
* [[Dartmouth, England|Dartmouth]]
* [[Kingswear]]
* [[Brixham]]
* [[Paignton]]
* [[Torquay]]
* [[Teignmouth]]
* [[Dawlish]]
* [[Exmouth, Devon|Exmouth]]
* [[Budleigh Salterton]]
* [[Sidmouth]]
* [[Branscombe]]
* [[Beer, Devon|Beer]]
* [[Seaton, Devon|Seaton]]

===Dorset===
* [[Lyme Regis]]
* [[Charmouth]]
* [[Bridport]]
* [[Abbotsbury]]
* [[Fortuneswell]]
* [[Weymouth, Dorset|Weymouth]]
* [[Osmington Mills]]
* [[Worth Matravers]]
* [[Swanage]]

==Public transport==
Using public transport for at least part of their journey means that walkers can plan walks which start and finish at different places, rather than have to circle back to their start point to collect their cars.

===Railways===
[[:Category:Railway stations on the South West Coast Path|More than twenty railway stations]] give options for both short walks — such as [[Dawlish]] to [[Paignton]] — or for longer walks over several days.

===Bus services===
Most towns and villages along the South West Coast Path have bus services, although some of these may not be very frequent.

Long distance bus services connect some coastal towns with railway stations:
* [[Bude]] to [[Exeter St Davids railway station]]
* [[Ilfracombe]] to [[Taunton railway station]]
* [[Minehead]] to [[Taunton railway station]]
* [[Padstow]] to [[Bodmin Parkway railway station]]
* [[Westward Ho!]] and [[Bideford]] to [[Barnstaple railway station]]

==External links==
*[http://www.southwestcoastpath.com/ Official site]
*[http://www.swcp.org.uk/ South West Coast Path Association, with Photo Tour]
*[http://www.cornwallinfocus.co.uk/ Walk the Cornwall Coast in easy stages]
*[http://www.traildatabase.org/sww/index.html Photos and Information]

[[Category:Geography of Cornwall]]
[[Category:Geography of Devon]]
[[Category:Geography of Dorset]]
[[Category:Geography of Somerset]]
[[Category:Long-distance footpaths in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Somerset]]

South West Coast Path

2006-10-07T22:08:08Z

Seglea: /* South Devon */ - add Salcombe Castle

[[image:swcoastpath.ilfracombe.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The South West Coast Path passes along the cliffs (seen in the distance) at [[Ilfracombe]], [[North Devon]]. The highest point in this view is Hillsborough (447 feet, 136 metres). Part of Ilfracombe is seen on the right.]]
[[Image:The_rumps.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Rumps, on [[Pentire Point]], [[North Cornwall]], site of Iron Age cliff fortifications.]]

At 630 miles (1014 km) long, the '''South West Coast Path''' is Britain's longest [[Long-distance footpaths in the UK|national trail]], running from [[Minehead]] in [[Somerset]], along the coasts of [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]], to [[Poole]] in [[Dorset]]. Since it rises and falls with every river mouth, it is also one of the more challenging.

The path has been a complete National Trail since 1978.

==Special landscapes==
Many of the landscapes which the South West Coast Path crosses have special status, either as a [[National Park]] or one of the [[Heritage Coast|Heritage Coasts]]:
* Somerset & North Devon
** Exmoor Heritage Coast and [[Exmoor National Park]].
** North Devon Heritage Coast
** [[Hartland]] Heritage Coast
* North Cornwall
** [[Pentire Point]] - [[Widemouth]] Heritage Coast
** [[Trevose Head]] Heritage Coast
** [[Godrevy]] - [[Portreath]] Heritage Coast
** [[Penwith]] Heritage Coast
* South Cornwall
** [[The Lizard|Lizard]] Heritage Coast
** [[Roseland]] Heritage Coast
** [[Gribbin Head]] - [[Polperro]] Heritage Coast
** [[Rame Head]] Heritage Coast
* South Devon and Dorset
** South Devon Heritage Coast
** East Devon Heritage Coast
** [[Jurassic Coast|The Jurassic Coast]], a 95 mile (155km) long [[World Heritage Site]]
** Dorset Heritage Coast

==Places of interest==
In order from Minehead to Poole Harbour

===Somerset and North Devon===
* [[Exmoor National Park]]
* [[Woody Bay]]
* [[Hartland Point]]

===North Cornwall===
From Bude to Land's End
* [[Widemouth Bay]]
* [[Crackington Haven]]
* [[Tintagel]] - legendary birth place of [[King Arthur]]
* [[Trevose Head]]
* [[Watergate Bay]]
* [[Pentire Point]]
* [[St Agnes Head]]
* [[Godrevy|Godrevy Island]] and [[Lighthouse|lighthouse]]
* [[Hayle#Hayle today|Hayle Towans]] - extensive sand dunes
* [[Carbis Bay]]
* [[Bottalack Mine]] - disused tin mine
* [[Cape Cornwall]]
* [[Whitesand Bay]]
* [[Land's End]]

===South Cornwall===
* [[Minack Theatre]] - an open air theatre
* [[St Michael's Mount]]
* [[Loe Bar]] and [[Loe Pool]]
* [[Mullion, Cornwall|Mullion Cove]]
* [[Lizard Point, Cornwall|Lizard Point]]
* [[Cadgwith]]
* [[Helford River]]
* [[Gweek]] - seal sanctuary
* [[Carrick Roads]], overlooked by [[Pendennis Castle]] and [[St Mawes|St Mawes Castle]]
* [[St Anthony Head]]
* [[Zone Point]]
* [[Dodman Point]]
* [[Pentewan]] - silted up dock
* [[Black Head]]
* [[Gribbin Head]]
* Estuary of the [[River Fowey]]
* [[Rame Head]]
* [[Hamoaze]] - the combined estuary of the [[River Tamar]] and other rivers

===South Devon===
* [[Plymouth Sound]] and [[Plymouth Hoe|The Hoe]]
* [[Bolt Tail]]
* [[Salcombe Castle]]
* [[Kingsbridge Estuary]]
* [[Slapton Ley]]
* [[South Devon Railway sea wall]]
* [[Dawlish Warren]] - [[Spit|sand spit]] and estuary of the [[River Exe]]
* [[River Otter]]
* [[Ladram Bay]]
* Jacob's Ladder at [[Sidmouth]]
* [[Beer Caves]]

===Dorset===
* [[Lyme Regis#The Cobb|The Cobb breakwater]] and fossils at [[Lyme Regis]]
* [[Golden Cap]]
* [[Portland Bill]]
* [[Chesil Beach]] and The Fleet - a [[Tombolo|tombolo]] and [[Lagoon|lagoon]]
* [[Isle of Portland]] and [[Portland Harbour]]
* [[Nothe Fort]]
* [[River Wey, Dorset|Wey Estuary]]
* [[Ringstead Bay]]
* [[White Nothe]]
* [[Bat's Head]]
* [[Swyre Head]]
* [[Durdle Door]] - a natural [[Arch|arch]]
* [[Lulworth Cove]]
* [[Tyneham]] - a ghost village
* [[Kimmeridge]] - a [[Wave Cut Platform|wave cut platform]] and rocky shore
* [[St Albans Head]]
* [[Ballard Down]] and [[Old Harry Rocks]]
* [[Durlston Country Park]]
* [[Studland]] Bay, Beach and [[Psammosere|psammosere]]
* [[Poole Harbour]]

==Towns and villages==
In order from Minehead to Poole Harbour

===Somerset and North Devon===
* [[Minehead]]
* [[Porlock]]
* [[Lynmouth]]
* [[Ilfracombe]]
* [[Barnstaple]]
* [[Bideford]]
* [[Westward Ho!]]

===North Cornwall===
* [[Bude]]
* [[Boscastle]]
* [[Port Isaac]]
* [[Polzeath]]
* [[Padstow]]
* [[Newquay]] and [[Fistral Beach]]
* [[Perranporth]]
* [[St Agnes, Cornwall|St Agnes]]
* [[Portreath]]
* [[Hayle]]
* [[St Ives, Cornwall|St Ives]]
* [[St Just in Penwith|St Just]]
* [[Sennen]]

===South Cornwall===
* [[Mousehole]]
* [[Newlyn]]
* [[Penzance]]
* [[Marazion]]
* [[Porthleven]]
* [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]]
* [[St Mawes]]
* [[Mevagissey]]
* [[St Austell]]
* [[Charlestown, Cornwall|Charlestown]]
* [[Par, Cornwall|Par]]
* [[Fowey]]
* [[Polperro]]
* [[Looe]]

===South Devon===
* [[Plymouth]]
* [[Wembury]]
* [[Salcombe]]
* [[Dartmouth, England|Dartmouth]]
* [[Kingswear]]
* [[Brixham]]
* [[Paignton]]
* [[Torquay]]
* [[Teignmouth]]
* [[Dawlish]]
* [[Exmouth, Devon|Exmouth]]
* [[Budleigh Salterton]]
* [[Sidmouth]]
* [[Seaton, Devon|Seaton]]

===Dorset===
* [[Lyme Regis]]
* [[Charmouth]]
* [[Bridport]]
* [[Abbotsbury]]
* [[Fortuneswell]]
* [[Weymouth, Dorset|Weymouth]]
* [[Osmington Mills]]
* [[Worth Matravers]]
* [[Swanage]]

==Public transport==
Using public transport for at least part of their journey means that walkers can plan walks which start and finish at different places, rather than have to circle back to their start point to collect their cars.

===Railways===
[[:Category:Railway stations on the South West Coast Path|More than twenty railway stations]] give options for both short walks - such as [[Dawlish]] to [[Paignton]] - or for longer walks over several days.

===Bus services===
Most towns and villages along the South West Coast Path have bus services, although some of these may not be very frequent.

Long distance bus services connect some coastal towns with railway stations:
* [[Bude]] to [[Exeter St Davids railway station]]
* [[Ilfracombe]] to [[Taunton railway station]]
* [[Minehead]] to [[Taunton railway station]]
* [[Padstow]] to [[Bodmin Parkway railway station]]
* [[Westward Ho!]] and [[Bideford]] to [[Barnstaple railway station]]

==External links==
*[http://www.southwestcoastpath.com/ Official site]
*[http://www.swcp.org.uk/ South West Coast Path Association, with Photo Tour]
*[http://www.traildatabase.org/sww/index.html Photos and Information]

[[Category:Geography of Cornwall]]
[[Category:Geography of Devon]]
[[Category:Geography of Dorset]]
[[Category:Geography of Somerset]]
[[Category:Long-distance footpaths in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Somerset]]

Benutzer:Elrond/Britisches Einheitensystem

2006-10-02T22:00:06Z

Seglea: Reverted edits by 84.9.34.119 (talk) to last version by Crissov

:''This article is about post-1824 Imperial units, please see also [[English unit]], [[U.S. customary unit]] or [[Avoirdupois]].''

The '''Imperial units''' or the '''Imperial system''' is a [[system of units|collection]] of [[English unit]]s, first defined in the Weights and Measures Act of 1824, later refined (until 1959) and reduced. The units were introduced in the [[United Kingdom]] and its colonies, including [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries (though most Commonwealth countries are now fully metricated), but excluding the then already independent [[United States]]. Systems of Imperial units are sometimes referred to as '''foot-pound-second''', after the base units of length, mass and time.
[[Image:Weights and Measures office.jpg|thumb|250px|The former Weights and Measures office in [[Middlesex]], [[England]].]]
== Relation to other systems ==
[[Comparison of the Imperial and U.S. customary systems|The distinction]] between this imperial system and the [[U.S. customary unit]]s (also called standard units there) or older British/English units/systems and newer additions is often not drawn precisely. Most length units are shared among the Imperial and U.S. systems, albeit partially and temporally defined slightly differently. Capacity measures differ the most due to the introduction of the Imperial [[gallon]] and the unification of wet and dry measures. The [[avoirdupois]] system only applies to weights; it has a ''long'' flavour and a ''short'' flavour for the hundredweight and ton.

The term ''imperial'' should not be applied to English units that were outlawed in Weights and Measures Act of 1824 or earlier, or which had fallen out of use by that time, nor to post-imperial inventions such as the [[slug (mass)|slug]] or [[poundal]].

Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one area rather than the other.

== Measures of length ==

[[Image:ImperialStandardsOfLength1876TrafalgarSquare Copyright2005KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|Imperial standards of length 1876 in [[Trafalgar Square]], [[London]].]]
After the [[1 July]] [[1959]] deadline, agreed upon in 1958, the U.S. and the British yard were defined identically (0.9144 m) to the ''international yard''. Metric equivalents in this article usually assume this latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the Imperial Standard Yard was 0.914398416 m (Sears et al. 1928. ''Phil Trans A'' 227:281).

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Length 
!  
! inch !! link !! foot !! yard !! pole
! chain !! furlong !! mile !! league
! [[metre]]
|-
! 1 [[inch]]
| '''1''' || {{frac|25|198}} || {{frac|12}} || {{frac|36}} || {{frac|198}}
| {{frac|792}} || {{frac|7,920}} || {{frac|63,360}} || {{frac|190,080}}
| 0.0254
|-
! 1 [[link (unit)|link]]
| {{frac|7|23|25}} || '''1''' || {{frac|33|50}} || {{frac|11|50}} || {{frac|25}}
| {{frac|100}} || {{frac|1,000}} || {{frac|8,000}} || {{frac|24,000}}
| 0.201168
|-
! 1 [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]
| 12 || {{frac|1|17|33}} || '''1''' || {{frac|3}} || {{frac|2|33}}
| {{frac|66}} || {{frac|660}} || {{frac|5,280}} || {{frac|15,840}}
| 0.3048
|-
! 1 [[yard]]
| 36 || {{frac|4|6|11}} || 3 || '''1''' || {{frac|2|11}}
| {{frac|22}} || {{frac|220}} || {{frac|1,760}} || {{frac|5,280}}
| 0.9144
|-
! 1 [[pole (unit of length)|pole]]<ref>The pole is also called rod or perch. The rod is often used as a length of measure incanoeing, due to the fact that the standard canoe is almost exactly 1 rod.</ref>
| 198 || 25 || {{frac|16|1|2}} || {{frac|5|1|2}} || '''1'''
| {{frac|4}} || {{frac|40}} || {{frac|320}} || {{frac|960}}
| 5.0292
|-
! 1 [[chain (unit)|chain]]
| 792 || 100 || 66 || 22 || 4
| '''1''' || {{frac|10}} || {{frac|80}} || {{frac|240}}
| 20.1168
|-
! 1 [[furlong]]
| 7,920 || 1,000 || 660 || 220 || 40
| 10 || '''1''' || {{frac|8}} || {{frac|24}}
| 201.168
|-
! 1 [[mile]]
| 63,360 || 8,000 || 5,280 || 1,760 || 320
| 80 || 8 || '''1''' || {{frac|3}}
| 1,609.344
|-
! 1 [[league (unit)|league]]
| 190,080 || 24,000 || 15,840 || 5,280 || 960
| 240 || 24 || 3 || '''1'''
| 4,828.032
|}

Until the adoption of the international definition of 1852 metres in 1970, the British [[nautical mile]] was defined as 6080 feet (1.85318 km). It was not readily expressible in terms of any of the intermediate units, because it was derived from the circumference of the Earth (like the original [[metre]]). Depth of water at sea was expressed in [[fathom]]s (6 feet = 1.8288 m).

== Measures of area ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Area
!1 ''[[rood]]''
| = 1 furlong × 1 rod || = 40 square rods || = {{frac|2560}} square mile || = 10890 square feet || = 0.10117141056 [[hectare|ha]] || = 1011.7141056 m²
|-
!1 ''[[acre]]''
| = 1 furlong × 1 chain || = 160 square rods || = {{frac|640}} square mile || = 43560 square feet || = 0.40468564224 ha || = 4046.8564224 m²
|}

== Measures of volume ==

In [[1824]], Britain adopted a close approximation to the ale gallon known as the Imperial gallon. The Imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 [[Pound (mass)|lb]] of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 [[inch of mercury|in]] and at a temperature of 62 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]. In 1963, this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 lb of distilled water of density 0.998 859 [[gram|g]]/[[millilitre|ml]] weighed in air of density 0.001 217 g/ml against weights of density 8.136 g/ml. This works out to exactly 4.545 964 591 l, or 277.420 in³. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 finally switched to a gallon of exactly 4.546 09 l (approximately 277.419 43 cu in)<ref>[http://www.sizes.com/units/gallon_imperial.htm Sizes.com]</ref>.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Wet
!  
! ounce !! gill !! pint !! quart !! gallon
! [[litre]]
|-
! 1 [[fluid ounce|(fluid) ounce]]
| '''1''' || {{frac|5}} || {{frac|20}} || {{frac|40}} || {{frac|160}}
| 0.028 413
|-
! 1 [[gill (unit)|gill]]
| 5 || '''1''' || {{frac|4}} || {{frac|8}} || {{frac|32}}
| 0.142 065
|-
! 1 [[pint]]
| 20 || 4 || '''1''' || {{frac|2}} || {{frac|8}}
| 0.568 261
|-
! 1 [[quart]]
| 40 || 8 || 2 || '''1''' || {{frac|4}}
| 1.136 522
|-
! 1 [[gallon]]
| 160 || 32 || 8 || 4 || '''1'''
| 4.546 09
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dry
! 1 [[peck]]
| || || = 2 gal. || = 9.092 18 l
|-
! 1 [[Kenning (disambiguation)|kenning]] or bucket
| || = 2 pecks || = 4 gal. || = 18.184 36 l
|-
! 1 [[bushel]]
| = 2 kennings || = 4 pecks || = 8 gal. || = 36.368 72 l
|-
! 1 [[strike (unit)|strike]]
| || = 2 bushels || = 16 gal. || = 72.737 44 l
|-
! 1 [[quarter (unit)|quarter]] or [[pail]]
| || = 8 bushels || = 64 gal. || = 290.949 76 l
|-
! 1 [[chaldron]]
| = 4 quarters || = 32 bushels || = 256 gal. || = 1163.799 04 l
|-
! 1 [[last (unit)|last]]
| = 10 quarters || = 80 bushels || = 640 gal. || = 2909.497 6 l
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Brewery
! 1 [[firkin]]
| || || = 9 gal. || = 40.914 81 l
|-
! 1 [[kilderkin]]
| || = 2 firkin || = 18 gal. || = 81.829 62 l
|-
! 1 [[barrel (unit)|barrel]]
| = 2 kilderkin || = 4 firkin || = 36 gal. || = 163.659 24 l
|-
! 1 [[hogshead]]
| = 3 kilderkin || = 6 firkin || = 54 gal. || = 245.488 86 l
|}

The full table of ''British apothecaries’ measure'' is:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Apothecaries’ measure
! 1 [[minim (unit)|minim]]
| || || = 0.059 193 880 208¯3 ml
|-
! 1 (fluid) scruple
| || = 20 minims || = 1.183 877 604 1¯6 ml
|-
! 1 [[Dram (volume)|(fluid) dram]] or fluidram
| = 3 scruples || = 60 minims || = 3.551 632 812 5 ml
|-
! 1 fluid ounce
| = 8 drachms || = 480 minims || = 28.413 062 5 ml
|-
! 1 pint
| || = 20 ounces || = 568.261 25 ml
|-
! 1 gallon
| = 8 pints || = 160 ounces || = 4.546 09 l
|}

For a comparison to the U.S. customary system see the article on [[Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems]].

