Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski

2012-10-25T10:48:02Z

SamCardioNgo: added a space to 'cameinto'

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2012}}

{{Infobox writer
| name = Fyodor Dostoyevsky
| image = Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg
| caption = Portrait of Dostoyevsky in 1872 painted by [[Vasily Perov]]
| birth_name = Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1821|11|11}}
| birth_place = Moscow, [[Russian Empire]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1881|2|9|1821|11|11}}
| death_place = [[Saint Petersburg]], Russian Empire
| occupation =
| language =
| nationality = [[Russians|Russian]]
| period = 1846–1881
| genre = Novel, short story, journalism
| subject =
| movement = [[Realist literature|Realism]]
| notableworks =
{{plainlist | style=font-style: italic; |
* [[Notes from Underground]]
* [[Crime and Punishment]]
* [[The Idiot]]
* [[Demons (novel)|Demons]]
* [[The Brothers Karamazov]]
}}
| spouse =
{{plainlist |
* Maria Dmitriyevna Isayevna (1857–1864) [her death]
* [[Anna Grigoryevna Snitkina]]<br/>(1867–1881) [his death]
}}
| children = Sonya (1868)<br/> [[Lyubov Dostoyevskaya|Lyubov]] (1869–1926)<br/> Fyodor (1871–1922)<br/> Alexey (1875–1878)
| influences =
{{flatlist |
* [[Honore de Balzac|Balzac]]
* Bible
* [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]]
* [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]]
* [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]
* [[E.T.A. Hoffmann|Hoffmann]]
* [[Victor Hugo|Hugo]]
* [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]
* [[Plato]]
* [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]]
* [[Realism]]
* [[George Sand|Sand]]
* [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]]
* Socialism (until release)
* [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]
}}
| influenced =
{{flatlist |
* Virtually every Russian writer: [[Mikhail Bulgakov|Bulgakov]]
* [[Albert Camus|Camus]]
* [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]]
* [[Ayn Rand|Rand]]
* [[Philip K. Dick|Dick]]
* [[William Faulkner|Faulkner]]
* [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]
* [[Gabriel García Márquez|García Márquez]]
* [[Knut Hamsun|Hamsun]]
* [[Ernest Hemingway|Hemingway]]
* [[Hermann Hesse|Hesse]]
* [[James Joyce|Joyce]]
* [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]]
* [[Jack Kerouac|Kerouac]]
* [[Thomas Mann|Mann]]
* [[Vladimir Nabokov|Nabokov]]
* [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]
* [[Marcel Proust|Proust]]
* [[Ernesto Sabato|Sabato]]
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]
* [[Lev Shestov|Shestov]]
* [[Alexander Solzhenitsyn|Solzhenitsyn]]
* [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]]
* [[Virginia Woolf|Woolf]]
* [[Émile Zola|Zola]]
}}
| education = [[Military engineering-technical university]], St. Petersburg
| signature = Fyodor Dostoyevsky Signature.svg
}}

'''Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky'''{{ref|a|[note]}}({{lang-rus|Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский|p=ˈfʲodər mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ dəstɐˈjefskʲɪj|a=ru-Dostoevsky.ogg}}; 11 November 1821 – 9 February 1881{{ref|b|[note]}}), sometimes transliterated '''Dostoevsky''', was a Russian writer of novels, short stories and essays. Dostoyevsky's literary works explore human psychology in the troubled political, social and spiritual context of 19th-century Russia. Although Dostoyevsky began writing books in the mid-1850s, his most remembered production is that from his last years, including ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', ''[[The Idiot]]'' and ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''. He wrote eleven novels, three novellas, seventeen short novels and three essays, and is often acknowledged by literary critics as one of the greatest and most prominent psychologists in universal literature.<ref name="BritannicaRussianLit">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513793/Russian-literature|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=11 April 2008|title=Russian literature|quote=Dostoyevsky, who is generally regarded as one of the supreme psychologists in world literature, sought to demonstrate the compatibility of Christianity with the deepest truths of the psyche.}}</ref>

Dostoyevsky was born  in the Mariinsky hospital in Moscow, Russia. He was introduced to literature at an early age – fairy tales and legends, but also books by English, French, German and Russian authors. His mother's sudden death in 1837 devastated him. At around the same time, he left school to enter the [[Military Engineering-Technical University|Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute]]. Once he graduated, he worked as an engineer and briefly enjoyed a liberal lifestyle. He soon began to translate books to earn extra money. Around the mid-1840s he wrote his first novel, ''[[Poor Folk]]'', through which he joined St Petersburg's literary circles. In 1849 he was arrested for his involvement with the [[Petrashevsky Circle]], a progressive discussion group. He and other members were condemned to death, but the penalty proved to be a [[mock execution]] and the sentence was commuted to four years' [[Katorga|hard labour in Siberia]]. After his release, Dostoyevsky was forced to serve as a soldier, but was discharged from the military due to his ill health.

In the following years Dostoyevsky worked as a journalist, publishing and editing several magazines of his own and later a serial, ''[[A Writer's Diary]]''. When he began to travel around Western Europe, he struggled with financial issues because of his [[gambling addiction]] and, in consequence, had to face the humiliation of begging for money. He suffered from [[epilepsy]] throughout his adult life. Nevertheless, by means of his sheer energy and the volume of his work, he eventually became one of the most widely read and renowned Russian writers. His books have been translated into more than 170 languages and have sold around 15 million copies.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=7}} Dostoyevsky's lasting legacy has influenced a vast range of writers, from [[Anton Chekhov]] and [[James Joyce]] to [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Ayn Rand]], to name but a few.

== Early life ==

=== Childhood ===
[[File:Wki Dostoyevsky Street 2 Moscow Mariinsky Hospital.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Mariinsky Hospital in Moscow, Dostoyevsky's birthplace]]

Fyodor Dostoyevsky was born on 30 October 1821 (11 November 1821, according to the [[Gregorian Calendar]]), the second child of Mikhail Dostoyevsky and Maria Nechayeva. The Dostoyevskys were a multi-ethnical and multi-denominational Lithuanian noble family from the [[Pinsk]] region with roots back to the 16th century. Branches of the family included [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Catholic]] members, but Dostoyevsky's immediate ancestors had fallen on hard times and had been reduced to the class of non-monastic clergy. On his mother's side, Dostoyevsky was descended from a family of Russian merchants.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=9–35}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=6–22}}

Dostoyevsky's paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were priests in the Ukrainian town of Bratslava. Mikhail was expected to join the clergy, like his father, but instead of going into seminary, he ran away from home and broke with his family permanently. In 1809, twenty-year-old Mikhail was admitted to Moscow's Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy. He was assigned to a Moscow hospital where he served as a military doctor and in 1818 was appointed senior physician. In 1819, he married Maria Nechayeva. The following year he resigned from his post to accepted a new job at the Mariinsky Hospital for the poor. After the birth of his first two sons, [[Mikhail Dostoyevsky|Mikhail]] and Fyodor, he was promoted to collegiate assessor, a position that raised his legal status to nobility and enabled him to acquire a small estate in Darovoye, a town 150 [[verst]]s (about 150 km or 100 miles) away from Moscow. Dostoyevsky's parents had five more children afterwards.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=9–35}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=6–22}}

[[File:Dostoyevskys birthplace.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Dostoyevsky's birth house near the hospital]]
Dostoyevsky was raised in the family home on the grounds of the Mariinsky hospital. The family often visited their estate in Darovoye during the summers when he was a child. At the age of three he was introduced to heroic sagas, fairy tales and legends and – influenced by his nannies – he developed a deeply ingrained religious piety. His nanny Alina Frolovna and a family friend, the [[Serfdom in Russia| serf]] and farmer Marei from Darovoye, were influential figures in his childhood; Marei helped him deal with his [[hallucinations]], possibly caused by the [[Gothic fiction|Gothic literature]] that enthralled him. After discovering the hospital garden, which was separated by a large fence from the house private garden, Dostoyevsky would often talk with the patients, although his parents had forbidden him to have contact with them. He once encountered a nine-year-old girl who had been raped, something that traumatised him.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=9–35}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=23–54}}

As Dostoyevsky's parents valued education, his mother taught him to read and write, using the Bible, when he was four. One of the day's highlights was his parents' evening readings. They introduced him to Russian and world literature at an early age, including [[Nikolay Karamzin|Karamzin]]'s ''Russian Tales'', the writings of [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]] and [[Gavrila Derzhavin|Derzhavin]], [[Ann Radcliffe]]'s novels and the works of [[Friedrich Schiller]]. Dostoyevsky was impressed by Schiller's play ''[[Die Räuber|The Robbers]]'', which he saw when he was ten. He and his brother Mikhail also enjoyed Pushkin's poems and used to memorised them. Pushkin's death in 1837 was a shock for the whole family.<ref name="Dostoevsky. Biography">{{cite web|title=Dostoevsky. Biography|url=http://eng.md.spb.ru/dostoevsky/biography/?more|publisher=The F. M. Dostoevsky Literary Memorial Museum|language=Russian and English}}</ref>

In 1833, Dostoyevsky's father sent him to a  boarding school and, one year later, to the best private boarding school in Moscow, the "College for Noble Male Children", founded by Leonty Ivanovich Chermak.<ref name="Dostoevsky. Biography">{{cite web|title=Dostoevsky. Biography|url=http://eng.md.spb.ru/dostoevsky/biography/|publisher=The F. M. Dostoevsky Literary Memorial Museum|language=Russian and English}}</ref> His father had to take out loans and extend his private medical practice to pay for the high school fees. Dostoyevsky felt inferior to his aristocratic classmates at the Moscow school, something that was later reflected in some of his works, especially ''[[The Raw Youth|The Adolescent]]''.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=9–35}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=23–54}}

=== Youth ===
[[File:Image dost 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky as an engineer]]
On 27 September 1837 Dostoyevsky's mother died of [[tuberculosis]]. He contracted a serious throat disease soon afterwards and since then had a brittle voice. The previous May his parents had sent Fyodor and his brother Mikhail to St Petersburg to attend the [[Military Engineering-Technical University|Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute]], forcing the brothers to abandon their academic studies at the Moscow college for a military career.{{ref|e|[note]}} On the way to St Petersburg, Dostoyevsky witnessed a violent incident in a post house: a member of the military police beat a carter, who subsequently took out his anger on his horse, whipping ite r. Heferred to this incident in his serial ''[[A Writer's Diary]]''. Dostoyevsky entered the academy in 1838, but only with the help of family members, who – unknown to him – had paid the tuition fees. Mikhail was refused admission on account of his poor health  and was later sent to the Academy in [[Reval]], Estonia, so the two brothers had to break up.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=35–67}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=69–90}}

Dostoyevsky did not enjoy the academy, primarily because of his lack of interest in science, mathematics and military engineering and his preference for drawing and architecture. As his friend Konstantin Trutovsky once said, "There was no student in the entire institution with less of a military bearing than F. M. Dostoyevsky. He moved clumsily and jerkily; his uniform hung awkwardly on him; and his knapsack, shako and rifle all looked like some sort of fetter he had been forced to wear for a time and which lay heavily on him."{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=2}} Among his 120 classmates, who were mainly of Polish or Baltic-German descent, Dostoyevsky's character and interests made him an outsider: in contrast with many of his class fellows, he was brave and had a strong sense of justice, protected newcomers, aligned himself with teachers, criticised corruption among officers and helped poor farmers. Although he was a loner and lived in his own literary world, his classmates respected him. His reclusive way of life and his interest in religion earned him the nickname "Monk [[Photius]]".{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=35–67}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=69–111}}
[[File:Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute]]
Dostoyevsky's first epileptic fit may have occurred after learning of the death of his father on 16 June 1839,{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=59}} the cause of which was unclear. Officially, Dostoyevsky's father died of an [[apoplectic]] stroke, but Pavel Khotiaintsev, a landowner, claimed he had been killed by his own servants so that he could buy the property at a low price. Khotiaintsev's allegations, however, could not be verified because if they had been true, he would have inherited more land. After three investigations and almost a year later, a criminal court in [[Tula Oblast|Tula]] decided that Dostoyevsky's father died of natural causes, and the peasants were acquitted.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=109}} His son Fyodor continued with his difficult studies, passed his exams and obtained the rank of engineer cadet, which gave him the right to live away from the academy. After a short visit to his brother Mikhail in Reval, Fyodor frequently went to concerts, operas, theatres and ballets, and two of his friends initiated him into gambling.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=35–67}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=69–111}}

In August 1843 he became a draftsman (a job he found "as boring as potatoes"),{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=3}} and lived with Adolph Totleben in an apartment owned by a friend of his brother Mikhail, the German-Baltic Dr A. Riesenkampf.{{ref|c|[note]}} As he had done when he was a child, Dostoyevsky continued showing concern for the poor and the sick. He earned some badly-needed money by translating works of literature into Russian,{{sfn|Lavrin|1947|pp=10–11}} He graduated from the academy on 19 October 1844 as a lieutenant. Already in financial trouble, Dostoyevsky decided to write his own novel.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=35–67}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=69–111}}

== Career ==

=== Early career ===
[[File:Trutovsky 004.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky, 1847]]
In 1844, Dostoyevsky shared an apartment with [[Dmitry Grigorovich]], a friend from the academy, and began on his first novel, hoping to obtain a large readership to improve his finances. In a letter to his brother Mikhail he wrote, "It's simply a case of my novel covering all. If I fail in this, I'll hang myself."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/lettersoffyodorm00dostiala/lettersoffyodorm00dostiala_djvu.txt|title=Letters of Fyodor Michailovitch Dostoyevsky to his family and friends|author=Fyodor Dostoyevsky|accessdate=3 October 2012}}</ref> In May 1845 he finished the manuscript, ''[[Poor Folk]]'', and asked Grigorovich to read the novel aloud. Grigorovich was so impressed that the same night he took it to his friend the poet [[Nikolay Nekrasov]], who also became enthusiastic about it and called Dostoyevsky the "New Gogol". The next day, Nekrasov showed the manuscript to [[Vissarion Belinsky]], the most renowned and influential literary critic of the time. Skeptical at first, Belinsky was astonished after reading it, so much so that he described it as Russia's first "social novel".{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=73}} ''Poor Folk'' was released on 15 January 1846 in the [[almanac]] ''St Petersburg Collection'' and was an enormous commercial success.{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=113–57}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=69–103}}

Shortly after the publication of ''Poor Folk'', Dostoyevsky wrote his second novel, ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem|The Double]]'', during a visit to Reval. The book was published in February 1846, although it had already appeared in the journal ''Annals of the Fatherland'' on 30 January. In the 1840s, [[socialism]] began to be more influential in Russia, to the detriment of [[romanticism]] and [[idealism]]. Dostoyevsky, who discovered socialism around 1846, was initially influenced by the French socialists [[Charles Fourier|Fourier]], [[Cabet]], [[Proudhon]] and [[Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon|Saint Simon]]. Through his relationship with Belinsky, Dostoyevsky expanded his knowledge of the philosophy of socialism and was attracted to its logic, its sense of justice and its preoccupation with the destitute and disadvantaged. His relationship with Belinsky, however, became increasingly strained as Belinsky's [[atheism]] and dislike of religion clashed with Dostoyevsky's Orthodox beliefs, so he parted company with him and his associates. In his later books, Dostoyevsky focused on the issues of the existence of God and [[nihilism]], as well as the nature of human coexistence, the requirements of fraternity and the coherence between freedom and fortune.{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=159–82}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=69–103}}

As Dostoyevsky received negative reviews of his second novel, his health declined and he began to suffer more epileptic seizures. Despite this, he continued his prolific writing. From 1846 to 1848 he released a number of short stories in the magazine ''Annals of the Fatherland'', including "[[Mr. Prokharchin]]", "The Landlady", "A Weak Heart" and "[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]". Since these stories were unsuccessful, Dostoyevsky found himself in financial trouble yet again and so decided to join the [[Utopian Socialism|utopian socialist]] Betekov circle, a tight-knit community that helped him to survive. When the circle dissolved, Dostoyevsky befriended [[Apollon Maykov]] and his brother [[Valerian Maykov|Valerian]]; after the Valerian's death, Apollon became an important figure in Dostoyevsky's life. In 1846, on recommendation of the poet [[Aleksey Pleshcheyev]],{{sfn|Mochulsky|1967|pp=115–21}} he joined the [[Christian socialism|socio-Christian]] Petrashevsky Circle, founded by [[Mikhail Petrashevsky]], who had proposed social reforms in Russia. Dostoyevsky used the circle's library on Saturdays and Sundays, and sometimes participated in their discussions of themes like freedom from censorship and the abolition of [[Serfdom in Russia|serfdom]].{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=239–46, 259–346}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=69–103}}

=== Exile in Siberia ===
[[File:B pokrovsky kazn 1949.jpg|thumb|Before the mock execution, the members were split into three-man groups. Dostoyevsky is the third in the second row; next to him stand Pleshcheyev and Durov.]]

In 1849, Dostoyevsky and other members of the Petrashevsky Circle were reported to [[Ivan Petrovich Liprandi|Liprandi]], an official for the Ministry of International Affairs, by Antonelli, a government agent. Dostoyevsky was accused of reading several works by Belinsky, including ''Correspondence with Gogol'', ''Criminal Letters'' and ''The Soldier's Speech'', and of passing copies of these and other works. Antonelli wrote in his report, "[''Correspondence with Gogol''] summoned a considerable amount of enthusiastic approval from the society, in particular on the part of Belasoglo and Yastrzhembsky, especially at the point where Belinsky says that religion has no basis among the Russian people. It was proposed that this letter be distributed in several copies." He responded to these charges by stating that he had read the essays only "as a literary monument, neither more nor less" and argued about "personality and human egoism" instead of politics. But even so, he and his companions – deemed to be "conspirators" –{{sfn|Mochulsky|1967|pp=121–33}}{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=6–68}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=103–69}} were arrested on 22 April 1849 on the request of Count [[Alexey Fyodorovich Orlov|A. Orlov]] and Emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicolas I]], who feared a revolution like the [[Decembrist revolt|Decembrist revolt of 1825]] in Russia and the [[Revolutions of 1848]] in Europe.
On 23 December 1849, the members of the circle were brought to Semyonov Place in St Petersburg. A [[mock execution]] was staged and then cancelled by the Tsar. Dostoyevsky's sentence was commuted to four years of [[exile]] with hard labour at a [[katorga]] prison camp in [[Omsk]], [[Siberia]], followed by a term of compulsory military service. The prisoners were divided into groups of three, composed of one convict, one [[gendarmerie|gendarme]] and one military policeman. After a fourteen-day sleigh ride, they reached [[Tobolsk]] in Siberia. Eleven days later, Durov and Dostoyevsky reached Omsk,{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=6–68}} whose barracks he described as follows:
{{quote|In summer, intolerable closeness; in winter, unendurable cold. All the floors were rotten. Filth on the floors an inch thick; one could slip and fall ... We were packed like herrings in a barrel ... There was no room to turn around. From dusk to dawn it was impossible not to behave like pigs ... Fleas, lice, and black beetles by the bushel ... |Fyodor Dostoyevsky|Pisma, I: pp. 135–7.}}

Classified as "one of the most dangerous convicts", Dostoyevsky had his feet and hands permanently chained until his release. During his imprisonment, he was not allowed to read anything except his New Testament; he would randomly open its pages whenever in doubt. Apart from epileptic seizures, Dostoyevsky had haemorrhoids and was "burned by some fever, trembling and feeling too hot or too cold every night" and "losing weight".{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=131}}

=== Release from prison ===
[[File:Valikhanov.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky (right) and the [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] scholar [[Shokan Walikhanuli]] in 1859]]

After his release on 14 February 1854, Dostoyevsky asked his brother Mikhail to help him financially and to send him books by authors such as [[Giambattista Vico|Vico]], [[Guizot]], [[Ranke]], [[Hegel]] and [[Kant]].{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=8–20}} He also began to write ''[[The House of the Dead (novel)|The House of the Dead]]'', basing it on his experience in prison. It became the first novel about Russian prisons.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|pp=107–21}} The first parts of his third book, the novel ''[[Netochka Nezvanova (novel)|Netochka Nezvanova]]'', had been released in 1849, but the work had remained unfinished before he was banished. In mid-March, Dostoyevsky moved to [[Semy|Semipalatinsk]], where he was forced to serve in the Siberian Army Corps of the Seventh Line Battalion. Around this time, Dostoyevsky met Baron [[Wrangel family|Alexander Egorovich Wrangel]], an admirer of his books who had attended the mock execution. They both rented houses outside Semipalatinsk, in the "Cossack Garden".{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=165–267}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=171–213}}