== Measures of weight and mass ==
Britain has made some use of three different weight systems in the 19th and 20th century, [[troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.

The use of the ''[[Pound (mass)|troy pound]]'' (373.241 721 6 g) was abolished in Britain on January 6, 1879, with only the ''troy ounce'' (31.103 476 8 g) and its [[decimal]] subdivisions retained. In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[Pound (mass)|pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Avoirdupois mass
! 1 mite{{cite needed}}
| = 1/20 grain || || = 3.239 945 5 mg
|-
! 1 grain
| || || = 64.798 91 mg
|-
! 1 drachm
| = 1/16 ounce || = 1/256 pound || = 1.771 845 195 312 5 g
|-
! 1 ounce
| || = 1/16 pound || = 28.349 523 125 g
|-
! 1 pound
| = 7000 grains || || = 453.592 37 g
|-
! 1 stone
| || = 14 pounds || = 6.350 293 18 kg
|-
! 1 quarter
| = 2 stone || = 28 pounds || = 12.700 586 36 kg
|-
! 1 hundredweight
| = 4 quarters || = 112 pounds || = 50.802 345 44 kg
|-
! 1 ton
| = 20 hundredweight|| = 2240 pounds || = 1016.046 908 8 kg
|}

Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (the [[long ton]]), which is very close to a metric [[tonne]], whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds (907.184 74 kg), both are 20 hundredweights.
{{see|Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems}}

== Current use of Imperial units ==

In the United States and in a few [[Caribbean]] countries, the [[U.S. customary units]], which are similar to Imperial units based upon older [[English unit]]s and in part share definitions, are still in common use. English units have been replaced elsewhere by the [[SI]] (metric) system. Most Commonwealth countries have switched entirely to the international system of units.

=== United Kingdom ===
{{main|Metrication in the United Kingdom}}

British law now defines each Imperial unit entirely in terms of the metric equivalent.

The [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm Units of Measurement Regulations 1995] require that all measuring devices used in trade or retail be capable of measuring and displaying metric quantities. This has now been proved in court against the so called '[[Metric Martyrs]]', a small group of market traders who insisted on trading ''only'' in Imperial units. Contrary to the impression given by some press reports, these regulations have never placed any obstacle in the way of using Imperial units alongside metric units. Almost all traders in the UK will accept requests from customers specified in Imperial units, and scales which display in both unit systems are commonplace in retail trade.

The United Kingdom completed its legal transition to SI units in 1995, but a few such units are still in official use: draught beer ''must'' still be sold in [[pint]]s, most roadsign distances are still in yards and miles, and speed limits are in [[miles per hour]], therefore interfaces in cars ''must'' be capable of displaying miles per hour, and even though the [[troy weight|troy pound]] was outlawed in Great Britain in the Weights and Measures Act of 1878, the ''troy ounce'' still ''may'' be used for the weight of precious stones and metals. The Railways are also a big user of metric units, with distances officially measured in miles and yards or miles and chains, and also feet and inches, and speeds are in miles per hour, although many modern metro and tram systems are entirely metric, and London Underground uses both Metric (for distances) and Imperial (for speeds). Metric is also used for the Channel Tunnel, and also the Channel Tunnel Rail link high speed line, and around Ashford International Station and Dollands Moor International Freight Terminal, speeds are givern in both Metric and Imperial units.

The use of SI units is mandated by law for the retail sale of food and other commodities, but most British people still use Imperial units in colloquial discussion of distance (miles) and speed (miles per hour). Milk can still be purchased in containers of 1 pint, 2 pints and further multiples, but is also available in litres depending on from whom it is purchased. Many people still measure their weight in stone and pounds, and height in feet and inches- but these must be converted to metric if recorded officially, for example by the Police. For example [[petrol]] is often quoted as being so much per gallon despite having been sold exclusively in litres for two decades, and Fahrenheit equivalents are often given after the Celsius in weather forecasts.

=== Canada ===
{{main|Metrication in Canada}}

In Canada, the government's efforts to implement the metric system were more extensive: almost any agency, institution, or function provided by the government will use SI units exclusively. On [[January 1]] [[1983]], the metric systems and SI units were introduced. Imperial units were eliminated from all road signs, although both systems of measurement will still be found on privately-owned signs (such as the height warnings at the entrance of a multi-story parking facility). Temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit will occasionally be heard on English Canadian commercial radio stations, but only those that cater to older listeners. The law requires that measured products (such as fuel and meat) be priced in metric units, although there is leniency in regards to fruits and vegetables. Traditional units persist in ordinary conversation and may be experiencing a resurgence due to the reduction in trade barriers with the United States. Few Canadians would use SI units to describe their weight and height, although driver's licences use SI units. In livestock auction markets, cattle are sold in dollars per [[hundredweight]] (short), whereas hogs are sold in dollars per hundred kilograms. Land is surveyed and registered in metric units, but imperial units still dominate in construction, house renovation and gardening talk.

One area where Imperial units are still in common use is in firearms and ammunition. For example, Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even where the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g. .204 Ruger, .17 HMR, where the caliber is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). However ammunition which is classifed in metric already is still kept metric (e.g. 9 mm, 7.62 mm). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are still expressed in terms of Imperial grains.

== See also ==
* [[Conversion of units]]
* [[Cooking weights and measures]]
* [[Metrication]]
* [[Metric system]]
* [[Metrified English unit]]
* [[Unit of measurement]]
* [[Systems of measurement]]
* [[History of measurement]]
* [[Board foot]]
* [[Cord (unit of volume)]]

== References ==
* Appendices B and C of [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h442003.htm NIST Handbook 44]
* Barry N. Taylor's [http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/ NIST Special Publication 811], also available as [http://physics.nist.gov/Document/sp811.pdf a PDF file]
* 6 George IV chapter 12, 1825 (statute)

== External links ==
* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/w-6/109089.html Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72]
* [http://www.bwmaonline.com/ British Weights And Measures Association]
* Jacques J. Proot's [http://users.aol.com/jackproot/met/spvolas.html Anglo-Saxon weights & measures] page.

[[Category:Customary units of measure]]
[[Category:Imperial units|*]]
[[Category:Systems of units]]

[[ast:Sistema Anglosaxón d'Unidaes]]
[[bg:Имперска единица]]
[[de:Angloamerikanisches Maßsystem]]
[[es:Sistema Anglosajón de Unidades]]
[[fr:Unité de mesure anglo-saxonne]]
[[it:Sistema imperiale britannico]]
[[ms:Sistem Imperial]]
[[nl:Imperiale Systeem]]
[[ja:ヤード・ポンド法]]
[[pl:Anglosaski układ jednostek miar]]
[[ru:Английская система мер]]
[[zh:英制]]

Rougemont Castle

2006-08-02T01:31:13Z

Seglea: more information, gathered from city council planning documents

[[Image:Rougemontcastle.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Ruined gatehouse of Rougemont Castle, with intact buildings visible behind]]
'''Rougemont Castle''' is the historic [[castle]] of [[Exeter]].

The castle was first built in 1068 to help [[William the Conqueror]] maintain control over the city. It is perched on an ancient volcanic hill, overlaying remains of the [[Roman]] city of Isca Dumnomiorum. The castle is named after the red stone found in the hill, and used in the construction of the original buildings, of which only ruins remain.

Until 2003 the intact [[Georgian]] buildings of the castle remained the seat of royal power in the county and served as home to Exeter's Crown and County Courts. As a result the castle has been one of the least known and accessible parts of the city, and few local residents have set foot beyond its gates; it has never been accessible to tourists.

Following the failure of a scheme for the Exeter City Council to purchase them, the buildings are now for sale by the [[Department of Constitutional Affairs]], with bids rumoured to be in the area of £1.5m. The building is subject to a high degree of legal protection as a [[Scheduled Monument]], and its main structures are all either Grade I or Grade II* [[listed buildings]]. As the relevant [[town planning|planning]] authority, the city council remains concerned about the future of the castle. It has stated its view that whatever its future use, the castle should be opened up to reasonable public access and integrated into the cultural quarter of the city as a key element, the historic importance and quality of the site and buildings should be respected, and at least the impressive courtyard of the castle should be available for public events even if the buildings are purchased for commercial use, for example as a hotel.

==External links==

* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/devon/4414912.stm "Historic castle goes up for sale"]. (7 November 2005). ''BBC News''
*{{gbmapping|SX921929}}

{{England-castle-stub}}

[[Category:Castles in England]]
[[Category:Exeter]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Devon]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Devon]]

Rougemont Castle

2006-08-02T01:13:32Z

Seglea: intact buildings are georgian

Rougemont Castle

2006-08-02T01:11:07Z

Seglea: add image, correct some details

River Teign

2006-08-02T00:15:48Z

Seglea: linkfixes

[[Image:TeignNewtonAbbot.JPG|thumb|near Newton Abbot, view direction of Haytor]]
The '''River Teign''' is a river in the [[county]] of [[Devon]], [[England]].

Like many Devon rivers, the Teign [[source (river)|rises]] on [[Dartmoor]], near [[Cranmere Pool]]. Its course on the moor is crossed by a [[clapper bridge]] near [[Teigncombe]], just below the prehistoric [[Kestor]] Settlement. It leaves the moor at its eastern side, flowing beneath [[Castle Drogo]] in a steep-sided valley. It then flows southwards at the east edge of the moor. The river becomes tidal at [[Newton Abbot]], and reaches the [[English Channel]] at [[Teignmouth]]. Its [[estuary]] is a large [[ria]].

The river lends its name to several places on the map in its thirty miles to the English Channel: Teigncombe, [[Drewsteignton]], [[Teigngrace]], [[Kingsteignton]], [[Bishopsteignton]], and finally Teignmouth.

==See also==

*[[Rivers of the United Kingdom]]

{{Devon-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Rivers in Devon|Teign, River]]

[[la:Tinea]]

Cranmore Castle

2006-06-19T17:18:33Z

Seglea: skip disambig

'''Cranmore Castle''' is an [[Iron Age]] [[earthworks|earthwork]] situated on a hillside above the [[Devon]] Town of [[Tiverton]], in south-west [[England]]. Its [[British national grid reference system|National Grid]] reference is SS958118. The earthwork is widely described in Guidebooks and Histories as an [[Iron Age]] [[hill fort]], though more recent [[archaeology|archaeological]] evaluations and Histories such as Mike Sampson's recently published work point out that it is rather inefficient as a fortification, since it is overlooked from the South, by the edge of Newtes Hill.

The Hillside that Cranmore Castle stands upon is called 'Skrink Hills' or 'Shrink Hills' in various earlier Histories of the area. The promontory of land that links Cranmore to the edge of Newtes Hill is traversed by the old Exeter Road, which travels past the earthwork on its way from Tiverton to [[Exeter]].

Current theories about the nature of the earthwork suggest that it might have been a winter enclosure for livestock or a market site, though the earthworks are very substantial for such applications.

[[Category:Hill forts in England]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Devon]]

{{fort-stub}}

==External links==
*[http://www.streetmap.co.uk/newmap.srf?x=296355&y=112180&z=3&sv=296355,112180&st=4&ar=Y&mapp=newmap.srf&searchp=newsearch.srf map showing Cranmore Castle] from www.streetmap.co.uk

Cranmore Castle

2006-06-19T17:15:10Z

Seglea: linkfix

'''Cranmore Castle''' is an [[Iron Age]] [[earthworks|earthwork]] situated on a hillside above the [[Devon]] Town of [[Tiverton]], in south-west [[England]]. Its [[National Grid]] reference is SS958118. The earthwork is widely described in Guidebooks and Histories as an [[Iron Age]] [[hill fort]], though more recent [[archaeology|archaeological]] evaluations and Histories such as Mike Sampson's recently published work point out that it is rather inefficient as a fortification, since it is overlooked from the South, by the edge of Newtes Hill.

The Hillside that Cranmore Castle stands upon is called 'Skrink Hills' or 'Shrink Hills' in various earlier Histories of the area. The promontory of land that links Cranmore to the edge of Newtes Hill is traversed by the old Exeter Road, which travels past the earthwork on its way from Tiverton to [[Exeter]].

Current theories about the nature of the earthwork suggest that it might have been a winter enclosure for livestock or a market site, though the earthworks are very substantial for such applications.

[[Category:Hill forts in England]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Devon]]

{{fort-stub}}

==External links==
*[http://www.streetmap.co.uk/newmap.srf?x=296355&y=112180&z=3&sv=296355,112180&st=4&ar=Y&mapp=newmap.srf&searchp=newsearch.srf map showing Cranmore Castle] from www.streetmap.co.uk

Cranmore Castle

2006-06-19T17:13:05Z

Seglea: links, correcting spelling, adding grid reference and map link

'''Cranmore Castle''' is an [[Iron Age]] [[earthworks|earthwork]] situated on a hillside above the [[Devon]] Town of [[Tiverton]], in south-west [[England]]. Its [[National Grid]] reference is SS958118. The earthwork is widely described in Guidebooks and Histories as an [[Iron Age Hillfort]] though more recent [[archaeology|Archaeological]] evaluations and Histories such as Mike Sampson's recently published work point out that it is rather inefficient as a fortification, since it is overlooked from the South, by the edge of Newtes Hill.

The Hillside that Cranmore Castle stands upon is called 'Skrink Hills' or 'Shrink Hills' in various earlier Histories of the area. The promontory of land that links Cranmore to the edge of Newtes Hill is traversed by the old Exeter Road, which travels past the earthwork on its way from Tiverton to [[Exeter]].

Current theories about the nature of the earthwork suggest that it might have been a winter enclosure for livestock or a market site, though the earthworks are very substantial for such applications.

[[Category:Hill forts in England]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Devon]]

{{fort-stub}}

==External links==
*[http://www.streetmap.co.uk/newmap.srf?x=296355&y=112180&z=3&sv=296355,112180&st=4&ar=Y&mapp=newmap.srf&searchp=newsearch.srf map showing Cranmore Castle] from www.streetmap.co.uk

William Henry Fitton

2005-06-18T20:48:16Z

Seglea: reconciling with thaumatrope page

'''William Henry Fitton''' (January [[1780]] - [[May 13]], [[1861]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[geology|geologist]]

Fitton was born in [[Dublin]] and educated at [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] in that city. He gained the senior scholarship in 1798, and graduated in the following year. At this time he began to take interest in geology and to form a collection of [[fossils]]. Having adopted the medical profession he proceeded in 1808 to [[Edinburgh]], where he attended the lectures of Robert Jameson, and thenceforth his interest in natural history and especially in geology steadily increased. He moved to [[London]] in 1809, where he studied medicine and chemistry. In [[1811]] he presented to the [[Geological Society of London]] a description of the geological structure of the vicinity of Dublin, with an account of some rare minerals found in [[Ireland]]. He took a medical practice at [[Northampton]] in 1812, and for some years the duties of his profession engrossed his time. He was admitted M.D. at [[Cambridge]] in 1816.

In [[1820]], having married a lady of means, Fitton settled in London, and devoted himself to geology. His ''Observations on some of the Strata between the Chalk and the Oxford Oolite, in the South-east of England'' (Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. iv.) embodied a series of researches extending from [[1824]] to [[1836]], and form the memoir known as ''Fitton's Strata below the Chalk''. In this work he established the true succession and relations of the Upper and Lower Greensand, and of the Wealden and Purbeck formations, and elaborated their detailed structure. He had been elected fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in 1815, and he was president of the Geological Society of London 1827-1829. His house then became a meeting place for scientific workers, and during his presidency he held a conversazione open on Sunday evenings to all fellows of the Geological Society. From 1817 to 1841 he contributed to the Edinburgh Review many essays on the progress of geological science; he also wrote ''Notes on the Progress of Geology in England'' for the Philosophical Magazine (1832-1833). His only independent publication, was ''A Geological Sketch of the Vicinity of [[Hastings]]'' (1833). He was awarded the [[Wollaston Medal]] by the Geological Society in 1852. Around 1825, according to [[Charles Babbage]]'s autobiography, he invented the [[thaumatrope]], which was later commercially publicised by Dr [[John Ayrton Paris]] (to whom the invention is more usually attributed). He died in London.