In Semipalatinsk, Dostoyevsky began to work as tutor to several schoolchildren and so came into social contact with several upper-class families. This is how he made the acquaintance of Lieutenant-Colonel Belikhov, who used to invite him to read out passages from newspapers and magazines. During a visit to Belikhov, Dostoyevsky met the family of Alexander Ivanovich Isaev and Maria Dmitrievna Isaeva, and soon fell in love with her.
Alexander Isaev took a new post in [[Kuznetsk]], where he died in August 1855. Maria then moved with Dostoyevsky to [[Barnaul]].
Dostoyevsky sent a letter through Wrangel to General Eduard Totleben, apologising for his activity in several Utopian circles and, as a result, in 1856 he obtained the right to publish books and to marry. They married in Semipalatinsk on 7 February 1857.{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=175–221}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=171–213}} In 1859 Dostoyevsky was released from military service due to his medical condition as his health had worsened since his marriage. He was also granted permission to return to Russia, first to [[Tver]] – where he met his brother for the first time in ten years –, then on to St Petersburg. He arrived on 16 September 1859 and subsequently joined the Society for the Aid of Needy Writers and Scholars, known as the Literary Fund. Its goal was to help scholars and writers who were in trouble, such as those arrested on political grounds. He remained under police surveillance for the rest of his life.
[[File:Dostoevskij 1863.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Dostoyevsky in Paris (1863)]]

"A Little Hero" (Dostoyevsky's only work completed while in prison) was issued in a journal, while "Uncle's Dream" and "The Village of Stepanchikovo" were not published until 1860. ''[[Notes from the House of the Dead]]'' was released in ''Russky Mir'' ("Russian World") in September 1860; "The Insulted and the Injured", in the newly established ''[[Vremya (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine,{{ref|g|[note]}} which had been created with the help of funds from his brother's cigarette factory.{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=290 et seq}}{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=8–62}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=171–213}}

Dostoyevsky travelled to Western Europe for the first time in 1862. He visited the German cities of Cologne, Berlin, Dresden and Wiesbaden (where he went to gamble), went to Belgium afterwards and arrived in Paris in mid-June. In London he met [[Herzen]] and visited the [[The Crystal Palace|Crystal Palace]]; he travelled with Strakhov through Switzerland in July, visited Geneva, and then toured through cities in northern Italy, Turin, Livorno and Florence among them. He wrote mainly negative comments about these countries in ''Winter Notes on Summer Impressions'', where he criticised capitalism, [[Modernisation|social modernisation]], [[materialism]], Catholicism and Protestantism.{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=233–49}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=215–46}}

From August to October 1863 Dostoyevsky made a second trip to Western Europe. In Paris he met his second love, [[Apollinaria Suslova|Polina Suslova]]. Once again, he lost all his money gambling in Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden. He then wrote a letter to Wrangel, asking for a 100-[[thaler]] loan and mentioning, for the first time, his next novel. Dostoyevsky later asked his brother Mikhail for money and, after his brother's death in July 1864, he wrote again to Wrangel requesting money. Two months before his brother's death, Dostoyevsky's wife Maria died of tuberculosis, so he became the lone parent of his stepson Pasha and, almost immediately afterwards, of Mikhail's family. The fees for the financing of ''Epokha'' worsened his situation. But for the help of his relatives and friends, he would have gone bankrupt.{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=197–211, 283–94, 248–365}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=215–46}}

=== Travels ===
[[File:Annagrigdost.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Anna Snitkina]]]]
The first two parts of Dostoyevsky's sixth novel, ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', were published in January and February 1866 in the periodical ''[[The Russian Messenger]]'', bringing the magazine at least 500 new subscribers. The complete novel was also a success and the critic Strakhov remarked that "Only ''Crime and Punishment'' was read in 1866". However, the novel initially received a mixed reception from critics, with most of the negative responses coming from nihilists. [[Grigory Eliseev]] of the radical magazine ''[[The Contemporary]]'' called the novel a "fantasy according to which the entire student body is accused without exception of attempting murder and robbery". Strakhov was generally satisfied with the novel, stating that Dostoyevsky had managed to portray, aptly and realistically, a Russian person.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=60–182}}

In March 1866, Dostoyevsky moved with his brother-in-law Alexander Ivanov to a country house in [[Lyublino District|Lyublino]] to escape the heat of Moscow. He returned to St Petersburg in mid-September and promised his editor, F. T. Stellovsky, that he would complete the novel ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]'' by November, although he had not yet written a single line. Milyukov, one of Dostoyevsky's friends, advised him to hire a secretary. Dostoyevsky contacted Pavel Olkhin, one of the best [[stenography|stenographers]] in St Petersburg, who recommended his pupil [[Anna Snitkina|Anna Grigoryevna Snitkina]]. Dostoyevsky was Snitkina's favourite author, as well as that of her recently deceased father. He hired Snitkina in October 1866, she registered his dictation in shorthand and ''The Gambler'', a short novel focused on gambling (a subject with which he was very familiar), was completed within 26 days on 30 October (his birthday).{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=60–182}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=215–46}}
[[File:Casino Bad Homburg 1849.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Gambling "hell" in Bad Homburg]]

On 15 February 1867, Dostoyevsky married Anna Snitkina in the [[Trinity Cathedral, St. Petersburg|Trinity Cathedral]] in St Petersburg. During the wedding celebrations he suffered a serious convulsion, caused by heavy consumption of champagne. This plunged Anna – who also suffered from bad relationships with his relatives and their neighbours – into despair. The 7,000 rubles he had earned from ''Crime and Punishment'' did not cover all their debts so, to avoid a compulsory auction, Anna sold furniture, jewellery and her piano. On 14 April 1867, they began a delayed honeymoon in Germany with the money raised. In Berlin they stayed at the Hotel Union, and in Dresden Dostoyevsky visited the [[Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister]], where he sought inspiration for his writing. He was deeply impressed by the paintings, especially [[Raphael|Raphael]]'s ''[[Sistine Madonna]]''.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=151–202}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=247–88}}

Three weeks later Dostoyevsky travelled to [[Bad Homburg|Homburg]], where he lost all of his wife's money gambling. They continued their trip through Germany, visiting [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]], [[Darmstadt]], [[Heidelberg]] and [[Karlsruhe]]. In Baden-Baden, he persisted regardlessly in gambling in casinos, so Anna was forced to go to pawnbrokers and sell her wedding presents, earrings, clothes, and even their wedding rings. In the meantime, Anna became pregnant. On 23 August they left Baden-Baden and arrived in Basel to visit a museum, where they saw [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Holbein's]] ''[[The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb]]'', a painting that would be influential in his next novel, ''The Idiot''. Dostoyevsky was so captivated by the picture that his wife had to drag him away from the panel for fear of an epileptic seizure.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=184–212}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=247–88}}

In Geneva they were low on funds and had to pawn more of their possessions, but found lodging and good doctors. Their first child, Sonya, named after his beloved niece and the heroine in ''Crime and Punishment'', was born on 5 March 1868. Dostoyevsky occasionally gambled in Saxon-les-Bains to raise money but, as usual, he had no luck. Three months later the baby died from pneumonia and was buried in a children's cemetery in [[Plainpalais]]. Again in financial trouble due to his addiction, he returned to Geneva to work on his next novel.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=223–39}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=247–88}}

[[File:Fyodor Mikahailovich Dostoyevsky's Study in St Petersburg.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky's study in [[Saint Petersburg]]]]
In September 1868, Dostoyevsky started to work on ''[[The Idiot]]'', managing to complete 100 pages in just 23 days. Sonya's death was devastating to both him and his wife, and Anna's health was affected by frequent trips to her grave. Dostoyevsky felt uncomfortable with the surroundings, so they left Geneva and moved to [[Vevey]] and then to Milan, so that he could complete his novel. While in Milan, Anna learned Italian and sometimes served as an interpreter. After enduring some rainy autumn months in Milan, they travelled to Florence. ''The Idiot'' was completed there in January 1869 and serialised in ''The Russian Messenger''.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=241–363}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=274–309}}

In May, Anna's mother visited the family to help them. They moved to a more spacious apartment on the Piazza del Mercato Nuovo, but the busy location near a marketplace and the summer heat caused the Dostoyevskys a great deal of trouble, and so they decided to leave the city for Prague. On their way to Prague, they stayed in Bologna and in Vienna. Three days after their arrival in Prague, they had to leave again because they could not find a furnished apartment to rent. They decided to return to Dresden, where they rented a house in the English quarter.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=241–363}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=274–309}}

Shortly afterwards, Anna's mother came to assist her daughter in the upcoming birth of her second child. [[Lyubov Dostoyevskaya|Lyubov]], whose name means "love" in Russian, was born on 26 September 1869.{{ref|f|[note]}} In April 1871 Dostoyevsky made a final visit to a gambling hall in Wiesbaden. According to Anna, Dostoyevsky was cured of his addiction after the birth of their second daughter, but whether or not this is true is open to speculation. Another reason for his abstinence might have been the closure of casinos in Germany in 1872 and 1873. It was not until the rise of Adolf Hitler that these were reopened.

In 1871, Dostoyevsky and Anna travelled by train to Berlin. During this trip, he burnt numerous manuscripts, including those for ''The Idiot'', because he was afraid of problems when going through customs. The family arrived in St Petersburg on 8 July, marking the end of a honeymoon (originally planned to last for three months) that had lasted over four years.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=241–363}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=274–309}}

=== Return to Russia ===
[[File:Dostoyevsky The Demons Manuscript.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Manuscript of ''The Demons'']]
Anna's younger brother, Ivan Snitkin, visited his sister and her husband in autumn 1869. A pupil at the Moscow Agriculture School, Snitkin told them about the unrest among the students there. One of his fellow students, Ivanov, had helped him with his travel preparations, and Dostoyevksy later discovered that he was the same Ivanov murdered on 21 November by five men in a park near the university. Behind the murder was the nihilist [[Sergey Nechayev]]. Influenced by [[Bakunin|Bakunin]]'s ''Alliance révolutionnaire européenne'', Nechayev formed a terror organisation comprising several of these five-man groups. Subsequently, Dostoyevsky planned to write a novel about nihilism.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=413–33}}{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=14–63}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=310–22}}

Back in Russia in July 1871, the family was again in financial trouble and had to sell their remaining possessions. Moreover, Anna was reaching the final term of pregnancy once more. Dostoyevsky thought the child would be born on 15 July and therefore should be named (based on the [[calendar of saints]]) Vladimir. But their son was born one day later and they named him Fyodor (Fedya). Soon after the birth, they moved to a different apartment on Serpukhovskaya Street, near the Institute for Technology. The family hoped to pay off their large debts by selling their house in Peski, but problems with the tenant resulted in a relatively low selling price, so disputes with their creditors continued. Anna proposed that they raise money on her husband's copyrights and negotiated with the creditors to pay off their debts in installments.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=14–63}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=329–31}}

Dostoyevsky was able to revive his friendships with Maykov and Strakhov and to find new acquaintances, including [[Vsevolod Solovyov]] and his brother [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir]], church politician Terty Filipov, and future Imperial High Commissioner of the Holy Synod, [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], who influenced Dostoyevsky's political progression to conservatism. In early 1872, the art collector [[Pavel Tretyakov]] asked Dostoyevsky to pose for [[Vasily Perov]]. According to Danish critic [[Georg Brandes]], [[:File:Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg|Perov's painting]], one of the most popular portraits of Dostoyevsky, is a depiction "half that of a Russian peasant, half that of a criminal".{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=329}}

Around this time, the Dostoyevskys planned their holidays in [[Staraya Russa]], a [[spa]] known for its pleasant salt baths. On the journey, they took the train to [[Sosnika]] and then to [[Novgorod]]. Lyuba had injured her wrist a few weeks before and, although a doctor told them she had a sprain, it was in fact a fracture, so Anna returned to St Petersburg with her while Dostoyevsky waited with their son in Staraya Russa for their return. Shortly afterwards, Anna's sister died from [[typhus]] and Anna developed an abscess on her throat. Dostoyevsky's work on his next novel was consequently delayed.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=14–63}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=329–31}}

[[File:Fyodor Mikahailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky, 1876]]
The family returned to St Petersburg in September 1872.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=310–22}} ''The Demons'' (also known as ''The Possessed'') was finished on 26 November 1872 and released in January by the "Dostoyevsky Press", founded by Dostoyevsky and his wife. Although the books were available on a cash-only basis and their apartment served as a bookshop, the business was successful and about 3,000 copies of ''The Demons'' were sold. Anna was responsible for the financing. Dostoyevsky proposed that they establish a new periodical, ''[[A Writer's Diary]]'', including a collection of essays of the same name, but due to lack of money it was published instead in Meshchersky's ''The Citizen'', beginning on 1 January in return for a salary of 3,000 rubles per year. In the summer of 1873, Anna travelled again with her children to Staraya Russa, while Dostoyevsky stayed in St Petersburg to continue with his ''Diary''.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=38–118}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=335–6}}

In March 1874, Dostoyevsky left ''The Citizen'' because of the stressful nature of the work and interference from the Russian bureaucracy. In his fifteen months with ''The Citizen'', he was brought to court twice: on 11 June 1873, for citing the words of Prince Meshchersky without permission, and again on 23 March 1874. Dostoyevsky offered to sell ''The Russian Messenger'', a new novel he had not yet begun to write, but the magazine refused to give him the sum he had asked for.{{ref|d|[note]}} [[Nikolay Nekrasov]] suggested him to publish ''A Writer's Diary'' in ''The National Annals''; he would receive 250 rubles for each printer's sheet, 100 more than for ''The Russian Messenger''.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=38–111}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=335–61}}

Dostoyevsky's health began to decline, and he suffered from the first symptoms of a lung disease. He consulted several doctors in St. Petersburg and was advised to take a cure outside Russia. One doctor recommended [[Bad Ems]]. Another, [[Bad Soden]]. Dostoeyvsky left Russia and in June visited a well-known pulmonologist in Berlin, who referred him to a doctor in Bad Ems. Around July, Dostoyevsky reached Ems but went to a different physician, who diagnosed him with acute [[catarrh]] and prescribed natural mineral water. During his stay at the health spa he began to work on ''[[The Raw Youth|The Adolescent]]'', also known as ''The Raw Youth''. In late July he returned to St Petersburg.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=120–47}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–61}}

His wife proposed that they spend the winter in Staraya Russa to give him a rest from his work, although doctors suggested that Dostoyevsky make a second visit to Ems because his health had improved since his last visit. On 10 August the following year, in Staraya Russa, his son Alexey was born. In mid-September the family returned to St. Petersburg. Dostoyevsky finished ''The Adolescent'' at the end of 1875, although sections had been serialised since January of that year in the ''Annals''. ''The Adolescent'' chronicles the life of a 19-year-old intellectual, Arkady Dolgoruky, the illegitimate child of a controversial and womanising landowner named Versilov. A main theme in the novel is the recurring conflict between father and son – particularly about different ideologies – representing battles between the conventional "old" way of thinking in the 1840s and the new nihilistic view of the youth of 1860s Russia.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=149–97}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–61}}

=== Last years ===
[[File:Unveiling of the Pushkin monument in Moscow.jpg|left|thumb|upright|The unveiling of the [[Pushkin]] monument in Moscow]]

In early 1876 Dostoyevsky continued to work on his ''Diaries''. The book's main theme was, like in the ''The Adolescent'', child abuse by adults. This essay collection sold over twice as much as his previous books. Dostoyevsky received more letters from readers than ever before, and people of all ages and occupations visited him. Thanks to Anna's brother, the family finally bought a [[dacha]] in Staraya Russa.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=199–280}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–93}}

In the summer of 1876, Dostoyevsky began suffering from breathlessness again. He visited Ems for a third time, was prescribed a similar remedy as before and was told that he might live for another 15 years if he moved to a more healthy climate. When Dostoyevsky returned to Russia, Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] ordered him to visit his palace and to present ''Diaries'' to him, and asked that Dostoyevsky educate his sons, Sergey and Paul. This visit led to the increase of his circle of acquaintances. He was a frequent guest in several salons in St Petersburg and met with many famous people, including Princess Sofya Tolstaya, the poet [[Yakov Polonsky]], the politician [[Sergei Witte]], the journalist [[Alexey Suvorin]], the musician [[Anton Rubinstein]] and artist [[Ilya Repin]].{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=199–280}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–93}}

Dostoyevsky's health began to deteriorate further, and in March 1877 he had four epileptic seizures. Instead of going back to Ems he decided to visit [[Maly Prikol]], a manor near [[Kursk]]. On the way back to St Petersburg to finalise his ''Diaries'', Dostoyevsky visited Darovoye, where he had spent much of his childhood. At the same time Anna and her children made a [[pilgrimage]] to [[Kiev]]. In December he attended [[Nikolay Nekrasov]]'s funeral and gave a speech. He was also appointed an honorary member of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]].{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=320–75}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–93}}

In early 1878 he heard a speech about the "Man of God" delivered by Vladimir Solovyov, which set him thinking about his next novel. In February 1879 he received an honorary certificate from the academy and in the spring he was invited to participate in an international congress about copyright in Paris, headed by [[Victor Hugo]]. He declined the invitation after his son Alyosha had an extreme epileptic seizure and died on 16 May. The family later moved to an apartment on Yamskaya Street, where Dostoyevsky had written his first works. Around this time he was elected to the board of directors of the Slavic Benevolent Society in St Petersburg, and that summer he was elected to the honorary committee of the [[Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale]], which included Victor Hugo, Ivan Turgenev, [[Paul Heyse]], [[Alfred Tennyson]], [[Anthony Trollope]], [[Henry Longfellow]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and Leo Tolstoy.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=361–407}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–93}}

[[File:Dostoyevsky's funeral.jpg|thumb|250px|Funeral of Dostoyevsky]]
Dostoyevsky made his fourth and final visit to Ems in early August 1879. He was diagnosed as having early-stage [[pulmonary emphysema]]. His doctor believed that although his disease could not be cured, it could be successfully managed. The first parts of Dostoyevsky's final novel, ''The Brothers Karamazov'', were serialised in ''The Russian Messenger'' on 1 February and the final sections were published in November 1880.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=462–73}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–414}}

[[File:Dostoyevsky on his Bier, Kramskoy.jpg|left|thumb|upright|"He seems as if still alive, with a face of total quietude, as in the best moments of his life"]]
At nearly 800 pages, ''The Brothers Karamazov'' is Dostoyevsky's largest literary work and his most important contribution to literature. It received both critical and popular acclaim and is often cited as his greatest work, his ''[[magnum opus]]''.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=390–441}} On 3 February 1880, Dostoyevsky was chosen as the vice president of the Slavic Benevolent Society, and was invited to speak at the unveiling of the Pushkin memorial in Moscow. Initially scheduled for 26 May, the date of the unveiling was rescheduled to 6 June because of the death of [[Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse)|Empress Maria Alexandrovna]]. Dostoyevsky delivered his speech from memory two days later, inside a large room, giving an impressive performance that had great emotional impact on many in his audience. His speech was met with thunderous applause, and even his long-time rival [[Ivan Turgenev]] embraced him. Dostoyevsky's speech was later attacked by several people. For example, the liberal political scientist Alexander Gradovsky thought that he idolized the people in his speech,{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=170}} and conservative thinker [[Konstantin Leontiev]], in his essay "On Universal Love", compared the speech with French Utopian socialism rather than Christianity. However, Leontiev praised Dostoyevsky's last novel, stating that it features no "rosy Christianity".{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=230–31}} These attacks led to a further deterioration of Dostoyevsky's health.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=475–531}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–414; 427–43}}

On 25 January, the Tsar's secret police, searching for members of the terror organisation [[Narodnaya Volya]] ("The People's Will") who had assassinated Tsar Alexander II, executed a search warrant in the apartment of one of Dostoyevsky's neighbours. Anna denied that this might have been the cause for Dostoyevksy's [[pulmonary haemorrhage]] on 26 January 1881, stating that it occurred after her husband had been searching for a dropped pen holder. The haemorrhage may have also been caused by the heavy disputes between his sister Vera shortly before his death, about his aunt's Aleksandra Kumanina estate, which was agreed upon on 30 March and discussed in the St Petersburg City Court on 24 July 1879.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|pp=309–16}}{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=xxxiii}} His wife would later acquire a part of the estate of 500 acres (around 202 [[hectare|ha]]) of forest and 250 acres of farmland.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=223}} Following another haemorrhage Anna called for doctors, who gave a grim prognosis. A third haemorrhage followed shortly afterwards.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=707–50}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=444–51}}

Among Dostoyevsky's last words was his citation of [[Matthew 3:14]]: "But John tried to stop him, saying, 'I need to be baptised by you, and are you coming to me?'"<ref>Robert L. Belknap: ''The Genesis of The Brothers Karamazov: The Aesthetics, Ideology, and Psychology of Text Making'', Northwestern University Press, 1990, p. 20, isbn 9780810108455</ref>