{{1911}}

[[Category:1780 births|Fitton, William Henry]]
[[Category:1861 deaths|Fitton, William Henry]]
[[Category:British geologists|Fitton, William Henry]]
[[Category:Irish geologists|Fitton, William Henry]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Fitton, William Henry]]

[[fr:William Henry Fitton]]

Toxicodendron

2004-08-11T16:22:00Z

Seglea: link to candlenut

<table border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpadding="2" width=200>
<tr><th bgcolor=lightgreen>''Toxicodendron''</th></tr>

<tr><th bgcolor=lightgreen>{{Taxonomy}}</th></tr>
<tr><td>
<table align="center">
<tr><td>{{regnum}}:</td><td>[[Plant]]ae</td></tr>
<tr><td>{{Divisio}}:</td><td>[[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>{{Classis}}:</td><td>[[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>{{Ordo}}:</td><td>[[Sapindales]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>{{Familia}}:</td><td>[[Anacardiaceae]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>{{Genus}}:</td><td>'''''Toxicodendron'''''</td></tr>
</table>
<tr><th bgcolor="lightgreen">[[Species]]</th></tr>
<tr><td>see text</td></tr>
</table>

'''''Toxicodendron''''' is a small genus of woody shrubs and vines, all of which produce a skin-irritating oil, [[urushiol]], which can cause a severe allergic reaction; hence the scientific name which means "poison tree".

Members of this genus are very often included in the genus ''[[Rhus]]''. As genetic studies show that ''Rhus'' without ''Toxicodendron'' included is polyphyletic, this is the better treatment to follow botanically, but there is some practical convenience in having the highly allergenic species listed separately.

They have pinnately compound, alternate leaves and whitish or grayish drupes. The best known member is [[Poison ivy]], ''Toxicodendron radicans'', which is practically ubiquitous throughout eastern [[North America]].

The plants are quite variable in appearance. Leaves may have smooth, toothed or lobed edges, and all three types of leaves may be present in a single plant. Plants grow as creeping vines, climbing vines, or shrubs or, in the case of Poison sumac, as trees. While leaves of Poison ivy and Poison oak usually have three leaflets, sometimes there are five or, occasionally, even seven leaflets. Leaves of Poison sumac have seven to thirteen leaflets, and of Lacquer tree, 7-19 leaflets.

While the triple leaf pattern is the best known method of identification of the genus, Poison sumac is an exception, and there are other plants with a similar triple leaf pattern.

The common names are somewhat misleading. Technically, the plants don't contain a [[poison]]; they contain a potent [[allergen]]. Poison oak is not an [[oak]] at all, although leaves in some plants bear a striking resemblance to oak leaves. They are also not [[Ivy|ivies]] (''Hedera'', family [[Araliaceae]]) or [[oak]]s (''Quercus'', family [[Fagaceae]]) at all, but members of the [[sumac]] family, [[Anacardiaceae]].

==Species of ''Toxicodendron''==

*Western [[poison oak]] (''Toxicodendron diversilobum'' or ''Rhus diversiloba'') is found only on the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada. It is extremely common in that region, where it is the predominant species of the genus.
*Asian [[poison ivy]] (''Toxicodendron orientale'' or ''Rhus orientale'') is very similar to the American poison ivy, and replaces it throughout east Asia (so similar that some texts treat it as just a variety of the American species).
*Potanin's lacquer tree (''Toxicodendron potaninii'' or ''Rhus potaninii'') from central China, is similar to ''T. verniciflua'' but with (usually) fewer leaflets per leaf.
*Climbing [[poison ivy]] (''Toxicodendron radicans'' or ''Rhus radicans'') is extremely common in much of North America. In the United States it grows in all states except Alaska and Hawaii. It also grows in Central America.
*Non-climbing [[poison ivy]] (''Toxicodendron rydbergii'' or ''Rhus rydbergii'') is found in western United States and Canada, and in northern parts of eastern United States.
*The Wax tree (''Toxicodendron succedaneum'' or ''Rhus succedanea'') is a native of Asia, although it is planted elsewhere, most notably Australia and New Zealand.
*Eastern poison oak (''Toxicodendron toxicarium'' or ''Rhus toxicodendron'') grows mostly in sandy soils in eastern parts of the United States.
*The Lacquer tree or Varnish tree (''Toxicodendron vernicifluum'' or ''Rhus verniciflua'') grows in Asia, especially China and Japan.
*Poison sumac (''Toxicodendron vernix'' or ''Rhus vernix'') grows exclusively in very wet or flooded soils, usually in swamps and peat bogs in eastern United States and Canada.

'''Western poison oak''' (''Toxicodendron diversilobum'' or ''Rhus diversiloba'') is extremely variable. It grows as a dense shrub in open sunlight, or as a climbing vine in shaded areas. Like poison ivy, it reproduces by creeping rootstocks or by seeds. The leaves are divided into 3 leaflets, 3½ to 10 centimeters long, with scalloped, toothed, or lobed edges. Western Poison Oak is found only on the Pacific Coast, where it is common, and ranges from Southern [[Canada]] to [[Baja California]]. It is California's most prevalent woody shrub.

'''Climbing [[poison ivy]]''' (''Toxicodendron radicans'' or ''Rhus radicans'') grows throughout the United States as a creeping vine, a climbing vine, or a shrub. It reproduces both by creeping rootstocks and by seeds. The appearance varies. Leaves, arranged in an alternate pattern, usually in groups of three, are from 2 to 5 centimeters long, pointed at the tip, and may be toothed, smooth, or lobed, but never serrated. Leaves may be shiny or dull, and the color varies with the season. Vines grow almost straight up rather than wrapping around their support, and can grow to 20 feet in height. In some cases, climbing poison ivy may entirely engulf the supporting structure, and vines may extend outward like limbs, so that it appears to be a poison ivy tree.

'''Non-climbing [[poison ivy]]''' (''Toxicodendron rydbergii'' or ''Rhus rydbergii'') may grow as a vine or a shrub. It was once considered a sub-species of climbing poison ivy. It does sometimes hybridize with the climbing species. Non-climbing poison ivy is found in much of western and central United States and Canada, although not on the West Coast. In the eastern United States it is rarely found south of New England.

The '''Wax tree''' (''Toxicodendron succedaneum'' or ''Rhus succedanea'') is a large shrub or tree up to 8 m tall, somewhat similar to a Sumac tree. It is native to Asia. Because of its beautiful autumn foliage, the Rhus tree has been planted outside of Asia as an ornamental, by gardeners who were apparently unaware of the dangers of allergic reactions. Particularly in Australia and New Zealand, where it was once an ornamental, it is now officially classified as a noxious weed.

'''Eastern poison oak''' (''Toxicodendron toxicarium'' or ''Rhus toxicodendron'') grows as a shrub. Its leaves are in groups of three. Leaves are typically rounded or lobed, and are densly haired. Poison ivy shrubs are sometimes mistaken for, or simply called, poison oak. (Poison oak has small clumps of hair on the veins on the underside of the leaves, while poison ivy does not.)

The '''Lacquer tree''' or '''Varnish tree''' (''Toxicodendron vernicifluum'' or ''Rhus verniciflua'') is a small Asiatic tree, the sap of which produces an extremely durable [[lacquer]]. Leaves are in groups of 9 to 19 leaflets (usually 11). The sap contains the allergenic oil, urushiol. Urushiol gets its name from this species which, in Japan, has been called the ''Urushi tree''. Other names for this species include ''Japanese lacquer tree'', ''Chinese lacquer tree'', ''Chinese varnish tree'', ''Japanese varnish tree'' and ''Japanese sumac''. (Note: the term ''varnish tree'' is also applied to the [[candlenut]] tree, ''Aleurites moluccana'', a southeast Asian tree that is not a Toxicodendron)

'''Poison sumac''' (''Toxicodendron vernix'' or ''Rhus vernix'') is a tall shrub or a small tree, from 5 to 25 feet tall. It grows in wet soils such as in bogs, swamps, and flooded areas. It reproduces by seeds. Between 7 and 13 leaves on alternate sides of the vine form clusters that, in many cases, resemble a feather.
The tree is found in parts of eastern North America, especially in the coastal plains and the Great Lakes region.

:''See also'' [[poison ivy]], [[poison ivy rash]]

==External links==
*[http://www.pentrace.com/east/wajima/urushi.html http://www.pentrace.com/east/wajima/urushi.html] - an article about Urushi lacquer made from the sap of the Urushi tree of Japan.

Benutzer:Elrond/Britisches Einheitensystem

2004-06-14T19:04:16Z

Seglea: sentence tidying

The '''Imperial units''' are an irregularly standardized [[system of units]] that have been used in the [[United Kingdom]] and its former colonies, including the [[The Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] countries. The Imperial system is also called the '''English system''' or the '''British system'''.

==Current use of Imperial units==
Today the Imperial units are widely used only in the [[United States]], under the name of the [[U.S. customary units]] (and in some cases with different definitions, discussed below). They have been replaced elsewhere by the [[SI]] (metric) system. Most Commonwealth countries have switched entirely to the [[SI]] system of units. The United Kingdom completed its legal transition to SI units in [[1995]], but a few such units are still in official use: for example, milk and beer may still be sold in pints, and most roadsigns are still in yards and miles. The use of metric (SI) units is increasingly mandated by law for the retail sale of food and other commodities, but most British people still use Imperial units in colloquial discussion of distance (miles and yards), speed (miles per hour), weight (stones and pounds) and height (feet and inches).

==Relation to other systems==
Most Imperial units had the same names as to the units that are still predominantly used in the [[United States]] (see [[U.S. customary units]]). Unfortunately, the detailed definitions differed, and in some cases the differences are substantial.
A further difference between the systems in use in the two countries is that in [[cooking weights and measures]], much more use is made of volume measures (cups and spoons) in the US, whereas in the UK quantities of dry ingredients are usually specified by weight; cup and spoon measurements are sometimes given, but these are not the same as the US standard cups and spoons, and in traditional recipes probably just reflect a favourite cup that the cook had to hand.
In addition, although most of the units were defined in both systems, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one system rather than the other.

== Measures of length ==
After [[1959]], the U.S. and the British [[inch]] were defined identically (25.4 mm) for scientific work and were identical in commercial usage (however, the U.S. retained the slightly different ''survey inch'' for specialized [[surveying]] purposes). The main parts of the tables of length, such as 12 inches = 1 foot, 3 feet = 1 yard, and 1760 yards = 1 international [[mile]], were the same in both countries, though some of the intermediate units such as the [[chain]] (22 yards) and the [[furlong]] (220 yards) were more used in Britain and the Commonwealth than in the U.S.

The full table is as follows:<br>
Three barleycorns = one [[inch]]<br>
Twelve inches = one [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]<br>
Three feet = one [[yard]]<br>
Five and a half yards = one rod, [[pole (unit of length)|pole]] or perch<br>
Four poles = one [[chain (length)|chain]]<br>
Ten chains = one [[furlong]]<br>
Eight furlongs = one [[mile]]

However, the [[Nautical mile]] equalled 6080 feet, not readily expressible in terms of any of the intermediate units (because it was defined in terms of the circumference of the earth). Depth of water at sea was expressed in [[fathom]]s (6 feet).

== Measures of volume==
The present British gallon (4.55 l) and bushel (36.4 l)--known as the "Imperial gallon" and "Imperial bushel"--are, respectively, about 20 percent and 3 percent larger than the United States fluid gallon (3.79 l) and bushel (35.2 l). The Imperial gallon was defined as the volume of 10 avoirdupois pounds of water under specified conditions, and the Imperial bushel was defined as 8 Imperial gallons.
Also, the subdivision of the Imperial gallon as presented in the table of British apothecaries' fluid measure differed in two important respects from the corresponding United States subdivision, in that the Imperial gallon was divided into 160 fluid ounces (whereas the United States gallon is divided into 128 fluid ounces), and a "fluid scruple" is included.

The full table of British measures of capacity (which are used alike for liquid and for dry commodities) is as follows (metric measures rounded to three digits):
*1 ''fluid ounce'' = 28.4 ml
*1 ''gill'' = 5 fluid ounces = 142 ml
*1 ''pint'' = 4 gills = 568 ml
*1 ''quart'' = 2 pints = 1.14 l
*1 ''gallon'' = 4 quarts = 4.55 l
*1 ''peck'' = 2 gallons = 9.09 l
*1 ''kenning'' = 2 pecks = 18.2 l
*1 ''bushel'' = 8 gallons (4 pecks or 2 kennings) = 36.4 l
*1 ''quarter'' = 8 bushels = 2.91 hl

The full table of British apothecaries' measure is as follows:
*1 ''minim''
*1 ''fluid scruple'' = 20 minims
*1 ''fluid dram'' or ''drachm'' = 3 fluid scruples = 60 minims
*1 ''fluid ounce'' = 8 fluid drachms
*1 ''pint'' = 20 fluid ounces
*1 ''gallon'' = 8 pints = 160 fluid ounces

The origins of these differences lie in the variety of systems that were in use in Britain at the time of the establishment of the first colonies in North America. The American colonists adopted the English wine gallon of 231 cubic inches, and used it for all fluid purposes. The English of that period used this wine gallon, but they also had another gallon, the ale gallon of 282 cubic inches. In 1824, the British abandoned these two gallons when they adopted the British Imperial gallon, which they defined as the volume of 10 pounds of water, at a temperature of 62 °F, which, by calculation, is equivalent to about 277.42 cubic inches (4,546 cm³) - much closer to the ale gallon than the wine gallon. At the same time, they redefined the bushel as 8 gallons.

As noted above, in the customary British system the units of dry measure are the same as those of liquid measure. In the United States these two are not the same, the gallon and its subdivisions are used in the measurement of liquids; the bushel, with its subdivisions, is used in the measurement of certain dry commodities. The U.S. gallon (3.79 l) is divided into four liquid [[quart]]s (946 ml each) and the U.S. bushel (4.40 l) into 32 dry quarts or pecks (8.81 l each). All the units of capacity or volume mentioned thus far are larger in the customary British system than in the U.S. system. But the British fluid ounce is smaller than the U.S. fluid ounce, because the British quart is divided into 40 fluid ounces whereas the U.S. quart is divided into 32 fluid ounces.

From this we see that in the customary British system an avoirdupois ounce of water at 62 °F has a volume of one fluid ounce, because 10 pounds is equivalent to 160 avoirdupois ounces, and 1 gallon is equivalent to 4 quarts, or 160 fluid ounces. This convenient relation does not exist in the U.S. system because a U.S. gallon of water at 62 °F weighs about 8 1/3 pounds, or 133 1/3 avoirdupois ounces, and the U.S. gallon is equivalent to 4 × 32, or 128 fluid ounces.

* 1 U.S. fluid ounce = 1.041 British fluid ounces = 29.6 ml
* 1 British fluid ounce = 0.961 U.S. fluid ounce = 28.4 ml
* 1 U.S. gallon = 0.833 British Imperial gallon = 3.79 l
* 1 British Imperial gallon = 1.201 U.S. gallons = 4.55 l

In the apothecary system of liquid measure the British add a unit, the fluid scruple, equal to one third of a fluid drachm (spelled dram in the United States) between their minim and their fluid drachm.

==Measures of weight and mass==
A discussion of differences between countries is complicated by the fact that both Britain and the U.S. have made some use of three different weight systems, [[Troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[Avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.

Among other differences between the customary British and the United States measurement systems, we should note that the use of the ''troy pound'' (373 g) was abolished in Britain on January 6, [[1879]], with only the ''troy ounce'' (31.1 g) and its subdivisions retained, whereas the troy pound (of 12 troy ounces) is still legal in the United States, although it is not now greatly used. Another important difference is the universal use in Britain, for body weight, of the [[stone (weight)|stone]] of 14 pounds (6.35 kg), this being a unit now unused in the United States, although its influence was shown in the practice until World War II of selling flour by the barrel of 196 pounds (14 stone).

In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it. The Avoirdupois pound, the Troy pound, and the apothecaries' pound are identical in Britain and the United States. The tables of British troy mass, and apothecaries' mass are the same as the corresponding United States tables, except for the British spelling "drachm" in the table of apothecaries' mass. The table of British Avoirdupois mass is the same as the United States table up to 1 pound, above that point the table differs:
*1 grain = 64.8 mg
*1 drachm = 1?16 ounce = 1.77 g
*1 ounce = 1?16 pound = 28.3 g
*1 pound = 7000 grains = 454 g
*1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kg
*1 quarter = 2 stones = 28 pounds = 12.7 kg
*1 hundredweight = 4 quarters = 112 pounds = 50.8 kg
*1 ton = 20 hundredweight = 2240 pounds = 1016 kg
Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (known in the US as a "long ton"), which is very close to a metric tonne, whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds (907 kg).

British law now defines each Imperial unit entirely in terms of the metric equivalent. See the 'Units of Measurement Regulations 1995'
[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm]. It follows that their usage in retail and trading is effectively outlawed. This has now been proved by in court against the so called 'Metric Martyrs', a small group of market traders. Despite this, many small market traders still use the customary measures, citing customer preference especially among the older population.

==References==
*Appendices B and C of [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h442003.htm NIST Handbook 44]

== Other external links ==
*[http://www.bwmaonline.com/ British Weights And Measures Association]
*[http://www.metric4us.com Metric4us.com]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-6/101836.html Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72]
*[http://193.120.124.98/gen531996a.html Ireland - Metrology Act 1996]
*[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm UK - Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[de:Angloamerikanisches Maßsystem]]
[[zh:英制]]

Benutzer:Elrond/Britisches Einheitensystem

2004-06-14T19:03:03Z

Seglea: tweaks to first paras to eliminate repetition

The '''Imperial units''' are an irregularly standardized [[system of units]] that have been used in the [[United Kingdom]] and its former colonies, including the [[The Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] countries. The Imperial system is also called the '''English system''' or the '''British system'''.