According to a Russian custom, his body was placed on a table. Dostoyevsky was interred in the [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] at the [[Alexander Nevsky Lavra|Alexander Nevsky Convent]], near his favourite poets [[Karamsin]] and [[Vasily Zhukovsky|Zhukovsky]]. It is not exactly known how many visitors attended his funeral. According to a reporter, more than 100,000 mourners were there, while others state a number between 40,000 and 50,000. His burial attracted many prominent people. Nestor, archbishop of Vyborg, delivered the [[liturgy]], while Ioann Yanyshev performed the [[consecration]]. His tombstone is inscribed with these words of Christ from the New Testament:{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=707–50}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=444–51}}

{{quote|Verily, verily, I say unto you, Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit.| Jesus|from [[Gospel of John|the Gospel According to John]] 12:24}}

==Personal life==

===Affairs===
Dostoyevsky had his first known affair with Avdotya Yakovlevna, the wife of Panayev. He met her in the Panayev circle, which included Belinsky and Turgenyev as members, in the early 1840s. She was described as educated, interested in literature and a [[femme fatale]].{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=50}} However, Dostoyevsky later admitted that he "fell hopelessly in love with Panayeva, I'm over it now, but I'm not sure".<ref>Robert Payne: ''Dostoyevsky:
a human portrait'', Knopf, 1961, p. 51</ref> According to Dostoyevskaya in her memoirs, Dostoyevsky once asked his sister's sister-in-law, Yelena Ivanova, whether she would marry him (as her husband was deathly ill), but she denied his proposal.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=299}}

Another short but intimate affair was with Polina Suslova, which peaked in the winter of 1862–63 and decreased the following years. Suslova's infidelity with a Spaniard in late spring and Dostoyevsky's gambling addiction and age resulted in the end of their relationship. He later described her in a letter to Nadezhda Suslova as a "great egoist. Her egoism and her vanity are colossal. She demands ''everything'' of other people, all the perfections, and does not pardon the slightest imperfection in the light of other qualities that one may possess", and later stated "I still love her, but I do not want to love her any more. She doesn't deserve this love..."{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=168}} Around this time, his first wife, Maria Dostoyevskaya, née Isayevna, died of tuberculosis. She had previously refused his marriage proposal, stating that they were not meant for each other and that his poor financial situation precluded marriage. When Dostoyevsky later went to Kuznetsk, he discovered that she had had an affair with the 24-year-old schoolmaster Nikolay Vergunov. Despite this, Maria married Dostoyevsky in Semipalatinsk on 7 February 1857. Their family life was unhappy, however, and she found it difficult to cope with his seizures. Describing their relationship, he wrote "Because of her strange, suspicious and fantastic character, we were definitely not happy together, but we could not stop loving each other; and the more unhappy we were, the more attached to each other we became." They mostly lived apart.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=168}}{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=175–221}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=171–213}}

In 1865, Dostoyevsky met [[Anne Jaclard|Anna Korvin-Krukovskaya]], a Russian socialist and daughter of General Vasily Korvin-Krukovsky. Their relationship was not certain: while Anna Dostoyevskaya spoke of a good affair, her sister, the mathematician [[Sofia Kovalevskaya|Sophia]], thought that Anna rejected him after a visit.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=169}} Around 1866, Dostoyevsky fell in love with the stenographer [[Anna Snitkina]], a "very young and rather nice looking twenty-year-old woman with a kind heart... I noticed that my stenographer loved me sincerely, though she never told me about it. I also liked her more and more". He later "proposed to her and... got married".{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=169}}

=== Personality and physical appearance ===
At 2 [[arshin]]s and 6 [[vershok]]s (approximately 1.60 m or 5'2"),{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=108}} Dostoyevsky had a powerful personality but a less robust physical constitution. He was described by his parents as a hot-headed youngster, stubborn and cheeky.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=16}} Around the time that he was at the private school in Moscow, several people depicted him as a pale, introverted dreamer and an over-excitable romantic.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=55}} The most descriptive account during this time was made by a Dr Alexander Riesenkampf: "Feodor Mikhailovich was no less-good natured and no less courteous than his brother, but when not in a good mood he often looked at everything through dark glasses, became vexed, forgot good manners, and sometimes was carried away to the point of abusiveness and loss of self-awareness"; but "in the circle of his friends he always seemed lively, untroubled, self-content".{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=114–5}}

As recorded by Baron Wrangel: "When [Dostoyevsky] came in, [he was] extremely reserved [...] morose, his face pale and sickly and covered with freckles. His light-coloured hair was cut short, and he was of more than medium height. Intently looking at me with his sharp, grey-blue eyes, it seemed that he was trying to peer into my very soul – now what sort of man is he? ... ".{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=149–50}} Herzen characterised Dostoyevsky as "a naive, not entirely lucid, but very nice person".{{sfn|Frank|2009|p=355}}

On the first meeting with Dostoyevsky, Anna Snitkina described him as such: "[Dostoyevsky] was of average height, and he held himself erect. He had light brown, slightly reddish hair, he used some hair conditioner, and he combed his hair in a diligent way. I was struck by his eyes, they were different: one was dark brown; in the other, the pupil was so big that you could not see its color [caused by an injury]. The strangeness of his eyes gave Dostoyevsky some mysterious appearance. His face was pale, and it looked unhealthy..."{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=178}}

===Epilepsy===
It cannot be known for certain when Dostoyevsky's first epileptic seizure occurred. Some have proposed the age of nine, while others have argued that it was in his teens or early adulthood. Dostoyevsky, however, wrote that his first seizure occurred after the "psychological torture" of the mock execution. In his notebook he recorded a total of 102 seizures in 20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2007/04/16/diagnosing-dostoyevskys-epilepsy/|publisher=Neurophilosophy.com|accessdate=1 May 2012|title=Diagnosing Dostoyevsky's epilepsy|date=16 April 2007}}</ref> Some have thought Dostoyevsky suffered in adulthood from [[generalised epilepsy]], others [[temporal lobe epilepsy]], and some a combination of these two. [[Théophile Alajouanine]] stated that he had "partial and secondarily generalised seizures with ecstatic [[Aura (symptom)|aura]]", while [[Henri Gastaut]] believed that his seizures were "[[idiopathy|idiopathic]] generalised". P.H.A. Voskuil described "complex partial seizures with secondarily generalised nocturnal seizures and ecstatic auras". According to Rosetti and Bogousslavsky, Dostoyevsky suffered from "temporal lobe epilepsy, most likely left [[mesiotemporal]], with complex partial and secondarily generalised seizures, with a relatively benign course".<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.acnr.co.uk/pdfs/volume6issue1/v6i1history.pdf|format=PDF|title=Dostoevsky and Epilepsy|author=Andrew Larner|publisher=ACNR – Advances in Clinical Neuroscience & Rehabilitation|accessdate=12 May 2012|volume=6|issue=1|date=March/April 2006}}</ref>

[[Sigmund Freud]], the Austrian [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalyst]], who linked epilepsy with hysteria, said the illness was caused by his father's death and suggested an [[Oedipus complex]]. Freud discussed his theory of the link between epilepsy and hysteria in ''Dostoevsky and Parricide''.

== Beliefs ==

===Political===
[[File:Vallotton Dostojevsky.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Dostoyevsky's utopia was a Christianized Russia, uninfluenced from European ideas.]]
In his youth, Dostoyevsky enjoyed reading [[Nikolai Karamzin]]'s ''History of the Russian State'', which praised [[conservatism]] and the independence of Russia from other countries, ideas which Dostoyevsky embraced in his late adulthood. Before his arrest due to participating in the [[Petrashevsky circle]] in 1849, Dostoyevsky remarked, "As far as I am concerned, nothing was ever more ridiculous that the idea of a [[Republicanism|republican]] government in Russia". In an 1881 edition of his ''Diaries'', Dostoyevsky now favoured republicanism, stating that the tsar and people should form a unity: "For the people the tsar is not an external power, not the power of some conqueror... but a power of all the people, an all-unifiying power the people themselves desired, one they have nurtured in their hearts and have come to love, one for which they have suffered, because it was only through that power they expected their deliverance from the land of Egypt. For the people the tsar is the incarnation of themselves, of their whole idea, their hopes and their beliefs".{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=183–89}}

Dostoyevsky was critical of [[serfdom]], but was skeptical about the creation of a [[constitutional monarchy|constitution]], which he viewed as a "gentleman's rule". He instead proposed to educate the peasantry into the upper class. Dostoyevsky believed in an [[utopia]]n Christianized Russia where "if everyone were actively Christian, not a single social question would come up....If they were Christians they would settle everything". He thought [[democracy]] and [[Oligarchy]] were poor systems, exemplifying the French contemporary state: "the oligarchs are only concerned with the interest of the wealthy; the democrats, only with the interest of the poor; but the interests of society, the interest of all and the future of France as a whole—no one there bothers about these things." He maintained that political parties ultimately lead to social discord. Around the 1860s he discovered [[Pochvennichestvo]]. A movement similar to [[Slavophilism]] it rejects [[Anti-Europeanism|Europe]] and its contemporary views (such as [[nihilism]] and [[materialism]]). However, as opposed to Slavophilism it does not intend to establish an isolated Russia, but a more open, [[Peter the Great]] state.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=323–27}} In his incomplete "Socialism and Christianity", Dostoyevsky views [[civilization]] as a turning point towards [[liberalism]] and loss of faith in God. He meant that the traditional concept of Christianity should be recovered. He views contemporary Europe as "lacking the instincts of the bee, which flawlessly and accurately construct their hives and anthills, people sought to construct something in the nature of a flawless human anthill. They rejected the single formula for their salvation that came from God and was proclaimed through revelation to humanity, 'Thou shalt love they neighbor as thyself', and replaced it with practical conclusions such as, {{'}}''Chacun pour soi et Dieu pour tous''{{'}} (Every man for himself and God for all), or scientific slogans such as '[[Survival of the fittest|the struggle for survival]]'".{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=183–89}}

Dostoyevsky differentiated three "enormous world ideas": [[Catholicism]], which for him was post-[[Roman Empire|Rome]], [[Anti-Christianity|anti-Christian]] and pre-socialistic; [[Protestantism]], while protesting against Catholicism, itself becomes no better than Catholicism as it will ultimately lose power and spirituality; [[Russian Orthodox]], which was for him the ideal Christianity. During the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]], Dostoyevsky meant that war may be necessary if salvation is granted. He wanted to eliminate the Muslim [[Ottoman Empire]] and retrieve the Christian [[Byzantian Empire]]. Furthermore he hoped for a liberation of [[Balkan]] Slavs and unification with the Russian Empire.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=183–89}}