==Current use of Imperial units==
Today the Imperial units are widely used only in the [[United States]], under the name of the [[U.S. customary units]] (and in some cases with different definitions, discussed below). They have been replaced elsewhere by the [[SI]] (metric) system. The Commonwealth countries have since mostly switched entirely to the [[SI]] system of units. The United Kingdom completed its legal transition to SI units in [[1995]], but a few such units are still in official use: for example, milk and beer may still be sold in pints, and most roadsigns are still in yards and miles. The use of metric (SI) units is increasingly mandated by law for the retail sale of food and other commodities, but most British people still use Imperial units in colloquial discussion of distance (miles and yards), speed (miles per hour), weight (stones and pounds) and height (feet and inches).

==Relation to other systems==
Most Imperial units had the same names as to the units that are still predominantly used in the [[United States]] (see [[U.S. customary units]]). Unfortunately, the detailed definitions differed, and in some cases the differences are substantial.
A further difference between the systems in use in the two countries is that in [[cooking weights and measures]], much more use is made of volume measures (cups and spoons) in the US, whereas in the UK quantities of dry ingredients are usually specified by weight; cup and spoon measurements are sometimes given, but these are not the same as the US standard cups and spoons, and in traditional recipes probably just reflect a favourite cup that the cook had to hand.
In addition, although most of the units were defined in both systems, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one system rather than the other.

== Measures of length ==
After [[1959]], the U.S. and the British [[inch]] were defined identically (25.4 mm) for scientific work and were identical in commercial usage (however, the U.S. retained the slightly different ''survey inch'' for specialized [[surveying]] purposes). The main parts of the tables of length, such as 12 inches = 1 foot, 3 feet = 1 yard, and 1760 yards = 1 international [[mile]], were the same in both countries, though some of the intermediate units such as the [[chain]] (22 yards) and the [[furlong]] (220 yards) were more used in Britain and the Commonwealth than in the U.S.

The full table is as follows:<br>
Three barleycorns = one [[inch]]<br>
Twelve inches = one [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]<br>
Three feet = one [[yard]]<br>
Five and a half yards = one rod, [[pole (unit of length)|pole]] or perch<br>
Four poles = one [[chain (length)|chain]]<br>
Ten chains = one [[furlong]]<br>
Eight furlongs = one [[mile]]

However, the [[Nautical mile]] equalled 6080 feet, not readily expressible in terms of any of the intermediate units (because it was defined in terms of the circumference of the earth). Depth of water at sea was expressed in [[fathom]]s (6 feet).

== Measures of volume==
The present British gallon (4.55 l) and bushel (36.4 l)--known as the "Imperial gallon" and "Imperial bushel"--are, respectively, about 20 percent and 3 percent larger than the United States fluid gallon (3.79 l) and bushel (35.2 l). The Imperial gallon was defined as the volume of 10 avoirdupois pounds of water under specified conditions, and the Imperial bushel was defined as 8 Imperial gallons.
Also, the subdivision of the Imperial gallon as presented in the table of British apothecaries' fluid measure differed in two important respects from the corresponding United States subdivision, in that the Imperial gallon was divided into 160 fluid ounces (whereas the United States gallon is divided into 128 fluid ounces), and a "fluid scruple" is included.

The full table of British measures of capacity (which are used alike for liquid and for dry commodities) is as follows (metric measures rounded to three digits):
*1 ''fluid ounce'' = 28.4 ml
*1 ''gill'' = 5 fluid ounces = 142 ml
*1 ''pint'' = 4 gills = 568 ml
*1 ''quart'' = 2 pints = 1.14 l
*1 ''gallon'' = 4 quarts = 4.55 l
*1 ''peck'' = 2 gallons = 9.09 l
*1 ''kenning'' = 2 pecks = 18.2 l
*1 ''bushel'' = 8 gallons (4 pecks or 2 kennings) = 36.4 l
*1 ''quarter'' = 8 bushels = 2.91 hl

The full table of British apothecaries' measure is as follows:
*1 ''minim''
*1 ''fluid scruple'' = 20 minims
*1 ''fluid dram'' or ''drachm'' = 3 fluid scruples = 60 minims
*1 ''fluid ounce'' = 8 fluid drachms
*1 ''pint'' = 20 fluid ounces
*1 ''gallon'' = 8 pints = 160 fluid ounces

The origins of these differences lie in the variety of systems that were in use in Britain at the time of the establishment of the first colonies in North America. The American colonists adopted the English wine gallon of 231 cubic inches, and used it for all fluid purposes. The English of that period used this wine gallon, but they also had another gallon, the ale gallon of 282 cubic inches. In 1824, the British abandoned these two gallons when they adopted the British Imperial gallon, which they defined as the volume of 10 pounds of water, at a temperature of 62 °F, which, by calculation, is equivalent to about 277.42 cubic inches (4,546 cm³) - much closer to the ale gallon than the wine gallon. At the same time, they redefined the bushel as 8 gallons.

As noted above, in the customary British system the units of dry measure are the same as those of liquid measure. In the United States these two are not the same, the gallon and its subdivisions are used in the measurement of liquids; the bushel, with its subdivisions, is used in the measurement of certain dry commodities. The U.S. gallon (3.79 l) is divided into four liquid [[quart]]s (946 ml each) and the U.S. bushel (4.40 l) into 32 dry quarts or pecks (8.81 l each). All the units of capacity or volume mentioned thus far are larger in the customary British system than in the U.S. system. But the British fluid ounce is smaller than the U.S. fluid ounce, because the British quart is divided into 40 fluid ounces whereas the U.S. quart is divided into 32 fluid ounces.

From this we see that in the customary British system an avoirdupois ounce of water at 62 °F has a volume of one fluid ounce, because 10 pounds is equivalent to 160 avoirdupois ounces, and 1 gallon is equivalent to 4 quarts, or 160 fluid ounces. This convenient relation does not exist in the U.S. system because a U.S. gallon of water at 62 °F weighs about 8 1/3 pounds, or 133 1/3 avoirdupois ounces, and the U.S. gallon is equivalent to 4 × 32, or 128 fluid ounces.

* 1 U.S. fluid ounce = 1.041 British fluid ounces = 29.6 ml
* 1 British fluid ounce = 0.961 U.S. fluid ounce = 28.4 ml
* 1 U.S. gallon = 0.833 British Imperial gallon = 3.79 l
* 1 British Imperial gallon = 1.201 U.S. gallons = 4.55 l

In the apothecary system of liquid measure the British add a unit, the fluid scruple, equal to one third of a fluid drachm (spelled dram in the United States) between their minim and their fluid drachm.

==Measures of weight and mass==
A discussion of differences between countries is complicated by the fact that both Britain and the U.S. have made some use of three different weight systems, [[Troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[Avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.

Among other differences between the customary British and the United States measurement systems, we should note that the use of the ''troy pound'' (373 g) was abolished in Britain on January 6, [[1879]], with only the ''troy ounce'' (31.1 g) and its subdivisions retained, whereas the troy pound (of 12 troy ounces) is still legal in the United States, although it is not now greatly used. Another important difference is the universal use in Britain, for body weight, of the [[stone (weight)|stone]] of 14 pounds (6.35 kg), this being a unit now unused in the United States, although its influence was shown in the practice until World War II of selling flour by the barrel of 196 pounds (14 stone).

In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it. The Avoirdupois pound, the Troy pound, and the apothecaries' pound are identical in Britain and the United States. The tables of British troy mass, and apothecaries' mass are the same as the corresponding United States tables, except for the British spelling "drachm" in the table of apothecaries' mass. The table of British Avoirdupois mass is the same as the United States table up to 1 pound, above that point the table differs:
*1 grain = 64.8 mg
*1 drachm = 1?16 ounce = 1.77 g
*1 ounce = 1?16 pound = 28.3 g
*1 pound = 7000 grains = 454 g
*1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kg
*1 quarter = 2 stones = 28 pounds = 12.7 kg
*1 hundredweight = 4 quarters = 112 pounds = 50.8 kg
*1 ton = 20 hundredweight = 2240 pounds = 1016 kg
Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (known in the US as a "long ton"), which is very close to a metric tonne, whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds (907 kg).

British law now defines each Imperial unit entirely in terms of the metric equivalent. See the 'Units of Measurement Regulations 1995'
[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm]. It follows that their usage in retail and trading is effectively outlawed. This has now been proved by in court against the so called 'Metric Martyrs', a small group of market traders. Despite this, many small market traders still use the customary measures, citing customer preference especially among the older population.

==References==
*Appendices B and C of [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h442003.htm NIST Handbook 44]

== Other external links ==
*[http://www.bwmaonline.com/ British Weights And Measures Association]
*[http://www.metric4us.com Metric4us.com]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-6/101836.html Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72]
*[http://193.120.124.98/gen531996a.html Ireland - Metrology Act 1996]
*[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm UK - Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[de:Angloamerikanisches Maßsystem]]
[[zh:英制]]

Benutzer:Elrond/Britisches Einheitensystem

2004-06-12T01:01:45Z

Seglea: added fuller table of length

The '''Imperial units''' are an irregularly standardized [[system of units]] that have been used in the [[United Kingdom]], its former colonies, and the [[The Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] countries. Today it is only widely used in the [[U.S. customary units|United States]], having been replaced elsewhere by the [[SI]] (metric) system. The United Kingdom completed its transition to SI units in [[1995]], though a few Imperial units are still in use. For example, beer may still be sold in pints, and most roadsigns are still in yards and miles.

The Imperial system is also called the '''English system''' or the '''British system'''.

==Relation to other systems==
Most Imperial units had the same names as to the units that are still predominantly used in the [[United States]] (see [[U.S. customary units]]). Unfortunately, the detailed definitions differed, and in some cases the differences are substantial. The Commonwealth countries have since mostly switched to the [[SI]] system of units. In the [[United Kingdom]], the use of metric (SI) units is increasingly mandated by law for the sale of food and such, but some imperial units are still retained, such as miles in road signs (and miles per hour in speeds), pints of beer, and colloquial discussions of weight in stones and pounds and height in feet and inches.

A further difference between the systems in use in the two countries is that in [[cooking weights and measures]], much more use is made of volume measures (cups and spoons) in the US, whereas in the UK quantities of dry ingredients are usually specified by weight; cup and spoon measurements are sometimes given, but these are not the same as the US standard cups and spoons, and in traditional recipes probably just reflect a favourite cup that the cook had to hand.

== Measures of length ==
After [[1959]], the U.S. and the British [[inch]] were defined identically (25.4 mm) for scientific work and were identical in commercial usage (however, the U.S. retained the slightly different ''survey inch'' for specialized [[surveying]] purposes). The main parts of the tables of length, such as 12 inches = 1 foot, 3 feet = 1 yard, and 1760 yards = 1 international [[mile]], were the same in both countries, though some of the intermediate units such as the [[chain]] (22 yards) and the [[furlong]] (220 yards) were more used in Britain and the Commonwealth than in the U.S.

The full table is as follows:<br>
Three barleycorns = one [[inch]]<br>
Twelve inches = one [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]<br>
Three feet = one [[yard]]<br>
Five and a half yards = one rod, [[pole (unit of length)|pole]] or perch<br>
Four poles = one [[chain (length)|chain]]<br>
Ten chains = one [[furlong]]<br>
Eight furlongs = one [[mile]]

However, the [[Nautical mile]] equalled 6080 feet, not readily expressible in terms of any of the intermediate units (because it was defined in terms of the circumference of the earth).

== Measures of volume==
The present British gallon (4.55 l) and bushel (36.4 l)--known as the "Imperial gallon" and "Imperial bushel"--are, respectively, about 20 percent and 3 percent larger than the United States fluid gallon (3.79 l) and bushel (35.2 l). The Imperial gallon was defined as the volume of 10 avoirdupois pounds of water under specified conditions, and the Imperial bushel was defined as 8 Imperial gallons.
Also, the subdivision of the Imperial gallon as presented in the table of British apothecaries' fluid measure differed in two important respects from the corresponding United States subdivision, in that the Imperial gallon was divided into 160 fluid ounces (whereas the United States gallon is divided into 128 fluid ounces), and a "fluid scruple" is included.

The full table of British measures of capacity (which are used alike for liquid and for dry commodities) is as follows (metric measures rounded to three digits):
*1 ''fluid ounce'' = 28.4 ml
*1 ''gill'' = 5 fluid ounces = 142 ml
*1 ''pint'' = 4 gills = 568 ml
*1 ''quart'' = 2 pints = 1.14 l
*1 ''gallon'' = 4 quarts = 4.55 l
*1 ''peck'' = 2 gallons = 9.09 l
*1 ''kenning'' = 2 pecks = 18.2 l
*1 ''bushel'' = 8 gallons (4 pecks or 2 kennings) = 36.4 l
*1 ''quarter'' = 8 bushels = 2.91 hl

The full table of British apothecaries' measure is as follows:
*1 ''minim''
*1 ''fluid scruple'' = 20 minims
*1 ''fluid dram'' or ''drachm'' = 3 fluid scruples = 60 minims
*1 ''fluid ounce'' = 8 fluid drachms
*1 ''pint'' = 20 fluid ounces
*1 ''gallon'' = 8 pints = 160 fluid ounces

The origins of these differences lie in the variety of systems that were in use in Britain at the time of the establishment of the first colonies in North America. The American colonists adopted the English wine gallon of 231 cubic inches, and used it for all fluid purposes. The English of that period used this wine gallon, but they also had another gallon, the ale gallon of 282 cubic inches. In 1824, the British abandoned these two gallons when they adopted the British Imperial gallon, which they defined as the volume of 10 pounds of water, at a temperature of 62 °F, which, by calculation, is equivalent to about 277.42 cubic inches (4,546 cm³) - much closer to the ale gallon than the wine gallon. At the same time, they redefined the bushel as 8 gallons.

As noted above, in the customary British system the units of dry measure are the same as those of liquid measure. In the United States these two are not the same, the gallon and its subdivisions are used in the measurement of liquids; the bushel, with its subdivisions, is used in the measurement of certain dry commodities. The U.S. gallon (3.79 l) is divided into four liquid [[quart]]s (946 ml each) and the U.S. bushel (4.40 l) into 32 dry quarts or pecks (8.81 l each). All the units of capacity or volume mentioned thus far are larger in the customary British system than in the U.S. system. But the British fluid ounce is smaller than the U.S. fluid ounce, because the British quart is divided into 40 fluid ounces whereas the U.S. quart is divided into 32 fluid ounces.

From this we see that in the customary British system an avoirdupois ounce of water at 62 °F has a volume of one fluid ounce, because 10 pounds is equivalent to 160 avoirdupois ounces, and 1 gallon is equivalent to 4 quarts, or 160 fluid ounces. This convenient relation does not exist in the U.S. system because a U.S. gallon of water at 62 °F weighs about 8 1/3 pounds, or 133 1/3 avoirdupois ounces, and the U.S. gallon is equivalent to 4 × 32, or 128 fluid ounces.

* 1 U.S. fluid ounce = 1.041 British fluid ounces = 29.6 ml
* 1 British fluid ounce = 0.961 U.S. fluid ounce = 28.4 ml
* 1 U.S. gallon = 0.833 British Imperial gallon = 3.79 l
* 1 British Imperial gallon = 1.201 U.S. gallons = 4.55 l

In the apothecary system of liquid measure the British add a unit, the fluid scruple, equal to one third of a fluid drachm (spelled dram in the United States) between their minim and their fluid drachm.

==Measures of weight and mass==
A discussion of differences between countries is complicated by the fact that both Britain and the U.S. have made some use of three different weight systems, [[Troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[Avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.

Among other differences between the customary British and the United States measurement systems, we should note that the use of the ''troy pound'' (373 g) was abolished in Britain on January 6, [[1879]], with only the ''troy ounce'' (31.1 g) and its subdivisions retained, whereas the troy pound (of 12 troy ounces) is still legal in the United States, although it is not now greatly used. Another important difference is the universal use in Britain, for body weight, of the [[stone (weight)|stone]] of 14 pounds (6.35 kg), this being a unit now unused in the United States, although its influence was shown in the practice until World War II of selling flour by the barrel of 196 pounds (14 stone).

In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it. The Avoirdupois pound, the Troy pound, and the apothecaries' pound are identical in Britain and the United States. The tables of British troy mass, and apothecaries' mass are the same as the corresponding United States tables, except for the British spelling "drachm" in the table of apothecaries' mass. The table of British Avoirdupois mass is the same as the United States table up to 1 pound, above that point the table differs:
*1 grain = 64.8 mg
*1 drachm = 1?16 ounce = 1.77 g
*1 ounce = 1?16 pound = 28.3 g
*1 pound = 7000 grains = 454 g
*1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kg
*1 quarter = 2 stones = 28 pounds = 12.7 kg
*1 hundredweight = 4 quarters = 112 pounds = 50.8 kg
*1 ton = 20 hundredweight = 2240 pounds = 1016 kg
Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (known in the US as a "long ton"), which is very close to a metric tonne, whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds (907 kg).

British law now defines each Imperial unit entirely in terms of the metric equivalent. See the 'Units of Measurement Regulations 1995'
[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm]. It follows that their usage in retail and trading is effectively outlawed. This has now been proved by in court against the so called 'Metric Martyrs', a small group of market traders. Despite this, many small market traders still use the customary measures, citing customer preference especially among the older population.

==References==
*Appendices B and C of [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h442003.htm NIST Handbook 44]

== Other external links ==
*[http://www.bwmaonline.com/ British Weights And Measures Association]
*[http://www.metric4us.com Metric4us.com]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-6/101836.html Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72]
*[http://193.120.124.98/gen531996a.html Ireland - Metrology Act 1996]
*[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm UK - Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]

[[de:Angloamerikanisches Maßsystem]][[zh:英制]]

Benutzerin:Maresa63/Saint Winifred

2004-05-26T06:36:23Z

Seglea: link Brother Cadfael story

Saint '''Winefride''' (also: Saint '''Winifred''', Gwenfrewi, Saint Gwenfrewy, Guinevere, Winfred of Wales) was a seventh century [[Wales |Welsh]] woman who had her head severed from her body by an enraged suitor, Caradog. He was displeased because her religious devotion and a pledge to become a [[nun]] caused her to resist his advances.

In one version of this tale, her head rolled downhill, and, where it stopped, a healing spring appeared. These healing waters are now a shrine called [[St Winefride's Well]] in [[Holywell]], the [[Lourdes]] of [[Wales]]. St. Winefride's head was subsequently rejoined to her body due to the efforts of a relative, Saint Beuno, and she was restored to life. She later became a nun and [[abbess]] at Gwytherin in [[Denbighshire]], after Caradog, cursed by Beuno, melted into the ground. More elaborate versions of this tale relate many details of her life, including Winifred's pilgrimage to [[Rome]].

In spite of the slim records for this period, there appears to be a historical basis for this personage. Winifred's brother Owain is known to have killed Caradog as revenge for a crime. She succeeded the Abbess, Saint Tenoi, who is believed to be her aunt.

After her death (c. 660) she was interred at her abbey. In 1138 relics were carried to [[Shrewsbury]] to form the basis of an elaborate shrine; these events are woven into one of [[Ellis Peters]]' [[Brother Cadfael]] stories, ''A morbid taste for bones''. The shrine and well became major pilgrimage goals in the late [[Middle Ages]], but the shrine was destroyed by [[Henry VIII]] in 1540.

Benutzer:Elrond/Britisches Einheitensystem

2004-05-25T20:37:00Z

Seglea: link stone etc

The '''Imperial units''' are an irregularly standardized [[system of units]] that have been used in the [[United Kingdom]], its former colonies, and the [[The Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] countries. Today it is only widely used in the [[U.S. customary units|United States]], having been replaced elsewhere by the [[SI]] (metric) system. The United Kingdom completed its transition to SI units in [[1995]], though a few Imperial units are still in use. For example, beer may still be sold in pints.

The Imperial system is also called the '''English system''' or the '''British system'''.

==Relation to other systems==
Most Imperial units had the same names as to the units that are still predominantly used in the [[United States]] (see [[U.S. customary units]]). Unfortunately, the detailed definitions differed, and in some cases the differences are substantial. The Commonwealth countries have since switched to the [[SI]] system of units. In the [[United Kingdom]], some imperial units are still retained (e.g. miles in road signs), but the use of metric (SI) units is increasingly mandated by law for the sale of food etc. Because references to the units of the old British customary imperial units are still found, the following discussion describes the differences between the U.S. and British customary systems.

A further difference between the systems in use in the two countries is that in [[cooking weights and measures]], much more use is made of volume measures (cups and spoons) in the US, whereas in the UK quantities of dry ingredients are usually specified by weight; cup and spoon measurements are sometimes given, but these are not the same as the US standard cups and spoons, and in traditional recipes probably just reflect a favourite cup that the cook had to hand.

== Measures of length ==
After [[1959]], the U.S. and the British [[inch]] were defined identically (25.4 mm) for scientific work and were identical in commercial usage (however, the U.S. retained the slightly different ''survey inch'' for specialized [[surveying]] purposes). The tables of length, such as 12 inches = 1 foot, 3 feet = 1 yard, and 1760 yards = 1 international [[mile]], were the same in both countries, though some of the intermediate units such as the chain (22 yards) and the furlong (220 yards) were more used in Britain than in the U.S.

== Measures of volume==
The present British gallon (4.55 l) and bushel (36.4 l)--known as the "Imperial gallon" and "Imperial bushel"--are, respectively, about 20 percent and 3 percent larger than the United States fluid gallon (3.79 l) and bushel (35.2 l). The Imperial gallon was defined as the volume of 10 avoirdupois pounds of water under specified conditions, and the Imperial bushel was defined as 8 Imperial gallons.
Also, the subdivision of the Imperial gallon as presented in the table of British apothecaries' fluid measure differed in two important respects from the corresponding United States subdivision, in that the Imperial gallon was divided into 160 fluid ounces (whereas the United States gallon is divided into 128 fluid ounces), and a "fluid scruple" is included.

The full table of British measures of capacity (which are used alike for liquid and for dry commodities) is as follows (metric measures rounded to three digits):
*1 ''fluid ounce'' = 28.4 ml
*1 ''gill'' = 5 fluid ounces = 142 ml
*1 ''pint'' = 4 gills = 568 ml
*1 ''quart'' = 2 pints = 1.14 l
*1 ''gallon'' = 4 quarts = 4.55 l
*1 ''peck'' = 2 gallons = 9.09 l
*1 ''kenning'' = 2 pecks = 18.2 l
*1 ''bushel'' = 8 gallons (4 pecks or 2 kennings) = 36.4 l
*1 ''quarter'' = 8 bushels = 2.91 hl

The full table of British apothecaries' measure is as follows:
*1 ''minim''
*1 ''fluid scruple'' = 20 minims
*1 ''fluid dram'' or ''drachm'' = 3 fluid scruples = 60 minims
*1 ''fluid ounce'' = 8 fluid drachms
*1 ''pint'' = 20 fluid ounces
*1 ''gallon'' = 8 pints = 160 fluid ounces

The origins of these differences lie in the variety of systems that were in use in Britain at the time of the establishment of the first colonies in North America. The American colonists adopted the English wine gallon of 231 cubic inches, and used it for all fluid purposes. The English of that period used this wine gallon, but they also had another gallon, the ale gallon of 282 cubic inches. In 1824, the British abandoned these two gallons when they adopted the British Imperial gallon, which they defined as the volume of 10 pounds of water, at a temperature of 62 °F, which, by calculation, is equivalent to about 277.42 cubic inches (4,546 cm³) - much closer to the ale gallon than the wine gallon. At the same time, they redefined the bushel as 8 gallons.

As noted above, in the customary British system the units of dry measure are the same as those of liquid measure. In the United States these two are not the same, the gallon and its subdivisions are used in the measurement of liquids; the bushel, with its subdivisions, is used in the measurement of certain dry commodities. The U.S. gallon (3.79 l) is divided into four liquid [[quart]]s (946 ml each) and the U.S. bushel (4.40 l) into 32 dry quarts or pecks (8.81 l each). All the units of capacity or volume mentioned thus far are larger in the customary British system than in the U.S. system. But the British fluid ounce is smaller than the U.S. fluid ounce, because the British quart is divided into 40 fluid ounces whereas the U.S. quart is divided into 32 fluid ounces.

From this we see that in the customary British system an avoirdupois ounce of water at 62 °F has a volume of one fluid ounce, because 10 pounds is equivalent to 160 avoirdupois ounces, and 1 gallon is equivalent to 4 quarts, or 160 fluid ounces. This convenient relation does not exist in the U.S. system because a U.S. gallon of water at 62 °F weighs about 8 1/3 pounds, or 133 1/3 avoirdupois ounces, and the U.S. gallon is equivalent to 4 × 32, or 128 fluid ounces.

* 1 U.S. fluid ounce = 1.041 British fluid ounces = 29.6 ml
* 1 British fluid ounce = 0.961 U.S. fluid ounce = 28.4 ml
* 1 U.S. gallon = 0.833 British Imperial gallon = 3.79 l
* 1 British Imperial gallon = 1.201 U.S. gallons = 4.55 l

In the apothecary system of liquid measure the British add a unit, the fluid scruple, equal to one third of a fluid drachm (spelled dram in the United States) between their minim and their fluid drachm.

==Measures of weight and mass==
A discussion of differences between countries is complicated by the fact that both Britain and the U.S. have made some use of three different weight systems, [[Troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[Avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.

Among other differences between the customary British and the United States measurement systems, we should note that the use of the ''troy pound'' (373 g) was abolished in Britain on January 6, [[1879]], with only the ''troy ounce'' (31.1 g) and its subdivisions retained, whereas the troy pound (of 12 troy ounces) is still legal in the United States, although it is not now greatly used. Another important difference is the universal use in Britain, for body weight, of the [[stone (weight)|stone]] of 14 pounds (6.35 kg), this being a unit now unused in the United States, although its influence was shown in the practice until World War II of selling flour by the barrel of 196 pounds (14 stone).

In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it. The Avoirdupois pound, the Troy pound, and the apothecaries' pound are identical in Britain and the United States. The tables of British troy mass, and apothecaries' mass are the same as the corresponding United States tables, except for the British spelling "drachm" in the table of apothecaries' mass. The table of British Avoirdupois mass is the same as the United States table up to 1 pound, above that point the table differs:
*1 grain = 64.8 mg
*1 drachm = 1?16 ounce = 1.77 g
*1 ounce = 1?16 pound = 28.3 g
*1 pound = 7000 grains = 454 g
*1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kg
*1 quarter = 2 stones = 28 pounds = 12.7 kg
*1 hundredweight = 4 quarters = 112 pounds = 50.8 kg
*1 ton = 20 hundredweight = 2240 pounds = 1016 kg
Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (known in the US as a "long ton"), which is very close to a metric tonne, whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds (907 kg).

British law now defines each Imperial unit entirely in terms of the metric equivalent. See the 'Units of Measurement Regulations 1995'
[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm]. It follows that their usage in retail and trading is effectively outlawed. This has now been proved by in court against the so called 'Metric Martyrs', a small group of market traders. Despite this, many small market traders still use the customary measures, citing customer preference especially among the older population.

==References==
*Appendices B and C of [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h442003.htm NIST Handbook 44]

== Other external links ==
*[http://www.bwmaonline.com/ British Weights And Measures Association]
*[http://www.metric4us.com Metric4us.com]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-6/101836.html Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72]
*[http://193.120.124.98/gen531996a.html Ireland - Metrology Act 1996]
*[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm UK - Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]

[[de:Angloamerikanisches Maßsystem]][[zh:英制]]

Benutzerin:Maresa63/Saint Winifred

2004-05-24T07:59:27Z

Seglea: just go and look disinterested up in a good dictionary, chaps

Saint '''Winefride''' (or Saint '''Winefred''') was a seventh century woman who had her head severed from her body by an enraged suitor. He was displeased because her religious devotion meant that she was not interested in marriage. In one version of this tale, her head rolled downhill, and, where it stopped, a healing spring appeared. The healing water still exists at a shrine called [[St Winefride's Well]], the [[Lourdes]] of [[Wales]]. St. Winefride's head was subsequently rejoined to her body, and she was restored to life.

Malcolm Bradbury

2004-04-12T16:18:01Z

Seglea: Slaka is the setting for Rates of Exchange

Sir '''Malcolm Bradbury''' [[September 7]], [[1932]] - [[November 27]], [[2000]], was an [[United Kingdom|British]] author and academic.

Born into a working class family in [[Sheffield]], and educated at the [[University of Leicester]], [[Queen Mary, University of London|Queen Mary College]], London, and the [[University of Manchester]], Malcolm Bradbury made most of his career at the [[University of East Anglia]], where he was Professor of American Studies until his retirement in [[1995]]. His greatest achievement there was the foundation, with [[Angus Wilson]], of the first postgraduate course in [[creative writing]] to gain success and respect in the UK; many successful writers have graduated from this course, for example [[Ian McEwan]].

Malcolm Bradbury was a productive academic writer as well as a successful teacher; an expert on the modern novel, he published books on [[Evelyn Waugh]] and [[E. M. Forster]], as well as editions of such modern classics as [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s ''The Great Gatsby'', and a number of surveys and handbooks of modern fiction, both British and American. However, he is best known to a wider public as a [[novel]]ist. His best known novel, ''[[The History Man]]'' (1975), set in the fictional University of Watermouth, was a dark satire of academic life in the then fashionable newer universities of England; it was later made into a successful television serial. Although he is often compared with [[David Lodge]], his contemporary as a British exponent of the [[campus novel]] genre, Bradbury's books are consistently darker in mood and less playful both in style and language.

He also wrote extensively for [[television]], including scripting series such as ''[[Anything More Would Be Greedy]]'' and ''[[The Gravy Train]]'', and adapting novels such as [[Tom Sharpe]]'s ''Blott on the Landscape'', [[Alison Lurie]]'s ''Imaginary Friends'' and [[Kingsley Amis]]'s ''The Green Man''.

In 1986 he wrote a short humorous book titled ''Why Come to Slaka?''. It dealt with the fictional Eastern European country that is the setting for his novel ''Rates of Exchange''. It is a parody of travel books.

Malcolm Bradbury was knighted in 2000.

==List of novels by Malcolm Bradbury (incomplete)==
*Eating People is Wrong (1962)
*Stepping Westward (1968)
*The History Man (1975)
*Rates of Exchange
*To the Hermitage

''If God had been a liberal, we wouldn't have had the Ten Commandments — we'd have the Ten Suggestions'' - Malcolm Bradbury.

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1043975.stm BBC obituary]

Malcolm Bradbury

2004-04-12T07:30:47Z

Seglea: linkfix

Sir '''Malcolm Bradbury''' [[September 7]], [[1932]] - [[November 27]], [[2000]], was an [[United Kingdom|British]] author and academic.

Born into a working class family in [[Sheffield]], and educated at the [[University of Leicester]], [[Queen Mary, University of London|Queen Mary College]], London, and the [[University of Manchester]], Malcolm Bradbury made most of his career at the [[University of East Anglia]], where he was Professor of American Studies until his retirement in [[1995]]. His greatest achievement there was the foundation, with [[Angus Wilson]], of the first postgraduate course in [[creative writing]] to gain success and respect in the UK; many successful writers have graduated from this course, for example [[Ian McEwan]].

Malcolm Bradbury was a productive academic writer as well as a successful teacher; an expert on the modern novel, he published books on [[Evelyn Waugh]] and [[E. M. Forster]], as well as editions of such modern classics as [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s ''The Great Gatsby'', and a number of surveys and handbooks of modern fiction, both British and American. However, he is best known to a wider public as a [[novel]]ist. His best known novel, ''[[The History Man]]'' (1975), set in the fictional University of Watermouth, was a dark satire of academic life in the then fashionable newer universities of England; it was later made into a successful television serial. Although he is often compared with [[David Lodge]], his contemporary as a British exponent of the [[campus novel]] genre, Bradbury's books are consistently darker in mood and less playful both in style and language.

He also wrote extensively for [[television]], including scripting series such as ''[[Anything More Would Be Greedy]]'' and ''[[The Gravy Train]]'', and adapting novels such as [[Tom Sharpe]]'s ''Blott on the Landscape'', [[Alison Lurie]]'s ''Imaginary Friends'' and [[Kingsley Amis]]'s ''The Green Man''.

Malcolm Bradbury was knighted in 2000.

==List of novels by Malcolm Bradbury (incomplete)==
*Eating People is Wrong (1962)
*Stepping Westward (1968)
*The History Man (1975)
*Rates of Exchange
*To the Hermitage

''If God had been a liberal, we wouldn't have had the Ten Commandments — we'd have the Ten Suggestions'' - Malcolm Bradbury.

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1043975.stm BBC obituary]

Malcolm Bradbury

2004-04-12T07:28:17Z

Seglea: basic facts for a "most wanted" page, can anyone complete the novels list?

Sir '''Malcolm Bradbury''' [[September 7]], [[1932]] - [[November 27]], [[2000]], was an [[United Kingdom|British]] author and academic.

Born into a working class family in [[Sheffield]], and educated at the [[University of Leicester]], [[Queen Mary College]], London, and the [[University of Manchester]], Malcolm Bradbury made most of his career at the [[University of East Anglia]], where he was Professor of American Studies until his retirement in [[1995]]. His greatest achievement there was the foundation, with [[Angus Wilson]], of the first postgraduate course in [[creative writing]] to gain success and respect in the UK; many successful writers have graduated from this course, for example [[Ian McEwan]].

Malcolm Bradbury was a productive academic writer as well as a successful teacher; an expert on the modern novel, he published books on [[Evelyn Waugh]] and [[E. M. Forster]], as well as editions of such modern classics as [[Scott Fitzgerald]]'s ''The Great Gatsby'', and a number of surveys and handbooks of modern fiction, both British and American. However, he is best known to a wider public as a [[novel]]ist. His best known novel, ''[[The History Man]]'' (1975), set in the fictional University of Watermouth, was a dark satire of academic life in the then fashionable newer universities of England; it was later made into a successful television serial. Although he is often compared with [[David Lodge]], his contemporary as a British exponent of the [[campus novel]] genre, Bradbury's books are consistently darker in mood and less playful both in style and language.

He also wrote extensively for [[television]], including scripting series such as ''[[Anything More Would Be Greedy]]'' and ''[[The Gravy Train]]'', and adapting novels such as [[Tom Sharpe]]'s ''Blott on the Landscape'', [[Alison Lurie]]'s ''Imaginary Friends'' and [[Kingsley Amis]]'s ''The Green Man''.

Malcolm Bradbury was knighted in 2000.

==List of novels by Malcolm Bradbury (incomplete)==
*Eating People is Wrong (1962)
*Stepping Westward (1968)
*The History Man (1975)
*Rates of Exchange
*To the Hermitage

''If God had been a liberal, we wouldn't have had the Ten Commandments — we'd have the Ten Suggestions'' - Malcolm Bradbury.

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1043975.stm BBC obituary]

New River (Kanawha River)

2004-03-09T04:05:52Z

Seglea: link back to disambig page

''There are also other rivers called the [[New River]]''
----
The '''New River''' in North America runs from the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]] of [[North Carolina]], near Boone, through Southwestern [[Virginia]], and into [[West Virginia]] where it merges into the [[Gauley River]] to form the [[Kanawha River]].

Despite its name, the river is considered by [[geologist]]s to be one of the oldest rivers in the world, between 10 million and 360 million years old.

==External Links==

*http://civic.bev.net/fonr/ -- Friends of the New River

New River (Kanawha River)

2004-03-09T04:04:33Z

Seglea: typo

The '''New River''' in North America runs from the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]] of [[North Carolina]], near Boone, through Southwestern [[Virginia]], and into [[West Virginia]] where it merges into the [[Gauley River]] to form the [[Kanawha River]].

Despite its name, the river is considered by [[geologist]]s to be one of the oldest rivers in the world, between 10 million and 360 million years old.

==External Links==

*http://civic.bev.net/fonr/ -- Friends of the New River

Ilex cassine

2004-02-16T20:08:11Z

Seglea: taxotable

<table border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpadding="2">
<tr><th bgcolor=lightgreen>'''Dahoon holly'''</th></tr>
<tr><td align="center">[[Image:Dahoon7683.JPG]]></td></tr>
<tr><th bgcolor=lightgreen>[[Scientific classification]]</th></tr>
<tr><td>
<table align="center">
<tr><td>[[Kingdom (biology)|Kingdom]]:</td><td>[[Plant]]ae</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Division (biology)|Division]]:</td><td>[[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Class (biology)|Class]]:</td><td>[[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Order (biology)|Order]]:</td><td>[[Aquifoliales]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Family (biology)|Family]]:</td><td>[[Aquifoliaceae]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Genus]]:</td><td>''[[Ilex]]''</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Species]]:</td><td>'''''cassine'''''</td></tr>
</table>
<tr><th bgcolor="lightgreen">[[Binomial name]]</th></tr>
<tr><td>
''Ilex cassine''
</td></tr>
</table>

'''Dahoon holly''', ''Ilex cassine'', also sometimes known as '''Cassena''', is an evergreen holly native to the southeastern coast of [[North America]]. Its original range was close to the coast, but the range has been extended by planting, because the bright red berries, are quite attractive, set against the glossy green leaves.

As with other hollies, plants are male and female. Only the females have berries, and a male [[pollenizer]] must be within range for [[bee]]s to [[pollination|pollinate]] them.

{{msg:stub}}

Liste der Inseln in England

2004-02-16T19:52:34Z

Seglea: steep holm and flat holm

This is a list of the '''[[island]]s of [[England]]''', the mainland of which is part of the island of [[Great Britain]].

<table>
<tr><th align=left>Name<th align=left>Island Group / Location
<tr><td>[[Annet]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Brownsea Island]]<td>[[Poole Harbour]]
<tr><td>[[Bryher (island)|Bryher]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Burgh Island]]<td>[[Devon]]
<tr><td>[[Burnt Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Canvey Island]]<td>[[Thames Estuary]]
<tr><td>[[Coquet Island]]<td>[[Northumberland]]
<tr><td>[[Crow Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[English Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Flat Holm]]<td>[[Bristol Channel]]
<tr><td>[[Foulness Island]]<td>[[Essex]]
<tr><td>[[Gorregan]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Great Arthur]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Great Ganinick]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Great Gannilly]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Green Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Guther's Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Gweal]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Hayling Island]]<td>[[Hampshire]]
<tr><td>[[Inner Farne]]<td>[[Farne Islands]]
<tr><td>[[Lindisfarne]]<td>[[Northumberland]]
<tr><td>[[Little Arthur]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Little Ganinick]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Little Gannilly]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Looe Island]]<td>[[Cornwall]]
<tr><td>[[Lundy]]<td>[[Bristol Channel]]
<tr><td>[[Menawethan]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Merrick Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Mersea Island]]<td>[[Essex]]
<tr><td>[[Plumb Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Portsea Island]]<td>[[Hampshire]]
<tr><td>[[Puffin Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Rosevear]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Round Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[St Agnes]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[St Helen's, Scilly Isles|St Helen's]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[St Martin's]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[St Mary's]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[St Michael's Mount]]<td>[[Cornwall]]
<tr><td>[[Samson (island)|Samson]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Steep Holm]]<td>[[Bristol Channel]]
<tr><td>[[Stony Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Isle of Sheppey]]<td>[[Kent]]
<tr><td>[[Tean]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Toll's Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Tresco]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Whale Island, United Kingdom|Whale Island]]<td>[[Portsmouth Harbour]]
<tr><td>[[White Island]]<td>[[Scilly Isles]]
<tr><td>[[Isle of Wight]]<td>[[English Channel]]
</table>

See also: [[List of islands of Scotland]], [[List of islands of Wales]], [[List of islands of Ireland]], [[List of the British Isles]]

Henry Gustav Molaison

2004-02-12T17:32:24Z

Seglea: copyedits

A [[memory]] impaired patient known as '''HM''' (an acronym used to keep his identity confidential) has been widely studied since the late [[1950s]] and has been very important in the development of theories that explain the link between brain function and [[memory]], and in the development of [[cognitive neuropsychology]], a branch of [[psychology]] that studies [[brain injury]] to infer normal psychological function.

In [[1953]] HM had parts of his medial [[temporal lobe]] removed bilaterally (on both sides) in order to alleviate the effects of intractable [[epilepsy]]. He lost two thirds of his [[hippocampus|hippocampal]] formation, [[parahippocampal gyrus]], and [[amygdala]].

After the surgery he suffered from severe [[amnesia|anterograde amnesia]]: although his [[short-term memory]] was intact, he could not commit new facts or events to [[long-term memory]]. He also suffered moderate [[amnesia|retrograde amnesia]], and could not remember most events in the 3-4 period before surgery, and some events up to 11 years before. He could however learn new [[motor skill]]s, despite not being able to remember learning them

HM has not only been important for the knowledge he has provided about memory impairment and amnesia, but also because his exact brain surgery has allowed a good understanding of how particular areas of the brain may linked to specific processes hypothesised to occur in memory formation. In this way, he has provided vital information about brain [[pathology]], as well as having helped form theories of normal memory function.

Particularly, the fact that he seems to be able to complete tasks that require recall from [[short-term memory]] and [[procedural memory]] but not [[long term memory]] suggests that recall from these memory systems may be mediated, at least in part, by different areas of the brain. Similarly, the fact that HM cannot create new long term memories, but can recall long term memories that existed well before his surgery suggests that encoding and retreival of long term memory information may also be mediated by distinct systems.

The case was first reported in a paper by Scoville and Milner in 1957. Psychological investigations of this patient were led by psychologist [[Brenda Milner]].

==See also==
* [[amnesia]]
* [[cognitive neuropsychology]]
* [[memory]]

==References==
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10678523&dopt=Abstract Scoville WB, Milner B. (1957)] Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. ''Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry'', 20, 11–21. [http://homepage.mac.com/sanagnos/scovillemilner1957.pdf Full text as pdf]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11836523&dopt=Abstract Corkin, S. (2002)] What's new with the amnesic patient H.M.? ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'', 3(2), 153-60. [http://homepage.mac.com/sanagnos/corkin2002.pdf Full text as pdf]

Henry Gustav Molaison

2004-02-11T04:09:26Z

Seglea: wikify, add more facts

The patient known as '''HM''' is very important in the development of [[cognitive neuropsychology]].

In [[1953]] HM had a bilateral removal of the medial [[temporal lobe]] of his [[cerebral cortex]] in order to alleviate the effects of intractable [[epilepsy]]. He lost 2/3 of his [[hippocampus|hippocampal]] formation, [[parahippocampal gyrus]], and [[amygdala]]. After the surgery he suffered from severe [[anterograde amnesia]]: although his [[short-term memory]] was intact, he could not commit new facts or events to [[long-term memory]]. He also suffered moderate [[retrograde amnesia]], and could not remember things in the most events in the 3-4 period before surgery, and some events up to 11 years before. He could however learn new [[motor skill]]s, despite not being able to remember learning them

The case was first reported in a paper by Scoville and Milner in 1957. Psychological investigations of this patient were led by [[Brenda Milner]].

Royal New Zealand Navy

2004-02-08T07:19:11Z

Seglea: HMNZS

The '''Royal New Zealand Navy''' (RNZN) is the [[navy]] of [[New Zealand]].

[[As of 2004]], the RNZN consists of three [[frigate]]s and about a dozen small craft. The [[Chief of Navy]] is Rear Admiral [[Peter McHaffie]]. Ships of the RNZN are referred to as "HMNZS..." ("Her Majesty's New Zealand Ship...").

== History ==

Originally the [[Royal Navy]] provided security for the colony, but in [[1846]] the settlers bought a [[gunboat]]. The [[Waikato Flotilla]] operated from [[1860]] to [[1865]], and at the same time a [[Naval Artillery Volunteer]] corps was established to provide harbour defence. In [[1884]] the government purchased four [[spar torpedo]] boats, and starting in [[1887]] it funded ships of the [[Australasian Auxiliary Squadron]].

The [[Naval Defence Act]] of [[1913]] formally established the '''New Zealand Naval Forces''', and the RN ship [[HMS Philomel|HMS ''Philomel'']] was the first to be commissioned into it. From [[1921]] the forces were known as the '''New Zealand Division''' of the Royal Navy, operating two [[cruiser]]s and a [[minesweeper]]. The present name was granted by King [[George VI of the United Kingdom|George VI]] on [[1 October]] [[1941]], and by the end of [[World War II]] the RNZN had over sixty ships in commission.

== External link ==

* [http://www.navy.mil.nz/ Royal New Zealand Navy homepage]

Liste der National Wildlife Refuges der Vereinigten Staaten

2004-01-29T08:28:29Z

Seglea: fmt

This is a list of '''[[National Wildlife Refuge]]s''' in the [[United States]].

* [[Alabama]]
** [[Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Fern Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Logan Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sauta Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Watercress Darter National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Alaska]]
** [[Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Alaska Peninsula National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Becharof National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Chilkat Eagle Bald Eagle Preserve]]
** [[Innoko National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Izembek National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kanuti National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kenai National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Koyukuk National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Selawik National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Tetlin National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Togiak National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Arizona]]
** [[Bill W. River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cibola National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Havasu National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Imperial National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kofa National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[San Bernardino National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Arkansas]]
** [[Bald Knob National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Big Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cache River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Felsenthal National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Holla Bend National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Overflow National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pond Creek National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Wapanocca National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[White River National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[California]]
** [[Antioch Dunes National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bitter Creek National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Blue Ridge National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Coachella Valley National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Castle Rock National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Clear Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Klamath Basin National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sacramento National Wildlife Refuge Complex]]:
***Butte Sink National Wildlife Refuge
***Colusa National Wildlife Refuge
***Delevan National Wildlife Refuge
***Sacramento National Wildlife Refuge
***Sacramento River National Wildlife Refuge
***Sutter National Wildlife Refuge

* [[Colorado]]
** [[Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Arapaho National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Browns Park National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Two Ponds National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Connecticut]]
** None

* [[Delaware]]
** [[Bombay Hook National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Florida]]
** [[Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Caloosahatchee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cedar Keys National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Crystal River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Egmont Key National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Great White Heron National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Hobe Sound National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Island Bay National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[J.N. 'Ding' Darling National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lake Ophelia National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Key West National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lake Wales Ridge National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lake Woodruff National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lower Suwannee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Matlacha Pass National Wildlife Reserve]]
** [[Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Passage Key National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pine Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pinellas National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[St. Johns National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[State of Georgia|Georgia]]
** [[Banks Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Blackbeard Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bond Swamp National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Harris Neck National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Piedmont National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Savannah National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Wassaw National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Wolf Island National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Hawaii]]
** [[James Campbell National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Huleia National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kakahaia National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kealia Pond National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kilauea Point National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kona Forest Unit National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Oahu Forest National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pearl Harbor National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Idaho]]
** [[Bear Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Camas National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Deer Flat National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Grays Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kootenai National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Minidoka National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Illinois]]
** [[Chautauqua National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Crab Orchard Lake & National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cypress Creek National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mark Twain National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Meredosia National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Indiana]]
** [[Muscatatuck National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Iowa]]
** None

* [[Kansas]]
** [[Flint Hills National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Kirwin National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Quivira National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Kentucky]]
** [[Clarks River National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Louisiana]]
** [[Atchafalaya National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bayou Cocodrie National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bayou Sauvage National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bayou Teche National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Big Branch Marsh National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Black Bayou Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bogue Chitto National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Breton National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cameron Prairie National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cat Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[D'Arbonne National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Delta National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[East Cove National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Grand Cote National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Handy Brake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lacassine National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mandalay National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Red River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sabine National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Shell Keys National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Tensas River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Upper Ouachita National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Maine]]
** None

* [[Maryland]]
** [[Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Massachusetts]]
** [[Great Meadows National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[John Hay National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mashpee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Massasoit National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Nantucket Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Nomans Land Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Oxbow National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Parker River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Silvio O. Conte National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Thatcher Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Wapack National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Michigan]]
** [[Huron National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Seney National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Shiawassee National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Minnesota]]
** [[Agassiz National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Minnesota Valley National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Rice Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Tamarac National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Mississippi]]
** [[Coldwater River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Dahomey National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Grand Bay National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Hillside National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mathews Brake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Morgan Brake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Noxubee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Panther Swamp National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[St. Catherine Creek National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Tallahatchie National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Yazoo National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Missouri]]
** [[Mingo National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Squaw Creek National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Swan Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Montana]]
** [[Benton Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bowdoin National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Charles M. Russell Nat. Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lee Metcalf National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Medicine Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Ninepipe-Pablo National Wildlife Refuges]]
** [[Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[UL Bend National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[War Horse National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Nebraska]]
** [[Fort Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Nevada]]
** [[Anaho Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Desert National Wildlife Range]]
** [[Fallon National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Moapa Valley National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Ruby Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Stillwater Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sheldon National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[New Hampshire]]
** None

* [[New Jersey]]
** [[Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[New Mexico]]
** [[Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bosque Del Apache National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Las Vegas National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Maxwell National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[New York]]
** None

* [[North Carolina]]
** [[Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cedar Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Currituck National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pea Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mackay Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mattamuskeet National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pee Dee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Roanoke River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Swanquarter National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Weymouth Woods Sandhills Nature Preserve]]

* [[North Dakota]]
** [[Arrowwood National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Audubon National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Des Lacs National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[J. Clark Salyer National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lake Ilo National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Long Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lostwood National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sully's Hill National Game Preserve]]
** [[Tewaukon National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Upper Souris National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Ohio]]
** None

* [[Oklahoma]]
** [[Deep Fork National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Great Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Little River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Optima National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Wichita Mountains National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sequoyah National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Tishomingo National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Washita National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Oregon]]
** [[Ankeny National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bandon Marsh National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Baskett Slough National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bear Valley National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cape Meares National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cold Springs National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge]]
** [[Klamath Marsh National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Oregon Islands National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[McKay Creek National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Three Arch Rocks National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Umatilla National Wildlife Refuge Complex]]
** [[Upper Klamath National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[William Finley National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Pennsylvania]]
** None

* [[Puerto Rico]]
** [[Navassa National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Vieques National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Rhode Island]]
** [[Block Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[John H. Chafee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Ninegret National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Ruecker National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sachuest Point National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[South Carolina]]
** [[ACE Basin National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Carolina Sandhills National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pinckney Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Santee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Tybee National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Waccamaw National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[South Dakota]]
** [[Sand Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Waubay National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Tennessee]]
** [[Chickasaw National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cross Creeks National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lake Isom National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Lower Hatchie National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Reelfoot National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Tennessee National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Texas]]
** [[Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Aransas National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Brazoria National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Buffalo Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Fort Worth Nature Center and Refuge]]
** [[Hagerman National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[McFaddin National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Muleshoe Natioanal Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Texas Point National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Utah]]
** [[Ouray National Bird Refuge]]
** [[Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Vermont]]
** [[Missisquoi National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Virginia]]
** [[Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[US Virgin Islands]]
** [[Buck Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Culebra National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Desecheo National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Laguna Cartagena National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Washington]]
** [[Columbia National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Conboy Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Copalis National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Dungeness National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Franz Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Grays Harbor National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Julia Butler Hansen National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Little Pend Oreille National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[McNary National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Pierce National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Protection Island National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Ridgefield National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Saddle Mountain National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[San Juan Islands National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Steigerwald Lake National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Toppenish National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Willapa National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[West Virginia]]
** [[Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[Wisconsin]]
** None

* [[Wyoming]]
** [[National Elk Refuge]]

Liste der National Wildlife Refuges der Vereinigten Staaten

2004-01-29T08:26:12Z

Seglea: grouping the Sacramento complex in CA

Huckleberry

2004-01-21T19:08:51Z

Seglea: cross link bilberries.

'''Huckleberry''' is a name used in [[North America]] for many [[plant]]s in the genus ''[[Vaccinium]]'' ([[Ericaceae]]). While some ''Vaccinium'' species, such as the [[red huckleberry]], are always called huckleberries, other species may be called [[blueberry|blueberries]] or huckleberries depending on local custom. Similar plants in [[Europe]] are called [[bilberry|bilberries]].

----

''See also: ''''[[Huckleberry Finn]]''

{{msg:stub}}

United States Board on Geographic Names

2004-01-19T23:33:13Z

Seglea: fmt

The '''United States Board on Geographic Names''' (BGN) is a US Federal body whose purpose is to establish and maintain uniform usage of geographic names throughout the Federal Government.

The Board was created in [[1890]]; its present form derives from a law of [[1947]]. The Board has developed principles, policies, and procedures governing the use of both domestic and foreign geographic names. It also deals with the names of geographical features underseas and in [[Antarctica]].

Although its official purpose is to resolve name problems and new name proposals for the federal government, the Board also plays a similar role for the general public. Any person or organization, public or private, may make inquiries or request the Board to render formal decisions on proposed new names, proposed name changes, or names that are in conflict.

==External link==
*[http://mapping.usgs.gov/www/gnis/bgn.html Official BGN website], from which information for this page was drawn.

United States Board on Geographic Names

2004-01-19T23:30:45Z

Seglea: slight precis of the official site, which is assumed to be public domain

The '''United States Board on Geographic Names''' (BGN) is a US Federal body whose purpose is to establish and maintain uniform usage of geographic names throughout the Federal Government.

The Board was created in [[1890]]; its present form derives from a law of [[1947]]. The Board has developed principles, policies, and procedures governing the use of both domestic and foreign geographic names. It also deals with the names of geographical features underseas and in [[Antarctica]].

Although its official purpose is to resolve name problems and new name proposals for the federal government, the Board also plays a similar role for the general public. Any person or organization, public or private, may make inquiries or request the Board to render formal decisions on proposed new names, proposed name changes, or names that are in conflict.

==External link==
[http://mapping.usgs.gov/www/gnis/bgn.html Official BGN website], from which information for this page was drawn.

Benutzer:Elrond/Britisches Einheitensystem

2004-01-16T20:41:30Z

Seglea: link to pound

In [[metrology]], '''Imperial units''' (also called '''British units''') are the measurement [[unit]]s that were generally used in the British [[The Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] countries in the past.

==Relation to other systems==
Most Imperial units had the same names as to the units that are still predominantly used in the [[United States]] (see [[U.S. customary units]]). Unfortunately, the detailed definitions differed, and in some cases the differences are substantial. The Commonwealth countries have since switched to the [[SI]] system of units. In the [[United Kingdom]], some imperial units are still retained (e.g. miles in road signs), but the use of metric (SI) units is increasingly mandated by law for the sale of food etc. Because references to the units of the old British customary imperial units are still found, the following discussion describes the differences between the U.S. and British customary systems.

A further difference between the systems in use in the two countries is that in [[cooking weights and measures]], much more use is made of volume measures (cups and spoons) in the US, whereas in the UK quantities of dry ingredients are usually specified by weight; cup and spoon measurements are sometimes given, but these are not the same as the US standard cups and spoons, and in traditional recipes probably just reflect a favourite cup that the cook had to hand.

== Measures of length ==
After [[1959]], the U.S. and the British [[inch]] were defined identically for scientific work and were identical in commercial usage (however, the U.S. retained the slightly different ''survey inch'' for specialized [[surveying]] purposes). The tables of length, such as 12 inches = 1 foot, 3 feet = 1 yard, and 1760 yards = 1 international [[mile]], were the same in both countries, though some of the intermediate units such as the chain (22 yards) and the furlong (220 yards) were more used in Britain than in the U.S.

== Measures of volume==
The present British gallon and bushel--known as the "Imperial gallon" and "Imperial bushel"--are, respectively, about
20 percent and 3 percent larger than the United States gallon and bushel. The Imperial gallon is defined as the volume
of 10 avoirdupois pounds of water under specified conditions, and the Imperial bushel is defined as 8 Imperial gallons.
Also, the subdivision of the Imperial gallon as presented in the table of British apothecaries' fluid measure differs in two important respects from the corresponding United States subdivision, in that the Imperial gallon is divided into 160 fluid ounces (whereas the United States gallon is divided into 128 fluid ounces), and a "fluid scruple" is included.

The full table of British measures of capacity (which are used alike for liquid and for dry commodities) is as follows:
*4 gills = 1 pint
*2 pints = 1 quart
*4 quarts = 1 gallon
*2 gallons = 1 peck
*8 gallons (4 pecks) = 1 bushel
*8 bushels = 1 quarter

The full table of British apothecaries' measure is as follows:
*20 minims = 1 fluid scruple
*3 fluid scruples = 1 fluid drachm = 60 minims
*8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce
*20 fluid ounces = 1 pint
*8 pints = 1 gallon (160 fluid ounces)

The origins of these differences lie in the variety of systems that were in use in Britain at the time of the establishment of the first colonies in North America. The American colonists adopted the English wine gallon of 231 cubic inches, and used it for all purposes. The English of that period used this wine gallon, but they also had another gallon, the ale gallon of 282 cubic inches. In 1824, the British abandoned these two gallons when they adopted the British Imperial gallon, which they defined as the volume of 10 pounds of water, at a temperature of 62°F, which, by calculation, is equivalent to 277.42 cubic inches - much closer to the ale gallon than the wine gallon. At the same time, they redefined the bushel as 8 gallons.

As noted above, in the customary British system the units of dry measure are the same as those of liquid measure. In the United States these two are not the same, the gallon and its subdivisions are used in the measurement of liquids; the bushel, with its subdivisions, is used in the measurement of certain dry commodities. The U.S. gallon is divided into four liquid [[quart]]s and the U.S. bushel into 32 dry quarts. All the units of capacity or volume mentioned thus far are larger in the customary British system than in the U.S. system. But the British fluid ounce is smaller than the U.S. fluid ounce, because the British quart is divided into 40 fluid ounces whereas the U.S. quart is divided into 32 fluid ounces.

From this we see that in the customary British system an avoirdupois ounce of water at 62°F has a volume of one fluid ounce, because 10 pounds is equivalent to 160 avoirdupois ounces, and 1 gallon is equivalent to 4 quarts, or 160 fluid ounces. This convenient relation does not exist in the U.S. system because a U.S. gallon of water at 62°F weighs about 8 1/3 pounds, or 133 1/3 avoirdupois ounces, and the U.S. gallon is equivalent to 4 x 32, or 128 fluid ounces.

* 1 U.S. fluid ounce = 1.041 British fluid ounces
* 1 British fluid ounce = 0.961 U.S. fluid ounce
* 1 U.S. gallon = 0.833 British Imperial gallon
* 1 British Imperial gallon = 1.201 U.S. gallons

In the apothecary system of liquid measure the British add a unit, the fluid scruple, equal to one third of a fluid drachm (spelled dram in the United States) between their minim and their fluid drachm.

==Measures of weight and mass==
A discussion of differences between countries is complicated by the fact that both Britain and the U.S. have made some use of three different weight systems, [[troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.

Among other differences between the customary British and the United States measurement systems, we should note that the use of the troy pound was abolished in Britain on January 6, 1879, with only the troy ounce and its subdivisions retained, whereas the troy pound (of 12 troy ounces) is still legal in the United States, although it is not now greatly used. Another important difference is the universal use in Britain, for body weight, of the stone of 14 pounds, this being a unit now unused in the United States, although its influence was shown in the practice until World War II of selling flour by the barrel of 196 pounds (14 stone).

In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it. The avoirdupois pound, the troy pound, and the apothecaries' pound are identical in Britain and the United States. The tables of British troy mass, and apothecaries' mass are the same as the corresponding United States tables, except for the British spelling "drachm" in the table of apothecaries' mass. The table of British avoirdupois mass is the same as the United States table up to 1 pound; above
that point the table reads:
*14 pounds = 1 stone
*2 stones = 1 quarter = 28 pounds
*4 quarters = 1 hundredweight = 112 pounds
*20 hundredweight = 1 ton = 2240 pounds
Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (known in the US as a "long ton", whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds.

----
Based on Appendices B and C of NIST Handbook 44. (Being a U.S. Government publication, it is presumably public domain).

Pazifischer Kabeljau

2003-12-17T07:07:57Z

Seglea: taxotable and links

<table border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpading="2">
<tr><th align="center" bgcolor=pink>'''Pacific Cod'''</th></tr>
<tr><th align="center" bgcolor=pink>'''[[Scientific classification]]'''</th></tr>
<tr><td>
<table align="center">
<tr><td>[[Kingdom (biology)|Kingdom]]:</td><td>[[Animal]]ia</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Phylum (biology)|Phylum]]:</td><td>[[Chordate|Chordata]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Class (biology)|Class]]:</td><td>[[Actinopterygii]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Order (biology)|Order]]:</td><td>[[Gadiformes]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Family (biology)|Family]]:</td><td>[[Gadidae]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Genus]]:</td><td>''[[Gadus]]''</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Species]]:</td><td>'''''macrocephalus'''''</td></tr>
</table>
</td></tr>
<tr><th align="center" bgcolor=pink>'''[[Binomial name]]'''</th></tr>
<tr><td>''Gadus macrocephalus''
</td></tr></table>

The '''Pacific Cod''' (''Gadus macrocephalus'') is an important commercial food species. It is also known as gray cod, gray goo, gray wolf, grayest or grayfish. It has three separate [[dorsal fin]]s, and the [[catfish]]-like whiskers on it lower jaw. In appearance, it is similar to the [[Atlantic Cod]]. A bottom dweller, it is mainly found mainly along the continental shelf and upper slopes with range around the rim of the North [[Pacific Ocean]], from the [[Yellow Sea]] to the [[Bering Strait]], along the [[Aleutian Islands]], and south to about [[Los Angeles]], up to the depths of 900 meters. May grow up to 48–49 cm and weigh up to 15kg. It is found in huge schools. In Northwest Pacific catches of Pacific cod by the [[USA]] trawl fishery and joint-venture fisheries increased from less than 1,000 t in [[1979]] to nearly 91,000 t in [[1984]] and reached 430 196 t in [[1995]].

Benutzer:Elrond/Britisches Einheitensystem

2003-12-16T06:12:13Z

Seglea: link to good article on cooking weights

In [[metrology]], '''Imperial units''' (also called '''British units''') are the measurement [[unit]]s that were generally used in the British [[The Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] countries in the past.

==Relation to other systems==
Most Imperial units had the same names as to the units that are still predominantly used in the [[United States]] (see [[U.S. customary units]]). Unfortunately, the detailed definitions differed, and in some cases the differences are substantial. The Commonwealth countries have since switched to the [[SI]] system of units. In the [[United Kingdom]], some imperial units are still retained (e.g. miles in road signs), but the use of metric (SI) units is increasingly mandated by law for the sale of food etc. Because references to the units of the old British customary imperial units are still found, the following discussion describes the differences between the U.S. and British customary systems.

A further difference between the systems in use in the two countries is that in [[cooking weights and measures]], much more use is made of volume measures (cups and spoons) in the US, whereas in the UK quantities of dry ingredients are usually specified by weight; cup and spoon measurements are sometimes given, but these are not the same as the US standard cups and spoons, and in traditional recipes probably just reflect a favourite cup that the cook had to hand.

== Measures of length ==
After [[1959]], the U.S. and the British [[inch]] were defined identically for scientific work and were identical in commercial usage (however, the U.S. retained the slightly different ''survey inch'' for specialized [[surveying]] purposes). The tables of length, such as 12 inches = 1 foot, 3 feet = 1 yard, and 1760 yards = 1 international [[mile]], were the same in both countries, though some of the intermediate units such as the chain (22 yards) and the furlong (220 yards) were more used in Britain than in the U.S.

== Measures of volume==
The present British gallon and bushel--known as the "Imperial gallon" and "Imperial bushel"--are, respectively, about
20 percent and 3 percent larger than the United States gallon and bushel. The Imperial gallon is defined as the volume
of 10 avoirdupois pounds of water under specified conditions, and the Imperial bushel is defined as 8 Imperial gallons.
Also, the subdivision of the Imperial gallon as presented in the table of British apothecaries' fluid measure differs in two important respects from the corresponding United States subdivision, in that the Imperial gallon is divided into 160 fluid ounces (whereas the United States gallon is divided into 128 fluid ounces), and a "fluid scruple" is included.

The full table of British measures of capacity (which are used alike for liquid and for dry commodities) is as follows:
*4 gills = 1 pint
*2 pints = 1 quart
*4 quarts = 1 gallon
*2 gallons = 1 peck
*8 gallons (4 pecks) = 1 bushel
*8 bushels = 1 quarter

The full table of British apothecaries' measure is as follows:
*20 minims = 1 fluid scruple
*3 fluid scruples = 1 fluid drachm = 60 minims
*8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce
*20 fluid ounces = 1 pint
*8 pints = 1 gallon (160 fluid ounces)

The origins of these differences lie in the variety of systems that were in use in Britain at the time of the establishment of the first colonies in North America. The American colonists adopted the English wine gallon of 231 cubic inches, and used it for all purposes. The English of that period used this wine gallon, but they also had another gallon, the ale gallon of 282 cubic inches. In 1824, the British abandoned these two gallons when they adopted the British Imperial gallon, which they defined as the volume of 10 pounds of water, at a temperature of 62°F, which, by calculation, is equivalent to 277.42 cubic inches - much closer to the ale gallon than the wine gallon. At the same time, they redefined the bushel as 8 gallons.

As noted above, in the customary British system the units of dry measure are the same as those of liquid measure. In the United States these two are not the same, the gallon and its subdivisions are used in the measurement of liquids; the bushel, with its subdivisions, is used in the measurement of certain dry commodities. The U.S. gallon is divided into four liquid [[quart]]s and the U.S. bushel into 32 dry quarts. All the units of capacity or volume mentioned thus far are larger in the customary British system than in the U.S. system. But the British fluid ounce is smaller than the U.S. fluid ounce, because the British quart is divided into 40 fluid ounces whereas the U.S. quart is divided into 32 fluid ounces.

From this we see that in the customary British system an avoirdupois ounce of water at 62°F has a volume of one fluid ounce, because 10 pounds is equivalent to 160 avoirdupois ounces, and 1 gallon is equivalent to 4 quarts, or 160 fluid ounces. This convenient relation does not exist in the U.S. system because a U.S. gallon of water at 62°F weighs about 8 1/3 pounds, or 133 1/3 avoirdupois ounces, and the U.S. gallon is equivalent to 4 x 32, or 128 fluid ounces.

* 1 U.S. fluid ounce = 1.041 British fluid ounces
* 1 British fluid ounce = 0.961 U.S. fluid ounce
* 1 U.S. gallon = 0.833 British Imperial gallon
* 1 British Imperial gallon = 1.201 U.S. gallons

In the apothecary system of liquid measure the British add a unit, the fluid scruple, equal to one third of a fluid drachm (spelled dram in the United States) between their minim and their fluid drachm.

==Measures of weight and mass==
A discussion of differences between countries is complicated by the fact that both Britain and the U.S. have made some use of three different weight systems, [[troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.

Among other differences between the customary British and the United States measurement systems, we should note that the use of the troy pound was abolished in Britain on January 6, 1879, with only the troy ounce and its subdivisions retained, whereas the troy pound (of 12 troy ounces) is still legal in the United States, although it is not now greatly used. Another important difference is the universal use in Britain, for body weight, of the stone of 14 pounds, this being a unit now unused in the United States, although its influence was shown in the practice until World War II of selling flour by the barrel of 196 pounds (14 stone).

The avoirdupois pound, the troy pound, and the apothecaries' pound are identical in Britain and the United States. The tables of British troy mass, and apothecaries' mass are the same as the corresponding United States tables, except for the British spelling "drachm" in the table of
apothecaries' mass. The table of British avoirdupois mass is the same as the United States table up to 1 pound; above
that point the table reads:
*14 pounds = 1 stone
*2 stones = 1 quarter = 28 pounds
*4 quarters = 1 hundredweight = 112 pounds
*20 hundredweight = 1 ton = 2240 pounds
Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (known in the US as a "long ton", whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds.

----
Based on Appendices B and C of NIST Handbook 44. (Being a U.S. Government publication, it is presumably public domain).

Union Bay Natural Area

2003-11-30T05:01:54Z

Seglea: inserted geographical information

'''University Slough''' is one of three [[drainage]] channels constructed for the East Campus of the [[University of Washington]], in [[Seattle]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[U.S.|USA]]. It extends from 45th Street south to the marshes of [[Union Bay]], ending at [[Wahkiakum_County,_Washington|Wahkiakum Lane]].

The [[slough]] was [[excavation|excavated]] through what used to be the Montlake [[Landfill]]. Formerly the Ravenna Landfill, it was used by the city of [[Seattle]] for residential and industrial [[solid waste]] from [[1926]] to [[1966]]. It was closed five years later and overlaid with two feet of clean [[soil]]. Some of the land has been built upon by the University; the rest consists of [[marsh]], [[wetlands]], and the college's main parking lot.

Before the lowering of [[Lake Washington]] during the early part of the [[20th century]], [[Ravenna Creek]] flowed into marshland north of where University Slough now terminates, and the land through which the slough would be cut lay under the waters of Union Bay. Construction is due to begin in [[2004]] on a project that would reconnect Ravenna Creek to Union Bay by piping it underground to University Slough, thus converting it from a stagnant drainage channel to the outfall for one of Seattle's urban [[creek]]s.

Liste lateinischer und griechischer Wörter in der biologischen Systematik

2003-11-29T03:30:20Z

Seglea: added alba

This '''list of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names''' is intended to help those unfamiliar with classical languages understand and remember the scientific names of organisms.

The [[binomial nomenclature]] used for animals and plants, and the names used for higher [[taxon|taxa]] such as [[family (biology)|families]] and [[order (biology)|orders]], is largely derived from [[Latin]]. At the time when [[Linnaeus]] devised the hierarchical [[scientific classification]] of living things, Latin was the international language of science, so it was natural that he should use the Latin name of each animal as its definitive scientific name. Although Latin is now largely unused except by [[classicist]]s, the use of Latin names remains. It is helpful to the non-classicist to be able to understand the commoner words that arise in scientific names, and the table lists some of these; while the Latin names do not always correspond to the current English common names, they are often related, and if their meanings are understood they are easier to recall.

Often a [[genus]] or [[species]] name is simply the Latin or Greek name for the animal (e.g. ''Canis'' is Latin for a dog). These words are not included in the table below, because they will only occur for one or two taxa. The words listed below are the common adjectives and other modifiers that turn up repeatedly in the systematic names of many organisms.

Not all the words or parts of words used in scientific names for living things are derived from Latin. Some are derived from [[Ancient Greek]], some from languages local to the places where the organisms are found, and many from the names of the people who first described a species or other taxon. However all are treated grammatically as if they were Latin words. In particular this means that to indicate possession, the endings ''-a'' and ''-us'' turn into ''-ae'' and ''-i'' respectively , and non-Latin names of people add ''-i'' if male and ''-ae'' if female. So "Humboldt's penguin" has the binomial name ''Spheniscus humboldti''. Note too, from this example, that despite the fact that Humboldt is a proper name, the rule that species names do not have a capital letter takes precedence. The list includes personal names only where their Latin form is markedly different from their English or other original language form, so that it might be difficult to guess the relationship. Words that are very similar to their English forms are not included.

Note that not all the attributions to languages in this table are authoritative.

<table border=1>
<tr><td>'''Latin/Greek<br>word or part word'''</td>
<td>'''language'''<br>L=Latin<br>G=Greek<br>LG=similar in<br>both languages</td><td>'''English translation'''</td></tr>
<tr><td>''alba''</td><td>L</td><td>white</td></tr>
<tr><td>''arcturus''</td><td>L</td><td>northern</td></tr>
<tr><td>''argentatus''</td><td>L</td><td>silvery</td></tr>
<tr><td>''australis''</td><td>L</td><td>southern</td></tr>
<tr><td>''carbo''</td><td>L</td><td>coal</td></tr>
<tr><td>''caudatus''</td><td>L</td><td>tailed</td></tr>
<tr><td>''cephalus''</td><td>G</td><td>head</td></tr>
<tr><td>''chloro''</td><td>G</td><td>green</td></tr>
<tr><td>''cristatus''</td><td>L</td><td>crested</td></tr>
<tr><td>''cyano''</td><td>G</td><td>purple</td></tr>
<tr><td>''dactylus''</td><td>G</td><td>finger or toe</td></tr>
<tr><td>''dermis''</td><td>G</td><td>skin</td></tr>
<tr><td>''di-''</td><td>G</td><td>two-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''domesticus''</td><td>L</td><td>domestic or house</td></tr>
<tr><td>''dorsalis''</td><td>L</td><td>back</td></tr>
<tr><td>''echinus''</td><td>G</td><td>spine</td></tr>
<tr><td>''erythro''</td><td>G</td><td>red</td></tr>
<tr><td>''familiaris''</td><td>L</td><td>common</td></tr>
<tr><td>''fulvus''</td><td>L</td><td>yellow</td></tr>
<tr><td>''hibernicus''</td><td>L</td><td>Irish</td></tr>
<tr><td>''lateralis''</td><td>L</td><td>side</td></tr>
<tr><td>''leucus''</td><td>G</td><td>white</td></tr>
<tr><td>''ludovicani''</td><td>L</td><td>Lewis's</td></tr>
<tr><td>''major''</td><td>L</td><td>greater</td></tr>
<tr><td>''maximus''</td><td>L</td><td>largest</td></tr>
<tr><td>''melanus''</td><td>G</td><td>black</td></tr>
<tr><td>''minimus''</td><td>L</td><td>smallest</td></tr>
<tr><td>''minor''</td><td>L</td><td>smaller</td></tr>
<tr><td>''mono-''</td><td>G</td><td>one-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''morphus''</td><td>G</td><td>shape</td></tr>
<tr><td>''niger''</td><td>L</td><td>black</td></tr>
<tr><td>''novaehollandiae''</td><td>L</td><td>Australian</td></tr>
<tr><td>''novaesellandiae''</td><td>L</td><td>New Zealand</td></tr>
<tr><td>''obscurus''</td><td>L</td><td>dark</td></tr>
<tr><td>''occidentalis''</td><td>L</td><td>western</td></tr>
<tr><td>''orientalis''</td><td>L</td><td>eastern</td></tr>
<tr><td>''parvus''</td><td>L</td><td>small</td></tr>
<tr><td>''pelagius''</td><td>G</td><td>oceanic</td></tr>
<tr><td>''penta-''</td><td>G</td><td>five-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''punctatus''</td><td>L</td><td>spotted</td></tr>
<tr><td>''rufus''</td><td>L</td><td>red</td></tr>
<tr><td>''saurus''</td><td>G</td><td>lizard</td></tr>
<tr><td>''striatus''</td><td>L</td><td>striped</td></tr>
<tr><td>''tetra-''</td><td>G</td><td>four-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''tri-''</td><td>G</td><td>three-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''ventrus''</td><td>L</td><td>belly</td></tr>
<tr><td>''vulgaris''</td><td>L</td><td>common</td></tr>
<tr><td>'' ''</td><td></td><td></td></tr>

</table>

Allegany State Park

2003-11-27T18:35:33Z

Seglea: link to state park

<b>Allegany State Park</b> is a [[state park]] in [[New York state]], located in [[Cattaraugus County, New York|Cattaraugus County]], just above the [[Allegany National Forest]] in [[Pennsylvania]]. The park is divided into two sections: Red House and Quaker.

:The <b>Red House Area</b> is the upper half of <b>Allegany State Park</b>. It is usualy considerd to be the most developed area of the park. The <b>Red House area</b>'s attractions include: Stone Tower, the Summit Fire Tower, Red House Lake, and the Art Roscow Ski Area. Not to mention several [[hiking]] trails and camp sites.

:<b>The Quaker area</b>, unlike the Red House area is located in the lower section of the park. It's atractions include: Quaker Lake, the Mount Tuskarora Fire Tower, [[hiking]] trails, Science lake, and of course several camp sites.

=== External Links ===

[http://www.nysparks.state.ny.us/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/nysparks/parks.cgi?p+33 Basic Recreation Information]

River Teign

2003-11-27T07:28:20Z

Seglea: add Newton Abbot

The '''River Teign''' is a river in the [[county]] of [[Devon]], [[England]].

Like many Devon rivers, the Teign rises on [[Dartmoor]], near [[Cranmere Pool]]. Its course on the moor is crossed by several [[clapper bridge]]s. It leaves the moor at its northern side, flowing beneath [[Castle Drogo]] in a steep-sided valley. It then flows southwards at the east edge of the moor. The river becomes tidal at [[Newton Abbot]], and reaches the [[English Channel]] at [[Teignmouth]]. Its estuary is a large [[ria]].

This is a [[stub]]

River Teign

2003-11-27T01:56:02Z

Seglea: a stub, I'll add more later

The '''River Teign''' is a river in the [[county]] of [[Devon]], [[England]].

Like many Devon rivers, the Teign rises on [[Dartmoor]], near [[Cranmere Pool]]. Its course on the moor is crossed by several [[clapper bridge]]s. It leaves the moor at its northern side, flowing beneath [[Castle Drogo]] in a steep-sided valley. It then flows southwards, reaching the [[English Channel]] at [[Teignmouth]]. Its estuary is a large [[ria]].

This is a [[stub]]

Liste lateinischer und griechischer Wörter in der biologischen Systematik

2003-11-24T17:30:50Z

Seglea: 1 correction, 1 addition

This '''list of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names''' is intended to help those unfamiliar with classical languages understand and remember the scientific names of organisms.

The [[binomial nomenclature]] used for animals and plants, and the names used for higher [[taxon|taxa]] such as [[family (biology)|families]] and [[order (biology)|orders]], is largely derived from [[Latin]]. At the time when [[Linnaeus]] devised the hierarchical [[scientific classification]] of living things, Latin was the international language of science, so it was natural that he should use the Latin name of each animal as its definitive scientific name. Although Latin is now largely unused except by [[classicist]]s, the use of Latin names remains. It is helpful to the non-classicist to be able to understand the commoner words that arise in scientific names, and the table lists some of these; while the Latin names do not always correspond to the current English common names, they are often related, and if their meanings are understood they are easier to recall.

Often a [[genus]] or [[species]] name is simply the Latin or Greek name for the animal (e.g. ''Canis'' is Latin for a dog). These words are not included in the table below, because they will only occur for one or two taxa. The words listed below are the common adjectives and other modifiers that turn up repeatedly in the systematic names of many organisms.

Not all the words or parts of words used in scientific names for living things are derived from Latin. Some are derived from [[Ancient Greek]], some from languages local to the places where the organisms are found, and many from the names of the people who first described a species or other taxon. However all are treated grammatically as if they were Latin words. In particular this means that to indicate possession, the endings ''-a'' and ''-us'' turn into ''-ae'' and ''-i'' respectively , and non-Latin names of people add ''-i'' if male and ''-ae'' if female. So "Humboldt's penguin" has the binomial name ''Spheniscus humboldti''. Note too, from this example, that despite the fact that Humboldt is a proper name, the rule that species names do not have a capital letter takes precedence. The list includes personal names only where their Latin form is markedly different from their English or other original language form, so that it might be difficult to guess the relationship. Words that are very similar to their English forms are not included.

Note that not all the attributions to languages in this table are authoritative.

<table border=1>
<tr><td>'''Latin/Greek<br>word or part word'''</td>
<td>'''language'''<br>L=Latin<br>G=Greek<br>LG=similar in<br>both languages</td><td>'''English translation'''</td></tr>
<tr><td>''arcturus''</td><td>L</td><td>northern</td></tr>
<tr><td>''argentatus''</td><td>L</td><td>silvery</td></tr>
<tr><td>''australis''</td><td>L</td><td>southern</td></tr>
<tr><td>''carbo''</td><td>L</td><td>coal</td></tr>
<tr><td>''caudatus''</td><td>L</td><td>tailed</td></tr>
<tr><td>''cephalus''</td><td>G</td><td>head</td></tr>
<tr><td>''chloro''</td><td>G</td><td>green</td></tr>
<tr><td>''cristatus''</td><td>L</td><td>crested</td></tr>
<tr><td>''cyano''</td><td>G</td><td>purple</td></tr>
<tr><td>''dactylus''</td><td>G</td><td>finger or toe</td></tr>
<tr><td>''dermis''</td><td>G</td><td>skin</td></tr>
<tr><td>''di-''</td><td>G</td><td>two-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''domesticus''</td><td>L</td><td>domestic or house</td></tr>
<tr><td>''dorsalis''</td><td>L</td><td>back</td></tr>
<tr><td>''echinus''</td><td>G</td><td>spine</td></tr>
<tr><td>''erythro''</td><td>G</td><td>red</td></tr>
<tr><td>''familiaris''</td><td>L</td><td>common</td></tr>
<tr><td>''fulvus''</td><td>L</td><td>yellow</td></tr>
<tr><td>''hibernicus''</td><td>L</td><td>Irish</td></tr>
<tr><td>''lateralis''</td><td>L</td><td>side</td></tr>
<tr><td>''leucus''</td><td>G</td><td>white</td></tr>
<tr><td>''ludovicani''</td><td>L</td><td>Lewis's</td></tr>
<tr><td>''major''</td><td>L</td><td>greater</td></tr>
<tr><td>''maximus''</td><td>L</td><td>largest</td></tr>
<tr><td>''melanus''</td><td>G</td><td>black</td></tr>
<tr><td>''minimus''</td><td>L</td><td>smallest</td></tr>
<tr><td>''minor''</td><td>L</td><td>smaller</td></tr>
<tr><td>''mono-''</td><td>G</td><td>one-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''morphus''</td><td>G</td><td>shape</td></tr>
<tr><td>''niger''</td><td>L</td><td>black</td></tr>
<tr><td>''novaehollandiae''</td><td>L</td><td>Australian</td></tr>
<tr><td>''novaesellandiae''</td><td>L</td><td>New Zealand</td></tr>
<tr><td>''obscurus''</td><td>L</td><td>dark</td></tr>
<tr><td>''occidentalis''</td><td>L</td><td>western</td></tr>
<tr><td>''orientalis''</td><td>L</td><td>eastern</td></tr>
<tr><td>''parvus''</td><td>L</td><td>small</td></tr>
<tr><td>''pelagius''</td><td>G</td><td>oceanic</td></tr>
<tr><td>''penta-''</td><td>G</td><td>five-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''punctatus''</td><td>L</td><td>spotted</td></tr>
<tr><td>''rufus''</td><td>L</td><td>red</td></tr>
<tr><td>''saurus''</td><td>G</td><td>lizard</td></tr>
<tr><td>''striatus''</td><td>L</td><td>striped</td></tr>
<tr><td>''tetra-''</td><td>G</td><td>four-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''tri-''</td><td>G</td><td>three-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''ventrus''</td><td>L</td><td>belly</td></tr>
<tr><td>''vulgaris''</td><td>L</td><td>common</td></tr>
<tr><td>'' ''</td><td></td><td></td></tr>

</table>

Liste lateinischer und griechischer Wörter in der biologischen Systematik

2003-11-24T09:01:43Z

Seglea: a few more

This '''list of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names''' is intended to help those unfamiliar with classical languages understand and remember the scientific names of organisms.

The [[binomial nomenclature]] used for animals and plants, and the names used for higher [[taxon|taxa]] such as [[family (biology)|families]] and [[order (biology)|orders]], is largely derived from [[Latin]]. At the time when [[Linnaeus]] devised the hierarchical [[scientific classification]] of living things, Latin was the international language of science, so it was natural that he should use the Latin name of each animal as its definitive scientific name. Although Latin is now largely unused except by [[classicist]]s, the use of Latin names remains. It is helpful to the non-classicist to be able to understand the commoner words that arise in scientific names, and the table lists some of these; while the Latin names do not always correspond to the current English common names, they are often related, and if their meanings are understood they are easier to recall.

Often a [[genus]] or [[species]] name is simply the Latin or Greek name for the animal (e.g. ''Canis'' is Latin for a dog). These words are not included in the table below, because they will only occur for one or two taxa. The words listed below are the common adjectives and other modifiers that turn up repeatedly in the systematic names of many organisms.

Not all the words or parts of words used in scientific names for living things are derived from Latin. Some are derived from [[Ancient Greek]], some from languages local to the places where the organisms are found, and many from the names of the people who first described a species or other taxon. However all are treated grammatically as if they were Latin words. In particular this means that to indicate possession, the endings ''-a'' and ''-us'' turn into ''-ae'' and ''-i'' respectively , and non-Latin names of people add ''-i'' if male and ''-ae'' if female. So "Humboldt's penguin" has the binomial name ''Spheniscus humboldti''. Note too, from this example, that despite the fact that Humboldt is a proper name, the rule that species names do not have a capital letter takes precedence. The list includes personal names only where their Latin form is markedly different from their English or other original language form, so that it might be difficult to guess the relationship. Words that are very similar to their English forms are not included.

<table border=1>
<tr><td>'''Latin/Greek<br>word or part word'''</td>
<td>'''language'''<br>L=Latin<br>G=Greek<br>LG=similar in<br>both languages</td><td>'''English translation'''</td></tr>
<tr><td>''arcturus''</td><td>L</td><td>northern</td></tr>
<tr><td>''argentatus''</td><td>L</td><td>silvery</td></tr>
<tr><td>''australis''</td><td>L</td><td>southern</td></tr>
<tr><td>''carbo''</td><td>L</td><td>coal</td></tr>
<tr><td>''caudatus''</td><td>L</td><td>tailed</td></tr>
<tr><td>''cephalus''</td><td>G</td><td>head</td></tr>
<tr><td>''cristatus''</td><td>L</td><td>crested</td></tr>
<tr><td>''cyano''</td><td></td><td>green</td></tr>
<tr><td>''dactylus''</td><td>G</td><td>finger or toe</td></tr>
<tr><td>''dermis''</td><td>G</td><td>skin</td></tr>
<tr><td>''di-''</td><td>G</td><td>two-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''domesticus''</td><td>L</td><td>domestic or house</td></tr>
<tr><td>''dorsalis''</td><td>L</td><td>back</td></tr>
<tr><td>''echinus''</td><td>G</td><td>spine</td></tr>
<tr><td>''erythro''</td><td>G</td><td>red</td></tr>
<tr><td>''familiaris''</td><td>L</td><td>common</td></tr>
<tr><td>''fulvus''</td><td>L</td><td>yellow</td></tr>
<tr><td>''hibernicus''</td><td>L</td><td>Irish</td></tr>
<tr><td>''lateralis''</td><td>L</td><td>side</td></tr>
<tr><td>''leucus''</td><td>G</td><td>white</td></tr>
<tr><td>''ludovicani''</td><td>L</td><td>Lewis's</td></tr>
<tr><td>''major''</td><td>L</td><td>greater</td></tr>
<tr><td>''maximus''</td><td>L</td><td>largest</td></tr>
<tr><td>''melanus''</td><td>G</td><td>black</td></tr>
<tr><td>''minimus''</td><td>L</td><td>smallest</td></tr>
<tr><td>''minor''</td><td>L</td><td>smaller</td></tr>
<tr><td>''mono-''</td><td>G</td><td>one-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''morphus''</td><td>G</td><td>shape</td></tr>
<tr><td>''niger''</td><td>L</td><td>black</td></tr>
<tr><td>''novaehollandiae''</td><td>L</td><td>Australian</td></tr>
<tr><td>''novaesellandiae''</td><td>L</td><td>New Zealand</td></tr>
<tr><td>''obscurus''</td><td>L</td><td>dark</td></tr>
<tr><td>''occidentalis''</td><td>L</td><td>western</td></tr>
<tr><td>''orientalis''</td><td>L</td><td>eastern</td></tr>
<tr><td>''parvus''</td><td>L</td><td>small</td></tr>
<tr><td>''pelagius''</td><td>G</td><td>oceanic</td></tr>
<tr><td>''penta-''</td><td>G</td><td>five-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''punctatus''</td><td>L</td><td>spotted</td></tr>
<tr><td>''rufus''</td><td>L</td><td>red</td></tr>
<tr><td>''saurus''</td><td>G</td><td>lizard</td></tr>
<tr><td>''striatus''</td><td>L</td><td>striped</td></tr>
<tr><td>''tetra-''</td><td>G</td><td>four-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''tri-''</td><td>G</td><td>three-</td></tr>
<tr><td>''ventrus''</td><td>L</td><td>belly</td></tr>
<tr><td>''vulgaris''</td><td>L</td><td>common</td></tr>
<tr><td>'' ''</td><td></td><td></td></tr>

</table>