===Religious===
Dostoyevsky was raised in a "pious Russian family" and knew the Gospel "almost from the cradle".{{sfn|Frank|1979|p=401}} He attended [[mass (liturgy)|mass]] every Sunday from an early age,{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=11, 19}} took part in annual [[pilgrimage]]s at the St. Sergius Trinity Monastery and was introduced to Christianity through the Russian translation of Johannes Hübner's ''One Hundred and Four Sacred Stories from the Old and New Testaments Selected for Children'', which was partly a German children's bible and partly a [[catechism]].{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=19}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|p=401}}{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=1}} As well as having this material at home, Dostoyevsky was educated by a [[deacon]] near the hospital.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=1}} One of his most cherished childhood memories was the prayers in front of guests, and a reading from the [[Book of Job]], which "made an impression on [Dostoyevsky]" when "still almost a child".{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=24, 30}}

According to an officer of the military academy, Dostoyevsky was deeply religious and orthodox and often read the Gospels and [[Heinrich Zschokke]]'s ''Die Stunden der Andacht'' (Hours of Devotion). The latter book "preached a sentimental version of Christianity entirely free from [[dogma]]tic content and with a strong emphasis on giving Christian love a social application", which was perhaps his first introduction to [[Christian socialism]].{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=2}} Through the literature of Hoffmann, Balzac, [[Eugène Sue|Sue]] and Goethe, Dostoyevsky created his own belief system similar to Russian [[sect]]arianism and [[Old Believers|Old Belief]].{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=2}} After his arrest, subsequent mock execution and imprisonment in Siberia, his religious views focused significantly on Christ and the New Testament, the only book allowed in prison.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=6}} In January 1854, Dostoyevsky wrote the following letter to a woman who had sent him the Testament:

{{quote|I have heard from many sources that you are very religious, Natalia Dmitrievna ... As for myself, I confess that I am a child of my age, a child of unbelief and doubt up to this moment, and I am certain that I shall remain so to the grave. What terrible torments this thirst to believe has cost me and continues to cost me, burning ever more strongly in my soul the more contrary arguments there are. Nevertheless, God sometimes sends me moments of complete tranquility. In such moments I love and find that I am loved by others, and in such moments I have nurtured in myself a symbol of truth, in which everything is clear and holy for me. This symbol is very simple: it is the belief that there is nothing finer, profounder, more attractive, more reasonable, more courageous and more perfect than Christ, and not only is there not, but I tell myself with jealous love that there cannot be. Even if someone were to prove to me that the truth lay outside Christ, I should choose to remain with Christ rather than with the truth.|Fyodor Dostoyevsky|Pisma, XXVIII, i, p. 176}}

In a meeting with Baron Wrangel, Dostoyevsky revived his belief in an [[omniscient]], [[omnipotent]] Creator by viewing the spangled sky. Wrangel said that he was "rather pious, but did not often go to church, and disliked priests, especially the Siberian ones. But he spoke about Christ ecstatically". Both planned to translate Hegel's works and [[Carl Gustav Carus|Carus]]' ''[[Psyche (book)|Psyche]]'', and Dostoyevsky explored Islam when he asked his brother to send him a copy of the [[Quran]]. Two pilgrimages and two works by the influential archbishop, [[Dimitry of Rostov|Dmitri Rostovsky]], who influenced Ukrainian and Russian literature and composed groundbreaking religious plays, strengthened his beliefs.{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=22–3}}

Through his visits to Europe and discussions with Herzen, [[Apollon Grigoryev|Grigoriev]] and [[Nikolay Strakhov|Strakhov]], Dostoyevsky discovered Pochvennichestvo and the theory that the Catholic Church adopted the principles of [[rationalism]], [[Legalism (Western philosophy)|legalism]], [[materialism]] and [[individualism]] from ancient Rome and passed on its philosophy to Protestantism and finally to socialism, which leads to [[atheism]].{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=7-9}} But as Dostoyevsky never explicitly stated his faith, his real beliefs are uncertain. One exception to this might be his April 1876 response to a question about a suicide in ''Diary of a Writer'', remarking that he was a "philosophical [[deism|deist]]", originally a quote from ''The Adolescent'', though he did not mention that it was. However, Dostoyevsky said two months later in his ''Diaries'' that his heroine [[George Sand]] "died a ''deisté'', firmly believing in God and in the immortality of the Soul". But deists at that time held different [[deism#Beliefs about immortality of the soul|beliefs about the immortality of the soul]]. Furthermore his belief in doctrines such as the [[Trinity]], clearly discussed in ''The Brothers Karamazov'', for example,{{sfn|Pattison|Thompson|2001|p=136}} suggests that he did not quite understand the meaning of this term.{{sfn|Cassedy|2005|p=64}}{{sfn|Frank|2003|p=223}} Overall, many critics have pointed out that Dostoyevsky's religion is unusual and partially at odds with Christian core beliefs. Malcolm V. Jones has found elements of Islam and [[Buddhism]] in his religious beliefs.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=68-9}}

==Themes and style==
{{Main|Themes in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's writings}}
[[File:Fav Dostoevsky1929.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky, 1929 woodcut]]
Dostoyevsky's works comprise such themes as [[suicide]], [[poverty]], human manipulation and [[morality]]. His early works emphasized the [[realism|realistic]] and [[naturalism (literature)|naturalistic]] social life, that is the differences between poor and rich. Since his release, Dostoyevsky incorporated religious themes, particularly [[Russian Orthodox]], into his [[oeuvre]]. "An explorer of ideas", Dostoyevsky manifested the "tumultuous period in Russian history", which was "undoubtedly shaped by the sociopolitical happenings he witnessed".{{sfn|Terras|1998|p=59}} Influences from other writers are clearly evident especially in his early works, leading to accusations of [[plagiarism]],{{sfn|Terras|1998|p=14}}{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=3}} but his style gradually developed in the course of the years. Elements of [[gothic fiction]], [[romanticism]] and [[satire]] are inherent parts in some of his books. Apart from philosophical, psychological and religious themes, Dostoyevsky also wrote [[spy fiction]]{{sfn|Cicovacki|2012|p=80}} and [[suspense]]{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=170}} literature. Dostoyevsky's oeuvre includes novels, novellas, [[short stories]], [[essay]]s, [[epistolary novel]]s and even [[poem]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://az.lib.ru/d/dostoewskij_f_m/text_0680.shtml|title=Достоевский Федор Михайлович: Стихотворения|trans_title=Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky: Poems|publisher=Lib.ru|language=Russian|accessdate=22 September 2012}}</ref>

===Style===
According to Strakhov, a close friend of Dostoyevsky's who wrote many memoirs describing the latter's writing attitudes and habits, "[Dostoyevsky] wrote late at night. Around midnight, when the whole house went to bed, he stayed alone, with his [[samowar]], drinking not very strong, but almost cold tea, and writing until five or six o'clock in the morning. He got up around two or three o'clock in the afternoon."{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=153}} The lazy but hardworking Dostoyevsky wrote as fast as possible as he needed money badly. He also postponed the writing to the last possible day and only wrote when he had enough time to finish his work. It is not surprising that he often exceeded the time limit.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|pp=152–53}} Dostoyevsky was known for his artistic writing. [[Dmitry Grigorovich|Grigorovich]] described the letters as beads from a necklace. He only knew one person who could write in such a manner: [[Thomas-Alexandre Dumas]].{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=66}}

===Criticism===
Dostoyevsky's work has not always met with a positive reception. Several critics, such as [[Nikolay Dobrolyubov|Dobrolyubov]], [[Bunin]] and [[Nabokov]], found that while his writing successfully explored psychological and philosophical themes, its artistic quality was "below criticism". Others found fault in chaotic and disorganised plots, while still others, such as Turgenev, in "excessive psychologising", or in a [[naturalism (literature)|naturalism]] that was too detailed. His characters were called "unrealistic, schematic and contrived". His style was deemed to be "prolix, repetitious and lacking in polish, balance, restraint and good taste". ''The Idiot'', ''The Possessed'' and ''The Brothers Karamazov'' were criticised for including unrealistic characters by critics such as [[Saltykov-Shchedrin]], [[Tolstoy]] and [[Nikolay Mikhaylovsky|Mikhailovsky]], They were described as "puppets", as "pale, pretentious and artificial", which is not what should be found in [[realism]] literature. The puppet-like appearance was compared with Hoffmann's characters, an author whom Dostoyevsky admired.{{sfn|Terras|1998|pp=3–4}}

Basing his estimation on a stated criteria of enduring art and individual genius, Nabokov judged Dostoyevsky as "not a great writer, but rather a mediocre one—with flashes of excellent humor but, alas, with wastelands of literary platitudes in between." Compiling a list he demonstrates and complains that the novels are peopled by "neurotics and lunatics" and notes that Dostoyevsky's characters do not develop. "We get them all complete at the beginning of the tale and so they remain." He finds the novels full of contrived "surprises and complications of plot", which when first read are effective; but upon a second reading, and without the shock and benefit of these surprises, the books appear loaded with "glorified cliché".<ref name=Nabakov>{{cite book|last=Nabokov|first=Vladamir|title=Lectures on Russian Literature|year=1981|publisher=www.harcourtbooks.com|isbn=0-15-602776-3|pages=97–135}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
[[File:Omsk Dostoyevskiy Monument.jpg|thumb|150px|Dostoyevsky monument in [[Omsk]]]]
Together with Leo Tolstoy, and despite some criticism about his puppet-like characters and the off-topic verbiages, Dostoyevsky is often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential novelists of the [[Russian literature#Golden Age|Golden Age of Russian literature]].{{sfn|Lauer|2000|p=364}} The publication of his debut novel, ''Poor Folk'', pushed him into the literary mainstream, and critics saw him as a rising star of Russian literature. He was known for his gifted narrative; according to [[Konstantin Staniukovich]] in his essay "The Pushkin Anniversary and Dostoevsky's Speech" from ''[[:ru:Дело (журнал XIX века)|Business]]'', "the language of Dostoevsky's [Pushkin Speech] really looks like a [[sermon]]. He speaks with the tone of a [[prophet]]. He makes a sermon as a [[pastor]]; it is very deep, sincere, and we understand that he wants to impress the emotions of his listeners."{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=255}} Through Dostoyevsky's sophisticated treatment of intellectual and political discussions he was described as a spiritual guide, a teacher and even a prophet.{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=7}}

Dostoyevsky's works also attracted readers outside of Russia. The German translator Wilhelm Wolfsohn published one of the first translations, parts of ''Poor Folk'', in an 1846/1847 magazine,{{sfn|Meier-Gräfe|1988|p=492}} and a French translation followed. The first English translations were provided by Marie von Thilo in 1881, and the first acclaimed translations into English were produced between 1912 and 1920 by [[Constance Garnett]].{{sfn|Jones|Terry|2010|p=216}}

[[File:Soviet Union stamp 1971 CPA 4027.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Soviet Union stamp, 1971]]

Many non-Russians have been introduced to Dostoyevsky's works. German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] called Dostoyevsky "the only psychologist, incidentally, from whom I had something to learn; he ranks among the most beautiful strokes of fortune in my life ... "{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=7}} [[Thomas Mann]] advised reading his novels in their entirety. [[Hermann Hesse]] enjoyed Dostoyevsky's work; he also cautioned that to read him is like a "glimpse into the havoc".{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=8}} The Norwegian novelist [[Knut Hamsun]] wrote that "no one has analysed the complicated human structure as Dostoyevsky. His psychologic sense is overwhelming and visionary. We have no yardstick by which to assess his greatness".{{sfn|Lavrin|1947|p=161}} [[André Gide]] said that Dostoyevsky "should be put beside [[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]] and Nietzsche; he is equal in size to these three, and maybe the most important".{{sfn|Lavrin|1947|p=162}}

In a letter to Gide by [[Edmund Gosse]]: "[Dostoyevsky] is the cocaine and morphia of modern literature".{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=3}} [[Ernest Hemingway]] acknowledged Dostoyevsky as one of those writers who had influenced his work. In his posthumously published collection of sketches ''[[A Moveable Feast]]'', Hemingway stated that in Dostoevsky "there were things believable and not to be believed, but some so true that they changed you as you read them; frailty and madness, wickedness and saintliness, and the insanity of gambling were there to know."

According to Arthur Power's ''Conversations with [[James Joyce]]'', Joyce praised Dostoyevsky's prose: " ... he is the man more than any other who has created modern prose, and intensified it to its present-day pitch. It was his explosive power which shattered the Victorian novel with its simpering maidens and ordered commonplaces; books which were without imagination or violence."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/05/167.shtml|title=Conversations with James Joyce|author=Arthur Power, James Joyce|publisher=University of Toronto|pages=51–60|isbn=978-1-901866-41-4}}</ref>

[[File:Dresden Dostojewski-Denkmal.JPG|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky monument in [[Dresden]]]]

In her essay ''The Russian Point of View'', [[Virginia Woolf]] said: "The novels of Dostoevsky are seething whirlpools, gyrating sandstorms, waterspouts which hiss and boil and suck us in. They are composed purely and wholly of the stuff of the soul. Against our wills we are drawn in, whirled round, blinded, suffocated, and at the same time filled with a giddy rapture. Out of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] there is no more exciting reading".<ref>{{cite book|url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91c/chapter16.html|chapter=Chapter 16: The Russian Point of View|first=Virginia|last=Woolf|title=The Common Reader|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-15-602778-6}}</ref> [[Franz Kafka]] named Dostoyevsky as his "blood-relative",<ref>"Briefe an Felice", ed. E. Heller and J. Born (Frankfurt, S. Fischer, 1967), p. 460.</ref> and was heavily influenced by his works, especially ''The Brothers Karamazov'' and ''Crime and Punishment'', both of which had a profound effect on ''[[The Trial]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/02/111.shtml|title=Kafka and Dostoevsky as "Blood Relatives"|publisher=University of Toronto|author=Roman S. Struc|accessdate=8 June 2012}}</ref> Sigmund Freud called his last work "the most significant novel ever written".<ref>{{cite book|title=Freud, the Mind of the Moralist|author=Rieff, Philip|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1979|edition=3rd|page=132|isbn=978-0-226-71639-8}}</ref> Modern cultural movements such as the [[surrealism|surrealists]], the [[existentialism|existentialist]]s and the [[Beat Generation|Beats]] named Dostoyevsky as an influence.{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=5}} Dostoyevsky is cited as the forerunner of [[Russian symbolism]],{{sfn|Lavrin2|2005|p=38}} existentialism,{{sfn|Bloom|2004|p=108}} [[expressionism]]{{sfn|Burry|2011|p=57}} and [[psychoanalysis]].{{sfn|Breger|2008|p=270}}

After the [[1917 Russian Revolution]], Dostoyevsky's books were often censored or banned. His philosophy, especially in ''The Demons'', was deemed [[capitalism|capitalistic]] and anti-communist, leading [[Maxim Gorky]] to nickname the author "our evil genius". Reading Dostoyevsky was forbidden, and those who did not observe this law were imprisoned. During the Second World War, however, his works were used as propaganda by both the Soviets and the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]], and after the war the prohibition law in the [[Soviet Union]] was overturned. His 125th anniversary in 1947 was celebrated throughout Russia; despite this, his novels were banned again until [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s accession to power ten years later, following [[de-Stalinization]] and a softening of repressive laws.{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|pp=7–8}}

In the second half of the twentieth century, his works topped the best-seller lists worldwide. Philosophers, psychologists, theologians, politicians, literary critics, physicians, lawyers and students acknowledged his works, and many of his novels and short stories were filmed and dramatised in the Soviet Union and the West.{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=8}} Dostoyevsy's fictional characters and his work overall were popularised in [[graffiti]], in presidential speeches, [[vaudeville]], films and plays.{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=4}}

In 1956 an olive-green postage stamp dedicated to Dostoyevsky was released in the Soviet Union with a [[print run]] of 1,000 copies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stamprussia.com/56.htm|publisher=CPA – "Souzpechat" Central Philatelic Agency|title=USSR (Soviet Union) Postage – Stamps: 1956–1960|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref> A [[Dostoevsky Museum]] was opened on 12 November 1971 in the apartment where he wrote his first and last novels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eng.md.spb.ru/museum/|title=Museum|publisher=Fyodor Dostoevsky Literary Memorial Museum|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref> A [[minor planet]] was discovered in 1981 by [[Lyudmila Karachkina]] and named [[3453 Dostoevsky]]. Viewers of the TV show ''[[Name of Russia (Russia TV)|Name of Russia]]'' voted him the ninth greatest Russian of all time, behind chemist [[Dmitry Mendeleev]] and ahead of the Russian ruler [[Ivan IV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nameofrussia.ru/rating.html|title=Результаты Интернет голосования|trans_title=Internet voting results|language=Russian|publisher=Name of Russia|accessdate=15 May 2012}}</ref> A [[Moscow Metro]] station on the [[Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line]] was scheduled to open to the public on 15 May, the 75th anniversary of the Moscow Metro; illustrations on the [[décor]] made by artist [[Ivan Nikolaev]] were criticised because of their depiction of suicides, but did not hinder the opening of [[Dostoyevskaya (Moscow Metro)|Dostoyevskaya]] on 19 June 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://engl.mosmetro.ru/pages/page_6.php?id_page=561|title=Liublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line|publisher=Moscow Metro|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/moscow-metro-station-suicides/|publisher=TV-Novosti|work=[[Russia Today]]|title=Opening delayed for Moscow metro's "station of suicides"|date=15 May 2010|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref>

Four of Dostoyevsky's books, ''Crime and Punishment'', ''The Possessed'', ''The Idiot'' and ''The Brothers Karamazov'', are included on the list of [[The 100 Best Books of All Time|100 best books of all time]].

== Works ==

Dostoyevsky's works of fiction include 15 novels and novellas, 17 short stories, and 5 translations. Many of his longer novels were first published in [[Serial (literature)|serialised form]] in [[literary magazine]]s and [[journal]]s (see the individual articles). The years given below indicate the year in which the novel's final part or first complete book edition was published. In English many of his novels and stories are known by several titles.


'''Plays'''
* (~1844) ''The Jew Yankel'' (unknown whether finished or not; title based on Gogol's character from ''[[Taras Bulba]]'')
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

'''Novels and novellas'''
* (1846) ''[[Poor Folk]]''
* (1846) ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem]]''
* (1849) ''[[Netochka Nezvanova (novel)|Netochka Nezvanova]]'' (unfinished)
* (1859) ''[[Uncle's Dream]]''
* (1859) ''[[The Village of Stepanchikovo]]''
* (1861) ''[[Humiliated and Insulted]]''
* (1862) ''[[The House of the Dead (novel)|The House of the Dead]]''
* (1864) ''[[Notes from Underground]]''
* (1866) ''[[Crime and Punishment]]''
* (1867) ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]''
* (1869) ''[[The Idiot]]''
* (1870) ''[[The Eternal Husband]]''
* (1872) ''[[The Possessed (novel)|Demons]]''
* (1875) ''[[The Adolescent]]''
* (1880) ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''
{{col-2}}

'''Short stories'''
* (1846) "[[Mr. Prokharchin]]"
* (1847) "Novel in Nine Letters"
* (1847) "The Landlady"
* (1848) "The Jealous Husband"
* (1848) "A Weak Heart"
* (1848) "Polzunkov"
* (1848) "[[An Honest Thief|The Honest Thief]]"
* (1848) "[[A Christmas Tree and a Wedding|The Christmas Tree and a Wedding]]"
* (1848) "[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]"
* (1849) "A Little Hero"
* (1862) "[[A Nasty Story|A Nasty Anecdote]]"
* (1865) "[[The Crocodile (short story)|The Crocodile]]"
* (1873) "[[Bobok]]"
* (1876) "The Heavenly Christmas Tree"
* (1876) "[[A Gentle Creature|The Meek One]]"
* (1876) "[[The Peasant Marey]]"
* (1877) "[[The Dream of a Ridiculous Man]]"
{{col-end}}

'''Essays'''
*''Winter Notes on Summer Impressions'' (1863)
*''[[A Writer's Diary]]'' (Дневник писателя [''Dnevnik pisatelya''], 1873–1881)
*''Letters'' (collected in English translations in five volumes of ''Complete Letters'')

'''Translations'''
* (1843) ''[[Eugénie Grandet]]'', ([[Honore de Balzac]])
* (1843) ''La dernière Aldini'' ([[George Sand]])
* (1843) ''[[Mary Stuart (play)|Mary Stuart]]'' ([[Friedrich Schiller]])
* (1843) ''[[Boris Godunov (play)|Boris Godunov]]'' ([[Alexander Pushkin]])

== See also ==

* [[MS Astor|MS ''Feodor Dostoevskiy'']]
* [[L. Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky]]
* [[Subjective idealism|Antimaterialism]]
* [[List of Russian philosophers]]

== Notes ==
:1.{{note|a}} His name has been variously transcribed in English, his first name sometimes being rendered as Theodore or Fedor. Before the post-revolutionary [[Reforms of Russian orthography#The post-revolution reform|orthographic reform]] which, amongst other things, replaced the Cyrillic letter Ѳ ('th') with the Cyrillic letter Ф ('f'), Dostoyevsky's name was written Ѳеодоръ (Theodor) Михайловичъ Достоевскій.
:2.{{note|b}} [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style date]] 30 October 1821 – 28 January 1881
:3.{{note|c}} The brother of Eduard Totleben, from whom Dostoyevsky would later appeal for his release from the military after prison.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=3}}
:4.{{note|d}} The actual reason, which they kept secret from him, was that the periodical had already arranged to publish [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[Anna Karenina]]''.
:5.{{note|e}} [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] supported the technical university which provided the opportunity for a good professional military career.
:6.{{note|f}} Lyubov later called herself Aimée (French for "beloved").
:7.{{note|g}}''Time'' magazine was a popular periodical, with more than 4,000 subscribers before it was closed on 24 May 1863, by the Tsarist Regime due to its publication of an essay by [[Nikolay Strakhov]] about the [[January Uprising|Polish revolt in Russia]]. ''Time'' and its 1864 successor ''[[Epoch (Russian magazine)|Epokha]]'' expressed the philosophy of the conservative and [[Slavophile]] movement ''[[Pochvennichestvo]]'', which was supported by Dostoyevsky during his term of imprisonment and in his post-prison years.{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=34–64}}

== References ==

{{reflist|3}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book|last=Bloshteyn|first=Maria R.|title=The Making of a Counter-Culture Icon: Henry Miller's Dostoevsky|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9NvAaLyYoCwC|year=2007|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9228-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Breger|first=Louis|title=Dostoevsky: The Author As Psychoanalyst|url=http://books.google.com/?id=vxX2JGsN7PoC|year=2008|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-0843-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Burry|first=Alexander|title=Multi-Mediated Dostoevsky: Transposing Novels Into Opera, Film, and Drama|url=http://books.google.com/?id=lfLnzvLaB-kC|year=2011|publisher=Northwestern University Press|isbn=978-0-8101-2715-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Cicovacki|first=Predrag|title=Dostoevsky and the Affirmation of Life|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6wUX-eI738MC|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4128-4606-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Malcom V.|last2=Terry|first2=Garth M.|title=New Essays on Dostoyevsky|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UH_VyT6nscwC|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-15531-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Meier-Gräfe|first=Julius|title=Dostoevsky: The Man and His Work|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f6AFAQAAIAAJ|year=1988|publisher=insel verlag|location=Frankfurt am Main|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Lantz|first=Kenneth A.|title=The Dostoevsky Encyclopedia|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XfDOcmJisn0C|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|location=[[Westport, Connecticut]]|isbn=978-0-313-30384-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Mochulsky|first=Konstantin|title=Dostoevsky: His Life and Work|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mDKphT8_XLsC|year=1967|origyear=1967|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|location=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]]|isbn=0-691-01299-7|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Lauer|first=Reinhard|title=Geschichte der Russischen Literatur: von 1700 bis zur Gegenwart|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VEx1OAAACAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Verlag C.H. Beck|location=Munich|language=German|isbn=978-3-406-50267-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Lavrin|first=Janko|title=Dostoevsky: A Study|url=http://books.google.com/?id=57iTq6YSJbcC|year=2005|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4179-8844-0|ref={{harvid|Lavrin2|2005}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Müller|first=Ludolf|title=Dostojewskij: Sein Leben, Sein Werk, Sein Vermächtnis|year=1982|language=German|publisher=Erich Wewel Verlag|location=Munich|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Sekirin|first=Peter|title=The Dostoevsky Archive: Firsthand Accounts of the Novelist from Contemporaries' Memoirs and Rare Periodicals, Most Translated Into English for the First Time, with a Detailed Lifetime Chronology and Annotated Bibliography|url=http://books.google.com/?id=EExUdTF7iLYC|publisher=McFarland|year=1997|isbn=978-0-7864-0264-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Terras|first=Victor|title=Reading Dostoevsky|url=http://books.google.com/?id=4nV9o8k9y34C|year=1998|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-16054-8|ref=harv}}

; Biographies
* {{cite book|last=Bloom|first=Harold|title=Fyodor Dostoevsky|url=http://books.google.com/?id=1C1K-BnFGFIC|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-7910-8117-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Frank|first=Joseph|title=Dostoevsky: A Writer in His Time|url=http://books.google.com/?id=lp1RpM8o9BQC|volume=1–5|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12819-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Seeds of Revolt, 1821–1849|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=1979|origyear=1976|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|location=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]]|isbn=978-0-691-01355-8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pDEAXltygUIC|ref = {{harvid|Frank|1979}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Years of Ordeal, 1850–1859|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=1987|origyear=1983|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=978-0-691-01422-7|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=K98hhw0IEHgC|ref = {{harvid|Frank|1987}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Stir of Liberation, 1860–1865|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=1988|origyear=1986|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=978-0-691-01452-4|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QJj6qb6Rh3AC|ref = {{harvid|Frank|1988}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865–1871|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=1997|origyear=1995|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=978-0-691-01587-3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iAs4Lz5yog0C|ref = {{harvid|Frank|1997}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Mantle of the Prophet, 1871–1881|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=2003|origyear=2002|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=978-0-691-11569-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mQqonU-pweEC|ref = {{harvid|Frank|2003}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Hingley|first=Ronald|title=Dostoyevsky, his life and work|year=1978|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|isbn=978-0-684-15916-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Kjetsaa|first=Geir|title=A Writer's Life|year=1989|publisher=Fawcett Columbine|ref=harv|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky.html?id=2lzWAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Lavrin|first=Janko|title=Dostoevksy|year=1947|publisher=New York The Macmillan Company|location=New York|oclc=646160256|ref=harv}}

; Religion
* {{cite book|last=Bercken|first=Wil van den|title=Christian Fiction and Religious Realism in the Novels of Dostoevsky|url=http://books.google.com/?id=mFFFtwjQnigC|year=2011|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-0-85728-976-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Malcolm V.|title=Dostoevsky And the Dynamics of Religious Experience|url=http://books.google.com/?id=L52TNlWprfcC|year=2005|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-205-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Cassedy |first= Steven|url=http://books.google.com/?id=DI4FUgZJ1kkC|title= Dostoevsky's Religion|year= 2005 |publisher= Stanford University Press |isbn= 0-8047-5137-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pattison|first1=George|last2=Thompson|first2=Diane Oenning|url=http://books.google.com/?id=GlLm4gbPZdQC|title=Dostoevsky and the Christian tradition|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78278-4|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==

{{sister project links
| wikt = no
| commons = Fyodor Dostoyevsky
| b = no
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| q = Fyodor Dostoyevsky
| s = Author:Fyodor Dostoyevsky
| v = no
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}}
* [http://www.fyodordostoevsky.com FyodorDostoevsky.com – forum, quotes, essays, photos, bio, ebooks and more]
* [http://ilibrary.ru/author/dostoevski/index.html Complete works in Russian]
* [http://www.philolog.ru/fmdost/index.html Complete journalistic works in Russian]
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/issues.shtml Dostoyevsky studies]
* [http://en.rodovid.org/wk/Person:341394 Dostoyevsky's family tree]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Fyodor+Dostoyevsky|name=Fyodor Dostoyevsky}}
* {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-29930}}
* {{IBList |type=author|id=96|name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* {{IMDb name|id=0234502|name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://uiuc.libguides.com/aecontent.php?pid=184444 Research Tools on Fedor Mikhailovich Dostoevskii]

{{Fyodor Dostoyevsky}}
{{The Idiot}}
{{Crime and Punishment}}
{{The Brothers Karamazov}}
{{White Nights}}

{{Authority control|PND=118527053|LCCN=n/79/029930|VIAF=104023256}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Dostoevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich; Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский (Russian)
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Russian novelist
| DATE OF BIRTH = 11 November 1821
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Moscow
| DATE OF DEATH = 9 February 1881
| PLACE OF DEATH = Saint Petersburg
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dostoyevsky, Fyodor}}
[[Category:Fyodor Dostoyevsky| ]]
[[Category:1821 births]]
[[Category:1881 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century novelists]]
[[Category:Christian existentialists]]
[[Category:Christian novelists]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian radicals]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:Conservatism in Russia]]
[[Category:Criticism of atheism]]
[[Category:Deaths from emphysema]]
[[Category:Deaths from epilepsy]]
[[Category:Dostoyevsky family]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Christians from Russia]]
[[Category:Military Engineering-Technical University alumni]]
[[Category:Corresponding Members of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Magazine editors]]
[[Category:People from Moscow]]
[[Category:People with epilepsy]]
[[Category:Russian engineers]]
[[Category:Russian essayists]]
[[Category:Russian-language writers]]
[[Category:Russian monarchists]]
[[Category:Russian nationalists]]
[[Category:Russian novelists]]
[[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:Russian people of Belarusian descent]]
[[Category:Russian people of Lithuanian descent]]
[[Category:Russian people of Polish descent]]
[[Category:Russian prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:Russian short story writers]]
[[Category:Russian translators]]
[[Category:Russian writers]]
[[Category:Slavophiles]]

{{Link GA|es}}
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[[af:Fjodor Dostojefski]]
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[[gan:多托頁夫斯基]]
[[ko:표도르 도스토옙스키]]
[[hy:Ֆեոդոր Դոստոևսկի]]
[[hi:फ़्योद्र दोस्तोयेव्स्की]]
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[[xmf:თეოდორ დოსტოევსკი]]
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[[ta:பியோதர் தஸ்தயெவ்ஸ்கி]]
[[tt:Федор Достоевский]]
[[th:ฟีโอดอร์ ดอสโตเยฟสกี]]
[[tg:Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский]]
[[tr:Fyodor Dostoyevski]]
[[tk:Fýodor Dostoýewskiý]]
[[uk:Достоєвський Федір Михайлович]]
[[ur:فیودر دوستوئیفسکی]]
[[vep:Dostojevskii Födor]]
[[vi:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky]]
[[vo:Fyodor Mihailovic Dostoyevskiy]]
[[fiu-vro:Dostojevski Fjodor]]
[[wa:Fyodor Mixhaylovitch Dostoyevskiy]]
[[war:Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
[[yi:פיאדאר דאסטאיעווסקי]]
[[yo:Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
[[zh-yue:杜斯托也夫斯基]]
[[diq:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[bat-smg:Fiuoduors Duostuojėvskis]]
[[zh:費奧多爾·陀思妥耶夫斯基]]

Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski